diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33712-8.txt | 11807 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33712-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 251347 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33712-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 264231 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33712-h/33712-h.htm | 14916 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33712.txt | 11807 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33712.zip | bin | 0 -> 251217 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
9 files changed, 38546 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/33712-8.txt b/33712-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0f56cad --- /dev/null +++ b/33712-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11807 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Yakoob Beg, by Demetrius Boulger + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Life of Yakoob Beg + Athalik Ghazi, and Badaulet; Ameer of Kashgar + +Author: Demetrius Boulger + +Release Date: September 12, 2010 [EBook #33712] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF YAKOOB BEG *** + + + + +Produced by The Bookworm, [bookworm.librivox AT gmail.com], +Asad Razzaki and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + + Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been retained as in + the original. + + Some typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected. A + complete list follows the text. + + Words italicized in the original are surrounded by _underscores_. + + Superscripted words are surrounded by {} brackets. + + The 'oe' ligature is represented as oe. + + + + + THE LIFE + + OF + + YAKOOB BEG; + + ATHALIK GHAZI, AND BADAULET; + + AMEER OF KASHGAR. + + BY + + DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER, + + MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. + + _WITH MAP AND APPENDIX._ + + LONDON: + W{M} H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W. + 1878. + + _[All rights reserved.]_ + + + LONDON: + PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER, + MILFORD LANE, STRAND, W.C. + + + + + THE LIFE + + OF + + YAKOOB BEG. + + + + + TO MY FATHER, + + BRIAN AUSTEN BOULGER, + + I Dedicate + + THE FOLLOWING PAGES, AS SOME FAINT TOKEN + OF FILIAL AFFECTION AND GRATITUDE. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The following account of the life of Yakoob Beg was written with a +twofold intention. In the first place, it attempts to trace the career +of a soldier of fortune, who, without birth, power, or even any great +amount of genius, constructed an independent rule in Central Asia, and +maintained it against many adversaries during the space of twelve years. +The name of the Athalik Ghazi became so well known in this country, and +his person was so exaggerated by popular report, that those who come to +these pages with a belief that their hero will be lauded to the skies +must be disappointed. Yakoob Beg was a very able and courageous man, and +the task he did accomplish in Kashgaria was in the highest degree +creditable; but he was no Timour or Babur. His internal policy was +marred by his severity, and the system of terrorism that he principally +adopted; and his external policy, bold and audacious as it often was, +was enfeebled by periods of vacillation and doubt. Yet his career was +truly remarkable. He was not the arbiter of the destinies of Central +Asia, nor was he even the consistent opponent of Russian claims to +supremacy therein. He was essentially of the common mould of human +nature, sharing the weaknesses and the fears of ordinary men. The +Badaulet, or "the fortunate one," as he was called, was essentially +indebted to good fortune in many crises of his career. He cannot, in any +sense, be compared to the giants produced by Central Asia in days of +old; and among moderns Dost Mahomed of Afghanistan probably should rank +as high as he does. Yet he gives an individuality to the history of +Kashgar that it would otherwise lack. The recent triumphs of the Chinese +received all their attraction to Englishmen from the decline and fall of +Yakoob Beg, the hero they had erected in the country north of Cashmere. + +In the second place, the following pages strive to bring before the +English reader the great merits of China as a governing power; and this +object is really the more important of the two. It is absolutely +necessary for this country to remember that there are only three Great +Powers in Asia, and of these China is in many respects the foremost. +Whereas both England and Russia are simply conquering Governments, China +is a mighty and self-governing country. China's rule in Eastern +Turkestan and Jungaria is one of the most instructive pages in the +history of modern Asia, yet it may freely be admitted that the brief +career of Yakoob Beg gave an interest to the consideration of the +Chinese in Central Asia that that theme might otherwise have failed to +supply. The authorities used in the compilation of the facts upon which +the following pages have been erected are principally and above all the +official Report of Sir Douglas Forsyth, and the files of the _Tashkent_ +and _Pekin Gazettes_ since the beginning of 1874. Mr. Shaw's most +interesting work on "High Tartary," Dr. Bellew's "Kashgar," and +Gregorieff's work on "Eastern Turkestan," have also been consulted in +various portions of the narrative. A vast mass of newspaper articles +have likewise been laid under contribution for details which have not +been noticed anywhere else. + +In conclusion, the author would ask the English reader to consider very +carefully what the true lesson of Chinese valour and statesmanship may +be for us, because those qualities have now become the guiding power in +every Indian border question, from Siam and Birma to Cashmere. Mr. +Schuyler's "Turkestan," which still maintains its place as the leading +work on Central Asia, although not treating on the affairs of Kashgar, +has been frequently referred to for the course of affairs in Khokand; +but, in the main, Dr. Bellew's historical narrative in Sir D. Forsyth's +Report has been followed. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER I. + PAGE + GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF KASHGAR 1 + + CHAPTER II. + + ETHNOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF KASHGAR 14 + + CHAPTER III. + + HISTORY OF KASHGAR 22 + + CHAPTER IV. + + THE CONQUEST OF KASHGAR BY CHINA 41 + + CHAPTER V. + + THE CHINESE RULE IN KASHGAR 54 + + CHAPTER VI. + + THE BIRTH OF YAKOOB BEG AND CAREER IN + THE SERVICE OF KHOKAND 76 + + CHAPTER VII. + + THE INVASION OF KASHGAR BY BUZURG KHAN + AND YAKOOB BEG 92 + + CHAPTER VIII. + + WARS WITH THE TUNGANI 119 + + CHAPTER IX. + + YAKOOB BEG'S GOVERNMENT OF KASHGAR 137 + + CHAPTER X. + + YAKOOB BEG'S POLICY TOWARDS RUSSIA 173 + + CHAPTER XI. + + YAKOOB BEG'S RELATIONS WITH ENGLAND 212 + + CHAPTER XII. + + YAKOOB BEG'S LAST WAR WITH CHINA, + AND DEATH 236 + + CHAPTER XIII. + + THE CHINESE RECONQUEST OF KASHGAR 268 + + CHAPTER XIV. + + THE CHINESE FACTOR IN THE CENTRAL + ASIA QUESTION 277 + + APPENDIX. + + THE POSITION OF LOB-NOR 303 + TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA 308 + TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND CASHMERE 315 + TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND KASHGAR 320 + TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND KASHGAR 322 + RULES FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE JOINT + COMMISSIONERS APPOINTED FOR THE + NEW ROUTE TO EASTERN TURKESTAN 330 + A STORY FROM KASHGAR 334 + + + + +YAKOOB BEG. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF KASHGAR. + + +The state of Kashgar, which comprises the western portion of Eastern or +Chinese Turkestan, has been defined as being bounded on the north by +Siberia, on the south by the mountains of Cashmere, on the east by the +Great Desert of Gobi, and on the west by the steppe of "High Pamere." +This description, while sufficiently correct for general speaking, +admits of more detail in a work dealing at some length with that +country. Strictly, the name Kashgar or Cashgar applies only to the city, +and it was not until after the time of Marco Polo, when it was the most +populous and opulent town in the whole region, that it became used for +the neighbouring country. The correct name is either Little Bokhara or +Eastern Turkestan, and the Chinese call it Sule. Recent writers have +styled the territory of the Athalik Ghazi Kashgaria. It certainly +extended through a larger portion of Chinese Turkestan than did any past +native rule in Kashgar, the Chinese of course excepted. The definition +given above of the limits of Kashgar states that on the north it is +bounded by Siberia, but this is erroneous, for the extensive territory +of Jungaria or Mugholistan intervenes. Jungaria under the Chinese was +known as Ili from its capital, and now under the Russians is spoken of +as Kuldja, another name for the same city. This very extensive and +important district was included in the same government with Kashgar when +the Chinese dominated in all this region from their head-quarters at +Ili; but in the final settlement after the disruption of the Chinese +power in 1863, while Kashgar fell to the Khoja Buzurg Khan, and the +eastern portion of Jungaria, together with the cities of Kucha, +Karashar, and Turfan south of the Tian Shan range, to the Tungani; +Kuldja or Ili was occupied by the Russians. The frontier line between +Kuldja and Kashgar is very clearly marked by the Tian Shan, and the same +effectual barrier divides the continent into two well-defined divisions +from Aksu to Turfan and beyond. Eastern Turkestan is, therefore, bounded +on the north by the Tian Shan, and on the south the Karakoram Mountains +form a no less satisfactory bulwark between it and Kohistan and +Cashmerian Tibet. As has been said, on the west the steppe of Pamir and +on the east the desert of Gobi present distinct and secure defences +against aggression from without in those directions. There are few +states in Asia with a more clearly marked position than that of which we +have been speaking. Nature seems to have formed it to lead an isolated +and independent existence, happy and prosperous in its own resources and +careless of the outer world; but its history has been of a more troubled +character, and at only brief intervals has its natural wealth been so +fostered as to make it that which it has been called, "the Garden of +Asia." This condition of almost continual warfare and disturbance during +centuries, has left many visible marks on the external features of the +country, and in nothing is this more strikingly evident than in the +small population. A region which contains at the most moderate estimate +250,000 square miles, is believed by the highest authorities to contain +less than 1,000,000 inhabitants. In breadth Kashgaria may be said to +extend from longitude E. 73° to 89°, and in width from latitude N. 36° +to 43°; but the ancient kingdom of Kashgar has been always considered to +have reached only to Aksu, a town about 300 miles north-east of Kashgar. +When the Chinese about fifty years ago conceded certain trade privileges +to Khokand, they were not to have effect east of Aksu; this fact seems +conclusive as to the recognized limits of the ancient dynasty of +Kashgar. The capital of this district, which at one time has been a +flourishing kingdom under a native ruler, at another a tributary of some +Tartar conqueror, and then distracted by the struggles of his effete +successors, and at a third time a subject province of the Chinese, has +fluctuated as much as the fortunes of the state itself. Now it has been +Yarkand, now Kashgar, and yet again, on several occasions, Aksu. The +claims of Kashgar seem to have prevailed in the long run, for, although +Yarkand is still the larger city, Yakoob Beg established his capital at +Kashgar, and made that town known throughout the whole of Asia by the +means of his government. + +Kashgar is situated in a plain in the north of the province, and the +small river on which it is built is known as the Kizil Su. Immediately +beyond it the country becomes hilly and mountainous, until in the far +distance may be seen the snow-clad peaks of the Tian Shan, and the Aksai +Plateau. Although the population is barely 30,000, there is now an air +of brisker activity in the bazaars and caravanserais of this capital +than in any other city in the country. The trade carried on with Russia +in recent years has given some life to the place; but few, if any, +merchants proceed more inland than this, whether they come from Khokand +or from Kuldja. The town stretches on both sides of the river, which is +crossed by a wooden bridge; but there are no buildings of any +pretensions for external beauty or internal comfort. The _orda_ or +palace of the Ameer, which is in Yangy Shahr, five miles from the city, +is a large gloomy barrack of a place with several buildings within each +other; the outer ones are occupied by the household troops and by the +court officials, and the inner one of all is set apart for the family +and _serai_ of the ruler himself. In connection with this is a hall of +audience, in which he receives in solemn state such foreigners as it +seems politic for him to honour. In the old days, Kashgar used to be a +strongly fortified position, but the only remains of its former strength +are the ruins which are strewn freely all around. Kashgar is, therefore, +an open and quite defenceless town, and lies completely at the mercy of +any invader who might come along the high road from Aksu or Bartchuk, or +across the mountains from Khokand or Kuldja; but at Yangy Shahr, about +five miles south of Kashgar, Yakoob Beg constructed a strong fort, where +he deposited all his treasure, and this may be taken to be the citadel +of Kashgar as well as the residence of the ruler. Yangy Shahr means new +city, and as a fortification erected by a Central Asian potentate with +very limited means, it must be considered to be a very creditable piece +of military workmanship. The Andijanis or Khokandian merchants who have +at various times settled here, form a very important class in this town +in particular, and it was they who more than any one else contributed to +the success of the invasion of Buzurg Khan and Mahomed Yakoob. It is, +however, said that these merchant classes had become to some extent +dissatisfied with the late state of things, whether because Yakoob Beg +did not fulfil all his promises, or for some other reason, is not clear. +If Kashgar under its late rule was not restored to that prosperous +condition which excited the admiration of Marco Polo, and the Chinese +traveller, Hwang Tsang, before him, it may be considered to have been as +fairly well-doing as any other city in either Turkestan, while life and +property were a great deal more secure than in some we could mention. + +Situated about half-way on the road to Yarkand is Yangy Hissar, a town +which has always been of importance both as a military position and as a +place of trade. It has greatly fallen into decay, however, but still +possesses a certain amount of its former influence from being a military +post, and from the exceptional fertility of the neighbouring country. + +Yarkand, about eighty miles as the crow flies, and 120 by road, to the +south-east of Kashgar, is still the most populous of all the cities of +Eastern Turkestan. It lies in the open plain on the Yarkand river, and +its walls, four miles in circuit, testify to its former greatness. Under +the Chinese it was quite the most flourishing town in the region, and +even now Sir Douglas Forsyth estimates that it contains 40,000 people, +while the surrounding country has nearly 200,000 more. The fruit gardens +and orchards, which extend in a wide belt round it, give an air of +peculiar prosperity to the country, and quite possibly induce travellers +to take a too sanguine view of the resources of the country. In addition +to the abundance of fruit and grain produce that is brought into the +city for sale, there is a large and profitable business carried on in +leather. Yarkand has almost a monopoly of this article, and the +consumption of it is very great indeed. The Ameer himself took large +quantities yearly for his army, for, in addition to that required for +boots and saddles, many of his regiments wore uniforms of that +substance. + +But, although Yarkand is the chief market-place of the richest province, +and although its population is thriving and energetic, there is a +general _consensus_ of opinion that it has become much less prosperous +and much more of a rural town since the transference of the seat of +government to Kashgar, and the disappearance of Chinese merchants with +the Chinese ruler. A very intelligent merchant of the town replied as +follows to questions put to him, as to the Chinese and native rulers, +and it will be seen that it was especially favourable to the claims of +the Chinese as the better masters. + +"What you see on market-day now, is nothing to the life and activity +there was in the time of the Khitay. To-day the peasantry come in with +their fowls and eggs, with their cotton and yarn, or with their sheep +and cattle and horses for sale, and they go back with printed cotton, a +fur cap, or city made boots, or whatever domestic necessaries they may +require, and always with a good dinner inside them; and then we shut up +our shops and stow away our goods till next week's market-day brings +back our customers. Some of us, indeed, go out with a small venture in +the interim to the rural markets around, but our great day is market-day +in town. It was very different in the Khitay time. People then bought +and sold every day, and market-day was a much jollier time. There was no +Kazi Rais, with his six Muhtasib, armed with the _dira_ to flog people +off to prayer, and drive the women out of the streets, and nobody was +bastinadoed for drinking spirits and eating forbidden meats. There were +mimics and acrobats, and fortune-tellers and story-tellers, who moved +about amongst the crowd and diverted the people. There were flags and +banners and all sorts of pictures floating at the shop fronts; and there +was the _jallab_, who painted her face and decked herself in silks and +laces to please her customers." And then, replying to a question whether +the morals were not more depraved under this system than under the +strict Mahomedan rule of the Athalik Ghazi, the same witness went on to +say--"Yes, perhaps so. There were many rogues and gamblers too, and +people did get drunk and have their pockets picked. But so they do now, +though not so publicly, because we are under Islam, and the shariàt is +strictly enforced." + +This very graphic piece of evidence gives a clearer picture of the two +systems of government, than perhaps paragraphs of explanatory writing; +and, to return to the immediate subject before us, it shows that Yarkand +has deteriorated in wealth and population since the Chinese were +expelled from it fifteen years ago. + +Khoten is situated 150 miles south-east of Yarkand, and about ninety +miles due east of Sanju. It lies on the northern base of the Kuen Lun +Mountains, and is the most southern city of any importance in Kashgaria. +Under the Chinese, it was one of the most flourishing centres of +industry, and as the _entrepôt_ of all trade with Tibet it held a +bustling active community. The Chinese called it Houtan, and even now it +is locally called Ilchi. In addition to the wool and gold imported from +Tibet, it possessed gold mines of its own in the Kuen Lun range, and was +widely celebrated for its musk, silk, and jade. It likewise has suffered +from the departure of the Chinese; and the energy and wealth of that +extraordinary people have found, in the case of this city also, a very +inadequate substitute in the strict military order and security +introduced by Yakoob Beg. + +Ush Turfan, New Turfan, is a small town on the road from Kashgar to +Aksu, and is not to be confounded with the better known Turfan which is +situated in the far east on the highway to Kansuh. This latter town is +called Kuhna Turfan, or Old Turfan, to distinguish it from the other. +Ush Turfan, without ever having been a place of the first importance, +derived very considerable advantage from its position on the road +followed by the Chinese caravans, and Yakoob Beg converted it into a +strong military position by constructing several forts there. + +Aksu, one of the old capitals of Kashgar, may fairly be called the third +city of the state, although it has, perhaps, more than any other +declined since the expulsion of the Khitay. Before that event took place +there was a road across the mountains to Ili, by the Muzart glacier, and +relays of men were kept continually employed in maintaining this +delicately constructed road in a state fit for passage both on foot and +mounted. But all this has been discontinued for many years now, and not +only is the road quite impassable, but it would require much labour and +more outlay to restore it to its former utility. In the neighbourhood of +this town there are rich mines of lead, copper, and sulphur. These +have, practically speaking, been untouched in recent years. Coal is also +the ordinary fuel among the inhabitants; and both in intelligence as +well as in worldly prosperity, the good people of Aksu used to be +entitled to a foremost position among the Kashgari. As a consequence of +the blocking up of the Muzart Pass, the old trade with Kuldja has +completely disappeared, and all communications with this Russian +province are now carried on by the Narym Pass to Vernoe. This change +benefits the city of Kashgar, but is a decided loss to Aksu. Aksu may +still justly rank as an important place, and under very probable +contingencies may regain all the ground it has lost. In conclusion, we +may say that Yakoob Beg has converted its old walls and castles into +fortifications, which are said to be capable of resisting the fire of +modern artillery. + +We have enumerated six cities--Kashgar, Yangy Hissar, Yarkand, Khoten, +Ush Turfan, and Aksu--and these constitute the territory of Kashgar +proper. At one time, indeed, it was called Alty Shahr, or six cities, +from this fact. In addition to these may be mentioned, in modern +Kashgaria, Sirikul, or Tashkurgan, in the extreme south-west, which is +principally of importance as the chief post on the frontier of +Afghanistan. Near Sirikul are Badakshan and Wakhan, and it has been +asserted that Shere Ali, of Afghanistan, viewed with a suspicious eye +the presence of Kashgar in this quarter. It is quite certain that he +would not have tolerated that further advance along the Pamir, which +Yakoob Beg seemed on several occasions inclined to make. Sirikul +commands the northern entrance of the Baroghil Pass, and has +consequently been often mentioned in recent accounts of this road to +India. + +Maralbashi, or Bartchuk, a military post of some strength, is +strategically important, as being placed at the junction of the roads +from Kashgar and Yarkand, which lead by the bed of the Yarkand river to +Kucha. But it possesses greater interest for us, as being the chief +town of the district inhabited by the extraordinary tribe of the Dolans. +These people are in the most backward state of intelligence that it is +possible to imagine human beings to be capable of. In physical strength +and stature they are, perhaps, the most miserable objects on the face of +the earth, but their social position is still more deplorable. Some of +their customs are of the most disgusting character, and their dwellings, +such as they are, are of the rudest kind and subterranean. Travellers +who have seen them in the larger cities, say that all the rumours that +have been circulated about them do not exaggerate the true facts of the +case; and the most pitiable part of the matter is, that they have become +so resigned to their degraded position, that they are averse to any +measure calculated to improve their existence. They have been compared +to the Bhots of Tibet, but these latter are quite superior beings in +comparison with them. They are treated with contempt and derision by all +the neighbouring peoples. + +Kucha is, or rather was, another very flourishing city which has never +recovered the loss of Chinese wealth, and the subsequent disturbances +during the Tungan wars. At one time Kucha had at the least 50,000 +people, and it was not less famed than Aksu for the resources and +ingenuity of its people. But now it is almost a deserted city. The +greater part of the old town is a mass of ruins, and during the nine +years that have elapsed since the Tungani were crushed by the Athalik +Ghazi, scarcely anything has been done to repair the damage caused in +those very destructive wars. + +Korla, Kouralia, or Kouroungli, as it has been named, and Karashar, two +towns which lie to the east of Kucha, have likewise never revived from +the period of anarchy and bloodshed, through which the whole of this +district has passed; but even the state of these places contrasts +favourably with the far worse ruin wrought at Turfan. Turfan, perhaps +more than any other, profited by the trade with China, for, although it +may not itself have been as rich as either Aksu or Kucha, it derived a +certain source of income as the rendezvous of all the caravans +proceeding either east or west, or north to Urumtsi and Chuguchak. Very +often a delay of several weeks took place, before merchants had arranged +all the details for crossing the Tian Shan to Guchen, or for proceeding +on to Hamil through the desert, and Turfan flourished greatly thereby. +Now its streets are desolate, the whole country round it is represented +to be a desert, and all its former activity and brightness have +completely disappeared. Yakoob Beg had extended his rule a short +distance east of Turfan, to a place called Chightam, but Turfan may be +styled his most eastern possession. + +We have now given a somewhat detailed description of the chief cities of +Kashgaria, and in doing so we have distinctly intended thereby to convey +the impression to the reader that it is only these and their suburbs +that were at all productive under the late _régime_. To those who have +been to Kashgar, nothing has remained more vividly impressed on their +mind, than the exceedingly prosperous appearance of the farms in the +belt of country from Yarkand to Kashgar; but at the same time this +wealth of foliage and of blossom has only made the barrenness of the +intervening and surrounding country more palpable. The farms are +certainly not small in extent, but rather isolated from each other, and +surrounded by orchards of plums, apples, and other fruit trees, in which +they are completely embowered. A Kashgarian village is not a main +street with a line of cottages and a few large farms; but it is a +conglomeration of farmsteads covering a very extensive area of country, +and presenting to the eye of a stranger rather a thinly peopled district +than a community of villagers. Again, although the soil is naturally +fertile, the system of agriculture is of an exhaustive character, and it +seems probable that only a small portion of the land on each farm is at +all productive. But these settlements, which present an exterior of +rural happiness and simplicity, are but oases in an enormous extent +of barren country. If each proprietor seems to possess more land than +he can require, and if the fertile soil produces bountifully that +which is unskilfully sown therein, the total amount of land under +cultivation is still very limited indeed. Worse still, the soil is +gradually exhausted, and as the system of sowing but one kind of grain +seems to have taken deep root among the people, it is to be feared that +it may be perpetuated without hope of recovery. There is a constant +difficulty to be overcome, too, on account of the meagre supply of +water. The general aspect of the region is barren, a bleak expanse +stretches in all directions, and in the distance on three sides the +outlines of lofty ranges complete the panorama. The scarcely marked +bridle track that supplies the place of a highway in every direction +except where the Chinese have left permanent tokens of their presence, +offers little inducement to travellers to come thither; nor must these +when they do come expect anything but the most imperfect modes of +communication and of supply that a backward Asiatic district can +furnish. If we wish to imagine the scene along the road from Sanju to +Yarkand, we have only to visit some of the wilder of the Sussex Wealds +to have it before us in miniature. The spare dried-up herbage may be +still more spare, and the limestone may be more protruding on the +Central Asian plain; and the wind will certainly remind you that it +comes either from the desert or from the mountain regions; but you have +the same undulating, dreary expanse that you have above Crowborough. The +miserable sheep watched by some nomad Kirghiz will alone forcibly remind +you that you are far away from the heights of the South Downs. In the +far distance you will see the cloud-crested pinnacles of the Sanju Devan +or of the Guoharbrum, and then the traveller cannot but remember that he +is in one of the most inaccessible regions in the world. But if these +southern roads are scarcely worthy of the name, the great high road from +Kashgar to Aksu, Kucha, Korla, Karashar, and Turfan is a masterpiece of +engineering construction. It need not fear to brave comparison with +those of imperial Rome herself, and remains an enduring monument to +Chinese perseverance, skill, and capacity for government. In China +itself there are many great and important highways, but there the task +was facilitated by the possession of great and navigable rivers. In +Eastern Turkestan no such assistance was to be found, and consequently +this road, along which was conducted all the traffic that passed from +China to Jungaria, Kashgar, Khokand, and Bokhara, had to be maintained +in the highest state of efficiency. To do this we cannot doubt was a +most expensive undertaking, and, not mentioning such an exceptional work +as the Muzart Pass, one that required a very perfect organization to +accomplish with the success that for more than a century marked it. + +The great drawback in the geographical position of Kashgar, is the want +of a cheap and convenient outlet by water. The country itself suffers in +a less degree from the same cause, but with a more perfect system of +irrigation, the rivers, such as the Artosh, &c., which in spring carry +down the mountain snows, might be made to give a more extended supply +throughout western Kashgar at all events. The climate is equable, and +the people suffer from no very prevalent disease, except in the more +mountainous parts, and in Yarkand, where goitre is of frequent +occurrence. The people themselves seem to be frugal and honest, but +indeed there are so many races to be met with in this "middle land," +that no general description can be given of them all. The Andijanis, or +Khokandian merchants, are the most prosperous class in the community, +and they appear to be, from all accounts, possessed of more than an +average amount of business capacity in the arts of buying and selling. +The Tarantchis are the descendants of Kashgarian labourers imported by +the Chinese into Kuldja in 1762, and there is still both in the army and +in the state a large number of Khitay remaining, who were permitted to +pursue in secret the observances of their religion. The other races are +ill disposed towards them, and attribute all the vices they can think of +to their doors. But these Khitay managed to efface themselves in the +country, and although they formed a very important minority among the +males, they never appear to have been regarded in the light of a +possible danger when their brethren from China should draw near. In +addition to the native Kashgari, and these two important elements just +mentioned, there are numerous immigrants from the border states, +particularly from Khokand, to the people of whom Yakoob Beg naturally +manifested especial favour. We have now given at some length a +description of the geographical features of Kashgar, and are about to +follow it up with an ethnological description as well as a historical +statement of the past features of the same region. It is hoped that +these preliminary chapters will clear the way from some obscurity for a +correct appreciation of the career of the late Athalik Ghazi. + +Kashgaria may be said to be a portion of Asia which possesses some great +advantages of position and very considerable resources, but by a +singularly hard fortune, except for the brief period of Chinese rule in +modern times, it has been so distracted by intestine disturbances that +it has retrograded further and further with each year. It is quite +possible that its natural wealth has been too hastily taken for granted, +and that it does not possess the necessary means of restoring itself in +some degree to its former position. This is quite possible, but the best +authorities at our disposal seem to point to a more promising +conclusion, and to justify us in assuming that the position, natural +resources, and general condition of Kashgar will enable a strong and +settled rule to raise it into a really important and flourishing +confederacy. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +ETHNOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF KASHGAR. + + +In the extensive region stretching from the Caspian and Black Seas to +the Kizil Yart and Pamir plateaus, and from the Persian Gulf to Siberia, +the two great families, the Aryan and the Turanian, have in past +centuries striven for supremacy. The latter, embracing in its bosom in +this part of the world the more turbulent and warlike tribes, succeeded +in subjecting those who claimed the same parent stock as European +nations. The Tajik or Persian is the chief representative in this region +of the Aryan family, and he has now for many centuries been the subject +of the Turk rulers of the various divisions of Western Turkestan. These +latter are the personifiers of Turanian traditions. The Tajik appears to +have been subdued, not so much by the superiority of his conqueror in +the art of war, as by his own inclination to lead a peaceful and +harmless life. The pure Tajik, hardly to be met with now anywhere in +Asia, except in the mountainous districts of the Hindoo Koosh, is +represented to us to have been of an imposing presence, with a long +flowing beard, aquiline nose, and large eyes. He is generally tall and +graceful; yet in Khokand and Bokhara the Tajik is at present viewed much +as the Saxons were by the Normans. In those states, too, a man is spoken +of by his race. He is an Usbeg, a Kipchak, a Kirghiz, or a Tajik, as the +case may be, and by this means the rivalry of past ages is to some +extent preserved down to the present time. It is the dissension spread, +or rather the destruction of any sympathy between the various races +caused, by these outward tokens of diversity in origin, that has made +Western Turkestan the familiar home of intestine disturbance, which has +in its turn led up to the easy dismemberment of the various Khanates by +Russian intrigue and by Russian force. In Eastern Turkestan the rivalry +of races has become less bitter, and in nothing is this better +manifested than in the fact that there a man is described by his native +town. He may be a Tajik, or an Usbeg, or a Kirghiz, or a Kipchak, too, +but he is only known as a Yarkandi, or a Kashgari. And while we are at +once struck by this broad and salient difference in popular custom, and +consequently in popular sentiment also, between the Western and Eastern +divisions of Turkestan, a slight inquiry is sufficient to show that the +antipathies of the various races towards each other have become much +more a thing of the past in Kashgaria than they have in the Khanates of +Khokand and its neighbours. At all events, the antipathies that still +prevail in that state are clearly traceable to other causes than +Aryan-Turanian hostility, and are undoubtedly produced either by +religious fanaticism, motives of personal ambition, or the hatred roused +by Chinese pretensions on the one hand, and Khokandian on the other, to +the supreme control of Kashgaria. Bearing these facts clearly in mind, +it is evident that ethnographical descriptions will not make the +political relations of the peoples of the state more easily +intelligible; yet, as matter of historical import, these cannot be +altogether passed over in silence. + +The inhabitants of the little known regions now variously known as +Jungaria and Eastern Turkestan were, until recent years, considered to +be of pure Tartar origin, and consequently members of the Turanian +family. There are some still who believe that this definition is the +most accurate. Others dispute it on various grounds, and with much +plausibility. There is no question that the original inhabitants, +historically speaking, were the Oigurs, or Uigurs, and these people +were certainly Tartars. But frequently the Tajik merchants who traded +with Kashgar in the earlier centuries of the Middle Ages, took up their +abode in the country, and by degrees a large colony of Tajik immigrants +was formed on the foundation of the original Oigur stock. These Tajiks +gradually became Tartarised, but they still retained the unmistakable +characteristics of the Aryan family. The two brothers Schlagintweit, and +Mr. Shaw following in their footsteps, were the first to maintain this +view, which is becoming generally accepted. We have, therefore, in +Kashgar the strange spectacle of a Tajik people becoming not only +unidentifiable from the Turanian stock with which it has been +intermingled; but we have also a race tolerance that is unknown in any +other portion of Asia. Undoubtedly the hostility of the settled and +peaceful Andijani immigrant and Kashgari resident to the irreclaimable +Kirghiz is deep-rooted, and, so long as the latter continues a source of +danger to all peaceful communities, abiding; but even this sentiment, +and the religious hatred that has at various epochs marked the political +intercourse of Buddhist and Mahomedan, are probably less durable, and +susceptible of greater improvement in the future, than the race +antipathies that seem perennially vital among the tribes of Western +Asia. The vast majority of the inhabitants of Alty Shahr are of Tajik +descent. In the course of centuries the purity of their lineage has been +leavened by much intermingling with Tartar blood, both at the time of +the Mongol subjection and of the Chinese. In addition to these two great +divisions, there are many Afghan and Badakshi settlers, who have flocked +to Kashgar whenever the progress of events seemed to justify the +expectation that military service in that state would prove a +remunerative engagement. Many of these remained, and they have also left +a clear impression on the features of the inhabitants. It is, however, +to pre-historic times, or certainly to a period lost in the mist of +history, that we must refer for that general exodus of the Aryan family +from the Hindoo Koosh and the plains of Western Asia into the more +secluded prairies of Kashgar, which took place when the Turanian nations +first spread like destroying locusts over the face of that continent. It +was at this period that Khoten, which in its name shows its Aryan +origin, was founded. + +The great nomadic tribe of the Kirghiz, or Kara Kirghiz, as the Russians +call them, to distinguish them from the Kirghiz of the various hordes +who, by the way, are not true Kirghiz at all, has at all times played a +fitful, yet important part in the histories of Khokand, Jungaria, and +Eastern Turkestan. Preserving their independence in the inaccessible +region lying west of Lake Issik Kul, and along the Kizil Yart plateau +and range, this tribe has always been a source of trouble to its +neighbours, whosoever they might be. On various occasions, too, they +have joined the career of conquest to their usual avocation of plunder, +and under the few great leaders that have arisen amongst them they have +appeared as conquerors, both of Eastern and Western Turkestan. But their +achievements have never been of a permanent nature. Like the irregular +undisciplined mass of horsemen which constitute their fighting force, +their chief strength lay in a sharp and decisive attack. They had not +the organization or the resources necessary for the accomplishment of +any conquest of a permanent kind. Their incursions, even when most +formidable and most sweeping, were essentially mere marauding +onslaughts. Their object was plunder, not empire; and having secured the +former, they recked little of the value of the latter. At one time they +were able to carry their raids in almost any direction with perfect +impunity; but as settled governments arose around their fastnesses, and +curtailed their field of operations, what had been a life of adventure +through simple love of excitement, became a struggle for sheer +existence. The region where they dwelt was far too barren to support +throughout the year even the limited numbers of the Kirghiz, and yearly +they had to issue forth against prepared and disciplined enemies in +search of the sustenance that, to preserve their existence, had to be +obtained. But for the intestine quarrels that were sapping the life +strength of the Asiatic states slowly away, there is no doubt that the +Kirghiz would have been gradually exterminated. Soon, however, they had +the skill to avail themselves of these disagreements to sell their +services as soldiers to the highest bidders; and although they were not +equal to the Kipchak tribes in valour, their alliance was considered of +importance, and on many a dubious occasion sufficed to turn the fortune +of the day. By such measures of policy their existence has been +preserved, and at the present time they perform much the same functions, +and are regarded in much the same manner by their neighbours, as in the +past. + +The Kipchaks, another great tribe, who however are scarcely represented +at all in Kashgaria, pride themselves on being the most select of all +the Usbegs, but their day of power has passed by, for the present at all +events. Thirty years ago they were at the height of their success, but +they incurred the jealousy of other Usbeg tribes and of the Kirghiz. +Owing to the abilities of their great chief, Mussulman Kuli, they +succeeded in erecting in Khokand a powerful state, which was able to +restrain the encroachments of Bokhara, at that time the great enemy of +the former Khanate. But the plots that broke out against them in 1853, +in conjunction with the advance of Russia on the Syr Darya, were crowned +with success, and with the execution of Mussulman Kuli the Kipchak power +was completely broken. Since that date, however, several of the more +distinguished leaders who have appeared on the scene, such as Alim Kuli +and Abdurrahman Aftobatcha, have been members of this clan. The eastern +portion of the dominion of Yakoob Beg is almost exclusively inhabited +by Calmucks, or tribes of Calmuck descent. The great majority of the +inhabitants of Manchuria and Jungaria are of Calmuck descent, and even +in Russia in Europe there are many settlements of this tribe along the +Volga and the Don. None of these, however, possess any political +importance except those who inhabit the country north of Gobi and +between Eastern Turkestan and China, and the chief of these are the +Khalkas. The Calmucks are attached by old associations to the Government +of Pekin; and, although they have sometimes revolted against, and often +caused trouble to, the Central Government, they have generally +acknowledged their culpability and submitted to the Chinese authorities. +In the revolt of the Tungani the Calmucks remained true to China, and +performed very opportune service on various occasions. The Chinese army +in Eastern Turkestan was mainly recruited from among these tribes, who +became distinguished from the Tungani by their religion and fidelity. + +The origin of the Tungani, or Dungans, as the Russians call them, is +much in dispute; and as they played so important a part in the loss of +Kashgar and Ili by China, as well as in the history of the rule of +Yakoob Beg, it may be as well to put the facts as they stand at some +length before the reader. There is no question, we believe, that the +Chinese in applying the term Tungani attach the meaning thereto of +Mahomedan. There is equal reason for supposing that the term Khitay, +literally meaning simply Chinese, has been applied to the Buddhists by +general usage. If we acknowledge the validity of these two +assumptions--and, so far as we have been able to ascertain, the best +authorities have adopted them--there would be little difficulty in +explaining who the Tungani were. Granting these, they would simply be +the Mahomedan subjects in the eastern portions of China. But others +believe that the Tungani are a distinct race, presenting peculiar +ethnological features. According to this version, the tribe of the +Tungani can be traced back as a distinct community to the fifth and +sixth centuries, when they were seated along the Tian Shan range, with +their capital at Karashar. The most recent investigations, under Colonel +Prjevalsky, are believed to show no signs of there having been any +important cities in this quarter. It may be convenient to mention here, +that at that time they were Buddhists; but when Islamism broke over Asia +in the eighth century, they were among the first to adopt the new +tenets. This defection from the religion of China brought them into +collision with the Emperors of Pekin, and many of these Tungani were +deported into Kansuh and Shensi, where we are to suppose they continued +a race apart, with their own religion and their own code of morality, +for more than ten centuries. Even granting the possibility of such a +consistency to a new religion, which history informs us was thrust upon +them at the point of the sword, it seems scarcely credible that we +should not hear more of this troublesome tribe in Chinese history. +Frequent allusions are made in imperial edicts and other official +proclamations to the Tungani, but always in reference to their religion, +and not in any way as if they were any other but heretic Chinamen. +Besides, even in this way little is heard of the Tungani until the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when very sharp measures were taken +against them by the emperors, solely because religious propagandists +from their ranks were appearing as enemies of a Buddhist Government. The +theory that the Tungani were a people and not a sect is new, but it is +possible that it may be a true discovery. On the other hand, it is far +more probable that it is only an ingenious attempt at elucidating what +appears on the face of it to be a simple matter enough. The reader must +decide for himself between the two versions. If the Tungani are to be +considered a distinct race, then the majority of the inhabitants of +Eastern Turkestan are not Calmucks, but Tungani; if the view taken here +is adopted, then they are Calmucks who have at various times adopted +Mahomedanism. These are the chief tribes of this portion of Central +Asia; and in the following pages it may be as well to bear in mind that +Khitay is applied exclusively to the Buddhist or governing class, and +Tungani to the Mahomedan or subject race in Kansuh and its outlying +dependencies. As race antipathies have not entered during recent times +so much into the contests of the people of the regions immediately under +consideration as religions, the difference as to the true significance +of the term Tungani does not materially affect one's view of the general +question. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +HISTORY OF KASHGAR. + + +The great difficulty encountered in giving a description of the past +history of Kashgar is to evolve, out of the series of successive +conquests and subjections that have marked the existence of that state +for almost two thousand years, a narrative which shall, without +confusing the reader with a mere repetition of names that convey little +meaning, place the chief features of its history before us in a light +that may make its more recent condition intelligible to us. We may say +in commencement, that those who desire a historical account in all its +fulness of Kashgar must turn to that contributed by Dr. Bellew to the +Official Report of Sir Douglas Forsyth on his embassy to Yarkand. They +will there find ample details of the events that took place in this +region of Central Asia from the commencement of our era; but a mere +reiteration of the various calamities, with brief and intermittent +periods of prosperity, each wave of which bore so striking a similarity +to its predecessor, would not serve the purpose we have at present in +view--viz., of considering its own history, for the purpose of better +understanding its relations with its neighbours and with China, and how +the state consolidated by the Athalik Ghazi was constructed on ruins +handed down by an almost indistinguishable antiquity. + +For a considerable number of years anterior to the ninth century, the +Chinese Empire extended to the borders of Khokand and Cashmere. But the +dissensions that marked the latter years of the Tang dynasty were not +long in producing such weakness at the extremity of this vast empire +that the subject races and their proper ruling families were enabled to +obtain either their personal liberty or their lost positions once more, +unhappily without in any case achieving with the severance of their +connection with China any perceptible amelioration in their lot--indeed, +on almost every occasion only binding themselves with harder fetters, +and sinking into a deeper state of servitude. When the petty princelets +of Kashgar, Yarkand, Turfan, and the rest broke away from their +allegiance to Pekin, and when the imperial resources were unable to +coerce their rebellious subjects, the whole country passed under the +hands of their feudatories, who split up into innumerable factions, +waged continuous war, and sacrificed the happiness and welfare of the +subject people to a desire to promote their own individual interests. As +the barons and counts of Italy in the Middle Ages devastated some of the +fairest provinces of Europe, so these Oigur princes fought for their own +hand in the valleys of the Artosh and the Ili. It is very possible that +this state of things would have continued until China became +sufficiently strong and settled to reassert once more her dormant rights +over her lost provinces, but that a new force appeared on the western +frontiers of Kashgar. As early as 676 the Arabs, under Abdulla Zizad, +had crossed over from Persia, and were carrying destruction and terror +in their course along the banks of the Oxus. At that moment a beautiful +and gifted queen, named Khaton, ruled for her son in Bokhara. She had +not long been left a widow when her country was threatened by this +unexpected and terrible invasion. Although assistance came to the queen +from all the neighbouring States, including Kashgar, she was defeated +twice in the open field, and compelled to seek safety within the walls +of her capital. But the Arab leader was unable to take the city by +storm, and slowly retired, with a large number of captives and an +immense quantity of booty, back to Persia. Some years later the Arabs +again returned, but withdrew on the payment of a heavy indemnity. +Another chief, Kutaiba, was still more successful, for on one occasion +he carried fire and sword through Kashgar to beyond Kucha. This was the +first occasion on which the doctrines of Mahomed had been carried into +the realms of China, and with so cogent an argument as the sword it is +not wonderful that some hold was secured on the country. Subsequent +expeditions in the next few centuries strengthened this beginning, and +it was not long before the ruling classes of Kashgar became infected +with the new doctrine. + +In the tenth century, Satuk Bughra Khan, the ruling prince of Kashgar, +who had been converted to Islam, forced his people to adopt that +religion, although it is tolerably clear that up to this time there had +been no acknowledgment of supremacy to the representative of Mahomed on +earth. A disunited state, which had on several occasions felt the heavy +hand of the authority of its generals, and at whose very gates its power +was consolidated, could not but be in some sort of dependence to the +stronger power, as there was no ally to be found sufficiently powerful +to protect it, now that the Chinese had retrogressed into Kansuh. +Towards the end of the tenth century the Mahomedans met with a series of +reverses from the Manchoo and Khoten troops, who still preserved their +relations, political and commercial, with China. It was in the +neighbourhood of Yangy Hissar that their general, Khalkhalu, inflicted +the most serious defeat on the Mahomedan rulers of Kashgar, but within +the next twenty years, assistance having come from Khokand, these +defeats were retrieved, and Khoten itself for the first time passed +under the rule of Islam. The family of Bughra Khan was now firmly +established as rulers of Eastern Turkestan, and their limits were almost +identical with those of the late Yakoob Beg. + +The Kara Khitay, who had migrated from the country bordering on the +Amoor and the north of China, after long wanderings, had settled in the +western parts of Jungaria, and, having founded the city of Ili, in +course of time formed, in union with some Turkish tribes, a powerful and +cohesive administration. Their chief was styled Gorkhan, Lord of Lords, +and their religion was Buddhism. It was of this tribe, according to +some, that the celebrated Prester John, or King John, was supposed to be +the chief in the Middle Ages. Some neighbours who had been harassed by +predatory tribes came to Gorkhan for assistance, which was willingly +conceded; but, having successfully repulsed the Kipchaks and other +tribes, this leader did not withdraw from the country he had occupied as +a friend and ally. Not only did he then annex Kashgar and Khoten, but he +crossed the Pamir into the province of Ferghana, and in a short period +brought Bokhara, Samarcand, and Tashkent under his dominion. This +extensive empire was of very brief duration however, and civil war was +waged for more than half a century after the first successes of Gorkhan, +in which Khiva, or Khwaresm, and the Kara Khitay fought for supremacy. A +chief of the Naiman tribe of Christians, Koshluk by name, then entered +the lists against the aged Gorkhan, who was, after some hard fighting, +defeated and captured. This was in the year 1214. Koshluk's triumph was +also, however, of very brief duration, for he now came into contact with +one of the most formidable antagonists that the soil of Asia has ever +produced, Genghis Khan. + +The Mongols or Mughols began to appear as a distinct tribe about the +same time that the Kara Khitay migrated to Jungaria, and as early as the +commencement of the twelfth century they had carried destruction into +the Chinese provinces of Shensi and Kansuh. When Genghis Khan appeared +upon the scene he found the tribe which he was destined to lead to such +great triumphs in a state of singular strength, and its neighbours +either at discord among themselves or only just recovering from a long +period of anarchy. The Chinese were particularly divided at that moment, +and Genghis Khan, who had family connections in that empire, soon found +it an easy task to lead successful inroads into the heart of his rich +but defenceless neighbour. Genghis Khan was born at Dylon Yulduc, in the +year 1154. His father, Mysoka Bahadur, was a great warrior, and waged +several successful wars with the Tartars. The earlier years of Genghis +Khan were occupied exclusively in overcoming the difficulties of his own +position. His tribe, divided into several distinct bodies, formed only +one confederacy when a foe had to be encountered in the field. It +required years to remove the dislike they experienced at submission to a +distinct authority; and it was only when the renown of his military +achievements threw a halo over his name that these tribes could be +induced to acknowledge a supremacy which they had become powerless to +resist. But during these years, when he led a life unknown and +insignificant as the chief of a small nomad clan, he was all the time +preparing for a wider career, and for a more extended authority. It was +while he was residing in the remote district round the salt springs of +Baljuna that he drew up the code on which his administrative system was +founded. It was based on the fundamental principle of obedience to the +head, on the maintenance of order and sobriety in the ranks of the +warriors, and on the equal participation in the spoils of battle by all; +but its regulations were so strict on the former points, and the gain of +the individual had to be so completely sacrificed for the advantage of +the many, that at first the establishment of this code of order had +rather the effect of driving his followers from him, than of attracting +to his standard zealots capable of the conquest of a world. It was not +until the year 1203, when he was nearly forty-nine years of age, that +Genghis Khan succeeded in bringing all the Mongol tribes under his +leadership. No sooner had he accomplished this much than he embarked on +military enterprises, which, in the course of a very few years, placed +the greater part of Asia at his disposal. Having subjugated various +Tartar and Tangut tribes, he included them in his military organization, +and by making them embrace his system of compulsory service in the army, +he found himself in the possession of an enormous following. Genghis +Khan therefore ruled at the time we have specified over Kashgar, +including Khoten, Jungaria, and the Tangut country; and there was no +force capable of opposing his except, in the east China, and in the west +the government of Khiva, at this period omnipotent in Western Turkestan. +The rumours which reached the Shah of Khwaresm of the formation of this +new confederacy in Mugholistan induced him to send an embassy to +discover the true facts of the case, and accordingly, while Genghis Khan +was prosecuting a war against the Chinese, there arrived in his camp the +emissaries of Western Asia. Haughty and imperious as this conqueror +undoubtedly was, he received the embassy affably, and with expressions +of the deepest friendship. He sent them back with rich presents and the +following characteristic message:--"I am King of the East. Thou art King +of the West. Let merchants come and go between us and exchange the +products of our countries." In furtherance of this wish he sent a +mission composed of merchants and officials to represent the advantages +that would be derived from mutual intercourse. But the Shah of Khiva, +either incredulous of the formidableness of the adversary with whom he +had to deal, or mistaking his own strength, did not reciprocate the +amicable expressions of Genghis Khan, nor, when the merchants who had +been despatched to his country were murdered, did he make any offer of +reparation. Such treatment would not be tolerated by any civilized ruler +of the nineteenth century, much less was it brooked by an irresponsible +conqueror, whose will was his sole law, in the thirteenth. As soon as +his campaign with China had closed with success, Genghis Khan made +every preparation for the punishment of this act of treachery. It was +then that Genghis Khan, with an armed horde of many hundred thousands, +burst upon the astonished peoples of Western Asia like a meteor from the +east. It was then that some of the fairest regions of the earth were +given over to a soldiery to devastate, a soldiery who had raised the +work of destruction to the level of one of the fine arts; and whose +handiwork in Bokhara, Balkh, Samarcand, Khiva and the lost cities of the +desert, is to be seen clearly imprinted in the ruins which mark the site +of ancient capitals, even at the present moment, 700 years after the +Tartar conqueror swept all resistance from his path. Afghanistan, and +the mountain ranges which are now considered to be impassable by +Russians, did not retard the progress of this "Scourge of God." Cabul, +Candahar, Ghizni fell to the warriors of far distant Mongolia, as they +fell not forty years ago to British valour, and as they must again fall +when the onset shall be made with equal intrepidity and with equal +discipline. And not content with having defaced the map of Asia, with +having converted rich and populous cities into masses of ruins, and with +having depopulated regions once prolific in all that makes life +enjoyable, Genghis Khan carried the terror of his name into the most +remote recesses of the Hindoo Koosh. He wintered in the district of Swat +on our north-west frontier, a territory which is quite unknown to us +except by hearsay, and which has only been occupied by the Mongol and +Macedonian conquerors. From his headquarters on the banks of the +Panjkora he sent messengers to Delhi; and it is uncertain whether he did +not meditate the addition of an Indian triumph to those already +obtained. + +A rebellion in the far eastern portion of his dominions distracted his +attention from the Indus, and he was compelled to hasten with all speed +to quell in person the rising that was jeopardising his position in the +seat of his power. He hastily broke up from his quarters in Swat, and, +by the valley of the Kunar and Chitral, he entered Kashgar, through the +Baroghil Pass. Although he suffered much loss from a journey across +mountain roads, which were scarcely practicable in the early spring, he +succeeded in reaching Yarkand, with his main body, and hastening across +Turkestan arrived at Karakoram, his capital, in time to quell the +disturbance. After this his life was spent in conquering China, a feat +which he never accomplished. But in several campaigns, extending over a +period of about twenty years, he worsted the Imperial troops so +continually, that before his death, in 1227, he had occupied all the +northern provinces of that empire, with Pekin, and left to his son and +successor, Ogdai Khan, the task of completing the work which he had +commenced. On the death of Genghis Khan, his vast possessions were +divided amongst his children, and Kashgar, including Jungaria, Khwaresm, +and Afghanistan, fell to the lot of Chaghtai Khan. This ruler was able +to hold during his life the extensive territory he had succeeded to; but +on his death dissensions broke out in all quarters of the country, and +produced a fresh distribution of the various provinces. It may be +mentioned that, although Chaghtai was a fanatical Buddhist and a +confirmed debauchee, he was a prudent and sagacious ruler, and no +unworthy successor to his distinguished father. The dissensions that +broke out on his decease continued, with more or less violence, for a +period of almost 100 years after that event took place, and they finally +only received a momentary solution in the formation of a new kingdom of +Mugholistan, or Jattah Ulus, as it was more specifically called, under +one of Chaghtai's descendants. + +As briefly and as clearly as possible, we will endeavour to lay before +the reader the chief events of this troubled epoch, when the numerous +progeny of Genghis Khan warred throughout the whole extent of Central +Asia, and a term was only at last placed to their restlessness by their +disappearance. In the first place, it may be as well to mention, that +the religions of Christ, Buddha, and Mahomed, were equally tolerated in +Eastern Turkestan during the greater part of this period. The Arab +invasion and the advance of Islam, had been hurled back beyond Bokhara +"the Holy," by the victorious arms of the great Buddhist conqueror, +Genghis Khan; and for a long period after the Mongol conquests, little +was heard of attempts at conversion to the tenets of the "true Prophet." +But it must not be supposed that, although Genghis Khan, in the sack of +Bokhara, had almost exterminated the race of Mahomedan priests, he was +disposed to stamp out the new heresy from his realms. Having crushed its +power in the field, he was quite content to let it live on or die out, +so long as his imperial or personal interests were not affected. So we +have the strange picture before us, of the three great doctrines of the +earth flourishing side by side in Eastern Turkestan in the fourteenth +century. The Nestorian Christians of Kashgar, who in the time of Marco +Polo were rich and flourishing, were obliged later on to succumb to the +violent measures of the other members of the community, and have +entirely disappeared for many centuries. + +Shortly after the death of Chaghtai Khan, Kaidu, a great-grandson of +Genghis, obtained the throne of Kashgar and Yarkand; and a few years +later on, by a skilful piece of diplomacy, backed up by force, added +thereto the greater part of Khokand and Bokhara. His triumph was, +however, of brief duration, and he was displaced by other competitors. +Dava Khan, the son of Burac, the great-grandson of Chaghtai, had been +appointed governor of Khoten, but his ambition was not satisfied with +less than the throne of Western Turkestan also. He eventually obtained +his desire; but in a rash moment he threw himself in the path of the +Chinese Emperor, Timour Khan, who was returning from a raid carried +almost to the gates of Lahore. He was defeated somewhere in the +neighbourhood of Maralbashi, and was compelled to acknowledge the +supremacy of China. He is of some note to us, as having been the father +of Azmill Khoja, who was selected as ruler by the people themselves, +about the year 1310, and from whom descend that line of Khoja kings of +Kashgar, who have clung to their hereditary claims for a longer time +than any other royal Central Asian house. The last of the Chaghtai Khans +who held the sceptre with any effective purpose, was Kazan Ameer. On his +death another period of trouble broke out, and military governors and +rival princelets of dubious titles advanced their pretensions to the +vacant seat. Up to this all the rulers had, however, been Buddhists. +Toghluc Timour, one of the few remaining representatives of the Genghis +families, had only been saved by the pity of a leading man in Kashgar, +from one of the most extensive massacres of his kinsmen, and for years +he was obliged to lead an uncertain existence in the mountains or +deserts bordering on the state. His associations were all Buddhist; but +one day he was so struck by the definition of the "true faith" given by +the descendant of a Mahomedan priest, spared by Genghis Khan at the +destruction of Bokhara, that he made a vow to become a Mussulman when he +had regained his rights. Not long after this the turn of events in +Kashgar made people seek for some person with recognized claims to be +their ruler, and none in this respect surpassed Toghluc Timour. He, on +succeeding to the throne, openly owned his conversion to Islam, and in a +few years he was gradually imitated by all the leading chiefs of +Turkestan. From this time downwards to the present day, the religion of +the majority in this state has been Mahomedanism, except perhaps during +the Chinese rule, when the number of Chinese merchants, officials, and +soldiers, put the minority of the followers of Buddha on a par with +those of the rival religion. Toghluc died in 1362. + +It was about this time that the second great conqueror of Asia appeared +upon the scene. Timour was born in 1333 in the Shahrisebz suburb of +Kish. He was the son of Turghay, governor of that district and chief of +the Birlas tribe, and on the death of his father he himself became +governor of Kish also. During his earlier years he was hospitably +received at the Court of Kazan Ameer, and that ruler, in addition to +giving him several high and distinguished appointments, married him to +his beautiful granddaughter Olja Turkan Khaton. Timour did not continue +long in favour at Court. His restless spirit impelled him to fields of +greater activity than any the Ameer could, or indeed felt disposed to, +place at his disposal. He openly mutinied against the central authority +in his government of Kish, and on being overthrown by the troops of the +state, he sought safety with his wife among the Turcomans of the Khivan +desert. Among these uncertain nomads he felt scarcely secure, and +collecting round him a small band of desperadoes, he entered upon a more +ambitious enterprise by undertaking a marauding expedition into the +Persian province of Seistan. This was attended with considerable +success, but he himself was wounded in the foot by an arrow. From the +effects of this wound he never completely recovered, and was known +henceforth as Timour Lang, Timour the Lame, whence the well-known name +of Tamerlane. The _éclat_ obtained by this marauding expedition stood +him in good stead, for shortly afterwards he was able to raise a +sufficient force to invade Tashkent. He occupied the whole of what is +now Russian Khokand including Ferghana, and he placed a fresh occupant +on the throne, Kabil Shah, in 1363. In the following years he contended +for supremacy with another chief named Husen, and in 1369 had so far +been victorious that he threw off the mask, and declared himself king. +He made Samarcand his capital, and converted that once populous city +into the wonder and admiration of Western Asia. Having settled his +internal affairs, he commenced operations against the states lying +beyond his border. The mountaineers of Badakshan were the first to incur +his wrath, and after several stubborn battles they were obliged to +acknowledge his supremacy. He then turned his attention to his northern +frontiers, beyond which the Jattah princes reigned in Jungaria. He +overcame their prince, Kamaruddin, in several encounters, but not with +complete success until his final campaign against him in 1390. As he +advanced they retired to the fastnesses east of Lake Issik Kul, and only +reissued from their hiding-places when the invader had withdrawn. + +To return to Kashgar, on the death of Toghluc, his son Khize Khoja was +displaced and did not regain possession of his kingdom till 1383, when +he was thirty years of age. He was a stanch Mussulman, and was on terms +of as much amity and as close alliance with Timour as it was possible +for any neighbour, wishing to preserve his independence, to be. Allied +as he was with, yet not participating in the wars of Timour, against the +Jattahs, he suffered in common with those people from the expedition of +1389-90, when both sides of the Tian Shan were ravaged by the armies of +that ruler. Although for the next fifteen years they maintained friendly +relations, it can easily be imagined that Khize Khoja was not very +comfortable with so formidable a suzerain just over his frontiers. The +irksomeness of the position is well illustrated by the orders +transmitted to Khize Khoja by Timour, to have corn planted and cattle +collected at certain places for the immense army which he was levying +for the invasion of China. It was while engaged in fulfilling these +commands, that news reached the ruler of Kashgar that this "Scourge of +God" had died suddenly on the 5th of February, 1405. Khize Khoja himself +survived but a short time afterwards. For the second time within the +short space of 150 years had the possessions of a great conqueror to +undergo the process of redistribution. In Timour's case it was simpler +than it had been in that of Genghis Khan, for the former ruler left no +worthy representative of his cause as the Mongol conqueror had in Ogdai +and Chaghtai. The branches of the great family of Genghis struck root so +deeply, that down to modern times he has had descendants who perpetuate +his name, but Timour left none such. With the death of his favourite son +Jehangir, his hopes of having a worthy successor expired. + +Kashgar was in particular the scene of confusion and trouble, and it was +not until about 1445 that any settled government was attained, when +Seyyid Ali, grandson of the aged and patriotic minister Khudadar, +restored some order and cohesion to the distracted country for a short +period. He died in 1457. During these years Yunus, king of Jungaria, +played a very prominent part in all the disturbances that were occurring +on his borders. He is represented to have been a very enlightened +prince, and emissaries from foreign nations returned from his court +relating with surprise how they had found a courteous and refined man +where they expected to have seen a coarse and savage Mongol. While Yunus +ruled in Jungaria another striking individual was predominant in +Kashgar. Ababakar, son of Saniz, who was the son of Seyyid Ali, ruler of +Kashgar, was one of the few sovereigns of that state whose acts entitle +them to consideration. During a long and troubled tenure of power he had +the good fortune to overcome many difficulties, and although his career +was to become clouded before his death, the brilliant years that +preceded the catastrophe justify us in considering his career for a +little while. He was a great athlete, hunter and soldier, and was so +favoured by his mother on that account that he distanced his brethren in +the race for supremacy. As governor of Khoten he soon absorbed Yarkand, +and long and furious were the wars he waged with Hydar, the ruler of +Kashgar, who was assisted by Yunus of Jungaria. Nor, although successful +on several occasions in the field against the allied forces, could +Ababakar hope to overcome the huge armies at the disposal of Yunus; and +it was not until Hydar himself foolishly broke off from Yunus, that +Ababakar succeeded in asserting his claim to all Eastern Turkestan. War +then broke out between Hydar and Yunus, and the latter with the +assistance of large reinforcements from Jungaria overthrew and captured +his former ally. But these dissensions favoured the cause of Ababakar, +and on the death of Yunus in 1486, his possession of Kashgar became +undisputed. The first serious danger with which he was menaced after his +complete possession of Kashgar, was in 1499, when Ahmad, the son of +Yunus, or Alaja the "slayer," as he was generally called, invaded his +territory at the head of the Jattah Mongols. The campaign was in the +commencement indecisive, but Ababakar before long triumphed over his +northern invader. + +During the next fifteen years Ababakar ruled in peace and prosperity in +Kashgar, accumulating great riches and presenting an object of +attraction to his covetous neighbours. During these years the country, +although ruled in an arbitrary way, flourished, and, as one of the +native chronicles put it, "A traveller could go from Andijan to Hamil on +the borders of China without fear of molestation, and without having to +make an extra long march in order to find a place wherein to rest and +obtain refreshment." But in 1513 a storm broke upon his country that +resulted in his complete overthrow. Said, son of Ahmad and brother of +Mansur, who was ruling in Jungaria, undertook the invasion of Kashgar in +that year, and it was not long before he occupied Kashgar, which, +however, Ababakar left but a heap of ruins. His advance on Yangy Hissar +was opposed, but, having defeated the army of Kashgar before that city, +he occupied it without any further opposition, and thus secured what +has been called the key of Yarkand as well as of Kashgar. For some +months Ababakar remained shut up in Yarkand, but on the approach of +Said's army he abandoned that position and fled to Khoten. But not long +afterwards he retired still further into the mountainous country +south-east of Kashgar, and halted some time at Karanghotagh. But being +first plundered and then deserted by his attendants, he withdrew into +the valleys and deserts of the Tibetan table-land. For many months he +wandered, half-starved and solitary, in this deserted region, and at +last it was reported that he had been found murdered by some of the +mountaineers. Such was the end of the once magnificent Ababakar, a +prince who in his fortunes reminds us very much of the great Darius. +That he was avaricious is clear to those who read of the great treasures +he had stored away; that he was bloodthirsty and cruel is impossible of +denial; but that he possessed in his earlier years many of the virtues, +with some of the vices, of a great ruler is equally incontestable. His +son Jehangir, whom he had left in command at Yarkand, on the approach of +the army of Said fled to Sanju, and was in a few months captured and +executed. About this epoch the third great Asiatic conqueror was +appearing on the scene. Babur was born in 1481, and was chosen to +succeed his father Uman Sheikh on the throne of Khokand, by the nobles +of that state, when he was only twelve years of age. This conqueror of +India influenced but indirectly the fortunes or Kashgar. His career was +in another sphere, and it is not necessary here to enter into any +description of his life, such as has been given of his predecessors +Genghis Khan and Timour. + +Said, having overcome Ababakar, employed himself in extending his rule +over the neighbouring states. He was seized with the desire of occupying +that mountainous region, which is divided into almost as many petty +states as it contains mountain chains, lying between our Indian +frontier and the Pamir and Badakshan. But although he employed all his +resources in endeavouring to subject the Kafirs of Bolor, or Kafiristan +as it is now called, he was unable to make any permanent additions in +this direction. In other years he carried fire and sword into Tibet and +Cashmere; and it was when returning from one of these expeditions, in +the year 1532, that he expired from the effects of the rarefied +atmosphere, near the Karakoram pass. His death was the signal for the +outbreak of fresh disturbances. His legitimate sons were ousted by +Rashid, the son of Said by a slave, who had already distinguished +himself as a general in the wars against Kafiristan and Tibet, and on +the death of Rashid after a brief reign, the confusion became, if +possible, worse confounded. It would be tedious in the extreme to follow +the variations that now took place. Benedict Goes, a Portuguese +missionary and traveller, found a ruler named Mahomed Khan on the throne +in 1603, by whom he was hospitably received; but as he had placed the +sister of the Khan, when returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca, under an +obligation to him, this is scarcely a fair criterion either of the +personal merits of this ruler, or of the state of civilization to which +the country had attained. + +It was now that the Khoja family appeared prominently upon the scene. +Two factions were playing the parts of Montagu and Capulet in Eastern +Turkestan in the earlier years of the seventeenth century. They were +known as the Aktaghluc and Karataghluc, and in the course of their +strife the leader of the former called in to his aid the Khoja Kalar of +Khodjent, a descendant of Azmill before mentioned. It was in the year +1618 that this Khoja first came to Kashgar, and his grandson, +Hadayatulla, was the chief means of attracting the affections of the +people to this family. That veneration has not disappeared to-day, and +the Hazrat Afak, as he is generally spoken of, is scarcely inferior in +the eyes of the people to Mahomed himself. The great miracles he is +reported to have wrought, and the peculiar sanctity which attached to +him during his life, gave him complete ascendancy throughout the +country, and before his death he was entrusted with the supreme +authority. His son, Yahya or Khan Khoja, succeeded him during his +lifetime, but was murdered in a riot a few months after the death of +Hadayatulla. Then recommenced with fresh vigour the old series of +disturbances. Aspirant after aspirant appeared in the political arena, +but, as each had little claim to lead on account of original merit, a +successful rival always was forthcoming, and so this wearying cycle +continued until 1720. + +The course of the history of Kashgar has now been brought down to the +commencement of the eighteenth century, during which a fresh change +occurred in the history of the country by the Chinese conquest. It may +be well, therefore, before narrating that event and the causes which +immediately produced it, to consider the chief lessons taught us by the +history of Eastern Turkestan, as revealed in the preceding pages. The +most cursory reader must have been struck by the fact, that only twice +in the course of eight centuries did the country secure a firm and +settled government, and they were when two conquerors, Genghis Khan and +Tamerlane, reduced every semblance of authority to one bare level of +subjection. At fitful moments there arose, indeed, some leader, Yunus, +Ababakar, or the first Khojas, capable of preserving for a few years his +frontiers against the inroads of hostile neighbours, and of maintaining +an outward show of prosperity and tranquillity to foreign travellers; +but even such gleams of sunshine as these were transitory on the dark +horizon of the condition of mankind in Central Asia. With the fall of +each pretender, too, hopes of an improvement became fainter in the +breasts of the people; and when the successors of the Khoja saint showed +themselves not less amenable to the errors and frailties of their +predecessors than any past ruler had been, it was to some extraneous +circumstance, we may feel sure, that the people looked for aid. There is +an old saying in this part of the world, that when "the people's tithe +of bricks is full, then comes a Moses in the land;" and it cannot be +doubted that in the year 1720 the people of Kashgar had suffered much +and for so long, that relief, so that it came effectually from some +quarter or another, could not be otherwise than welcome. But the Moses +who had been, for centuries almost, expected, had as yet not proved +forthcoming, and as "hope deferred maketh the heart sick," so had the +Kashgari lost the courage even to look forward to a period when their +life of misery, under oppressive tyrants and exorbitant taxation, +aggravated by every form of peculation in its levy, might be changed for +a more favourable state of being. There can be no doubt that if the +chaos which reigned throughout Jungaria and Kashgar had continued much +longer those vast regions would have been completely exhausted. As it +was the population decreased in alarming proportions, and the wealth and +general resources of the country disappeared with no apparent means of +supplying the gap. What is, perhaps, most surprising of all is that all +these later rulers seem to have lived in a sort of fools' paradise with +regard to the resources of their state. The thought never seems to have +occurred to them that there must be an end some day or other to a realm +distracted by continual wars and sedition, and that subjects who have +been tyrannised over for centuries will at last rise up in arms and +teach their tyrants, in the words of the poet, "how much the wretched +dare." These Khans or Ameers of Central Asia are not worthy of one +moment's consideration for their own sake; but, as some account of them +is a proper preparation for the modern history of Kashgar, they have +been described in this chapter. From the disappearance of Chinese +authority in Central and Western Asia in the eighth and ninth +centuries, down to the commencement of the eighteenth century, the +history of Kashgar, in common with that of its neighbours, was a series +of misfortunes. There is nothing to attract our sympathies in any of the +rulers, with the exception perhaps of Yunus; and all our commiseration +is monopolised for the unhappy races who peopled that region. We +therefore have arrived at this crisis in a fit state to appreciate the +feelings of the Kashgari at the changes that occurred in the eighteenth +century; and before we consider, in a fresh chapter, those alterations +we may close this without regret at the disappearance of a long line of +Central Asian Khans, who possessed scarcely one redeeming quality among +many vices. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE CONQUEST OF KASHGAR BY CHINA. + + +Before continuing the narrative of the events that took place in Kashgar +after the year 1720, until it fell into the hands of the Chinese in +1760, it may be as well to consider briefly the history of China, in +order that it may be intelligible to us how that power was induced to +undertake such far distant enterprises, and how, moreover, it was able +to accomplish them successfully. In the earlier years of the seventeenth +century the dynasty of Ming was seated on the throne of Pekin, but its +power had been shaken to its foundations by repeated disasters in wars +with the Mantchoo Tartars, who had wrested the province of Leaou Tung +from the Emperor Wan-leh, before his death in 1620. The Mantchoos are +said to have been the descendants of the Mongol conquerors of the +thirteenth century, who had been forced to take refuge in the wilds +north of China when the native Chinese rose up and destroyed their +power. Whether this very plausible suggestion be true or not, or +whether, as some affirm, these were a new race issuing from the frozen +regions of Kamschatka and driven south by the necessity for obtaining +sustenance for their increasing numbers, matters little for our present +purpose. It is certain that they were a warlike people at this time, and +that they could bring considerable numbers into the field, and it is +very probable that, when they had obtained some success, their ranks +were swollen by recruits from their Tartar kinsmen of Eastern Jungaria. +On the death of the Chinese Emperor Wan-leh, dissensions broke out in +China as to his successor, and in the struggle that ensued the Mantchoos +were invited in to support the cause of one of the claimants. Their aid +turned the scale in his favour; but when the fortunes of war had been +clearly manifested, the Mantchoos showed no disposition to take their +departure as had been stipulated. As the Saxons in our own history, and +the Mongols in the Chinese had acted, so now did the Mantchoos, and in +1644 their first Emperor Chuntche was installed in the imperial +dignities, as the first of the present ruling dynasty of Tatsing, or +"sublimely pure," When Chuntche was crowned by his victorious soldiery, +it must not be supposed that he had conquered the whole of China. During +the seventeen years of his reign he was constantly engaged in warring +with the native Chinese forces; but always with invariable success. In +1661 Kanghi, his son, ascended the throne, and by a series of judicious +measures and successful enterprises, firmly maintained the position won +in China by his father. It was during this brilliant reign that Tibet +was annexed to the Chinese Empire, and from Cochin-China and the +frontiers of Birma to the River Amoor there was none to question the +power of the Mantchoo Government. It cannot be doubted that the conquest +of Tibet opened up fresh ideas in the minds of the Chinese as to their +right to rule in Eastern Turkestan; and with the re-assertion of their +old suzerainty over the Tibetan table-land, the remembrance of a similar +claim, at a far distant epoch, over Jungaria and Turkestan would be +forced on the minds of the Chinese people, until some ambitious ruler or +viceroy might avail himself of the opportunity of distinction by +acquiescing in, and giving effect to, the popular desire. Kanghi was too +prudent to jeopardize his recently consolidated state by expeditions +either into Jungaria or Turkestan; and was quite satisfied with the +respect shown to his empire by the Eleuthian princes of those regions. +On Kanghi's death, in 1721, his son, Yung-Ching, came to the throne, +and during his short reign, the example of his two predecessors not to +interfere in the troubles of the states lying beyond Kansuh, was closely +followed. Yung-Ching died in 1735, and thus made way for his ambitious +and warlike son, Keen-Lung. When Keen-Lung first commenced to reign for +himself he found that he was irresponsible ruler of a most powerful +empire, at peace within itself, and satisfied to all outward seeming +with its _de facto_ government. His treasury was full; the country was, +perhaps, at its very highest point of prosperity, and the sovereign had +only to maintain in this wealth and vigour the nation which had been +brought to such a pitch by the wisdom of his predecessors. To a warlike +monarch, however, the career of ruler of a thriving, peace-loving, and +domestic people, has never been a palatable one, and Keen-Lung thought, +as have many other great sovereigns of our own age, that the only use of +a wealthy and numerous subject race was to enable the ruler to undertake +high-sounding enterprises, and to spread the terror of his name through +distant regions. The reputation and the real strength of the Chinese +Empire were so great at this time in Asia, that no single power, or even +any possible confederacy, would have thought of entering the lists +against it. Keen-Lung had, therefore, no just cause for hostilities with +the neighbouring states, as they were always too willing to offer the +amplest reparation for any cause of offence to the Imperial dignity. The +conquest of Turkestan was therefore an object with which he would +heartily sympathise; and when we remember his warlike disposition, and +the exact condition of China at the time, possessing a superabundance of +wealth, and of numbers sufficient to achieve far more difficult +enterprises than the one in question, it is easier to understand the +eagerness with which Keen-Lung intervened in the affairs of Jungaria, +when the following opportunity, which we are about to narrate, offered +for so doing. + +It is now time to return to Kashgar and narrate the events that were +happening in that troubled district. The feud between the Aktaghluc and +Karataghluc factions reached its height when Afak, who had been placed +on the throne of Yarkand by the Calmucks, under Galdan, the chief +representative of the Aktaghluc, succeeded in expelling all the +prominent supporters of the rival clan. Afak ruled for some years, but +with difficulty maintained himself in some parts of Kashgar, against the +Calmucks, Kirghiz, and Kipchak. His sons had no better fortune, and the +state was finally divided between a Kipchak and a Kirghiz leader. These +quarrelled between themselves, but happily they each expired in the +first encounter. Acbash, one of the sons of Afak, was executed at Yangy +Hissar in the course of this contention; but he had previously called in +to his assistance from Khodjent, in Khokand, a Khoja, Danyal, of the +rival Karataghluc faction. This roused the enmity of the more bitter +among the Aktaghluc, and, on this, Khoja Ahmad was brought in to +represent their interests. Danyal was besieged in Yarkand, but, with the +assistance of a contingent of Kirghiz, he was able to repulse his +assailants. But, although successful in the field, Danyal was compelled +shortly afterwards to flee, and leave his rival in possession of the +state. He fled to the Calmucks, in Jungaria, and pleaded so well, that +an army was lent him to regain Kashgar. Victory attended this +expedition, but the Calmuck leader, who had captured Ahmad at the siege +of Kashgar, instead of placing Danyal in power, took both him and his +rival as prisoners to his capital of Ili. With so forcible a settlement +of the question, little room was left for useless complaining to the +ambitious Danyal, and from this time down to the Chinese conquest, the +Calmuck rulers of Ili asserted their right to supremacy over Eastern +Turkestan. Danyal, himself, was appointed, some years later on, governor +of Kashgar, now called Alty Shahr, or six cities; but, under him, there +was a local governor for each town, appointed by the Calmucks +themselves. His power was more apparent than real. His eldest son was +kept at Ili as a hostage for the good behaviour of his father, and +Danyal, himself, had frequently to proceed to Ili to make his report on +the state of affairs in Kashgar. Such was the condition of Kashgar, as a +subject province of the Calmuck rulers of Ili, governed by Danyal, a +member of the Karataghluc party, in the year 1740. On the death of +Galdan, the son of Arabdan Khan of Jungaria, in 1745, two chiefs, +Amursana and Davatsi, or Tawats, seized the governing power, and for a +time they divided the authority fairly between them; but it was not long +before they fell out, and resolved to advance their own interests at the +expense of each other. Amursana was unable to cope with the armies of +his rival, Davatsi, and, having been defeated in several encounters, +fled from Jungaria to China. On his arrival at Lanchefoo he demanded +permission to proceed to Pekin to lay his grievances at the feet of the +Emperor, and to offer in his name, and in that of many of his +compatriots, the districts of Ili and of Kashgar to his omnipotent +majesty. + +The request was granted, and Keen-Lung received him with favour, +promised to consider what he had stated, and, in the meanwhile, gave him +titles and revenues within the Chinese Empire. Amursana's address was so +insinuating, and he played so skilfully on the king's ambition and love +for military renown, that at last Keen-Lung consented to lend him the +forces, which he had been so lavish of promises to secure. In 1753, the +Chinese army, under Amursana, appeared in Jungaria, and, after several +desperate encounters, Davatsi was driven out of that state, and, +according to one account, was delivered up to the Chinese by Khojam Beg, +the governor of Ush Turfan. According to another version, he was +captured in the field; but both agree that he was taken to Pekin and +there executed. Amursana, having regained his position in Jungaria, now +turned his attention to the conquest of its dependency, Kashgar. He was +now supreme in Jungaria, with his capital at Ili; but his army, which +maintained him in his position, was a Khitay force, owing allegiance +solely to the Emperor of Pekin, and only obeying the instructions issued +by his general accompanying the Eleuth prince Amursana. At this epoch +Yusuf, a son of Galdan, had seized the chief authority in Kashgar, and, +raising a cry that the true religion of Islam was in danger from the +advance of the Khitay, endeavoured to rally to his cause in the struggle +that he saw was approaching the Mahomedan governments of Khokand and +Bokhara. Amursana, on the northern frontiers of Kashgar, was eagerly +watching for the opportunity to arise for an active interference in that +state, and Yusuf was prudent in seeking beyond his frontiers for allies +that were able to assist him against the machinations of his foes. Yusuf +had made himself the leader and representative of the Karataghluc party +in the state, and Amursana accordingly resolved to put forward the +pretensions of the rival Aktaghluc faction. In this design the Chinese +general acquiesced, and, with the assistance of the Calmuck governors of +Ush Turfan, and Aksu, no delay interfered with its prompt realization. +The descendants of the ancient Khojas were consequently sought out, and +Barhanuddin, son of Ahmad, was selected for the purpose. He, at the head +of a mixed following, promptly seized Ush Turfan, and was there received +with acclamation, and several of the minor tribes joined him at once. +Yusuf was, however, hurrying up with a large force from Yarkand, and +Barhanuddin's chances seemed to be more than doubtful, when Yusuf died +on the way. His son Abdulla, who took the name of Khoja Padshah, +hastened on, however, and besieged Barhanuddin in Ush Turfan. Abdulla +then endeavoured to come to terms with Barhanuddin, and made overtures +for the reconciliation of the Karataghluc and Aktaghluc parties to be +cemented in a crusade against the invading Khitay. Barhanuddin, a true +Mussulman, was personally inclined to accept the arrangement offered, +but, as he was surrounded by Chinese officials and their allies, he was +constrained to give instead the advice that Abdulla should surrender to +the Chinese and acknowledge their supremacy. Abdulla was not at all +willing to forfeit his independence without some struggle, and the siege +of Ush Turfan was pressed on. In the camp of the besieging forces there +were some who favoured the pretensions of Barhanuddin, and these +deserting from the Karataghluc cause, the remaining forces of Abdulla +were compelled to retreat with precipitation. Barhanuddin immediately +advanced on Kashgar, where he was received with open arms. Yarkand soon +afterwards fell into his possession, and the conquest of Kashgar by the +descendant of the Khojas and the triumph of the Aktaghluc party were +complete. + +So far the Chinese had been merely spectators of the progress of events +in Kashgar. Amursana had induced them to approve of this enterprise of +Barhanuddin, and they had given general support in the war with Yusuf +and his son; and it was not until Barhanuddin, elated with his success, +set their wishes at defiance, that they resolved to occupy the country. +But before that, Amursana's career had been cut short. Although escorted +by a large force of native Chinese troops, he had aspired, in 1757, to +establish himself as an independent prince in Jungaria, and had broken +loose from Chinese control. The forces he raised were, however, defeated +with remarkable ease by the Chinese, and Amursana was compelled to flee +once more from his home--this time with no certain refuge, as he had +before in Pekin. The Russians were then in possession of Siberia, but +their influence for good or for ill beyond their desert and almost +impenetrable stations was practically _nil_; but, such as it was, it +seemed to Amursana the only place affording any prospect of security. +He died at Tobolsk, in 1757, soon after he arrived there; but the +implacable Chinese haughtily demanded from the Russians his body as a +proof of his decease, and the Russian government sent it to Kiachta for +surrender to them. Such was the career of the ill-fated, but ambitious, +Amursana, who was the immediate cause of the introduction of Chinese +power into Eastern Turkestan. + +With so unmistakable a proof before his eyes of the power of the +Chinese, it is strange to find Barhanuddin also proving contumacious in +Kashgar, but so it was. In 1758, the very next year after the death of +Amursana, this ruler and his brother Khan Khoja broke out in open mutiny +to the Chinese. At Ili some Khitay officers were maltreated, and +outspoken contempt was shown for Chinese commands. Such attitude could +not be brooked by any established rule, and, to do the Chinese simple +justice, never had been tolerated by them on any occasion; and +accordingly a Chinese army was despatched from Ili to chastise this +recalcitrant ruler, and to remind him that the arm of Chinese power was +terribly long. Barhanuddin and his brother were defeated in several +pitched battles, city after city opened its gates to the dreaded +invader, and the last representatives of the Khojas were compelled to +seek refuge in the isolated region of Badakshan. But even here they were +not safe. The terror of the Chinese name had gone before them, and the +sovereign of Badakshan, eager to propitiate the conqueror, sent the +heads of the two brothers to the Chinese general, who was advancing from +Yarkand. Only one of the numerous sons of Barhanuddin escaped the +destruction wrought in the family of the Khojas by the victorious +Chinese: his name was Khoja Sarimsak. The Chinese had now completely +annexed all the territory north of the Karakoram and east of the Pamir +and Khokand, and it does not appear that in doing so they had suffered +any great loss. By availing themselves of Amursana's claims in Jungaria +they had obtained a firm foothold in that state, and then by an equally +skilful manipulation of the rival parties of Aktaghluc and Karataghluc, +they had extended their authority over Kashgar as well. When their +puppets, Amursana and Barhanuddin, became restive as Chinese vassals, +and strove for independence, the Chinese forces were called into action +and swept all opposition from their path. All this may seem the most +unjustifiable ambition, nor do we wish to palliate in any way the +terribly harsh repressive measures adopted by the Chinese. There is no +doubt that, so long as there remained the shadow of any opposition to +their rule, they did not temper their power with any exhibition of +mercy. It is computed that almost half a million of people were slain +during the wars of these two or three years, and that the great majority +of these were the innocent inhabitants, who had been massacred. Nor, +although we should be disposed to think that this is a greatly +exaggerated number, have we any reason to doubt that the sword of the +Chinese was called into use whenever any resistance was offered to their +advance, and that the feelings of the soldiers were embittered to a +great extent by religious fervour, in their encounters with the +Mussulmans. The Chinese, having conquered Kashgar, turned their arms +against Khokand, and entered Tashkent and the city of Khokand in +triumph. As the year 1760 was drawing to a close, quite a panic was +spreading through Western Asia at the advance of the Chinese. +Afghanistan, then as now the only formidable Mahomedan territory left +intact from foreign conquest, was implored by the suffering Islamites to +check the Chinese advance. Then, as recently on a somewhat similar +occasion, Afghanistan thought prudence the better part of valour, and +confined her action to the invasion of Badakshan, which she coveted, in +order to punish its ruler for the murder of the fugitive Khojas. But, +having terrified Khokand, the Chinese wisely retired to the proper +frontier of Kashgar, and then set about consolidating their rule there +by an energy and administrative capacity which must excite the +admiration of every governing nation. + +It was some years, however, before the conquest of Kashgar, which had +been so rapidly accomplished, could be considered to have been +altogether completed. Fresh troops had to be summoned from Kansuh, and +military settlers imported in large numbers from Shensi and other +Chinese provinces, to supply the place of the massacred Kashgari. +Settlers were also brought from the neighbourhood of Urumtsi and Hamil; +and with these and imperial troops sent from Pekin, the Chinese felt +complete masters of the situation. It was only then that the Chinese +viceroy considered himself sufficiently strong to place his army in +detachments in the various cities. Up to that time it had been kept +mobilised in one, or at most two or three stations, ready for instant +action. When the Chinese withdrew from Khokand they imposed a tribute on +that state, and then they turned their arms against the nomad tribes on +the north of the Jungarian frontier. The various hordes of the Kirghiz +nomads sent in their submission one after the other, and the Chinese +invariably accepted their fealty, and as a rule rewarded their duteous +behaviour with Chinese titles and rank Thus Ablai, Chief of the Middle +Horde, was made Prince in 1766, and Nur Ali, of the Little Horde, went +so far as to send special emissaries to Pekin, where they were +favourably received, and returned with recompenses for the fidelity of +their master. The Chinese had thus secured their position in Jungaria +and Kashgar before the dose of 1765, and by their possession of Khoten, +they had opened up communications with their province of Tibet. On the +south they possessed an admirable frontier, and it was only in the +south-west that any check seemed to be put upon their advance. As +already mentioned, the Ameer of Afghanistan had overran Badakshan, in +chastisement for the murders of Barhanuddin and his brother; and he was +continually receiving applications to declare an open war against the +Chinese. His own troubles with the rulers of Scinde and Persia were +sufficient to keep his religions sympathies within due bounds. But he +sent an embassy to Pekin, to point out that his fellow-religionists were +suffering under the conquering sway of the Chinese forces in Central +Asia; and on its return with an unsatisfactory reply, he appears to have +stationed a large body of troops in Badakshan. The proud Durani monarch +was probably eager to oppose the Chinese, but, wiser than his +contemporaries in Turkestan and Jungaria, he accurately reckoned up the +risks of the enterprise, and contented himself with the maintenance of +the powerful empire he had erected on the ruins of the conquests of +Nadir Shah. When the Afghans had done so much, and given promises of aid +in the defence of Samarcand, it is not to be wondered at if the people +of Kashgar thought they would do more, and risings took place in several +parts of the state, notably at Ush Turfan. The Chinese measures were +prompt and effectual; the rebellion was suppressed, the inhabitants +massacred, and the town destroyed. This failure struck so complete a +panic into the hearts of the people, that no inducements, for more than +half a century, could encourage them to rise against the Chinese. The +Chinese conquest of Kashgar gave an effectual solution to the rivalries +of the numerous claimants to its sovereignty, and among other +competitors to the Khojas, that is, to the descendants of that Sarimsak +who alone survived the massacre of his family in 1760. While very +possibly the people may have suffered that mental depression which must +accompany the installation of a foreign rule, and despite the very harsh +and unmistakable evidences given by the Chinese of their intolerance of +opposition, there was some prospect, notwithstanding these, that the +Chinese would prove permanent masters, and that their rule would +consequently become milder and milder every year. It was this feeling, +that things could not become much worse, that rendered the Kashgari +apathetic in their resistance to the Chinese. They did not dare to +expect much improvement in their lot; but at all events they might +suppose that Chinese massacres would cease with the disappearance of +resistance, whereas massacres by their own countrymen and tyrants had +been for centuries an every-day occurrence. + +Before considering the Chinese occupation of Kashgar, it may be useful +to give some description of the Aktaghluc and Karataghluc parties, of +whose rivalry the history of Kashgar in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and +eighteenth centuries is so full. It may be remembered that in 1533, +Reshid, the younger son of Said, who had distinguished himself in his +father's wars, seized the state from his brothers, to whom he was +inferior both in age and in birth on his mother's side. In effecting +this he availed himself of the alliance of the Usbeg rulers west of +Pamir, and during the negotiations that were transacted between them, +the distinguished divine, Maulana Khoja Kasani, of Samarcand, visited +him. He was greeted with the most striking marks of Reshid's affection, +and granted a large estate in Kashgar. He married and left two sons in +that state to represent his interests and share his possessions. The +elder son, whose mother was a Samarcand lady, was averse to the younger, +whose mother was a native of Kashgar. In the course of time they each +rose prominently in the service of the state, but they transmitted their +antipathy to their descendants. Khoja Kalan, the elder, whose influence +was greatest in Yarkand and Karatagh, was the founder of the +Karataghluc, or "Black Mountaineers." Khoja Ishac, the younger, whose +influence was greatest in Kashgar and Actagh, another form of Altai, +was the founder of the Aktaghluc, or "White Mountaineers." The +descendants of either of these Khojas, or priests, the sons of the great +divine of Samarcand, claim the title of Khoja, but that must not be +confounded with the more exclusive signification it possesses as +representing the once ruling family. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE CHINESE RULE IN KASHGAR. + + +The Chinese conquest of Jungaria and Eastern Turkestan having become an +accomplished fact, what did the new rulers do to justify their forcible +interference in Central Asia? What measures did they adopt to conciliate +the subject peoples, and what to increase the prosperity of a vast +region, naturally fertile, but impoverished by centuries of improvident +government and of civil anarchy and war? Did they follow the precedent +that had been set them by every past ruler of those countries, and leave +the people to their own devices, to starve or to exist as best they +might, so long as the tribute money was forthcoming? Did the Chinese +Viceroys of Ili, or their lieutenants in Kashgar, Yarkand, Aksu, or +Kucha adopt a policy of inaction, and pursue a line of conduct of +unprincipled selfishness in advancing their own personal fortunes, and +thus prove that they were of the same stamp as all other Asiatic +despots, careless of the day and utterly regardless of the morrow? The +best way to see how they acted, what they did, and what they did not +that was possible, is to follow their rule in Kashgar with some +attention. In itself this may be found to be no uninstructive lesson for +us, who are also a great governing people; and from the perusal of what +the Chinese administrators did in Central Asia we may arise willing to +accord them high praise, because we are better able than other nations +to appreciate the difficulties of their task. + +After the fall of Amursana, the Chinese, in the first place, organized +their administrative system upon the following basis:--The supreme +authority was vested in the hands of the Viceroy of Ili. Under him an +amban, or lieutenant-governor, administered affairs in Kashgar. His +place of abode was Yarkand. In internal matters the Yarkand Amban was +without a superior south of the Tian Shan, but in external affairs he +only acted in subordination to the Viceroy of Ili, who alone was in +communication with Pekin. Under each of these potentates there were the +usual deputy-ambans and Tay Dalays, or military commanders. All the +cities had Gulbaghs constructed outside of them, and these forts were +held by Chinese troops--that is, by a mixture of Khitay and Tungani. It +is computed that 20,000 troops used to garrison Kashgar and the +neighbourhood alone. The military posts were restricted to Chinamen, and +the higher judicial and administrative offices were also withheld from +the subjected race. But these were the only privileges retained by the +Chinese. + +The Khan, or chief Amban, who resided in Yarkand, made all the +appointments to the minor offices, which were filled almost exclusively +by Mahomedans. The only precaution the Chinese seem to have taken was to +refuse employment to a Kashgari in his native town, so that a Yarkandi +would have to go to Aksu, or some other place away from his home, if he +desired to participate in the government of his country. But beyond this +there was no restriction, and nominally the Hakim Beg, the highest +Mussulman officer, ranked on an equality with the Chinese amban. His +subordinates were all Mahomedans, with the exception of his personal +guard of Khitay troops. In the hands of these natives of the country lay +all the administration of justice among their co-religionists, the +collection of the revenue, and the levying of customs dues on the +frontier and of trade taxes in the cities. It was only when cause for +litigation arose between a Buddhist and a Mussulman that the amban +interfered. We have therefore the instructive spectacle before us of a +Buddhist conquest becoming harmonized with Mussulman institutions, and +Chinese arrogance not content with tolerating, but absolutely fostering, +a régime to which its hostility was scarcely concealed. This is the only +instance of the Chinese exhibiting such more than Asiatic restraint +towards Mahomedans; for their dealings with Tibet, a country of peculiar +sanctity and Buddhist as well, is not a case in point. The scheme worked +well, however. Chinese strength was husbanded by being employed only +when absolutely necessary to be called into play, and the people, to a +great degree their own masters, did not realise the fact of their being +a subjected nation. Their first anxiety was the payment of their +taxes--far from exorbitant, as it had been under their own rulers; but +that task accomplished, they could free their minds from care. + +Very often their own countryman, the Hakim Beg, was a greater tyrant +than the Chinese amban in the fort outside their gates; but against his +exactions they could obtain speedy redress. When their Hakims, or Wangs +as the Chinese called them, became unpopular in a district, the amban +promptly removed them; even if he considered they were not much to +blame, he always transferred them to some other district. The first +object in the eyes of the amban was the maintenance of order, and he +knew well enough that order could not be maintained, unless he resorted +to force, which he studiously avoided, if the people were discontented. +The people therefore could repose implicit trust in the Chinese amban +securing a fair hearing and justice for them in their disagreements with +their own leaders; and the Mussulman Wangs, who were the old ruling +class, saw the unfortunate tax-payer at last secure from their tyranny +through the clemency of a Buddhist conqueror. We are justified in +assuming that the population saw the force of these patent facts, and +that, if not perfectly to be relied on in any emergency, the Chinese had +no danger to expect from the tax-producing and patient Kashgari. + +So long as the Chinese rule remained vigorous--that is, for about the +first fifty years--the Ambans worked in perfect concord with the Wangs, +and through them with the people. But the internal relations between +these various personages became more complicated and less cordial +through the importation, about the beginning of this century, of a fresh +factor into the question. The Chinese had granted the cities west of, +and including, Aksu very considerable privileges in carrying on trade +with Khokand; and in the course of commercial intercourse a Khokandian +element was slowly imported into these cities, when it became a people +within a people, enjoying the prosperity to be derived from the Chinese +Empire, but not experiencing any sentiment of gratitude towards those by +whom the favours were conferred. After some years, when these Khokandian +immigrants had become numerous, the Chinese acquiesced in their +selecting a responsible head for each community, and this head, or +Aksakal, was nominated by the Khan of Khokand, the only temporal +sovereign these people recognized. The creation of this third power in +the state, which was first sanctioned as a matter of convenience, was to +be fraught with the direst consequences for the Chinese. The Khitay +would be justified in saying that the Aksakals were "the cause of all +their woe," in Kashgar at all events. The Aksakals were far too prudent +to challenge the supremacy of the Chinese officials, and their first +object was rather to make themselves independent of the Wangs than to +compete with the Ambans. In this they were successful, for the Chinese +neglected to take into account the dangers that might arise from these +same bustling, intriguing, and alien Aksakals. The Wangs had always been +obedient vassals, but the plausibility of the Aksakals put them on a par +with their rivals. The Chinese washed their hands of the quarrel, and +may have imagined that their rule was made more assured by divisions +among the Mussulmans. In this they were mistaken. The Aksakals, who +after a time repudiated their obligations to the Wangs, became the +centre of all the intrigue that marked the last half-century of Chinese +rule, and, puffed up by their triumph over the Wangs, did not hesitate +to challenge the right of the Ambans to exercise jurisdiction over them. +But of this more later on. + +While the Chinese adopted these liberal measures in their dealings with +the Mussulman population, they did not neglect those other duties which +belong to the government by right. The greatest benefit they could +confer was of course the preservation of order, and to maintain the +balance impartially between the numerous litigants was the first article +in the creed of the Chinese viceroys. As tranquillity settled down over +these distracted regions, trade revived. The native industries, which +had greatly fallen off, became once more active; and foreign enterprise +was attracted to this quarter, which Chinese power soon made the most +favoured region in Central Asia. But the rulers did not rest content +with the mere preservation of good order. They did not leave it to the +inclination of an indolent people to progress at as tortoise-like a +speed as they would wish; but they themselves set the example which the +rest felt bound to imitate. Not only did the enterprising Khitay +merchant from Kansuh and Szchuen visit the marts of Hamil and Turfan, +but many of this class penetrated into Kashgar proper, where they became +permanent settlers. These invaluable agents supplied the deficiency that +had never before been filled up in the life of the state, for they +brought the highest qualities of enterprise and practical sagacity, +together with capital, as their special characteristics. In the train of +these Khitay merchants came wealth and increased prosperity. Yarkand, +Kashgar, Aksu, and Khoten became cities of the first rank, and the +population of the country in the year 1800 was greater than it had ever +been before. + +There was perfect equality too between all the various races in respect +to trade. The Chinese did not demand special immunities for their own +countrymen, as might have been expected. The Khitay, who came all the +way from Lanchefoo in search of a fortune, must be prepared to compete +in an equal race with the Khokandi, the Kashgari, or the Afghan. His +nationality would obtain for him no immunity from being taxed, or could +give him no advantage over the foreign or native traders. The main +portion of the trade of the country remained in the old hands. Khokand +benefited as much as Kashgar by the trade, and China, in a direct +manner, least of the three. + +The Chinese have at all times been justly famous for their admirable +measures for irrigating their provinces. The wonderful canals which cut +their way, where there are no great rivers, in China proper are +reproduced even in this outlying dependency. Eastern Turkestan is one of +the worst-watered regions in the world. In fact there is only a belt of +fertile country round the Yarkand river, stretching away eastward along +the slopes of the Tian Shan as far as Hamil. The few small rivers which +are traced here and there across the map are during many months of the +year dried up, and even the Yarkand then becomes an insignificant +stream. To remedy this, and to husband the supply as much as possible, +the Chinese sank dykes in all directions. By this means the cultivated +country was slowly but surely spread over a greater extent of territory, +and the vicinity of the three cities of Kashgar, Yangy Hissar, and +Yarkand became known as the garden of Asia. Corn and fruit grew in +abundance, and from Yarkand to the south of the Tian Shan the traveller +could pass through one endless orchard. On all sides he saw nothing but +plenty and content, peaceful hamlets and smiling inhabitants. These +were the outcome of a Chinese domination. + +The Chinese, besides possessing a dual line of communication with their +own country, one north and the other south of the Tian Shan, had also a +caravan route from Khoten to Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. There was also +some intercourse with Cashmere by this way. The jade, for which Khoten +was justly, and is still, famous, was exported in immense quantities, +both to Tibet and to China, through Maralbashi. This mineral was held in +high esteem by Chinese ladies, and alone sufficed to make the prosperity +of Khoten assured. Gold, silk, and musk, were other articles included in +the commerce of this flourishing city. There was also, in the Chinese +time, a very extensive manufacture of carpets and cotton goods. The gold +mines, which, with two exceptions, have not been worked since the same +time, are believed to be scarcely touched, and only await a fostering +hand to be put in working order once more. + +The Chinese also devoted great attention to the coal mines in the +vicinity of Aksu, and these were worked both by private enterprise and +the Government. Coal was an article of common use in that city, but it +does not appear to have been exported beyond the neighbourhood. It is +known that the Chinese took greater interest in the development of the +internal means of wealth of the country than in inducing foreigners to +enter it. Thus, we see that mines, in a special degree, received state +approval and support. The gold mines of Khoten, the coal of Aksu, and +the zinc of Kucha, are all conspicuous instances of this; as, under all +past, and the recent Mahomedan, rule, they have been most foolishly, but +consistently neglected. + +Nor were those special trades for which Kashgar had in prosperous +moments been renowned, neglected. The leather-dressers of Yarkand and +Aksu, the silk-mercers of Kashgar and Khoten, were never so busy as in +the warlike days of Keen-Lung, and the great mass of the people, the +agricultural class in the villages, was equally prosperous and well +governed. Trade was fostered on all sides, and the conquering power was +content to stand aside and witness the steady progress of its subjects +towards hitherto unattained and unattainable prosperity. + +Lastly, the Chinese directed their attention to the improvement of the +means of communication between one part of the province and another. It +was absolutely necessary to the security of their rule that there should +be an easy and always open road between Ili and Kashgar. Therefore, a +way was cut, at great expense, through the Tian Shan, north of Aksu, and +this pass was known as the Muzart, or Glacier. So difficult was the +country through which it passed, and such the danger from ice-drifts and +snow-storms, that relays of men had to be kept constantly at work in +order to prevent it getting out of repair for a day. The construction of +this road was, in the first place, most expensive, but, perhaps, the +cost of repairing was much more. This, the most striking engineering +achievement of the Chinese, has become practically useless, through +fifteen years of neglect. If China is to regain Ili, it will, no doubt, +be restored. The passes west of this, by the Narym River to Vernoe, and +through Terek to Khokand, were those selected by Yakoob Beg to supply +its place. + +The next object to which the Chinese specially paid attention was the +preservation of their road home to China. Thus the road in Tian Shan Pe +Lu, and the other in Tian Shan Nan Lu, were kept in the most effective +state possible. The former, north of the mountains, passed through Manas +and Urumtsi to Hamil; the latter, south of them, through Aksu and Kucha +to the same place. The alternative route from Kucha to Kashgar and +Yarkand, through Maralbashi, was also much used, more especially, +however, by those who desired to break off at that outpost in the desert +to reach Khoten and Sanju. In each city there was appointed a committee +to superintend the roads in the district, and this Road Board was a +highly important and useful corporation. It was by such measures as +these that the Chinese made their rule a blessing to Kashgar and +Jungaria for more than fifty years. Of course, there was the fiscal side +of these schemes of public utility. Roads could not be opened up and +maintained in order, canals could not be dug, the state could not +administer justice, promote trade, and make itself respected abroad, +without an assured revenue, and this revenue, after the first ten years, +was very productive. + +The principal taxes were the tithe on the produce of the land, called +"_ushr_" and the _zakat_ (fortieth), on merchandise and cattle. Then, in +the cities, there was a house tax, which was essentially, like our own +income tax, a war tax, fluctuating in accordance with the military +necessities, caused by foreign or civil war. From the mines, too, the +state derived a large annual sum, which was generally devoted to some +object of public utility. There was also the tribute money from the +Kirghiz nomads, whose flocks and horses were numbered and taxed at a low +rate, in return for which they were taken under the protection of China. +In addition to these great taxes there were several smaller ones, such +as a fee on fuel sold in the market, and another levy on milch-kine kept +in cities. A writer on Kashgar has said that these "proved a ready means +of oppression, and a prolific source of that discontent which left the +rulers without a single helping hand, or sympathising heart, in the hour +of their distress and destruction." But this assumption of cause and +effect is scarcely just. + +Of course, all taxes can be made a ready means of oppression by the +tax-gatherer, who, in this case, was a Mussulman and fellow-countryman. +But taxes are absolutely necessary to all good government, and when we +consider what China did with her revenue, with what public spirit her +representatives laid it out in plans for the advantage of the state, can +we pronounce an opinion that she imposed unfair burdens on the +subjected race? Moreover, no one denies the prosperity general +throughout Kashgar in those days, a period looked back to with regret by +the inhabitants during the most favoured years of Yakoob Beg's rule. It +is not in accordance with facts, then, to imply that the Chinese ground +Kashgar under them by severe taxation, and whatever petty tyranny there +was, was carried on not by the Khitay Ambans, but by the Mahomedan +Wangs. + +In the hour of distress and destruction the people, indeed, proved +traitorous to their best friends, or, more generally, apathetic; leaving +to the energetic Andijani element within their gates the task of +crossing swords with Buddhist rule, to which the hostility of these +immigrants had always been declared. + +The short-sightedness of the Kashgari played the game of the more +fanatical and ambitious people of Khokand; but the rule of China did not +pass out of Eastern Turkestan until the disturbances of forty years had +generated ill-feeling that formerly was not, and had so embittered the +relations of governing and governed, that what had come to be considered +a lenient and impersonal government, assumed all the darker hues of a +military and foreign despotism. Even then China did not fall until there +was dissension within herself, when, split into three hostile camps, her +sword dropped nerveless from her hand in Central Asia, 2,000 miles away +from her natural border. To follow Chinese rule in Kashgar down to 1820, +is to observe the monotonous course of never varying prosperity. From +that year to 1860, the tale is of a different complexion, less +monotonous but also less satisfactory. + +In 1758 and 1760 Chinese armies entered Khokand. Tashkent fell in the +former year, and the capital in the latter. The Chinese then withdrew, +after imposing a tribute upon Khokand. During the long reign of +Keen-Lung--that is, down to 1795--the tribute was regularly paid. After +that year, however, the payment became irregular, and border warfare of +frequent occurrence between the two neighbours. At last, in 1812, +Khokand, then under an able prince, refused to pay tribute any longer, +and the Chinese acquiesced in the repudiation. Nor did the change in the +relations between China and Khokand stop here; for, a few years +afterwards, the Chinese found it expedient to pay Khokand an annual sum +to keep the Khoja family, whose representatives were residing in +Khokand, from intriguing against them. The amount of the subsidy was +£3,500 of our money. In addition to this, the Khan of Khokand was +permitted to levy a tax on all Mahomedan merchandise sold in Kashgar +through Andijan merchants. This tax was collected by the Aksakals before +mentioned, and was a very profitable source of income for the +impecunious khans. But even these concessions and perquisites did not +satisfy the Mussulmans of Central Asia, who saw in Chinese moderation an +evidence of weakness and decline. The Aksakals, in these years of +Mahomedan revival, became political agents of the greatest importance. +It was they who gave a point to all the discontent there might be in +Kashgar; it was they who attributed to the Chinese the blame for +whatever evils this world is never wholly free from; and it was they who +agitated for the return of the old Khoja kings, who were always +destined, in their eyes, to bring the most perfect happiness. With such +causes at work both within and without their position, the Chinese had +not to wait long before their authority was more openly challenged. + +Sarimsak, the only member of the Khoja family surviving the massacre by +the Chinese, had fled, as a child, into the impenetrable recesses of +Wakhan. From thence, in later years, he had gone to settle in Khokand, +where he married. This prince had three sons--Yusuf, Bahanuddin, and +Jehangir, the youngest and best known. In 1816, the first outbreak +against Chinese authority occurred, when a small rising took place in +Tash Balik, a town to the west of Kashgar. This was speedily put down, +and its leaders executed. It was but the forerunner of the storm. + +In 1822, Jehangir resolved to reassert his claims over Kashgar, and, +while his eldest brother continued to reside in retirement at Bokhara, +he joined the Kara Kirghiz. With a party of these, under the command of +their chief, Suranchi Beg, Jehangir raided up to the city of Kashgar. He +was there repulsed in the suburbs, and compelled to flee. He then joined +the Kirghiz of Bolor round Narym, who were nominally feudatories of +China, and, with their aid, commenced a petty sort of border war. A +small Chinese force was despatched against him, and drove the Kirghiz up +as far as Fort Kurtka. On their return from this successful attack, they +were, however, surprised in one of the defiles, and almost all were +destroyed. This was the first reverse the Chinese had ever met with in +the field, and it was at once bruited about through all parts of Central +Asia. It gave a life to the Khoja cause which it had hitherto lacked, +and adventurers from all parts flocked to the standard Jehangir now +raised on the borders of Kashgar. The Khan of Khokand so far assisted +him as to send him a skilled general, Isa Dadkhwah, and extended over +his cause that protection and sanction which Khokand has ever since +thrown over the Khoja family. + +In the spring of 1826, Jehangir advanced in force against Kashgar, and +the Chinese, despising their assailant, left their fortifications to +encounter him in the open. A battle then ensued, of which the +particulars have not come down to us, but which resulted in the defeat +of the Chinese. Jehangir entered Kashgar in triumph, was received with +acclamations by the people, urged on by the Aksakals, and proclaimed +himself sovereign of the country, under the style of Seyyid Jehangir +Sultan. His first act--the most significant exposure of the true +sentiment of the Kashgarian people there well could be--was to order +the execution of the Mahomedan Wang of Kashgar, by name Mahomed Seyyid. + +The fall of Kashgar was the signal to the Aksakals throughout Altyshahr +to begin that work for which they had been long preparing. In Yangy +Hissar, Yarkand, and Khoten risings at once took place. The Chinese, +surprised and unarmed, were butchered in the streets, and the Gulbaghs, +as the visible token of the foreign rule, were razed with the ground. + +The Gulbagh of Kashgar itself alone held out, but it at last fell, after +sustaining a long siege, into the hands of Jehangir. His triumph +completed, he had to concern himself more with his relations with +Khokand than about the Chinese, who were mysteriously quiet. Mahomed Ali +Khan, of Khokand, who thought that Jehangir's success was solely due to +him, laid claim to a certain historical superiority over his vassal of +Kashgar, to which the Khoja prince was not willing to assent. A large +Khokandian army which had been sent to Kashgar returned, after losing +1,000 men before the walls of the Gulbagh, and its withdrawal was the +signal for plots and counterplots to break out in the palace of the new +ruler. These he promptly repressed, reduced the intriguing general, Isa +Dadkhwah, in rank, and had emancipated himself from his thraldom to +Khokand, when the news came that the Chinese were at last returning. + +Although the western portion of Altyshahr had fallen away from the +Chinese, Aksu and Maralbashi remained true to their allegiance. The +Chinese still possessed the military keys of the country. Moreover, +their possession of Ili gave them an enormous strategical advantage, and +in the Tungan population they possessed an almost inexhaustible supply +for recruiting "revindicating" armies. It is apropos here to state that +China retained both of these advantages down to the time of Buzurg Khan +and Yakoob Beg, and that, so long as she possessed them, the utmost +Mussulman fanaticism and Khokandian patronage of the Khojas could do +was futile against the arrest of fate. During six months Jehangir ruled +in Kashgar, and during six months the Chinese viceroy made his +preparations at Ili for a thorough revenge. An army of more than 100,000 +men, raised from the Tungani, the Calmucks, and the Khitay garrison, was +despatched from Ili, and in January, 1827, entered Aksu. Here all the +brigades were concentrated, and the Viceroy, in conjunction with the +general under him, by name Chang-Lung, drew up the plan of campaign, +which was as follows:--A small army of 12,000 men was sent against +Khoten across the desert through Cày Yoli, while the remainder of the +host advanced on Maralbashi. Here another detachment of 7,000 strong was +directed against Yarkand, while the main body marched on Kashgar by the +banks of the Kizil Su. + +Their advance was unopposed until they reached Yangabad, or Yangiawat, +where Jehangir had concentrated an army computed at 50,000 men, but +probably considerably less. When the armies sighted each other they +pitched their camps in preparation for the decisive contest that was at +hand. In accordance with immemorial custom, each side put forward on the +following day its champion. On the part of the Chinese a gigantic +Calmuck archer opposed on the part of Jehangir an equally formidable +Khokandi. The former was armed with his proper weapons, the latter with +a gun of some clumsy and ancient design, and while the Khokandi was +busily engaged with his intricate apparatus, the Chinese archer shot him +dead with an arrow through the breast. Of course, neither army would +have acquiesced in the decree of the God of Battles as shown by the fate +of its champion, but, in this case, it was true that-- + + "Who spills the foremost foeman's life, + His party conquers in the strife." + +After a sharp, but brief, skirmish, the Kashgarian army withdrew in +confusion, and the following day the Chinese surrounded Kashgar on three +sides. During the night the heart of Jehangir misgave him, and he fled +to the Karatakka mountains. But here the snow had rendered the passes +impracticable, and, after hiding for a few days in that difficult +region, he was captured by the Chinese. His fate was that usually met +with by traitors to that empire, for, being sent to Pekin, he was +executed after torture. In this war Ishac Wang, of Ush Turfan, played a +great part against the Khoja prince, and was rewarded for his good +service by being appointed Wang of Kashgar. The Chinese constructed a +fresh fort, Yangyshahr, in the place of the destroyed Gulbagh, and left +a large Khitay garrison under Jah Darin. But Ishac Wang, who was given +some such title as Prince of Kashgar, was soon afterwards deposed and +recalled to China. + +The Chinese authority was re-established without difficulty in the three +cities, and peace settled down over Eastern Turkestan. But the +repressive and punitive measures that the Chinese felt compelled to +adopt raised a bitterer sentiment in the minds of the people than had +previously existed. The Chinese were, indeed, only employing the same +weapons that had been used against themselves, but none the less did +these reciprocal atrocities dissipate whatever friendship there had +been. Among other acts the Chinese removed 12,000 Mahomedan families +from Kashgar to Ili, and these, destined to play an important part in +the history of that province, became known as Tarantchis, or Toilers. + +The Chinese resolved to punish Khokand as well. They broke off all trade +with that state, and happy would it have been for them if they could +have continued to preserve a closed frontier. But the Khan of that time +was Mahomed Ali Khan, the most ambitious, as he was the ablest, of the +princes of that country. He had just annexed Karategin, and had acquired +some of the outlying provinces of Badakshan, which Mourad Beg, of +Kundus, had absorbed about the same time. It was not probable that he +would put up with the Chinese defiance. He was prudent enough to delay +his advance until the main body of their army had been withdrawn. But, +as soon as he was informed that the Chinese had gone back to Ili, +Mahomed Ali, calling Yusuf, Sarimsak's eldest son, from his retirement +in Bokhara, placed him at the head of an army, under the charge of his +own brother-in-law, Hacc Kuli Beg. The Chinese were worsted at Mingyol, +and all the cities west of Aksu turned against the Chinese, as before, +and proclaimed for Yusuf Khoja. Then the massacres were repeated, and +the invasion of Yusuf was that of Jehangir over again in exact detail. +But Yusuf's triumph was still more brief. Whereas Jehangir had ruled for +nine months, Yusuf only swayed the sceptre for three. + +The Chinese movements were delayed by small Mussulman revolts in Barkul +and Shensi until the spring of 1831, but then, when they returned, they +found that Yusuf and the Khokandian army had retreated some months +before. The facts were that the moment Khokand invaded Kashgar, Bokhara +attacked Khokand, and Hacc Kuli Beg had to be recalled to cope with +matters more pressing than Khoja rights. With the general had gone +Yusuf, far from anxious to encounter the Chinese alone. The return of +the Khokandian army sufficed to dispel all danger from Bokhara, and, a +few months after, Mahomed Ali Khan recommenced operations--in the east +this time--against the Kirghiz under Chinese protection. The Chinese +were thoroughly sick of these petty disputes, and made a treaty with +Khokand, by which that state acquired fresh commercial privileges, in +addition to the old ones, and by which the importance of the Aksakals +rather increased than waned. Mahomed Ali Khan had acquired all he +wanted, and discouraged the Khoja party, as, indeed, the terms of this +treaty compelled him to do. The risings under Jehangir and Yusuf were +undoubtedly a great blow to Chinese prestige. To all appearance each had +nearly been successful, and the Chinese, whose prestige was enormous in +Central Asia--quite as great as that of Russia is now--had been, on one +or two occasions, openly defeated. But, after all, this was a little +matter compared to the shock the sentiments, called into being by sixty +happy years, had received. Between Buddhist and Mussulman, between +Chinaman and Central Asiatic, all the old antipathy was revived in the +butcheries of Yarkand and Kashgar. The Kashgari showed that they could +not appreciate the benefits they had received from China, and the +Chinese, enraged at the slaughter of their countrymen, and, perhaps, +also at the ingratitude evinced towards them, retaliated in kind. They +did not appreciate that moderation, which Europeans have not always +shown under similar circumstances, and wrought out their revenge in +their own ancient fashion. It is absolutely necessary that the reader +should remember that the two rapidly succeeding invasions of Jehangir +and Yusuf form a turning-point in the history of the Chinese rule in +Kashgar. Up to that epoch it is difficult to find words sufficient to do +justice to China's beneficent government there; after that year it would +be absurd to employ the same language. For the change the chief blame +must fall upon the fickle and ungrateful Kashgari themselves, and then +on the intriguing Andijanis. The Chinese are justified, at least, in +saying that, having for more than half a century ruled this people with +justice, they only relaxed in their efforts to promote its well-being +when their unarmed countrymen and soldiers had been surprised and +butchered by thousands. + +Strange, and almost contradictory, as it may appear, there was a brief +respite during which things seemed to have got into their old groove of +happy prosperity; and the chief credit for this must be given to a +Mahomedan sub-governor of the Chinese viceroy. Zuhuruddin, such was his +name, had raised himself to the high post of Amban in Kashgar, a post +never before held by any other than a Khitay. By birth he was of +Kashgar, but he always represented himself as having been born and +brought up in Khokand, where he had been imprisoned for a political +offence. For seven or eight years he governed Kashgar to the perfect +satisfaction both of the people and of the Chinese, and among some of +his public acts may be mentioned the reconstruction of new forts outside +the cities, in the place of those destroyed in the recent revolts. These +were known now as Yangyshahr instead of Gulbagh. But in 1846 +Zuhuruddin's rule was disturbed by hostilities on the part of Khokand +and the Khojas. + +In 1845 Khudayar Khan had been called to the throne after the death of +Mahomed Ali, but his authority was not without its rivals. In the state +of confusion that then ensued, Khokandian adventurers urged the Khoja +princes, who were now represented by the sons of Jehangir, to renew +their old attacks against the Chinese. To these advisers the Khojas +turned a willing ear, and preparations were accordingly made for the +enterprise. At that time Khokand was full of adventurers to whom Mahomed +Ali had been able to give constant employment, but who now under the +more peaceful rule of Khudayar idled their time in the cities of that +khanate. Among these and the ever willing Kirghiz, it was not difficult +for the princes of Kashgar to raise an army, formidable in numbers, if +not remarkable for cohesion. At that time there were seven prominent +Khoja princes in Khokand, of whom we may here mention Eshan Khan, +usually called Katti Torah, Buzurg Khan, and Wali Khan. This inroad did +not take its name from any one of these, but from them all combined; +thus it was distinguished as Haft Khojagan, or that of the Seven Khojas. + +With his brothers and relations and a considerable following, Katti +Torah advanced upon Kashgar, always the first object of these invaders, +which fell after a siege of thirteen days through treachery. This was +the only success they achieved; the other cities would have nothing to +do with them; and after two months' indulgence in unbridled licence the +Chinese beat them in a fight at Kok Robat, and drove them out of the +country. For the first time there was an air of ridicule thrown over +these Khoja invasions in the eyes of the Kashgari, while the outrages +they had committed during their brief stay had raised bitterer feelings +still. Zuhuruddin, who fell under the displeasure of the Chinese, was +removed from his post, and fresh Ambans, once more Khitay, were +appointed. For nine years the Khojas remained passive, but in 1855 Wali +Khan and his brother Kichik Khan, began to bustle once more on the +Kashgarian frontier. It was not until 1857 that Wali Khan succeeded in +forcing the advanced guard of pickets maintained in the passes by the +Chinese, but having accomplished that his triumph was rapid. Kashgar +fell into his possession by a _coup de main_, and once more a Khoja +prince was seated in the _orda_ at Kashgar. Artosh and Yangy Hissar fell +into his possession, and he threatened Yarkand. But everywhere the +Chinese garrisons remained unconquered in the forts, biding the +exhaustion of their foe and the arrival of reinforcements. After a rule +of nearly four months the armies of Wali Khan having been then defeated +by the Chinese, the Khoja fled to the remote state of Darwas, where he +was surrendered to Khokand by its chief Ismail Shah. This ruler, the +most tyrannical, bloodthirsty, and licentious of all the Khojas, met the +fate which he deserved long afterwards at the hands of Yakoob Beg. His +temporary tenure of power is still remembered with dread by the people, +who consider him to have been the most incarnate monster who ever held +the destinies of their country in his hand. The Chinese were more severe +in their punitive measures after this campaign than they had been after +any other, but, notwithstanding the part Khudayar and his people had +played in Wali Khan's affair, the old relations between "these +incompatible people," as Dr. Bellew aptly calls them, were restored. +After this event there was but one minor disturbance caused by an inroad +of Kirghiz nomads, headed by the sons of one of the principal victims of +Chinese vengeance, but this had no political importance. + +The invasion of Wali Khan was the last of those Khoja expeditions which +took place prior to the Tungan revolt. In the thirty-two years that +elapsed from the date of Jehangir's attempt to that of his son, there +had in all been four of them. That of Jehangir himself being the first; +of his elder brother Yusuf, the second; of Yusuf's eldest son, Katti +Torah, the third; and of Jehangir's second son, Wali, the fourth. Not +one of these is in any sense noteworthy, except for the crimes with +which it was attended, and none of them did more than inflict an untold +amount of misery and suffering on their own followers, as well as on the +people they claimed to represent by right divine. It may also be noticed +that with each enterprise there was a decline in moral character. Thus +Jehangir was infinitely the best of them in every sense, and ruled +fairly according to his lights. His brother Yusuf was of a more timid +mind, but evidently not less imbued with some notion as to the sanctity +of his mission. But from these to Katti Torah is a long descent. That +prince seemed to aspire to securing his personal comfort and enjoyment +alone, and disregarded all his subjects' complaints at the arbitrary +rule of his deputies. But Wali Khan, the next of these Khoja kings from +"over the mountains," excelled his cousin in vice, and tyranny, and +utter want of purpose, not to speak of honour, quite as much as Katti +Torah surpassed their sires. Nor can there be much hesitation in saying, +from what Buzurg Khan did during the few months he held power, that, had +not Yakoob Beg clipped his flight, he would have surpassed Wali Khan in +his own peculiar vices. The reader will scarcely be disposed to take +much interest in this irredeemable family, mad with the insanity of +wickedness. But in justice to the Chinese, and to Yakoob Beg, it is only +right that the rivals of the former should be made to appear in their +true colours. All the sanctity that a peculiarly venerable descent from +Hazrat Afak could give; all the stories told of the good deeds of some +of their ancestors; all the affection that naturally attaches to a +native rule, and all the dislike that must undermine a foreign, be it +never so beneficent; all these things were destroyed by the weakness and +ill success that attended the first two Khojas, and by the cruelty, +indifference, and licentiousness that marked the last two. When Buzurg +Khan came he found loyalty to the Khoja the heirloom of a few families, +not of a people. + +Had the Chinese restrained their vindictive feelings after the war with +Jehangir, and proclaimed a free pardon to every one save the Khokandis, +and then devoted their attention with the old vigour to peaceful +pursuits, we believe that the Chinese rule would have been permanently +secured. At that moment the Chinese were strong enough to have defied +Khokand, and to have broken off all intercourse with that state. By +dismissing the Aksakals, and severing the connection between the two +states, the Chinese would have dispelled a danger that was for forty +years to be ever before them, and, in the end, when the Tungani also +rose, was to overcome them. Even clemency after Yusuf's inroad, which +was really caused by the Chinese repressions, might not have been wholly +in vain, and would have consolidated their position, when reinvigorated +by Zuhuruddin's tenure of power. But the Chinese did not appreciate the +quality of mercy. They could be just and impartial in the ordinary +avocations of life, but to those who revolted against their authority +they showed no trace of human feeling. For a man to rebel against them +was certain death; for a people, history tells us, the fate was not far +different. Nor in dealing with such did they hesitate to supplement +their military strength by the most despicable of artifices. Garrisons, +accorded honourable terms, ruthlessly butchered; princes, who threw +themselves on their mercy, deported to Pekin to be hanged or tortured +out of life: these are frequent occurrences in the history of China, and +of her career in Central Asia the tale is identical. Yet, while drawing +a veil over these blots on an otherwise brilliant surface, should we not +desire to conceal them wholly from the view. It is necessary that they +should be stated to understand what Chinese domination means as a whole; +of its great benefits there can be no doubt, if the people will remain +quiescent. For fifty years, or for five hundred, China will rule an +unmurmuring people with justice, and lead them into the paths of +prosperity and peace; but if they rebel, if they openly defy authority, +if they invite a hostile stranger within their borders, the punishment +will be as sweeping, as cruel, and, in one and a higher sense, as +wrongfully foolish, whether the association of the races may have been +for fifty years or five centuries, as it was in the case of Kashgar. +There is not much reason for hoping that China will deviate from her +ancient custom, on the occasion now transpiring, of demanding "an eye +for an eye" and "a tooth for a tooth." + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE BIRTH OF YAKOOB BEG AND CAREER IN THE SERVICE OF KHOKAND. + + +We have now traced the history of Kashgar and of the neighbouring states +down to the year 1860, immediately before the last Khoja invasion under +Buzurg Khan, and the Kooshbege, Mahomed Yakoob. Before giving an account +of that enterprise it is necessary that the reader should know what the +past career of the future Athalik Ghazi had been. The previous chapters +have, it is hoped, thrown some light on the state of Central Asia, and +will assist the student of the question in comprehending how it was that +Yakoob Beg achieved success, and what claims he may have to be +considered a great ruler, for having done a work that is unique in the +annals of modern Asia. + +Mahomed Yakoob was born in or about the year 1820, in the flourishing +little town of Piskent, in the khanate of Khokand. His father, Pur +Mahomed Mirza, had, at various periods of his life, filled positions of +responsibility in the government of the towns in which he resided. Thus, +a native of Dihbid, near Samarcand, he had migrated to Khodjent, in the +reign of Mahomed Ali Khan, with the intention of entering the priestly +order. There, although he enrolled himself as a student in a religious +seminary, for some reason or other, he appears to have changed his mind, +and, instead of entering the Church, turned his attention to secular +affairs. He was soon made Kazi of Kurama, a district and town of +Khokand, and married a lady of that place. By this marriage he had one +son, Mahomed Arif, who has since filled several posts of trust in +Kashgar, notably that of Governor of Sirikul; but of late this +half-brother of Yakoob Beg seems to have been, either for incompetence +or some other reason, under a cloud. Pur Mahomed, or Mahomed Latif, as +he was more usually called, changed his residence from Kurama to +Piskent, about the year 1818, and he shortly after his settlement in his +new abode married again, his second wife being the sister of Sheik +Nizamuddin, the Kazi of Piskent. Yakoob Beg was the issue of this +marriage. The family of Yakoob Beg's father seems originally to have +come from Karategin, on the borders of Badakshan, but in the time of the +Usbeg conquest of that district the father of Mahomed Latif, then an +infant, took refuge in Khokand. It is uncertain whether Mahomed Latif +was born before their arrival at Dihbid or afterwards; and it is now +asserted that he claimed descent from Tamerlane. Whether this was a +claim brought forward when his son was advancing in the world or not, it +is impossible to test its accuracy. The parents of Yakoob Beg were +therefore not without some pretensions, and it would seem that the bad +fortune, from which for some generations they had been suffering, was +beginning to disappear before the ability of Yakoob Beg raised it to a +higher point than ever. In addition to the claims of his father and +grandfather as Kazis of an important community, a sister of Yakoob Beg +married Nar Mahomed Khan, Governor of Tashkent; and, as we shall see +later on, this connection was very instrumental in promoting the +interests of the youthful Yakoob. + +Piskent, Pskent, or Bis-kent, as it is sometimes spelt, is still a +flourishing little community, fifty miles south of Tashkent, on the road +to Khodjent. Its inhabitants are a thrifty, good-tempered set of people, +who take great pride in the fact that the great Athalik Ghazi, the +supporter of Islam, and the reputed terror of the Russians, was one of +themselves. In this little settlement there are many Tajiks, and this, +doubtless, with other reasons, induced Mahomed Latif, a Tajik himself, +to take up his abode there. To the east of Piskent the mountains begin +to rise, which stretch onward until they become the Tian Shan and the +Kizilyart ranges, and in these elevated regions the Tajik descendants +muster in strong numbers. The Tajiks are Persian in their origin, and +consequently of the Aryan stock, in contradistinction to the Turk or +Tartar ruling class in Western Turkestan. They have, however, for so +many generations been restricted to a limited career in the organization +of the state, that, quite unjustly as it is, they have come to be +regarded as an inferior race. English writers have fallen into this +mistake, and have accepted as correct the definition given by the Turks +of this subject race. As a matter of fact the contrary holds true, and +the Tajik is superior to any of his masters in point of mental capacity. +They are represented to still retain the fine presence and long flowing +beards which distinguish those of Aryan blood from their Tartar +opposite; and in height and strength they quite eclipse every other race +of Central Asia. It was of this race that Yakoob Beg was the +representative, and, although the greater part of his life was passed in +ruling nations almost exclusively Tartar, some of the more prominent +among his supporters, as well as the flower of his army, boasted that +they, too, represented that master race, whose birth-place was to be +found in the Indian Caucasus. The Tajiks still speak a Persian dialect, +and their Iranian origin is thereby rendered almost indisputable. + +Mahomed Yakoob's early years were passed at his home at Piskent, and it +is said that it was intended that he should follow the profession which +his father had repudiated. As a youth he was too wayward to submit to +any check on his impulses, and the design of educating him as a +"mollah," if it was ever seriously entertained, was abandoned long +before he arrived at man's estate. He appears to have passed the first +twenty years of his life in an idle, uneventful manner at Piskent, and +then suddenly to have resolved to seek his fortune as best he might in +the troubled waters of Khokandian politics. In 1845, we find him in the +train of the newly seated khan, Khudayar, as "mahram," or chamberlain, +and shortly afterwards, by the influence of his brother-in-law, the +Governor of Tashkent, nominated a Pansad Bashi, a commander of 500. This +was in 1847, about which year he married a Kipchak lady of Zuelik, a +village in the district of Ak Musjid. He had three sons, of whom we +shall hear more hereafter, by this marriage--Kooda Kul Beg, Kuli Beg, +and Hacc Kuli Beg. Later on, in the year 1847, he was raised to the rank +of Koosh-Bege, or "lord of the family"--more intelligibly described as +vizier--and entrusted with the charge of the important post on the Syr +Darya, called Ak Musjid, "White Mosque." This post he held with credit +for six years, until 1853, when the Russians commenced that forward +movement, of which we have not yet seen the close. At that time, Russia +had not acquired one of the numerous strategic points now in her +possession. The Syr Darya then was as far off from her frontier as the +Oxus is now. Ak Musjid, built in the lower reaches of the river, and +representing a Khokandian outpost of exceptional importance, was the +grand obstacle in the path of the Russians operating from Kazalinsk, at +the mouth of the Syr Darya. It was resolved, therefore, that this post, +which, doubtless, encouraged all the marauders in the neighbourhood to +continue their depredations against the Russian caravans, should be +wrested from the hands of its owners, and either razed to the ground or +converted into a Russian stronghold. General Perovsky was entrusted with +this undertaking. The distance from Kazalinsk, or Fort No. 1, to Ak +Musjid is not much over 200 miles, along the banks of the Syr Darya. Not +many commissariat arrangements were necessary, nor did the distance to +march require much time to delay the Russian officer in beginning his +operations against the fort. The army with which he appeared before the +walls may not have been large in numbers when compared with the armies +of modern times, but, in all that makes a disciplined force formidable, +it was exceptionally well supplied. The artillery was in greater +strength than is usually considered necessary, and the expedition was +still more efficient in engineers and cavalry. The garrison of Ak Musjid +was, on the other hand, ill supplied, both in provisions and in +ammunition, and the fort itself presented, neither in its position nor +in its construction, any feature that an engineer officer would have +considered calculated to make it capable of sustaining the attack of +artillery for twenty-four hours. The Russian lines were constructed in +the most approved method; but twice were their approaches destroyed, and +twice their mines counter-mined. During twenty-six days the Russian +bombardment was fast and furious, and during all that time the +Khokandian defence was stubborn and persistent. But all the efforts of +the garrison to break through the beleaguering lines were unavailing, +and after so long a cannonade little more resistance could be expected +from ramparts which were pierced in several places by wide and gaping +breaches. The resolute commandant, who had done everything required by +the most exacting code of military honour, confessed that there was +nothing to be gained by a continued defence, and as it was known that +the Russians were making preparations for an early assault, a messenger +was despatched without delay to the Russian commander, expressing the +willingness of the garrison to capitulate on honourable terms. General +Perovsky, who had expected an easy triumph here, and possibly some more +extended triumph in farther regions, was indignant at the resistance +opposed to him by a paltry place like Ak Musjid, and received the +messenger from the fort with ill-concealed impatience. Scarcely +bestowing any attention on the letter, couched in humble terms as it +was, of the commandant, General Perovsky petrified the astonished +emissary with the declaration that on the morrow the fort would be taken +by assault. This arbitrary assertion of his power, which was carried +into practice, of course successfully, the next day, on an occasion when +magnanimity ought to have been shown by the successful general, does not +redound to the credit of the officer in question, and throws an +instructive light on the latitude left to Russian generals in their +instructions, and on the opinion felt for Central Asiatics by the +civilizing representatives of the White Czar. To say that General +Perovsky was urged to this act of gratuitous tyranny by a desire to +obtain a cross of either St. Anne or St. George, is, after all, only to +magnify the offence, and that Ak Musjid has taken the name of its +conqueror, Fort Perovsky, is the means of perpetuating, not his fame, +but his infamy, and the courageous conduct of the defenders. In the +winter following its fall Yakoob Beg, with Sahib Khan, brother of the +Khan of Khokand, attempted to retake the fort, but the _coup_ proved +abortive, and the Russians have never receded from their new +acquisition. + +Khudayar Khan had been elevated to the throne of Khokand in 1845, by the +energy of Mussulman Kuli, a Kipchak chief, of singular astuteness, and +aptitude for business. During his tenure of the post of Wazir, Khokand +was peacefully and beneficently governed; but, as on every similar +occasion in Central Asia, the ruler soon became jealous of the +popularity acquired by his minister, although his own position was in +reality confirmed by the wise measures of the very man to whom he had +conceived a covert hostility. So with Khudayar Khan, the effeminate, and +his minister, Mussulman Kuli, in the decade of which we are now +speaking; as with Buzurg Khan, the debauchee, but correct representative +of the Khojas, and his general and vizier, the Kooshbege, Mahomed +Yakoob, in the following. In 1858, Mussulman Kuli was seized by order of +Khudayar Khan, and barbarously murdered; and from that occurrence the +decadence of this unfortunate ruler of Khokand can be traced until, at +last, he became a mere pensioner on the bounty of the Russians. Although +Yakoob Beg became, to a certain extent, notorious for his gallant +defence of Ak Musjid, it would appear, from his being styled after that +event simply "Mir," or chief, that he had sunk in grade in his official +status. It is probable that the chief cause of this was his failure to +retake it, and not his ill success in defending it. He was, however, +entrusted with the charge of the Kilaochi fort, a post which he held +down to the murder of Mussulman Kuli. + +Khudayar Khan had an elder brother, Mullah Khan, who had been passed +over by Mussulman Kuli, when the state was put in order after the +dissensions that arose on the death of the great ruler, Mahomed Ali. +Now, on the death of Mussulman Kuli, who had given vitality to the +régime of Khudayar, Mullah Khan and his partisans began to intrigue once +more. Several Kipchak and Kirghiz leaders joined his cause, and Yakoob +Beg at once became one of his most active supporters. Khudayar Khan was +deposed, and retired into temporary seclusion. For his services to the +new ruler Yakoob Beg was made Shahawal, an officer corresponding to a +chamberlain or court intendant. He was soon restored to his old rank of +Kooshbege, and appointed governor of the frontier fort of Kurama, the +same place of which his father had been Kazi. And in 1860 he came still +more to the front, when he was summoned to Tashkent to assist Kanaát +Shah, the Nahib of Khokand, in making preparations in case the Russians, +who had for some time seemed to be threatening Khokand, should cross the +frontier. Mullah Khan was murdered at this time, having held the reins +of power but for the brief space of two years, and Khudayar Khan emerged +from his hiding place. He was welcomed both by Kanaát Shah and Yakoob +Beg; and in return for their support he consented to forget the past. +Yakoob Beg, as his reward, received the governorship of Kurama. It was +during these troubles that Alim Kuli, a Kirghiz chieftain, appeared upon +the scene. He possessed many of the attributes that distinguished his +predecessor Mussulman Kuli, and his successor, in the eyes of the +people, Yakoob Beg. He had undoubtedly a great capacity for intrigue, +but was inferior to the former in administrative capacity, and to the +latter in military skill. He now set Shah Murad, grandson of Shere Ali +Khan, up as a claimant to the throne, and was speedily joined by Yakoob +Beg, who once more abandoned the cause of Khudayar Khan, who, it must be +remembered, had always treated Yakoob Beg in a friendly way, and who in +their early days had been his boon companion. This conspiracy was +unsuccessful, and Yakoob Beg, who had yielded up Khodjent, with the +defence of which he had been entrusted by Alim Kuli, on the approach of +the forces of Khudayar Khan, took refuge in Bokhara. Here he was +favourably received, and resided as a noble attached to the court. In +1863 the Ameer of Bokhara, Muzaffur Eddin, marched a large army into +Khokand for the purpose of restoring his brother-in-law, Khudayar, to +the throne, for he had again been deposed by the intrigues of Alim Kuli; +Yakoob Beg accompanied this force, and once more appears, for the last +time, on the troubled arena of Khokandian politics. The Bokhariot army +was soon recalled, and Khudayar Khan was left to face the difficulties +of his position unaided. In a few months an arrangement was come to +between Alim Kuli and Yakoob Beg and other leading nobles against +Khudayar. Sultan Murad, who had first been supported and then murdered +by Alim Kuli, having been thus effectually removed, this king-maker had +set up Sultan Seyyid in his place. Yakoob Beg so far profited by this +new confederacy that he was restored to his old offices and +perquisites, and sent once more to hold his former post as governor of +Kurama. He collected as many allies as he was able, and brought them +with him to assist in the capture of Khodjent. On this important town +being secured the regent Alim Kuli passed through Kurama on his way to +seize and settle the capital, Tashkent. He appointed a connection of his +own, Hydar Kuli, with the title of Hudaychi, as governor of Kurama, and +took Yakoob Beg in his train to Tashkent. Shortly after their arrival at +Tashkent, news came of the Russian occupation of Tchimkent, and the +survivors of the force driven out by Tchernaief soon appeared with a +confirmation of the intelligence. This was in April, 1864, and until +October of that year, when the Russians appeared before the town, Yakoob +Beg was engaged in strengthening the fortifications of the capital. When +the army of General Tchernaief did appear in the neighbourhood, Yakoob +Beg, with a rashness that cannot be too strongly condemned, went forth +to encounter it in the open. As might have been expected, the Russians +were victorious, and Yakoob Beg was compelled to seek refuge with his +shattered forces within the walls of Tashkent. The Russians themselves +had suffered some loss, and either awed by the bold demeanour of their +old antagonist, or, as is more probable, encountering some difficulty in +bringing up supplies, and being unprovided with a siege train, thought +the more prudent policy would be to retire to Tchimkent until +reinforcements and other necessaries should arrive. Alim Kuli, in the +course of a few days after this reverse, arrived at Tashkent in person +with a large body of troops, and employed all his energies in +strengthening the defences before the return of the Russians. It is very +certain that on this occasion, the first on which Yakoob Beg had a +command of any consequence, he permitted his natural impetuosity to get +the better of his discretion, and that it was the height of madness on +his part to enter into an engagement in the open with the disciplined +and formidable forces of Tchernaief, when, by leaving that general to +undertake the siege of Tashkent, he might have had it in his power to +inflict a serious, and for the time conclusive, blow against the +Russians when the reinforcing army of Alim Kuli came up. With half his +army discouraged by defeat, Alim Kuli found himself restricted to a +policy of inaction, through the over-hastiness of his lieutenant. The +Russians did not return until after the departure of Yakoob Beg for +Kashgar, but when they did they found that Alim Kuli had made every +preparation in his power to receive them. On the first occasion they +were again forced to retreat after a skirmish which the Khokandians +claim as a victory; but in 1865 they appeared before the walls in +greater force. Alim Kuli, with a gathering vastly superior in numbers to +the Russians, attacked them a few miles to the north of Tashkent, and +the fortunes of the day hung in the balance, until the fall of Alim +Kuli, who, whilst boldly leading a charge of Kirghiz cavalry, was +pierced in the chest by a musket ball. He was carried from the field by +a faithful officer, and expired that night in Tashkent. Alim Kuli +appears to have been actuated to some extent by a disinterested +patriotism, as much as by more personal motives. With his fall, and the +departure of Yakoob Beg for another sphere of operations, all hope of a +continued state of independence for Khokand was dissipated. After this +severe defeat the Russians laid close siege to Tashkent. The Khokandians +in their distress applied to Bokhara for aid, and the Russians hastened +to occupy Chinaz to intercept it. The Bokhariot army was routed by the +Russian army under General Romanoffski at the battle of Irjar, in May, +1866, eleven months after Tashkent had been occupied by Tchernaief. It +was during this period of anarchy, with a hostile Russian and an allied +Bokhariot force on his soil, that Khudayar Khan once more supplanted the +nominee of Alim Kuli, Sultan Seyyid, and at the close of the campaign +Khudayar was left in possession of the southern portion of Khokand. This +Khan appears to have been of an unambitious nature, for, during his +various exiles, he devoted himself to private business with an energy he +had never shown in the management of the public affairs, and when he at +last sank into private life and became a pensioner of the Russian Court, +on the complete annexation of his state, he is said to have acquired not +only a happiness, but many virtues unknown to him in his more elevated +lot. The unfortunate Sultan Seyyid, after wandering for some years out +of Khokand, was, when he ventured to return in 1871, executed. Many of +the partisans of Seyyid on the defeat by the Russians, and on the +overthrow of his rivals by Khudayar, sought refuge in the mountains of +the Kizilyart, whence they proceeded to join Yakoob Beg in Kashgar, +where they arrived at a most opportune moment as will be seen. + +To return to Yakoob Beg. After his defeat before Tashkent he was +employed under Alim Kuli in repairing the defences of that town and +collecting troops from the whole district, but his reputation had been +lowered by that reverse. There was a certain jealousy between the +Kirghiz chief and the Tajik soldier of fortune. Yakoob Beg saw in Alim +Kuli an obstacle to his further promotion, and Alim Kuli recognized in +the Kooshbege a possible rival and successor. Any excuse therefore to +keep Yakoob Beg in the background, or indeed to get rid of him +altogether, would be very welcome to Alim Kuli. We hear little more of +the unsuccessful general until his departure for Kashgar a few months +afterwards. He had to wipe out in other regions and against other foes +the stain he had incurred in his encounters with the Russians. + +While these events were in progress at Tashkent, an envoy arrived there +from Sadic Beg, a Kirghiz prince on the frontiers of Ili and Kashgar. He +brought intelligence that his master had availed himself of the +dissensions among the Chinese, to seize the city of Kashgar, and he +requested the Khan of Khokand to send him the heir of the Khojas, in +order that he might place him on the throne. As the facts really stood, +Sadic Beg had only laid siege to Kashgar, and, finding that he was met +with a strenuous resistance, had recourse to the plan of setting up a +Khoja king to strengthen his failing efforts, but of the true state of +affairs in Kashgar it is evident that everybody in Tashkent was +primarily ignorant. The Khokandian policy had always been, however, to +maintain their interests intact in Eastern Turkestan, and to weaken in +every possible way the credit of the Chinese. An envoy bringing news of +a fresh revolt in Kashgar was, therefore, sure of a friendly reception +at Tashkent, even if he did not return with some more striking tokens of +amity. But on this occasion the danger from Russian movements was so +close at hand, and all the efforts of the state were so concentrated in +preparations for defence, that Alim Kuli, whatever he may have thought +of its prospects, and however much he may have sympathized with its +object, was unable to give the Kirghiz emissary any aid in his +enterprise. When, however, Buzurg Khan, the only surviving son of +Jehangir Khan, either of his own free will, or instigated, as some say, +by Yakoob Beg, offered to assert his claims on Kashgar, Alim Kuli +expressed his approval of the design, and gave his moral assistance so +far as was compatible with no active participation therein. He, however, +gave Buzurg Khan the services of Kooshbege Mahomed Yakoob to act as his +commander-in-chief, or Baturbashi. Thus did Alim Kuli free himself from +his troublesome subordinate, and despatched on an errand which seemed +likely to end in disgrace and defeat, but which really led to empire, +the only native whom he dreaded as being capable of supplanting him. + +Yakoob Beg had up to this point given little promise of future +distinction. He had, indeed, earned the reputation of being a gallant +soldier, if a not very prudent one; and in the intrigues that had marked +the history of his state for twenty years, he had borne his fair share. +But no one would have dreamt of prognosticating that he possessed the +ability necessary to win campaigns against superior forces, and then to +erect a powerful state on the ruins that fell into his possession. The +most favourable opinion would have been, that he would have died +manfully as a soldier, and as a true Mussulman. When he embarked in the +enterprise of conquering Kashgar, he was no longer in the first flush of +youth, but was a man who covered his fiery spirit and great ambition +with a cloak of religious zeal and diplomatic apathy. Twenty years' +experience in the most intriguing court in Central Asia had placed every +muscle at his complete command, and even in the most disastrous moments +in his career, he is always represented as being calm and +collected--calm in his belief in Kismut, and collected in a persuasion +of his own resources. One fact that will account for the slowness with +which he advanced into notoriety is that he was entirely dependent on +his own capacity for promotion. He had no wealth, no large following, +and in the two leaders, Kipchak and Kirghiz, Mussulman and Alim Kuli, he +had competitors of almost equal merit with himself, while they each +possessed personal power and family connections that placed them far +beyond the reach of the hardy soldier and court chamberlain. Some of his +detractors had availed themselves of his impecuniosity to circulate +stories of his having had dealings with the Russians; but these, +although invested with circumstances originating in non-Russian +quarters, are probably without any truth. The chief charge, to be taken +for what it is worth, is, that the weakness of his defence of the Ak +Musjid district, after the fall of the fort, was owing to his having +received a large bribe from the Russians. Another is, that in 1863, +after his return from Bokhara, he neglected to retard the Russian +movements for a pecuniary consideration. In both cases the sum mentioned +is very large; and besides the apparent falseness of these rumours, we +have only to consider that he was not worth a bribe, and that his +opposition to the Russians was marked by all the want of foresight of +religious zeal. All these considerations make such rumours appear in +their true light; and although we are aware that a follower of Yakoob +Beg confirmed, if he did not originate, these charges, it seems to us +that the Russians, if there had been truth in the report, would long ago +have placed the fact before the peoples of Asia, and required Yakoob Beg +when Ameer of Kashgar to have acted in a more friendly way towards his +former employers. But the simple reason that Yakoob Beg could not have +rendered any service to the Russians worth the thousands of pounds he is +said to have received, ought to demolish the whole fabrication. If +Yakoob Beg's life proves one thing more than another, it was that he was +a most fanatical Mussulman, and as such hating the Russians, as the most +formidable enemy of Islam, with the most intense hate his fiery nature +was capable of. This man's whole life must have been the greatest +hypocrisy if he was not genuine in his religious intolerance, and that +intolerance rendered any connivance with Russian measures an +impossibility. Owing to his early connection with the church, and his +maternal grandfather's high position therein, Yakoob Beg was always +distinguished for the strict orthodoxy of his views. Through all his +life he seems to have made it his chief object to keep the church on his +side. When he was reduced to the most desperate straits in his after +life in Kashgar, when some of the most faithful of his followers fell +off from him, and when even Buzurg Khan, the man whom he had placed upon +a throne, declared him a rebel and a traitor, he never lost heart so +long as the ministers of the church held by him; and, on the other +hand, they, recognizing the fidelity of their champion, supported him +through good and ill repute. Whilst residing at Bokhara "the holy" he +had attached to his person several of the most distinguished preachers +of Islam throughout Asia, and he had taken all the vows that give a +peculiar sanctity to the relations that connect the layman with his +priest. It was here that he publicly announced his intention of going on +pilgrimage to Mecca; an intention which he repeated on several occasions +during his rule of Kashgar, but was obliged, by the position and +precarious existence of that state, always to perform by deputy. When he +had established himself as ruler, his first measure was to re-enforce +the Shariàt and to endow several shrines that had been erected to the +memory of the chief Khoja saints. It was by such means that he at every +crisis of his life had striven to make his interests identical with +those of his religion, and when he became a responsible and successful +prince his past life stood him in such good stead, that he easily came +to be regarded throughout Asia as the most faithful and redoubtable +supporter of Islam. + +At this period of his life he is described by one who knew him as being +of a short but stoutish build, with a keenly intelligent and handsome +countenance. He had, during the vicissitudes of his career in Khokand, +been so often near assassination, or execution, that the result of the +morrow had, to all external appearance, become a matter of secondary +consideration to him, and his features, schooled to immobility by a long +career of court intrigue, appeared to the casual observer dull and +uninteresting. When, however, the conversation turned on subjects that +specially interested him, such as the advance of Russia, the future of +Islam, or the policy of England, he threw aside his mask, and became at +once a man whose views, with some merit in themselves, were rendered +almost convincing by the singular charm of his voice and manner. He was +honourably distinguished at all times by the simplicity of his dress, +and his freedom from the pretension and love of show characteristic of +most Asiatics; and at the very highest point of his power he was only a +soldier, occupying a palace. As was well said of Timour, the Athalik +Ghazi placed the "foot of courage in the stirrup of patience," and he +evidently set himself to copy the great lessons of military success that +might be learnt from the careers of Genghis Khan, Timour, and Baber. +Such is some account of the commander-in-chief to the expedition of +Buzurg Khan. The Khoja, himself, was a man about the same age as his +lieutenant, but in every other respect as different as he well could be. +Personally a coward, fond of show and every kind of luxury, and of the +treacherous, fickle nature that marked his race, he had done nothing +during his past life to compensate for the want of the most ordinary +virtues. Although he participated in the expedition of Wali Khan, he +showed no possession of merit, and in the subsequent occupation that the +Khojas maintained in Kashgar during a few weeks, he, perhaps more than +any other of his kinsmen, disgusted the people by his open and unbridled +licentiousness. Such were the two men who, in the latter days of 1864, +set out from Tashkent for the recovery of a kingdom. Of their chances of +success few would have ventured then to predict a settlement in their +favour; none, certainly, such as was obtained by Yakoob Beg. It is now +time for us to relate how they fared in Eastern Turkestan. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE INVASION OF KASHGAR BY BUZURG KHAN AND YAKOOB BEG. + + +The Chinese were on several occasions, as we have seen, threatened in +Eastern Turkestan by the pretensions of the Khojas, and the secret or +open machinations of Khokand. But they had at all times triumphed over +every combination of circumstances, so long as they themselves were +united. The temporary success of Jehangir Khan was obliterated by the +excesses which characterized his occupation of the country, and by the +energy and large display of force, with which the Chinese pacified the +state on his flight; and the last, under Wali Khan, can scarcely be +dignified by any other appellation than that of a marauding incursion. +But a great and important change had occurred in the few years that had +elapsed since 1859. The Chinese no longer presented a collected force to +the onslaught of an assailant. In every quarter of their empire, +victorious rebels had established themselves, and had detracted in an +immeasurable degree from the effective strength of the Government. A +Mahomedan ruler swayed over the Panthays, in Yunnan, from his capital at +Ta-li-foo; the Taepings round Nankin were at the summit of their career, +just before the appearance of Colonel Gordon, when, in 1862, a fresh +danger broke out in the provinces of Kansuh and Shensi. From a remote +period there had been extensive Mussulman settlements in these +provinces, and so early as the seventeenth century they had been the +cause of trouble to the great Kanghi. The Emperor Keen-Lung, indeed, at +one time attempted to settle the question for ever by ordering the +massacre of every Mahomedan over fifteen years of age. Even this +sweeping measure did not have the desired effect, and whether +persecution was the means or not of giving vitality to the cause, it is +certain that they had become more numerous, more resolute, and more +confident in their own superiority to the other Chinese by the middle of +the present century. These Mahomedans were known as Tungani, Dungani, or +Dungans, while the Buddhist Chinese are spoken of as Khitay. Many +writers are not satisfied with this simple explanation of the name +Tungani, and will have it that they were a distinct race, who were +either transported to China at some period of Chinese conquest, or were +compelled to seek refuge there by some advancing barbarian horde. They +even assert that they can trace the name and origin of this people to a +tribe dwelling in the country of the lower waters of the Amoor; but +while there is complete uncertainty on the subject it seems simpler to +accept the signification that the word Tungani conveys to the Chinese, +and that is Mahomedan. We know, for certain, that these people had +resided in Kansuh and its neighbouring province for centuries--that they +were remarkable for a superiority in strength and activity over the +Khitay, and that they possessed the virtues of sobriety and honesty. +They were also not infected by the disease of opium smoking, and we +should imagine them to have been a quiet, contented, and agreeable +people at their most prosperous period. Their physical superiority to +the Khitay would probably be owing to their abstention from "bang" and +opium, and we need not suppose that they were the descendants of a +stronger race, who had issued from the frigid north, when we have an +explanation so much simpler and more natural at hand. They were found by +their Khitay rulers to form excellent soldiers, policemen, and other +Government servants, such as carriers, &c. In this last employment many +found their way to Hamil, thence to Turfan and Urumtsi, and their +numbers were increased by discharged soldiers, who remained as military +settlers sooner than return to Kansuh. In the course of a few +generations their numbers became much greater, until, at last, in the +cities we have named, they formed the majority of the inhabitants. In +Kuldja, too, they were very numerous, but south of the Tian Shan they do +not seem to have advanced westward of Kucha in any great force. At Aksu +the Andijan influence, supreme in Western Kashgar, presented an +impassable barrier to the Tungani, who, it must be remembered, had no +sympathy with Khokand. The Tungani were, therefore, Mahomedan subjects +of China, originating in Kansuh, but who had also, in the course of +time, spread westward into Chinese Turkestan and Jungaria. They were +employed in the service of the country without restriction, nor can we +find that they were subjected to any unfair usage, after the measures +taken against them in the earlier days of Keen-Lung. They may not have +been as highly favoured as the Sobo tribes, and they may have been +subjected to some ridicule in Kansuh; but in Jungaria they were on an +equality with all the other Chinese, and immeasurably better placed in +the political scale than the Andijanis or Tarantchis. The Chinese had +just grounds for believing that no danger to their rule in Eastern +Turkestan or Jungaria would ever be caused by the Tungani, and it is not +easy to explain how their reasonable anticipations were falsified. The +Tungani were fervent, if not the most orthodox in form of, Mahomedans, +and it would appear that they were not free from a belief in their own +superiority to the Khitay. This feeling was fostered by the "mollahs," +or priests, who became very active within the Chinese dominions, when +these had been extended by conquest into the heart of Asia. As if in +retaliation for a Khitay conquest the Mahomedan religion was undermining +the outworks of its rival's power slowly, but surely. The impulse given +to trade by the security and patronage that accompanied Chinese rule +was, at least from a purely Chinese point of view, neutralized as an +advantage by the admission into the empire of energetic and eloquent +preachers of the superior merits of Mahomedanism. It required many +generations before the effect of their efforts became perceptible, and +it was not until the power of China fell into an extraordinary +decline--a decline which many thought, with some show of reason, was to +herald the fall, but which later events have seemed to make but the +prelude to a more vigorous life than ever--that these Mahomedan +missionaries among the Tungani knew that the time to reap what they had +sown with patience and persistency was at hand. It is impossible not to +connect this event in some degree with that unaccountable revival of +fanaticism among Mahomedans, which has produced so many important events +during the last thirty years, and of which we are now witnessing some of +the most striking results. + +In 1862, a riot occurred in a small village of Kansuh; it was suppressed +with some loss of life, and people were beginning to suppose that it +possessed no significance, when a disturbance broke out on a large scale +at Houchow, or Salara. The Tungani had risen, and the unfortunate +unarmed Khitay were massacred right and left. The rising soon assumed +the proportions of a civil war, and the infection spread to the +neighbouring province of Shensi. Then ensued scenes of the most +atrocious barbarity. The Khitay, who all their lives had lived at peace +and as neighbours with the Tungani, were butchered without mercy. The +Mahomedan priests seized all the governing power into their own hands, +and set their followers the example of unscrupulous ferocity. The +movement, even if we make allowance for the difficulties besetting the +government in other regions, must be considered to have been attended by +unexpected success. It can only be accounted for by the supposition that +the Khitay were taken completely by surprise, and realized neither the +extent nor the nature of the danger to which they were exposed. Before +the end of 1862, a Tungan government was established in Kansuh, and its +jurisdiction was for a time acknowledged in Shensi. The priests formed +an administration amongst themselves, and set themselves to the task of +consolidating what they had won, and of preparing for the time when the +Chinese should come for vengeance. The events happening in Kansuh were +naturally of interest to the Tungani in the country lying beyond it, and +it was not long before the example set them was followed in Hamil, +Turfan, Urumtsi, Manas, and other cities of that district. The same +success attended the movement here as in Kansuh. The Chinese power was +subverted, the Khitay massacred with greater circumstances of cruelty, +if possible, and a new Tungan state was formed in those cities. Each +district retained a nominal independence, under the headship of a +priest, or body of priests, or of one of the native Tungan princes, and +then the movement spread with irresistible strides to Karashar, Kucha, +and Aksu. There it stopped, and south of the Tian Shan the Tungan revolt +proper never extended west of Aksu. + +In Altyshahr and Kuldja for some months longer the Chinese maintained +the external show of power, but all their communications with China were +cut off, and neither in numbers nor resources had they sufficient means +to cope with the Tungani unaided. They would have accomplished as much +as could have been expected from them if they succeeded in keeping +possession of that which they still occupied. The Tungan element in +Kucha and Aksu was not predominant. It had to share power with the +Khojas, and, as we shall see later on, the Khojas of these two cities +seized the governing power for themselves. It was the appearance of the +Tungan sedition in these cities, which occupy a middle relation to the +purely Chinese cities of Hamil and Urumtsi, and the almost totally +Khokandian cities of Yarkand and Kashgar, that roused the Kashgari to a +full appreciation of the importance to themselves of this movement, and +the Chinese garrisons and settlers to an equally just realization of +their own danger. The Kashgari, not free from the fanaticism of all +their co-religionists, and naturally elated at the successes of the +Tungani, forgot, with their well proved fickleness, all the benefits +they had received from the Chinese, and waited eagerly for a favourable +opportunity to come for them to imitate the example set them by their +eastern neighbours. Nor had they long to wait, although it was not from +them that came the first spark that lighted the firebrand of civil war +and anarchy throughout the length and breadth of Altyshahr. + +It will be remembered that the Khokandian government had the right to +nominate in each city, where they received dues on Mahomedan +merchandise, an agent or tax-collector to look after the proper levy of +the tax. In some of the larger cities this official would require a +considerable staff of assistants, and thus a certain number of skilled +Khokandian officials were permanently located on Kashgarian or Chinese +territory. After the failure of the expedition of Wali Khan, in which +these officials seem to have disappeared, either having become merged in +the body of his partisans or sacrificed during the massacres of that +time, a fresh batch of Khokandians was installed, and occupied, in a +legal sense, the same position as their predecessors. It would appear, +however, that the natural result of their aid to Wali Khan followed, and +that the Chinese Ambans regarded their presence with scarcely concealed +dislike, and proclaimed that these Khokandian tax-gatherers were +devoting more of their attention to the propagation of heretical +religious and political doctrines than to the collection of dues on silk +and other articles of commerce. It would require but the slightest +untoward circumstance to fan this ill-feeling into the most insatiate +hatred and hostility. The danger was rendered the more serious when the +Chinese Ambans perceived for the first time that the sympathies of a +large portion of their Tungan soldiery were estranged from them. It was +doubtful whether the Tungan regiments could be relied on against a fresh +Khoja revolt, and it was certain that they would not combine in any +repression of the Mahomedan religion, even though the sufferers should +only be Andijanis. Such was the state of the public mind in Altyshahr in +1862, when the Tungani revolted and obtained success in Kansuh and +Shensi. + +As early as 1859 the hostility of the Chinese Ambans to the Andijani +tax-collectors received a forcible illustration in the town of Yarkand. +At that time Afridun Wang was governor, and, whether there was any +personal enmity at the root of the action or not, he found little +difficulty in convincing both himself and the other Chinese residents +that the Andijani agent had been stirring up discontent against them in +the town. Accordingly, as self-preservation is the first law of nature, +this Khokandian official, with his attendant, was arrested and executed. +There may have been some foundation for the accusations made by Afridun +Wang against his rival: more probably there was none; but on referring +the matter to the Viceroy of Ili for decision it was decided that the +governor should be removed. The Khokandian government sent fresh agents, +and it is not stated that any reparation was given to the families of +the sufferers. From this it would appear that the post of tax-collector +in Altyshahr for His Highness the Khan of Khokand was not a very +desirable position. Afridun Wang retired to his native town of Turfan, +where, three years later on, he contributed more than any one else to +the success of the Tungan movement. His policy, if anti-Khokandian, was +pro-Mahomedan or Tungan, and his case is very typical of the nature of +this rising. In Turfan he continued to be one of the chief men, until, +six years later on, it fell to the Athalik Ghazi. + +His successor in the governorship of Yarkand did not interfere with the +Khokandian officials, but for this moderation he made up by the +exactions he committed on the residents, more particularly on the +Mahomedan portion of them. His extortions and cruelties had the effect +as much of disgusting his own followers as of rousing a spirit of +opposition among the oppressed. It was while things were in this +uncertain state at Yarkand that the governor received secret notice of +the Tungan revolt in Kansuh, and he at once perceived that, when this +important intelligence became known, not only would his own Tungan +troops become more openly mutinous, but that the Khojas might seize the +opportunity to assert their claim to the country once more. In this +special case, in addition to the general apprehension that would be felt +by any Chinese governor at the aspect of affairs, there was personal +fear for the unjustifiable acts of his government, and the Amban, in his +trepidation, resolved on the most strenuous precautions to avert the +danger from himself. He summoned a council of war of his Buddhist +lieutenants, and stated the exact position to them; how the Tungan +portion of their forces could not be depended on; how the Tungan +settlers would join them; and how the Andijani agents would do their +utmost to unite in one cause against themselves all those who followed +the teaching of Islam; and how all these events, which before were +possible, had been rendered probable by the Tungan successes in the +east. He dwelt on the fact that no time was to be lost in the execution +of such precautions as they thought necessary; that at any moment the +news might arrive, and then they would be in a minority; and he did not +attempt to conceal the purport of his address--that he was in favour of +sharp measures, of going to the root of the evil at once, and of +massacring every Mussulman in the town. The council of war was not +prepared to endorse such a violent proceeding without careful +consideration. There were many dissentients, and the meeting was +adjourned. It reassembled, and, on this occasion, although the +supporters of more moderate measures had decreased, it adjourned once +more before deciding. The danger evidently appeared more appalling to +the governor than to his subordinates; perhaps also there was some +personal dislike for their chief even among his Khitay following. At the +second meeting they seemed, indeed, more willing to acquiesce in his +proposed strong measures, and this may have been caused by their +observation of the state of public opinion in the interval. But even +then no final decision could be arrived at, and the Khitay never had a +chance after that of making any defence in Yarkand. The Tungan troops +were not long in hearing, through their chief officer, Mah Dalay, that +there was a plot on foot among the Khitay to disarm, or, as others said, +to massacre them, and they then learnt of the Mahomedan revolt in China +and along the road thither. They immediately determined to be beforehand +with the Amban and his lukewarm council, and no weak hesitation marred +the execution of their plot, as it had that of the Chinese governor. + +The Khitay troops, unarmed, were surprised during the night, and cut +down without quarter, and the small body of survivors sought refuge in +the Yangyshahr fort. This was in August, 1863, and no fewer than 7,000 +Khitay soldiers are computed to have fallen on this single occasion. The +Tungan troops were thereupon joined by the townspeople, and the question +then to be decided was, who was to be supreme, the Tungani or the +Andijan-Kashgari Mahomedans. The former were simply an unlettered and +rather savage soldiery; the latter possessed keen intellects for +manipulating a fanatical people, and for improvising an administration +of a superficial character. The balance of power was evenly distributed +until reinforcements arrived from Aksu and Kucha to the anti-Tungan +party. Two Khojas who had been banished from Kucha, for endeavouring to +promote their own interests in the name of Khokand, had fled to Aksu, +where they met the same fate. In this latter flight many of similar +principles joined them, so that when they reached Yarkand they had a +numerous force at their back. The Khojas in the first place joined their +forces to the Tungani, to storm the remaining Khitay in the Yangyshahr. +The Khitay after a gallant resistance perceived that further opposition +was impossible. Then occurred one of those deeds, which, if Europe +instead of Asia had been the scene, would have been handed down to +posterity as a rare example of military devotion and courage, but which, +although not unique even in the annals of the campaign we are entering +upon, having occurred in little-known Eastern Turkestan, is not realized +as an event that has actually taken place. It is a myth of the myth-land +to which it belongs. And yet, when we read how the Amban summoned all +his officers to his chamber, where he sat in state surrounded by his +wives, his family, and his servants; how all were silent, and yet sedate +and prepared; how, at the given signal that all were present, and that +the foe was at the gate, the aged warrior dropped his lighted pipe into +the mine beneath; how the exulting foe won after all but a barren +triumph; and how the Khitay taught the natives that if they had +forgotten how to conquer they had not how to die, we feel that there is +an under-current throughout the story, that, apart from the admiration +it must command, has claims to our own special sympathy. The Chinese, as +we did in India in the dark hours of 1857, asserted their superiority +over the semi-barbarous races under their sway, even when all hopes of a +recovery seemed to be abandoned. After the fall of the citadel the +Khoja element was supreme in Yarkand, and a priest named Abderrahman +was set up as king. + +The other cities of Altyshahr promptly followed the example of Yarkand, +and the Chinese power was completely subverted on all hands. The Khitay +were massacred whenever they fell into the hands of the Mahomedans, and +the only places that still held out were the citadels, notably the +Yangyshahr of Kashgar. The inhabitants of this city appear to have been +unable to keep their advantage over the Chinese, for they appealed to +the Kirghiz to come in and assist them. These nomads, under their chief, +Sadic Beg, were nothing loth to join in expelling the Chinese, as such a +change could only increase their advantages by substituting an unsettled +for a settled government. Siege was accordingly laid to the citadel of +Kashgar, but the irregular troops of the new allies were unable to make +any impression on the fort, defended as it was by a large Khitay +garrison. If the Chinese commander had assumed a more active policy, he +might have destroyed his opponents, but he was waiting for the arrival +of reinforcements, which he expected before many months. In not relying +solely on his own resources he proved himself unable to read the changed +signs of the time; if, indeed, he was not already meditating that +surrender, which he ultimately concluded with Yakoob Beg. Sadic Beg, +finding himself unable to take the fort, and knowing that it was +uncertain how long the Kashgari would remain friendly to himself, +resolved to play the part of king-maker, and sent the embassy to +Tashkent for a Khoja to come and rule Kashgar, only he omitted to say +that Kashgar was not conquered. + +We can now return to Buzurg Khan and his commander-in-chief. When they +left Tashkent they had only a following of six, among whom were Abdulla, +Pansad; Mahomed Kuli, Shahawal; and Khoja Kulan, Hudaychi. All of these +played a very prominent part under Yakoob Beg. From Tashkent they went +to Khokand, where their numbers rose to sixty-eight. Here the final +preparations were made, and during the first days of January, 1865, this +band of adventurers crossed the Khokand frontier into Eastern Turkestan. +The mountain forts seem to have been deserted, for no opposition was +encountered in the passage of the Terek defile. Several small bodies of +troops joined them, and they reached Mingyol in the neighbourhood of +Kashgar with increased numbers and confidence. Sadic Beg had conceived a +more sanguine view of his situation by this time, and half repented that +he had invited the Khojas in at all, more particularly when he found +that the Khoja had a following of his own, and a skilled commander and +minister in Yakoob Beg. He then strove to dissuade Buzurg Khan from +proceeding further with an enterprise fraught with great peril, for he +represented the Chinese as sure to return, when summary vengeance would +be exacted. But his arguments were unavailing. Either Buzurg Khan or his +adviser, Yakoob Beg, was deaf to all entreaty. The enterprise they had +embarked on must be continued to the bitter end. They could not think of +returning to Khokand with nothing accomplished, with the stigma +attaching to them of a retreat when there had been no foe. Sadic Beg +could not but submit with the best grace possible; and Buzurg Khan was +accordingly placed on the throne of his ancestors. + +In his "_orda_" or palace he administered justice and received the +congratulations of his own followers and of the Andijani townspeople. +The court rules were drawn up on the model of those in use in Khokand, +and while the expedition had but established itself, in an uncertain +manner, in one city it was thought necessary that etiquette should be as +strictly defined and enforced as if all this were taking place in a +brilliant and luxurious capital. In a few days Sadic Beg, on finding +that he played but a secondary part, revolted, and set himself up as +ruler at Yangy Hissar. It was now that Yakoob Beg came to the front, +and assumed the control of affairs until the fall of the contemptible +Buzurg. With great difficulty after the desertion of their Kirghiz +allies was a force of 3,000 men collected around the new Khoja in +Kashgar. Sadic Beg advanced on the capital with a much larger army, and +Yakoob Beg had for a time to remain on the defensive. Each day, however, +brought in recruits to his camp, while, the army of the Kirghiz leader +presenting no object of sympathy to the people, his rival's remained +stationary, if it did not decrease. An encounter at last commenced +between the two forces which was made general by the intrepidity of +Abdulla. The Kirghiz levies of Sadic were unable to withstand the +vigorous charges that were led against them, and broke after a short +combat into headlong flight. In the mountains the Kirghiz gathered +around their chieftain in force, and, hovering on the northern districts +of Kashgar, presented a danger that must be removed by Yakoob Beg before +he could advance farther. His troops were therefore directed to proceed +against the Kirghiz in their fastnesses, and it was not long before the +Kirghiz, driven into a corner, turned at bay on their pursuer. The +forces on either side were about equal, some 5,000 men in either army. +But, as is customary in the East, the Kirghiz army put forth a champion, +Suranchi by name, who had obtained great renown for his extraordinary +height and strength. The challenge did not remain unanswered, for +Abdulla stepped forward to the encounter. The fight, though furious, was +short, and the smaller Khokandian warrior was victorious over his more +ponderous antagonist. The Kirghiz power after this reverse was broken +up, and Sadic Beg took refuge with Alim Kuli at Tashkent. Yakoob Beg's +first campaign against the Kirghiz, who had sworn alliance with him, and +by whose invitation he was present in Kashgar, had thus ended +victoriously, and he was now able to resume the main purpose of +conquering Kashgar. Having rendered Kashgar secure from surprise on the +north, and leaving a force to maintain their hold on it, and to keep in +check the Khitay garrison, Buzurg and Yakoob proceeded south to occupy +Yangy Hissar. The town was occupied without difficulty, but an attempt +to storm the citadel in which the Khitay had taken refuge was repulsed +with loss. Sending Buzurg Khan back to Kashgar, Yakoob Beg resolved to +go on to Yarkand and endeavour to bring that city under their immediate +influence. + +At this period he loudly proclaimed that there should be no differences +among the Tungani, or Mahomedans, in their war with the Buddhists, and +that Khojas and Tungani had but one interest in common. As we have seen, +the Tungan disturbances broke out first in Yarkand of any city of +Altyshahr, and accordingly an earlier settlement founded on a compromise +had been attained there, than was the case in its northern neighbours, +Kashgar and Yangy Hissar, where an ambitious Kirghiz chief had sought to +carve a kingdom for himself. After Abderrahman Khoja had been made king +or ruler in Yarkand, and after the Khitay had been destroyed with their +citadel, a fresh arrangement was agreed upon between the Tungani and the +Khoja party. By its terms the Tungani maintained possession of the +citadel, and the Khojas held jurisdiction in the city. Neither of them +would be disposed to view with any friendly eye the appearance of a +claimant to supremacy in the person of a Khoja sovereign of the whole +country, and it was as the representative of such a person that Yakoob +Beg resolved to visit Yarkand. His march was delayed as much as +possible, and it was not without some difficulty that he at last +obtained admittance with his small following into the city. Yakoob Beg +was naturally incensed at this inimical treatment from his +fellow-religionists, and he soon set himself to the task of humbling the +dominant Khojas of Yarkand. During a street riot that was probably +instigated by the wily Khokandian, the leading Khojas were seized, and +their followers expelled from the city. With a force of only a few +hundred men, Yakoob Beg had established himself as master in the largest +city of the country; his success on this occasion was very temporary. As +ill fortune would have it for him, a fresh army of 2,000 men from Kucha +had arrived at Tagharchi, and, there joined by the forces from Yarkand +and the neighbourhood, presented a very formidable appearance. They +marched on the city at once with complete confidence in their superior +numbers, and Yakoob Beg, always in favour of the boldest course, marched +out to meet them. In a skirmish, however, the detachment under Abdulla +was badly cut up owing to the rashness of that officer, and Yakoob Beg +at once recognized the necessity for a prompt retreat. During the +following night he made a forced march and arrived the next day at Yangy +Hissar with no very great loss in men, but without any baggage whatever. +The enterprise to Yarkand then appeared in its true light as a rash +venture. + +The Khitay in the fort of Yangy Hissar still held out, and Yakoob Beg +resolved to overcome them before he attempted any fresh enterprise. He +called up reinforcements from Kashgar, and pressed the siege with +renewed vigour, and alter strictly environing it for forty days the +garrison surrendered. Although Yakoob Beg himself seemed desirous of +showing moderation to the prisoners, more than 2,000 Chinese were +massacred. During all these petty events, which had not produced even +the results of past Khoja enterprises, there had been discontent and +division within, as well as opposition from without. At this time a +fresh danger was appearing on the horizon. A Badakshi army was advancing +with hostile intent on Sirikul, and although Yakoob Beg disregarded its +approach while he pressed on the works against the citadel of Yangy +Hissar, when that fort fell it attracted his attention once more. The +Khitay garrison in the Yangyshahr of Kashgar was also a source of danger +to the newly founded dynasty, and, although its inactivity had continued +for a long period, it was uncertain at what moment it might pass off. We +can only account for the extraordinary lethargy of the Chinese commander +by supposing that he was in complete ignorance of what was passing in +the country. At many moments it must seem to an observer of the facts +that the Chinese governor, who had under him 6,000 or 7,000 disciplined +troops, could have crushed all the opposition of such heterogeneous +crowds as those fighting under or against Yakoob Beg were up to this +time. With the destruction of the Yangy Hissar garrison the prospects of +Yakoob Beg greatly improved, and less opportunity was left to the +Chinese governor for assuming the offensive, than when he possessed an +ally in so close a position as Yangy Hissar. Yakoob Beg also resolved to +press the Khitay still more in this their last stronghold, and before he +encountered other opponents to crush the Khitay, as he already had the +Kirghiz. At this point Sadic Beg reappears in Kashgar at the head of a +Kirghiz force to oppose Yakoob Beg, and for a moment it seemed as if he +were to have better fortune on this occasion. But Abdulla, the most +trusted as well as the most courageous of Yakoob Beg's lieutenants, +collected such forces as he could, boldly threw himself in his path, +and, having routed Sadic in a sanguinary engagement, prepared to press +that unfortunate chieftain into flight or ruin. Yakoob Beg, in want of +allies and soldiers however, interfered and suggested an alliance +instead of a war _à outrance_. The thwarted Sadic was only too glad to +get off on such favourable terms, and joined his forces to those of his +late enemy now besieging the Khitay with renewed vigour. This merciful +termination of a difficulty, that might have become serious had it not +been cured in time, was a performance very creditable in a diplomatic +sense to Yakoob Beg. In a small way it may be compared with Frederick +the Great's action at Pirna, where he received the services of 40,000 +Saxon troops. But, perhaps, still more remarkable was the manner in +which Yakoob Beg averted the danger from the Badakshi army. The +Badakshi, like their kinsmen the Afghans, may be considered, _cæteris +paribus_, to be superior soldiers, on account of their larger build and +more active habits, to other Asiatics, so that Yakoob Beg with his +half-disciplined followers would have had some difficulty and must have +incurred considerable loss in overcoming these new invaders. He made +overtures to them, and the Badakshi, seeing that he was likely to give +them exciting and profitable employment, entered into negotiations with +him. The result was that they took service under him; and Yakoob Beg for +the first time found himself at the head of a large army, composed of +Khokand, Kashgar, Kirghiz, and Badakshan levies. It was fortunate for +himself that he had been able to arrange his affairs so satisfactorily, +for a fresh danger was approaching from the east. + +The reader may have observed that we have said little of Buzurg Khan +during the operations of the campaign up to this point. Indeed, there is +little or nothing to say of the movements of that prince, for he had +been mainly stationary at Kashgar, where he passed his time in his +harem, or besotted under the use of drugs. Yakoob Beg had from the very +commencement come to the front as responsible chief, and as events +progressed the people and the army came to look upon him as their future +ruler. But Yakoob Beg, it would seem, was really in earnest in +supporting the Khoja prince, for on several occasions not only did he +give Buzurg the most salutary advice, but he also compelled him to take +an active part in the public business. Such fits of action were most +distasteful to the effeminate prince, and he always returned with +renewed zest to the illicit pleasures in which he indulged. One of the +occasions on which Yakoob Beg endeavoured to instil into his sovereign +some idea of the responsibilities of his office was this invasion by the +Khoja-Tungani power of Altyshahr. Early in the summer a large force, +estimated at 40,000 men, collected by the cities of Aksu, Kucha, and +Turfan, appeared at Maralbashi, whence it equally threatened Kashgar or +protected Yarkand. Yakoob Beg's utmost efforts, if we are to credit the +native report, only availed to bring some 2,500 men into the field; but +it is more reasonable to suppose, that, with his Kirghiz, Kipchak, and +Badakshi auxiliaries, he had many more troops under him, perhaps 12,500 +instead of 2,500 men. Be the exact numbers of the forces what they may, +however, it is certain that he was greatly outnumbered by the invader, +and that the diverse elements of his army detracted very much from its +effective strength. The Tungan army advanced from Maralbashi on Yangy +Hissar, where Yakoob Beg had concentrated his army. He had drawn Buzurg +Khan and such of the court followers as he could from their ignominious +inaction in the capital to encounter the dangers and risks of a field of +battle. Both sides were eager for the encounter, which took place in the +neighbourhood of Yangy Hissar. The tactical disposition made by Yakoob +Beg of his forces was such as would command the approval of skilled +officers, and, having done all that mortal man could do to insure the +result, he commended himself and his cause to Allah. The battle was long +and stoutly contested. During hours it was impossible to say to which +side the balance of victory was inclining; at last the Kirghiz troops, +half-hearted in their fighting, were driven from the field, and the +Badakshi division, which had up to that moment stubbornly held its +ground, immediately followed the shameful example thus set it. There now +only remained the division under the immediate orders of Yakoob Beg to +withstand the onset of a whole army victorious in two different quarters +of the field. The situation, on which the fate of the whole enterprise +depended, might have filled the boldest heart with momentary despair. +Yakoob Beg had, however, so braced himself to the effort, that no more +than ordinary emotion was permitted to betray the disturbed mind within, +and with the exclamation that "Victory is the gift of God," he inspired +his soldiery to continue the fight throughout the afternoon. The enemy, +dismayed at the dauntless courage shown by this mere handful of men, and +having incurred great loss in his effort to crush them, drew off his +weakened forces towards evening; and Yakoob Beg, boldly seizing the +opportunity for assuming the offensive, drove them from the field in +disorder and with considerable loss. In addition to the loss in killed +and wounded, more than 1,000 Tungan soldiers enlisted under the standard +of Yakoob Beg, and that general found himself on the morrow of one of +his greatest battles, with a greater force under his command than he had +just before it commenced. This great triumph gave fresh lustre to the +Khoja family, and redounded to the military renown of Yakoob Beg. Nor +should it be forgotten that on this occasion he showed that he +possessed, besides military genius of some merit, qualities of an +estimable character. For the first time in the annals of these wars the +prisoners were treated with some consideration. For some reason or other +this victory was not followed up, and the defeated Kucha army retired on +Maralbashi, which it continued to hold for some months longer. The +indirect results of this victory were scarcely less important, however, +than the immediate and direct consequences of it. + +Buzurg Khan, who had been present at this battle, was among the first to +seek refuge in flight; and when he received intelligence of the final +success his satisfaction was almost eclipsed by his personal chagrin and +mortification. Up to this event he had been content to let Yakoob Beg +act the king so long as he could indulge undisturbed in his +debaucheries; but from this date there became mingled with his wounded +vanity a conviction that Yakoob Beg was becoming so powerful and so +popular that he might prove a dangerous subject. The weak-minded prince +then permitted himself to be made the tool of every rival that the +success of Yakoob Beg had raised up for himself either in the court or +in the camp, and listened to tales brought him of his lieutenant's +plots, when the conspirators most to be feared by himself were the +ambitious chieftains in whose power he was placing his person and his +crown. After the defeat of the Kucha army, the ruling parties in Yarkand +thought it would be wise to come to terms with their victorious and +aggressive neighbour, and accordingly an embassy was despatched to Yangy +Hissar by the Khojas of Yarkand to tender their submission to the +sovereign of Kashgar, and to ask to be favoured by the nomination of a +city governor, who would be agreeable to Buzurg Khan and his vizier, +Yakoob Beg. It is suggestive to watch how the name of the vizier +occupies almost as prominent place in all their addresses as that of his +master. The Tungan governor in the Yarkand Yangyshahr, not to be +behindhand in his worship of the rising sun, immediately sent a similar +expression of obedience to Kashgar. + +The course of events once more takes us back to Kashgar, where the +Chinese still held the citadel against all comers. But with each fresh +success of Yakoob Beg over his numerous opponents, and with the spread +of the Tungan power into Jungaria, hope almost completely deserted the +unfortunate Khitay, who, in this solitary fort, alone maintained the +name of Chinese authority. Treason, within the walls, was now to aid the +efforts from without. Kho Dalay, the superior officer in the citadel, +although not the commandant, came to an arrangement with Yakoob Beg, by +which honourable terms were conceded to the garrison; and 3,000 Khitay +troops surrendered and settled in Kashgar. They were required to +acknowledge formally the supremacy of the Khoja, and to make a +profession of Islamism. But they were never really interfered with in +the observance of their own rites among themselves, and had nothing to +complain of in their duty. They were called after their recantation +"Yangy Mussulmans," or "New Mussulmans." These were the last Khitay +troops who surrendered to the new conquerors, and with them every +vestige of Chinese authority disappeared from every part of Jungaria and +Eastern Turkestan. Even among this garrison, reduced by a long siege and +its attendant deprivations to despair, there was a small minority who +preferred death to the dishonour involved in surrender. Chang Tay, the +commandant, refused to be any party to the arrangement made between Kho +Dalay and Yakoob Beg. When the day approached for the entry of the +Kashgarian army, this resolute Amban withdrew to his palace, and having +collected his family and dependents around him blew them all up with the +explosion of a mine that he had constructed underneath. In the confusion +that arose from this incident, the enemy broke into the fort, and it was +not for some hours that Yakoob Beg succeeded in obtaining control over +them once more. During that interval of insubordination many Khitay were +murdered, but not without resistance. Kho Dalay and almost 3,000 men +remained to take service in the conquering army, as already explained. +The new alliance was cemented by the marriage of Yakoob Beg to the +beautiful daughter of Kho Dalay, by whom he has had several children, +too young as yet to take any part in public affairs. Perhaps Yakoob +Beg's moderation to the Khitay is to be explained by this circumstance, +and it is certain that down to the very end his Khitay wife exercised +great influence over her husband. + +This was in September, 1865, nine months after his first arrival in +Altyshahr, and in that period he had worked, if not very rapidly, with +considerable thoroughness. The Khitay destroyed, the Kirghiz subdued, +and the Tungan influence checked in its aggression against Western +Kashgar, such was the tale of his achievements. Several battles and +sieges successfully brought to an issue, and a numerous army formed out +of the diverse fragments of conquered and conquerors. Personally, too, +Yakoob Beg had done much towards preparing the public mind for the +assumption of power by himself, and the reigning chief had done still +more by his neglect of duty and abandonment to pleasure. Buzurg Khan +might stand for the typical _roi fainéant_, and Yakoob Beg was a more +than ordinarily resolute and determined _maire du palais_. + +The citadel of Kashgar had not long surrendered when messengers arrived, +reporting the near approach of a large body of men from Khokand, but who +they were, or with what intention they came, none knew. These were the +unsuccessful conspirators against Khudayar Khan, who, after the death of +Alim Kuli, had obtained his power once more; and these having been +driven out of Khokand by his armies, were compelled to seek refuge in +Kashgar. Yakoob Beg sent them the laconic message, while they were +hovering on the frontier, that "if they came as friends, they were +welcome; if as foes, he was ready to fight them." Until the arrival of +this declaration there appears to have been some hesitation among the +Khokandians what to do, as some were wishing to attempt the conquest of +Kashgar in their own interests; but when so clear a statement was sent +them by Yakoob Beg, and when they learnt more definitely of the +permanence of his success, they threw off their reserve and joined the +confederacy of Kashgar. In the meanwhile fresh disturbances were +breaking out in Yarkand, and thither he proceeded in the later months of +1865 to quell them, taking Buzurg Khan with him. On his arrival before +the town both the Khojas and the Tungani hastened to profess the +greatest desire to fulfil his wishes, although they kept him outside +their gates. It is probable that neither party could have offered any +prolonged resistance to him, had they not been encouraged to do so by +Buzurg Khan. That prince had for some time been fretting against the +iron will of his lieutenant, and, now, in an ill humour at being carried +from his amusements and idleness at Kashgar to suffer the deprivations +of a camp life before Yarkand, broke loose from all control, and plotted +in his own camp, and in the enemy's, to free himself from his +troublesome general. The plot among the Tungan soldiery had assumed +alarming proportions, and all was ready to put an end to the career of +Yakoob, when it was fortunately discovered by his faithful friend +Abdulla. Precautions were taken, and the plot in the camp was +effectually thwarted; but Yakoob Beg was not strong enough then to show +his resentment. This danger was only removed to give place to another. +The Tungani soldiers in Yakoob's service now opened up communications +with their kinsmen in the Yangy-Shahr, and they formed the following +plan to destroy the remaining portion of the Kashgarian forces. The +garrison was to simulate a desire to yield into the hands of Yakoob Beg +both their own persons and the fort, and when he, unsuspecting any +covert design, should be lulled into a false sense of security, the +Tungani in his service could join the Tungani in the fort in making a +night attack on the other forces. The plan promised well. Yakoob Beg was +deceived by the friendly overtures of the Tungani, and relaxed his +precautions, and, during the night that was to precede the surrender of +the Tungani, the conspirators marched out of the fort, and being joined, +as had been arranged, by the other confederates, surprised Yakoob Beg +and his immediate followers. A desperate resistance was offered by the +half-armed men, but the Tungani were victorious, and Yakoob Beg had much +difficulty in collecting around him on the morrow a few hundred +soldiers. Among those, however, was Abdulla and some of his more trusted +companions. The Kirghiz under Sadic Beg could not be trusted, and it +seemed that that chief was still inclined to play for his own hand. At +this, the most critical period of his life, Yakoob Beg's tact and +resolution were most conspicuous. When he was surrounded on every hand +by hostile factions, and could count on the fidelity of scarce five +hundred men, he triumphed over every obstacle, and rose omnipotent over +the petty jealousies and dissensions of those who sought to crush him. +Buzurg Khan seized the moment of this disaster to draw off into a +separate camp with a large body of troops and all the Kirghiz, and it is +very possible, as has been asserted, that he instigated the successful +Tungan _coup_. There is no evidence that he did, and I am personally of +opinion that it originated among the Tungani themselves, and that Buzurg +Khan only rejoiced at its occurrence, as he would have done at any other +reverse to Yakoob. The position now was as follows:--In the citadel were +the victorious Tungani, and in the town they shared the distribution of +power with the townspeople. Outside in one part was Buzurg Khan, with a +force that was equivocal in its sympathies, and that might at any moment +become hostile, to Yakoob Beg; and in another part was Yakoob Beg +himself and his attenuated following. Affairs could not look less +hopeful, and if the three parties could have accommodated their own +differences for but the short space of twenty-four hours, Yakoob Beg +must infallibly have been destroyed: as it was, they did nothing with an +enemy like Yakoob Beg in their proximity, and permitted him to redeem +all he had lost by his too great credulity in the good faith of his +brother Mussulmans. Let us now see how he saved himself. The first point +to do was to restore the courage and self-confidence of his own +soldiers, and to do that, it was necessary to strike a sharp blow that +was sure of success. The fort could not be taken by a _coup de main_, +but the city, large and straggling, presented a more inviting aspect for +such an attempt. Abdulla, the Murat of the army of Kashgar, with the +most determined intrepidity, carried it by assault, although here again +he attacked without awaiting the arrival of the other contingents. Like +Edward Bruce, + + "Such was his wonted reckless mood, + Yet desperate valour oft made good, + Even by its daring, venture rude, + Where prudence might have failed." + +This achievement put an end to the rejoicings among the Tungani, and +compelled them to recognize what a terribly energetic and enterprising +foe they had to deal with. But, at this moment, a severe mishap occurred +which almost neutralized the advantage thus gained. Buzurg Khan, unable +either to crush Yakoob Beg or to enjoy the indulgences to which he had +enslaved himself, resolved to secure the latter, happen what might. He +accordingly fled from Yarkand with many followers, and retired to his +palace at Kashgar. There, not content with pillaging the palace of +Yakoob Beg, he proclaimed him a traitor and rebel, and offered a reward +to whomsoever should bring him his head. Another general was appointed +to the command of the army, and preparations were made for defending +Kashgar against any attempt of Yakoob Beg to attack it. But fortunately +the Tungani in the citadel of Yarkand were not aware of this dissension +among the Kashgari, and as they were struck with admiration for the +valour of Yakoob Beg, they surrendered to him soon after the flight of +Buzurg. He was then able to turn his undivided attention to his +refractory chief. Yakoob Beg had always, as we have said, befriended the +church; he was now to experience some benefit for that very commendable +respect. Among the first means of crushing Yakoob Beg that Buzurg Khan +had employed was an appeal to the Sheikh-ul-islam of Kashgar to proclaim +his Baturbashi outside the pale of the law. This the ecclesiastic +refused to do, and asserted, on the contrary, that Yakoob Beg had +deserved well both of his country and of the Mahomedan world. Foiled in +his effort to stir up a religious feeling against his general, Buzurg +Khan was reduced to the more cogent, but in his hands quite useless, +argument of the sword. Nor was the field, limited as it must appear to +us, free from other pretenders. Sadic Beg, instead of coalescing with +Buzurg Khan, set up his own pretensions to rule the country; and the +Kucha Khojas and Tungani began to collect troops in view of possible +eventualities. + +The army of Buzurg Khan, which had marched out to oppose the entry of +Yakoob Beg, was outflanked and defeated by Abdulla in the country +between Yangy Hissar and the capital; and Yakoob Beg, pressing on with +irresistible strides, was received in Kashgar with the acclamations of +the people and of his soldiers. He was then publicly proclaimed ruler, +and his friend the Sheikh-ul-islam ratified the people's choice. Buzurg +Khan, who had taken refuge in the Yangy-Shahr, was seized in his palace +there, after a very slight resistance. Some of the more prominent of +Yakoob Beg's rivals were executed, and Buzurg Khan himself was placed in +a state of honourable confinement. He still persisted in futile +intrigues, and so long as he remained in Kashgar was a source of endless +trouble to the new government. For more than eighteen months he was +permitted to remain however, and then, being detected in instigating the +murder of Yakoob Beg, was banished to Tibet. After wandering for some +years, he found his way to Khokand, where he is believed to be still +residing with a large family. He may be considered to have been the last +Khoja prince ruling Kashgar, for it is scarcely probable that, in any +future settlement of that country, a restoration of the old reigning +family will be supported by any one. He is no exaggerated type of the +rule among Central Asian despots, who present to our gaze a long series +of petty tyrants and debauchees, until for a few years they are +displaced by a successful soldier such as the Athalik Ghazi, or by a +skilful minister such as Mussulman Kuli was in Khokand. + +The Kirghiz chief, Sadic Beg, did not long hold out against the +consolidated power of Yakoob Beg; and the Kucha movements were +suspended. In a little more than twelve months Yakoob Beg had occupied +Kashgar, Yangy Hissar, and Yarkand. Sirikul and Khoten also acknowledged +his rule; but his further operations against them will be narrated +by-and-by. He felt now so secure in his seat that he permitted the +Badakshi contingent to return home, presenting each soldier with a large +present. Ever since that time Yakoob Beg seems to have maintained some +influence in Badakshan, and to have been inclined on several occasions +to compete with Shere Ali of Afghanistan for the possession of that +province. His ambition was never fully revealed in this quarter; but it +is certain that Shere Ali regarded him with scarcely concealed suspicion +and dislike. + +With the assumption of personal power by Yakoob Beg, on the deposition +of the Khoja Buzurg Khan, the first part of the enterprise undertaken in +the later days of 1864 was brought to a termination. In the more +extended operations of Yakoob Beg against the Tungani and Khoten, may be +perceived the effects of events outside his immediate sphere upon, this +energetic ruler, who, until his last years, never realized the strength +of the Russians, and who had, up to the year 1870 when Kuldja was +occupied, convinced himself that he could retard the progress of the +great Northern power. It was that idea, besides a thirst for military +renown and excitement, that urged him on to the construction of what he +fondly believed might prove a formidable and extensive state. As ruler +of Kashgar, he could not be anything but a kind of vassal of the Khan of +Khokand; as monarch of Eastern Turkestan, he might treat on terms of +equality with the Czar of Russia or the Emperor of China. It was no +unworthy ambition, and Yakoob Beg, created Athalik Ghazi, Champion +Father, in 1866 by the Ameer of Bokhara, accomplished so much of it as +was possible. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +WARS WITH THE TUNGANI. + + +Yakoob Beg, having deposed Buzurg Khan and suppressed all resistance on +the part either of the Tungani or of the Chinese in Western Kashgar, had +some leisure to make a careful survey of his exact position. The result +of the desultory fighting of the previous twelve months had been +eminently satisfactory to himself; but, to say the least, it was dubious +how long this state of things might last. Former adventurers had +accomplished as much as he had, but the Chinese had always returned with +renewed vigour. How was Yakoob Beg to know that the rumours were well +founded which asserted that that empire had been sore stricken in other +fields than against the Tungani, and that even the victories over the +Taepings were not considered a complete set-off to the disasters in +every other quarter of the empire? European critics predicted that the +last hour of the Chinese Empire was fast approaching; but Yakoob Beg, +with far more imperfect means of intelligence at his disposal, feared +still, even when the citadel of Kashgar surrendered, that the Khitay +would return for revenge. His fears were not groundless, as we now know, +but he anticipated events by more than ten years. Yakoob Beg was not so +sanguine in his own resources or good fortune that he believed that he +should not have to encounter the danger that had overwhelmed all his +predecessors, and his first object accordingly was to gather all his +strength together in a compact mass to resist the Chinese when they +should come. But the dissensions that had, during the conquest of +Altyshahr, manifested themselves so palpably in the ill-assorted +conglomeration which had gathered round the standard of Buzurg Khan +brought home to the mind of Yakoob Beg the disadvantages of a divided +people. He accordingly determined that, whatever else he might fail or +succeed in achieving, his most resolute effort should be to weld into +one cohesive and effective whole Andijani and Tungani, Kashgari and +Khitay. It was no mean ambition; but to cement such discordant elements +a policy of "blood and iron" was required. Yakoob Beg did not shrink +certainly in its application; but when he had accomplished the task he +had set himself to bring about he discovered that the cost had been so +great that the state, both in population and in wealth, was at a lower +point than it had ever been before. But in the earlier days of 1866 no +doubt crossed his mind on this latter point. It must be remembered that, +strange to say, the great success of Yakoob Beg in Kashgar had alienated +the sympathy of the government of Khokand from his cause; and, although +this may be explained by the antipathy of Khudayar Khan, now firmly +seated on the throne, who could not entertain any amity for a subject +who had on several occasions deserted his cause, it is impossible to +attribute to that sentiment alone a fact which must have had some deeper +and less personal explanation. At all stages of the history of these +petty princes of Asia are we met by the spectacle of mutual jealousy and +recrimination, whenever any one of themselves seemed about to exalt +himself above his fellows, either by the success of his arms or by the +beneficence of his rule. Rarely, indeed, had any of them shown that he +possessed more than ordinary ability or courage; but, whenever the +phenomenon did appear, he was at once proclaimed by his neighbours to be +a dangerous innovation, and as such to be thwarted and opposed. The +practice has come down to our own day, and during the long wars that +Russia has waged in Asia we have never beheld two states, no matter how +insignificant, combine to oppose the common foe. The Khokandians have +never aided the Bokhariots or the Khivans, nor have the Afghans or the +Kashgari the Khokandians. They have kept the ring, so to speak, as each +of them has gone down singly before the prowess of the Muscovite, in a +manner that ought to excite the admiration of all those who preserve the +memories of the traditional honours of the prize ring; but, as their own +existence has been the penalty, it is questionable whether their +conduct, inspired by regard for no law of chivalry, but simply by mutual +antipathy, has been very prudent. Over such petty jealousies had Yakoob +Beg to triumph before he could hope to complete his dream of an united +Kashgaria. His path was beset with difficulties. In satisfying himself +with too little he might imperil what he had secured, but in attempting +too much he might jeopardize everything he had won. Under such +circumstances the boldest man might have stood uncertain, and the most +resolute inactive until hurried into action by the progress of events. +For some months Yakoob Beg seems to have remained uncertain what should +be his next move. + +In 1865, before his last advance on Yarkand, he had seized Maralbashi or +Bartchuk, and by so doing not only had he secured communication between +Aksu and Yarkand, but also between Aksu and Khoten. This position, lying +200 miles to the east of Yangy Hissar, has always been and is still very +important, and Yakoob Beg is supposed to have fortified it very +strongly. This success was the permanent result of his great victory +over the Tungani from Aksu and Kucha in the neighbourhood of Yangy +Hissar, and it effectually secured his flank during further operations. +It was not, however, until he turned his attention to the southern city +of Khoten, that the importance of this acquisition was made +incontestable. Then it enabled him to devote his attention exclusively +to the extension of his sway southward to the mountains of Karakoram +and Kuen Lun, beyond which he might expect no enemy. In Khoten the Mufti +Habitulla had been invested with supreme control, after the deposition +of the Chinese authorities; and during his government of the city and +district, order appears to have been maintained without unnecessary +exactions. When Yakoob Beg made his first appearance in Yarkand, after +his earlier successes round Kashgar, it will be remembered that the +Yarkandi acknowledged the supremacy of the new Khoja king. Their example +was speedily followed by Habitulla of Khoten, and it is not stated that, +even during the progress of hostilities with Yarkand, this ruler +repudiated the arrangement into which he had entered. It is true that he +was far removed from the immediate sphere of action, but that will not +alone account for an indifference to the progress of events in Kashgar, +which Khoten had never manifested on any previous occasion. Khoten may, +therefore, be considered to have been exceptionally well behaved towards +the new Khoja dynasty located at Kashgar; and when Yakoob Beg advanced +to the south of Yarkand, Habitulla hastened to send representatives to +the camp of the conqueror. They were received with consideration, but +deep down in the breast of Yakoob Beg there lurked either an inveterate +distrust of, or dislike to, the Mufti Habitulla. Dissembling his true +feelings, Yakoob Beg sent a message requesting the presence of the Mufti +in his camp. The Mufti, deluded by the friendly treatment bestowed on +his emissaries, came with many of his relations and followers into the +camp of the Kashgarian general. At first, we are told, they were treated +with every mark of respect and kindness; they were feasted and clothed +in precious garments, but all these honours were but the preliminaries +to the concluding ceremony. During the progress of the evening meal they +were disarmed, and led out to execution, while an attack was made from +several quarters on the town. Even then the resistance was prolonged, +and the slaughter by the infuriated soldiery of the Athalik Ghazi +continued long after all serious opposition had ceased. It is impossible +to exonerate Yakoob Beg from the chief blame on this occasion, and if he +had been a civilized European general, we should have made use of the +phrase, that "It must ever remain a blot on his career;" but it would be +the height of irony to apply such a phrase to this unscrupulous Asiatic, +who, if not worse than the school in which he was brought up, was +certainly not much better in a moral sense. As the fact stands, the +seizure of Khoten, and the massacre of the unarmed leaders of that city, +appear to have been acts as unnecessary as they were unjustifiable. +Khoten may have seemed to the Athalik Ghazi of exceptional importance +for several reasons, and he may have felt doubtful of the fidelity of +Habitulla and his followers; but, so far as we are aware, the reasons +for this action are shadowy in the extreme, even regarded from the point +of view of political expediency. Down to the present day, too, the +memory of this massacre, needless even in the eyes of a people +accustomed to the shortest cuts to power by wholesale slaughter, has +rankled in the minds of the inhabitants of Khoten and Sanju, and the +Athalik Ghazi was least popular in that part of his state in which, +according to the traditions of his predecessors, his action had been +most sweeping, and accordingly most safe. This was early in the year +1867, and the Athalik Ghazi had now an opportunity for settling his +relationship with his eastern neighbours, the Tungani. + +The Tungan movement proper originated, as explained in the last chapter, +in the Chinese provinces of Kansuh and Shensi, and then extended with +scarcely a check to Turfan south of the Tian Shan and to Urumtsi north +of that range. The flame soon spread from Turfan to Karashar, Kucha, and +Aksu, and at all of these towns it was fomented by the appearance of the +new element of the Mahomedan Khokandian, and native settlers, acting in +combination with the Chinese Tungani. North of the Tian Shan the +movement received a temporary repulse; and it is necessary to say +something in explanation of the course of the Mahomedan revival in Ili +before we proceed to discuss the earlier wars of Yakoob Beg with the +Tungani. As early as 1860 serious complications had arisen in that +province, although the Chinese had always been more firmly situated +there than in Kashgar. In that year a plot was concocted to murder the +Chinese viceroy and to upset the existing government. It was discovered, +however, and fell through. There appear to have been more causes at work +in Ili to produce discontent than in the southern state, and it was not +so much a question here between Khitay and Tungani, as it was between a +people clamouring for work, for less taxation, and for payment for what +they had done, and an administration that was unable to satisfy the +demands made upon it from all sides. That last resource of a government +at its wits' ends for money, the depreciation of the current coin and +the issue of fictitious paper, was adopted by the Viceroy of Ili. The +measure, which it had been expected would lessen the difficulty, only +added fuel to the flame. The situation of affairs was becoming +desperate; the people were encouraged by the disasters of the Chinese in +the neighbouring states to increase the number of their demands; and the +Chinese officials appear to have lost their heads in the storm that was +gathering from all sides around them. They were but the effete +representatives of a system which in its vigorous days had claims to +general admiration, and they are only saved from incurring our contempt +by the possession of courage, the sole virtue left them. When the +Chinese first conquered Eastern Turkestan they brought from Kashgar a +large number of settlers, and placed them in the country round Ili. They +became known as Tarantchis, and, in the course of two or three +generations, had increased into a very numerous community. These were +always at heart disaffected to the Chinese, but, as they occupied a +very subordinate position, would probably never have thought of revolt +had not a large division of the conquerors set them the example of +insubordination. So soon as the discontent among the working classes had +assumed formidable proportions by the pecuniary embarrassment of the +Chinese, and the Tungan successes in the east of Jungaria had raised a +fanatical feeling to swell the hatred against a declining and Buddhist +rule, the Tarantchis were not backward for their part in reviving their +almost forgotten grievances, and in joining in a defensive and offensive +alliance with the Tungani. Each party collected such forces as they +could, out in the encounter that ensued the disciplined soldiers of the +Viceroy overcame the far more numerous mob by which they were opposed. +The fortress of Bazandai, however, within the next few days, fell into +the power of the insurgents, and that achievement more than compensated +for the disaster in the open field. Ili itself surrendered in January, +1866, and a Tungani-Tarantchi government was formed. The Chinese viceroy +had in the meanwhile destroyed himself and many of his followers and +assailants by setting fire to a mine of gunpowder under his palace. The +Tungan element gradually superseded the Tarantchi in the administration +of the state, and the five years of independence, which continued until +the Russians came in 1871, were chiefly marked by petty disagreements +which had no influence on the progress of events in this part of Asia. +The trade with Ili fell off, and many other valid reasons for Russian +intervention were accumulated during those few years of national +existence. + +With the beginning of 1867, Yakoob Beg, secure on the south and on the +west from aggression, found himself in a position to cope with the +disjointed but allied Tungan states on his north and east. The hostility +of the Tungani and Khojas of Aksu and Kucha had been already +demonstrated, and it was to be surmised that they were only waiting to +recover from the disastrous campaign of 1865 to renew their efforts to +drive the Khokandian adventurers out of Kashgar. The facts that they +acknowledged the same religious tenets, and that they had overcome, to +some extent, a common enemy in the Chinese, and that they certainly had +each to fear most from their return, seem to have weighed little with +either the Tungani or the Athalik Ghazi. To do the latter simple +justice, it must be remembered that the Tungani had been the aggressors, +and that their attitude never ceased to be unfriendly towards himself. +It is certain that he made some efforts to effect an amicable +arrangement with the ruling party in Aksu, but his advances were +received with coldness, and both the Khojas and the Tungani of that city +held aloof from all intercourse with the new-comer. Both parties +remained watching each other for some time, each waiting for the other +to take the initiative. The Tungani had experienced the weight of the +military power of Yakoob Beg, when they had taken the offensive in the +earlier days of his appearance at Kashgar. It was, therefore, not very +probable that they would repeat the experiment when he presented a far +more formidable and united presence to their attack. Practically +speaking, Yakoob Beg was safe from invasion from the east so long as he +maintained order within his own frontier; and the Tungani in Ili on his +north had manifested no special hostility against his state. Secure from +any aggression on the part of the Tungani, Yakoob Beg might with some +reason have declined to push to extremities his relations with them. It +was certainly inconvenient that an antagonistic state should exist on +his very borders, but, as he was in a very strong position for defence, +the disadvantages of abandoning it to assume an offensive policy were +all the more apparent. What necessity could be alleged to justify a +scarcely excusable attack in a moral sense, and a quite unnecessary in a +political? The proximity of Aksu was in a strategic sense more than +neutralized by the possession of Maralbashi, and, with the lapse of +time and the return of peace, the trade route from Kashgar to Aksu might +be expected to revive once more. But such temporizing measures as these, +involving the endurance of Tungan indifference, could not be brooked by +the Athalik Ghazi. The orthodoxy of these Mahomedans was not above +suspicion, and to so devout and energetic a Sunni as Yakoob Beg these +differences were scarcely less offensive than if they had been believers +in a rival religion. Dictatorial announcements were made to the +Khoja-Tungan rulers of Aksu; and, on their persisting in defiance, +Yakoob Beg collected his forces to chastise them. The doctrines of the +Tungani were impeached as not being in strict accordance with the +Shariàt, and the religious fervour of the Sunnis was appealed to, to +bring these recalcitrant people to an acknowledgment of the error of +their ways. In addition to the semi-religious element thus imported into +the question, Yakoob Beg also laid claim to the country up to Kucha as +part of the old territory of the Khoja kings. + +In the spring of 1867 his army set out in two divisions for Aksu. The +Tungani appear to have been paralyzed when the danger that had for many +months appeared menacing came upon them. The resistance encountered at +Aksu, naturally and artificially a very strong place, was not prolonged, +and Yakoob Beg swept on against Kucha. Here the Tungani, having somewhat +recovered from their trepidation, made a desperate stand, and with the +reinforcements that had arrived from Turfan presented a sufficiently +formidable appearance. The ruling authorities in Kucha were Khojas, who +in the time of the Chinese had the custody of a shrine sacred to the +memory of a Mahomedan saint, but who at the outbreak of disturbances +left the temple for the council chamber, and the offering up of prayers +to the memory of the saint for the more difficult task of issuing edicts +for the management of a people. Unhappily for their reputation in our +eyes, they had specially distinguished themselves in the massacres of +the Khitay. Their brief tenure of power seems to have been fairly +beneficent, and, in the lull that succeeded the deposition of the +Chinese and preceded the invasion of Yakoob Beg, they obtained without +doing anything very noteworthy the approval and affection of their +subjects. At Kucha, therefore, more than 500 miles distant from his own +capital, with a long line of hostile country in his rear, Yakoob Beg +found himself opposed by the full power of the Tungani. Previous to +advancing beyond Aksu he had sent back officers to Kashgar to bring up +fresh levies, and he had resorted to that doubtful expedient of drafting +into his army many of the Tungani captured at Aksu. Arrived in front of +Kucha he was unable to prosecute the siege with any vigour until the +arrival of his reinforcements. The moment of delay was attempted to be +turned to account by Yakoob Beg and some of the more prudent of his +counsellors; but the Tungani, whether unwilling to acknowledge their +inferiority or incredulous of the good faith of the Athalik Ghazi, +refused to enter into negotiations that they asserted were unnecessary. +Yakoob Beg had invaded them in their possessions, and he had annexed +Aksu; the only condition in which they could acquiesce was a withdrawal +of his army. All the efforts of the more peaceful and the more prudent +on either side were unavailing, and each party used every exertion to +bring up fresh troops to decide the question of superiority between +Tungani and Kashgari. For several weeks the two armies stood facing each +other, the one stationed on the hills to the north and west of the city, +commanding the main road from Aksu, the other in the environs and the +fortifications of the city itself. The Tungani were far the more +numerous, but in the quality of his main body, and in general efficiency +both of weapons and of experience among the officers, the advantage was +completely on the side of Yakoob Beg. The nucleus of his force comprised +Afghan, Khokandian, and Badakshi troops, veterans in the wars of the +two previous years. The Tungani were either the assassins of helpless +Chinese, or the fugitives of Aksu or Yangy Hissar. They were imperfectly +armed, without any organization, and without any competent leaders. +Above all, the cause they were fighting for was vague, and many of them +in their hearts sympathized more with Yakoob Beg than they did with +their own chiefs. The Kashgarian army, on the other hand, was encouraged +by a long series of brilliant achievements, and looked forward with +eagerness to the fray as the means of exalting their own religion, and +as affording them an opportunity for advancing their own personal +interests by the plunder of so rich a city as Kucha. The reinforcements +were consequently eagerly expected, and some of the more ardent spirits +demanded that they should be led without delay against the enemy. Yakoob +Beg was so far prudent that he refused to be urged into premature action +by the impetuosity of his followers, and the arrival of reinforcements +sooner than was anticipated enabled him not only to keep the excitement +of his soldiery within due bounds, but also to commence active +operations at an earlier date than had seemed possible. The Tungan +leaders, deluded by the inaction of Yakoob Beg into a belief that he was +unable to prosecute the enterprise he had undertaken, assumed the +offensive, only to be worsted in several minor engagements. The Tungan +troops were driven within the walls, and the siege was prosecuted with +the closest rigour. The garrison of Kucha was not sufficiently numerous +to guard in proper strength the wide-stretching suburbs and extensive +fortifications of the existing Kucha, and the cities that had in olden +days stood upon its site. Not many days elapsed before Yakoob Beg +perceived that the defence was confined to a limited portion of the +fortifications, and that several points were entirely neglected. He +resolved, therefore, to put an end to the slow process of a siege by +carrying the town by a general assault. With the whole of his available +force he attacked the city on three sides; but the Tungani resisted +strenuously, and all his direct attacks were repulsed with heavy loss. +To his son Khooda Kul Beg he had entrusted an attack in the rear of the +city, and on the success of that movement now entirely depended the +result of the assault on Kucha. That division by great good fortune and +the gallantry of its leader was victorious, and, although this promising +son of Yakoob Beg, then only a little more than twenty years of age, was +killed in the confusion that ensued on the entrance into the city, Kucha +fell. The triumph was, perhaps, not too dearly purchased. The Tungan +power had received a blow, which took the sting out of its menace, and +effectually protected Kashgar from any possible confederacy among the +Tungan cities. Yakoob Beg followed up the success of Kucha with all his +usual promptitude, but his power was not yet sufficiently matured to +justify him in carrying on extensive operations at such a distance from +the base of his resources. But another reason at this time combined to +recall his attention to another part of his dominions. The Russians were +advancing both in Khokand and in the district of Vernoe to the west of +Kuldja. + +It was evident that prudence demanded a prompt return, and for the +present all further triumph must be abandoned. However, before Yakoob +Beg returned to regulate events in the western portion of his dominions, +he had the satisfaction of receiving the submission humbly tendered by +the ruling bodies of Karashar, Turfan, Hamil, and Urumtsi. After this +brilliant campaign, he slowly retraced his steps through Kucha to Aksu. +Then he turned into the mountains, and reduced Ush Turfan, which in his +onward march he had passed by; and, after this acquisition, the Tungani +of Ili expressed a desire to enter into terms of amity with one who had +brought his empire into direct contact with their state. All these +events occurred during the year 1867; and, although now and then +uncertain rumours reached England of these changes in Eastern +Turkestan, the world in general, even the Russian world, remained +indifferent to the progress of events of which it is now difficult to +trace the exact course. But, with the close of this first Tungan +campaign, and with the extension of the new state up to the walls of +Kucha, the Russian Government, as will be seen in a later chapter, +endeavoured to arrive at some clear view on the exact condition of the +newly formed confederacy to which they in their career of conquest were +approaching so rapidly. + +This commencement of foreign interest in, nay, almost supervision of, +his actions in Eastern Turkestan, imposed some restriction on the +hitherto unrestrained caprice of Yakoob Beg, and the country beyond +Kucha up to Turfan was saved for a short time from the depredations from +which in 1871-73 it suffered so much. On his return to Kashgar after +this triumphant progress, and after having annexed the three important +cities, Aksu, Kucha, and Ush Turfan, the danger which had seemed to +threaten the state from Russia passed off, and Yakoob Beg proceeded to +consolidate his hold on what he had secured. Aksu and Kucha were +fortified, and various small forts were constructed in the passes +leading to Khokand and Kuldja. Every precaution was taken that he had it +in his power to observe, to ensure the safety of his little kingdom from +without, and for the moment all murmur within seemed to be hushed by the +loud acclamations at the victories of the Athalik Ghazi. He had, indeed, +accomplished no slight task, and could afford to regard his handiwork +with some complacency. To erect a powerful state on the ruins of the +Chinese power, and to unite in some sort of settled government turbulent +races and antagonistic sects, was no mean achievement; and to all the +credit due to such Yakoob Beg has indisputable claims. But for him, +confusion and disunion would have settled down over Eastern Turkestan, +until either the Russians or the Chinese had come to establish a +respectable government; but for him Kashgar would have lapsed into a +state of almost hopeless disorder, and Russian triumphs would have been +facilitated. But, when Yakoob Beg returned to find that he was not +seriously threatened in Kashgar, he experienced deep regret and +mortification that he had abstained from prosecuting his wars with the +Tungani with a greater vigour. He eagerly looked forward to an excuse +for resuming his discontinued operations against them. In the interval +that elapsed, he waged a small war in the mountainous region of his +territory extending into Badakshan and the Chitral. Sirikul had, ever +since the appearance of the Badakshi army in the service of Kashgar, +acknowledged a certain kind of obedience to Yakoob Beg; but in 1868, the +governor hitherto supported by the Athalik Ghazi broke out into revolt, +and committed several acts of depredation in the contiguous districts of +Sanju and Yarkand. Yakoob Beg without delay despatched a small force +against him, and, by the help of some mountain guns and the judicious +employment of a small but select body of cavalry, was successful in +overcoming all resistance with very slight loss. In February, 1869, +Yakoob Beg, having tried several milder alternatives, formally annexed +this district, and carried the inhabitants into Yarkand. He resettled +the territory with Kirghiz nomads and Yarkandis. Once more, he was able +to turn his attention to the east, and in 1869 commenced those final +campaigns against the Tungani which only ceased with the reappearance of +the Chinese. The great blot in the career of Yakoob Beg is the +resumption of hostilities against the Tungani. In 1867, when he first +engaged with any vigour the Tungani, some excuse may be found for that +unforeseeing action, in the fact that the Tungani were unbroken, and +might have proved formidable neighbours. But in 1869, they had been +hurled back on Korla, and, although it may be true that they were +inconvenient neighbours, robbing caravans and molesting travellers, it +is difficult to justify the later campaigns of Yakoob Beg against them, +especially as they were conducted by himself and his lieutenants with +exceptional ferocity. But, however weak may have been the impulse, and +however disastrous in the result may have been his crusade against the +Tungani, it was not difficult to discover a plausible excuse for +proceeding to extreme measures with his troublesome neighbours. In the +autumn of 1869, Korla fell before his triumphant arms, and it would +appear that he then turned north into the valleys of the Tekes and the +Yuldus, two rivers rising in the Tian Shan, and flowing through +Jungaria. This movement aroused the susceptibilities of the Russians, +and afforded a very simple excuse for the acquisition of Kuldja. In that +state, disturbances had arisen between the Tungani and the Tarantchis, +and it must have fallen an easy prey to the Athalik Ghazi had he been +permitted to advance. The Russians had, however, in 1871, entered +Kuldja, and explained their action by asserting that they had only done +so to restore order, and to prevent its falling into the hands of Yakoob +Beg. They merely held it in trust for the Chinese, so they said, and +would restore it to them, its rightful owners, so soon as they should be +able to keep permanent possession of it. While Yakoob Beg despatched a +large detachment into the country of the Tian Shan, his main body was +prosecuting with vigour the war against Karashar and Turfan. Yakoob Beg +did not always conduct the war in person, for his two sons, Kuli Beg and +Hacc Kuli Beg, were now growing up, and they, assisted by some of the +older lieutenants, triumphed in various actions over the Tungan rulers +of Turfan and Hamil, while even the princes of Urumtsi and Manas over +the Tian Shan were unable to oppose the valour and energy of their +adversary. The glory of these military achievements was tarnished by the +ruthless manner in which the district was laid waste, and the +inhabitants were massacred; and the senselessness of these proceedings +only required an hour of trial, such as the Chinese invasion, to prove +how fatal it would be to the enacters of these atrocities. Without any +great cessation, their operations were carried on down to the end of +1873, and it does not appear that Yakoob Beg derived any benefit +whatever from these costly and remote undertakings. Although the Tungan +chiefs of Urumtsi and Hamil were on several occasions defeated by the +armies of the Athalik Ghazi, their cities were never occupied, and they +consequently escaped that desolation which stretched from the walls of +Kucha to the regions north of Lake Lob. Chightam, a small town lying +half way between Turfan and Hamil, was the extreme point to which the +Kashgarian forces penetrated. The noble families of Urumtsi, Turfan, and +Hamil were almost totally destroyed in the fall of Turfan; and their +place in their own cities was seized by Tungan generals and adventurers, +who began to retreat westward from Kansuh, on the rumours of Chinese +preparations for invading Jungaria. + +The wars against the Tungani certainly served one useful purpose in +enabling Yakoob Beg to collect a large and disciplined force round his +standard; but the attractions of service in his army lost much of their +value in the eyes of the hardier clans of Turkestan and the neighbouring +states, when it became known that the prospect of loot and prize money +in districts impoverished by several years of hostilities had +diminished. The rigour of the discipline maintained, too, was irksome to +nomads and irregulars accustomed to the easier service and freedom from +restraint of the other Asiatic princes; and during the later years of +his rule there were many desertions, and a difficulty was encountered in +inducing recruits to enter his army. The old practice, employed with +such success in the earlier years of his rule, of inducing the conquered +to combine with the conqueror, was no longer possible, for +extermination had become the order of the day. The Usbegs, Kirghiz, and +other tribes, could not supply in sufficient numbers the requirements of +the state, and the Tungani, who should have comprised the largest +portion of the subjects of the Athalik Ghazi, were coerced into +subjection with an undiscriminating severity. The result was really a +paralysis through sheer want of people, and it was not known until the +hour of trial came how weakened his forces had become. Every inducement +was held forth to Afghan, Badakshi, and, above all, to Indian soldiers +to join, but these, although they formed a nucleus of trustworthy and +efficient soldiers, were far too few to constitute a formidable army. We +are justified in assuming from the facts that these Tungan wars, +conducted in an unsparing manner, were the greatest mistake that marked +the career of Yakoob Beg. So far as his occupation of Kucha goes, he +could at least say that he had secured a valuable prize. He had acquired +every part of what could be considered Kashgar, and his kingdom was +effectually guarded, and his revenues prospectively increased, by the +possession of the great cities of Aksu and Kucha. He might exclaim with +justice that he had eclipsed all his predecessors in military prowess, +and if he had been wise he would then have turned his attention to the +well government of his state, and by so doing have demonstrated that he +was of a higher capacity for ruling a people, as well as for commanding +an army, than any Khoja prince of the past. Had he abstained from +prosecuting with such unflagging persistency his inveterate dislike of +the Tungani, he might easily have come to terms with his neighbours, and +the harm they could have done him would have been infinitesimally small. +But the chief advantage of that more prudent policy would have been +visible when the Chinese advanced to chastise the Tungani. Not only +would the Tungani have been more capable of resisting the Khitay, not +only would Manas and Urumtsi have been capable of offering a more +determined defence, but the Tungani could have retired on Turfan, and +held the country round that town, as well as Karashar and Korla, for a +protracted period against General Kin Shun. The Athalik Ghazi with +untouched resources could have awaited with just confidence the advance +of the Chinese upon his strong frontier city of Kucha, and, as the +Chinese accomplished the difficult task of crushing the Tungani, he +would have had the satisfaction of knowing that in all probability the +Chinese effort would have been spent before it reached his own borders. + +It is impossible to judge men except by the results of their actions, +and the result of Yakoob Beg's incessant and unnecessary interference +with the Tungani was that the Chinese army was able in a few months to +dissipate the remaining Tungan communities, and to encounter in the full +flush of their triumph the numerically weaker forces of Yakoob Beg. It +is, therefore, impossible to exonerate the ruler from great blame in +hastily undertaking operations which a little consideration ought to +have shown to be unwise. Having traced Yakoob Beg's wars with the +Chinese Mahomedans, it is time to consider his rule of Kashgaria proper, +and the events that during these years were transpiring in other +quarters of the state. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +YAKOOB BEG'S GOVERNMENT OF KASHGAR. + + +Yakoob Beg's chief claim to our consideration is that, for more than +twelve years, he gave a settled government to a large portion of Central +Asia, and that, however faulty his external policy may have been in +critical moments, his internal management was founded on a practical and +sufficiently just basis. As a warrior he had done much to justify +admiration, and had proved on many a well-fought field, and in many a +desperate encounter, his claims to be considered a fearless and resolute +soldier; but in this quality he was equalled, if not excelled, by his +own lieutenant, Abdulla Beg, the Murat of Kashgar, while some of the +deeds of his son, Beg Bacha, will rank in daring and surpass in ferocity +anything achieved by the Athalik Ghazi. But in capacity for +administration Yakoob Beg far surpassed his contemporaries, and the +merit of his success was enhanced, not so much by the originality of the +method adopted, as by the unique vigour and perseverance with which it +was put into force. The secret of his power can only be discovered by +constantly bearing in mind the fact that he had constituted himself the +champion of the Mahomedan religion in Central Asia. The Ameers of +Bokhara and Afghanistan might trifle with the seductive promises of the +Russians, and might consent to sacrifice the interests of their religion +for a transitory advancement of their worldly possessions; but to such +degradations the Athalik Ghazi--true "champion father" as he was--never +stooped. With whatever imaginary power the sympathy and good-will of +the Mahomedan peoples of Turkestan may have clothed this ruler, there is +no question that his attitude towards the Muscovite would have warranted +the assertion of greater power than was ever attributed to him; and the +secret of this delusion, an attitude of defiant strength without any +solid foundation for so bold a course, can only be unravelled by +remembering that the Athalik Ghazi strove to represent, not so much +Kashgaria, as the whole Mahomedan world of Central Asia. The necessities +of his own position, when, having conquered Kashgar, he found that he +had aroused the susceptibilities of the Russians, compelled him to seek +in every direction for aid, and to have recourse to every artifice for +increasing his strength, or its semblance, in order to avoid the +dissolution of his state and a subjection to the Czar. So well did he +succeed in his efforts, and so prompt were his movements and so fearless +his attitude, that the Russians were deluded into a belief--which was, +as we emphatically insist, unfounded--that Kashgar would prove a more +formidable antagonist than either Bokhara, or Khokand, or Khiva. + +The interior management of a state, which, young in years, yet seemed to +tower among its fellows, might be supposed to be a very interesting +topic to dilate upon; but on this subject there is less direct evidence +than could be wished. Even Sir Douglas Forsyth, in his official report, +is not able to throw as much light as is desired on the inner working of +the administrative system of Yakoob Beg. Still, such as it is, with the +exception of the Russian writer, Gregorieff, he is the only authority on +the subject. + +To commence with the court and the immediate surroundings of Yakoob Beg, +we are struck by two inconsistencies. In the first place, there were no +great nobles, or indeed adherents or his family; those chiefs who, +whether they were Khokandian nobles or Kirghiz or Afghan adventurers, +had proved their fidelity to his rule, and their capacity for service, +were actively employed as governors of districts, or as commandants of +fortresses in the wide-stretching dominions of their imperious master. +Periodically they came to pay their respects in the capital, and at +frequent intervals Yakoob Beg, in his journeys to the frontier, visited +them, and superintended their operations in person; but, in so active a +community where there was a dearth of mankind, the intellectually gifted +members of the society were too valuable to be permitted to devote their +energies and their attention to the object of becoming palace ornaments. +Yakoob Beg had forced himself on a people who regarded him with +indifference, and he had to maintain himself in his place by a never +relaxing vigour. To make this possible, he required a large staff of +efficient and trustworthy subordinates, who may be divided into three +classes of various capacities, viz., soldiers, administrators, and +tax-gatherers. Until the last few months of his reign there was no +symptom that his system was declining in vigour, or that his supply of +competent officials was limited and susceptible of being exhausted. Even +in his most prosperous years, however, there was always a difficulty in +obtaining a full supply; and in all inferior posts the disaffected +Khitay had to be employed. The Tungani of Kucha and Aksu were scarcely +more to be trusted in an emergency than their Buddhist kinsmen. Yet the +extensive civil service of the state, which undertook the education, the +religion, the civil order, the local administration of the people all +into its own hands, had to be kept in working order, whatever else might +happen. It can at once be perceived that, when a government which never +obtained any deep hold on the affections of the people had only a +limited population to draw upon, it was only a question of time to solve +the difficulty by an exhaustion of the supply of suitable brain +material, or by the uprising of an, at heart, dissatisfied people. No +one will ever understand the secret of Yakoob Beg's rule unless he +constantly bears in mind that his strict orthodoxy as a Mussulman, and +his still stricter enforcement of the laws of his religion within his +borders, were elements of strength only in his external relations; in +his internal affairs they placed him in the light of a tyrant, and +prevented his people ever experiencing any enthusiasm for his person and +rule. It is doubtful whether outside the priesthood and the more +fanatical Andijanis there was any great religious zeal at all, and it is +quite a delusion to speak of the Kashgari, as a whole, as being +fanatical Mahomedans, in the same degree that it is true to say so of +the Bokhariots or Afghans. In addition to there being no noble or +wealthy official class in the city of Kashgar, there was also the +strange inconsistency of an intensely strict etiquette being enforced +side by side with extreme plainness in costume and ceremonial. It is +rare indeed to hear any traveller to Kashgar speaking of the richness or +finery of court functionaries. Even Hadji Torah, or the Seyyid Yakoob +Khan, as he is now called, and Mahomed Yunus, the governor of Yarkand, +two of the most trusted and prominent followers of the Athalik Ghazi, +were not to be distinguished from a host of minor luminaries in the +court circle by any external insignia of their elevated position. Some +of the military, officers of the household troops, wore a device of a +dragon's head worked in silk over their plain uniform of leather; and +this seems to have been a custom surviving the disappearance of the +Chinese. Hadji Torah--who recently visited this country, and who had on +previous occasions travelled in Russia, Turkey, and India--however, +alone among Kashgarian notables, had introduced into his household some +of the comforts and luxuries of European life. His example was not +imitated by many others, and, after a brief period of fashion, the +improvements he had striven to make popular died out and were lost sight +of. The ordinary dress of a person above the rank of gentleman is a +large blanket-like cloak worn over a close-fitting tunic and breeches; +and the dress of the peasant is similar, only his cloak is usually a +sheepskin. The Ameer himself set the example of exceeding plainness in +his costume, and his followers were far too skilled courtiers to vary +their practice from that of their ruler. But what his court lacked in +pomp it gained in impressiveness by the perfect system of etiquette +enforced, and by the external show of reverence to the ruler and to his +religion, manifested in every petty detail of the palace ceremonial. The +Ameer received publicly in his audience-chamber every day, when all +petitions and stringent punishments were submitted to him. His +_shaghawals_, or foreign secretaries, made their report to him on +whatever business might be most pressing, whether it was concerning his +relations with India or Russia, with Afghanistan or the Tungani; and the +local governors, who might happen to have arrived at the capital, were +received in audience, either to present their personal respects to the +ruler, or their reports of the government of their provinces. But with +the exception of a few of his kinsmen, and more intimate associates, +such as Abdulla, none were permitted to be seated in his presence. Even +these could not sit within a certain distance of their sovereign. All +subjects who were allowed to approach his person had to do so in the +humblest manner, and with the deepest expressions of humility and +subjection. His son, Kuli Beg, was still more particular in his +intercourse with his subjects. Even his cousin, Hadji Torah, a man whose +experience and lineage entitled him to exceptional consideration, never +placed himself on an equality with this youthful despot, and always +clothed his words and thoughts when in conversation with him in an +outward show of humble respect and deferential obsequiousness. It will +be at once surmised, and, so far as our information warrants an opinion, +with correctness, that all this terrorism alienated any good feeling +from the ruling family that its prowess in the field and the cabinet +might have secured for it. In Kashgar we have a forcible proof of the +truth of Tennyson's line, that "he who only rules by terror doeth +grievous wrong;" and yet, founded as it was on a military system, and on +the deepest distrust of the subject races, it could not well have been +otherwise. + +The most unmistakable proof of how Yakoob Beg's rule was founded, and +how it was maintained, is to be seen in the fact that his _orda_, or +palace, was one large barrack, the interior compartments of which were +devoted to the accommodation of the royal household. His out-houses were +filled with cannon of every description, from antiquated Chinese irjirs +to modern Krupps and Armstrongs, and his select corps of artillerymen, +clothed in a scarlet uniform, seldom left the chief cities, except for +serious operations against foreign enemies. At the Yangy-Shahr of +Kashgar, too, he kept his military stores, and it was said that in his +workshops there he was able to construct cannon and muskets in +considerable numbers in imitation of the most perfect weapons of +European science. But it must be noted that we have no record of any of +his home-made weapons being used in actual hostilities, while the supply +of arms received from Russia, or this country, is known to have been +made the most of. Besides the natural aptitude of his subjects of +Chinese descent for imitation, he had in his service, particularly in +his artillery, many sepoys who had deserted our service either at the +time of the mutiny or since. These soldiers, valuable either as +non-commissioned officers or in higher ranks still, combined with a +large number of good troops from Khokand and the mountain tribes of the +neighbourhood, gave a cohesion and vigour to the whole army that was +simply inestimable. That army, it may be here convenient to say, was +divided into two classes widely differing from each other, and called +upon, except in an emergency, when all the resources of the state were +summoned to take part in its defence, to perform duties as opposite as +their own composition. The army of the Ameer, founded on that confused +assemblage with which he conquered Kashgar, was divided into two bodies, +the _jigit_ or _djinghite_, the horse soldier, and the _sarbaz_, or foot +soldier. The former of these was the more formidable warrior, being +selected for personal strength or skill. The _jigits_ were trained to +fight on foot as well as on horse, and were armed with a long +single-barrelled gun and a sabre. Their uniform was a serviceable coat +of leathern armour mostly buff in colour, and to all intents and +purposes they correspond with our dragoons, or, perhaps, still more +closely with the proposed corps of mounted riflemen. The _sarbaz_, among +whom are included the artillerymen, presented greater varieties of +efficiency than his mounted comrade; still he had gone through some +regular drill and training, and resided in barracks. He was a regular +soldier, and might be trusted in defence of his country up to a certain +point. In numbers it is impossible to state accurately how many _jigits_ +and _sarbazes_ there were in the service of the state; some months ago +they would have been placed as high as 50,000 or 60,000 strong, possibly +at a higher number still; now we are wiser on the subject, and we have +gone to the other end of the scale. It is probable, however, that Yakoob +Beg never had 20,000 perfectly trustworthy soldiers in his army, and +that after the conclusion of the Tungan wars, half that number would +more accurately represent his force of _jigits_ and _sarbazes_. But in +addition to the more or less effective main body, there was a +nondescript following of Khitay, Tungani, half-savage Kirghiz, and rude +degraded savages like the Dolans, that in numbers would have presented a +very formidable appearance. The Khitay must at once be struck out of the +estimate, for they were never permitted to go beyond the immediate +vicinity of Yarkand and Kashgar, where they kept themselves apart, and +were employed as military servants, as sentries, and as workmen in the +military shops and factories. The Tungani, who enrolled themselves at +various epochs in the service of Kashgar, were more than dubious in +their fidelity to the state; besides they were of such questionable +courage, that they were no allies of any importance. Even as compared +with one another, these were of varying kinds of efficiency; the Tungani +who joined Yakoob Beg in the earlier portion of his career seeming to be +the best of them. Those who joined after the fall of Aksu and Kucha, +less efficient and more ambiguous in their fidelity; and those who dwelt +in the country from Korla to Turfan and Manas, were totally inefficient, +and not to be trusted to any degree whatever. The Kirghiz and Kipchak +nomads were rather a source of danger to their friends than of dread to +their foes. Yakoob Beg had, therefore, at his orders but a very limited +force to maintain his own dynasty against the machinations of Khoja and +Tungan, and to defend a long and vulnerable frontier against many +powerful and ambitious neighbours. It was absurd for him to think of +venturing single-handed across the path of Russia, and to do him justice +he never deluded himself into the idea that he could. All he seems to +have aspired to was to resist to the uttermost any invasion of his +territory by them, and to die sooner than surrender. Limited in numbers +as his regular forces were, they seem to have had every claim to be +placed high in the rank of Asiatic soldiers. They were certainly not as +formidable a body as the Sikhs or Ghoorkas, probably not as the Afghans; +still they were infinitely superior, except in numbers, to any forces +the Ameer of Bokhara or the Khan of Khokand could place in the line of +battle. To Yakoob Beg alone belongs the credit of their organization. + +Yakoob Beg's system of administration was simple in the extreme. A +_Dadkwah_, or governor, was appointed for each district, and in his +hands was vested the supreme control in all the affairs of his province. +Yet he was no irresponsible minister who could tyrannize as he pleased. +Tyrannize in small ways, undoubtedly, many of them did, but, as the life +of the subject could only be taken away by order of the ruler himself, +the most powerful weapon in the hands of an unscrupulous viceroy was +removed. + +At stated periods, too, he had to proceed to Kashgar to give a report of +the chief occurrences in his province, and on such occasions petitions +containing charges against the Dadkwah were formally considered in his +presence. It may be said that this proceeding was a farce, and it is +probably true that a favoured viceroy could laugh at any ordinary +accusation against his character. But that would be an exceptional case. +Many Dadkwahs were reduced in official rank, for malpractices, and some, +such as Yakoob Beg's own half-brother, were removed for incompetence in +their charges. Side by side, too, with the Dadkwah, ruled the Kazi or +Judge, who, if of course not on a par in rank with the viceroy, was +still invested with complete authority in all legal decisions on crime. +This prominence given to the legal authorities had a good effect on the +public mind, for, although the Kazi, as a rule, might not dare to thwart +the wishes of the Dadkwah, the effect of the law being supreme was +scarcely detracted from. And what was that law? it may naturally be +asked. Precisely the same as the law of every other Mahomedan state, +with a few innovations traceable to the influence of the Chinese. The +Shariát, the holy code of the Prophet followed in all the Sunni states, +was enforced by Yakoob Beg, with particular severity; and in its working +no sense of mercy was permitted to temper the harshness of its +regulations. Crimes committed by women were punished with greater +inflictions than the same committed by men; and the ordinary +punishments, whipping, mutilation, and torture could be inflicted by +order of the Dadkwah. Only in capital cases had the decision to rest +with the sovereign. Thieves, beggars, and vagrants found wandering about +the streets at prohibited hours were immediately locked up, and brought +before the Kazi, who would either administer a caution, or a whipping, +if the accused had previously offended. Another check on the abuse of +power by the officials was to be found in the following regulation. A +charge to be visited with a severer punishment than twenty heavy strokes +from the _dira_--a leather strap, fixed in a wooden handle--had to be +investigated by a member of each official rank; so the Kazi passed a +culprit on, with his comments, to the Mufti, the Mufti to the Alim, and +the Alim to the Dadkwah. If any of these officials dissented from the +remarks of his subordinate, and the matter was found impossible to +arrange by mutual concessions, it was either referred to the sovereign +for solution, or was permitted to fall through. The Dadkwah had also to +be present at every punishment within his jurisdiction, and was directly +responsible to the Ameer for any miscarriage of justice. The Kazi Rais, +or head judge, had the right to decide all minor matters for +himself--for instance, in his patrols through the streets, if he met a +woman unveiled he could order her to be struck so many times with the +_dira_; or if he found a man selling adulterated food, or using light +weights, he could confiscate his goods, or in some other manner mulct +him in addition to administering a certain number of strokes. He and his +attendants were particularly energetic and zealous in compelling idlers +about the bazaars to repair to the mosques at prayer time, and in a very +paternal and authoritative manner did the Rais exercise his petty power +for the good of his people. Even on his despotism there was some check, +as he had no authority to inflict more than forty blows with the _dira_ +for one offence. Intimately connected with the administration of justice +was the police system, which in its intricate ramifications permeated +all sections of society. Much as we may feel admiration for the judicial +code, which, up to a certain point admirably administered, ensured a +certain kind of rough justice throughout the Athalik Ghazi's dominions, +the police laws and discipline have greater claims to our favourable +opinion, as evidences of an astonishing capacity for government. In his +legal code, Yakoob Beg simply adopted the laws enforced on all true +believers by the Koran, and he had no claims to originality as a +lawgiver. But as a ruler adopting all those checks on sedition which lie +at the disposal of an unscrupulous sovereign, and which were brought to +such a pitch of perfection under Fouché and the Second Empire, Yakoob +Beg has reason to be placed in the very highest class of such +potentates. In this achievement, too, he was not a plagiarist, and, as +he must have been ignorant of similar regulations existing in Europe, he +must be allowed the credit of having originated a system of police in +which it is difficult to find a single flaw. In China, indeed, something +of the same kind has at all times existed, and at periods when the +Emperor grasped the sceptre firmly, and made his individuality felt in +the management of affairs, the police were one of the most active tools +of power. But even in that empire there is no record of their having +attained so complete a control over the actions and sentiments of the +people as in Kashgaria during the last decade. It appears, too, that in +superiority of system lay the sole pre-eminence of the latter; for the +Tungan, or policeman, of China was, individually man for man, a superior +class to the Kashgarian and other constables of Yakoob Beg. In short, +the whole credit of their existence belongs to that ruler. + +Let us now give some account of this important body. It was divided into +two chief divisions quite distinct from and irrespective of each other, +secret and municipal. The _secret_ was not, like ours, a perceptible +class of detectives, acting in combination with the municipal, to which +was entrusted the discovery of crimes and conspiracies. It may loosely +be described as consisting of every member of the community, for all +desired to stand well with the powers that be, and the easiest way to +attain that object would be to place all confidential information at +their disposal. But it is evident that even in a state of irresponsible +power, like Kashgar, a clear encouragement, such as this, to invent +libels of one's neighbours, could only end in unprofitable litigation +and confusion. There was certainly a check on the too zealous +imaginations of the subjects, and, although there is not much evidence +on the subject, it appears to have been twofold. In the first place a +libeller incurred the risk of receiving very severe punishment, +particularly if the person libelled were of saintly lineage, or if he +filled any official post. This operated as a check on too hasty +accusations, especially when it became known that the reward for such +service was seldom speedily forthcoming, and scarcely ever answered the +expectations of the informer. But this check, which alone seems to have +been adopted in the earlier years of Yakoob Beg's authority, was found +to be insufficient as his power became consolidated. The secret police +then became organized to a certain degree; that is to say, they so far +formed a distinct corps that a member had to be approved of either by +the Dadkwah or the Rais. So well, however, was the secret of their +individuality maintained that few of them were generally known to the +people. Suspicion was wide-spread throughout all ranks of society, and +the governor in his _orda_, or the Rais in his hall of justice, or the +shopkeeper in his booth, or the artisan in his hut, never felt safe that +his neighbour, the man with whom he was holding the most friendly +converse, was not dissecting his expressions to discover whether they +contained anything treasonable. Members of this formidable body were +always attached to the suite of either foreign envoys or merchants; and +their presence in the rear of the _cortége_, always effectually closed +the mouths of the inhabitants, or only induced them to open them to give +false or contradictory replies. + +There can be no doubt that this secret organization, brought to a high +pitch of perfection during the later years of his reign, gave a +consistency and strength to Yakoob Beg's tenure of power that was +wanting to all his predecessors. In leaving this part of the system, it +is as well to point out in conclusion that this detective force was +only useful in discovering what was about to occur in the state among +Andijani or Tungani, and that it was powerless to attempt the repression +by force of any outbreak of popular feeling. Its members were simply +spies, and as a body its value vanished when its members became +generally known. Constant changing, and the introduction of fresh +members, were the sole effectual means of preserving the _incognito_ of +a large body of men, and women even, who preserved official +communication only with the local governor or judge. + +The municipal police were subdivided into urban and suburban, and they +present a complete contrast to the vague body we have just attempted to +describe. Their functions were known and recognizable. They were the +functionaries who put into practice the behests of the Kazi, and they +maintained order in the streets and bazaars, much as our own do. The +_Corbashi_ is the head of this body, and his subordinates are styled +_tarzagchi_. They wore a distinct uniform, and had drilling grounds +attached to barracks, in which, however, they were not all compelled to +reside. They were essentially military in their rules, and presented a +powerful first front to all evil-doers and would-be rebels. It was they +who accompanied the Kazi Rais in his daily circuit of the streets and +market-place, and it was from their weapon, the _dira_, that the +ordinary punishment was received. Their principal avocation seems to +have been to maintain order in the towns during the night-time, for in +the day we only hear of a few of them being detailed for personal +attendance on the Dadkwah and Kazi. With sunset their true importance is +more visible, for not only were they stationed in all main +thoroughfares, squares, and other open places of the city; but until +sunrise patrols at frequent intervals throughout the night visited all +the chief quarters of the town. The power vested in their hands during +these hours was very great, and it was dangerous for any stranger to +venture out after prohibited hours. All persons found in the streets +after sunset were arrested and incarcerated until the morning, when, if +they could give a satisfactory account of themselves, they were +released, with a caution not to keep such unseemly hours for the future. +If, however, they were unable to explain their business, a further term +of imprisonment was imposed; and it was a matter of some difficulty for +a stranger to obtain his complete liberty for some time afterwards. The +suburban police fulfilled much the same duties, and on all the country +roads patrols passed up and down during the night, while pickets were +stationed at the cross-roads. In the same manner as in the towns all +travellers, except those armed with a passport, were interned for a +minute investigation into their affairs in the morning. And "thieves, +beggars, and wanderers" were chastised at the discretion of the local +magistrate. The vagrant laws were as much enforced, too, as they were in +this country in the days of Queen Elizabeth, and in a general mode of +interference with the thoughts and actions of its subjects, the +Kashgarian government had attained a height of excellence that would +entitle it to rank with the Inquisition. Still there was order. No riots +occurred to distract the harmony of the public weal, and to an external +observer, especially to one belonging to a country where order is +considered the greatest _desideratum_, the government of the Athalik +Ghazi seemed to be the perfection of an Asiatic state, and that order a +reason for attributing all other virtues to its originator. + +Travellers, however, who were provided with a passport, were accorded +privileges of transit, and were permitted, if they felt so disposed, to +continue their journeys during hours interdicted to less privileged +mortals. In each chief town there were offices for the issue of these +permits to travel. Not many obstacles were thrown in the path of those, +who left permanent guarantees in the shape of property behind them for +their return, in accomplishing their desire for travel; but rarely was +permission granted to any one, not blessed with these worldly +advantages, to proceed farther than the neighbouring district. Indeed in +all cases leave to visit foreign states, other than Khokand or Bokhara, +was a matter of difficulty to be obtained, and only in the most +exceptional cases was it granted. But it appears that there were some +evasions of this regulation by a simulation of religious zeal, for the +Sheikh-ul-Islam had it in his power to grant permits to leave the +country on pilgrimages to Bokhara the "holy," or to Mecca. In themselves +the passports were simple in phraseology. They merely stated the name +and address of the traveller, the nature of his business, and his +destination. Having obtained the consent of the Dadkwah, and the +authority of the Kazi, no difficulty was experienced in procuring the +necessary slip of paper. Infractions of this permission, by too long an +absence, or by proceeding in some forbidden direction, were visited on a +first offence with a fine. On a repetition of it, however, the +punishment became more severe. It would be interesting to know how these +protectors of the public peace were paid, and by what means. But on this +point there is little trustworthy information. We, however, know of one +tax which was devoted to the support of the urban police, but of the +funds from which the suburban were remunerated, we have no authority for +any assertion. A weekly tax was levied from all the shop and booth +owners, to go towards the payment of their protectors; but it is not +supposed that this amounted to a sufficient sum to maintain the large +force in the more important cities. The difference was probably paid out +of the state coffers under the head of justice. Judging from this we +cannot be far wrong in assuming that a similar tax was levied on the +farmers and country residents for the support of the suburban police; +and as the secret police required less outlay in the country than in the +cities, it is possible that that tax more nearly defrayed the total +cost, than it did in Yarkand or Kashgar. The police supervision and the +military terrorism, freely resorted to on all occasions offering an +excuse for such an extreme measure, have not been without their effect +in leaving traces of their existence and influence in the daily life of +the Kashgari, and on the countenances and sentiments of the subject +peoples. Where formerly lived a light-hearted and happy race there now +seemed as if a never-to-be-removed gloom had settled down on the face of +the land, and neither the assurance of security nor the irregular +encouragement of the ruler to commerce could remove the blight that had +fallen upon the energies and happiness of the people. As one of them +expressed it, in pathetic language, "During the Chinese rule there was +everything; there is nothing now." The speaker of that sentence was no +merchant, who might have been expected to be depressed by the +falling-off in trade, but a warrior and a chieftain's son and heir. If +to him the military system of Yakoob Beg seemed unsatisfactory and +irksome, what must it have appeared to those more peaceful subjects to +whom merchandise and barter were as the breath of their nostrils? All +the advantages of a perfect police system, heavily weighted by the +incumbrance of a costly addition of spies and tale-bearers, would seem +as nothing compared with the loss incurred by the fetters placed on +individual motion and enterprise. Considered by itself, the police +organization of Kashgar was, perhaps, the most perfect design achieved +by Yakoob Beg, and his community of spies will rank with anything in +effectiveness that has ever been accomplished by any potentate. But as a +permanent addition to his strength it is permissible to doubt whether he +really secured his rule by employing the latter, or obtained much more +by the formation of the former than the services of a trained body of +trustworthy, courageous men. The restrictions imposed on trade by the +severance of all communications with the East by the Tungan wars and by +the limited amount of liberty granted the native Kashgari, proved most +deterrent to all mercantile adventure, and placed in the hands of +Khokandians or Russians on the north, and of Cashmerians and Punjabis on +the south, most of the trade still carried on with Eastern Turkestan. + +The trade carried on by the Athalik Ghazi's state, if we are to judge +solely by amount, with foreign countries, was greatest with Russia and +her dependencies; but if we investigate the matter more closely we find +that the result is a little more satisfactory to ourselves. The direct +trade that was carried on by way of Leh with Khoten and Sanju was +steadily increasing, while that of Russia by Khokand had for some time +remained stationary, if it had not even decreased. And then much of the +Russian trade has to be scored to this country, for in the marts of +Kashgar, underneath Russian exteriors, were very often to be found +English interiors, and the brand of well-known Manchester and Liverpool +makers was discovered beneath some gaudy and brilliant-looking cover +hailing from Moscow or Nishni Novgorod. Besides, recent investigations +have proved that some of the goods exported from Shikarpore, in Scinde, +through the Bholan Pass find their way through the mountainous districts +that intervene into the territory of his late Highness the Ameer of +Kashgar. Nor had Yakoob Beg totally neglected all means for inducing +merchants to enter his state; indeed, his chief objection seemed to have +been, not that they should have entered his state, but that they should +leave it. Serais were built in all the chief towns for the accommodation +of such merchants as might take up a temporary abode within his +territory, and the Andijani Serai, or hotel, specially constructed for +merchants from Khokand, was one of the largest and most striking +buildings in the city of Kashgar. Yakoob Beg had even detailed off to +take care of the serai and its occupants a large number of the old +Khitay, or Yangy Mussulmans, who were generally employed throughout the +city as domestic servants. When we come to the description of the +relations of Yakoob Beg with England and with Russia we will speak more +fully of the details of those treaties of commerce which were ratified +on several occasions, and whose ostensible object was the promotion of +trade and other friendly intercourse. + +We have now considered the army, the police, the administration of +justice, and the court of Yakoob Beg, and the only chief subject that +remains to be discussed are the principles of finance adopted by the +Ameer. To keep any state, even an Asiatic state, in a fit condition for +preserving its independence, a settled revenue is requisite, and Yakoob +Beg, whose atmosphere was one of almost continual warfare, was on +several occasions pressed for money in a manner difficult to be +conceived by us. His military operations languished for the want of the +sinews of war, and we are told on credible authority that many of his +soldiers received only payment out of the spoil taken at the sack of +Turfan and other places. So long as his ordinary expenditure was +increased by the addition of an extraordinary war outlay, so long was he +unable to make his receipts and expenditure balance. On the cessation of +hostilities against the Tungani, and the partial revival of trade in +consequence, his fiscal affairs assumed a brighter aspect, and it is +possible that during the last few years of his reign his revenue showed +a surplus. But to obtain that success, a most joyful one to every +embarrassed potentate, Yakoob Beg had to resort to many strange +expedients, and to manifest much patience and long-suffering; and in +overcoming petty obstacles and minor details, he proved himself to be a +man of more than average ability, no less than he had previously by the +skilful manipulation of armies and intriguers. Here again he erected a +structure distinct and separate from that handed down to him by the +Chinese. Comparatively speaking, the Chinese had been wealthy to the +Athalik Ghazi, and they received in moderate imposts on merchandise +alone almost a sufficient sum to defray the total cost of their +administration. Yakoob Beg had no such certain source of revenue; he had +to raise from an impoverished and only half-conquered state a sum almost +as large as that required by the Chinese. That he did it remains the +chief proof of his skill as a finance minister, and is another reason +for our regarding this extraordinary ruler with admiration. We may feel +sure that if we could follow closely the history of his fiscal efforts, +and the numberless plans that proved abortive, we should have revealed +one of the most instructive and interesting narratives of modern Asia. +There are no materials out of Kashgar, if there are such there, for such +an investigation however, and we can only follow as best we may be able, +the thread of events by the light of such authorities as are at our +disposal. In court and personal expenditure he set an example that might +with advantage be followed by other rulers in Asia even at the present +day, and in a strict economy and supervision of the petty sums that in +the aggregate make all the difference in any state between a surplus and +a deficit, were to be found the two guiding principles of his conduct. +Kashgaria might be in a very backward state of cultivation, and years of +commotion and warfare had undoubtedly thrown it back in the ranks of +prosperity and civilization, but the Athalik Ghazi was persuaded of the +truth of the Latin philosopher's saying, that "Parsimonia magna +vectigalia est." It must be remembered that Yakoob Beg set himself a +different task to accomplish than had the Chinese. Their idea was not so +much to extend their empire, although there has always been a tendency +with the Chinese to be aggressive against small neighbours, as to +acquire a territory that could be made a paying thing: much as the +pioneers of Anglo-Saxon conquest have made their impression in every +quarter of the globe in search of wealth and adventure, did the Chinese +by a seemingly irresistible impulse spread over the continent of Asia. +In doing so they were actuated as much by calculation of possible profit +as by any desire for military renown. The Emperor Keen-Lung himself was +flattered by the triumphs achieved beyond Gobi; but his lieutenants and +viceroys aimed at more mercenary objects, and but for the golden promise +held forth by a permanent conquest of Turkestan would have induced their +master to direct his efforts to some more profitable undertaking. The +Chinese, having acquired Kashgar, were far too sagacious to use up its +resources by an organized system of pillage, and they accordingly, let +it be granted chiefly with a view to their own personal aggrandizement, +devoted their attention to the development of its natural wealth by +means already detailed in a previous chapter. For three generations the +officials grew rich on the prosperity of their dependency, and for the +same period the people themselves were scarcely less flourishing. The +Chinese had accepted no slight responsibility in undertaking the +government of Kashgar on principles identical with those by which they +held authority in Tibet; but, owing to wonderful perseverance and good +management, they triumphed over every difficulty. The revenue raised for +state and local purposes was very great, and it sufficed to preserve +good order for many years, and to add permanent improvement to the state +in every direction. The task voluntarily undertaken by the Chinese was +far more onerous than that Yakoob Beg found he had to execute; but they +came to it with many advantages that he wanted. They had a large and +faithful army; he had only an uncertain gathering, which might flee or +desert on the first symptom of disaster: they had the resources of a +great and powerful empire at their back; he had nothing but his own +energy and determination: and above all, they had a reputation that +added to their strength and facilitated their undertakings, while he was +regarded as a mere military adventurer, receiving the contempt of Tungan +and Khoja alike. The very nature of things made the Chinese turn most of +their attention to commerce, while for years Yakoob Beg's sole thought +was to consolidate his military strength and form a large standing army. +For many years, then, Yakoob Beg only spent money on the drilling of +soldiers and the purchase of weapons. Now and then, when some danger +seemed to threaten him, either from Russia, Afghanistan, or the Tungani, +he would devote considerable sums to the construction of forts in the +line of the menaced position. But his chief expenditure was confined to +his army, and the maintenance of his dynasty by his police system. The +administration of justice required a certain sum of money, and the +Church for its support came in for a fair share of the good things that +were going. It is clear that his expenditure, if not very great in our +eyes, would severely tax a population of 1,000,000 people in no very +high state of prosperity. The chief source of wealth in the past had +always been the trade with China, and when that was broken off, the +slight increase in intercourse with Russia and India was not a +sufficient compensation. In fact, the country was very poor, without the +ingenuity and commercial instincts of the Khitay. During the days of the +war under Buzurg Khan, the only means of obtaining the necessary revenue +was by despoliation and enforced levies on the occupied portion of the +territory. When the western portion of Kashgaria was subdued, Yakoob Beg +found himself without any money in his exchequer, and no easy means of +filling it presented itself to him. In these straits he had recourse to +an expedient that, if not very novel, was at all events very effective. +He issued a proclamation to his faithful subjects to the effect that as +conqueror he was landowner of the whole state; but that he was +willing--eager would have been the more correct expression--to sell it +to them at a cheap rate. He, however, exempted from this the old +possessions of the Chinese Wangs and Ambans, and distributed their +extensive domains among the more prominent of his followers, who in +return acknowledged their liability to military service. The system was +an exact copy of the old feudal régime, and Yakoob Beg was vested with +all the rights and authority of the feudal lord of the Middle Ages. The +parallel is still further maintained by the large reward that the Church +received for its aid to the new ruler. The old revenues, devoted to the +support of the temples and religious seminaries in the past, and which +had miscarried during the troublous period of the war for the possession +of Turkestan, were restored, and fresh possessions were added thereto, +to demonstrate the generosity of the sovereign and his veneration for +the religion of Mahomed. His old friend the Sheikh-ul-Islam was still +more fortunate, and a large estate was set apart for his special +enjoyment. Nor does it appear that the Mussulman priests abused the +fresh power and advantages they thus secured; for among the toilers in +Kashgaria none were more energetic than they in educating the people, +and in extending their influence over their minds, both for the benefit +of their religion and for the security of the power of the Athalik +Ghazi. But in one respect, and it is impossible to exaggerate its +importance, Yakoob Beg's endeavours to found a strong military class, +bound to him by ties of past favours and others yet to come, were +abortive; for with rare exceptions his followers refused to fill their +new avocation of landed proprietors. Instead of devoting their attention +to the questions arising from agriculture and other rural pursuits, they +sub-let all their possessions to Andijani immigrants, and, residing in +their city _ordas_, gave themselves over either to lascivious pleasures +or to complete indolence. Even so distinguished a warrior as Abdulla +Beg, the slayer of more than 12,000 persons, as his panegyrists boasted, +suffered from the pervading effeminacy on the cessation of active +hostilities; and in the lower ranks of the service such deterioration in +energy was still more manifest. This change in the spirit of his earlier +supporters, among other things, obliged Yakoob Beg to depend the more on +the Andijani merchants and shopkeepers, and conduced to his adopting +more favourable views on foreign trade in the later years of his power. + +The sum of money which he immediately received by the sale of lands +placed him in a condition to undertake those wars against the Tungani, +which added so much to the extent of his territory and to the +responsibilities of his position. Indeed, for several years after its +first enforcement it continued to bring in a certain amount to the +coffers of the State. But even this resource was transitory, and the sum +of money received by this means and in the shape of spoil, from Yarkand, +Kashgar, Khoten, and other places, was not sufficient to meet the +expenditure caused by the formation of a large army. Neither of these +practices could be regarded as a permanent means of obtaining a revenue, +for the former would scarcely admit of a repetition, and the latter soon +exhausted itself. So when his rule had become a little settled, and +these modes of raising money, in addition to the still more +reprehensible practice of robbing foreign merchants, had become out of +date to a certain degree, the Athalik Ghazi had to place his fiscal +arrangements on a more practical and honourable basis. While he laboured +under some disadvantages, already enumerated, as compared with the +Chinese, he had the great advantage over them that he strove for an +object more easily accomplished than the restoration of Kashgar to its +pristine welfare; and in his budget he had only steadily to keep in view +how much he required to maintain so many _jigits_, and so many police in +his pay, and to keep in his exchequer a small surplus for any untoward +emergency. He left the roads to take care of themselves; the irrigation +works, sadly wanted in various parts of the state, must be reserved for +his successors; and all proposals for the amelioration of the people +were shelved for a more opportune occasion. But so many thousand +_jigits_ must be in the ranks; so many fresh guns and cartridges must be +placed in the arsenals; and so many adventurers must be induced by good +pay to take service in the army as non-commissioned officers, in order +that the rank and file should be well drilled. The very necessities of +his position compelled Yakoob Beg to make all these military +preparations; but the cost was great, and the sacrifices thus imposed on +ruler and on people were a terrible strain. Recent events make us +inclined to believe that a less active military and foreign policy, and +a more peaceable and domestic one, would have tended to have added more +strength to the Athalik Ghazi's rule than the somewhat ostentatious +military parade to which he had recourse. Be that as it may, Yakoob Beg +instituted in 1867 two taxes, which may be supposed to represent the two +chief classes of receipts during his tenure of authority. The first of +these was a tithe on all the cereal produce of the country; this tax was +called the _Ushr_. The second, called the _Zakat_, was a customs due +levied on all merchandise entering Kashgar. The _Ushr_ was payable on +all land except that occupied by the Church, or by those who owed +military service to the crown instead of other payment; and even those +who rented land from the noble classes were obliged to surrender a tithe +to the ruler. It would appear, therefore, from this that it was not so +much the land as its legal possessor who was exempt from liability to +the usual obligations of citizenship. The danger contained in the +acquisition of all the crown lands by Andijani merchants, and the +gradual displacement of his more immediate followers through the energy +of these people, was not imperceptible to Yakoob Beg, and he accordingly +adopted measures for preventing his nobles selling their land without +his sanction. The receipts from this _Ushr_ were very considerable, and +it was the main source of his revenue for years. We have some idea of +the approximate value of land in Kashgar. The method of measuring land +for sale, and consequently also for taxation, is peculiar. It is not by +any given size that it is computed, or, indeed, strictly speaking by the +amount of crop it produces; but at a rate in accordance with the amount +of wheat with which it had been planted. The average rate was about a +pound for as much land as was sown with 20 lb. of wheat. The tenant, as +has been said, paid the government dues and handed over three-fourths of +the net produce to the landlord as rent, receiving for his portion only +the one-fourth remaining. Under this system it was only in very +prosperous years that any but very large tenants made sufficient to earn +a competent livelihood. In bad years it is possible that the landlord +had to satisfy himself with a smaller share, if he was not induced to +surrender his claim altogether for the disastrous period. But the +tax-farmers, entrusted with the collection of this rate, were eager to +become rich, no less than to earn a good name with the authorities for +bringing in a list with no defaulters. The unfortunate people were +completely at their mercy, and without any means of ascertaining the +accuracy of the claim, or of opposing extortionate demands on the part +of the tax-collectors. They paid without a murmur, perhaps without a +suspicion of the imposition that was being practised upon them, the sum +demanded of them, if they were able; and as their dues were payable +without delay and on demand before anything else was taken out of the +total sum of the produce, the Athalik Ghazi received his share with +regularity, and his tax-collector pocketed the excess sum for his own +satisfaction. In many cases it is known that the amount claimed by the +official exceeded by threefold the legal demand. Such a system was no +less hurtful to the ruler than it was ruinous to the people. That in one +tax alone a larger sum should be extracted from the people for the +benefit of the officials than was contributed for the necessities of the +state, exhibited a very loose system of supervision on the part of the +sovereign, and is a strong piece of evidence that in many ways Yakoob +Beg was a mixture of contradictions. We can scarcely persuade ourselves +that he was aware of these occurrences, and yet how could he be ignorant +of them? + +In addition to the _Ushr_ there was another tax on home produce, viz., +the _Tanabi_, or tax on land devoted to the production of vegetables or +fruit. The Tanab is, by the way, a lineal measure of forty-seven yards, +and a Tanabi is a piece of land forty-seven yards square. On this extent +of land cultivated for vegetables, or fruit, a small tax was raised. +More than any other tax did this vary according to the character of the +district, and to the quality of the year's crop. It was seldom less than +a shilling a Tanabi, even in the least renowned district, whereas in +some parts, in good years, it was five shillings, or even more. Here +again, however, the middleman interfered, and exacted as much as he saw +there was any possibility of his obtaining. This tax undoubtedly ought +to have produced a large sum, as a larger portion of the soil is laid +out as fruit and vegetable gardens than for crops; but whether it was +more difficult to raise, or there was more peculation _in transitu_ from +the tax-payer to the imperial exchequer, it is certain that we hear much +less of this tax than we should be disposed to imagine. The two great +taxes on home productions were therefore a corn due and a fruit due. The +rate was not in itself excessive, and could be paid by any community +without embarrassment. It is uncertain to what extent the avarice of the +officials had made the conditions of these two taxes more onerous, +although, on the most favourable supposition, the citizen was mulcted in +no inconsiderable sum. A more serious question for the ruler was, how +did it affect his own position with regard to his subjects? Did Yakoob +Beg appear in the eyes of the Kashgari as an exacting and oppressive +tyrant on account of these heavy impositions? + +It is impossible to speak on this point with any degree of certainty, +but it is only natural to expect that such was the case. No tiller of +the ground can feel grateful to a sovereign who required him to hand +over almost one-third of his receipts before he made use of one penny of +them, even for the payment of his rent. It is scarcely probable that +Yakoob Beg approved of such enormous profits going to his officials; +but, that having tolerated petty exactions in his earlier days, he found +himself unable to attempt the task of coping with the evil when it had +assumed such alarming proportions. It is impossible to believe that he +remained in ignorance of what was occurring under his very eyes, and +there is some evident foundation for the accusation that he participated +in the division of the profits of his tax-gatherers. We should be loth +to admit the accuracy of such a charge, and yet the arguments in its +favour are too plausible to admit of a very confident contradiction. It +would not speak well for the efficiency of his secret police if he had +remained in ignorance of a fact which was losing him the sympathy of his +subjects. + +The gold mines at Khoten were worked after the fall of that city in +1868, and continued productive down to the present time. There is no +information on the quantities of the precious metal that are there +turned out in the year, but it is probable that they are not very great. +The coal mines near Aksu and Kucha are no longer made use of, except by +a few individuals, and the copper mines in that district have, since the +departure of the Chinese, only been very partially explored. The jade +that used to come in great quantities from Aksu and Khoten, is still to +be found throughout Kashgar; but although it is probable that it still +nearly all comes from those cities, the Kashgari themselves tell a +hesitating tale as to its place of production. A visitor to Kashgar, on +going the round of the bazaars, soon found that the people's tongues +were tied by the presence, in his train, of a number of the secret +police, who had been specially told off to prevent the Feringhee +obtaining any troublesome information on the state of the people, or the +resources of the state. A striking instance was given him of the close +attention paid by these guardians of order to the veriest trifles. The +traveller inquired in one stall where the jade, which was the chief +commodity of the merchant in question, came from, and received the +reply, Aksu. Proceeding to another shop in the street, he repeated the +question, when he was informed that it was imported from Khokand. But +the traveller said, your neighbour told me it came from Aksu. The +shopkeeper, taken aback by this abrupt remark, became confused, and +admitted that it came from Aksu. Warned by a look from the official, he +then repeated his original assertion that it came from Khokand. The use +of all this absurd shuffling, and attempt to throw dust in strangers' +eyes, is impossible to discover; for it was a matter of little moment +whether jade came from Aksu, or Khokand, so long as we knew that it +formed an important commodity, both in the rough and in the chiselled +state, in the cities of Kashgaria. + +The customs tax, or _Zakat_, is sanctioned by the Shariát, and was +levied at all the border posts on the various roads leading into the +state. Up to the ratification of the treaties with Great Britain and +Russia, its regulations were vague and elastic in the extreme. In fact, +any merchant who might have been so foolhardy as to venture into Kashgar +would have had reason, before these events, to think himself fortunate +if he escaped the penalty of his rashness; for assuredly his luggage +would not, but would have been confiscated for the special benefit of +his Highness the Ameer. So late as 1869, Russian merchants were robbed +of their baggage, and personally ill-treated, and only after long years +of negotiation did the Russian Government obtain any satisfaction for +the injuries and loss inflicted on one of their subjects. And then how +did the Athalik Ghazi send the sum of money he agreed to pay for the +loss the merchant had incurred?--why in a depreciated Chinese currency, +part of a large number of coins that he had found in a disused temple in +Kashgar! Before this, all the external trade had been carried on with +Khokand and Bokhara, Afghanistan and Badakshan, and the receipts from +_Zakat_ were quite insignificant, barring such treasure trove as the +spoliation of a merchant from Tashkent, or from Leh. But with the +persistent efforts on the part of the Russians on the north, and of the +English native merchants on the south, to pierce the gloom hiding the +country of Eastern Turkestan, it became impossible for Yakoob Beg to +maintain much longer the incognito he was so jealous in maintaining. +Perhaps also the prospect of deriving an income from _Zakat_, that +should smooth down many of his difficulties, was not without some +influence on his mind when he came into direct contact with civilized +empires. His expectations were far too sanguine, and he seems to have +once more, during the last twelve months of his life, become indifferent +to the advantages or disadvantages of trade with his neighbours. In +fact, when he placed his customs on a fair footing, he found that it +would require many years to recoup him for the excessive exactions he +surrendered. The merchants who first attempted to commence intercourse +with Kashgar became speedily discouraged by the dangers of the route, +and the small opening for a large remunerative trade in a country whose +wealth and population had been magnified tenfold. In a country where the +richest merchant in the chief town possessed only a capital of £8,000, +not much could be expected in the way of fortune; and although the legal +dues on all merchandise were fixed at an _ad valorem_ rate of 2-1/2 per +cent., it was soon discovered that if the ruler happened to be in want +of cash he would not scruple to take what he could from the stranger. +Both to the ruler, and to the foreign merchant, the new arrangement +contained distasteful matter. The former perceived that he had +surrendered some of his imperial rights, and that he was not to be +recompensed by his receiving more money, and the latter knew that the +treaty stipulation would not save him from having to pay excess fees. + +The _Zakat_, far from showing the expected disposition to increase, +seemed rather inclined to remain stationary, if not to decrease; and +the foreign merchant had obtained some promise on the part of the ruler +of personal protection, and of assistance in the disposal of his wares. +His discontent at the stagnation in the customs soon showed itself by +his exacting excess dues, sometimes on British, sometimes on Russian, +but more often on Khokandian and Afghan merchants. Instead of increasing +his receipts, these strong measures only threw them back, and left him +in a worse plight than he was in before. He had not the patience +necessary to enable him to wait with confidence the fuller development +of trade, nor had he the perseverance or tact to place fresh inducements +in the path of merchants to renew their intercourse with him and his +state. Many visited Kashgar with merchandise a first time; but few, +indeed, repeated the visit. The ruler was off-handed in his reception of +them. They were scarcely accorded any liberty in their movements, and +the profit of their journey was greatly reduced by the payment of a due +of 5 per cent. instead of the stipulated condition of 2-1/2 per cent. It +is a pure fiction, therefore, to say that trade with Kashgar had +increased during the rule of the Athalik Ghazi through his friendly +inclination. If the amount of merchandise imported into his state had +increased, it was owing only to the necessities of its inhabitants, and +was a fact that must have taken place either by intercourse direct, or +through native states, with the two great providers of Central Asia. The +exaggerated enthusiasm that it was endeavoured to raise up in this +country about this same mythical ruler of Yarkand never spread far, and +there was always some scepticism, if there could be no disproof, of the +reports of the formidableness of this new kingdom. Looking calmly at the +real state of Yakoob Beg's position, even at the height of his power, we +find him to have always been a pecuniarily embarrassed ruler, glad of +the smallest windfall in the shape of the spoil of a single merchant. +The _Zakat_, his advisers pointed out to him, might be made a most +productive source of revenue, if foreign merchants could be induced to +bring their wares into the country. The loss the people had felt in the +departure of the Chinese might be amply repaired by the appearance of +Russian and English merchants to supply the same place that they filled. +If his aspirations were disappointed, and the _Zakat_ did not show any +signs of possessing that elasticity which had been predicted, it is +probable that in his impatience, heightened by the perception that +foreign trade might lead to foreign complications, he did not give the +scheme a sufficient time for a fair trial. His other sources of revenue, +_Ushr_ and _Tanabi_, and the gold mines of Khoten, brought in a sum +enough to meet the current expenses of the government and to maintain in +his service as many soldiers as his recruiting officers were able to +secure. But there was little if any surplus; and local improvements, and +all outlay that might have been reproductive and for the benefit of the +people, were strictly forbidden. The only works we can find constructed +by him, with a view to the advancement of the interests of his subjects, +were the merchants' _serais_, built in each city, and these were +self-supporting. Yakoob Beg has no claim to being considered as a +beneficent ruler. He was a military dictator, who had shown a rare power +for inaugurating a rough system of government, and whose campaigns had +always been singularly successful. As a ruler, showing a full +appreciation of the wants of his people, and adopting the best possible +measures to obtain them, he had no claims to consideration. Indeed, he +could not be compared with the Chinese, who, however personal may have +been their motives, certainly raised the state to a high pitch of +material prosperity, and left many enduring marks of their past +occupation. These two dominations, foisted on the Kashgari by the strong +arm, while each immeasurably superior to the Khoja claimants, +represented two distinct modes of governing a subject race. The Chinese +endeavoured to conciliate, and to make the necessity for their presence +felt by the people; the Athalik Ghazi was supremely indifferent to the +prosperity of his subjects, so long as they were willing to pay him the +tribute money, and to serve in his army. An exactly opposite result +might have been expected, for there was far more kinship between the +Khokandian adventurer and the Kashgari, than there was between the +Khitay and the Andijani. Admirers of Yakoob Beg may, of course, plead +that his rule had not acquired sufficient consistency to justify him in +tasking his strength by great undertakings, such as the construction of +roads and canals. In one respect he had not the labour at his disposal, +and he was, consequently, hampered by a difficulty that the Chinese were +free from. Still when we remember that all these works ought to have +been remunerative, and to have strengthened Yakoob Beg's individual +power, instead of taxing his resources, the excuse cannot be admitted as +entitled to our consideration. Yakoob Beg has claims only to be admired +for having given us something better than a repetition of the depravity +of the Khoja rulers, and of course among his coevals he is entitled to +far the highest place. If it is only asked for him that he should be +placed above them, no one can raise the slightest objection to it; for +beyond the shadow of a doubt, he was the most energetic and talented +ruler that had appeared among the Khanates for several centuries. But it +would be affectation to deny that a higher place than this has been +claimed for him; and before according his right to occupy it, the +evidence on which his claim rests must be sifted with the greatest care. +Even now I do not say that his claims are unproven; but that it is open +to doubt whether his work has not been exaggerated, I think must be +admitted by every one who has studied the course of his life in Kashgar. +It is absurd to talk of Yakoob Beg having been an equal of Genghis Khan +or of Timour, in any other way than that of showing that his personal +abilities were of a transcendent order. As a legislator and public +benefactor, it is fair to compare him with the Chinese, who possessed +some advantages over him, but who laboured under some disadvantages in +religion, and other conditions, as compared with him. And when we do +this, after impartial consideration we find that the balance is greatly +in favour of the Chinese. What can we judge from this, but that the rule +of Yakoob Beg, while presenting some striking features, was inferior in +degree to that of the Chinese? It is only fair to remember that the +difficulties in his path were great, and that he overcame many of them. +Before closing this chapter some description of the chief men who +assisted him to conquer the country, and then to govern it, may be not +without interest to the reader. + +First among these, by right of his position as well as by his high +abilities, comes the Seyyid Yakoob Khan, or Hadji Torah, as he has more +conveniently been called, the prince who has recently visited several of +the principal courts of Europe. He is a near relative of the Athalik +Ghazi, although, strange to say, there is no consanguinity between them. +He is a son of Nar Mahomed Khan, the governor of Tashkent, who married +as his second wife Yakoob Beg's sister, and who was instrumental in +advancing the interests of Yakoob Beg during the earlier days of his +career in Khokand. The Seyyid was almost as old as his uncle, the Ameer +of Kashgar, having been born in Tashkent in 1823; but despite this near +connection Hadji Torah played no part in the conquest of Kashgar. Until +Yakoob Beg achieved complete success in his enterprise in Eastern +Turkestan he was considered by Khokandians of high rank a simple +adventurer. The Seyyid Yakoob Khan was of the best lineage in Turkestan, +and it is very possible that until the year 1867 he regarded his uncle +with a considerable amount of indifference. Certain it is that Hadji +Torah was far otherwise employed than in assisting his relative when +the latter was engaged in some of the desperate encounters of his not +uneventful career. In the civil administration of Khokand he filled, +under Alim Kuli, high posts, such as Principal of the Madrassa of +Tashkent, and then he was appointed Kazi, or Judge. It was after the +fall of Ak Musjid that he commenced that career of activity as a +traveller and a negotiator which brought him to the shores of the +Bosphorus and to the banks of the Neva and the Thames. That was in the +year 1854, and he was appointed as a sort of secretary to the embassy of +Mirza Jan Effendi, the ambassador sent by Mollah Khan to Constantinople +for aid. On a subsequent occasion he again visited Constantinople in a +similar capacity, after the death of Mollah Khan, and during the brief +tenure of power by his successor, Mahomed Khan, the nominee of Alim +Kuli. This was in 1865, and during the troubles that ensued in Khokand +and the final success of Khudayar Khan, the legal ruler of Khokand and +antagonist of Alim Kuli, Hadji Torah resided quietly at Constantinople, +where Abdul Aziz entertained him with sumptuous hospitality. It would +appear that he obtained some kind of reputation among the numerous +visitors from either Turkestan who came to Turkey, and apart from his +sacrosanct character few could fail to be impressed favourably by his +cheerful yet dignified manner. His uncle in 1870 had indeed overcome all +opposition to his rule, and it might at a first glance appear strange +why he should desire to secure the services of a man of whom he could +have seen or known little for many years. But Hadji Torah possessed +abilities and experience rare among the inhabitants of Central Asia, and +to Yakoob Beg the very talents his nephew possessed were those he was +most in need of. + +In 1870 the Athalik Ghazi was anxious to draw close the bonds of +alliance with the Porte; who could assist him better than the man who +had resided in Constantinople for several years, and who had formed a +friendly intimacy with the Sultan? In 1871 Yakoob Beg first recognized +the imminence of danger to his state from Russia, then put in possession +of Kuldja; who could instruct him in the most effectual way of warding +off that danger, either by an alliance with England or by propitiating +the Russians, than the travelled Hadji Torah? The very qualities that +the Seyyid Yakoob Khan possessed were those the Ameer Yakoob Beg stood +most in need of. He might search among all his followers, those who had +shared every vicissitude of his strange fortunes, and he could not find +one other with an identical capacity. The overtures to his nephew are +thus easily intelligible, and the nephew himself gladly greeted his +entry into a wider career than was that of an honoured guest on the +hospitality of the Porte. His subsequent embassies in the service of +Kashgar to St. Petersburg, Calcutta, Constantinople, and London are too +recent and too well known to require mention here. When he settled in +Kashgar he married a daughter of Mahomed Khoja, the Sheikh-ul-Islam of +Kashgaria. His weight with the people was consequently very great, and +his judgment was greatly valued by the Ameer. Even over Beg Bacha, the +turbulent and ferocious heir-apparent, Hadji Torah had acquired some +influence by his ready tact and _bonhomie_. + +Of the two chief personages, Mahomed Khoja and Abdulla Pansad, the +priest and the soldier, who assisted Yakoob Beg, it is unfortunately +impossible to discover much, and that little has already been stated in +the preceding pages. There can be no doubt, however, that they were the +principal instruments in promoting the aggrandizement of Yakoob Beg, and +the two who enjoyed more than any other the confidence and friendship of +the man they had supported so faithfully. But of another well-tried +follower we know more, chiefly through the pages of Dr. Bellew. Mahomed +Yunus seems to have been the most educated and well informed among the +governors of Yakoob Beg. He had the reputation of being quite the +best-informed man in Kashgar, but as the _curriculum_ of instruction did +not include modern languages, it is difficult to guage the exact degree +of that reputation. He was an old and trusted follower of the Athalik +Ghazi, for when he was in the service of Khokand Mahomed Yunus +officiated as his scribe. He, however, as a civilian, took no part in +the expedition of Buzurg Khan, and it was not until after the death of +Alim Kuli and the success of Khudayar Khan that he joined his firm +friend and master in Kashgar. So high an opinion had Yakoob Beg of his +talents, and so pressed was he for skilled rulers, that Mahomed Yunus +was at once appointed Dadkwah of the recently conquered district of +Yarkand, the richest, the most populous, and the most turbulent of all +the governorships in Kashgaria. The skill with which he brought the +troublesome Yarkandis into complete submission to the new ruler, and the +rare ability he manifested in his administration of his province down +almost to the present time, justify the selection of his whilome comrade +in Khokand. At first it seems that the governor ruled with a high hand, +and that the slightest symptom of insubordination was checked by an +immediate arrest and a not long-delayed execution. During the last seven +years, however, his government had become milder, chiefly because all +evil-doers had been got rid of. Among some of the minor followers may be +mentioned Alish Beg, Dadkwah of Kashgar; Ihrar Khan Torah, the first +envoy despatched from Kashgar to India; and Mahomed Beg of Artosh: but +we have no sufficient information of them to give an account of them +that would be interesting to the general reader. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +YAKOOB BEG'S POLICY TOWARDS RUSSIA. + + +Yakoob Beg had in the earlier days of his career come into contact with +the Russians, and although, in the long interval between the fall of Ak +Musjid and his departure from Khokand, the Russians, chiefly owing to +the prostration resulting from the Crimean War, did not press on with +the energy that their first advance on the Syr Darya seemed to promise, +there is no doubt that the possibility of its occurrence was the +foremost thought in the minds of Yakoob Beg and his contemporaries. In +1865, when the Russians threatened and eventually occupied Tashkent, and +brought their frontier halfway on its journey to the Oxus, Yakoob Beg +was far too much occupied with his own affairs in Kashgar to attempt any +interference in Khokand. With, however, the dismemberment of Khokand and +the rout of the Bokhariot army in the spring of 1866, his attention was +forcibly claimed by a fact that seemed in the future to involve him as +the next victim of Russian aggrandizement. In that year, too, he had not +only overcome all resistance in the more important districts of +Kashgaria, but he had to a greater extent than before, become +responsible for the political actions of the people of this state +through the deposition of Buzurg Khan. As early as 1866, it may be +assumed that the new ruler of Kashgar had his attention directed to the +movements of his old antagonist, by their successes against the +Khokandians and Bokhariots; but it is clear that the Russians were not +equally interested in his doings at this period. With the occupation of +the northern portion of Khokand, the rule of Russia was brought into +nearer proximity with that of the new power of Kashgar, and it became +only a question of time whether the two governments were to attain a +harmonious agreement, or whether a series of petty disputes was to +result in a further extension of the Russian Empire, towards both India +and China. The independent portion of the Khanate of Khokand still +intervened, and the difficult country of the Kizil Yart mountains served +the useful purpose of giving the Athalik Ghazi breathing time, ere he +should arrive at a decision about his future relations with Russia. +Indeed, up to this point the interest of Russia in the affairs of +Kashgar had been very slight, for it does not appear that much, if any, +intercourse had been carried on between the two territories in the past. +Far otherwise was it in Ili, where the Russians had for many years been +located as merchants or as consuls. Their station at Almatie or Vernoe, +an important town and fort situated about 50 miles north of Issik Kul +and 250 west of Ili itself, had in a few years become a large and +flourishing city, instead of preserving its original character of a +small mountain fort. Russian merchants carried on a very extensive trade +by this road with Ili, Urumtsi, Hamil, and Pekin, and their relations +with the Chinese merchants had attained a very satisfactory basis. It +was, therefore, with no friendly feeling, that the Tungan rising in Ili +was regarded by a very large section of the Russians in the +neighbourhood. The disturbances that thereupon broke out, effectually +put a stop to all trade in this quarter for some time, and the old +traffic, or such of it as continued, with China had to be conducted +along the less direct route through Siberia. For six years, the Russians +tolerated the uncertain state of affairs in Ili, where the Tungani and +the Tarantchis disputed between themselves as to which should be the +ruling party; but their dissatisfaction was scarcely concealed at the +substitution of a native government for that of China. When, therefore, +Yakoob Beg, having conquered the country south of the Tian Shan, seemed +to threaten the provinces north of that barrier, it is not surprising +that the Russians availed themselves of excuses for forestalling him, +and for placing their commercial relations on an equally good footing as +they had been in the past with the inhabitants of Ili, by a forced +occupation of that territory. But the Russians were resolved to give as +little umbrage as possible to the Chinese. Ili was formally acknowledged +to be Chinese territory, and the Czar voluntarily promised, through his +representative at Pekin, to restore it as soon as the Emperor of China +was able to despatch a sufficient force to preserve order therein. This +tact secured the permanent goodwill of the Chinese, and Russia obtained, +in several important trade concessions, a very gratifying reward for her +skilful diplomacy. Her friendly action to the Celestials was also +heightened in its effect by a piece of unfortunate policy on our part. +The Panthays had erected in Yunnan a Mahomedan power, which seemed to +have broken off completely from Pekin, and report brought such tales to +our frontier of the power and goodwill of the Sultan of the Panthays +ruling in Ta-li-foo, that in an ill-advised moment we entered into +negotiations with this potentate. The Chinese authorities very naturally +took umbrage at this tacit support of a rebellious vassal, and all our +subsequent efforts have been unable to remove the suspicions produced by +our vacillating attitude on that occasion. The Russians still further +preserved the appearance of friendship for China by their refusal, +maintained during several years, to acknowledge the government set up in +Kashgar by Buzurg Khan and Yakoob Beg. This action was however the less +worthy of approval, because at that period the Russians had no immediate +concern in Kashgaria. Their sole interest lay in the course of events in +Jungaria, with which they were intimately connected by trade and +political associations, stretching back for almost a century. +Undoubtedly Jungaria was much affected by commotions in Kashgaria, and +we accordingly see, when the march of events in the latter province +assumed an aspect menacing to the future independence of Jungaria, the +Russians taking prompt measures to secure the possession of that +province for themselves. When Ili passed into the hands of Russia, the +old trade revived along this route to a certain degree, and some +intercourse ensued with the Tungani of Urumtsi, Manas and Hamil. +Measures seem to have been taken to impress on the rulers of those +cities the prudence of not interfering with merchants or travellers, and +matters became to a certain degree satisfactory for Russian +tranquillity. The city of Ili never, however, recovered its former +prosperity, for Vernoe still remains the most important town in this +region. Originally a fort constructed in 1854, as a small mountain post, +to defend the road from the marauding Kirghiz, it has increased from its +insignificant origin into a large settlement of Cossacks and Calmucks, +and is now a very thriving community. It was, therefore, it must be +remembered, primarily with Jungaria that Russia was interested. So far +as the internal affairs of Kashgar were concerned, she could have +disregarded the dispute between the rivals, Yakoob Beg and the Chinese; +it was only when a powerful Mahomedan state was erected in Eastern +Turkestan, and threatened both the independence of Ili, and also to +raise up disunion in Khokand, that Russia was compelled to consider what +policy it would be wise to adopt towards the recently proclaimed Athalik +Ghazi. Whether it was absolutely necessary or even prudent to annex Ili, +may be doubted with some reason, but it is impossible to find fault with +the Russians for that step. Probably it was the most excusable of all +their conquests, none the less may the decision have been founded on a +misapprehension of circumstances, or it may have been premature to shut +Yakoob Beg out from advancing into a region where he would have been at +the complete mercy of the Russians. Nor is it clear even that Yakoob Beg +had the intention, so generously attributed to him, of committing what +would certainly have resulted in political extinction, viz., an advance +to the northern side of the Tian Shan. The reader will, we hope, +perceive that as little interest was felt by the Russians in the events +transpiring in Kashgar as there was in India, and this indifference +continued down at all events to the end of 1866. At that date Yakoob +Beg's enterprise had been crowned with complete success and the Russian +Government, far more promptly and accurately apprised of the course of +events than our Government in India, was obliged to devote some +attention to this new power, whose appearance was already beginning to +raise a ferment in the Mahomedan states lying to the west of Kashgar. + +In 1866, however, some indefinite agreement was arrived at by the +commanders of forces along the Naryn borders, to abstain from +interfering with each other's actions. The Russian forces were permitted +to follow refugees from Khokand and predatory Kirghiz within the nominal +frontier of Kashgar, and when occasion arose a similar right was +accorded to the Kashgarian officials. By some good fortune, perhaps +caused by a feeling of mutual respect, no collisions of any consequence +occurred between the representatives of the two powers during these +early and vague negotiations. Although the Russian governors of Siberia +and Turkestan refused to acknowledge either Buzurg Khan or Yakoob Beg, +they seem to have done their best to make use of these conciliatory +measures along the northern frontier as a lever for inducing Yakoob Beg +to make overtures to them for their support. If such was their intention +the firmness of Yakoob Beg thwarted all their designs, as will be seen +in the sequel. To obtain, however, some advantage out of the apparent +apprehension of the Kashgarian ruler for Russian power was absolutely +necessary, if only to demonstrate the perfection to which Muscovite +diplomacy had attained. So, while refusing to acknowledge the new state +in Eastern Turkestan and deeply deploring the departure of the Chinese, +orders were given to the frontier officers to obtain the sanction of the +Kashgarian officials in the neighbourhood to the construction of a +bridge across the Naryn and of a military road over the Tian Shan into +Kashgar. This was in 1867, and it is not to be wondered at that the +Kashgarian authorities replied with a categorical refusal. To have +acquiesced in this demand would have been to have placed the city of +Kashgar at the complete mercy of the Russians. The position of that city +is most disadvantageous in a military point of view, and the only +obstacle an army advancing from Issik Kul has to encounter is the +difficulty of the road from the Naryn torrent, and the general +impracticability of the passes through this portion of the Tian Shan +range. The Russian government was much disappointed at this rebuff +experienced at the hands of a native ruler, and accordingly in great +haste it was resolved that a fort should be constructed on the Naryn +just within their frontier. In 1868 this fort was completed, but by that +time a fresh change had taken place in the state of affairs, and hopes +were entertained that an agreement might yet be arranged by peaceful +means with Kashgar. During these two years there had been continual +disturbances and fighting in Western Turkestan. Bokhara, instigated, +according to Russian assertions, by Yakoob Beg, had joined with Khokand +and Khiva in a combined uprising against Russia; but in so far as that +uprising was combined it never occurred, for both Bokhara and Khokand +fell an easy prey in detail to the armies of the Czar. The punishment of +Khiva was reserved for a future occasion, and indeed of all the +confederates Khiva was the only one which obtained any successes in the +field. The most palpable result of that campaign was the acquisition of +Samarcand by Russia, and for a time all opposition seemed to be stamped +out. No sooner, however, had the main Russian army returned to Tashkent +than a large force invested the small garrison left in Samarcand, and +the whole country rose in arms again. The Russian garrison held tightly +on to its post, and, although in comparison to its strength its loss was +most severe, the town was preserved until the arrival of General +Kaufmann with reinforcements. Bokhara then sued for peace, which, after +some delay, was concluded with the unfortunate Ameer Mozaffur Eddin. By +that treaty the Russians obtained the right to place military +cantonments at Kermina, Charjui, and Karshi. Kermina is situated about +fifty miles east of the town of Bokhara, on the road from Katti Kurgan +and Samarcand; Karshi about sixty miles south of Katti Kurgan, and half +way to the Oxus; while Charjui is on the Oxus and some eighty miles west +of Bokhara. Of all these the last is the most important, for thence a +direct caravan route leads to Merv and Meshed. Once more, in 1870-71, +Bokhara entered the field, but the enterprise collapsed through the +unconcerted measures of the allies and the weakness of Khokand. During +these five eventful years of rebellion amongst the races of Western +Turkestan, Yakoob Beg preserved his neutrality. If the assertion is +correct that he had played an underhand part in the formation of the +league against Russia, assuredly he endeavoured to make his actions +contradict his diplomacy. Not a Kashgarian soldier participated in the +efforts made so repeatedly by Bokhara and Khokand to shake off the bonds +of Russian vassalage. Like Shere Ali of Cabul, he devoted his attention +exclusively to the affairs of his immediate province, and wars in the +extreme east of his dominions against co-religionists were a preferable +alternative to the risks attending a _jehad_ against the most formidable +enemy of Islam! Russia had indeed little to complain of in Yakoob Beg's +interference in their possessions. His instigation of premature +rebellions, or, if he did not instigate them, the approval extended to +them by some of his chief ministers, was the very kindest act he could +have conferred on the ruling power of Turkestan, for Russia never has +had anything to fear from any isolated risings among the people of this +part of Central Asia. Nothing less than an unanimous and concerted +rising in Western Turkestan, aided with a nucleus of regular troops and +officers, such as, to go no farther, either Afghanistan can supply, or +Kashgar could at one time have supplied--nothing less than this will +ever produce a complete catastrophe to the Russian arms, and in a short +campaign of a few months send the Russian legions back to their old +quarters of thirteen years ago. Whether Yakoob Beg ever was strong +enough to risk the independence of his state on so important an +enterprise may fairly be doubted, and he showed a commendable prudence +in abstaining from hostilities when he had sufficient matters to occupy +all his attention, and to task all his resources within his own borders; +but assuming such to have been the case, his indifference to the +suffering thereby inflicted on the Khokandians must remain a blot on his +fair fame. If the part he played in these earlier plots was scarcely +honourable, how much less so was his action in the last rebellion of +1875. But it may be as well to postpone considering that event until +later on in this chapter. Yakoob Beg most probably took a very selfish +view of the state of affairs. His own extremely uncertain tenure of +power made him anxious lest any storm from beyond his frontier should +wreck the frail bark in which he had asserted his claim to independence, +and the whole object of his policy was simply to divert attention from +himself to other quarters. The Russians above all must have their work +cut out for them in repression of continual sedition in their +possessions; while each day of respite witnessed Yakoob Beg in a better +position for making a strenuous resistance when the time should come, +according to Russian ideas, for an attempt to be made to crush his +power. Viewed from this standpoint, the conduct of Yakoob Beg towards +his fellow-countrymen appears in a slightly more favourable aspect, +although his policy of expediency has little in it to command +admiration. Yet the result answered his expectations. In 1868 the +construction of Fort Naryn was the avowed preliminary measure to an +occupation of Kashgar; from that danger this policy of compromise saved +him. Again, in 1870, was he pronounced an incorrigible enemy of the +Czar, and an expedition was prepared which was to bring him to his +senses; once more a revolt in Khokand intervened to distract Russian +attention and Russian arms from the Naryn to Ferghana. The expedition +against Khiva in 1873 also served the purpose of diverting to another +quarter the blow which should, according to many, have descended on the +offending head of the Athalik Ghazi; and lastly, in 1875 the +insurrection in Khokand, the most serious and the most nearly successful +of all the native wars against Russia, saved him from an invasion for +which every preparation had been made. + +To return to the year 1868, when the Russian government had constructed +the fort on the Naryn, and had openly proclaimed its intention of +punishing the slight put upon it by Yakoob Beg's refusal to permit the +construction of a road over the mountains to Artosh. Up to that year the +intercourse had been of a semiofficial character between the officers on +either side of the frontier. We have now come to a phase of the question +of a slightly different import. The Russian officials endeavoured to +obtain from Yakoob Beg concessions that would be advantageous to their +country, at the same time that they categorically declined to recognize +his official _status_ as an independent prince. Their antagonist was far +too astute to permit himself to be out-manoeuvred by so simple a +device, and his officials were quite unauthorized to enter into any +arrangement without its being brought before their master in the manner +consistent with his dignity. We have seen that the Russians, failing in +their diplomatic chicane, had recourse to threats, although the irony of +fate prevented those threats ever being put into execution. But +concurrently with these efforts on the part of the Russian government, +others of a different kind were being made by individuals. The Russian +merchants of Kuldja contained in their ranks several men whose +enterprise and courage had been remarkable in the manipulation of trade +with the Chinese and the Tungani. They were not easily deterred from any +undertaking which promised them brilliant remuneration, even though the +risk and uncertainty might be great. The pioneers of commerce were free +from the fetters that hampered official movements. It was of little +moment to them who ruled in Kashgaria so long as he extended his +protection to their goods and their persons whilst they were within his +territory. The Russian government viewed with favour the efforts that +were made to cross the Tian Shan, for on the individual fell the +greatest portion of the risk, while the government profited much by the +fruits of his experience. The Russian merchants were, therefore, not +discouraged by their authorities when they laid their proposals before +General Kolpakovsky, as English merchants would have been under similar +circumstances by the authorities at Calcutta--nay, it is tolerably +certain that they received many inducements to persist in their +intention; both their patriotism and desire for advancing their own +worldly concerns were appealed to, to urge them to attempt to obtain +admission into Kashgar. When, therefore, it became evident in 1868 that +nothing was to be obtained from Yakoob Beg by indirect means, and when +it was also decided that a military remedy would not be convenient, the +field was fairly cleared for another kind of performers to begin +operations. + +Early in the year 1868 a Russian merchant, named Kludof, collected at +Vernoe a small caravan. His chief commodities consisted of those +gewgaws, which, prepared in Moscow, have been found, according to +Russian experience, the most marketable articles in Western Turkestan; +but, in addition to these trumpery packages, more useful necessaries, +such as cotton goods and cutlery, were taken as specimens of some of the +real advantages that would come in the wake of Russian trade. Kludof set +out with the intention of crossing the Tian Shan by the Naryn, and +making for the border town of Ush Turfan, whence Kashgar is easily +reached by the high road. But he had not proceeded far beyond Fort +Naryn, then in course of construction, when he was attacked by a band of +marauders. With the loss of all his possessions he must still be +considered fortunate in having escaped without any serious personal +injury. Perhaps the robbers were inspired with some respect for the +person of a Russian subject, or, as the indictment against Yakoob Beg +affirms, by the express orders of that ruler, who wished to deter, +without causing any serious complication with the government, Russian +subjects of any kind whatever from entering his kingdom. As it happened, +however, Kludof was a very determined fellow, one not easily balked when +he had set his mind on accomplishing anything. The government viewed his +case with commiseration, and he was assisted in collecting together +another caravan of larger proportions than its predecessor. But before +setting out on the same road he determined to make an effort to reach +the ear of Yakoob Beg himself, and by a singular piece of good fortune +he was able to do so through a Kashgarian subject residing in Kuldja. +The presents, judiciously selected, with which he accompanied his letter +complaining of the injury he had received at the hands of Kirghiz +subjects of the ruler of Kashgar, yet only demanding as a reparation +permission to come into that state as a peaceful subject of the Czar, +fully propitiated Yakoob Beg, who sent a safe conduct to Vernoe for +Kludof and his caravan. This merchant made a most favourable impression +on the ruler of Kashgar, and it seemed at one moment as if he would +achieve what all the diplomacy of the two previous years had failed in +accomplishing. Even Yakoob Beg was induced to take a slight step towards +a better agreement with his neighbour, for in the summer of 1868, he +sent Shadi Mirza, one of his nephews, to Vernoe, requesting that he +might be permitted to go on to Tashkent, to place before the governor of +Turkestan certain proposals from his master for a complete understanding +with Russia. Simultaneously with the despatch of Shadi Mirza by Yakoob +Beg, a Russian officer, Captain Reinthal, was commissioned by General +Kolpakovsky, the governor of Kuldja, to proceed to Kashgar and demand +the surrender of some Kirghiz robbers, who, from within Yakoob Beg's +dominion, had sallied forth to pillage Russian merchants. They had also +seized several inhabitants of Khokand and the Naryn district; and the +Russian government demanded the unconditional surrender of these +individuals as her subjects. Captain Reinthal was instructed to make +these two demands in a peremptory way, and to convince the new +government that Russia would not permit any infraction of the spirit of +the treaties concluded with the old government under the Chinese. +Captain Reinthal was received in a sufficiently hospitable manner, but +his movements were scrupulously restricted to the city. He did not, on +this occasion, learn much of importance about the country, but he was +impressed favourably by the appearance of such of the army as he saw. +The Kirghiz robbers were captured by the order of Yakoob Beg, but he +stoutly refused to surrender them. The Russian prisoners were also kept +in honourable confinement as a guarantee for the safe return of Shadi +Mirza. They were, however, permitted to return to Russian territory when +it became known that Shadi Mirza was progressing favourably with his +mission to Tashkent. Captain Reinthal accomplished little or nothing on +this embassade, and had to report, on his return to his superior, the +strange tidings that the new power was resolved to play an independent +part in Asia, and to answer defiance with defiance, and threat with +threat. This report must have seemed scarcely credible, but there is no +doubt that Captain Reinthal advised, as the result of his experience, +the adoption of a lenient and friendly policy towards the new-comer. +This concession to a Central Asian despot was not agreeable at +head-quarters, and the question was shelved for the time. Shadi Mirza, +who had been detained at Vernoe, was at last permitted to continue his +journey to Tashkent, where he found General Kaufmann absent in Europe. +Instructions were then issued to send him on to St. Petersburg, where he +arrived in the last days of 1868. He had several informal interviews +with the governor of Turkestan, but he was not received by the Czar or +any of the higher officials. In fact, he was only treated as an ordinary +traveller, and not as the representative of a neighbouring state. +Nothing up to this had been done by the Russian government, showing that +they recognized Yakoob Beg as ruler of Kashgaria. The Chinese were +still, in their eyes, the _de jure_ owners of that province, whoever +might be the temporary owners _de facto_. On the return of Shadi Mirza +to Kashgar, in January, 1869, the relations between Russia and Yakoob +Beg may be said to have returned to the exact _status quo ante_. All the +Russian demands for trade had been unsuccessful, and, except the +brilliant journey of Mr. Kludof, no one had broken through the mystic +charm that shut out the Garden of Asia from all foreign spectators. +Their envoy, Captain Reinthal, had been treated in a precisely similar +manner to that in which Shadi Mirza had been received at Vernoe and St. +Petersburg; and a firm and dignified attitude had effectually checked +the Russian officer when he attempted to express those threats which +formed the principal part of his instructions. There was something +imposing in the quiet way in which Yakoob Beg asserted his equality in +rank with the Czar of All the Russias. His invariable reply, when the +great power of Russia was made use of as an argument to overcome his +refusal to accede to the trade concessions demanded, was, "My brother, +the White Czar, is a most powerful monarch, and rules over the greater +portion of the earth, and I am only an insignificant prince in +comparison to him. But none the less can I encounter the danger like a +true man, and esteem it a happiness to die in defence of my country and +my faith." To so courageous and so honourable a reply what rejoinder +could be made by the abashed officers? It is impossible to refuse Yakoob +Beg the highest admiration for his stanchness in his opposition to +Russia. If for his own narrow interests it may have been imprudent to +throw down the gage of battle so freely, all the more does that attitude +claim respect when we see him trampling on purely selfish motives, and +asserting his claim to leadership in that wider question of Asiatic +against Muscovite, of Mahomedan against Greek. Had he only been +consistent throughout his career, had he only been as firm in his +convictions and as prompt in carrying them into practice as he generally +was, when the occasion came for a great effort against Russia, how +different might have been his own fate and the present aspect of affairs +in Central Asia! + +For some time after these abortive proceedings the Russians abstained +from any direct interference in Kashgar, but the conferring of the title +of Athalik Ghazi, or Commander of the Faithful, on Yakoob Beg by the +Ameer of Bokhara had roused the susceptibilities of Russia too much to +be allayed. It seemed, indeed, as if this acknowledgment of the +orthodoxy of Yakoob Beg by the Head of Islam in Central Asia heralded +forth some understanding between the two states, and that a menace was +directed against the Russian government. Whether there was any agreement +between Mozaffur Eddin and Yakoob Beg it is not possible at present to +say, but that such should have been brought about by their mutual +antipathy to Russia would not have been very wonderful. However, in the +disturbances of 1870 Yakoob Beg took no active part. While the Russian +arms were triumphing over every opponent in their newly acquired +province of Ferghana and its vicinity, Yakoob Beg was busily engaged +with the Tungani, who at that time were causing trouble to him along his +far eastern frontier. The revolt collapsed in Khokand, and Yakoob Beg, +apparently unconcerned with the events transpiring in the West, was +carrying his victorious arms to new conquests in the East. During the +year 1870, when murmurs of the approaching storm were becoming audible, +the Russian government endeavoured to obtain the alliance of Khudayar +Khan, of Khokand, for the purpose of bringing Yakoob Beg within their +influence. This Khan had, as has been already mentioned, been betrayed +by Yakoob Beg, who had followed the example of the ambitious Vizier Alim +Kuli, and was now mainly dependent on the Russians for support against +his rebellious subjects. He could not be considered in any way, +therefore, as likely to be favourably disposed towards his neighbour of +Kashgar, or as lukewarm in the cause of his protectors and benefactors. +The Russians felt assured of his hearty support in advocating their +plan, which was as follows. From time immemorial, as has been seen in +the sketch of the history of Kashgar, there have been two rival elements +in Kashgaria--the Chinese and the Khokandian. The Chinese was triumphant +in modern times for a little more than a century, while the Khokandian +has, more or less, at all other times been paramount. But whenever a +native dynasty had attained a certain degree of security therein, it was +always threatened by the ambitious designs of the Khan of Khokand, who +had generally contributed most towards its successful establishment. The +Russian government resolved to avail themselves of this historical fact +to pour into the ear of Khudayar Khan insidious counsels as to his +claims as feudal lord over Eastern Turkestan. There once more, so they +argued, had a Khokandian subject formed an independent and rival +administration, and all his victories had been won by Khokandian +sympathies, and by the good right arms of Khokandian subjects. And how +had this soldier of fortune acted towards his own country when he had +received everything from her that he needed? By offering an asylum to +all those who had participated in the plots against Khudayar Khan +himself, by encouraging sedition in the state itself against the +Russians and their nominee, Khudayar, the legal ruler of the state. As +if these crimes were not sufficiently serious, he had added thereto the +insult of having refused to recognize in Khudayar his liege lord; and +Khudayar's own personal fears were worked upon to yield that +acquiescence to the Russian proposal that was necessary to secure its +success. It was pointed out to him that a strong military power in +Kashgar might give an impetus to the plots then fermenting in the active +brain of Aftobatcha, the ambitious son of Mussulman Kuli, the prime +minister and vizier of thirty years ago. The arguments were specious, +and it cannot be doubted that they made some impression on Khudayar +Khan. This much-to-be-pitied ruler, forced by the necessities of his +position to humour his Russian advisers, still had the courage to refuse +to assert his claims as lord over Kashgar. With a gentle irony he +pointed to the map, and showed how Khokand's frontier should extend +farther to the west than it did, and that a conquest over the barren +regions of the Kizil Yart would be but a sorry equivalent for the loss +of Tashkent and Hodjent. He, however, promised to make use of his best +means for inducing Yakoob Beg to make overtures to the Russian +government for the ratification of a treaty of commerce. So Khudayar +Khan indited a letter to Yakoob Beg, at the dictation of his Russian +friends, to this effect; but he silvered the pill by a private message +giving information of the Russian intentions in the future. The tenor of +that communication was that the Russians were less eager than might +have been supposed to bring matters to a final crisis with Yakoob Beg, +and that they were most desirous of settling the question without any +flagrant loss of dignity by being the first to recommence negotiations. +Both publicly and privately Khudayar Khan advised that the Athalik Ghazi +should make some concessions in form to the Russian government. The +Russians themselves, having failed to induce Khudayar Khan to put +pressure on Yakoob Beg, appear to have arrived at the same conclusion as +that set out in the letters of Khudayar. Yakoob Beg must make the sign, +and they would meet him half way in his desire to share in the great +benefits accruing from a Muscovite alliance. The authorities at Tashkent +went so far as to flatter themselves that they had attained a solution +of one of their chief annoyances. They had, by making use of the +mediation of Khudayar, gone so far as to open the door for Yakoob Beg to +abase himself. Such condescension was unheard of, and no doubt was +entertained but that this proud Mahomedan ruler would gladly hasten to +avail himself of the last chance accorded him by the clemency of the +Czar. + +But they were reckoning without their host. Yakoob Beg quickly perceived +that the bold exterior of the Russian demands concealed a vacillating +purpose, and that a power which would go out of its way so far to bring +about an arrangement, would yield much more when the discussion became +directly carried on. He had evidently impressed the few Russians who had +visited him with a belief in his strength, and rumour had magnified his +resources, and converted his small and heterogeneous following into a +regular and trained army. He was not the man to destroy, when the game +was almost in his hands too, all the favourable impressions, that stood +him in such good stead during his career, which his policy for four +years had succeeded in creating about his personality. After a suitable +delay his formal reply to the official letter of Khudayar arrived, and +its contents must have been eminently displeasing to the Russians. In +general terms he refused to enter into negotiations with the Russians, +because they had refused to acknowledge his own government, and had ever +supported the cause of his enemies the Chinese. But, not content with +this blunt refusal to the offer made from Tashkent, he went on to minor +matters and dealt with the question of Russian policy in specific +language. The common enemy of him and all his co-religionists was not +worthy of any consideration from him or his allies, the rulers of +Khokand and Bokhara. "The Russians that have come here, into my state of +Kashgar, look at these localities and become acquainted with the state +of the country, and therefore it is better to forbid their coming, for +they are a treacherous and crooked-minded people." In such plain terms +did Yakoob Beg speak of a power which could without any serious risk +have crushed him at any moment. Yet in one sense his boldness was the +height of prudence, and succeeded when perhaps a less decided attitude +would have completely failed. The Russians were fairly deluded in their +estimate of their new antagonist, and all means having been exhausted +for inducing Yakoob Beg to abandon his indifferent attitude towards +themselves, it began to be seriously discussed at Tashkent whether, if +simply for the purpose of obtaining accurate information of his country, +it would not be prudent to acknowledge the existence of a ruler who had +for nearly six years been established as responsible sovereign of a very +large portion of Asia. The path was smoothed, too, for the Russian +diplomatists by Yakoob Beg sending a letter to the governor of +Turkestan, stating that it was useless for the Czar to attempt the +establishment of diplomatic relations through the good offices of +Khudayar Khan; but that if the Russians really desired to enter into +alliance with him they could send an embassy to him, when formal steps +could be commenced for securing the trade and other agreements that were +desirable. The letter was a very dignified piece of writing, such as +one European sovereign would have sent to another in the Middle Ages. +"He did not deny," he said, "either the power or the resources of +Russia, but as a brave man he placed his trust in God, and he would +never shirk the contest, because all he aspired to was to die for his +faith." This letter produced a great impression at Tashkent, and it was +resolved to send an ambassador to Kashgar. + +Before pursuing the narrative, it may be as well to sum up what had +passed between Russia and Kashgar up to this period, for henceforth +these two states were to stand in a completely different relationship +towards each other. The Russians strove to induce Yakoob Beg to make the +most favourable commercial and political concessions to them, while they +refused to grant him any equivalent, except the dubious one, "advantage +from the produce of Russian manufactures." They even added insult to +injury by openly proclaiming that they only recognized the Chinese as +the rulers of Kashgar, and refused to discuss the arguments advanced by +Shadi Mirza in favour of his uncle's claim to be considered _de facto_ +sovereign. They adopted an attitude of bullying towards this Asiatic +prince, and loudly proclaimed in their practice the truth of the +aphorism, that might is right. They backed up their verbal threats on +several occasions by a show of military preparations, but not once did +they put those threats into execution. On the other hand, Yakoob Beg's +policy was consistent throughout and dignified. While studiously +avoiding any aggressive measures, even under the excuse of defensive +precautions, he was always firm in his refusal to recognize any of the +semi-official overtures that were repeatedly made to induce him to show +his hand. Instead of appearing in the light of a suppliant, as according +to all precedent he should, he assumed the position of a dictator. +"Acknowledge me as legally constituted ruler of Kashgaria, or else there +is an end to all negotiation. Send a properly accredited ambassador to +me, and he shall be honourably received. A representative of recognized +rank shall then convey my token of friendship to your master. Refuse to +grant me these just considerations, and my kingdom is closed to your +merchants and officials without exception. Admission shall only be +obtained over my own body and that of my devoted army." For the first +time in the annals of Russian history an Asiatic ruler had tired out the +finessing and intrigue that had become customary with that empire as the +means for infinite conquest. Yakoob Beg was the only sovereign who +refused to be subservient to the Czar, and eventually achieved a +diplomatic triumph over his representatives. In the spring of 1872, +Yakoob Beg was at the very acme of his prosperity. Not yet had he +commenced those later campaigns against the Tungani, which more than +anything else tended to weaken his power and to raise discontent against +his administration; and, fresh from his diplomatic success over the +Russians, he appeared in the eyes of many Asiatics as a fit champion to +redeem their fortunes in a conflict with Russia. Excusable as their +enthusiasm undoubtedly was, it is tolerably certain that the power of +Yakoob Beg was exaggerated both by the adulation of his friends and by +the nervous susceptibilities of the Russians. It is noteworthy that +Russia proved herself on one occasion to be quite as liable to this +latter disease as England is assumed to be. + +To Baron Kaulbars, the explorer of the sources of the Syr Darya, was +entrusted the delicate mission of representing the Russian government +for the first time at the court of the Athalik Ghazi, and to no better +diplomatist could it have been consigned. He set out from Kuldja early +in May, 1872, carrying with him a large collection of presents for the +ruler and his chief advisers, and arrived in Kashgar without any mishap +in June of the same year. Here he was received in the most cordial +manner, and the consideration and hospitality exhibited towards him by +the ruler were beyond all expectation. In the picturesque phraseology +of the East, the Athalik Ghazi, at his first audience with Baron +Kaulbars, said, "Sit upon my knees, on my bosom, or where ye like; for +ye are guests sent me from heaven." The most complete freedom of action +was accorded, for the first time, to all the members of the embassy, and +two merchants who had accompanied it for the purpose of exploring the +country received a safe-conduct to go on to Yarkand and Khoten. Yakoob +Beg scarcely attempted to conceal his gratification at the presence of +the Russians; possibly his pleasure chiefly arose from such an +unmistakable admission of his skill as a diplomatist. But in every way +facilities were afforded his visitors for seeing all objects of interest +round Kashgar. Reviews were held in honour of the occasion, and as there +happened to be a considerable number of troops in the vicinity, passing +through to operate against the Tungani beyond Kucha, the show was +imposing enough. The Russians were favourably impressed by what they +saw, and Baron Kaulbars expressed himself surprised at the military +exactitude with which the manoeuvres were carried out. Yakoob Beg, +always open to flattery, exclaimed in an enthusiastic moment, "I look +upon the Russians as my dearest friends; if I had not, should I have +shown you my military power? Assuredly it is not usual even with you to +make known one's actual condition to an enemy." Matters were now in a +fair way to a pleasant solution. Baron Kaulbars and Yakoob Beg were +mutually delighted; but, after the time for pleasant talk had expired, +it was necessary that some definite arrangements should be drawn up for +the political and commercial relations of the two countries in the +future. + +The chief objects the Russians had in view when they sent Baron Kaulbars +to Kashgar were three. In the first place they wanted to acquire general +information about that state, and to discover whether Yakoob Beg was as +powerful as report had asserted. In the second, they wished to put their +relations on such a recognized basis with him that they might know what +policy he was disposed to adopt in Turkestan and Kuldja; and in the +third they desired to secure the monopoly of the trade of his state, so +that they might forestall British enterprise, already beginning to +direct its attention to this quarter, since the journeys of Messrs. Shaw +and Forsyth. The last of these was the easiest to obtain, and the +Athalik Ghazi considered all the Russian proposals with regard to trade +in a very amicable spirit; but with regard to the second _desideratum_ +nothing but the vaguest generalities could all the tact and ingenuity of +Kaulbars succeed in obtaining from his host. The first object was amply +secured, in so far as geographical and scientific information was +concerned; but the precautions taken by the Athalik Ghazi to deceive the +Russians as to his power and hold on the country appear to have been +successful. Baron Kaulbars certainly confirmed much that had previously +rested on mere hearsay; the question is rather, did he not vouch for +more than his experience justified him in doing? The result of his +mission was, that the Athalik Ghazi was elevated to a position on a +level with the Ameer of Cabul, and there is no doubt whatever that such +a comparison was not warranted by the facts. A treaty was signed by the +Athalik Ghazi and Baron Kaulbars, on the 2nd of June, 1872, but +according to the Old Style, still adopted by the Russians, this was the +21st of May, St. Constantine's day. There are two stories with respect +to this coincidence, and there is as much evidence for one version as +there is for the other. + +It was said at the time that Yakoob Beg was so desirous of showing his +goodwill to the Russians that he had insisted on signing it on that day +in honour of the Grand Duke Constantine. Now there were two or three +improbabilities in this statement that struck several observers. In the +first place it was extremely improbable that Yakoob Beg knew it was St. +Constantine's day at all; and again, in the second place he was quite as +probably ignorant of the existence of a Grand Duke Constantine. At all +events, there was no valid reason why a Central Asian ruler should +conceive that his politeness to that Grand Duke in particular would +demonstrate his desire to be on good terms with Russians in general. The +other version, which, like many other circumstances, has only leaked out +in the pages of Mr. Schuyler, is altogether more probable, and is not +open to the same objections. According to this, it was Baron Kaulbars, +who of course was aware of the saint's day, who demanded that the treaty +should bear that date, and who, as soon as it was signed, sent off a +message to General Kaufmann saying that the Athalik Ghazi, out of +friendship to that general, had specially requested that the treaty +should be signed on that day in honour of General Kaufmann's patron +saint. However flattered that distinguished general and governor may +have felt at the delicate attention of his ambassador, he had to decline +the proposed honour; and in the despatch that was sent to St. +Petersburg, describing the event, the name of the Grand Duke Constantine +was substituted for his own. There is little doubt that this is the +correct statement, and it certainly suggests quite a revelation as to +the system in Russian Asia of making things pleasant and agreeable to +one another, always, however, assuming that there be an exceptional +degree of power and pomp reserved for his Excellency General Kaufmann. + +Soon after the signature of this treaty, which bears the name of its +framer, Baron Kaulbars took his departure, with many expressions of +friendship and goodwill from the Athalik Ghazi. Arrangements were, +however, made, before he left, for an envoy to visit Tashkent from +Yakoob Beg. This ambassador took with him the signed stipulations to be +ratified, and was received at Tashkent with every demonstration of amity +and respect. So certain did the Russian government appear that their +relations with Kashgar would, if only for a short period, be +satisfactory, that special care was taken to make a favourable +impression on the Kashgarian envoy, and after a short residence in the +capital of Turkestan, the nephew of Yakoob Beg, Hadji Torah, who had +followed the train of the treaty on a special mission, went on to St. +Petersburg, where he was entertained by the Czar, taken to the reviews, +and treated in a most hospitable and princely fashion. The contrast +between the reception accorded to him in 1873 and that to Shadi Mirza in +1869 clearly marks the difference that was considered in well-informed +official circles to have taken place in their relations with Kashgar. + +We have now to consider whether the Russian Government was justified in +assuming so confidently that it had secured the permanent friendship of +the Mahomedan ruler of Eastern Turkestan. On concluding his visit at St. +Petersburg, Hadji Torah turned south, and after stopping for a brief +delay at Moscow and Odessa, he arrived in Constantinople, where he +already had many friends and connections. Without inquiring too deeply +into his actions at the Imperial City--for of them the reader will be +able to judge best by the sequel--we will here simply observe, that +having also concluded his residence on the Golden Horn, he took passage +by the Suez Canal for India, and arrived there in time to join the +mission of Sir Douglas Forsyth, then on its way to Kashgar. Hadji Torah +therefore brought to his uncle a vast amount of information concerning +the three Powers chiefly concerned in the fortunes of Kashgar--Russia, +Turkey, and England. But even before his return home, fresh +disagreements had broken out between Russia and Yakoob Beg. The year +1872 had not closed, before the Athalik Ghazi concluded some secret +negotiations that had been pending for some time with the Sultan, and +this champion of Islam appeared in a new and holier light to Asiatics as +Emir, or Ameer. He acknowledged the suzerainty of the Porte; and, not +content with this formal declaration, gave an extra significance to the +event by issuing a fresh coinage, bearing on one side the head of Abdul +Aziz. The Russians were, it can well be imagined, displeased at this +alliance between two Mahomedan states which might both be considered +hostile to their interests, and a very large party in military circles +clamoured for an expedition to be sent at once against the insolent +Mussulman. At one moment it seemed as if this bellicose party was to +gain the day, for the testimony of all the officers and merchants who +had visited Kashgar showed that each day Yakoob Beg was becoming more +formidable. Prompt measures were pressed on the government of Tashkent, +and General Kaufmann seemed half disposed to acquiesce in the proposal +to inflict summary chastisement on the Athalik Ghazi. Fortunately for +Kashgar, the Khan of Khiva had been an older offender in the eyes of the +Russians, and the Home Government peremptorily forbade any steps being +taken in the regions bordering on the Chinese Empire. It is sufficiently +clear that the moderation of the home authorities was a wiser policy +than the impulsive demands of certain officers in Tashkent; but it is +not so evident why Yakoob Beg abstained from appearing in the _rôle_ of +the liberator of Khokand, at so opportune a moment as that afforded by +the great expedition against Khiva in 1873. The treaty of Baron Kaulbars +had stipulated for the free admission of Russian merchants into the +state on the payment of a 2-1/2 per cent. _ad valorem_ duty. Not only +was there to be no further exaction, but good treatment was guaranteed +to such Russian subjects as desired to travel in Kashgar, and who came +provided with a passport, and permission to travel, from a Russian +governor. During Baron Kaulbars' residence in the country, nothing could +be more considerate than the treatment extended towards the members of +his suite, and the merchants who went on to Yarkand were afforded +facilities for disposing of the small stock of merchandise which they +had brought with them on this journey. This friendly reception of such +merchants as came to Kashgar was maintained during the period over which +these negotiations extended down to the departure of Yakoob Beg's own +ambassador from Russian territory; but with the arrival of Hadji Torah +at Constantinople, and the proclamation of the fact that Yakoob Beg had +been elevated to the dignified position of Emir by the Sultan of Roûm, a +change came over the spirit of his policy towards Russia. Indeed, Yakoob +Beg saw himself menaced by an unforeseen danger in this treaty of +commerce. He had formerly been averse to the presence of Russian +merchants in his state because he regarded them as spies; but now that +the necessities of his position had to some extent compelled him to +enter into a formal treaty with their government, he perceived that his +little state literally ran the risk of being invaded by the Russian +merchants and traders who flocked to Kuldja for the purpose of +participating in the spoils to be obtained by trafficking with the +inhabitants of Eastern Turkestan. He had always been averse to trade. He +was a warrior, and inclined to feel and to express contempt at the +juggling tricks of Muscovite or Khitay. + +But as the former could provide him with better weapons for his army, +and warmer clothes for his people, in addition to trinkets for his +_serai_, their presence, if only they came in limited numbers, and at +stated intervals, could be tolerated; but when he perceived they were +about to descend on his state, like so many birds of prey on an +abandoned carcase, and when he surmised that in all likelihood they +would endeavour to mix themselves up in the political divisions of +Kashgar as they had in Bokhara and Khokand, he determined to impose some +other check on their visits besides that insignificant 2-1/2 per cent. +on goods that returned a profit of cent. per cent. He had given his +plighted word, however, that merchants should receive fair treatment, +and how could he find a loophole to avoid fulfilling what he had +promised, and yet at the same time escape bringing about an open rupture +with the Russian Government. The matter required most delicate +manipulation, but Yakoob Beg proved himself equal to the occasion. It +was not to be expected, however, that Yakoob Beg could accomplish his +task of discouraging Russian enterprise without giving some umbrage to +the government. + +Despite the friendly reception of Baron Kaulbars, there still remained +some uncertainty in the minds of individuals, whether the Athalik Ghazi +was as sincere in his protestations as he would have it believed. There +was, consequently, some disinclination among the merchants of Kuldja to +be the first to send a caravan to Kashgar. They were all willing enough +to share the profits, but it was a risky experiment all the same; and +each would prefer that his neighbour should inaugurate the enterprise. +In commercial circles, there was much discussion on the new state, and +the prospects of trade therewith, and there was much talk as to "who +should bell the cat." The hesitation, if indeed so natural a sentiment +deserves to be specified here, soon passed off, and Mr. Pupyshef, a +merchant, who had had very large business connections with most parts of +Central Asia, resolved to send the first consignment of merchandise to +Kashgar. Mr. Pupyshef was, however, unable to go in person, so his +caravan set out under the charge of his clerk Somof. It arrived without +"let or hindrance" in Kashgar, where Mr. Somof was provided with +accommodation in the Caravanserai specially set apart for foreign +merchants. But a change was at once perceptible in the sentiments of the +ruler, as the personal freedom of the members of the expedition was +curtailed, and all their movements were watched with the most exacting +surveillance; and the residence of Mr. Somof was brief in the extreme, +for the Athalik Ghazi himself bought up the whole of his stock of +merchandise. Viewed as a commercial speculation, this result should have +been eminently satisfactory; the Russian merchant had to experience no +loss from delay in finding a purchaser for his articles. There was, +however, another matter to be taken into consideration, and that was the +mode of payment by the purchaser. Mr. Somof received so many Chinese +coins at a value fixed by the Ameer himself, and Mr. Pupyshef, on the +return of his representative, estimated the loss at 15,000 roubles. The +Russian government took up the case of their subject, and presented a +remonstrance at Kashgar, demanding the immediate restitution of the loss +incurred by the Russian merchant. Yakoob Beg's reply to this summary +request was a model of courtesy and tact. He denied altogether that Mr. +Somof had in any way been interfered with. That gentleman was always at +perfect liberty to do what, and to go where, he pleased, and he was +quite mistaken in supposing that he, the Ameer, had purchased his goods. +The Badaulet had nothing whatever to do with trade, which he left +entirely to his subjects. He was simply a warrior and a follower of the +Prophet. He had nevertheless instituted inquiries into the matter, and +he had discovered that some of his officers, who should be punished, had +purchased the merchandise in his name, hoping thereby to obtain it at a +cheaper rate. The Athalik Ghazi expressed his regret at the occurrence, +and would be most happy to refund whatever sum the Russian government +considered their subject had lost by the transaction. A commission was +appointed at Tashkent, to inquire into all the circumstances of the +case, and after some discussion the demand of Mr. Pupyshef was reduced +from 15,000 to 12,000 roubles. The Ameer acquiesced in the decision, but +many months elapsed before Mr. Pupyshef received his money, and then it +was again in a depreciated Chinese coinage. We are justified in assuming +that this was all planned, and that the obstacles thrown in the path of +Mr. Pupyshef were part and parcel of a systematic attempt to disgust +Russian merchants with Kashgar. The Russian government, too, was +afforded no clear case for complaint, as Yakoob Beg expressed his regret +without reserve for the occurrence, all the responsibility of which he +shifted on to the shoulders of some of "his officials whom he had +ordered to be punished." He paid without a murmur the fair demands of +Mr. Pupyshef, and if there was some delay in the refunding of the money, +it must be attributed to the poverty of his exchequer, and not to any +want of goodwill. The burden of his complaint was, "I am a poor prince; +my country is impoverished by the wars that have occurred since the +departure of the Chinese; and you will find little therein to repay you +for your trouble and expense in entering it. Why therefore will you +persist in coming to it? You can do neither yourselves nor my people any +good by doing so, and you only cause me anxiety and trouble in +preserving your countrymen from insult and injury, which you must admit +I have ever done." There was an under-current of truth in this statement +of the case, although it was not credited in Kuldja, where everything +that went amiss was set down to the hostility of the Ameer. Yakoob Beg +had, however, succeeded in throwing cold water on the enthusiastic +preparations that were being made for exploiting Eastern Turkestan, and +his mode of doing so had been quite original and characteristic. Few +rulers would have foreseen that the best way to get rid of a troublesome +visitor was to purchase what he had brought to sell to the people; and +that the simple remedy of paying in a questionable currency would +suffice to deter hundreds from following the example of Mr. Somof. +Yakoob Beg, however, was not satisfied with leaving well alone. Having +paid the claim of Mr. Pupyshef, it might have been supposed that he +would maintain a discreet silence on his intentions in the future with +regard to Russian merchants. He might have let the question, indeed, +find, as it would have found, its own solution; but, in a weak moment, +to place his own _bona fides_ beyond suspicion, he desired the Russian +government to send another merchant to Kashgar, and then it could judge +by his reception whether the Ameer was not amicably disposed towards his +"close allies," the Russians. The Russian authorities took him at his +word, and after an interval of more than twelve months, during which +Kashgar had been unvisited by a Russian merchant, another, a Mr. +Morozof, came to put Yakoob Beg's assertions to the test. True to his +word, the reception of this gentleman was most cordial. Facilities were +placed in his way for getting purchasers of his articles, and the Ameer +bought for his arsenals such of them as seemed suitable. Mr. Morozof +returned to Kuldja, narrating how cordially he had been welcomed by the +ruler himself, and how the enterprise had commercially been a success. +Others followed his example, and during the last two and a half years of +his rule Russian merchandise, either through Russian or native agents, +found its way in considerable quantities into Kashgar. But this trade +was always liable to periods of depression through the clouds that +frequently darkened the political horizon, and the Russians did not +derive the advantages from trade with this state, that they had +previously convinced themselves they were to do. Indeed, English +manufactures, after the year 1873, entered into keen competition with +theirs in the cities of Kashgar, and had driven their goods out of the +market of Yarkand at all events before the close of the year 1876. But +this fact only served to impress more forcibly on the Russians the +necessity either for annexing Kashgaria or establishing on its throne +some puppet, who would be content with the post of deputy of the Czar. +Indeed, many suggested that the Chinese should be brought back; but then +they were so far off, and apparently so weak. The party advocating the +absorption of Kashgaria every day became stronger and more pronounced; +and all observers agree that it was only a question of time when the +imperial fiat should go forth for the extinction of the rule of Yakoob +Beg. Colonel Reinthal was sent in 1874, to endeavour to place matters on +a more hopeful footing, but with little success. In addition to the +question of trade privileges, the Russians, in negotiating with native +states, or securing treaties at the point of the sword, always demanded +the right of having consular agents in the chief cities of the state. +The ostensible duty of these official representatives was to look after +the interests of their government, and to protect the lives and property +of Russian subjects as best they might be able. So far as these very +necessary functions were concerned, Russia had a perfect right in +demanding these safeguards, when such were deemed to be required. But +unfortunately for the reputation of that country, the experience of +Asiatics had amply demonstrated that these declared duties were the +least important part of their office. + +Their secret instructions were to lose no opportunity of discovering the +drift of public sentiment in the state where they were stationed; to +learn all the ramifications of the dynastic intrigues that unfortunately +form the chief incidents in the history of these states, and to promote, +by every means at their disposal, the interests of the great empire into +whose service they had been admitted. When such latitude was allowed in +their instructions, and so many private and public inducements were +offered to raise their zeal, it cannot be matter of surprise if we find +the government informed promptly of the shiftings of public opinion in +the independent and semi-independent Khanates of Central Asia. Yakoob +Beg was keenly alive to the dangers that would arise to him personally +from the introduction of such a system into Kashgar, where the +discordant elements out of which he had welded a military organization +were far from being completely healed. If the presence of a mirza in +Khokand and Bokhara had entailed a decade of troubles and of gradual +subjection, what was he to expect, a mere military adventurer and a +foreigner in the land, from their presence in Eastern Turkestan? But +Baron Kaulbars had demanded this concession, perhaps more than any +other, and Yakoob Beg had to yield something in form, if he did not +surrender much in substance, to the importunities of his visitor. As a +great favour he consented to the appointment of _caravanbashis_, or +superintendents of the personal comforts of the merchants when they +should arrive; but a _caravan-bashi_ was an uneducated, unimportant +personage, from whom nothing need be feared. This did not at all please +the Russian administrators, and all their subsequent efforts were mainly +devoted to the attempt to obtain an alteration of this unimportant +personage into the prying and inquisitive _mirza_. To defeat their +design Yakoob Beg was no less firmly resolved, and the history of the +embassies, from that of Baron Kaulbars to that of Captain Kuropatkine, +was one long course of fruitless efforts to force the hand of the +Athalik Ghazi on this point. Colonel Reinthal was sent in 1874, after +the successful journey of Mr. Morozof, to see if any better arrangement +could be attained, but, although the Ameer entertained him very +hospitably, he fared no better than any of his predecessors. In that +year, too, Yakoob Beg's position had become firmer in his own state. The +Tungani had been driven back north of the Tian Shan beyond Turfan, and +into the regions east of Lake Lob; the disaffection, too, in the cities +of Kucha and Korla was also, to all appearance, dying out; but, above +all, the vast ægis of English protection had appeared to be thrown over +the integrity of his state. However unjustified this supposition was by +the treaty with Sir Douglas Forsyth, the Ameer made as much use as +possible of his new-found ally; and the large section of Anglo-Indians, +and authorities in this country on the affairs of Central Asia, who, +either out of sympathy for the man, or from a belief in the identity of +British interests with his cause, proclaimed the advisability of +supporting him against Russian aggression, gave a colourable excuse to +his declaration that England had extended for the first time in her +Trans-Himalayan policy her protection to a native state lying north of +her natural frontier. The Russian governments in Siberia and Turkestan, +emphatically cautioned by their Foreign Office to give this country no +cause for umbrage, were at first inclined to make that assertion an +excuse for pushing their friendly relations with the Ameer; but their +advances were not reciprocated, and as it became more clear that the +importance of the Forsyth mission had been greatly exaggerated by the +representations of the Ameer, the language of the Russian authorities +became once more peremptory and menacing. In short, matters after more +than two years' discussion had retrogressed to the condition they were +in before the Kaulbars treaty. The Russians had not obtained their chief +desire, the establishment of consular agents in Kashgar, and Yakoob Beg, +as in the past, boldly met threat with threat. Relying on his increased +reputation as the most orthodox and the most puissant of Mahomedans in +Central Asia, and confident that England would intervene between the +Russians and the collapse of his state, he even went so far as to temper +his defiant, and almost bellicose, attitude with such irony as the +following incident is a characteristic specimen of. Early in the year +1874 the Duke of Edinburgh married Marie Alexandrovna, the only daughter +of the Czar; and Yakoob Beg seized the occasion to send a message of +congratulation to the Czar of All the Russias on the auspicious +event--saying, that he had heard that the son of his good ally, the +Queen of England and of India, was about to wed the daughter of his +friend the Czar, and that he hastened to send him his congratulations +upon the event. To this effusive epistle no reply was deigned, and it is +doubtful whether it ever got farther than Tashkent. There is no +difficulty in arriving at the conclusion that such exhibitions as this +is an instance of detraction from the otherwise great and striking +characteristics of the ruler of Kashgar. His opposition to Russia was +most laudable; his maintenance of his privileges as an independent ruler +was prudent and worthy of our respect; but his petty insults to Russia +were neither wise nor dignified. He was clearly in the right in +checking the aggressive instincts of Russia, clothed in the specious +garb of commercial advantage; he commands not less our admiration for +the energetic and persistent manner in which he thwarted every endeavour +to introduce Russian espionage and intrigue into Kashgaria; but why +should he have weakened the effect of these splendid achievements, why +should he have risked all he had secured, by so senseless an insult as +the message to the Czar that has been just referred to? + +The authorities in Tashkent, perceiving that it was doubtful whether +English public opinion was ripe yet for an active interference in +Central Asia, reverted, despite all orders from the home authorities to +the contrary, to their original intention of coercing the ruler of +Kashgar. In 1874, therefore, all preparations for commencing the +campaign in the approaching spring were made ready. Provisions and +munitions of war were despatched to Naryn, and an auxiliary division was +to make a flank movement by the Terek Pass on the west. It has been laid +to the charge of the Russian generals in Asia, that expeditions are +arranged for their mutual advantage, both in obtaining higher rank and +orders. So seriously bitten had every officer since Perovsky become by +the desire for promotion and distinction, that the disease became +generally known as the St. George or the St. Ann Cross fever. Now during +the seven years previous to the date at which we have arrived, if there +had been a fair share of distinction and spoil for the soldiers and the +lower ranks of the officers, some of those in higher posts considered +that they were aggrieved by the monopoly of supreme credit obtained by +General Kaufmann. This, indeed, had shown itself very clearly after the +fall of Khiva, a success for which Kaufmann obtained all the credit, and +yet towards which the division under his command contributed little or +nothing. The etiquette, too, maintained in the little court at Tashkent, +and the semi-regal state observed by the successful general, were +irksome to officers more accustomed to the licence of a camp than to the +punctilio of a palace. Nor were there wanting more sinister motives +still among some of the chief general officers who filled the +subordinate posts in the service of the Czar's representative. Prominent +among them was the youthful Scobelef, who, burning to distinguish +himself, clamoured loudly for some expedition which, when accomplished +successfully, would be recompensed with the Cross of St. George. Strong +as General Kaufmann may really be in the good opinion of his superiors, +he was unable to resist, if he were inclined, the demands pressed upon +him by Scobelef and his father, and the more warlike portion of his +forces. It is said, that in addition to these palpable reasons there +were others touching the family rivalries of the Kaufmanns and +Scobelefs, who appear to have been at feud with each other when younger +men in the service of the palace, when Nicholas was Czar. To remove +these differences, and to satisfy the demands of his other subordinates, +General Kaufmann consented that an expedition should be arranged against +Kashgar, and entrusted to the command of the younger Scobelef. Towards +the end of 1874 the war-cloud was drawing ominously over the Athalik +Ghazi, and to all observers it seemed as if it were about to break with +destructive violence on his devoted head. Loudly was it asserted that +nothing but British intervention would save him, and it was only too +clear that England's policy would be guided by events. The Viceroy had +certainly not advised that an active participation should be undertaken +in this question. The failure, too, of the Granville-Gortschakoff +negotiations to define a neutral zone had convinced this country of the +inutility of solving the question between the two countries by treaty. +But it was not clear that, even if Kashgar were to fall into the power +of Russia, our interests would suffer so much as to justify us in +adopting an extreme remedy. The path being thus left clear for Russia +to strike, every precaution was taken by Generals Kaufmann and Scobelef +that the blow should be sharp and decisive. Not fewer than 20,000 +Russian troops in all were to be directed against Yakoob Beg, who too +late now attempted some concessions to his neighbours. Such troops as he +could raise were massed in the neighbourhood of Kashgar, while another +force under his son was stationed at Aksu. But of the result there could +not be two opinions. Very few weeks' respite remained to the intended +victim, when an event occurred which changed the whole current of +Russian thought into a different channel. Yakoob Beg was saved by the +outbreak of disturbances in Khokand, and, although the Russians never +acknowledged that they were so serious as to prevent them persisting in +their Kashgarian enterprise, still gradually the troops who had been +despatched to the frontier were recalled, and those who had been ordered +to set out for Naryn were retained in Tashkent and Hodjent, the two +towns chiefly threatened. Although this event is not part of Kashgarian +history, yet it performed so useful a function to that state, which +indeed it may be said to have saved, that some brief account of it here +may not be unwelcome. + +Khudayar Khan, after the death of Alim Kuli, his hostile minister, in +1865, had been reinstated in his possession of Khokand, partly by the +efforts of his own faction, and partly by Russian assistance. From that +year to the year 1875 he was _de facto_ as he was _de jure_ Khan of +Khokand, and, although imbroiled on several occasions with Russia and +with his own subjects in those ten years, he still maintained a nominal +independence in the western half of Khokand, with his capital at the +city of the same name. For some reason, however, this Khan never was +popular. So far as we know concerning him, he does not appear to have +been any way worse than his neighbours; but one party in the state +accused him of being a tool of the Russians, while another, urged on by +the agents employed by that government, declared that he was gradually +drifting the country into a hopeless contest with that Power. Widespread +throughout the state there was dissatisfaction at his rule, and the +occasion afforded by a commotion among the Kirghiz was eagerly seized by +his subjects to rise for the purpose of subverting his power. At first +this movement seemed to possess no importance for the Russians, and was +regarded as one of those dynastic squabbles that had become too ordinary +an occurrence to occasion any surprise. The insurrectionary party, too, +had put on the throne Nasruddin, the eldest son of the Khan, a youth who +was supposed to be friendly to Russia, and who was not likely to prove +in any way formidable, having become passionately addicted to _vodka_ +drinking. But behind this ostensible ruler there were others who aspired +to greater eminence than the king-makers of a petty state like Khokand. +Chief among these was Khudayar's brother-in-law, Abderrahman Aftobatcha, +who was entrusted with the chief control of the military arrangements. +This chief was the son of Mussulman Kuli, the Kipchak minister of +Khudayar's earlier days. Either incredulous of the maintenance of a +neutral attitude by Russia, or urged on by a patriotic impulse to free +the enslaved portion of Khokand, these confederates issued a +proclamation of war against General Kaufmann. The border districts rose +in response to the proclamation, the communications between Tashkent and +Hodjent were severed, and confusion for a time reigned supreme within +the Russian possessions. The Khokandian forces hesitated to make any +serious attack and wasted their time in useless depredations in the +mountains. Had a prompt move been made on Tashkent, or even on Hodjent, +the insurrection might have been successful. Bokhara might have struck +in at the critical moment, and Yakoob Beg awoke from the lethargy into +which his warlike spirit was sinking. Such was not to be, however; and +gradually the Russian scare wore off. Colonel Scobelef scoured the +country with his Cossacks; telegraphic communication was restored +between Hodjent and Tashkent; and the country was rapidly cleared of the +rebels. The fugitives who had accompanied Khudayar in his flight were +sent to the rear, and reinforcements were hastily summoned to take part +in the necessary offensive measures against Khokand. It will be +sufficient here to say that, having been defeated in the fight at +Makhram and several other small engagements, the party of Nasruddin and +Aftobatcha sued for peace. This was granted, but Khokand became the +Russian province of Ferghana, Colonel Scobelef was raised to a +major-general, and obtained his Cross of St. George by the battle of +Makhram. This event, generally known as the revolt of the Khokandians +against Russia of 1875, marks an important era, for it convinced the +Khokandians and other Asiatics that any attempt to obtain their liberty, +short of a concerted and organized movement, would be fruitless. There +has been no renewal of the attempt that then failed, but which ought to +have achieved more success. + +To the discord unhappily existent among its victims has Russia been +chiefly indebted for the facility with which her Asiatic conquests have +been acquired, and to the same ally it seems probable that she will be +chiefly indebted for their preservation. There is no clearer evidence of +this than the history of this last war with Khokand. But when we +endeavour to divide the share of culpability for this dissension, we are +on this occasion bound to admit that the chief blame attaches to Yakoob +Beg. More than any other Asiatic ruler had he assumed to himself the +title of general protector of his religion and his order, against the +conquering strides of Russia; more than any other had he fostered, by +his bold and defiant attitude towards that state, the belief that there +still remained some hope of coping with the danger by a united league of +Central Asian states; more than any other had he seemed to justify this +aspiration; and more than any other must he be held culpable when he +permitted the moment that seemed most auspicious to slip by unutilized. +Moreover, when this insurrection broke out in Khokand, he had made every +preparation to defend himself against a Russian invasion. He saw the +Russians compelled, by the very necessities of their position, to call +off their forces to other quarters, and yet he abstained from striking a +blow in defence of those interests which he had ever declared were most +sacred to him. It is impossible to explain such apathy on so important +an occasion as this was; and his refusal to strike in on the side of +Aftobatcha must remain the greatest blot on an otherwise brilliant +reputation. With the collapse of that effort, and the subsequent +occupation of Ferghana, Russian attention seemed to become more occupied +with the state of affairs on the Oxus and in Cabul, than with the +fortunes or misfortunes of Kashgar. During the few months that +intervened between the annexation of Khokand and the appearance of the +Chinese north of the Tian Shan, Yakoob Beg adopted a more conciliatory +policy towards Russia, and might in a short time have sunk into the +position of a somewhat more important Khudayar or Mozaffur Eddin. Other +events intervened, however, and gave a complete change to the question, +as will be considered in a later chapter. We take our leave of this +narrative of his dealings with Russia with an admiration that would be +perfect but for the weakness he exhibited in 1875. Even that vacillation +will scarcely destroy all the claim that his bold defiance and +consistent opposition to all Russian pretensions to supremacy over +Eastern Turkestan gives him to our respectful and admiring +consideration. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +YAKOOB BEG'S RELATIONS WITH ENGLAND. + + +In describing the relations that subsisted between England and Kashgar, +while under the rule of Yakoob Beg, there will be no necessity for us to +enter so deeply into the under-currents that guided those relations, as +was necessary in the preceding chapter, where we detailed the rivalry of +Russia and Kashgar. While England could hold out a hand of friendship to +the Athalik Ghazi, because he sought to please us by making commercial +concessions, Russia felt doubly piqued with the man who for long refused +her a similar foothold, and who, for a brief space, went still farther +in his defiance, secure--as he thought--under British protection. Our +government could not fail to see, in the bold conduct of this ruler, the +result of a mistaken notion of what it would do in the event of a war in +Central Asia, and it strove to bring home to the mind of Yakoob Beg and +his emissaries a sense of our determination not to interfere beyond the +Karakoram. Looking back now on the old legends that successive +travellers brought us from Eastern Turkestan, where such strange things +had been wrought, where the Chinese had been expelled, and a new king +from Khokand enthroned, and regarding them in the light of our greatly +extended information, even since Mr. Shaw penned his interesting volume +on High Tartary, it will not be without some interest to trace back the +story of how Yakoob Beg's name first became known to us, and how, for +eight or nine years, a large section of Englishmen wove a romance round +his name, and converted "the land of the six cities" into a fertile and +populous region, which might serve as a barrier to Russian progress, and +which, like Cabul elsewhere, should extend as another "cushion" from the +mountains of Hindostan to the Celestial range of the Chinese. Those +dreams have vanished now, and in their place has risen up the very +unromantic and matter-of-fact spectacle of a Chinese triumph. + +Whoever has chanced to reside in the valleys of the Himalaya--Mr. Shaw +is the authority--must experience a desire to know of the countries +beyond that range. The desire is natural, but the obstacles of nature +are stupendous. To enter Tibet has been the object of numerous +Englishmen, from the time of Warren Hastings, yet that object has been +only attained by three of our countrymen, the latest sixty-six years +ago. There are forty or fifty passes of various degrees of +practicability leading into Tibet from Nepaul, Sikhim, and Bhutan; and +to act as a spur to the explorer there is a highly civilized and +peaceable race just beyond our border of whom we know scarcely anything. +Yet the vision of Warren Hastings and of Thomas Manning remains +unfulfilled. + +North of the Karakoram there were no similar incentives. Mr. Moorcroft +who, fifty years ago, resided in Ladakh, does not appear to have +manifested any desire to pierce the iron barrier to the north, although +towards Ruduk and Tibet he turned as if irresistibly fascinated. The +character which the brothers Michell gave Little Bokhara, or Eastern +Turkestan, expressed a fact, which long deterred any traveller from +attempting to explore it. "Little Bokhara," they said, "was a country +where every man carried his life in his hand, and there were indubitable +excuses for each successive traveller who recoiled before the hardships +and dangers of a journey through that country." But although no +Englishman traversed the dizzy passes of the Karakoram and the Kuen Lun, +now and then the people from Sanju, Khoten, and the neighbourhood came +to Ladakh, where they brought intelligence of the political events that +were taking place further north. Their intelligence was often completely +false, it was always vague and exaggerated, but it, at all events, told +us whether peace or war, satisfaction or dissatisfaction, was the +existing circumstance in Eastern Turkestan. It was known in a general +sense that China was the nominal ruler of this vast region; but the +exact relations China held there, how she conquered the country and +when, and by what means she retained her conquest, all these were +unascertained. There had, indeed, been one break in this state of +darkness when the learned traveller, Adolph Schlagintweit, in 1857, +penetrated, with a few native followers, into Kashgar. The initial +difficulties were successfully overcome, and fortune seemed at first +disposed to smile upon his enterprise. Herr Schlagintweit had come, +however, at a singularly inopportune moment. The Khoja Wali Khan had +just invaded Kashgar, and his forces had spread as far south as Yarkand, +when the traveller approached that city. He appears to have been able to +report himself to the Aksakal, representing Cashmere at Yarkand, who, in +turn, communicated with the Chinese Amban, for permission for him to +enter the city; but while detained outside the walls he was captured by +a roving party of Wali Khan's army. He was at once hurried off to Wali +Khan's head-quarters at Kashgar, where that despot, in a fit of fury, +brought about by excess in "bang," ordered him to be executed. His +followers escaped, and brought back the tale of his death to Ladakh. + +Such was the untoward fate of the first explorer of Kashgar. In the +course of the early summer of 1868, it became generally known that the +Chinese had been driven out of Kashgar, and that Yakoob Beg was ruling +the country, under the title, conferred upon him by the Ameer of +Bokhara, of Athalik Ghazi. He had sent a sort of semi-official +messenger, Mahomed Nazzar, in that year into the Punjab, to take notes, +as it were, of our dominions. Mr. Shaw, in Ladakh, had heard of the +recent changes in Eastern Turkestan, and mentioned to this envoy on his +return the desire he had to visit Kashgar, and see the widely famed +Athalik Ghazi. The envoy received the proposition with enthusiastic +approval, but it was considered more prudent to await the formal assent +of the ruler himself. After overcoming the difficulties that beset his +task, with prompt resolution Mr. Shaw entered the dominions of the +Athalik Ghazi in December, 1868, being the first Englishman who had ever +entered Little Bokhara. His reception was singularly cordial, and +everything that the officials could do to make his sojourn in the +country pleasant to him was done. One and all of the Khokandian +dignitaries received him as a friend and a brother; and even Mahomed +Yunus, Dadkwah of Yarkand, the second man in the kingdom, treated him in +a spirit of marked cordiality. It should be remembered that Mr. Shaw +went there without any official _status_ whatever, and simply as an +English traveller. Of course, it was the best policy for the Kashgarian +rulers to greet him hospitably, and prove that they had completely +pacified Eastern Turkestan; but in pointing out the hospitable reception +that was given to Mr. Shaw, it is impossible to detract from its merit +by referring to such latent political motives as these. Yakoob Beg +received the English traveller in special audience at Kashgar, and +treated him in the most cordial manner. On Mr. Shaw offering him a few +presents that he had brought from India, such as rifles, &c., the ruler +laughed, and said, "What need is there of presents between you and me? +We are already friends, and your safe arrival has been sufficient +satisfaction to me." During Mr. Shaw's residence in Kashgar, which +extended over a period of three months, he had three interviews with the +Athalik Ghazi, who on each occasion became, if possible, more friendly +than on the previous one. Mr. Shaw was fairly treated on the whole, and +has of all writers on Kashgar given us the most graphic description of +the people and the country. Mr. Shaw's position was to a certain extent +compromised by the arrival of another Englishman, the lamented Mr. +Hayward, who was murdered in a somewhat mysterious manner, three or four +years afterwards, in the neighbourhood of the Cashmerian fortress of +Gilgit. Both travellers were for a time detained in a sort of honourable +confinement in Kashgar, but all ended happily, and the first two English +explorers of Eastern Turkestan returned in perfect safety to Ladakh. The +result of Mr. Shaw's interesting journey was not made known in England +until 1871, after he had set out and returned from Kashgar a second +time, in the first embassy of Mr., now Sir, Douglas Forsyth. The result +of this visit to Yarkand and Kashgar was almost magnetic. Not only did +the Indian Government promptly take into its consideration the question +of what our political relations were to be with the Athalik Ghazi, but +the whole Anglo-Indian community turned an attentive ear to the stories +told of the new country. A new avenue for commerce had been opened up, +and Eastern Turkestan might, after all, prove the true gateway to the +marts of Bokhara and Kuldja. In our more immediate vicinity there was +the jade trade of Khoten to be revived, and the wool of Tartary, of +ancient fame, should alone form a staple article of commerce. For +Manchester goods and Indian wares there was also a very inviting +prospect in the thickly populated districts of Yarkand and Kashgar, +which were at first supposed to contain a much larger population than as +a matter of fact they did. At first it is probable that the main +sentiment was one of satisfaction on commercial grounds alone; later on, +the progress of events in Khokand and Kuldja made the political motives +appear more prominently before English minds. A trading company was +formed in conception, but it did not begin operations until several +years later on, after the signature of the Forsyth treaty, for which, +and the official regulations concerning the working of that company, +the reader may be referred to the Appendix of this volume. + +Mr. Shaw himself formed a very roseate estimate of the future of the +trade between India and Kashgar, and participated with all his wonted +activity in promoting the fortunes of the Yarkand Trading Company from +his advantageous post at Lêh. Although the more sanguine expectations +were never realized, the company itself was successful, and performed a +very useful work under no easy circumstances. Its functions are +suspended during the uncertainty that always follows a change in the +ruling power of a state, until it is seen what steps are taken by the +Chinese, or this country, to perpetuate, under the Chinese sway, those +good feelings which first arose under Yakoob Beg. Many are sceptical of +the possibility of living on terms of good neighbourship with the +Chinese, and of carrying on an intercourse, which certainly does not +exist anywhere along the whole extent of the Anglo-Chinese frontier. But +these persons will scarcely admit that the Chinese are to blame in this +respect if we neglect the subject, for Russia by right of several +treaties, and by right also of diplomatic tact, has a commercial +_status_ in every northern mart of the Chinese Empire, from Ourga to +Urumtsi, Manas, Chuguchak, Kuldja and Kashgar. If the Chinese were +reinstalled in every one of their old possessions, yet Russia would have +a legal foothold in all those outlying dependencies. English commerce +must not by any means despair of success in opening up the interior of +China from the direction of India and Cashmere. In most cases, political +action generally follows upon commercial enterprise; but in our dealings +with the Chinese the order is reversed, and political overtures and +diplomatic arrangements must clear the way for the commerce that must +infallibly spring up between Hindostan and not only Tartary and Tibet, +but also the home provinces of Yunnan and Szchuen. The root of the +difficulty is no doubt to be found in the fact that the Mantchoo caste +is in many respects as much a race apart from the mass of Chinamen as +the Norman was in England during the twelfth century. The Mantchoo +mandarin believes that in some undefined manner the introduction of +European science and civilization into China would tend to lower his +influence and political power. But if we are wise, we shall ignore this +sentiment, and endeavour to reach the people through their legitimate +authorities, the Tartar conquering race of two centuries and a half ago, +and not by attempting to influence the rulers by a propagandist crusade +among the people, as some advise. + +Some months after the return of Mr. Shaw to Lêh, the Athalik Ghazi, who +had doubtless considered very attentively that gentleman's suggestion to +maintain a representative at Lahore, despatched an envoy to India for +the purpose of expressing his desire for the establishment of friendly +relations with the British Government, for the development of trade +between the countries, and for the visit of a British officer to his +capital. He had fully realized by this time what Mr. Shaw meant by +saying that he came in no official capacity. If he intended, therefore, +to reap any reward for the manifestation of his friendship towards +England, or to be able to play England's alliance off against Russia's +hostility, he discovered that he must take the initiative. In +consequence of that discovery, Ihrar Khan came to India, and was +entertained by our Government in a very friendly manner. It was in +response to Ihrar Khan's visit that Mr. Forsyth was sent as our first +envoy to Kashgar, in the following year. + +Mr. Forsyth was accompanied by Mr. Shaw, who had volunteered for the +service, and by Dr. Henderson. He reached Yarkand, by the same route as +that followed by Mr. Shaw, in safety, and without suffering any great +amount of inconvenience. But the mission had reached the scene of its +labours at a very inopportune moment. The Athalik Ghazi had just been +summoned away to the far eastern frontier to repress hostile movements +on the part of the Tungan cities of Turfan and Urumtsi, and it was very +uncertain for how long a time he might be detained there. Mr. Forsyth +accordingly left Yarkand in the month of September on his return +journey, without having had an opportunity of settling the future of the +relations between India and Kashgar. Dr. Henderson, in his "Lahore to +Yarkand," chronicled the events of this journey to the region north of +the Himalaya. + +The very next year, 1871, Yakoob Beg sent Ihrar Khan once more to India +to renew his protestations of friendship, entrusting him with letters, +not only for the Viceroy but also for Her Majesty the Queen. But there +was no immediate result from this later overture. + +In the meanwhile Russia had broken ground more firmly in Eastern +Turkestan. The treaty of commerce between Russia and her neighbour, +which had been for several years on the carpet, had at last been signed +at Kashgar on the 8th of June, 1872. That treaty conceded no +inconsiderable trade privileges to Russia, for, as will be seen from a +perusal of its clauses, Russian goods entering the country could not be +subjected to a higher tax than 2-1/2 per cent. _ad valorem_. In fact, +but for Yakoob Beg's prudence in restricting the appointment of Russian +commercial agents in the cities to the inferior _caravan-bashi_, a far +different personage to the Aksakal, that treaty would have placed +Kashgar virtually in the possession of General Kaufmann. Even as it was, +Russia, regarded as a foe, had out-distanced England, who was held to be +a friend; and for a considerable time afterwards, English commerce, +which had no status there, hesitated to seek admission into the +dominions of the Athalik Ghazi. + +But the treaty of Baron Kaulbars was in its essence a sham, for no good +feeling sprang up between the countries; and where there was distrust on +either side, trade languished, as was to be expected. Two months after +this treaty, Yakoob Beg sent his nephew, the Seyyid Yakoob Khan, on a +special embassy to Russia, whence he went on to Constantinople, and +returned _viâ_ India. He then had several long discussions with our +authorities relative to the measures that should be adopted to place +everything on a friendly footing between Kashgar and ourselves. The +Sultan had conferred upon the ruler of Kashgar the high title of Emir ul +Moomineen, and shortly afterwards Yakoob Beg proclaimed himself in +consequence of that decree Emir or Ameer of Kashgar, under the title of +Yakoob Khan. It is appropriate here to say something of these two +titles, Khan and Beg. In this work the ruler of Kashgar has been +consistently called Beg or prince, and not Khan or lord; and for the +following reasons. The title of Khan is much higher than that of Beg; it +is, moreover, hereditary. Gibbon, whose authority in these Central Asian +matters stands higher than many modern scholars will admit, defines it +as the distinguishing mark of the descendants of Genghis Khan. His heirs +and their children became the Khans of Western Asia. The Mongol who +grafted himself on the Turk and the Usbeg, brought with him the unique +authority that was vested by public voice in the house of Genghis, the +Khan of Khans. Now, although in his later days Yakoob Beg, or his +admirers, invented a lineage for himself back to Timour, consequently +making him of Mongol descent, it is highly improbable that this mythical +descent was based on any reliable _data_, nor can we admit any other +claim to according Yakoob Beg that higher title than one that will stand +the criticism of history. Yakoob Beg was not free from some of that +craving that haunts the minds of rulers "born out of the purple" to +claim cousinship with the select caste of former sovereigns; and the +visible embodiment of temporal sovereignty in Turkestan was this very +title of Khan, which has been so much abused in its application. + +It is wrong, in a strict sense, to apply the title of Khan to Yakoob +Beg, although he undoubtedly made use of it during the last three years +of his reign; but as a matter of mere convenience, it is also +misleading. On the stage of Asiatic politics there is another Yakoob +Khan, who is, by descent, a Khan, and possesses qualities not less +eminent than did his namesake in Eastern Turkestan. Confusion was often +caused by the confounding of one of these personages with the other, +whereas if each had been defined by his legitimate title, there would +have been no misunderstanding. Towards the close of the year 1873, the +Seyyid Yakoob Khan, who, by descent, could claim the title which was not +his uncle's, returned to India, where he found that the English mission +was a few days ahead of him on its journey to Kashgar. + +The Indian government had, in the meanwhile, appointed Mr. T. Douglas +Forsyth as their envoy to Kashgar once more, and, during the summer of +1873, preparations were busily in progress for the important embassy +that was to counteract the adverse effects of Baron Kaulbars' treaty. As +this is the turning-point in Anglo-Kashgarian relations, it is necessary +to follow it in considerable detail. Upon Mr. Forsyth's embassy depends +the whole fabric of our policy in, and intercourse with, Eastern +Turkestan during the past four years. In fact, but for Sir Douglas +Forsyth's Report and Treaty, even Mr. Shaw's interesting volume and +intrepid journey would have failed to have preserved the vitality of our +interest in Kashgar and its ruler. + +By the month of July, everything was in readiness for a forward +movement, but owing to the delay in the arrival of Seyyid Yakoob Khan, +or Hadji Torah as he was more usually termed, Mr. Forsyth still lingered +at Murree. Captains Biddulph and Trotter, and Dr. Stoliczka, in the +meanwhile set out for Lêh to explore the routes between that town and +Shahidoola. These three gentlemen explored the country beyond Ladakh +very carefully, although it had already been described by Messrs. Shaw +and Hayward, and Dr. Cayley. Mr. Forsyth and the headquarters, after a +short stay at Srinagar in Cashmere, arrived at Lêh on the 20th of +September. It may be useful to give here the names of those who +comprised this important embassy. In the first place there was the envoy +himself, Mr., now Sir, T. Douglas Forsyth, C.B., and now K.C.S.I. His +second in command was Lieut.-Colonel T. E. Gordon, C.S.I., who, after +the prime object of the mission had been accomplished, explored a very +considerable portion of the Pamir, the result of whose investigations is +to be found in his work "The Roof of the World." Then came Dr. Bellew, +C.S.I., Surgeon-Major, entrusted with the medical control of the +expedition. The three military men--Captains Chapman, Trotter, and +Biddulph--held various functions; the first as secretary, the latter two +in scientific capacities. In addition to these there were the learned +Dr. Stoliczka, who died from the effects of the rarefaction of the +atmosphere; an English corporal of a Highland regiment, and six native +officers and skilled assistants. There was also an escort of ten sowars, +one naick, and ten sepoys furnished by the Corps of Guides. + +The appointments of the embassy were also most carefully selected, and +with special regard to the difficulties that lay before it in the +obstacles of nature, and the inconveniences attending complete +dependence on natives for the means of transporting the large quantity +of _impedimenta_. One hundred mules "of a fair stamp" were accordingly +purchased in India by Tara Sing, a merchant, and the treasurer to the +embassy. And these were equipped with saddles and trunks of a special +pattern, made in the government workshops at Cawnpoor. Altogether, then, +this English embassy to Kashgar was a very formidable undertaking, and +in its proportions assumed something of the appearance of a small army; +in camp there were "300 souls and 400 animals." The day had gone by when +English travellers entertained doubts of entering Kashgar in company at +the same time, lest they should arouse the apprehensions of the people. +Mr. Forsyth came vested with all the authority of his Sovereign and the +Viceroy, to negotiate a treaty of amity with the ruler of Kashgar, and +the people generally saw in that fact a guarantee of the preservation of +their liberties and independence. + +So far as Shahidoola, the journey was in a well known region, and +outside the frontier of Yakoob Beg. At that place the first sign of that +ruler's power was encountered in the same way as Mr. Shaw, five years +before, had witnessed the advanced limit of the power of the Athalik +Ghazi in a southerly direction. A captain of the Kashgarian army, +Yuzbashi Mahomed Zareef Khan, had been deputed to receive our envoy at +the frontier, and to give him a hearty welcome. After a rest of four +days, the whole expedition, advancing in two bodies over the Grim Pass, +Sanju Devan, entered the inhabited territory of Sanju. Here Hadji Torah, +who had been travelling "post" after them from India, caught them up, +and by his tact and real friendship for this country, contributed +greatly to the complete success of the mission. The passage of the Grim +Pass, although accomplished with success, was no easy task. Dr. Bellew, +in his book "Kashmir and Kashgar," gives the following graphic +description of it, which may be quoted with advantage as showing some of +the "obstacles of nature" to the advance either of an army or a caravan +in this quarter:-- + +"The scene which now burst upon our view is one not easy to describe, +still less to forget. Immediately on either hand, like the portals of a +gate, stood bare banks of silver grey slate, which gently spread away on +each side into the slopes that, inclining together, formed the theatre +of the spectacle they limited. And immediately in front commenced that +gentle rise over slabs of slate _débris_--the natural dark hue of which +was lost in the bright sparkle of its abundant mica--which led at once +on to the field of our vision. Here, at the foot of the ascent, one +step took us from the tiresome monotony of the bare rocks behind, with +all their dulness of hue, on to the snow, which overspread all before +with a white sheet of the most dazzling brilliance. On the left and on +the right it spread with uniform regularity to the crests of the +bounding ridges in those directions; whilst in front, it rose up as a +vast wall, whose top cut the sky in a succession of sharp peaks with a +clearness of outline rarely witnessed. And above all, stretched the wide +expanse of heaven, with a depth unsearchable, in the speckless purity of +its azure, and with a calm such as often precedes the storm. Wonderful +was the scene!" + +Such is the description of an eye-witness of this striking scene, which +in its solemnity approached the sublime, in its grandeur the terrible. +The last hundred feet of the ascent was a sheer wall of ice, like the +Matterhorn, and up this the troopers' horses, and the baggage mules and +ponies, had to be lifted by human force. More than a whole day was +occupied in surmounting this obstacle alone, but it was surmounted with +the small loss of eight mules and three ponies. With the crossing of the +Grim Pass, the difficulties of nature disappeared, and henceforth the +course of the mission lay in the more sheltered plains of Kashgaria. + +After leaving Sanju, the country had, for some days' journey, an +appearance of barrenness, that was only relieved by the avidity with +which patches of more promising soil had been cultivated, a fact which +testified alike to the beneficence of the ruler and to the assiduity of +his people. There is good reason for believing that in the Yarkand and +Khoten districts, Yakoob Beg's administration was most successful. This +may have been caused by the superior qualities of the people over the +Tungani, and mixed populations farther east; but it must also be +attributed to the absence of those desolating wars which went on without +any long intervals down to the year 1874, in the country held by the +Tungani. The treachery of Yakoob Beg in murdering the Khan Habitulla of +Khoten had aroused suspicions as to his good faith that only lay dormant +during the days of his power; but the people of Khoten, Sanju, +Karghalik, and Kilia were far too thrifty and too prudent to sit down +supinely and dwell upon their wrongs. They neither forgot nor forgave, +but they suppressed all trace of seditious opinions against the new +ruler. + +The next city which Mr. Forsyth reached, Karghalik, showed still further +signs of prosperity and civilization. "An eating-house, with its clean +table, and forms, and piles of china plates and bowls, at once took us +back across the seas to the recollection of many a country restaurant in +France." Special preparations had in every way been made for the +reception of the representatives of England, and Mr. Forsyth expressed +his surprise at finding fire-places, like our own, ventilators, and rich +carpets from Khoten, famous in days of yore for its manufacture of those +articles, in the quarters that had been set apart as his residence. +Similar preparations had been made at every stopping place, and the +people not less than the sovereign did their best, and spared no +exertion, to make the stay of the Feringhees as pleasant as possible for +them. More than that, even at the resting places during the daily march, +the headman or local magnate, without exception, always entertained them +at a "dastarkhwan," that is to say, at a course of refreshments. The +"dastarkhwan" literally means table-cloth, and consists of any number of +distinct dishes, sometimes as many as a hundred, held by as many +attendants. This is a national custom, from which there is never any +deviation. It is incumbent upon the guest to break bread first, and then +present it to his host. One of their customs is refreshing to any one +who has come fresh from India, with all its troublesome caste +distinctions. "Be the host Turk or British, he and his guests eat alike +from the same dish, and hand food to the surrounding attendants, who are +troubled with no scruples of caste to interfere with their hearty +appetite." + +The mission was now drawing close to Yarkand, politically and +commercially the most important city in the state, and accordingly +preparations were made for a formal entry. At a village called Zilchak a +chamberlain, or Yasawal-Bashi, came out with a party of the royal +body-guard, Yakoob Beg's favourite _jigits_, in their buff leather +uniform, to act as an escort, and the party was swollen _en route_ by +numerous influential citizens and merchants, who advanced to give an +early welcome to the new arrivals. By these additions quite an imposing +cavalcade drew nigh to the walls of Yarkand. The quarters set apart for +the Englishmen were in the fort, which lies to the north of the city, so +that Yarkand had to be ridden through before their halting place was +reached. The people who thronged to witness the sight seemed very well +disposed, and altogether there was every reason to feel well satisfied +with these mutual first impressions, which, some had asserted, would be +far from pleasant. + +The following day there was an interview of ceremony with the Dadkhwah +of Yarkand, Mahomed Yunus Jan, for whose history the reader is referred +to Chapter IX., and then the visitors were permitted to go wherever they +liked. On Mr. Forsyth's former visit a similar freedom had not been +accorded him. Their first appearance in the streets was the occasion for +a great deal of bustling on the part of the curious, but of friendly +goodwill also. All the principal streets and bazaars were visited in +turn, such as the butchers' street, or market, where the varieties of +meat were clearly to be seen, and their quality tested by their tails or +heads being left untouched. It appears to be the fashion in Yarkand to +purchase the necessaries of life during the morning, and the luxuries in +the evening. There is a special evening bazaar, called Shám, where hats +and other clothes, in addition to various other articles, are put up for +sale in the afternoon. This, when lit up with Chinese lamps, must have +presented a stirring sight, very similar to a country fair in our +country. Sir Douglas Forsyth does not tell us whether under Yakoob Beg +it was customary to illuminate this bazaar with the gaudy lamps of the +Chinese, or whether our imagination of such a scene must be referred +back to the days of the old domination. + +Nor were these harmonious relations confined to the lower people and +ourselves alone. Their rulers set an example that all strove to imitate. +Between the officers of the mission and the Dadkhwah something more +cordial than a chivalrous sentiment of guest towards host sprang up, and +was heartily reciprocated; while Hadji Torah smoothed down all +difficulties by his ready tact and never-failing resource. The latter +did not remain the whole time of the three weeks that the mission +remained at Yarkand, but set out for the capital, in order to put the +Ameer _au courant_ with English affairs, and the exact objects our +authorities had before them with regard to his country. + +Mahomed Yunus had placed at the disposal of the mission a considerable +number of the carts of the country, which proved very serviceable. These +carts are strongly built, with two wheels, six feet in diameter, and are +drawn by four or six ponies, as the case may be. They are not permitted +to carry a greater weight than ten hundredweight, but with that load it +is quite customary for them to perform journeys of twenty and +twenty-five miles a day. In carts of this kind the heavier baggage was +carried from Yarkand to Kashgar, while the members of the mission with a +lighter camp followed on some days afterwards. While mentioning these +carts, so superior to the Indian modes of conveyance, we will remark +that they also are used as omnibuses and stage coaches. They ply +frequently between the fort and city of Kashgar, a distance of five +miles, and they are also used as a stage coach doing the whole distance +from Yarkand to Kashgar in five stages. But no company, with its +regulations and bye-laws has a monopoly of this branch of locomotion, +and there is a tariff fixed by law which cannot be departed from. + +On the 28th of November the mission set out from Yarkand, and for a +certain distance high officials, by order of the Dadkwah, bore it +company to speed it on its journey. From Yarkand to Yangy Hissar the +country was equally prosperous-looking, but there was much desert land +as well. The villages of Kok Robat and Ak Robat (names meaning Blue and +White Post-house respectively) wore a flourishing look, and the +appearance of Yakoob Beg's soldiery, still _jigits_, who looked prim on +parade, and yet could play the part of waiter, carpenter, or what not, +with equal facility, added a sense of order and cohesion to the whole +display. The appearance of Yangy Hissar was made more imposing to the +view by the proximity of the formidable fort Yakoob Beg had erected +there; but in itself, owing to the houses being surrounded by mud walls, +with crenellated tops, it closely resembled a fortification. There was +only a brief stay here, and the mission then commenced its last stage of +all. The 4th of December, 1873, was the eventful day which first saw an +English envoy enter that capital, which Mr. Shaw had visited four years +before in a non-official capacity. Special quarters had been prepared, +at a short distance from the fort, where is also the royal palace, for +the envoy, and these Elchi Khana had been fitted up in a very +comfortable, if not luxurious style. Ihrar Khan Torah, who had visited +India as envoy twice before, was the first to pay a visit to the new +arrivals, and to request that they would come at once to see the Athalik +Ghazi. The following description is Sir Douglas Forsyth's own account of +his first interview with the Ameer:-- + +"According to etiquette we dismounted at about forty paces from the +gateway, and walked slowly along with Ihrar Khan, the Yasawal-Bashi, or +head chamberlain, with white wand in hand going ahead. In the outer +gateway soldiers were seated on a dais with their firearms laid on the +ground before them, their arms folded, and their eyes on the ground. We +then crossed obliquely an empty court-yard, and passing through a second +gateway filled with soldiers, crossed another court, on all sides of +which soldiers in gay costumes were ranged seated. From this court we +passed into the penetralia, a small court, in which not a soul was +visible, and everywhere a deathlike stillness prevailed. At the further +end of this court was a long hall, with several window doors. Ihrar Khan +then led us in single file, with measured tread, to some steps at the +side of the hall, and, entering almost on tiptoe, looked in, and, +returning, beckoned with his hand to me to advance alone. As I +approached the door he made a sign for me to enter, and immediately +withdrew. I found myself standing at the threshold of a very +common-looking room, perfectly bare of all ornament, and with a not very +good carpet on the floor: looking about I saw enter at a doorway on the +opposite side a tall stout man, plainly dressed. He beckoned with his +hand, and I advanced, thinking that it must be a chamberlain who was to +conduct me to 'the presence.' Instinctively, however, I made a bow as I +advanced, and soon found myself taken by both hands, and saluted with +the usual form of politeness, and I knew that I was standing before the +far-famed ruler of Eastern Turkestan. After a few words of welcome the +Athalik led me across the room and seated me near him, by the side of a +window. At this moment a salute of fifteen guns was fired. His Highness +asked in an eager tone after the health of Her Majesty, and of the +Viceroy, and soon afterwards called, in a low voice, to Ihrar Khan to +bring in the other officers. They came in one by one, and each was +shaken by the hand, and made to sit down by my side. Then there was a +long and somewhat trying pause, during which the Athalik eyed each one +of us with intent scrutiny. I had been told that etiquette forbade the +guest to speak much on the first interview, and that it was a point of +good manners to sit perfectly still with downcast eyes.... After this +silent ordeal had been undergone for some time, at a sign from the +Athalik, sixteen soldiers came in with the dastarkhwan, and the Athalik +breaking a loaf of bread shared it with us. After the cloth was removed, +we, remembering our lesson in manners, rose up, and stroking our beards, +said, 'Allah o Akbar;' soon after which the Athalik said, 'Khush, +amadeed' ('You are welcome')." + +Thus ended this imposing interview, imposing not for any magnificence or +barbaric splendour that appertained either to the court or person of the +ruler, but by reason of the mysterious character of the Ameer himself, +of his vague power and influence, and of the hold he had acquired over +such of his subjects as comprised his court and his body guard. All his +Khokandian friends and relations, whose fortunes, indeed, depended on +his power, were stanchly attached to his person. It could not be given +to envoys to possess such complete prescience as to foresee that the +jarring elements, that still existed beneath the surface would suffice +to overthrow his rule still more irretrievably when it received its +first shock from external foes. To the observer, the appearance of +Yakoob Beg and his military following was the highest evidence of latent +power. Order was supreme, and discipline was as apparent in the palace +of the Ameer as in the barrack yards of his fortresses. + +The formal interview took place on the 11th of December, when the +presents from our government to the Ameer, carried by over 100 men, were +delivered to His Highness. There were guns of all kinds, including two +small cannon, vases, &c., &c.; but the token of friendship at which the +ruler showed most symptoms of pleasure was the autograph letter of Her +Majesty. This letter was enclosed in a "magnificent casket of pale +yellow quartz, clamped with gilt bands and handles, and bossed with onyx +stones." The Ameer received this with unconcealed satisfaction, several +times repeating, "God be praised." And then he made those declarations +of friendship which, taken in conjunction with our admiration for the +man, were the means of riveting England and Kashgar into a closer +alliance than any that has as yet subsisted between ourselves and any +other Central Asian ruler. "Your Queen is a great sovereign. Her +government is a powerful and a beneficent one. Her friendship is to be +desired, as it always proves a source of advantage to those who possess +it. The Queen is as the sun, in whose genial rays such poor people as I +flourish. I particularly desire the friendship of the English. It is +essential to me. Your rule is just. The road is open to every one, and +from here to London any one can come and go with perfect freedom." + +On the 13th of December our representatives paid their first visit to +the city of Kashgar. The country round Kashgar is very fertile, highly +cultivated, and thickly populated, and the mission was not less struck +by the air of prosperity prevalent here than it had been at Yarkand. In +addition, the people had a healthier appearance, mainly through the +absence of goitre. The Dadkhwah of Kashgar, Alish Beg, who was a +Kashgari and not a Khokandian, was not less friendly than the Governor +of Yarkand had been, and a very pleasant day was passed in his company. +On the 18th a grand review was held, but for some reason, far from +clear, only of the old Chinese troops who had taken service under the +new ruler when Kashgar citadel fell. The description of the manoeuvres +which this force performed reads more like the display of an itinerant +circus than of a disciplined army, but, nevertheless, these Khitay +troops were excellent material for an army. Their practice with the +_tyfu_, an awkward weapon, being a sort of gun-cannon, carried by two +men and served by three, was pronounced very good up to 250 yards. + +It is proper to state here, very clearly, that while the English mission +was on Kashgarian soil it lived and travelled free of all expense, and +as the Ameer paid his subjects in hard cash for whatever service they +rendered, it is obvious that for a small state such as his was this was +no trivial expense. It is only fair that this fact should be as widely +known as possible, for some discontent was aroused by a similar +hospitality being extended to the Seyyid Yakoob Khan last year. That +discontent arose from ignorance; for it is hardly to be imagined that +any Englishman would grumble at reciprocating the courteousness of a +Central Asian potentate. The mission remained at the capital almost four +months, and altogether the time passed very pleasantly. The weather was +certainly rigorous; but then there was much to be done in the way of +business, sight-seeing and amusement. + +On the 2nd of February Yakoob Beg placed his seal to the treaty of +commerce, and this act concluded the business portion of the English +mission. On the 16th of March formal leave was taken of the Athalik +Ghazi, and the mission returned to India. It had accomplished its task +with pre-eminent success, and the Forsyth Embassy deserves long to be +remembered as the most ably conducted and practically useful embassy +that ever set out from India. + +Since the signature of that treaty the Turkestan Trading Company has +been very actively engaged in despatching several caravans annually into +Kashgaria; but now, whether temporarily or permanently remains to be +seen, its operations have come to a standstill. In these later years, +Mr. Shaw, in his old post as Commissioner in Ladakh, had been as quietly +performing his useful work as ever before; and there were rumours that +he was to receive his reward in being sent as another envoy, or rather +as a resident agent, into Kashgaria, last year. If the appointment were +made, it has at this date (October 1st) been for the time suspended; and +such entirely new considerations have come into play that it may be +postponed for an indefinite period. Hadji Torah's visit to this country, +in June and July, 1877, when the Turko-Russian war had rendered the +Eastern Question once more acute, revived our interest, which had been +flagging, in Eastern Turkestan. But he came at an unfortunate moment, +for June brought us tidings of reverses round Turfan, and July did not +pass away without the intelligence of the death of the Athalik Ghazi +himself. + +There had, before the receipt of this definite intelligence, been absurd +rumours of the part Yakoob Beg was resolved to play in Central Asia as +the ally of the Porte, while he, poor man, was opposing with despair, +and at the cost of his life, a relentless and irresistible foe. Such is +the irony of circumstance! The vanquished in Asia was by some freak of +imagination converted in Europe into the arbiter of a great question, +and the guide of all those peoples of either Turkestan who chafe at the +bit because of Russian rule. But in reality, with the return of Sir +Douglas Forsyth, our relations with Kashgar, which at one time promised +to have been most cordial, languished for want of a motive. No amount of +admiration would suffice to make us permanently guarantee Kashgar +against Russia, for the bare facts concerning the intervening country at +once chilled the sympathy at our hearts. The Grim Pass, and the road +lined with desiccated travellers and animals, effaced the bright picture +of the orchards of Kashgar and the busy streets of Yarkand. There was a +sigh of profound relief, that would not be suppressed, when Sir Douglas +Forsyth's report made the fact clear, that wherever else India might be +menaced she was safe, at least, from attack north of Cashmere. It is +true that there is a feasible route from Khoten to Ruduk, and thence to +India; but Yakoob Beg did not hold it, and its consideration was +considered to be beside the question. In fact, after 1874, we +entertained much the same opinion towards Kashgar and Yakoob Beg that we +did towards Poland and Kosciusko; and we were beginning to reconcile +ourselves to a Russian installation in that state, when the returning +Chinese made us reflect more deeply on Central Asian matters, and +discover that after all has been said against the assertion there exists +a third, and hitherto neglected, great Power in Central Asia. There was +never anything save a kindly feeling between the two countries, and all +who could admire bravery and justice and hospitality and frank courtesy +were attached to the individual who had proved that he possessed all +these attributes in no mean degree. But there was no deeper sympathy +than this, or rather there was no stronger connecting link. The Indian +government felt that it would be championing an unrecognized cause in +supporting Yakoob Beg against all comers, and in the press of more +urgent matters our relations with the Athalik Ghazi became lost sight +of. + +The effect of this treatment upon the Ameer was not unapparent, and +during the last twelve months of his rule he had become more Russian and +less English in his policy. But we preserved "the even-tenor of our +way." Yakoob Beg had no hold over us such as must always be possessed by +the ruler of Afghanistan. Practically speaking, his state was more +inaccessible to us than Tibet, and the Russians at Yarkand would be a +source of far less danger to us than warlike and hostile Chinese might +become at Lhasa. To sum up, England and Kashgar were friends because +they had no reason to be foes; but they were indifferent friends. The +tear might be shed for mutual misfortunes, and condolences might be +uttered when cause for grief arose; but that was all. There was no +alliance in the true sense, nor was there firm and unswerving +friendship. There was a brief space occupied by sympathy and goodwill; +then ensued an unbroken period of unvarying indifference. Before 1877, +the spark that had been kindled by Mr. Shaw, and fanned to the +dimensions of a flame by Sir Douglas Forsyth, had gone out, and with its +extinction passed away the solid fabric that many had hoped to rear upon +the base which the enterprise of a few intrepid men had diligently +prepared. Whether we were prudent or imprudent, true or false, kind or +unkind, Yakoob Beg leaned on a broken reed when he bade defiance to +Russia, trusting on our support. This chapter of our policy in Central +Asia may be closed as speedily as possible; if we do not come out of it +with much glory, it is to be hoped that a lenient posterity may judge +our demerits with a merciful consideration for the preservation of a +strict and irresponsible neutrality. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +YAKOOB BEG'S LAST WAR WITH CHINA, AND DEATH. + + +Until the close of the autumn of 1876 Yakoob Beg had not devoted much +personal attention to his eastern frontier. After the first Tungan war +and the capture of Kucha he had confided to his son and his lieutenants, +the charge of maintaining order in the annexed districts, and of +protecting his dominions against any hostile attempt on the part of the +Chinese. About the month of September in that year couriers arrived with +strange tidings in Kashgar. The message, we can well imagine, was +terrible in its brevity. The Chinese had appeared north of the Tian +Shan. They had sacked Urumtsi, and were laving close siege to Manas. +Their numbers rumour had magnified to almost a hundred thousand +combatants, and they came armed with all the auxiliaries Western science +could supply. + +Before following the movements of the ruler of Kashgar upon the receipt +of this intelligence, it will be necessary to consider what had been the +history of this Chinese army which had so suddenly appeared in Jungaria. +When in the natural course of events the Chinese government, having +solved the Taeping and Panthay difficulties, having restored order where +disorder had been supreme, and having created an army where there had +been only a disorganized rabble, turned its attention to the question, +which it had never lost sight of, of chastising the Tungan rebels beyond +Kansuh, the victorious soldiers of Yunnan, instead of being disbanded, +were invited to participate in a fresh campaign in the regions beyond +Gobi. It requires no great stretch of imagination to realize the scene +when the imperial edict came before these veterans, calling on all true +soldiers to vindicate their country's honour and their outraged religion +against the Tungan outcasts; how the generals, such as Chang Yao, set an +example of enthusiasm which the main body of their soldiers speedily +followed. In the presence of such military enthusiasm we are transported +back to the days of imperial Rome, when the subjection of one province +was only the prelude to some fresh triumph, and when every campaign +found in the ranks of the army the veterans of the last. So it was that +the victors of Talifoo, by long marches through Szchuen and Shensi, +reached Lanchefoo, the capital of Kansuh, where the viceroy of that +province was gathering together the munitions of war, and the recruits +who were to swell the nucleus of trained soldiers to the proportions +suitable to an invading army. Some have considered, and we are far from +denying that there is much to support such a view, that there was a +political motive at the root of this enterprise, the motive being a +desire on the part of the ruling family to give employment to a large +disciplined body of men, who if retained in China proper would be at the +service of any powerful conspirator or presumptuous aspirant to imperial +honours. Whether there is any foundation or not for this supposition, it +is certain that those troops who were not required for garrison work in +Yunnan were taken by a round-about route at a great distance from the +capital to the north-west frontier town of Lanchefoo, there to prepare +for the most arduous military enterprise China had undertaken since her +conquest of Eastern Turkestan in the last century. + +It is not certain when these movements began to be carried out, but +there appears to be no reason to doubt that the advanced portion of the +Chinese army had commenced its march westward before the end of the +year 1874. In the barren region between Lanchefoo and Hamil, a tract of +country some 900 miles as the crow flies, but probably nearer 1,200 by +the road followed by the Chinese, such difficulties were encountered +that one if not two winters were occupied in overcoming these +preliminary obstacles to the advance of the main force. The interval was +not passed in complete idleness at headquarters, where magazines of arms +and stores were being collected, recruits enlisted and drilled, and the +plan of campaign that was to astonish Asia, if not Europe also, was +being drawn up by the Viceroy of Kansuh in person and his able +lieutenants. At last, with the break of spring upon the desert plains of +Gobi, the Chinese army, which numbered in its entirety some 50,000 men, +set out on the long road across the desert to the more fertile regions +lying north and south of the Celestial Mountains. Of the details of this +portion of the enterprise the _Pekin Gazette_ is strangely reticent. The +most profound secrecy was observed, and, although it was known that +military events were in progress in the north-west, their object and +their extent were mysteries. After the delay experienced by the advanced +guard, which had to form fixed encampments, or rather settlements, in +the desert, and plant the corn that was to enable it to advance in the +following spring, no serious check was experienced by the Chinese until +they appeared before the walls of Urumtsi, which the Tungan leaders had +resolved to defend. + +Although several officers in the service of Yakoob Beg happened to be in +the city, and several of the leading Tungani resided there, the defence +was not prolonged, and after a few days Urumtsi surrendered to the +Chinese. Many of the inhabitants had fled to the neighbouring city of +Manas, but the garrison was massacred by order of the Chinese generals. +There is no mention in this case of what fate befell those of the +inhabitants who remained. + +Urumtsi surrendered towards the close of August, 1876, and on the 2nd +of September the Chinese sat down before the fortifications of Manas, a +much more strongly situated city, and defended with the whole force of +the Tungan people. The first panic at the appearance of the Chinese had +passed off, and the defenders of Manas recognized that they were not +only fighting for their cause and independence, but also for their lives +and the honour of their families. The terrible lesson of Urumtsi was not +without its effect upon the resolute but despairing garrison of Manas. +The capture of Urumtsi was a creditable performance in a military sense, +but the campaign had to be decided before the ramparts of Manas. On the +2nd of September the Chinese batteries commenced to play on the +north-east portion of the wall, and for two months the bombardment was +carried on on all sides with more or less vigour. Several assaults were +repulsed, and the Tungani, in face of superior odds and weapons, had +behaved like brave men. But the Chinese were as persistent in their +attack after an eight weeks' siege as they had been on the first day of +their arrival, and the provisions of the Tungani were almost exhausted. +With their supplies ebbed also their courage, and, after an unsuccessful +sortie, the Tungan general, Hai-Yen, presented himself to the Chinese +outposts begging to be accorded an honourable capitulation. Ostensibly, +terms were granted--or, rather, to put the matter as it is expressed in +the official Chinese report, everything was left vague--and on the 6th +of November Hai-Yen and the main body of his fighting men came forth +from the city towards the Chinese camp. The subsequent events are not +clear, but it seems that the attitude of this body was suspicious. The +men were armed, they were in a well-ordered phalanx, and to the Chinese +on the hills around it looked as if they were about to attempt to cut +their way through. Once the Chinese generals entertained the suspicion, +they proceeded to act promptly upon it, as if it were an incontestable +fact, and the Tungani, attacked from all sides, by artillery, horse, +and foot, were in a short time annihilated. Such of their chiefs as were +not slain were brought before the Chinese generals, and forthwith +executed "with the extreme of torture." Every able-bodied man found in +the city or its vicinity was massacred; but the report distinctly states +that the women, children, and old men were spared, and there is no +reason to doubt the veracity of the Chinese. There would, in their eyes, +be no need to palliate such strictly just acts of retribution as these. + +Not content with having chastised the living Tungani, by annihilating +them, as a race capable of self-defence for a generation to come, the +bodies of some of the prime movers in the Tungan movement in its +infancy, such as To-teh-lin, Heh-tsun, and Han-Hing-Nung, were exhumed +and quartered, as an example to all traitors to the Chinese Empire. The +fall of Manas struck a blow that resounded throughout Central Asia, and +at the intelligence a panic spread among all the peoples of Chinese +Turkestan and Jungaria. The enterprise had been conducted with such +astonishing secrecy, and the blow had been struck with such rapidity and +skill, that the effect was enhanced by these causes, new alike in the +annals of China and Central Asia. Not only had the Khitay returned for +revenge, but they had brought with them all the auxiliaries that make +England and Russia the dominant powers in that continent. The Khitay no +longer advanced in the clumsy formation of a long-forgotten age, but in +obedience to orders based on the models of France and Germany. Their +artillery was not a source of danger to the artillerists alone, but as +effective as the workshops of Herr Krupp can supply. But, above all, +their generals had made still more astonishing progress. In the sieges +of Urumtsi and Manas they had proved themselves to be no mean +tacticians; in their next and more extended enterprise they were to show +that they must be ranked still higher as strategists. + +Before the end of 1870 the Tungani had ceased to be an independent +people. The great majority of them had fallen either in the field or by +the hand of the executioner; and with their disappearance the first +portion of the task of the Chinese army was completed. The blood of the +Khitay massacred in 1862 and 1863 was atoned for, and Chinese prestige +restored to as great a height as at any time it had been in the present +century. More remained to be accomplished, in its danger as in its +result more important, which we have now to consider, before their full +task should be consummated; but the Chinese army and its generals had +done, even up to this point, a feat of which any country might be proud. + +These events appear sudden and strange to us who are far removed from +their influence, and who only entertain a languid kind of supercilious +interest in matters in which the Chinese are the guiding spirit. But +what must they have appeared to Yakoob Beg in his palace at Kashgar, +although that palace was 1,000 miles removed from the spot where his +victorious enemies lay encamped? It is impossible for us to gauge the +feeling of apprehension with which these first triumphs of the Chinese +were viewed throughout Eastern Turkestan; and if the bold heart of the +Athalik Ghazi did not misgive him, it was not through any light spirit +as to the gravity of the danger. + +Intelligence of the fall of Manas reached Yakoob Beg, probably, before +the end of November, and in consequence of the lateness of the season he +had the whole of the winter before him to make his preparations for +defence. The surrender of these cities was not generally known in this +country until April, 1877, when we also heard of Yakoob Beg's march +eastward to protect his menaced frontier. There is very little to be +learnt of the internal affairs of Kashgar between March, 1876, and +March, 1877; that is to say, between the close of the revolt in Khokand, +with the surrender of Abderrahman Aftobatcha, and the mustering of +Yakoob Beg's army round the city of Turfan, or Tarfur. There can be no +doubt that in that period some important changes had taken place in the +sentiment of the Kashgarian people; these changes may not have been very +perceptible to a casual observer, yet in their consequences they were as +important as manifest sedition. It is not difficult to suggest what some +of these modifications may have been; of what they resulted in there can +be no doubt--the weakening of the power of the Athalik Ghazi. + +Yakoob Beg's over-caution in November, 1875, when the last rising broke +out in Khokand, damaged his prestige more than a lost battle. It damped +the ardour of the Khokandian element among his followers, and when we +remember that these were his ablest and most devoted partisans, this +alone was a serious blow. But there are many tokens that the +disaffection was not confined to any special party among his people, but +was spread amongst them all. The Tungan wars had never been popular, and +had been costly and sanguinary operations. The old trade with Russian +territory, that once had been so lucrative, languished for want of a +fostering hand, and the difficulties of that northern range of +mountains, which the patience and care of the Chinese had for a time +pierced through, were made the most of to prevent intercourse with +Kuldja and Vernoe. More than all, too, all Yakoob Beg's skill as a +"manipulator of phrases" could not conceal the fact that his treaty with +England was a failure. It did not give him that British protection which +alone he cared for, and it did not provide, through the greater +obstacles of nature, his people with that new trade outlet which was the +sole object worth securing in their eyes. The Forsyth treaty seemed to +bring the relations of England and Kashgar to a sudden termination; and +the Kashgari were quite shrewd enough to perceive that the Athalik Ghazi +would not be buttressed by English bayonets against Russian aggression, +if that instrument was to be held, as in their eyes it could not be +otherwise than held, the only connecting link between the countries. The +consequence of this belief was a resignation to a Russian subjection at +no distant date. + +Yakoob Beg's tenure of power would be morally weakened by the existence +of these causes for discontent among his people, and it was at such a +moment, when they had perhaps only slightly become clear to his eyes, +that the return of the Chinese was heralded. In the face of a great and +common danger a well-affected people would have rallied round their +head, and in the crisis have found a joint necessity to produce a better +understanding than existed before among their component parts. The +country east of Kucha, where it was inhabited at all, was inhabited by +the few survivors of the massacres ordered by Yakoob Beg's +representatives. Amongst these there could be no great amount of +affection towards his cause. The garrison of the city of Kashgar +consisted in the main of the pardoned Khitay soldiers--Yangy Mussulmans, +as they were called--and from them no stanch support could be expected +against their Buddhist countrymen (see Appendix). The Tungani of Kucha +and Aksu and the neighbourhood were the most numerous recruits in the +army, and from them at least it might have been supposed that the +Athalik Ghazi would obtain faithful service. Even among them, however, +there was discontent. They had everything to dread at the hands of the +Chinese. It was they who had massacred the helpless Khitay, a deed from +the stain of which Yakoob Beg at least was free; and it was they against +whom the wrath of China would in the first place be directed. But they +had also their grudges against the ruler. He had beaten them in the +field of battle, and had compelled more than he had induced them to join +his army. They hated the Mahomedan Andijani only one degree less than +the Buddhist Chinaman, and their ambitious game had been foiled by the +military talents of their present ruler. They had run, in the years +1862-65, all the risk attaching to a revolt against China, and when they +had accomplished their task they found themselves defrauded of their +reward. Therefore, in the face of a Chinese invasion there was disunion +in the ranks of the very Mahomedan rebels who had originated all these +troubles. The nucleus of Yakoob Beg's army, when these have been struck +out as non-efficient, was small indeed; but it was only on that nucleus +he could depend in fighting for his crown and his religion. + +During the winter of 1876, when he was busy in collecting arms, +ammunition, and stores at Yarkand and Kashgar, he must have discovered +many of these discordant elements; yet he pushed his preparations +resolutely on. He conceived that under the circumstances the boldest +policy would be the most prudent, and that if he could but beat the +Chinese in the field by superior tactics he might ride triumphant over +all his difficulties and dangers. With these views uppermost in his mind +he concentrated all his forces, Tungan included, along the southern +slopes of the Tian Shan, with his headquarters at Turfan. The Russian +officer, Captain Kuropatkine, who had been sent to Kashgar on a mission, +and who had journeyed through the whole extent of Kashgaria to meet the +Ameer at Turfan, computed Yakoob Beg's army at the following strength, +and supplied the accompanying information concerning its disposition +along the frontier. + +The fort of Devanchi, guarding the principal defile through the mountain +range, was garrisoned by 900 _jigits_, armed with muskets and two +guns--one a breech-loader. At Turfan there were with the Ameer 3,500 +_jigits_ and 5,000 _sarbazes_, with 20 guns, mostly of ancient make. +Toksoun, a fortified place, some miles nearer Korla, on the main road, +was occupied by 4,000 _jigits_ and 2,000 _sarbazes_ with five guns. +Hacc Kuli Beg had command here. At Korla there were also about 1,500 +men, who were brought up to the front shortly after Captain +Kuropatkine's departure. With these 17,000 men, scattered over a widely +extended area, Yakoob Beg had to defend himself against an enemy +superior in numbers, and, as the result showed, in generalship as well. + +The Russian officer gave, on his return, a very gloomy account of Yakoob +Beg's affairs, predicting the speedy disintegration of his state. He +also asserted that the Tungani were deserting in great numbers, and that +everywhere east of Kucha there was discontent and distrust of the +Kashgarian rulers. This disparaging account was confirmed by Colonel +Prjevalsky, some months afterwards, upon his return from his adventurous +journey to Lob Nor. In a letter, dated from Little Yuldus, May 28, 1877, +he said he had been very kindly received, but also suspiciously watched +by Yakoob Beg. "All the way from Hoidu Got to Lob Nor he was escorted by +a guard of honour, who officiously endeavoured to satisfy his smallest +wishes, but would not allow him, or any of his people, to come in +contact with the inhabitants. Yakoob Beg somewhat peremptorily asked +Colonel Prjevalsky to explain why the Russians had provisioned the +Chinese forces arrayed against him; but, in an interview at Korla, he +again and again assured the Russian traveller that he was a friend and +well-wisher to Russia. Notwithstanding these precautions, Colonel +Prjevalsky and the other members of the expedition succeeded in making +the natives tell them that they were disgusted with the military +despotism of Yakoob Beg, and that they hoped the Russians would soon be +coming." + +The information contained in this letter refers to the end of April, +1877, or to a time after the first defeat of Yakoob Beg by the Chinese, +and his withdrawal to Korla; but it is _à propos_ in this place as +confirming Captain Kuropatkine's remarks. + +In addition to the 17,000, more or less, disciplined soldiers whom +Yakoob Beg had mustered at the frontier, Captain Kuropatkine mentioned +10,000 Doungans--that is, the Tungani inhabitants of this eastern +region. Not only were these notoriously untrustworthy, but they were +also badly armed, and were, on the whole, a source of weakness rather +than of strength. Before the close of the month of February the Athalik +Ghazi was at Turfan, constructing forts at Toksoun and towards the Tian +Shan, and endeavouring to inspire his followers with his own indomitable +spirit. + +In the meanwhile the Chinese had not been idle. They had, after their +triumph over the Tungani, established their headquarters at Guchen, near +Urumtsi, and had so far secured their communications with Kansuh that a +regular service of couriers was organized, and a continual supply of +arms, military stores, and men flowed across Gobi to the invading army. +For instance, a large arsenal for the storage of arms was erected at +Lanchefoo, and on one occasion as many as 10,000 rifles of the Berdan +pattern were sent in a single convoy. While Tso Tsung Tang, the Viceroy +of Kansuh and Commander-in-Chief, was making these preparations north of +the Tian Shan, for forcing the range with the melting of the snow, +another Chinese general, Chang Yao, was stationed at Hamil for the +purpose of seconding the main attack by a diversion south of the range. +In estimating the total number of the Chinese army at 60,000 men--that +is, 50,000 round Guchen and 10,000 at Hamil--we would express only what +is probable. The total number may have been more or less, but in +estimating it at 60,000 men we believe we are as close to exactitude as +is possible under the circumstances. In the month of March the Chinese +generals had made all their preparations for attacking Yakoob Beg. So +far as our geographical information goes there is no direct road from +Guchen to Turfan, and consequently the chief Chinese attack was made +from Urumtsi against Devanchi, where Yakoob Beg had constructed a fort. +But, although the larger army was manoeuvring north of the Tian Shan, +the decisive blow was in reality struck by the smaller force advancing +from Hamil. If we are to judge from the disposition of the Kashgarian +army, the movements of this brigade had not obtained that attention from +the Athalik Ghazi which they merited. + +General Chang Yao captured the small towns of Chightam and Pidjam in the +middle of April without encountering any serious opposition. And from +the latter of these places, some fifty miles east of Turfan, commenced +that concerted movement with his superior, Tso Tsung Tang, which was to +overcome all Kashgarian resistance. A glance at the map will show that +Yakoob Beg at Turfan was caught fairly between two fires by armies +advancing from Urumtsi and Pidjam, and if defeated his line of retreat +was greatly exposed to an enterprising enemy. Upon the Chinese becoming +aware of the success of their preliminary movements a general advance +was ordered in all directions. It is evident that the Chinese were met +at first with a strenuous resistance at Devanchi, and that the forcing +of the Tian Shan defiles had not been accomplished when news reached the +garrison that their ruler had been expelled from Turfan by a fresh +Chinese army. It was then that confusion spread fast through all ranks +of the followers of Yakoob Beg; in that hour of doubt and unreasoning +panic the majority of his soldiers either went over to the enemy or fled +in headlong flight to Karashar. In this moment of desperation the +Athalik Ghazi still bore himself like a good soldier. Outside Turfan he +gave battle to the invader, and though driven from the field by +overwhelming odds he yet once more made a stand at Toksoun, forty miles +west of Turfan, and when a second time defeated withdrew to Karashar to +make fresh efforts to withstand the invading army. Yakoob Beg probably +lost in these engagements not less than 20,000 men, including Tungani, +by desertion and at the hands of the enemy. He consequently conceived +that it would be prudent to withdraw still farther into his territory, +and accordingly left Karashar, after a few days' residence, for Korla. + +Some weeks before the occurrence of these striking events Yakoob Beg had +sent an envoy to Tashkent to solicit the aid of the Russians against the +advancing Chinese. But the Russians only gave his messenger fair words, +and did not interfere with Mr. Kamensky's commercial transactions with +the Chinese army. At the moment, too, Russia was so busily occupied in +Europe that she had no leisure to devote to the Kashgarian question. + +The Chinese had for many years been good friends with Russia, and Yakoob +Beg had all his life been a scarcely concealed enemy. Between two such +combatants the sympathies of the Russian government must at first have +certainly gone with the former; nor had Yakoob Beg's attitude towards +Russia of late been as discreet as it might have been. His nephew, the +Seyyid Yakoob Khan, was notoriously an agent for some indefinite purpose +at Constantinople. His protection of the Bokharan prince, Abdul Melik, +or Katti Torah, the most bitter enemy of Russia in Central Asia, was +also ill calculated to attract Russian sympathy to his side. + +Moreover there was little or nothing to arouse Russian susceptibilities +in Chinese victories so far distant as Urumtsi or Turfan. In many +respects, too, this Chinese invasion was a relief for Russia. It freed +her hands in Central Asia in a manner that perhaps will never be +sufficiently appreciated. Buddhist victories in Eastern Turkestan struck +a severe blow at Mahomedan vigour throughout the Khanates, and the +waning prestige of the Badaulet, or the "fortunate one," acted as a +warning of strange significance to all the neighbouring princes. + +It is not difficult, therefore, to discover valid reasons why the +Russians declined to negotiate between the combatants, and although +Yakoob Beg endeavoured to come to terms with the Chinese, on the +understanding that his personal safety should be guaranteed, all his +diplomatic overtures were met by categorical refusals. + +The Chinese after entering Toksoun came to a sudden halt, for which the +causes are not evident. But the terror of their name had gone before +them, and the country east of Karashar was hurriedly abandoned by its +inhabitants. The Chinese delay may have been caused by the necessity for +collecting provisions to enable them to advance further, or perhaps it +may have arisen from the outbreak of some epidemic, as asserted by one +of the Indian journals. On this point the _Pekin Gazette_ is profoundly +silent. The number for the 23rd of June contained a narrative of the +operations round Turfan, and also a list of the honours and rewards +given to the successful generals; but it and its subsequent issues are +silent as to the causes for the Chinese inactivity that then for many +months ensued. The most striking sentence in this report is that which +says that "the Mahomedans who submitted themselves were permitted to +revert to their peaceful avocations;" and if this be true, this is one +instance, at all events, of the Chinese exercising moderation. Strange +as it may seem, with this preliminary success the vigour of the Chinese +invasion appeared to die away, and for five months nothing more was +heard of the whereabouts of the Chinese army. In that interval the most +important events occurred in Kashgaria, but with these, the Chinese, +although the originators of them, had nothing to do. In the closing +scene of all of the eventful life we have been in these pages +considering the invading Khitay had no part. They were probably not +aware of what was taking place some 300 miles from their camp until many +weeks after it had happened; and then conceived that their best policy +would be to give time for the disintegrating causes at work within the +state to have their full effect before they advanced westward. When +Colonel Prjevalsky saw Yakoob Beg it must have been within a very short +period of his death. The shadow of approaching events may have been upon +the defeated conqueror, who from recent disaster could only presage +worse yet to come. + +Of the exact manner of Yakoob Beg's death there are various accounts. +The most probable is that he was murdered by a party of conspirators, +who were led by Hakim Khan Torah. The date given is the 1st of May. That +Yakoob Beg should meet with a violent death, considering that he was +surrounded by such doubtful followers as the Tungan chiefs, is not to be +marvelled at, and that the first reverse in his career should be the +signal for fresh disturbances is only what we should expect from a +consideration of his country and its peoples in the light of past +history. So far, then, as the assertion goes, that Yakoob Beg was +murdered, there is nothing improbable about it. But there are many +discrepancies in the accompanying narrative. The first intelligence of +the death of the Ameer of Kashgar was contained in a telegram published +in the _Times_ of July 16 last year. It stated that his death occurred +at Korla, after a short illness, and that he had nominated as his +successor Hakim Khan Torah, to the express disregard of his own sons. +The telegram went on to say that Hakim Khan had declined to accept the +gift, and that the Ameer's eldest son, Beg Kuli Beg, had succeeded to +the throne. A few days after this telegram Hakim Khan Torah was +identified with the ancient dynasty of Kashgar, which Yakoob Beg had +first seated on the throne, and then displaced in the person of Buzurg +Khan. All this intelligence came from Tashkent. On the 23rd of July we +learnt in this country, from the same source, that Beg Kuli Beg had +notified his father's death and his own accession to the throne to +General Kaufmann. There no longer remained any doubt that Yakoob Beg was +really dead. + +For some reason or other Beg Kuli Beg does not appear to have been a +favourite with the Russians; but this aversion to him was based on some +mistake, for Beg Kuli Beg was certainly unfriendly to England, and was +scarcely civil to our envoy, Sir Douglas Forsyth. Moreover, he at once +placed himself in communication with the Russian government, asking for +advice as to the course he should pursue with regard to the Chinese +invasion, and renewing his father's request that Russia should stop the +supplies sent to Urumtsi and Turfan from Kuldja. It was reported, but +not confirmed, that his latter demand was complied with. + +Nothing more was heard of the history of these events until the end of +August, when news reached India through Ladakh and Cashmere that Yakoob +Beg "had been assassinated by Hakim Khan Torah, the son of Buzurg Khan." +This was the first hint that Yakoob Beg had fallen by the hands of +discontented partisans. In itself so natural, it threw fresh light on +the strange deed he was reported to have done of disinheriting his own +family, and it speedily became the accepted version. The question then +was, who was Hakim Khan Torah? Two versions were put forward; one was +that he was the son of Buzurg Khan, the other that he was a Khoja chief +of Kucha. The former was the more plausible, but as his name does not +occur in Sir Douglas Forsyth's exhaustive report, it is open to some +objection, more particularly when we are told that he bore a principal +part in the conquest of Kashgar by Yakoob Beg. The latter suggestion was +much more difficult to prove, but was not open to the same objection. +Grant that Hakim, or Aali, Khan Torah was a pardoned Kucha chief when +that city fell into the hands of the Athalik Ghazi, and there was +nothing extraordinary in his having proved a traitor. Assume that he +still conceived he had claims upon the governorship of that city, of +which the _Turkestan Gazette_ asserts he had been Dadkwah, and there is +nothing inconsistent in his having sought to realize his own ambitious +schemes the moment fortune frowned upon his conqueror. That Hakim Khan, +if son to Buzurg Khan, should seek to revenge his father's deposition +and life of exile is not in itself strange we admit; but if he were a +subjected ruler, who regarded Yakoob Beg as an adventurer from Khokand +with no claims to his fealty, his plot against and murder of the +Kashgarian prince at once appears not only possible, but the true story. +As a leading Khoja of Kucha he would also have claims to represent one +branch of the old reigning family of Kashgar. In the face, too, of a +great and pressing danger from the Chinese, his hereditary enemies, a +son of Buzurg Khan would scarcely make confusion worse confounded by +murdering the _de facto_ sovereign; whereas a Kucha leader might aspire +to play in such a crisis the same part that Amursana did in the last +century. It was said that Hakim Khan entered into some negotiations with +the Chinese, who gave him little encouragement. + +The _Turkestan Gazette_ still adhered to its original statement that +Yakoob Beg had died of fever on the 1st of May, after an illness of +seven days' duration, and that on the 13th of May the body was brought +in state from Korla to Kashgar for the purpose of being deposited in the +mausoleum of Appak Khoja. Then, according to the _Turkestan Gazette_, +there ensued one of those atrocious deeds which have so often marked the +history of Central Asian states. The second son of the dead Ameer, Hacc +Kuli Beg, who had been with him during his last moments, escorted the +funeral cortége, and was met at a short distance from the city by his +elder brother, Kuli Beg. The elder son at once knelt before his father's +coffin, and then rising, without a moment's delay fired a pistol at his +brother, who dropped down dead. Not content with this fratricide, Kuli +Beg had the whole of the escort put to the sword, and returned to +Kashgar with his own followers escorting the coffin. We know nothing +whatever of the reasons for this atrocious act, but the fact of Kuli Beg +being in Kashgar, and not in the east, shows how Hakim Khan was able to +establish his authority in Kucha and Korla. It will be more convenient +to consider in another chapter the further course of these internal +troubles, and also the final triumph of the Chinese. + +There are, therefore, two versions of how Yakoob Beg met his death, and +in support of each view there is a certain amount of evidence. All the +information on the subject has been recorded, and it is conflicting. The +Chinese reports in the _Pekin Gazette_ ignore the subject altogether. +Their personal hatred was directed more against Bayen Hu, a Tungan +leader who had fled from Hamil some years before, than against the +Athalik Ghazi. Of the main fact that Yakoob Beg died at Korla in May, +1877, there is no doubt, and that the most eventful career that has +marked its track in the history of Central Asia for several generations +was then brought to a close. + +Whatever opinion may be formed of the man from his varied fortunes, +there will be few who will deny that he possessed great mental +qualities; some will be found, no doubt, to question his action in +deposing Buzurg Khan, and with more justice may his earlier life be +blamed for his repeated desertion of his friend and patron Khudayar. +Others will call to mind his vacillating conduct in 1875, and deny that +he possessed that decision of character which is the salient feature in +all truly great men. His unnecessary wars with the Tungani, and the +short-sighted policy he pursued of extending his empire up to the +vicinity of China, were also calculated to lower his claims to be +considered a general or a statesman. In extenuation of these acts, which +decidedly undermined the fabric of his rule, it may be mentioned that +there is one side of Yakoob Beg's character that has never received +sufficient attention. It is what was the secret to his foreign policy. +He certainly did not aspire, as many thought, to contest unaided the +palm of superiority with Russia in Central Asia. He was far too well +informed to dream of that. Nor could he expect to be able to extend his +power to the south, where both Afghanistan and Cashmere would resent his +presence. The only option left to him as a conqueror was to continue +aggrandizing himself at the expense of China. We know not what dreams +may have entered the mind of the stanch Mussulman in his palace at +Kashgar of uniting in one crusade against China all the followers of the +Prophet in Central Asia and of emulating the deeds of some of his +predecessors who had carried fire and sword into the border provinces of +China, and whom even the Great Wall could not withstand. Over these +bright imaginings, arising from tales told of the decadence of China, we +know not how much Yakoob Beg may have brooded as he saw his power spread +eastward through fifteen degrees of longitude, through Aksu to Kucha, +Kucha to Korla, Korla to Karashar, and Karashar to Turfan, until from +his far outpost at Chightam he could almost see the rich cities of Hamil +and Barkul, cities which are the key to Western China and Northern +Tibet, and imagine them to be within his grasp. But the policy of Yakoob +Beg will not be clearly appreciated, unless we bear in mind that these +ambitious longings were held in check by fear of Russia, and by the +hostility of the Tungani, who continued to plot even when subdued. His +keen spirit must have chafed greatly under the inability to accomplish +that which he conceived to be possible, and despite his numerous +triumphs he was at heart a disappointed man. + +Moreover, during these later years, when the task he had set before him +had been nearly accomplished, and he had leisure to look around, he was +no longer young or as energetic as he had been. He was entering, for an +Asiatic, upon the evening of life, and had no longer the physical power +to essay any protracted and desperate enterprise. For a "forlorn hope" +he was as eager and as effective as ever, but for those undertakings +which require not only desperate courage but also forethought and +patience he was no longer fit. But the Chinese invasion dispelled all +these, and many other illusions. In their eyes and before their power, +he was only another Sultan of Talifoo. His great qualities, which +attracted sympathy and a certain amount of respect, in India and England +were vain in the eyes of a people whose "empire has," in their own +tongue, "been planted by heaven." Before Chinese viceroys and Mantchoo +chivalry Khokandian soldiers and Mussulman pride must be held vain. So +thought the Chinese, if they thought upon the subject at all. And so +must we think who view past history by the aid of Yakoob Beg's +overthrow. Yakoob Beg's rule in Kashgar was for twelve years a visible +fact; it was recognized by England and by Russia. The Central Asian +Khans gladly acknowledged the admission of another to their fast +dwindling ranks. Even Shere Ali, an ostensibly powerful ruler, honoured +Yakoob Beg not so much with his friendship as with his jealousy. Yet it +was all fleeting fast away. + +In comparison with Chinese power his was as nothing; in comparison with +Chinese perseverance his was weakness; in comparison with Chinese +tactics, his tactics were those of a school-boy; and even in comparison +with Chinese courage his courage had to confess an equal. There was not +only the dead weight of numbers against him, but there was also the +quick weight of superior intellect. There were superior strategy and +superior weapons; greater force and greater determination; no hesitation +in action, and perfect unanimity in council; all combined to crush one +poor forlorn man, fighting with all the desperation of despair for life, +if not for liberty. Worthier of a better fate, and meeting destiny with +the calm that is natural to brave men, Yakoob Beg's defeat and death may +serve to "point a moral and adorn a tale." The tale has been told in +these pages with as close a regard for fact as the meagre records will +supply, and for the personage whose name is the pivot round which the +main facts concentrate, it may be claimed that he deserved attention +even from Englishmen. It may well be that some future generation may +recur to this career with interest as marking the only real break in the +Chinese domination in Eastern Turkestan. When the massacres and other +atrocities that marked the Khoja invasions and the Tungan outbreak on +both sides shall have been forgotten or condoned, then it will be +admitted that, despite the great benefits conferred by China on the +people in the way of trade-fostering and good government, there was some +merit in the administration which a Khokandian soldier had unaided +created in this region. High credit, then, let us, who view the subject +from an impartial stand-point, pay this departed warrior, who as a +soldier met few equals, as a governor none in his long career. Much as +we may marvel at, and perhaps impugn, Chinese strength, let us not judge +Yakoob Beg harshly, because Chinamen out-manoeuvred him, and overthrew +him in fair fight. It is an easy gauge to apply, and one which would +dispel all the reputation the Athalik Ghazi had secured, if we deny the +Chinese the great qualities those who know them best will accord them +without hesitation. But in applying so shallow a test to the case before +us, we should be wronging our own understanding quite as much as its +victim. However much we may blame Yakoob Beg for going out to encounter +an enemy whom he ought to have awaited either at Kucha or Aksu, his +valour, and also his mistaken contempt for the Chinese, are made all the +more clear. We may fairly claim for him that he was the most remarkable +man Central Asia in its fullest extent has produced since Nadir Shah; +and that he accomplished with insignificant means a task which ordinary +men, though born in the purple and ruling a prosperous and thickly +populated state, might have failed to do. What better epitaph could be +placed over a courageous and just ruler? + +The moral of his career is a short one, but for us full of significance. +Those independent rulers who establish themselves for a space on the +confines of China are mere ephemeral excrescences; birds of passage who +must betake themselves away, if they can, when their little hour has +struck. English governments have never understood the vitality of +Chinese institutions. They should appreciate it better in the future. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +THE CHINESE RECONQUEST OF KASHGAR. + + +When Yakoob Beg died at Korla the task of reconquering Kashgar had +barely commenced. The Chinese army, victorious at Turfan, was lingering +in idleness round that city, exhausted, as some believed, by the +greatness of the effort. It was not clear even that the Chinese aspired +to achieve any greater triumph than that they had already won, viz., the +subjection of the Tungani, a subjection which could not be considered +accomplished so long as Yakoob Beg remained in the neighbourhood at the +head of a large army; and that with the withdrawal of the Kashgarian +army to Karashar the Chinese generals might call a halt of an indefinite +duration. Nor did it follow as a matter of necessity that because the +Chinese had taken Turfan they could capture Kashgar or Yarkand. Distance +alone was no slight obstacle, and when added to the barrenness of the +country, which would be made more desolate by the retreating army of the +Mussulmans, an impartial observer might have hesitated to predict any +very speedy triumph for the Chinese. But besides these, there were other +impediments, of which a prudent general had to take careful cognizance. +To seize Karashar or Korla only needed a bold attack; but to subject +Kucha might have been a more arduous undertaking than was even the siege +of Manas. A delay of two months in the heart of Eastern Turkestan must +have strained the resources of the Chinese very much, and might have +ruined their whole enterprise. And even if Kucha fell there still +remained Aksu, and afterwards Ush Turfan in the north, and Maralbashi +in the south, barring the way to the vital portion of the state round +Kashgar and Yarkand. Now the death of Yakoob Beg did not remove any one +of these defences, and for a time it was believed that his son, who had +always the repute of being a good soldier, would make the best of the +very strong line of defence that he undoubtedly possessed. As a matter +of fact, the death of Yakoob Beg was an irretrievable disaster, for it +destroyed whatever cohesion and unity there were in the country. He +himself might have been unable to avert a final overthrow, but the +contest would have been made more protracted. Therefore in the months of +May and June, 1877, immediately after the death of the Athalik Ghazi, it +is strictly true to say that the Chinese reconquest of the country had +barely commenced. + +The hesitation shown by the invading generals after the victory of +Turfan was at first caused by a belief in the formidableness of their +antagonist, and, when that antagonist died, by a prudent resolve to +permit the disintegrating causes that speedily manifested themselves in +Kashgaria to have full time to work in their favour. Meanwhile they +formed their plans in secret, laid in large stores of supplies from +Russian territory, and explored the little-known passes of Tekes and +Yuldus. A large number of fresh troops was received from the Calmucks +north of Chuguchak, who during the worst period of the Tungan revolt had +preserved that city for the Chinese. + +But before following the forward movement of the Chinese it is necessary +to say something of the internal disturbances in Eastern Turkestan, more +especially of the rivalry of Beg Bacha and Hakim Khan for supremacy. In +the first place, it is necessary that it should be distinctly understood +that of the events that occurred in Kashgaria between the death of the +Athalik Ghazi and the final advance of the Chinese army we are really +without any definite intelligence at all, and it is not probable that +we shall ever be accurately informed of the course of events during +those five months. In the absence of exact _data_, we must assume the +events to have taken place which are most in accordance with +probability. On Yakoob Beg's death, his eldest son, Beg Kuli Beg, was +either in the city of Kashgar or somewhere on the road thither. It is +probable that he had been despatched to the rear, to bring up +reinforcements after the defeat at Turfan, and in his absence Hacc Kuli +Beg, the Ameer's second son, assumed the command of the army when his +father died. It is certain that he accompanied the funeral cortége of +Yakoob Beg back to Kashgar, and that he was murdered outside the walls +by his brother. It was during this time that Hakim Khan Torah appeared +upon the scene. It should be remembered that tidings of the death of +Yakoob Beg travelled very slowly to this country, and that almost +immediately after it arrived we received intelligence of events that had +occurred many weeks after the death of the Ameer. We were therefore +hearing at the same time the particulars of the circumstances of Yakoob +Beg's death, and of those commotions which broke out some weeks after +that event. + +When Hacc Kuli Beg left Korla no personal representative remained there +of the dynasty of the Athalik Ghazi, and during that interval the +occasion arose for the intriguing elements that a mixed court, such as +that of Yakoob Beg, could never be free from. Hakim Khan seized that +opportunity, and established his authority in Karashar, Korla, and, +probably, Kucha also; and during a short time Kashgaria was accordingly +divided into three hostile camps. It appears that Beg Bacha, lulled into +a false sense of security by the inactivity of the Chinese, resolved to +chastise the insolence of his rebellious governor, a task which he +should have left for the Chinese. A war then broke out between Beg Bacha +and Hakim Khan, which exhausted the few resources that still remained to +a ruler of Kashgar. The contest appears to have been of a desultory +nature, and although the final result was in favour of Beg Bacha, he +never appears to have recovered possession of Karashar and Korla. In the +neighbourhood of Aksu the battle of this war took place, and Hakim Khan +was defeated, "by the overwhelming numbers of his enemy." Beg Bacha's +chief loss was the death of Mahomed Yunus, the Dadkhwah of Yarkand, his +ablest and most faithful adviser. Hakim then fled to Russian territory, +with 1,000 _sarbazes_, who were promptly interned by order of General +Kolpakovsky, and there he sought to restore his shattered fortunes by +carrying on intrigues with the Russian government. It is scarcely +necessary to say that these came to nothing, and that Hakim Khan has +sunk into that insignificance which, to judge from his acts when called +into public life, is his most befitting atmosphere. + +While engaged on this successful campaign east of Aksu, an event +occurred of singular significance, as illustrating the condition of +Kashgar under Beg Bacha. The Kirghiz chief Sadic Beg, who had +disappeared from the scene since his old rivalry with Yakoob Beg +thirteen years before, seized the opportunity afforded by Beg Bacha's +embarrassment to attack the city of Kashgar, denuded of the greater +portion of its garrison. He plundered the suburbs, and only withdrew +when the young Ameer hastened back from Aksu to defend his capital. The +Kirghiz, true to their nature, at once sought the desolate regions of +Kizil Yart. They had, however, made the confusion arising from the death +of the Ameer and the disaffection of Hakim Khan worse confounded, and +completed those elements of weakness and discord which had always proved +an invaluable ally to the Chinese. By themselves both Hakim Khan and the +Kirghiz depredator were beneath contempt; but with an enemy established +on the soil of the country, they assumed a too clear and mischievous +importance. The minor seditions that manifested themselves in Sirikul +and at Khoten completed the round of dissension that, combined with +external force, shattered the fair show of Yakoob Beg's empire. We are +completely ignorant of the details of the disturbances that were +reported to have taken place round Tashkurgan or Sirikul; but it is +plausible to suppose that these were caused either by inroads on the +part of the Wakhis or Badakshis, or by some fresh Kirghiz attack. The +inhabitants of Tashkurgan being Yarkandi settlers, it is not probable +that the rising, or whatever form the commotion assumed, originated with +them; at Khoten the rising was more tangible, and more easily +understood. The people of that city never forgave Yakoob Beg his +treachery towards their ruler, and the instant he disappeared they +hastened to take their revenge. When the Kashgarian garrison was +withdrawn the towns-people simply deposed their _dadkwah_, and nominated +a ruler of their own, who retained authority until the triumph of the +Chinese made it politic for them and him to bow to the rising sun. The +example of Khoten had been followed by Sanju and the vicinity; and thus +the whole southern portion of the state acquiesced in the Chinese +conquest, after the fall of Kashgar, without the necessity for a single +Chinese soldier to be advanced south of Yarkand. It seems probable that +at this very moment the Chinese troops have remained content with the +submission of these districts, and have not garrisoned those important +towns which skirt the Kuen Lun range with their own soldiers. + +When Beg Bacha returned post haste to Kashgar, to encounter the Kirghiz, +we said that Sadic Beg fled to the Kizil Yart; but he did not remain +there long, for soon we find him back again at the capital in high +favour with the Ameer, with whom he had come to terms. His Kirghiz +followers were taken into the pay of the state, and just as this +alliance had been struck up, tidings came of events that made that +alliance, however futile and insignificant, a matter of the first +necessity, both to Kirghiz and Kashgar. The Chinese army was at last +advancing. The danger that had for five months been hanging in suspense +over the devoted heads of a Mussulman people was close upon them. The +long-feared and long-expected Khitay were drawing nigh to the capital, +in irresistible strength; and the apprehensions of a cowed people made +them know, too surely, that their end was at hand. The dissensions among +the people themselves, the discord in the ruling house, and the +dissentient elements in every effort towards unity, had all operated in +favour of the invader. While the Chinese had plotted and prepared in the +deliberate manner of a great nation, the people of Kashgar had entered +into cabals and schemes of party tactics that were well nigh ludicrous. +And all the time that the sap of their vigour was being expended, the +Chinese generals were drawing the noose more closely together that was +to strangle the newly erected state beyond all chance of recovery. It +would almost seem as if the Kashgari and their rulers had recovered from +their first shock at the Chinese invasion, and were becoming reconciled +to their presence east of Korla, when they experienced a second, more +severe, and more lasting shock, in the announcement that the Chinese +were again advancing. Their brief contentment passed away, and all their +old terror revived in tenfold force. Hope died within their bosoms, and +the resignation of despair only nerved them to bear a fate which their +own valour should have striven to avert. It is time for us now to return +to the Chinese army, and to follow its decisive operations. + +North of the Tian Shan the supreme command was vested in the hands of +Tso Tsung Tang, generalissimo of the army operating against Kashgar, and +Viceroy of the province of Kansuh. South of it the commanders were +Generals Kin Shun and Chang Yao, the former the hero of the siege of +Manas, the latter of the diversion against Turfan from Hamil. The base +of the former was Manas, of the latter Turfan. Their sources of supply +were Hamil, Barkul, and Chuguchak, within the Chinese frontier, and +Kuldja, Semiretchinsk, and Semipalatinsk, without. Their weapons and +ammunition were transported across the desert from Lanchefoo, and their +ranks were swollen by recruits from the Calmuck and other tribes. It +does not appear that the Chinese were very eager to enlarge their army +in size; they rather aimed at increasing its efficiency by the +distribution of Berdan rifles and Krupp's cannon; and during the heat of +the summer months they remained at rest in their recently acquired +possessions. Nor is it probable that those epidemics broke out in their +ranks which it was asserted had appeared amongst them. A sensational +paragraph was published in the _Tashkent Gazette_, which was copied by +some of the London newspapers, asserting that a species of cholera, +known in Kashgar by the name of _vuoba_, had decimated the Chinese army, +and that in consequence of that calamity its advance was permanently +checked. Certainly, this was a piece of gross exaggeration, even if +there were a substratum of fact for the assertion. Then, again, we were +apprised, on high authority, that the Russian government had put a stop +to the despatch of provisions to the country occupied by the Chinese +army, at the request of its new-found friend, Beg Bacha. Yet there is no +question that the caravans of Mr. Kamensky continued to pass between +Kuldja and Manas, and that the chief caterers for the Chinese army were +the Russian merchants of Central Asia. In the course of their +intercourse the best feelings do not appear to have prevailed between +the Russians and Chinese. The latter, flushed with their triumph, had +become arrogant, and were too fond of referring to the question of +Kuldja to be agreeable to the actual possessors of that province. On one +or two occasions these verbal disputes assumed a more dangerous aspect, +and from words the disputants proceeded to blows. Whether this collision +was magnified or not, the Russian government took no diplomatic steps +to secure reparation for injury to their subjects, and continued to wink +at, if they did not actually approve of, their merchants supplying the +Chinese. The clearest proof of this is that the moment Aksu fell a large +caravan was despatched there by Mr. Kamensky. Still there was no little +bad blood between the two people, and for a long time it was doubtful +whether Russia would preserve her attitude of neutrality until Kashgar +had been finally subdued. Beneath all this doubt, and the uncertainty of +the strength and of the ultimate intentions of China, there existed a +sentiment of dissatisfaction in the minds of the Russians at the renown +China was acquiring, as well as at the prospect of having to restore a +rich and paying province. + +In short, beneath the Tungan and the Kashgarian questions there +smouldered the Kuldja question. Having now shown how well prepared the +Chinese were at every point, how well armed, and how well fed was the +tactical unit, and how Russia, although far from indifferent as to the +results, was really abetting the side of China, we may pass on to those +more active movements which proved that the Chinese generals possessed +the ability and military knowledge necessary to make full use of the +very powerful weapon which they had created, and which was capable of +accomplishing the most arduous of enterprises. + +The first move was made south of the Tian Shan. So far as we know, Tso +Tsung Tang did not break up from Manas until many weeks afterwards. A +brigadier-general, by name Tang Jen-Ho, left Toksoun on the 25th of +August, 1877, with the advanced guard, to occupy the outlying villages +of Subashi and Agha Bula. He does not appear to have had under him more +than a few hundred men. A fortnight later, on the 7th of September, +Generals Tung Fuh-siang and Chang Tsun followed after him with 1,500 +troops, all infantry. They advanced through Agha Bula, Kumush, and Usha +Tal to Kuhwei. At this place the troops were concentrated. + +The chief duty of these detachments was to prepare the road for the +advance of the main body, to lay in at stated places stores of fuel and +water, and to erect temporary fortifications. So thoroughly was this +portion of the task performed, that General Kin Shun, now known as Liu +Kin-Tang, gave the order for a general forward movement on the 27th of +September. + +The infantry followed the main road, while the cavalry, under the +immediate orders of the general, proceeded by by-paths in the same +direction. On the 2nd of October the Chinese army south of the Tian Shan +was assembled at Kuhwei. Its numbers were probably about fifteen +thousand men all told. On the 24th of September a small force of +Kashgarian troops threatened General Tang Jen-Ho's communications, but +on the appearance of the Chinese they "turned tail and dashed away." The +very next day after his arrival at Kuhwei General Kin Shun continued his +forward movement. Two brigadier-generals, whose names it is not +necessary to mention, were entrusted with one division, 6,000 strong, +with which to perform a flanking movement against Korla. The commander +in person led his main body against Korla, arriving at the River Kaidu, +which flows into Lake Bostang, half-way between Karashar and Korla. But +his advance was here checked, as Bayen Hu, the rebel leader, had flooded +the country by damming up the course of the river. The depth of the +inundation was said to be in the deepest parts over a man's head, and in +the shallowest it came up to the horses' cruppers. The Chinese march was +then changed to a northerly direction, in order to strike the river +higher up, where the obstruction raised by the enemy would be more +easily overcome. A cart-road was carefully constructed along these +alkaline plains, and the Kaidu was dammed to stop the flow from the +upper course, and a bridge was erected over it. This détour had caused +some delay, yet Karashar was reached on the 7th of October, four days +after Kin Shun had set out in person from Kuhwei. The inundation from +the Kaidu had spread as far as here, and the town was several feet under +water. All the official and private residences had been destroyed alike, +and the Turki-Mussulman, as the _Pekin Gazette_ styles them, population +had been compelled by Bayen Hu to follow him in his retreat. It would be +interesting to know whom the Chinese meant by Bayen Hu, but it is almost +impossible to say. As it was not Hakim Khan, the most probable personage +would be one of the Tungan leaders, either of Urumtsi or Hamil, who had +been mediatized by Yakoob Beg and placed in command of the Turfan +region. He appears to have been the commander of that portion of the +Kashgarian army which was left round Korla. + +Not only was Karashar deserted by its inhabitants, but so was the whole +country round about. Some, indeed, had fled to the mountains, but these +were afraid to return when they saw the Chinese established in their +homes. And then the conquerors followed out their usual plan by settling +fresh colonists in the town. The Mongol noble, Cha-hi-telkh, was +directed to move up some hundreds of the members of his tribe to occupy +this important post, to restore the homes and to retill the fields; and +while this work of restoration was proceeding on territory conquered by +the Chinese, that through which they passed in hostile guise was +subjected to far other treatment. On the 9th of October the Chinese +marched against Korla from two sides, and on that day a cavalry skirmish +took place, in which fifteen of Bayen Hu's horsemen were slain, and two +taken prisoners. From the evidence of these, who were dressed in the +Khokandian garb, but were Mussulman subjects of China, being natives of +Shensi, it was learnt that Bayen Hu had withdrawn with all his forces to +Kucha, taking with him the produce of the country and the majority of +the people. They affirmed that the small detachment to which they +belonged was only a scouting party, sent out to learn what the Chinese +army was doing. When the Chinese had exhausted their stock of +information they beheaded them. The same day they entered Korla, which +they found to be completely deserted, although not flooded. The walls +remained, but many of the houses had been thrown down. Here the general +was nearly reduced to a desperate plight, as the provision train, which +was transported by cart and camel, did not come up, and there was the +prospect of starvation compelling the victorious army to retreat. But +happily the thought struck the able general, or perhaps some one gave +him a hint, that there might be some stores concealed in the city which +the Kashgari had been unable to carry away with them. Accordingly the +whole army set to work to search the houses, and to dig into the ground +in all likely places for hidden stores. Their toil was soon rewarded, +and "several tens of thousand catties' weight of food" were discovered. +As a catty weighs 1-3/4 lb., this was no slight supply for an army of +men which was probably under 10,000 strong. These concerted movements of +the army south of the Tian Shan placed the country as far west as +Karashar in the possession of the invader. Their next advance, which +they could not expect to be as unopposed as their late one, would bring +them into the plain of Kashgar. No sooner had Karashar and Korla fallen +into their possession than an edict was issued inviting the Mahomedan +population to return to their homes, and many of them accepted the +invitation. In this quarter the arms of China were not disgraced by any +excesses, and moderation towards the unarmed population extenuated their +severity towards armed foes. + +While halting some days at Korla, Kin Shun heard that Bayen Hu was +coercing the people east of Kucha at Tsedayar and other places, and +compelling them to withdraw to Kucha and to destroy their crops. He at +once resolved to frustrate the plan, and set out in person at the head +of 1,500 light infantry and 1,000 cavalry to protect the inhabitants. By +forced marches, sometimes carried on through the better part of the +night, he reached Tsedayar on the 17th of October, when he learnt that +Bayen Hu had driven off the whole of the population, and was already at +Bugur, on the road to Kucha. At the next village to Tsedayar, a +fortified post known as Yangy Shahr, he found that Bayen Hu was still +ahead of him, and that he was setting fire to the villages on his line +of march. Kin Shun left a portion of his infantry behind to put out the +conflagration, and resolutely pressed on with the remainder of his force +to Bugur. This small town had also been set on fire, but here the +rapidity of the Chinese general's advance was rewarded with the news +that the enemy's army, with a large number of the inhabitants, was only +a short distance ahead. The rear-guard, composed of 1,000 cavalry, was +soon touched, and the Kashgari, emboldened by the small numbers of the +Chinese, came on to the attack in gallant fashion. Their charge was +broken, however, by the steadiness of the Chinese infantry, armed with +excellent rifles, and the cavalry performed the rest. The Kashgari left +100 slain on the field of battle and twelve prisoners. From these latter +it was discovered that the main body of 2,000 soldiers was some distance +on the road to Kucha, with the family of Bayen Hu and the villagers +under its charge. It was too late to advance further that day, but on +the next the forward movement was resumed. A large multitude--"some tens +of thousands of people"--was speedily sighted by the advanced guard, but +on examining these through glasses it was discovered that scarcely more +than a thousand carried arms. All the troops were then brought to the +front, and Kin Shun issued instructions that all those found with arms +in their hands should be slain, but the others spared. + +The armed portion of the Kashgarian army drew off from the unarmed, +leaving in the midst the large assemblage of Mussulman villagers who +were being carried off to Kucha. These were sent to the rear by order of +Kin Shun, and distributed in such of the villages as were most +convenient. In the meanwhile a sharp fight took place a few miles in the +rear of the old position, near a village called Arpa Tai. The action +appears to have been well contested, but the superior tactics and +weapons of Kin Shun's small army prevailed; and the Mussulman army +retreated with considerable loss and in great disorder. Kin Shun +followed up his success with marvellous rapidity and restless energy, +while the Kashgarian troops fled incontinently to Kucha, abandoning the +people and the country to the invader. The unfortunate inhabitants +implored with piteous entreaties the mercy of the conqueror, and it is +with genuine satisfaction we record the fact that Kin Shun informed them +of their safety, and bade them have no further alarm. + +By this time it is probable that the Chinese army had been largely +reinforced from the rear, for we have now come to a more arduous portion +of the enterprise, the attack against Kucha. When the Chinese appeared +before its walls they found that a battle was proceeding there between +the Kashgarian soldiers and the townspeople, who refused to accompany +them in a further retreat westward. On the appearance of the Chinese +army, the Kashgarian force evacuated the city, and joined battle with it +on the western side of Kucha. The Chinese at once attacked them, at +first with little success; and a charge of the cavalry, numbering some +four or five thousand men, was only repulsed with some difficulty. But +the cannon of the Chinese were playing with remarkable effect upon the +Mahomedans, and the Chinese reserves were every moment coming upon the +ground. The infantry were at last ordered to advance, under cover of a +heavy artillery fire, and the cavalry made a charge at a most opportune +moment. The whole army then broke and fled in irretrievable confusion, +leaving more than a thousand of their number on the ground. Their +general, Ma-yeo-pu the Chinese called him, was wounded early in the day, +but, although stated to be a noted man, it is impossible to recognize +his identity under the Chinese appellation. This was certainly the most +sanguinary and the best-contested action of the whole war. The numbers +on each side were probably about 10,000 men, and it was won as much by +superior tactics and skill as by brute force and courage. All the +movements of the Chinese were characterized by remarkable forethought, +and evinced the greatest ability on the part of the general and his +lieutenants, as well as obedience, valour, and patience on the part of +his soldiers. The rapid advance from Kuhwei to Karashar, the forced +march thence to Bugur, the capture of Kucha, the forbearance of the +conqueror towards the inhabitants, all combine to make this portion of +the war most creditable to China and her generals, to Kin Shun in +particular. The reason given in the Official Report for the Kashgarian +authorities attempting to carry off the population was that the rebels +wished in the first place to deprive the invading force of all +assistance, thus making further pursuit a work of difficulty, and in the +second place, to ingratiate themselves with the new Pahia (probably +Bacha) of Kashgar, Kuli Beg, by delivering this large mass of +Turki-Mussulmans into his hands. Bayen Hu was, therefore, certainly not +Hakim Khan. It is tolerably clear that he must have been either a Tungan +refugee or a subordinate of Beg Bacha's. + +A depôt was formed at Kucha, and a large body of troops remained there +as a garrison; but the principal administrative measures were directed +to the task of improving the position of the Turki-Mussulman population. +A board of administration was instituted for the purpose of providing +means of subsistence for the destitute, and for the distribution of +seed-corn for the benefit of the whole community. It had also to +supervise the construction of roads, and the establishment of ferry +boats, and of post-houses, in order to facilitate the movements of trade +and travel, and to expedite the transmission of mails. Magistrates and +prefects were appointed to all the cities, and special precautions were +taken against the outbreak of epidemic or of famine. All these wise +provisions were carried out promptly, and in the most matter-of-fact +manner, just as if the legislation and administration of alien states +were the daily avocations of Chinamen. There is no reason to believe +that in the vast region from Turfan to Kucha the Chinese have departed +from the statesmanlike and beneficent schemes which marked their +re-installation as rulers; and whatever harshness or cruelty they +manifested towards the Tungani rebels and the Kashgarian soldiers was +more than atoned for by the mildness of their treatment of the people. + +On the 19th, or more probably the 22nd of October, Kin Shun resumed his +forward movement, encountering no serious opposition. His first halt was +at a village called Hoser, where he halted for one night, which he +employed in inditing the report to Pekin, which described the successes +and movements of the previous three weeks. At the next town, known as +Bai, Kin Shun halted to await the arrival of the rear-guard, under +General Chang Yao. This force came up before the close of October, and +the advance against Aksu was resumed. Up to this point the chief +interest centred in the army south of the Tian Shan, and in the +achievements of Kin Shun. Our principal, in fact our only, authority for +this portion of the campaign is the _Pekin Gazette_. + +We have now to describe the movements of the Northern Army, which was +under the immediate command of Tso Tsung Tang, and which was operating +in the north of the state, in complete secrecy. That general had under +him, at the most moderate computation, an army of 28,000 men. By some it +was placed at a higher figure; but a St. Petersburg paper, on the +authority of a Russian merchant, who had been to Manas, computed it to +be of that strength. It was concentrated in the neighbourhood of Manas, +and along the northern skirts of the Tian Shan; and also on the +frontier of the Russian dominions in Kuldja. To all appearance this army +was consigned to a part of enforced inactivity, since it was impossible +to enter Kuldja, and thus proceed by their old routes through the passes +of Bedal or Muzart. But it was not so; the travels of Colonel Prjevalsky +in the commencement of 1877 had not been unobserved by the Chinese, and +it was assumed that where a Russian officer with his Cossack following +could go, there also could go a Chinese army. By those little-known +passes, which are made by the Tekes and Great Yuldus rivers, the Chinese +army, under Tso Tsung Tang, crossed over into Kashgaria; and it is +probable that the two armies joined in the neighbourhood of Bai. It was +by this stroke of strategy on the part of Tso Tsung Tang that the +Chinese found themselves before the walls of Aksu, with an overwhelming +army, at the very sight of which all thought of resistance died away +from the hearts of the Mussulman peoples and garrisons. Tso Tsung Tang +appeared before the walls of Aksu, the bulwark of Kashgar on the east, +and its commandant, panic stricken, abandoned his post at the first +onset. He was subsequently taken prisoner by an officer of Kuli Beg, and +executed. The Chinese then advanced on Ush Turfan, which also +surrendered without a blow. As we said, the Chinese have not published +any detailed description of this portion of the war, and we are +consequently unable to say what their version is of those reported +atrocities at Aksu and Ush Turfan, of which the Russian papers have made +so much. There is no doubt that a very large number of refugees fled to +Russian territory, perhaps 10,000 in all, and these brought with them +the tales of fear and exaggerated alarm. We may feel little hesitation +in accepting the assertion as true, that the armed garrisons were +slaughtered without exception; but that the unarmed population and the +women and children shared the same fate we distinctly refuse to credit. +There is every precedent in favour of the assumption that a more +moderate policy was pursued, and there is no valid reason why the +Chinese should have dealt with Aksu and Ush Turfan differently to Kucha +or Turfan. The case of Manas has been greatly insisted upon by the +agitators on this "atrocity" question; but there is the highest +authority for asserting that only armed men were massacred there. This +the Chinese have always done; it is a national custom, and they +certainly did not depart from it in the case of the Tungani and Kashgar. +But there is no solid ground for convicting them of any more heinous +crime, even in the instances of Manas and Aksu, which are put so +prominently forward. + +Early in December the last move of all began against the capital, and on +the 17th of that month the Chinese took it by a _coup de main_. Beg Kuli +Beg, according to one account, fought a battle outside the town, in +which he was defeated; according to another report, he had withdrawn to +Yarkand, whence he fled to Russian territory, when he heard of the fall +of Kashgar. It is more probable that he resisted the Chinese attack on +Kashgar, for he certainly reached Tashkent, in company with the Kirghiz +Chief, Sadic Beg, who was wounded in that battle. With the fall of +Kashgar the Chinese reconquest of Eastern Turkestan was completed, and +the other cities, Yangy Hissar and Yarkand, speedily shared the same +fate. Khoten and Sirikul also sent in formal promises of subjection. But +the capture of Kashgar virtually closed the campaign. No further +resistance was encountered, and the new rulers had only to begin the +task of reorganization. When Kashgar fell the greater portion of the +army, knowing that they could expect no mercy at the hands of the +Chinese, fled to Russian territory, and then spread reports of fresh +Chinese massacres, which probably only existed in their own imagination. +There can be no doubt that the Chinese triumph has been thorough, and +that it will be many years before the people of Eastern Turkestan will +have again the heart to rebel against their authority. The strength of +China has been thoroughly demonstrated, and the vindication of her +prestige is complete. Whatever danger there may be to the permanence of +China's triumph lies rather from Russia than from the conquered peoples +of Tian Shan Nan Lu; nor is there much danger that the Chinese laurels +will become faded even before an European foe. Tso Tsung Tang and his +lieutenants, Kin Shun, who has since fallen into disgrace,--perhaps he +had excited the envy of his superior--and Chang Yao, accomplished a task +which would reflect credit on any army and any country. They have given +a lustre to the present Chinese administration which must stand it in +good stead, and they have acquired a personal renown that will not +easily depart. The Chinese reconquest of Eastern Turkestan is beyond +doubt the most remarkable event that has occurred in Asia during the +last fifty years, and it is quite the most brilliant achievement of a +Chinese army, led by Chinamen, that has taken place since Keen-Lung +subdued the country more than a century ago. It also proves, in a manner +that is more than unpalatable to us, that the Chinese possess an +adaptive faculty that must be held to be a very important fact in +every-day politics in Central Asia. They conquered Kashgar with European +weapons, and by careful study of Western science and skill. Their +soldiers marched in obedience to instructors trained on the Prussian +principle; and their generals manoeuvred their troops in accordance +with the teachings of Moltke and Manteuffel. Even in such minor matters +as the use of telescopes and field glasses we find this Chinese army +well supplied. Nothing was more absurd than the picture drawn by some +over-wise observer of this army, as consisting of soldiers fantastically +garbed in the guise of dragons and other hideous appearances. All that +belonged to an old-world theory. The army of Eastern Turkestan was as +widely different from all previous Chinese armies in Central Asia as it +well could be; and in all essentials closely resembled that of an +European power. Its remarkable triumphs were chiefly attributable to +the thoroughness with which China had in this instance adapted herself +to Western notions. + +With the flight of Beg Kuli Beg to Tashkent closed the career of the +house of the Athalik Ghazi in Kashgar. Whatever turn events may take in +this portion of Central Asia, whatever schemes there may be formed in +Khokand, or elsewhere, of challenging anew the Chinese domination, it +will not be round the banner of Kuli Beg that the ousted Khokandian +officials will rally. By his flight in the hour of danger, by the +hesitation which marked all his movements, and by the murder of his +brother in cold blood, this prince, of whom much at one time was +expected, has irretrievably ruined both his career and his reputation. +If on any future occasion Russia should seek to play the part played of +old by Khans of Khokand in the internal history of Kashgar, it will not +be Kuli Beg whom they will put forward as their puppet. His old rival, +Hakim Khan, stands a much better chance than he, more especially if it +be true that he is the representative of the Khojas, being the son of +Buzurg Khan, as many have asserted. But the fact remains clear, that all +the dreams of Yakoob Beg of founding a personal dynasty in Eastern +Turkestan are now dispelled beyond all prospect of realization. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +THE CHINESE FACTOR IN THE CENTRAL ASIAN QUESTION. + + +The overthrow of the Tungani, and the reconquest of Kashgaria, have not +completed the task that lay before Chinese generals and soldiers in +Central Asia. Great and remarkable as those triumphs were, the Chinese +are not satisfied with them, because there yet remains more work to be +done. They have restored to the Emperor Tian Shan Nan Lu, but so long as +the Russians hold Kuldja, Tian Shan Pe Lu is only half won back. +Moreover, so long as a great military power is domiciled in Kuldja, +China's hold on the country west of Aksu must be only on sufferance. As +of old, the Chinese so often reconquered Kashgar, when it had shaken off +the Chinese rule, from Ili, so might the Russians at their good pleasure +play the same part against the Chinese. In short, the Russians remaining +in Ili would neutralize all the advantages that China had secured by her +recent military success. But, although there is a foundation of well +grounded apprehension at the strategical advantages of Russia, at the +root of China's demand for the surrender of Kuldja, that is not the only +cause, or even the principal one, for the Chinese making it. Of all +their Central Asian possessions, Ili was the most cherished, and it was +to recover that region more especially that Tso Tsung Tang undertook +those arduous campaigns which have so far ended in triumph, and which +were designed for, among other purposes, the purpose of giving that +Viceroy a prestige and influence that would enable him to play the +rival to Li Hung Chang. Ili was their metropolis in Central Asia, and +its fall marked the wide difference that there was between the +Tungan-Khoja rising of 1862-63 and all its predecessors. The fall of Ili +meant the fall of Chinese power, and Chinese power cannot be held to be +completely restored so long as Ili remains in alien hands. On this point +the Chinese are very keen. + +Russia, on the other hand, hesitates to hand over Ili for various +reasons. In the first place, it is not certain that China has +_permanently_ reconquered Eastern Turkestan, nor is it clear that the +Imperial exchequer will be able to bear a continual strain upon it for +Central Asian expenditure. Moreover there is the unknown quantity of the +rivalry of Li Hung Chang and Tso Tsung Tang, and whatever influence the +latter may have with the army and the ruling caste on account of his +Mantchoo blood, the former holds the purse in his hands, and can at any +moment paralyse Chinese activity and strength in Central Asia. The +Russians also, whatever rash promises they may have given at Pekin--and +they certainly did promise to retrocede Kuldja to China, whenever the +Chinese should be strong enough to return to Central Asia--formally +(_teste_ General Kolpakovsky's proclamation) annexed Kuldja "in +perpetuity." In the eyes of the people of Central Asia, that +proclamation defines Russia's tenure of Kuldja, and not the vague +promise that was uttered in the ears of the authorities at Pekin. Now +Russia knows this as well as we do; and she is aware that no strict +adherence to her word of honour will induce the people of Western, as +well as of Eastern, Turkestan to believe that she retrocedes Kuldja for +any other cause than fear of the Chinese. The Khokandians, the +Bokhariots, as well as the Kirghiz, the Calmucks, and the Kashgari, will +all argue that Russia restores Kuldja not through any desire to fulfil +her engagements, but simply because she cannot decline to fulfil them +without engaging in a war with China, and her compliance with the +demand would then be construed as an admission of her disinclination to +encounter China in the field. In fact, even if Russia had promptly +restored Kuldja, she would not have secured the credit she might have +claimed for her good faith, and she would have had no guarantee that the +Chinese would have rested content with the cession of Ili proper and not +gone on to claim, in a moment of military arrogance, the restoration of +the Naryn district, which China at a period of weakness had herself +ceded to Russia more than twenty years ago. Then, besides these +objections to the surrender of Kuldja on political grounds, there are +commercial and fiscal reasons why Russia should be loth to restore this +province. Not only has it become highly prosperous and thickly populated +under Russian rule, but it has also been raised into one of the most +fiscally remunerative portions of the Russian possessions in Central +Asia, and then there is its admirable frontier in the Tian Shan, which +places the future trade with the western parts of China more at its +disposal, than it is through the Semipalatinsk and Chuguchak route, and, +above all, it effectually dispels all sense of real danger from attack. +The Chinese would find that to force the Tian Shan range into Kuldja +would be a task almost impossible for them, and they would be compelled +to enter the province from the north by Karkaru. By so doing, they would +leave the whole of their flank and line of communication exposed to an +attack with telling effect both at Manas and in Kashgar, and with a +scientific foe such as Russia, no sane Chinaman could dream of attacking +Kuldja except in the most overwhelming force. It may be as well to +sketch here the history of Russia's rule in Kuldja from 1871 to the +present time, before proceeding with the consideration of the questions +aroused by the difficulty between Russia and China. + +When an independent government had been founded in Kuldja in 1866, a +ruler of the name of Abul Oghlan was placed upon the throne. He appears +to have been a Tungan, and he certainly was a truculent and +self-confident potentate. He refused to abide by the stipulations of the +Treaties of Kuldja and Pekin, and in petty matters as in great, set +himself in direct opposition to Russia. For five years he pursued his +career undisturbed by exterior influences, and during that period he +tolerated the inroads of his subjects into Russian territory, urged the +Kirghiz tribes beyond his frontier to revolt, and forbade Russian +merchants to enter his dominions. On a small scale, he aped the manners +subsequently adopted by Yakoob Beg. But he was only a minor and +insignificant despot. His people groaned under his tyranny, and the +75,000 slaves within his dominions were only too anxious to be relieved +from their bondage by any deliverer whatsoever. The state of Kuldja, as +administered by Abul Oghlan, was pre-eminently one that would fall to +pieces at the first rude shock from outside. For five years, or +thereabouts, the Russian authorities at Vernoe, Naryn, and in +Semiretchinsk put up with his veiled hostility; but when it became +evident that his state was on the eve of falling into divers fragments, +of which Yakoob Beg would, probably, come in for the lion's share, the +Russians, whose patience had become well-nigh exhausted, resolved not to +be forestalled in Kuldja, either by the Athalik Ghazi, or the Tungani +Confederation. A kind of _ultimatum_ was presented to Kuldja, in which +Abul Oghlan was given a last chance of retaining power, if he consented +to ratify the terms of the past treaties with China. He does not appear +to have distinctly refused to do so, when he was required to enter into +this agreement with Russia. But he prevaricated and delayed, until at +last the patience of the Muscovite authorities was quite exhausted. They +resolved to destroy the government of Abul Oghlan, to annex Kuldja, and +to bring their frontier down to the Tian Shan. + +In May, 1871, Major Balitsky crossed the river Borodshudsir, which +formed the boundary between the two countries, and, at the head of a +small detachment, advanced some distance into the dominions of Abul +Oghlan. His force, however, was small, and, after a brief +reconnaissance, he retired within Russian territory. Six weeks +afterwards the main body under General Kolpakovsky crossed the frontier +into Kuldja and marched on the capital. That invading army consisted of +only 1,785 men and sixty-five officers. At first the forces of Abul +Oghlan offered a brave resistance, but the Russian cannon and rifles +carried everything before them; and on the 4th of July the ruler +presented himself at the Russian outposts. When taken before General +Kolpakovsky, he said, "I trusted to the righteousness of my cause, and +to the help of God. Conquered, I submit to the will of the Almighty. If +any crime has been committed, punish the sovereign, but spare his +innocent subjects." The next day the Russian general entered the capital +after a campaign that had only lasted eight or nine days. Protection was +promised to all who would lay down their arms, and the army of Abul +Oghlan was disbanded. Abul Oghlan was pensioned, and Orel was appointed +as his place of residence. Kuldja or "Dzungaria," as it is called in the +proclamation, was annexed "in perpetuity," and became the Russian +sub-governorship of Priilinsk. There can be no doubt but that the +Russian occupation of Kuldja was an unqualified benefit to the +inhabitants of that region. The declaration of the abolition of slavery +alone released seventy-five thousand human beings from a life of +hardship and hopelessness. The return of trade, which had become +stagnant, ensured the prosperity and advancement of the active portion +of the community, and during the seven years Russia has ruled in Kuldja, +the people have steadily progressed in moral and material welfare. The +population has during the same period remarkably increased, and the +valleys of the Ili teem with a population at once contented and +prosperous. The rule of Russia in Kuldja is the brightest spot in her +Central Asian administration. The Chinese in demanding the retrocession +of Kuldja labour under the one disadvantage that they come to oust a +beneficent rule. This disadvantage is made the greater by the bad name +the Chinese have earned in Kashgar and the Tungan country, by the +atrocities they are said to have committed. Those who will take the +trouble to scan the matter carefully, and to consult the _Pekin +Gazette_, as much as they do the _Tashkent_, will find that these +atrocities are for the most part the creation of panic, and of malicious +observers, and in the few cases where Chinese vindictiveness overcame +military discipline, as at Manas and Aksu, we have clear evidence that +women and children were spared. The _Tashkent Gazette_ has laboured +strenuously, and not in vain, to disseminate the report of Chinese +atrocities; and one London paper has so far assisted the object of the +Russian press in raising a feeling of indignation against China, on +account of these reported massacres in Eastern Turkestan, that it has +placed translations of these charges before the English reader, and, on +the authority of the _Tashkent Gazette_, has indicted and summarily +convicted the Chinese of the grossest acts of inhumanity. We would +venture to suggest, that in common fairness to the Chinese this journal +should place before its readers the temperately worded and dignified +reports that have appeared in the _Pekin Gazette_ of those events upon +which the _Tashkent Gazette_ has commented so indignantly. + +As we said, the Chinese are fully resolved to regain Ili. They may not +be able to induce Russia easily to surrender it, yet they will not +despair. In all probability they will fail altogether to re-acquire it +by diplomatic means, yet they will not omit to employ all the artifices +that are sanctioned by modern diplomacy. There have been rumours that +China intended handing over to Russia a strip of territory in +Manchuria, which would give to the Russian harbour of Vladivostock a +land communication with the forts on the Amoor. But this rumour had no +solid foundation, and the latest intelligence goes to show that China's +successes beyond Gobi, instead of making her moderate in the north, have +given her confidence sufficient to arouse her into a state of opposition +to further encroachments on the part of Russia in that direction. It is +now said that Russia demands pecuniary indemnification for the money she +has expended in raising Kuldja to its present highly prosperous +condition; and at a first glance nothing could seem fairer, nor do we +think that the Chinese would have raised objections to the payment of a +moderate sum. But the sum demanded by the Russians is far from moderate. +The exact amount has not been mentioned, but the Chinese declare that it +exceeds the total cost of the campaign in the north-west, and that +certainly was not less than two millions sterling. This is, of course, +too exorbitant, and is only put forward as a reason for declining to +abide by her former agreement, and to give her diplomatists a _locus +standi_ in their discussions with the Chinese representatives. A Chinese +Embassy has been authorized to proceed to St. Petersburg, and to +endeavour to effect an understanding with Russia upon the Kuldja +question; but it does not appear to have started, and the real +settlement lies in the hands of Tso Tsung Tang and General Kaufmann. The +latest report is that the former has demanded afresh the restoration of +Kuldja; the Russian reply is awaited with eagerness and some anxiety. In +the meanwhile the Chinese have suffered a local reverse of no +significance at the hands of a chief of Khoten, and their power does not +seem to extend south of Yarkand. But they are hurrying up +reinforcements, and 20,000 fresh troops had reached Manas some weeks +ago. They have also an extensive recruiting ground amongst the Calmucks, +and their position of Chuguchak might be of great strategical +importance. If the Kuldja question give rise to a Russo-Chinese war, the +Chinese are sufficiently numerous and sufficiently prepared to task the +capacity of an army of 20,000 Russians; and it is quite certain there +are not 5,000 in Kuldja at present. But the Kuldja question, despite the +prominence it has attained, is only one, if the most important and +pressing, of those questions that are raised and suggested by the +appearance of the Chinese in Central Asia. More especially is this the +case if, as can scarcely be doubted, the Russians refuse to restore +Kuldja; yet the Chinese, knowing the strength of their adversary, shall +hesitate to attack where they cannot but recognize that the penalties of +failure must be immense. In that event the Kuldja question will long +remain unsolved, and for a time perhaps it will be forgotten. But the +Chinese will not forget, nor will they condone the offence. But whatever +may be the interval, and however great the delay, the Kuldja question +will continue to remain a most important portion of Central Asian +politics, and must, so long as it is unsettled, operate in a manner +adverse to the interests of Russia. The Chinese need only maintain their +camps at Chuguchak, Karakaru, Manas, Aksu, Ush Turfan and Kashgar, and +slowly bring up reinforcements from Kansuh and from the Calmuck country, +to render Russia's hold on Kuldja dangerously insecure. In fact, in this +matter the Chinese have the game in their own hands, and can play a +waiting game; whereas Russia can only hope to profit by precipitation on +the part of Tso Tsung Tang. If the Chinese refuse to hold any +intercourse with the faithless Russians, and simply content themselves +with the declaration that they cannot re-enter into political or +commercial relations with them until Kuldja is retroceded, Russia can +never rest tranquil either in Kuldja, Naryn, or Khokand. Above all, so +long as she is occupied in Western Asia as she is at present, she could +never dare to cross the path of China, and enter upon a war which would +rage from Vladivostock and the Amoor to Kuldja and Kashgar. Therefore +the settlement of the Kuldja question is not such an easy matter as +might be supposed; nor does it find Russia so strong or China so weak as +might have been expected. But after all, as we have just said, the +Kuldja question is not the only one suggested by the appearance of the +Chinese in Eastern Turkestan. There is the far wider one raised by the +appearance of the Chinese as a factor in the great Central Asian +question. The three great Asiatic Powers have now converged upon a +point; what is to be the result? + +The only way to be in a position to venture upon a surmise as to the +future, is to realize in its full significance the lessons of the past. +What have been the mutual relations between England, Russia, and China? +We have assumed throughout this volume, and we shall assume here, the +irreconcilable hostility of England and Russia, in Asia at all events, +veneered over as it is by a lacquer of politeness and civilization. We +have only to consider the relations between England and China, and +between Russia and China. To take the latter first, they have always +been united by ties of friendship and reciprocity in commercial and +political rights. Their intercourse has been on the whole singularly +harmonious, and while we have been compelled to wage three wars to +obtain a standing for our merchants in the seaports, Russia, without +being compelled to resort to anything like the same extreme measures, +has been able to secure all she, or her merchants, wanted in Middle and +Western China. She has made the Amoor a Russian river; she dominates the +Yellow and Japanese seas from Vladivostock; and she has acquired in her +position among the Khalkas, and in Kuldja, two portals to various weak +points in the Chinese Empire. Yet all the time she has been on terms of +the closest amity with China. She has several commercial treaties of the +most favourable character, and she has always been on the footing of +"the most favoured nation." But she has been more than that; she has +been the most favoured nation. But the Chinese have not failed to +observe that this good understanding with Russia has, so far as +advantages arising from it go, been a very one-sided affair. For all +Russia's protestations of friendship and good-will, what advantages has +China reaped from those high-flown promises? Whereas, the patriotic +Chinaman has but to look to the Amoor, and to the attenuated province of +Manchuria, to see what Russian friendship means. He can go farther +still. He has only to enquire into the relations Russia has managed to +conclude with the Taranath Lama; he has only to hear what the people of +Ourga think of Russia's position in the vicinity of that important city; +and he cannot fail to form a very clear and decided opinion as to what +Russia's friendship signifies. The Chinese have, in the full extent of +their northern frontier, a great question in discussion with Russia. So +long as China was weak, and consequently unable to resent the patronage +of her friend, so long was Russia able to play "my lady bountiful" with +a good grace and perfect success. But the moment China became strong, +and in a position to resent the condescension of her whilome ally, the +Chinese took a different tone, and already we hear of the Chinese +assuming a semi-hostile attitude in the Amoor region. But whereas +China's apprehension--for it is apprehension that is at the root of her +hostility to Russia, at Russia's designs in Manchuria and among the +Khalkas is vague at present--her indignation is clear and easily defined +at Russia retaining possession of Kuldja after she has demanded its +restoration. In short, all her apprehension along the northern frontier, +which has slumbered, but never died out, since the Russians seized the +Amoor posts during the Crimean War, is reduced to a focus in Central +Asia, where Russia appears inclined to throw herself in the path of, or +at least to retard, their victorious career. It is not so much the +Kuldja question, which is of local importance, that is of pressing +moment, as the rupture between Russia and China, that a crisis in the +Issik Kul region will make complete. That rupture has already taken +place, and no concession on the part of Russia will restore her good +name with the Chinese. She may hand Kuldja over now, or she may keep it +by the strong arm if she can; but she has forfeited all claim to +consideration by the Chinese, through delaying to accede to that which +those people consider in every sense their right and due. Had Russia at +once said to China, "We will abandon Kuldja, and only require you to +guarantee the safety of the population," there would have been not only +the preservation of the good understanding between the countries, but +there might have been, for fresh purposes, a Russo-Chinese alliance in +Central Asia. That alliance must have been fraught with danger to this +country, and for reasons that will best be described under the head of +Anglo-Chinese relations. + +But the Russian authorities failed to grasp the situation in its full +extent. They treated the Kuldja question as a mere local affair, and +they trifled with the Chinese as if the latter had no very strong +interest in the matter. They altogether ignored the terrible earnestness +of the Chinese character, and they treated the demands of Tso Tsung Tang +in a spirit of levity that must have roused the ire of that general. +Their policy, regarded from any point of view, was shallow and unwise, +but, bearing in mind the past tact and diplomatic skill shown by Russia +in her dealings with China, it must appear more shallow and foolish. Of +course this Kuldja question differs from all previous questions in the +essential point of all, that here for the first time Russia had to go +back instead of advancing, as always had been the case heretofore. The +Russian authorities simply regarded the matter from the point of view +of what effect it would have upon the peoples of Central Asia. They +persuaded themselves that to hand over Kuldja would be to give an +impetus to every hostile element in Western Turkestan, as well as to +lower their prestige generally throughout Asia. As a leading Russian +paper expressed it, "the retrocession of Kuldja would be an act of +political suicide, for not only would it raise the prestige of China to +a higher point than ever before, but it would also undermine our +position in Eastern Asia, by giving the Chinese a strong military +position within our natural frontier. For these reasons Kuldja cannot be +restored." That paragraph sums up the arguments the Russians will employ +in defence of their continuing to retain possession of Kuldja. They add +something to their effect in the popular mind by diatribes against the +Chinese for rumoured barbarities, by drawing comparisons, flattering to +themselves and to their administrative capacity, between the present +condition of Kuldja, and what it would become under a restored Chinese +rule. In depicting what this would be, they entirely ignore the +prosperous condition of Kuldja before the Tungan revolt, and they appear +to assume that the anarchy existing there, when they entered it in 1871, +was due to the Chinese, instead of being caused by the ingratitude and +fickleness of its own people. And they shut their eyes to the great +benefits China conferred upon Central Asia during the century that she +was paramount therein. They would like us, and every other observer of +the crisis, to do the same. That is impossible, for the teaching of +history is clear, and points to a diametrically opposite conclusion. We +do not dispute the beneficence of Russia's government of Kuldja. We +freely admit it. That is no reason for maligning the Chinese, and +asserting that they are utter barbarians; nor is it a reason, in the +eyes of Chinamen, for a refusal to restore Kuldja. By refusing to +entertain the overtures of Tso Tsung Tang, which were made, there is +reason to believe, before the attack on Yakoob Beg, the Russians huffed +the Chinese; and by procrastinating ever since, when questioned upon the +subject, they have still further displeased them. The Russians are aware +of this, and feel convinced that, no matter how obliging they might be +disposed to be, the Chinese will now no longer appreciate their +moderation. If we admit this, as can scarcely be gainsaid, what becomes +of the Kuldja question, and of its peaceful solution that many claim to +see? How can it be peacefully solved, if Russia will not accede to the +terms from which China is resolved not to budge? Surely not by a fresh +commotion on the part of the Mussulman population, which some persons +have pretended to forecast by magnifying a petty success that has been +obtained by the insignificant ruler of Khoten over a Chinese detachment. +Surely not by such trivial circumstances as the hostility of an outlying +dependency, will China be either expelled from Kashgar, or induced to +forego her claims on Kuldja. The success of the Khoten chief is but a +minor incident in the campaign, and for that district and its people it +must be pronounced a great misfortune. The Chinese will exact a terrible +revenge. The Kuldja question will not be solved by such means, English +readers can feel assured; and the hostility of Russia and China towards +each other will become more pronounced every day. Already petty +disturbances are reported to have taken place along the border. Russian +merchants have been molested by parties of brigands, among whom the +assailed assert there were Chinese soldiers; and no satisfaction could +be obtained from their generals. Representations have been made to Tso +Tsung Tang upon the subject, and his reply has not been very amicable. +Russian caravans, which were always welcome during the progress of the +war at Manas, Karakaru, and Urumtsi, are now no longer greeted with the +same cordiality, and the Chinese are evincing an intention to close +their frontier to Russians. Few caravans, the _Tashkent Gazette_ informs +us, now care to leave Kuldja for the territory occupied by the Chinese +army; and slowly, but none the less surely, is the old alliance between +Russia and China departing to join the things that were, but are not. +But, although so much is clear, it is almost impossible to predicate the +future course of the Kuldja question. It is not probable that Tso Tsung +Tang will openly attack the Russians, yet his hand may be forced by the +home authorities, and he may be left no alternative between that and the +abandonment of his enterprise. It must be always remembered that +Russia's best weapon is intrigue at Pekin, and a skilful envoy might so +far manipulate the rivalry between Tso and Li Hung Chang as to induce +the latter to paralyze the ambition of the former by withholding +supplies and reinforcements from the army of Central Asia. So +unpatriotic a course would, we believe, be hateful to Li Hung Chang, and +it, certainly, would be attended with great danger, sure to recoil upon +his guilty head, if for a personal rivalry he debased himself so far as +to become the tool of his country's foe. But yet it is in vain to deny +that there is danger to the preservation of China's most cherished +interests in the rivalry of some of her chief statesmen. The Kuldja +question, which scarcely admits of peaceful solution in Central Asia, +might be solved in the palace at Pekin more easily and more effectually +than by a campaign on a large scale in Jungaria and Turkestan; and there +is a possibility that Russia may by this means seek to nullify the +danger from Tso Tsung Tang, and to stultify the recent Chinese +successes. It is very doubtful whether they would succeed, for Chinese +opinion runs high upon the topic, and the Mantchoo caste is united in +its support of its member Tso Tsung Tang. Even if they did, it would +only be shelving the Kuldja question, for so long as the Chinese remain +in Kashgaria, and at Manas and Karakaru, they must regard the presence +of Russia in Kuldja as a slight to themselves, as well as a menace to +their line of communications. + +But every probability is against their succeeding. Li Hung Chang's +position is not so secure that he can dare to put himself in face of +those who champion a national cause, as is the re-absorption of Chinese +Turkestan. The return of Tso Tsung Tang with his veterans would be the +least danger that the adoption of an unpatriotic policy would entail. If +this home danger, then, does not arise, the Kuldja question will be +settled between Tso and the Russian authorities in Khokand and Kuldja. +The result of that discussion cannot be doubtful. The advocates on +either side are soldiers, each equally confident in their own abilities +and power, and each flushed by a long tide of success. They will come to +the discussion of the question with heated blood and excited nerves; +reason will not be the presiding goddess at the council board. There +will be accusations and recriminations bandied from one side to the +other. If such be the case, the Kuldja question will not be long in +discussion, and before the close of the present year perhaps, but more +probably early next spring, there will be war between Russia and China +along the Tian Shan range. Even if Tso is content to permit his +arguments to be clothed in diplomatic language, there will be no +solution of the difficulty, so long as Russia remains where she is; and +consequently the difference will be as great between Russia and China as +if there were open hostilities between the countries. And this, after +all, is the main point, for the destruction of all friendly sentiment +between Russia and China means the addition of another element to "the +great game in Central Asia," and that element, as an adverse one to +Russia, is a beneficial circumstance for this country. The difference +over the Kuldja question magnifies the previously existing discordant +points between the countries, and irretrievably wrecks whatever prospect +there once was of Russia and China pursuing an identical policy towards +Baroghil and Cashmere. We have now to consider the past relations +between England and China, in order that we may be in a position to +appreciate the full significance of China's reappearance in Central +Asia, and also what is to be the probable outcome of the gradual +approximation of the three Great Powers, and the slow extinction of the +once innumerable petty states of Asia. + +What, then, have been the mutual relations between England and China in +the past? There is no necessity to enter into the question of the +footing we are on along the sea-coast, for that is really beside the +question; nor need we recapitulate the wars which we have at various +times been compelled to wage in Eastern China. The result of those wars, +those treaties, and that constant inter-communication has been, that +Englishmen have secured a foothold in many of the principal cities, and +that English trade is supreme there. But the relations along the land +frontier are quite the opposite of those obtained on the sea-board, and +they are influenced by entirely different considerations. During the +last century, and for a considerable portion of the present, we were +not, strictly speaking, neighbours of the Chinese; for between the two +empires there intervened a belt of semi-independent states, who +nominally owned allegiance to China. Some of these were Nepaul, Sikhim, +Bhutan and Birmà, with its dependency of Assam. It was in the days of +Lord Cornwallis that we first realized the significance of the fact that +Chinese prestige had penetrated south of the Himalaya. The Ghoorka +rulers of Nepaul had, on several occasions, molested the peaceable +Tibetans, and at last had grown so bold, that on one expedition they +advanced as far as Lhasa, which they plundered. At that moment the aged +Keen-Lung was meditating the retirement from public life, which a few +years afterwards, like the Asiatic Charles the Fifth that he was, he +adopted; but, on the news of this insult to his authority, his warlike +spirit fired up, and he vowed that the marauders of Khatmandoo should +dearly pay for their audacity. A large army, of the reputed strength of +70,000 men, was collected, and the Chinese generals advanced by the +Kirong Pass upon the Nepaulese capital. A desperate battle was fought +along this elevated road, resulting in victory to the Chinese. Several +other encounters took place with the same result, and the Ghoorkas were +compelled to sue for terms. The Chinese showed no disposition to stay +their advance, until Lord Cornwallis mediated between the foes, and +peace ensued. Nepaul acknowledged its suzerainty to China, and agreed to +send tribute every five years to Pekin. For more than half a century +this was regularly sent, but during the last thirty years it has been +either discontinued, or has grown irregular. But for us the main point +is, after all, that the Chinese, although yielding to the remonstrance +of Lord Cornwallis, really did so with a bad grace. We had stood between +them and their prey. + +But this was not the full extent of the mistake we had actually +committed. We had annoyed the Chinese; but we had absolutely offended +the people and the ruling Lamas of Tibet. Warren Hastings had sent two +missions--one under Mr. George Bogle, the other under Captain Turner--to +the Teshu Lama, and by means of these embassies had broken ground very +happily in Tibet. He had also conferred an obligation upon him by +dealing leniently with the intractable Bhutanese or Bhuteas; and he had +followed up that sense of obligation by the despatch of two successful +missions. When Lord Cornwallis threw the _ægis_ of British protection +over Nepaul, it is true that we had no diplomatic relationship with +Tibet, but we were on a good footing with the people generally, having a +native representative at Lhasa named Purungir Gosain, and being in high +repute at Shigatze, the chief city of the southern portion of Tibet. The +Tibetans, the instant the Ghoorkas raided their country, notified the +same to our government, and requested its good offices to prevent the +Ghoorkas invading their country. The Chinese, their lawful protectors, +were so far away that much damage could be inflicted upon them before +the Chinese could have time to despatch a vindicating army; therefore +they appealed to their friends the English, whom they had always found +so just, for assistance in their extremity. Their appeal was evidently +made with the impression that it would be granted. Therefore it was with +double regret they saw the English remain indifferent while the Ghoorkas +were pressing on against Lhasa, and ravaging the fertile districts +watered by the Sanpu. But their regret and surprise at our government +remaining indifferent were as nothing compared with their indignation +when they learnt that we were actually interfering on behalf of the +marauding Ghoorkas. We saved the Ghoorkas from condign chastisement, and +we of course prevented the establishment of a Chinese garrison at +Khatmandoo, which we could whenever we chose have easily expelled; but +we offended the Tibetans and the Chinese, and induced them to unite in a +policy of hostility against ourselves. After that war (1792) the +Himalayan passes were closed against us, and the Chinese block-houses +have effectually barred the way to Tibet and Northern Asia ever since. +Mr. Thomas Manning, one of the most intrepid and highly gifted of +English travellers, penetrated into Tibet in 1812, and resided there +some time. But that is the only instance in which an English traveller +overcame Bhutea and Ghoorka indifference and Chinese hostility. Tibet +remains a sealed book, and, despite treaty rights to enter it, no +Englishman goes thither, although the attraction is great, and the prize +to be secured far from vague or trivial. The assumed reason is the +covert hostility of the Chinese. + +If we turn farther to the east, to Assam--which we have absorbed--to +Birmà, and even to Siam, we find the same causes in operation. We +recognized in Yunnan the Panthay Sultan of Talifoo; we have always +striven to treat the kings of Birmà and Siam as independent princes, +whereas they are only Chinese vassals; and we are believed to have +carried on intrigues with the Shans and other tribes beyond the Assamese +frontier. These steps may be prudent or they may not for other reasons; +but they certainly are imprudent for the reason that they offend the +Chinese. As a policy intended to conciliate the Chinese, our frontier +policy on the north and the east has been the worst possible, and a +tissue of blunders from beginning to end; and the result is that for the +last half-century we have lived on the very worst terms with the +Chinese. We should have conciliated them, but we aroused instead all +their latent suspicion and dislike. We should have become friendly +neighbours, and, on the contrary, we are neighbours who, if not +decidedly hostile to each other, shun each other's presence. And the +real base of our sentiment towards the Chinese is to be seen in the fact +that one of the first articles in the creed of Indian state policy is +"to keep China as far off as possible." That precept, which may have +been very useful, has served its turn, and it is time that our +Indo-Chinese policy should be set upon a new basis. With China once more +supreme upon our whole northern frontier, and with her presenting +ultimatums at Bangkok, and coercing the ruler of Mandalay as she esteems +fit, it is high time for us, apart from the Central Asian question +altogether, to set our house in order with the Chinese. The mistakes we +made in championing the Ghoorkas, in acknowledging the Panthays, and in +a general policy of indifference to Chinese opinion, have all tended to +bring about the present deadlock in our relations with China. Our +acknowledgment of the Athalik Ghazi cannot have conduced to the creation +of any very friendly sentiment among the Chinese towards us, and, +therefore, at the present moment we must assume that the state of +feeling existing among the Chinese in Tibet and Yunnan towards us exists +in Kashgaria also; and that feeling is a veiled hostility. Therefore, +while the Chinese are beginning to regard Russia with the hostile +feelings that once were reserved for England, they have by no means +altered their old sentiments towards us. We have done nothing whatever +to induce them to do so. We have not helped them in any way to regain +Kashgar, and on the whole English opinion may be said to have been more +adverse to, than in favour of, their claims. They have found in the +arsenals of Kashgar and Yarkand many proofs of England's alliance with, +and friendship for, Yakoob Beg; and, on the other hand, they certainly +owe much to the assistance of Russian merchants, and the forbearance of +the Russian government. Nor should we for an instant delude ourselves +with the fallacy that the Chinese will look to us for aid against +Russia, as Yakoob Beg did. They have conquered Eastern Turkestan without +us--in fact, despite of our moral opposition; and they will retain it if +they can by their own right arms. It will not enter their head for an +instant to play the old game of Yakoob Beg, of setting England off +against Russia. But, although they will play a perfectly independent +game, it by no means follows that they will be hostile to this country, +if by some fortunate stroke of diplomacy we could bring home to their +minds the fact that England is glad at the result of the war in Central +Asia, however much she may have failed during its progress to recognize +which was the rightful cause. But what is that fortunate stroke of +diplomacy to be? and how is it to be brought to pass? To each of these +questions it would be rash to give any confident reply. In dealing with +the Chinese we are not only treating with a people whom we very +imperfectly understand, but also with a government the secret springs of +whose policy we neither know nor appreciate. The action we might +therefore adopt, founded though it should be on the experience of some +Englishman versed in the mysteries of China, might fail to accomplish +what it seemed calculated to secure. It might be crowned with success, +it might be condemned with failure. Of course the first thing to decide +is, how are we to take official cognizance of China's reconquest of +Kashgaria, and how are we to bring home to the minds of Tso Tsung Tang +and his lieutenants the knowledge that we have repented of our +shortsighted policy towards Yakoob Beg, and are willing to atone for it +in so far as we are able by an ample recognition of the change in +affairs north of the Karakoram? + +The Che-foo Convention gave us the right to send an embassy to Tibet, on +the condition that it should be acted upon within a given space. We did +not avail ourselves of that concession, and the Chinese, we are +informed, consider that the right has lapsed. We may have been wise or +we may have been foolish--in my opinion we have been foolish--in +declining to enforce the only real concession China made, in reparation +for the murder of Mr. Margary. Does this concession, which we never made +use of, entitle us to send a mission to the Chinese in Kashgar? Acting +upon this precedent, are we justified in supposing that the Chinese +would hold out a hand of friendship to an English envoy coming from Leh +to Yarkand? It is much to be feared that it would not. At the present +moment, too, the country must be in such a disturbed state, that the +Chinese would have a ready excuse if any accident befel our envoy. +Moreover, at the present moment an envoy would have no definite object +before him. A few years hence, when the Chinese rule shall be completely +restored throughout Eastern Turkestan, it may be reasonable to expect a +revival of trade in this direction; but at present it would be premature +to agitate for it. Nor would a simple embassy of congratulation look +well. We have too recently befriended the Athalik Ghazi to make our +congratulations to his conqueror anything but a mockery. The Chinese +would be puffed up with vanity, and think that we were only worshipping +their rising sun. Whatever action we do take in Central Asia, to effect +an understanding with the Chinese, we must be very careful that it has +been well considered, and that it is as cautious as it must be clearly +defined. Any mistake would be simply fatal to the preservation of good +relations with China. Therefore, we must do nothing. _Quieta non movere_ +must be our motto, and we must only look forward to some auspicious +occasion when it may be possible to enter into cordial relations with +China. + +But, although our hands are tied in Central Asia, they are not fettered +at Pekin, and we certainly should congratulate, if we have not done so +already, the Chinese on their remarkable successes in the Tian Shan +regions. That step might be pregnant with beneficent results, and our +desire to be on good terms with our new, yet our old, neighbour might be +met in a cordial manner by the Chinese. The Chinese will not stoop to +propitiate us in order to preserve their rule in Eastern Turkestan; but +it is against common sense to suppose that they will be eager to embroil +themselves with us at the same moment that they are quarrelling with the +Russians. The Kuldja question must throw China into our alliance, if we +are not precipitate, and do not offer her any slight by meddling with +this semi-independent chief of Khoten, who is said to have overthrown a +Chinese detachment. And, in negotiating with the rulers of Kashgaria, we +must remember that commercial advantages are all very well, but that +political are infinitely more important. It has been tersely said that +we patronized Yakoob Beg in order to make a market for Kangra tea; but +the very trivial advantages we secured in a commercial sense were far +more than counterbalanced by the political disadvantages we derived from +a recognition of the Athalik Ghazi. In dealing with the Chinese we must +not set before us, as our guiding star, the privilege of supplying the +good people of Kashgar and Yarkand with tea and other necessaries. What +we aspire to is to be on terms of amity with China, as a power in +Central Asia, which will possess everything it desires when Ili has +been restored, and which most accordingly be inclined to resent with us +the undue aggrandizement of Russia. These are the future advantages that +may accrue from an understanding between England and China. But at the +present juncture there are others similar in kind, but immediate in +effect. The Afghan question, which now clamours for solution, and which +will scarcely pass through this crisis without finding our hold on Cabul +made more assured, is in many respects connected with the Kuldja. + +In each case the ambition of Russia is the motive power, and in each she +seeks to play her game with as little risk, and as much gain, as +possible. In neither will she fight, if she can avoid the necessity, yet +in each there is a point beyond which her honour and her interests alike +refuse to permit her to remain concealed and neutral. The solution of +the two questions is being worked out simultaneously, and the progress +of the Afghan question will at least very seriously affect the later +stages of the Kuldja. If Russia has to fight to defend Shere Ali, then +we may be sure that Tso Tsung Tang's legions will not remain inactive, +and that General Kolpakovsky will either have to beat a retreat to +Vernoe, or engage in a war out of which, on his own resources alone, it +will be impossible for him to issue victorious. If Russia interfere +openly in defence of Shere Ali, Kuldja must be restored to the Chinese, +otherwise Russia's flank would be exposed to a crushing blow, which the +Chinese would not be slow to take advantage of. Present events on the +Ili and on the Cabul have, therefore, this much in common, that they +both aim, directly or indirectly, at the fabric of Russian supremacy in +Central Asia. The occupation of Afghanistan by England, or even a +partial occupation of it as is very probable, would seriously weaken +Russian prestige in Western Turkestan. A Chinese occupation of Kuldja +would undermine her position in Vernoe and Naryn and among the Kirghiz. +Admitting these, is it not natural to suppose that in each case Russia +will fight, or that, even if she does not fight in each case, she will +fight in the one that she may deem of the most importance? But we need +not pursue the subject farther. The Chinese are face to face with Russia +in the heart of Central Asia, just as a few short months ago they were +opposed to Yakoob Beg and the power of the Tungani. + +Their army is drawn up in hostile array; it is each day becoming more +numerous and more perfectly prepared. Its generals are the same who have +led it to constant victory; its main body is the veterans of three +campaigns. The Chinese are persuaded, and it is impossible to say not +justly persuaded, of the righteousness of their cause. The Russians can +have no equal confidence either in their strength, or in their moral +position. They are not exactly championing a bad cause, or a lost one, +but, in comparison to the Chinese, they have no legal position. It +remains to be seen whether by force of arms, or by diplomatic +superiority, they can make up for the flaw in their tenure of Kuldja. +Farther on, in the vista of the events yet to come, there looms the +prospect of an Anglo-Chinese alliance, that must be most beneficial to +the peoples of Asia generally. But, before it will be possible for +Englishmen to count upon the presence of the Chinese as a favourable +"factor in the Central Asian question," our relations with China must be +placed upon a firmer and a more friendly basis than any which has yet +existed. We have it in our power to do this, and the ever-widening +breach between Russia and China simplifies our task in no slight degree. +The day will come when Russia will discover that the Kuldja question was +no trivial matter at all, and that to it can be traced many important +events in Central Asia. England may also recognize in it one of the most +useful circumstances that have ever operated in her favour in her long +rivalry with Russia. At the very crisis of our border history, when we +are on the eve of dealing out well merited chastisement to an Ameer of +Cabul, Russia finds herself weakened by being compelled to discuss a +question with China, when her attention is required elsewhere. She will +not yield what the Chinese demand, yet she dare not refuse; and the +latter will simply bide their time until she is hampered elsewhere. It +is no rash prophecy to say that China will be reinstalled, either by +peaceful means or by force, in Kuldja before the close of next year, +probably long before. An alliance between any two of the three great +Asiatic Powers must then be conclusive in all Central Asian matters, +and, before that alliance, the third will have the prudence to submit. +It behoves us to learn our lesson, when that day comes, thoroughly and +in good time. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +THE POSITION OF LOB-NOR. + +Lake Lob-Nor is placed in the map accompanying this volume in accordance +with the explorations of Colonel Prjevalsky in 1876-77; the result of +which was published in Dr. Petermann's _Mittheilungen_ as an extra +number during the spring of the present year. The accuracy of the +gallant explorer in identifying Lob-Nor with his lake of Kara Koshun had +not been challenged when this map was drawn, and when the following good +reasons for doubting its accuracy were published on the 14th of +September, it was too late to make the necessary alteration. + +The quotation of Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen's strictures on Colonel +Prjevalsky's lakes is taken from the _Athenæum_ of the 14th of +September, 1878:-- + +"It would appear that the Russian traveller Prejevalsky, in his last +remarkable journey in the heart of Central Asia, did not explore Lob-Nor +at all, as he claims to have done. Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen, one +of the first comparative geographers of the day, has examined the +account of the journey, more especially by the light of Chinese +literature, and proves, almost incontestably to our thinking, that the +true Lob-Nor must lie somewhere north-east of the so-called Kara Kotchun +Lake discovered by Prejevalsky, and that, in all probability, it is fed +by an eastern arm of the Tarim river. This, at all events, would account +for the remarkable diminution in bulk undergone by the waters of that +stream as they proceed southward, which could not but strike an +attentive reader of the Russian explorer's narrative. We have not space +to reproduce all the arguments which Von Richthofen adduces, but the +more important are these:--Prejevalsky's lake was fresh, whereas Lob-Nor +has been called _The_ Salt Lake, _par excellence_, in all ages; Shaw, +Forsyth, and other authorities, report that the name Lob-Nor was known +in those regions, whereas Prejevalsky found no such name applied to his +lake; the Chinese maps, of the accuracy of which Von Richthofen has had +repeated proofs, represent Lob-Nor as lying more to the north-east, and +call two lakes lying nearly in the position of those discovered by +Prejevalsky, Khasomo, Khas being the Mongolian for jade, a famous +product of Khotan of which mediæval traders from China went in quest, +passing by these very lakes _en route_. Another important argument is, +as we have mentioned, based on the bulk of water discharged by the Tarim +at its mouth. Von Richthofen's theory presupposes that the Tarim River +has altered its course, and that the main rush of water is now +south-east instead of due east as formerly. The whole question is well +worthy of further investigation, and it is possible that Prejevalsky, +whom a recent telegram from St. Petersburg reports about to return to +Central Asia, may be enabled to elucidate it. He will return to Zaissan, +the Russian frontier post, and thence endeavour to make his way into +Tibet by way of Barkul and Hami. + +"It is, however, certain that he will encounter great, if not +insuperable, obstruction, for we learn from private advices from India, +that the ill-advised publication in the Chefoo Convention of the then +proposed mission to Tibet has resulted in the issue of the most +stringent orders to the Tibetan officials at all the various routes and +passes to allow no European traveller to enter into the country on any +pretext whatever." + +Having stated the view of Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen, which is +endorsed by the high authority of the _Athenæeum_, and which bears, +moreover, conviction upon its face, it is but fair to give the vital +portion of Colonel Prjevalsky's own description. The _Geographical +Magazine_, for May, 1878 Contains _in extenso_ the report, and the +sentences here quoted are from that translation. + +"At a distance of fifteen versts from the smaller lake, Kara Buran, the +party diverged southward to the village of Charchalyk, built about +thirty years ago by outlaws from Khotan, of which there are at present +114 engaged in tilling fields for the state.... Where Charchalyk now +stands, and also at the distance of two days' journey from it, are the +ruins of two towns, called Ottogush-Shari (from Ottogush, a former +ruler) and Gas-Shari respectively. Close to Lob-Nor (Kara Koshun) are +the ruins of a third and pretty extensive town called Kune-Shari. From +inquires, Prejevalsky ascertained that about 1861 or 1862 a colony of +Russians numbering about 160 or 170 people, including women and +children, with their pack-horses and armed with flint-lock muskets, +settled on the Lower Tarim and at Charchalyk, but that they made no long +stay, and soon returned to Urumchi, via Turfan.... Turning to the +Lob-Nor Lake (Kara Koshun), which the travellers reached in the early +days of February, it should be observed that the Tarim discharges itself +first into a smaller lake (from thirty to thirty-five versts in length, +and between ten and twelve versts in breadth) called Kara Buran (_i.e._ +black storms) into which the Cherchendaria flows as well. A great part +of the Kara Buran, as of Lob-Nor, is overgrow with reeds, the river +flowing in its bed in the centre. The name Lob-Nor is applied by the +natives to the whole lower course of the Tarim, the larger lake being +called Chok-kul or Kara Koshun. This lake, or rather morass, is in the +shape of an irregular ellipse running south-west and north-east. + +"Its major axis is about 90 or 100 versts in length, its minor axis not +more than twenty versts. This information is derived from the natives, +as Prejevalsky himself explored only the southern and western end, and +proceeded by boat down the river for about half the length of the lake, +further progress being rendered impossible by the increasing shallowness +of the water and the masses of reeds in every direction. The water +itself is clear and sweet, though there are salt marshes all round the +lake, and beyond them a strip of ground parallel with the present +borders of the lake and overgrown with tamarisks. It is probable that +this strip was formerly the periphery of the lake, and this conclusion +is corroborated by the natives, who say that thirty years ago the lake +was deeper." + +It is clear that the true position of Lob-Nor has yet to be defined by +modern exploration, but we may safely assume with the _Athenæum_ that +Colonel Prjevalsky's Kara Koshun is _not_ Lob-Nor. The accompanying map +then, in this particular, is unfortunately erroneous. + +There is every reason for believing that Lob-Nor will be found in the +position assigned to it on the Chinese chart, the accuracy of which has +been so strikingly proved by the correct position given to the two lakes +Khas-omo, which are identical with the Kara Koshun and Kara Bunar of +Prjevalsky. + +It would be most interesting to obtain a diary or other account of those +Russian settlers mentioned by Prjevalsky, who entered the _terra +incognita_ of Central Asia during the halcyon days after the signature +of the Treaty of Kuldja, and just before the outbreak of the Tungan +revolt. It is possible that they may have solved during their return +journey to Urumtsi the enigma of Lob-Nor without knowing what they had +achieved. The reader will, therefore, have the kindness to bear in mind +that Lob-Nor is really (probably about three-quarters of a degree) +north-east of where it is placed on the map, and that the lake +represented there is only the Kara Koshun, or Chok Kul of Colonel +Prjevalsky. + +The most recent information is, that Colonel Prjevalsky adheres to his +view as to the position of Lob-Nor, and is preparing a reply which will +be published in a few weeks from this date (October 1st). + + +TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA. + +TREATY OF COMMERCE CONCLUDED BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA, AT KULDJA, ON THE +25TH DAY OF JULY, 1851, AND RATIFIED ON THE 13TH DAY OF NOVEMBER, 1851. + +The plenipotentiary of His Majesty the Emperor of All the Russias, and +the plenipotentiaries of His Majesty the Bogdokhan of Tatsing, hereby +declare; the Governor General of Ili, and its dependent provinces, as +well as his deputy, have, after consulting together, concluded in the +city of Ili (Kuldja), in favour of the subjects of both empires, a +Treaty of Commerce, which establishes a traffic in the cities of Ili +(Kuldja), and of Tarbagatai (Chuguchak). This treaty is composed of the +following articles:-- + +ARTICLE I. + +The present Treaty of Commerce, concluded in the interests of both +powers, by demonstrating their mutual solicitude for the maintenance of +peace between, as well as for the well-being of, their respective +subjects, ought to draw still closer together those links of friendship +which at the present moment unite the two Powers. + +ARTICLE II. + +The merchants of the two Empires will regulate between themselves the +interchange of commerce, and arrange the various charges at their own +will, and without any extraneous pressure. On the part of Russia a +consul will be appointed to superintend the affairs of all Russian +subjects; and on the part of China, a functionary of the superior +administration of Ili. In the event of any collision between the +subjects of either Power, each of these agents will decide, in +accordance with justice, the affairs of his own countrymen. + +ARTICLE III. + +This commerce being opened in consideration of the mutual friendship of +the two Powers, it will not be in contravention of existing rights on +either side. + +ARTICLE IV. + +Russian merchants going either to Ili (Kuldja) or to Tarbagatai +(Chuguchak) will be accompanied by a syndic (caravanbashi). When a +caravan going to Ili (Kuldja) shall arrive at the Chinese picket of +Borokhondjir, and when that destined for Tarbagatai (Chuguchak) shall +reach the first Chinese picket, the syndic shall present to the officer +of the guard the certificate of his government. The said officer, after +having noted the number of men, of beasts, and of loads of merchandise, +shall permit the caravan to pass, and shall furthermore cause it to be +escorted from picket to picket by an officer and soldiers. During the +march, all disturbance, or cause for such, shall be interdicted to +soldiers and merchants alike. + +ARTICLE V. + +In order to facilitate the task of officers and soldiers, Russian +merchants shall be obliged, in virtue of the present treaty, to follow +the route chosen by their body guard, both going and returning. + +ARTICLE VI. + +If, whilst Russian caravans follow their route outside the limit of the +guard of Chinese soldiers, bands of brigands from the outer clans +(Kirghiz) shall commit acts of pillage, of assault, or other crimes, the +Chinese government shall not be required to interfere in the matter. +When the caravan shall have arrived on Chinese territory, similarly also +during its residence in the factories where merchandise is stored, +Russian merchants must themselves guard and defend their property. They +will be expected still more carefully to look after their animals when +out at pasturage. If, despite all precaution, something should happen to +go astray, notice of such loss must be promptly given to the Chinese +official; who conjointly with the Russian consul shall trace out with +all possible diligence the lost article. If traces of it are discovered, +and those in a village held by Chinese subjects, and the thief be +captured, the punishment shall be prompt and severe. If the thing lost +be recovered, or any portion of it, it shall be restored to the person +to whom it belonged. + +ARTICLE VII. + +In the event of disputes, litigations, or other trivial incidents, +between the respective subjects, the Russian consul and the Chinese +official, of whom mention has previously been made, shall use all their +efforts to settle the affair satisfactorily. But if, despite every +effort to avoid such, a criminal case or one of general importance +should arise, it shall be decided conformably with the regulations +actually in force on the Kiachta frontier. + +ARTICLE VIII. + +Russian merchants shall arrive each year with their merchandise between +the 25th day of March and the 10th day of December (of our style, or +according to the Chinese calendar between the day Tchin-ming and the day +Tong-tchi); after the latter of these dates, the arrival of caravans +shall cease. If the merchandise imported during that period (8-1/2 +months) should not be sold, it shall be permissible to the merchants to +remain a longer space in China, in order to complete their sale; after +which the consul shall take charge of their departure. It is moreover +understood that Russian merchants shall not obtain an escort of officers +and soldiers, neither for going nor for returning, if they have not at +the least twenty camels laden with merchandise. If a merchant or the +Russian consul has need for some special matter to send an express +message, every facility shall be accorded him for doing so. But in order +that the service of officers and soldiers should not become too onerous, +there shall only be twice in the same month these extraordinary +expeditions outside the line of the advanced guards. + +ARTICLE IX. + +Russian and Chinese merchants can see each other without restriction +about matters of business; but Russian subjects, finding themselves in +the factory under the care of the Russian consul, may not walk about in +the suburbs and the streets, unless provided with a "permit" from the +consul; without such permit, they must not go out of their enclosure. +Whoever shall go out without permission shall be led back to the +consul, who will proceed against him according to law. + +ARTICLE X. + +If a criminal belonging to either of the two Empires should flee to the +other, he shall not be afforded sanctuary; but, on the part of each +Power, the local authorities shall take the most severe measures, and +make the most searching enquiries to arrest him. There shall be +reciprocal extradition of fugitives of this class. + +ARTICLE XI. + +As it is to be foreseen that the Russian merchants, who shall come to +China on commercial matters, will have with them carriages and beasts of +burden, there shall be assigned for their use, near the city of Ili, +certain places on the banks of the river Ili, and also near the city of +Tarbagatai other places where there is both water and pasturage. In +these encampments the Russian merchants shall confide their animals to +the charge of their own people, who shall take care that neither +cultivated lands nor cemeteries shall be in any case injured or +desecrated. Those who may contravene this enactment shall be brought +before the consul to be punished. + +ARTICLE XII. + +In the exchange of articles of merchandise between the merchants of the +two Empires, nothing shall be left on credit on either side. If, +notwithstanding this clause, some one should purchase his merchandise on +credit, the Russian and Chinese officials shall on no account interfere, +and shall admit of no complaint, even if cause for such might exist. + +ARTICLE XIII. + +As Russian merchants arriving in China for commercial reasons should +necessarily have special places for their warehouses, the Chinese +government shall assign them, in the two commercial cities of Ili and +Tarbagatai, plots of land near the bazaar, so that the Russian subjects +may be able to construct there, at their own expense, dwelling-houses +and factories for their wares. + +ARTICLE XIV. + +The Chinese government shall not interpose obstacles in any case where +Russian subjects celebrate, within their own buildings, divine service +according to the rite of their religion. In case a Russian subject in +China should happen to die either at Ili or at Tarbagatai, the Chinese +government shall set apart an empty space outside the walls of those +cities, to serve as a cemetery. + +ARTICLE XV. + +If Russian merchants should take to Ili or Tarbagatai sheep for the +purpose of exchanging them, the local authorities shall take, on account +of the government, two sheep out of every ten, and shall give in +exchange for each sheep a piece of linen cloth (_da-ba_, of the legal +measure); the remainder of the animals and every other kind of +merchandise shall be exchanged between the merchants of the two Empires +at a price mutually agreed upon, and the Chinese government shall not +intermeddle in any manner whatsoever. + +ARTICLE XVI. + +The ordinary official correspondence between the two Empires shall be +made, on the part of the Russian government, through the medium of the +superior administration of Western Siberia, and under the seal of that +administration; and on the part of the Chinese government through the +medium, and under the seal, of the superior administration of Ili. + +ARTICLE XVII. + +The present Treaty shall be authenticated by the signatures and seals of +the respective plenipotentiaries. On the part of Russia there will be +prepared four copies in the Russian language, signed by the +plenipotentiary of Russia; on the part of China, four copies in the +Mantchoo language, signed by the Chinese plenipotentiary and his +adjunct. The respective plenipotentiaries will each keep a copy in the +Russian language, and a copy in the Mantchoo, for the purpose of putting +the treaty into execution, and to serve for constant reference. A +Russian copy and a Mantchoo copy shall be sent to the directing Senate +of Russia; and a copy in each language to the Chinese Tribunal for +Foreign Affairs, to be there sealed and preserved after the ratification +of the Treaty. + +All the above articles of the present Treaty concluded by the respective +plenipotentiaries of Russia and China are hereby signed and sealed. The +twenty-fifth day of July, in the year 1851, in the 26th year of the +reign of His Imperial Majesty the Emperor and Autocrat of All the +Russias. + + (Signed) Colonel in the corps of Engineers. + + KOVALEVSKI. + I Chan, + Bovyantai. + + +TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND CASHMERE. + +TREATY BETWEEN THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT AND HIS HIGHNESS MAHARAJA RUNBEER +SINGH, G.C.S.I., MAHARAJA OF JUMMOO AND CASHMERE, HIS HEIRS AND +SUCCESSORS, EXECUTED ON THE ONE PART BY THOMAS DOUGLAS FORSYTH, C.B., IN +VIRTUE OF THE FULL POWERS VESTED IN HIM BY HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT +HONOURABLE RICHARD SOUTHWELL BOURKE, EARL OF MAYO, VISCOUNT MAYO OF +MONYCROWER, BARON NAAS OF NAAS, K.P., G.M.S.I., P.C., &c., &c., &c., +VICEROY AND GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA, AND ON THE OTHER PART BY HIS +HIGHNESS MAHARAJA RUNBEER SINGH AFORESAID, IN PERSON. + +Whereas in the interest of the high contracting parties and their +respective subjects it is deemed desirable to afford greater facilities +than at present exist for the development and security of trade with +Eastern Turkestan, the following Articles have with this object been +agreed upon:-- + +ARTICLE I. + +With the consent of the Maharaja, officers of the British Government +will be appointed to survey the trade routes through the Maharaja's +territories from the British frontier of Lahoul to the territories of +the Ruler of Yarkand, including the route _viâ_ the Chang Chemoo Valley. +The Maharaja will depute an officer of his Government to accompany the +surveyors, and will render them all the assistance in his power. A map +of the routes surveyed will be made, an attested copy of which will be +given to the Maharaja. + +ARTICLE II. + +Whichever route towards the Chang Chemoo Valley shall, after examination +and survey as above, be declared by the British Government to be the +best suited for the development of trade with Eastern Turkestan shall be +declared by the Maharaja to be a free highway in perpetuity, and at all +times for all travellers and traders. + +ARTICLE III. + +For the supervision and maintenance of the road in its entire length +through the Maharaja's territories, the regulation of traffic on the +free highway described in Article II., the enforcement of regulations +that may be hereafter agreed upon, and the settlement of disputes +between carriers, traders, travellers, or others using that road, in +which either of the parties or both of them are subjects of the British +Government or of any foreign State, two Commissioners shall be annually +appointed, one by the British Government, and the other by the Maharaja. +In the discharge of their duties, and as regards the period of their +residence, the Commissioners shall be guided by such rules as are now +separately framed, and may, from time to time, hereafter be laid down by +the joint authority of the British Government and the Maharaja. + +ARTICLE IV. + +The jurisdiction of the Commissioners shall be defined by a line on each +side of the road, at a maximum width of two statute _koss_, except where +it may be deemed by the Commissioners necessary to include a wider +extent for grazing grounds. Within this maximum width the surveyors +appointed under Article I. shall demarcate and map the limits of +jurisdiction which may be decided on by the Commissioners as most +suitable, including grazing grounds; and the jurisdiction of the +Commissioners shall not extend beyond the limits so demarcated. The land +included within these limits shall remain in the Maharaja's independent +possession, and, subject to the stipulations contained in this Treaty, +the Maharaja shall continue to possess the same rights of full +sovereignty therein as in any other part of his territories, which +rights shall not be interfered with in any way by the Joint +Commissioners. + +ARTICLE V. + +The Maharaja agrees to give all possible assistance in enforcing the +decisions of the Commissioners, and in preventing the breach or evasion +of the regulations established under Article III. + +ARTICLE VI. + +The Maharaja agrees that any person, whether a subject of the British +Government, or of the Maharaja, or of the Ruler of Yarkand, or of any +foreign State, may settle at any place within the jurisdiction of the +Commissioners, and may provide, keep, maintain, and let for hire at +different stages the means of carriage and transport for the purposes of +trade. + +ARTICLE VII. + +The two Commissioners shall be empowered to establish supply depôts, and +to authorize other persons to establish supply depôts, at such places on +the road as may appear to them suitable; to fix the rates at which +provisions shall be sold to traders, carriers, settlers, and others, and +to fix the rent to be charged for the use of any rest-houses or serais +that may be established on the road. The officers of the British +Government in Kullu, &c., and the officers of the Maharaja in Ladakh +shall be instructed to use their best endeavours to supply provisions on +the indent of the Commissioners at market rates. + +ARTICLE VIII. + +The Maharaja agrees to levy no transit duty whatever on the aforesaid +free highway, and the Maharaja further agrees to abolish all transit +duties levied within his territories on goods transmitted in bond +through His Highness's territories from Eastern Turkestan to India and +_vice versá_, on which bulk may not be broken within the territories of +His Highness. On goods imported into or exported from His Highness's +territory, whether by the aforesaid free highway or any other route, the +Maharaja may levy such import or export duties as he may think fit. + +ARTICLE IX. + +The British Government agree to levy no duty on goods transmitted in +bond through British India to Eastern Turkestan or to the territories of +His Highness the Maharaja. The British Government further agree to +abolish the export duties now levied on shawls and other textile fabrics +manufactured in the territories of the Maharaja, and exported to +countries beyond the limits of British India. + +ARTICLE X. + +This Treaty, consisting of ten Articles, has this day been concluded by +Thomas Douglas Forsyth, C.B., in virtue of the full powers vested in him +by His Excellency the Right Honourable Richard Southwell Bourke, Earl of +Mayo, Viscount Mayo, of Monycrower, Baron Naas of Naas, K.P., G.M.S.I., +P.C., &c., &c., Viceroy and Governor-General of India, on the part of +the British Government, and by the Maharaja Runbeer Singh aforesaid; and +it is agreed that a copy of this Treaty, duly ratified by His Excellency +the Viceroy and Governor-General of India, shall be delivered to the +Maharaja on or before the 7th of September, 1870. Signed, sealed, and +exchanged at Sealkote on the second day of April, in the year of our +Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy, corresponding with the 22nd +day of Bysack Sumbut, 1927. + + Signature of the Maharaja of Cashmere. + + (Signed) T. D. FORSYTH, + MAYO. + +This Treaty was ratified by His Excellency the Viceroy and +Governor-General of India at Sealkote on the 2nd day of May, 1870. + + (Signed) C. U. AITCHISON, + Officiating Secretary to the Government + of India, Foreign Department. + + +TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND KASHGAR. + +THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS OF FREE TRADE WERE PROPOSED AND AGREED UPON +BETWEEN GENERAL AIDE-DE-CAMP VON KAUFMANN AND YAKOOB BEG, CHIEF OF +DJETY-SHAHR. + +ARTICLE I. + +All Russian subjects, of whatsoever religion, shall have the right to +proceed for purposes of trade to Djety-Shahr, and to all the localities +and towns subjected to the Chief of Djety-Shahr, which they may desire +to visit in the same way as the inhabitants of Djety-Shahr have hitherto +been, and shall be in the future, entitled to prosecute trade throughout +the entire extent of the Russian Empire. The honourable chief of +Djety-Shahr undertakes to keep a vigilant guard over the complete safety +of Russian subjects, within the limits of his territorial possessions, +and also over that of their caravans, and in general over everything +that may belong to them. + +ARTICLE II. + +Russian merchants shall be entitled to have caravanserais, in which they +alone shall be able to store their merchandise, in all the towns of +Djety-Shahr in which they may desire to have them. The merchants of +Djety-Shahr shall enjoy the same privilege in the Russian villages. + +ARTICLE III. + +Russian merchants shall, if they desire it, have the right to have +commercial agents (caravanbashis) in all the towns of Djety-Shahr, whose +business it is to watch over the regular courts of trade, and over the +legal imposition of customs dues. The merchants of Djety-Shahr shall +enjoy the same privilege in the towns of Turkestan. + +ARTICLE IV. + +All merchandise transported from Russia to Djety-Shahr, or from that +province into Russia, shall be liable to a tax of 2-1/2 per cent. _ad +valorem_. In every case this tax shall not exceed the rate of the tax +taken from Mussulmans being subject to Djety-Shahr. + +ARTICLE V. + +Russian merchants and their caravans shall be at liberty, with all +freedom and security, to traverse the territories of Djety-Shahr in +proceeding to countries conterminous with that province. Caravans from +Djety-Shahr shall enjoy the same advantages for passing through +territories belonging to Russia. + + * * * * * + +These conditions were sent from Tashkent on the 9th of April, 1872. + +General Von Kaufmann I., Governor-General of Turkestan, signed the +treaty and attached his seal to it. + +In proof of his assent to these conditions, Mahomed Yakoob, Chief of +Djety-Shahr, attached his seal to them at Yangy-Shahr, on the 8th of +June, 1872. + + * * * * * + +This treaty was negotiated by Baron Kaulbars. + + +TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND KASHGAR. + +TREATY BETWEEN THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT AND HIS HIGHNESS THE AMEER MAHOMED +YAKOOB KHAN, RULER OF THE TERRITORY OF KASHGAR AND YARKAND, HIS HEIRS +AND SUCCESSORS, EXECUTED ON THE ONE PART BY THOMAS DOUGLAS FORSYTH, +C.B., IN VIRTUE OF FULL POWERS CONFERRED ON HIM IN THAT BEHALF BY HIS +EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. THOMAS GEORGE BARING, BARON NORTHBROOK OF +STRATTON, AND A BARONET, MEMBER OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL OF HER MOST +GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, GRAND MASTER OF +THE MOST EXALTED ORDER OF THE STAR OF INDIA, VICEROY AND +GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA, IN COUNCIL, AND ON THE OTHER PART BY SYUD +MAHOMED KHAN TOORAH, MEMBER OF THE 1ST CLASS OF THE ORDER OF MEDJIDIE, +&C., IN VIRTUE OF FULL POWERS CONFERRED ON HIM BY HIS HIGHNESS. + +Whereas it is deemed desirable to confirm and strengthen the good +understanding which now subsists between the high contracting parties, +and to promote commercial intercourse between their respective subjects, +the following Articles have been agreed upon:-- + +ARTICLE I. + +The high contracting parties engage that the subjects of each shall be +at liberty to enter, reside in, trade with, and pass with their +merchandise and property into and through all parts of the dominions of +the other; and shall enjoy in such dominions all the privileges and +advantages with respect to commerce, protection or otherwise, which are, +or may be, accorded to the subjects of such dominions, or to the +subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation. + +ARTICLE II. + +Merchants of whatever nationality shall be at liberty to pass from the +territories of the one contracting party to the territories of the +other, with their merchandise and property at all times, and by any +route they please; no restriction shall be placed by either contracting +party upon such freedom of transit, unless for urgent political reasons +to be previously communicated to the other; and such restriction shall +be withdrawn as soon as the necessity for it is over. + +ARTICLE III. + +European British subjects entering the dominions of His Highness the +Ameer, for purposes of trade, or otherwise, must be provided with +passports certifying to their nationality. Unless provided with such +passports they shall not be deemed entitled to the benefit of this +treaty. + +ARTICLE IV. + +On goods imported into British India from territories of His Highness +the Ameer, by any route over the Himalayan passes, which lie to the +south of His Highness's dominions, the British Government engages to +levy no import duties. On goods imported from India into the territories +of His Highness the Ameer, no import duty exceeding 2-1/2 per cent., _ad +valorem_, shall be levied. Goods imported, as above, into the dominions +of the contracting parties may, subject only to such excise regulations +and duties, and to such municipal or town regulations and duties, as may +be applicable to such classes of goods generally, be freely sold by +wholesale or retail, and transported from one place to another within +British India, and within the dominions of His Highness the Ameer +respectively. + +ARTICLE V. + +Merchandise imported from India into the territories of His Highness the +Ameer will not be opened for examination, till arrival at the place of +consignment. If any disputes should arise as to the value of such goods, +the customs officer, or other officer acting on the part of His Highness +the Ameer, shall be entitled to demand part of the goods, at the rate of +one in forty, in lieu of the payment of duty. If the aforesaid officer +should object to levy the duty by taking a portion of the goods, or if +the goods should not admit of being so divided, then the point in +dispute shall be referred to two competent persons, one chosen by the +aforesaid officer, and the other by the importer, and a valuation of the +goods shall be made, and if the referees shall differ in opinion, they +shall appoint an arbitrator whose decision shall be final, and the duty +shall be levied according to the value thus established. + +ARTICLE VI. + +The British Government shall be at liberty to appoint a Representative +at the Court of His Highness the Ameer, and to appoint a Commercial +Agent, subordinate to him in any town or place considered suitable +within His Highness's territories. His Highness the Ameer shall be at +liberty to appoint a Representative with the Viceroy and +Governor-General of India, and to station Commercial Agents at any +places in British India considered suitable. Such Representatives shall +be entitled to the rank and privileges accorded to ambassadors by the +law of nations, and the Agents shall be entitled to the privileges of +Consuls of the most favoured nation. + +ARTICLE VII. + +British subjects shall be at liberty to purchase, sell, or hire land, or +houses, or depôts for merchandise, in the dominions of His Highness the +Ameer, and the houses, depôts, or other premises of British subjects, +shall not be forcibly entered or searched without the consent of the +occupier, unless with the cognizance of the British Representative or +Agent, and in presence of a person deputed by him. + +ARTICLE VIII. + +The following arrangements are agreed to for the decision of Civil Suits +and Criminal Cases within the territories of His Highness the Ameer, in +which British subjects are concerned:-- + + (_a._) Civil suits in which both plaintiff and defendant are + British subjects, and Criminal Cases in which both + prosecutor and accused are British subjects, or in which the + accused is a European British subject, mentioned in the + Third Article of this Treaty, shall be tried by the British + Representative or one of his Agents, in the presence of an + Agent appointed by His Highness the Ameer; + + (_b._) Civil suits in which one party is a subject of His Highness + the Ameer, and the other party a British subject, shall be + tried by the Courts of His Highness, in the presence of the + British Representative or one of his Agents, or of a person + appointed in that behalf by such Representative or Agent; + + (_c._) Criminal cases in which either prosecutor or accused is a + subject of His Highness the Ameer shall, except as above + otherwise provided, be tried by the Courts of His Highness + in presence of the British Representative, or of one of his + Agents, or of a person deputed by the British + Representative, or by one of his Agents; + + (_d._) Except as above otherwise provided, Civil and Criminal Cases + in which one party is a British subject, and the other the + subject of a foreign power, shall, if either of the parties + be a Mahomedan, be tried in the Courts of His Highness; if + neither party is a Mahomedan, the case may, with consent of + the parties, be tried by the British Representative or one + of his Agents; in the absence of such consent, by the Courts + of His Highness; + + (_e._) In any case disposed of by the Courts of His Highness the + Ameer to which a British subject is party, it shall be + competent to the British Representative, if he considers + that justice has not been done, to represent the matter to + His Highness the Ameer, who may cause the case to be + re-tried in some other Court, in the presence of the British + Representative, or of one of his Agents, or of a person + appointed in that behalf by such Representative or Agent. + +ARTICLE IX. + +The rights and privileges enjoyed within the dominions of His Highness +the Ameer by British subjects under the Treaty, shall extend to the +subjects of all Princes and States in India in alliance with Her Majesty +the Queen; and if, with respect to any such Prince or State, any other +provisions relating to this Treaty or to other matters should be +considered desirable, they shall be negotiated through the British +Government. + +ARTICLE X. + +Every affidavit and other legal document filed or deposited in any Court +established in the respective dominions of the high contracting parties, +or in the Court of the Joint Commissioners in Ladakh, may be proved by +an authenticated copy, purporting either to be sealed with the seal of +the Court to which the original document belongs, or, in the event of +such Court having no seal, to be signed by the Judge, or by one of the +Judges of the said Court. + +ARTICLE XI. + +When a British subject dies in the territory of His Highness the Ameer +his movable and immovable property situate therein shall be vested in +his heir, executor, administrator, or other representative on interest +or (in the absence of such representative) in the Representative of the +British Government in the aforesaid territory. The person in whom such +charge shall be so vested shall satisfy the claims outstanding against +the deceased, and shall hold the surplus (if any) for distribution among +those interested. The above provisions, _mutatis mutandis_, shall apply +to the subjects of His Highness the Ameer, who may die in British India. + +ARTICLE XII. + +If a British subject residing in the territories of His Highness the +Ameer becomes unable to pay his debts or fails to pay any debt within a +reasonable time after being ordered to do so by any Court of Justice, +the creditors of such insolvent shall be paid out of his goods and +effects; but the British Representative shall not refuse his good +offices, if needs be, to ascertain if the insolvent has not left in +India disposable property which might serve to satisfy the said +creditors. The friendly stipulations in the present Article shall be +reciprocally observed with regard to His Highness's subjects who trade +in India under the protection of the laws. + +This treaty having this day been executed in duplicate and confirmed by +His Highness the Ameer, one copy shall, for the present, be left in the +possession of His Highness, and the other, after confirmation by the +Viceroy and Governor-General of India, shall be delivered to His +Highness within twelve months in exchange for the copy now retained by +His Highness. + +Signed and sealed at Kashgar on the second day of February, in the year +of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-four, corresponding +with the fifteenth day of Zilhijj, one thousand two hundred and ninety +Hijree. + + (Signed) T. DOUGLAS FORSYTH, + Envoy and Plenipotentiary. + +Whereas a Treaty for strengthening the good understanding that now +exists between the British Government and the Ruler of the territory of +Kashgar and Yarkand, and for promoting commercial intercourse between +the two countries, was agreed to and concluded at Kashgar, on the second +day of February, in the year of our Lord eighteen hundred and +seventy-four, corresponding with the fifteenth day of Zilhijj, twelve +hundred and ninety Hijree, by the respective Plenipotentiaries of the +Government of India and of His Highness the Ameer of Kashgar and +Yarkand, duly accredited and empowered for that purpose: I, the Right +Hon. Thomas George Baring, Baron Northbrook of Stratton, &c., &c., +Viceroy and Governor-General of India, do hereby ratify and confirm the +Treaty aforesaid. + +Given under my hand and seal at Government House, in Calcutta, this +thirteenth day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight +hundred and seventy-four. + + (Signed) NORTHBROOK. + + +-------+ + | | + | Seal. | + | | + +-------+ + + +RULES FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE JOINT COMMISSIONERS APPOINTED FOR THE NEW +ROUTE TO EASTERN TURKESTAN. + +1. As it is impossible, owing to the character of the climate, to retain +the Commissioners throughout the year, the period during which they +shall exercise their authority shall be taken to commence on 15th May, +and to end on 1st December. + +2. During the absence of either Commissioner, cases may be heard and +decided by the other Commissioner, subject to appeal to the Joint +Commissioners. + +3. In the months when the Joint Commissioners are absent, _i.e._ between +1st December and 15th May, all cases which may arise shall be decided by +the Wuzeer of Ladakh, subject to appeal to the Joint Commissioners. + +4. The Joint Commissioners shall not interfere in cases other than those +which affect the development, freedom, and safety of the trade, and the +objects for which the Treaty is concluded, and in which one of the +parties, or both, are either British subjects, or subjects of a foreign +state. + +5. In civil disputes the Commissioners shall have power to dispose of +all cases, whatever be the value of the property in litigation. + +6. When the Commissioners agree, their decision shall be final in all +cases. When they are unable to agree, the parties shall have the right +of nominating a single arbitrator, and shall bind themselves in writing +to abide by his award. Should the parties not be able to agree upon a +single arbitrator, each party shall name one, and the two Commissioners +shall name a third, and the decision of the majority of the arbitrators +shall be final. + +7. In criminal cases the powers of the Commissioners shall be limited to +offences such as in British territory would be tried by a subordinate +Magistrate of the First Class, and as far as possible the procedure of +the Criminal Procedure Code shall be followed. Cases of a more heinous +kind should be made over to the Maharaja for trial, if the accused be +not a European British subject; in the latter case he should be +forwarded to the nearest British Court of competent jurisdiction for +trial. + +8. All fines levied in criminal cases, and all stamp receipts levied +according to the rates in force for civil suits in the Maharaja's +dominions, shall be credited to the Cashmere Treasury. Persons sentenced +to imprisonment shall, if British subjects, be sent to the nearest +British jail. If not British subjects, offenders shall be made over for +imprisonment in the Maharaja's jails. + +9. The practice of cow-killing is strictly prohibited throughout the +jurisdiction of the Maharaja. + +10. If any places come within the line of road from which the towns of +Leh, &c., are supplied with fuel or wood for building purpose, the Joint +Commissioners shall so arrange with the Wuzeer of Ladakh that those +supplies are not interfered with. + +11. Whatever transactions take place within the limits of the road shall +be considered to refer to goods in bond. If a trader opens his load, and +disposes of a portion, he shall not be subject to any duty so long as +the goods are not taken for consumption into the Maharaja's territory +across the line of road. And goods left for any length of time in the +line of road subject to the jurisdiction of the Commissioners shall be +free. + +12. Where a village lies within the jurisdiction of the Joint +Commissioners, then, as regards the collection of revenue, or in any +case where there is necessity for the interference of the usual Revenue +authorities on matters having no connection with the trade, the Joint +Commissioners have no power whatever to interfere; but, to prevent +misunderstanding, it is advisable that the Revenue officials should +first communicate with the Joint Commissioners before proceeding to take +action against any person within their jurisdiction. The Joint +Commissioners can then exercise their discretion to deliver up the +person sought, or to make a summary inquiry to ascertain whether their +interference is necessary or not. + +13. The Maharaja agrees to give rupees 5,000 this year for the +construction of the road and bridges, and in future years His Highness +agrees to give rupees 2,000 per annum for the maintenance of the road +and bridges. Similarly for the repairs of serais a sum of rupees 100 per +annum for each serai will be given. Should further expenditure be +necessary, the Joint Commissioners will submit a special report to the +Maharaja, and ask for a special grant. This money will be expended by +the Joint Commissioners, who will employ free labour at market rates for +this purpose. The officers in Ladakh and in British territory shall be +instructed to use their best endeavours to supply labourers on the +indent of the Commissioners at market rates. No tolls shall be levied on +the bridges on this line of road. + +14. As a temporary arrangement, and until the line of road has been +demarcated, or till the end of this year, the Joint Commissioners shall +exercise the powers described in these rules over the several roads +taken by the traders through Ladakh from Lahoul and Spiti. + + (Signed) MAHARAJA RUNBEER SINGH. + + " T. D. FORSYTH. + +(These rules were agreed upon in 1872, between the Indian Government and +Cashmere, for the purpose of promoting trade with Eastern Turkestan and +Central Asia, which had been sanctioned by the Treaty of Commerce of +1870.) + + +A STORY FROM KASHGAR. + +Mirza Mulla Rahmat, of Kashgar, who arrived at Peshawur lately, on his +way to Mecca, has told what he knows about events in Kashgar. The +following is his story:--In the month of Jamadi-us-sani 1294 (June-July, +1877), that Mahomed Yakoob Khan, the Badshah of Kashgar, collected a +large army to fight the Chinese. He died near the town of Balisan (? +Bai), and his army then recognized Hakim Khan Torah as his successor. +The mullahs in Kashgar in the meantime appointed Beg Kuli Beg, Yakoob's +eldest son, as their Badshah, according to Yakoob's will. Hakim Khan and +the army which joined him then came to Aksu, where Beg Kuli Beg also +arrived, meaning to capture the place and the person of the usurper. A +battle was fought between Kuli Beg and Hakim Khan on the 26th and 27th +of Rajah (27th and 28th July, 1877), and Hakim Khan was defeated. Many +of the soldiers belonging to Hakim Khan's force fell in the battle, and +many others were starved, and some were drowned crossing a river. Hakim +Khan then went into Russian territory with 1,000 chosen soldiers. Beg +Kuli Beg now seized several towns and returned to Kashgar. In the +meantime Naiz Hakim Beg, the Governor of Khoten, rebelled, and Kuli Beg +met him in the field, and captured Khoten. The Beg was scarcely a week +at that place when he heard that the Chinese had arrived at Aksu and had +taken it. An officer (Kho Dalay?) of the Chinese army who had turned +Mahomedan (but subsequently recanted) attacked Yangy Shahr, the +capital, and, capturing it, shut himself up there. The town was then +besieged by the Governor of Kashgar, and the siege continued for fifty +days. Then Kuli Beg came up, and, forcing his entry into the town, took +possession of it, and destroyed the fort. But on the 10th of Zillhij +(16th of December) a strong Chinese force entered the country, and +rapidly reconquered the possessions of the late Yakoob Khan. Beg Kuli +Beg then fled with his men to Tashkent, which he reached by Mingyol Osh +and Marghilan, and put himself under the protection of the Russian +Governor there. Mulla Yunus Jan, the Governor of Yarkand, and his son +and brother fell into the hands of Hasan Jan Bai, Ikskal (? Aksakal). + +The above is taken from the columns of an Indian journal, and is +inserted here for the purpose of showing that the converted Chinese, or +Yangy Mussulmans, did revolt from their allegiance to Yakoob Beg the +instant a Khitay force appeared in Altyshahr. + + + + +INDEX OF SUBJECTS. + + + Aali, _see_ Hakim Khan. + + Ababakar, 34-36. + + Abderrahman Aftobatcha, 18, 209-210, 211. + + Abderrahman Khoja (King of Yarkand), 102. + + Abdul Aziz, 170, 196. + + Abdul Melik, 248. + + Abdullah (Yusuf's son), 46, 47. + + Abdullah Pansad, 102, 104, 107, 114-116, 117, 137, 158, 171. + + Abdullah Zizad, 23. + + Ablai (Kirghiz chief), 50. + + Acbash, 44. + + Ægis of British protection, 204. + + Afak, 44. + + Afghan Ameer sends embassy to Pekin, 51. + + Afghanistan, 8, 49. + + Afghan settlers, 16, _passim_. + + Afridun Wang, 98-99. + + Agha Bula, 265. + + Ahmad, 35, 46. + + Ak Musjid, siege of, 79-81. + + Ak Robat, 228. + + Aksai Plateau, 3. + + Aksakal, 57-58, 64, 69, _passim_. + + Aksakals (risings under), 66, _passim_. + + Aksu, 2, 3, 37, 46, 66, 272, 273. + coal at, 163. + description of, 7. + siege of, 127, 273. + + Aktaghluc, 37, 44-46, 47, 49. + description of, 52-53. + + Alaja "the slayer," 35; _see_ Ahmad. + + Alim, 146. + + Alim Kuli, 83-85, 86, 87, _passim_. + + Alish Beg, 172, 231. + + Almatie, _see_ Vernoe. + + Alty Shahr, 8, 16, 44, _passim_. + + Amban, 54, 63, _passim_. + of Yarkand, or Khan Amban, 54. + + Ameer, or Emir, 196, 220, _passim_. + + Ameers of Central Asia, 39. + + Amoor, 25, 42. + + Amursana, 45-48, 49, 252. + + Andijani, 4, 12, 158, 160. + + Andijani Serai, 153. + + Appak Khoja, 252. + + Arabdan Khan, 45. + + Arabs, 23. + + Arpa Tai, battle of, 270. + + Artosh, 12, 22, 181. + + Aryan family, 14, 17. + + Athalik Ghazi, 1, 118, 186, _passim_. + + Azmill Khoja, 31. + + + Babur, 36. + + Badakshan, 8, 33, 36, 48, 49, 106, 107, 118. + + Badakshi settlers, 16. + + Badaulet, 200, 248. + + Bahanuddin (son of Sarimsak), 64. + + Bai, 272. + + Barhanuddin, 46, 47, 48, 49. + + Baroghil, 8, 29. + + Bartchuk, 3; _see_ also Maralbashi. + + Bayen Hu, 253, 266, 267, 271. + + Bazandai, 125. + + Bedal Pass, 273. + + Beg, 220-221. + + Beg Bacha, _see_ Kuli Beg. + + Bellew, Dr., 22, 171, 222. + + Benefits conferred by China on Kashgar, 58, _passim_. + + Berdan rifles, 246. + + Bhots, 9. + + Biddulph, Capt., 222. + + Birlas, 32. + + Birma, 42. + + Black Sea, 14. + + Bokhara, 18, 23, 25, 30, 69, 83, 178, 209, _passim_. + Russian treaty with, 179. + sack of, 30. + + Bolor, 37, 65. + + Bostang Lake, 266. + + Buddhism, 25, _passim_. + + Buddhists, 16, 31, _passim_. + + Bugur, fight at, 269. + + Burac, 30. + + Buzurg Khan, 2, 71, 87, 91, 103, 107, 108, 110. + intrigues against Yakoob Beg, 111, 117. + deposed by Yakoob Beg, 117. + + + Cabul, 28, 211. + + Calmucks, 19, 44, _passim_. + + Calmuck settlements, 19, 44. + + Canals, 59. + + Candahar, 28. + + Caravanbashi, 204. + + Carts used in Kashgar, 227-228. + + Cashmere, 1, 37, 60. + + Caspian, 14. + + Cay Yoli, 67. + + Chaghtai Khan, 29. + + Cha-hi-telkh, 267. + + Champion Father, 118. + + Chang Lung, 67. + + Chang Tay, 112. + + Chang Yao, 237, 246, 247, 263, 272. + + Chapman, Capt., 222. + + Charjui, 179. + + Chightam, 10, 134, _passim_. + + China, 41-43, _passim_. + + Chinaz, 85. + + Chinese and Khokand, 49. + + Chinese army, character of, 275. + + Chinese at Lhasa, 234. + + Chinese Empire in Central Asia, 22, 39, 43. + + Chinese, first reverse of, 65. + + Chinese in Kashgar, 49, 54-75. + + Chinese merchants, 5. + + Chinese moderation, 249, 270. + + Chinese north of Tian Shan, 236. + + Chinese overthrow Tungani, 236-237, 238. + + Chinese pay Khokand annual sum, 64. + + Chinese principle in ruling Kashgar, 156. + + Chinese reconquer Kashgar, 258-276. + + Chinese revindicating army, strength of, 246. + + Chinese rule, benefits and disadvantages of, 74-75. + + Chinese, strategical advantages of, 66. + + Chinese Turkestan, _see_ Eastern Turkestan. + + Chitral, 29. + + Christians, 25. + + Chuguchak, 10, _passim_. + + Chuntche, 42. + + Coal mines, 60. + + Cochin China, 42. + + Comparison between rule of Chinese and Yakoob Beg, 168-169, 255-257. + + Constantinople, 196, _passim_. + + Corbashi, 149. + + Corps of artillerymen, 142. + + Crusade, propagandist, against Khitay, 47. + + Czar, the, 185. + + + Dadkwah, _passim_, functions of, 144-145. + + Danyal, 44, 45. + + Darius, 36. + + Darwas, 72. + + Dastarkhwan, 225. + + Dava Khan, 30. + + Davatsi, 45-46. + + Delhi, 28. + + Destruction caused by Genghis Khan, 28. + + Devanchi, 244, 247. + + Devan defile, 244, _passim_. + + Difference between Eastern and Western Turkestan, 15. + + Dihbid, 76. + + Disunion in Central Asia, 120-121, 210-211. + in China, 92. + in Kashgar, 259-263. + + Djinghite, _see_ Jigit. + + Dolans, 9, 143. + + Dungani, _see_ Tungani. + + Dungans, _see_ Tungani. + + Durani, 51. + + Dylon Yulduc, 26. + + + Eastern Turkestan, 1, 15, 17, 38-42, 59, _passim_. + + Edinburgh, Duke of, 205. + + Effects of Khoja risings on China's prestige, 70. + + Effects of past misrule in Kashgar, 39. + + Elchi Khana, 228. + + Eleuthian, or Eleuth princes, 42, 46. + + Emir, or Ameer, 198, 220, _passim_. + + England's policy towards China, 257; _see_ chapter 14 also. + towards Kashgar, 212-235. + trade with Kashgar, 153, 202. + trans-Himalayan policy, 204; _see_ chapter 14 also. + + English mission guests of Yakoob Beg, 232. + + Eshan Khan, 71. + + + Ferghana, 25, 32, 181, 187, 210. + + First outbreak against China in Eastern Turkestan, 64. + + Forsyth, Sir T. D., 6, 22, 194, 196, 204, 216, 218-219, 233, 234. + + Forsyth's report, 221, 233. + interview with Yakoob Beg, 228-230. + second mission to Kashgar, 221-232. + + + Galdan, 44, 45. + + "Garden of Asia," 2, 59. + + Genghis Khan, 25-20, 220, _passim_. + code of, 20. + + Ghizni, 28. + + Gibbon, 220. + + Glacier, _see_ Muzart Pass. + + Gobi, 1, 2, 19, 156, 246, _passim_. + + Goes Benedict, 37. + + Goitre, 12, _passim_. + + Gordon, Col., 92, 222. + + Gorkhan, 25. + + Granville-Gortschakoff negotiations, 207. + + Great road from Kashgar to Hamil and Kansuh, 12. + + Great Yuldus, 273. + + Gregorieff, Professor, 138. + + Grim Pass, 223-224. + + Guchen, 10, 246. + + Gulbagh, 55, 66. + + Guoharbrum, 11. + + + Hacc Kuli Beg (Khokandian general), 69. + + Hacc Kuli Beg (Yakoob Beg's son), 79, 133, 244, 252-253, 260. + + Hadayatulla, 37, 38. + + Hadji Torah, 140, 141, 169-171, 196, 220, 221, 223, 232, 233, 248. + + Haft Khojagan, 71. + + Hai Yen, 239. + + Hakim Beg, 55. + + Hakim Khan, 250-253, 259-261. + + Hamil, 10, 59, 130, 246, 247. + + Han Hing Nung, 240. + + Hastings, Warren, 213. + + Hayward, Mr., 216. + + Hazrat Afak, 37, 38, 74. + + Heh Tsun, 240. + + Henderson, Dr., 218, 219. + + Her Majesty, autograph letter of, 230. + + "High Tartary," 212. + + Himalaya, 213. + + Himalayan passes, 213. + + Hindoo Koosh, 14, 17, 28. + + Hodjent, 37, 44, 84, 208, 209, _passim_. + + Hordes, Kirghiz, 50. + + Hoser, 272. + + Houchow, 95. + + Houtan, 7. + + Husen, 32. + + Hwang Tsang, 4. + + Hydar Kuli, Hudaychi, 84. + + Hydar, 35. + + + Ihrar Khan Torah, 172, 218, 219, 228. + + Ilchi, 7. + + Ili, 1, 2, 7, 22, 25, 44, 45, 48, 176; _see_ chapter 14, _passim_. + + Ili, Viceroy of, 56, _passim_. + + Irjar, 85. + + Isa Dadkwah, 65-66. + + Ishac Wang, 68. + + Islamism, 20. + + Ismail Shah, 72. + + Issik Kul, 17, 33, 174. + + + Jade, 60, 163-164, _passim_. + + Jallab, 6. + + Jattah Ulus, or Jattahs, 29, 33, 35. + + Jehangir (Ababakar's son), 36. + + Jehangir (Sarimsak's son), 64, 65-68. + + Jehangir (Timour's son), 34. + + Jigit, 143, _passim_. + + Jungaria, 1, 2, 15, 17, 25, 33, 34, 47, 134, 175, 236, _passim_. + + + Kabil Shah, 32. + + Kafiristan, 37. + + Kafirs, 37. + + Kaidu River, 30, 266. + + Khalkhalu, 24. + + Kamaruddin, 33. + + Kamensky, Mr., 248, 264, 265. + + Kamschatka, 41. + + Kanaát Shah, 82-83. + + Kanghi, 42. + + Kansuh, 20, 24, 43, 92, _passim_. + + Kara Khitay, 24, 25. + + Kara Kirghiz, 17. + + Karakoram, 2, 37, 48, 213. + + Karakoram (city), 29. + + Karanghotagh, 36. + + Karashar, 2, 9, 20, 130, 247, 266. + + Karataghluc, 37, 44, 46, 49. + description of, 52-53. + + Karatakka mountains, 68. + + Karategin, 68, 77. + + Karghalik, 225. + + Karshi, 179. + + Kashgar River, _see_ Kizil Su. + + Kashgari resigned to Chinese conquest, 52. + + Kashgar, 12, 25, 35, 45, 178, _passim_. + history of, 22-40. + + Kashgaria, 1, 2, 13, _passim_. + + Kashgarian valley, description of, 10. + + Kashgarian scenery, 11. + + Kashgari not fanatics, 140. + dress of, 140. + + "Kashmir and Kashgar," 223. + + Katti Torah, Khoja, 71. + + Kaufmann, General, 185, 195, 197, 206, 207, 209, 250. + + Kaulbars, Baron, 192-195, 197. + + Kaulbars Treaty, 219. + + Kazalinsk, 79. + + Kazan Ameer, 31, 32. + + Kazi, 145, 146. + + Kazi Rais, 6, 146. + + Keen-Lung, 43-45, 63, 93, 156, _passim_. + + Kermina, 179. + + Khalkas, 19. + + Khan, 220-221. + + Khan Amban, _see_ Amban of Yarkand. + + Khan Khoja, 38, 48. + + Khans of Central Asia, 39. + + Khaton, 23. + + Khitay, 5, 21, 46, 93, 143, 240, _passim_. + + Khitay merchants, 58. + + Khiva, 25, 27, 178, 181, 197, 206. + + Khivan desert, 32. + + Khize Khoja, 33. + + Kho Dalay, 111. + + Khoja Ahmad, 44. + + Khoja family, 37, 48, 64. + + Khoja invasion, 73. + + Khoja Ishac, 52. + + Khoja Kalan, 52. + + Khoja Kalar, 37. + + Khoja Kings, 31. + + Khoja Kulan, 102. + + Khoja Padshah, _see_ Abdullah. + + Khojam Beg, 45. + + Khokand, 3, 17, 36, 48, 49, 187, _passim_. + + Khokand pays tribute to China, 50, 63-64. + + Khokand, rising in, 209-210. + + Khokandian intrigues, 57. + + Khokandian tax-gatherers, 97. + + Khoten, 17, 24, 25, 50, 118, 121-123, 224-225. + description of, 6. + rising at, 262. + + Khoten gold mines, 163. + + Khoten jade, 163, _passim_. + + Khudadar, 34. + + Khudayar Khan, 71, 81-86, 120, 187-189, 208-209, _passim_. + + Khwaresm, _see_ Khiva. + + Kiachta, 48. + + Kichik Khan, 72. + + Kin Shun, 136, 263, 266-272. + + Kipchak, 14, 25, _passim_. + description of, 18. + + Kirghiz, 14, 16, 17, 104, 143, 184, 209, _passim_. + description of, 17. + nomads submit to China, 50. + + Kish, 32. + + Kizil Su, 3. + + Kizil Yart, 17, _passim_. + + Kludof, 182-185. + + Kohistan, 2. + + Kok Robat, battle of, 72, 228. + + Kolpakovsky, General, 182, 184, 281. + + Kooda Kuli Beg, 79, 130. + + Koosh Bege, 79, _passim_. + + Korla, description of, 9, 245, 248, 267, 268, _passim_. + + Koshluk, 25. + + Kouralia, _see_ Korla. + + Kouroungli, _see_ Korla. + + Kucha, 2, 8, 127-130, 268, 269, 270, _passim_. + battle at, 270-271. + description of, 9. + + Kucha coal mines, 163. + + Kucha Khojas, 127, _passim_. + + Kuen Lun, 7. + + Kuhna Turfan, 7; _see_ Turfan. + + Kuhwei, 265, 266. + + Kuldja, 2, 94. + + Kuldja question, 265. + + Kuli Beg. 79, 133, 137, 141, 171, 250, 251, 252-253, 260-263, 274, 276. + + Kumush, 265. + + Kunar, 29. + + Kurama, 76, 82, _passim_. + + Kuropatkine, Capt., 204, 244-245. + + Kurtka Fort, 65. + + Kutaiba, 24. + + + Ladakh, 213. + + Lahore, 31. + + "Lahore to Yarkand," 219. + + Lake Lob, 134, 245. + + Lanchefoo, 45, 59, 246, _passim_. + + Laws in Kashgar, 145-146. + + Leaoutung, 41. + + Lêh, 153. + + Lhasa, 60. + + Little Bokhara, 1, 213. + + Liu Kin Tang, _see_ Kin Shun. + + Lob Nor, _see_ Lake Lob. + + + Mah Dalay, 100. + + Mahomedanism in Kashgar, 24. + + Mahomedanism, _passim_. + + Mahomed Ali Khan (ruler of Khokand), 37, 66, 68, _passim_. + + Mahomed Arif, 77. + + Mahomed Beg of Artosh, 172. + + Mahomed Khan, 170. + + Mahomed Khoja, 171; _see_ also Sheikh-ul-Islam. + + Mahomed Kuli, 102. + + Mahomed Latif, _see_ Pur Mahomed. + + Mahomed Nazzar. 214, 215. + + Mahomed Seyyid Wang, of Kashgar, 66. + + Mahomed Yunus Jan, 140, 171-172, 215, 226, 227, 261. + + Makhram, battle of, 210. + + Manas, 133, 236, 263. + siege of, 239-240. + + Manchuria, 19. + + Manning, Thomas, 213, 294. + + Mansur, 35. + + Mantchoo, 41, 42. + + Maralbashi, 8, 31, 66, 110, 121; _see also_ Bartchuk. + + Marco Polo, 14, 30. + + Maulana Khoja Kasani, 52. + + Ma-yeo-pu, 270. + + Mecca, 37. + + Merv, 179. + + Meshed, 179. + + Michell, Messrs, opinion on Kashgar, 213. + + Military settlers, 50. + + Mines in Kashgar, 8. + + Ming dynasty, 41. + + Mingyol, battle at, 69. + + Mir, 82. + + Mirza, 204. + + Mirza Jan Effendi, 170. + + Mollah Khan, 82, 170. + + Mongols, 25, 41. + + Mongols, murder of, 27. + + Moorcroft, Mr., 213. + + Moral of Yakoob Beg's career, 257. + + Morozof, Mr., 202. + + Moscow gewgaws, 182. + + "Moses in the land," 39. + + Mourad Beg, 69. + + Mozaffur Eddin, 83, 179, 186, _passim_. + + Mufti, 146. + + Mufti Habitulla, 122-123. + murder of, 123. + + Mughol _see_ Mongol. + + Mugholistan. 1, 29. + + Muhtasib, 6. + + Mussulman Kuli, 18, 81-82, _passim_. + + Muzart Pass, 61, 78, 273. + + Mysoka Bahadur, 26. + + + Nadir Shah, 51, _passim_. + + Naiman tribe, 25. + + Nankin, 92. + + Nar Mahomed Khan, 77, 169. + + Naryn, 8, 61, 177, 178, 180, 183, _passim_. + + Nasruddin, 209-210. + + Nestorian Christians, 30. + + New Turfan, 7. + + Nur Ali (Kirghiz), 50. + + + Ogdai Khan, 29, 34. + + Oigur princes, 23. + + Oigurs, 16. + + Old saying in Kashgar, 39. + + Olja Turkan Khaton, 32. + + Opinion of Chinese rule, 152. + + Orda, or palace, at Kashgar, 3, 142. + + Orda, _passim_. + + Oxus, 23, 211. + + + Pamere, _see_ Pamir. + + Pamir, 1, 2, 8, 25, 36, 48. + + Panjkora, 28. + + Panthays, 92, 175, _passim_. + + Pekin, 29, 47, _passim_. + + _Pekin Gazette_, 238, 249, 253, 267, 272. + + Perovsky, General, 79-81. + + Perovsky Fort, 81. + + Persia, 14, 23. + + Piskent, 76, 77. + + Population of Kashgaria, 2, 59, 157. + of city of Kashgar, 3. + of city of Kucha, 9. + of city of Yarkand, 5. + + Powers interested in Kashgar, 196. + + Presents to Yakoob Beg, 230-231. + + Prester John, 25. + + Prince of Kashgar, _see_ Ishac Wang. + + Prjevalsky, Col., 20, 245, 250, 273. + + Pupyshef, Mr., 199-200. + + Pur Mahomed Mirza, 76. + + + Rashid, 37, 52. + + Reinthal's, Capt., mission to Kashgar, 184-185, 202-204. + + Rising against Russia, folly of, if not combined, 180. + + Risings in Khokand, _see_ Khokand. + + Road between Ili and Kashgar, 61. + + "Road Board," 62. + + Romanoffski, General, 85. + + "Roof of the World," 222. + + Royal Body Guard, 226. + + Ruduk, 233. + + Russia at Vernoe, 130. + + Russia demands Consuls in Kashgar, 203, 205. + + Russia in Central Asia, 47, 173. + + Russia in Kuldja or Ili, 133, 174-177, 279-282. + + Russia invades Kuldja, 206. + + Russia promises to restore Ili, 175. + + Russian attitude towards Chinese, 248. + + Russian merchants, 164, 182, 193, 197, 199, 202. + + Russian policy towards Kashgar, 177-209. + + Russian trade with Kashgar, 153. + + + Sadic Beg, 86, 87, 102, 103, 104, 107, 116, 117, 261, 263, 275. + embassy to Tashkent, 87. + truce with, 107. + + Sahib Khan, 81. + + Said, 35, 36, 37, 52. + + Salara, 95. + + Samarcand, 25, 33, 52, 179. + + Saniz, 34. + + Sanju, 7, 36, 224, _passim_. + + Sanju Devan, 11, 223. + + Sarbaz, 143, _passim_. + + Sarimsak Khoja, 48, 51, 64, 65. + + Satuk Bughra Khan, 24. + + Schlagintweit, Messrs., 16, 214 _passim_. + + Schuyler, Eugene, 195. + + Scobelef, Gen., 207. + + Scobelef, Col., 207, 210. + + Scourges of God, 28, 33. + + Seistan, 32. + + Seven Khoja princes, 71. + + Seyyid Ali, 34. + + Seyyid Yakoob Khan, _see_ Hadji Torah. + + Shadi Mirza, 184-185. + + Shahidoolah, 223. + + Shahrisebz, 32. + + Sham, 226. + + Shariàt, 90, 145. + + Shaw, Robt., 16, 194, 212, 213, 215, 218, 221, 232, 234. + + Sheikh-ul-Islam, 116-117, 151, 158. + + Sheikh Nizamuddin, 77. + + Shensi, 20, 92, 237. + + Shere Ali (Cabul), 8, 118, 179. + + Shere Ali Khan (Khokand), 83. + + Siberia, 1, 47. + + Sirikul, 8, 106, 118, 132. + + Six Cities, _see_ Altyshahr. + + Sobo tribes, 94. + + Somof, Mr., 109-200. + + St. George and St. Anne Cross Fever, 206. + + St. Petersburg, 185, 196. + + Stoliczka, Dr., 222. + + Story of St Constantine's day, 194. + + Subashi, 265. + + "Sublimely Pure," 42. + + Sule, 1. + + Sultan Mourad, 83. + + Sultan Seyyid, 83, 86. + + Suranchi Beg, 65, 104. + + Syr Darya, 18, 79, 192. + + Swat, 28. + + Szchuen, 58, 237. + + + Taepings, 92. + + Tagharchi, 106. + + Tajik, 14, 78. + + Talifoo, 92, 175, 237. + + Tamerlane, _see_ Timour. + + Tanab, 162. + + Tanabi, 162. + + Tang dynasty, 22. + + Tang Jen Ho, 265. + + Tangut, 27. + + Tarantchis. 12, 68, 124-125. + + Tarfur, _see_ Turfan. + + Tartar, 15 _passim_. + + Tarzagchi, 149. + + Tash Balik, 65. + + Tashkent, 25, 32, 49, 84, 208. + battle of, 85, 209, _passim_. + etiquette at, 206. + + _Tashkent Gazette_, _see_ Turkestan. + + Tashkurgan, 8. + + Tatsing, 42. + + Tawats, _see_ Davatsi. + + Taxes in Kashgar, 56, 62, 63, 151-160. + + Tay Dalay, 55. + + Tchernaief, 84-85. + + Tchimkent, 84. + + Tekes, river and pass, 133, 273. + + Tenure of land in Kashgar, 161. + + Terek Pass, 61, 103. + + Tian Shan, 2, 20, 33, 59, 247, _passim_. + + Tian Shan Nan Lu, 61. + + Tian Shan Pe Lu, 61. + + Tibet, 7, 37, 42, 50, 56, 60, 213, 217. + Cashmerian, 2. + + Tibetan table-land, 36. + + Timour, 32-34, 91. + + Timour Khan (Chinese Emperor), 31. + + Timour, Yakoob Beg's descent from, 77. + + Tobolsk, 48. + + Toghluc Timour, 31, 33. + + Toksoun, 242, 244, 264. + battle at, 247. + + To Teh Lin, 240. + + Trade, 153. + + Trade privileges, 57. + + Trade with China, 217-218; _see_ chapter 14. + + Trade with Kashgar, 106, 216-217. + + Treaty between England and Kashgar, 232. + + Treaty between Russia and Kashgar, 194. + + Treaty with Khokand, 69. + + Trotter, Captain, 222. + + Tsedayar, 268. + + Tso Tsung Tang, 246, 247, 263, 265, 272, 275, _passim_. + army of, 272. + + Tungani, 2, 19, 20, 21, 93, 130, 144, 239, 241, 243, _passim_. + description of, 19, 93-94. + + Tungan rising proper, 95, 96, 123-124. + in Kashgar, 96, 102. + in Kuldja, 124-125. + + Tungani desert Yakoob Beg, 249. + + Tungani unorthodox, 127. + defend Kucha, 127-130. + + Turanian family, 14, 15. + + Turcomans, 32. + + Turfan, 21, 130, 242, 244, 264. + battle at, 247. + + Turfan Ush, _see_ Ush Turfan. + + Turghay, 32. + + Turkestan, Eastern, _see_ Eastern Turkestan. + Western, _see_ Western Turkestan. + + _Turkestan Gazette_, 251, 252, 264, _passim_. + + Turkestan Trading Company, 232. + + Tyfu, 231. + + + Uigurs, _see_ Oigurs. + + Uman Sheikh, 36. + + Urumtsi, 10, 130, 131, 134, 236. + siege of, 238-239. + + Usbeg, 14. + + Usha Tal, 265. + + "Ushr" tax, 62, 160. + + Ush Turfan, 7, 45, 46, 47, 130, 183, 273. + rising at, 51. + + + Vagrants, laws against, 150. + + Value of land in Kashgar, 160-161. + + Vernoe, 8, 130, 174, 176, 182. + + Viceroy of Ili, 55, _passim_. + + Viceroy of Kansuh, 237-238; _see also_ Tso Tsung Tung. + + "Vodka," 209. + + "Vuoba," 264. + + + Wakhan, 8, 64. + + Wali Khan, 71, 72, 214. + character of, 72-73. + + Wangs, 56, 63, _passim_. + + Wanleh, 41. + + Wealth of Kashgar merchants, 165. + + Western Turkestan, 14, 15, _passim_. + + + Yahya, 38. + + Yakoob Beg, birth of, 76; + early career, 78-91; + character of, 88, 91; + charges against, 89; + sets out against Kashgar, 91; + expedition against Kashgar, 103-118; + fails to take Yarkand, 106; + defeats Tungan army near Yangy Hissar, 109; + marries Kho Dalay's daughter, 112; + attacks Yarkand again, 113-116; + reverse at Yarkand, 114; + takes Yarkand, 116; + reasons for wars with Tungani, 120; + wars with Tungani, 126-127, 127-130, 132-136; + retrospect of his invasion of Kashgar, 119; + his army, 134-135, 142-144; + policy towards Tungani, 135-136; + internal policy, 137-139; + foreign policy, _see_ chapters 10 and 11; + court of, 138-139; + police system of, 146-152; + principles of finance of, 154-167; + expenses of, 157; + revenue of, 167; + reply to Russian threats, 186, 191-192; + reply to Khudayar Khan's overtures, 190; + sends envoy to Tashkent, 195; + arrangement with Sultan, 196; + his opinion of trade, 198; + out-manoeuvres Russia, 199-201; + congratulates Czar on marriage of his daughter, 205; + prepares to defend himself against Russia, 208; + weakness of his foreign policy, 210-211; + policy towards England, 218-233; + decline of friendship towards England, 231; + prepares to defend himself against China, 244-246; + comparison with China, 241-249; + death of, 250-253; + résumé of career, 253-257, _passim_. + + Yakoob Khan, 220; _see_ Yakoob Beg. + + Yakoob Khan, of Cabul, 221. + + Yangabad, battle of, 67. + + Yangy Hissar, 4, 24, 35, 36, 44, 105, 228. + fort surrenders to Yakoob Beg, 106. + + Yangy Mussulmans, 112, 243, _passim_. + + Yangy Shahr, 34, 68, _passim_. + at Yarkand, gallant defence of, 101. + at Kashgar, 102, 107, 111-112. + + Yarkand, 3, 5, 44, 226. + embassy to, 22. + river, 5, 59. + Tungan rising in, 99-102, 105-106. + + Yuldus, 133; _see also_ Great Yuldus. + + Yung Ching, 43. + + Yunus, 34, 35, 40. + + Yusuf (son of Galdan), 46. + + Yusuf (son of Sarimsak), 64, 69. + + Yuzbashi Mahomed Zareef Khan, 223. + + + "Zakat" tax, 62, 160, 164-167. + + Zilchak, 226. + + Zuelik, 79. + + Zuhuruddin, 70-72. + + +Woodfall & Kinder, Printers, Milford Lane, Strand, London, W.C. + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +The following modifications have been made to the text. + +Page 205: detracted replaced with detraction. + + There is no difficulty in arriving at the conclusion that such + exhibitions as this is an instance of detracted from the + otherwise great and striking characteristics of the ruler of + Kashgar. + +Page 250: Missing period added at the end of sentence. + + They were probably not aware of what was taking place some 300 + miles from their camp until many weeks after it had happened; + and then conceived that their best policy would be to give time + for the disintegrating causes at work within the state to have + their full effect before they advanced westward. + +Page 255: unaminity replaced with unanimity. + + There were superior strategy and superior weapons; greater force + and greater determination; no hesitation in action, and perfect + unaminity in council; all combined to crush one poor forlorn + man, fighting with all the desperation of despair for life, if + not for liberty. + +Page 258: Missing t added, aken replaced with taken. + + Nor did it follow as a matter of necessity that because the + Chinese had aken Turfan they could capture Kashgar or Yarkand. + +Page 278: momet replaced with moment. + + Moreover there is the unknown quantity of the rivalry of Li Hung + Chang and Tso Tsung Tang, and whatever influence the latter may + have with the army and the ruling caste on account of his + Mantchoo blood, the former holds the purse in his hands, and can + at any momet paralyse Chinese activity and strength in Central + Asia. + +Page 306: accurracy replaced with accuracy. + + the accurracy of which has been so strikingly proved by the + correct position given to the two lakes Khas-omo, + +Page 337: Period replaced with comma after 209-210. + + Abderrahman Aftobatcha, 18, 209-210. 211. + +Page 339: Hyder replaced with Hydar. + + Hyder, 35. + +Page 340: Kalkhalu replaced with Khalkhalu. + + Kalkhalu, 24. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Yakoob Beg, by Demetrius Boulger + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF YAKOOB BEG *** + +***** This file should be named 33712-8.txt or 33712-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/7/1/33712/ + +Produced by The Bookworm, [bookworm.librivox AT gmail.com], +Asad Razzaki and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/33712-8.zip b/33712-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2252c2f --- /dev/null +++ b/33712-8.zip diff --git a/33712-h.zip b/33712-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e9915b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/33712-h.zip diff --git a/33712-h/33712-h.htm b/33712-h/33712-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7669ccb --- /dev/null +++ b/33712-h/33712-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,14916 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Life of Yakoob Beg, by Demetrius Charles Boulger. +</title> +<style type="text/css"> + +body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } +h1 { text-align: center; clear: both; line-height: 1.5} +h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { text-align: center; clear: both; } +h1 span { display: block; margin-bottom: .25em; font-size: 50%; } +h2 span, h3 span { display: block; margin-bottom: .5em; } +h3 { padding-top: 1em; } +h4 { font-variant: small-caps;} +#title { font-size: 100%; } +#author { font-size: 80%; } +#by { font-size: 40%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; } +div.chapter { page-break-before: always; padding-top: 2em; } +span.chapsub1 { font-size: 80%; } +span.chapsub2 { text-align: left; margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; + font-variant: small-caps; font-size: 80%; } +p { margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em; } +table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} +td.pgno { text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom; width: 3em;} +td.chap1 { text-align: center; padding-left: 4em;} +.super { vertical-align: super; font-size: .7em; text-decoration: none;} +.sml { vertical-align: bottom; font-variant: small-caps; font-size: .6em; + text-decoration: none;} +.notebox {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; margin-top: 5%; + margin-bottom: 5%; padding: 1em; border: solid black 1px;} +.seal {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 80%; margin-top: 5%; + margin-bottom: 5%; padding: 1em; border: solid black 1px;} +ins.corr { text-decoration: none; border-bottom: thin dotted;} +.old {font-family: "Old English", "Old English Text", "Old English Text MT", + "Engravers Old English", "Engravers Old English MT", "EF Old English", + Gothic, Medieval, blackletter, "Black Letter", Gothique, Gotisch, + fantacy, cursive, sans-serif;} +ul.index { list-style-type: none; } +li.ifrst { margin-top: 1em; } +li.indx { margin-top: .3em; } +li.isub1 {text-indent: 1em;} + +hr { width: 33%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; clear: both;} +hr.tb {width: 45%;} +hr.full {width: 95%;} + +.pagenum { position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; + font-style: normal; text-align: right;} +.blockquot { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; text-indent: -2em;} +.center {text-align: center;} +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} +.ml1 {margin-left: 1em;} +.ml2 {margin-left: 2em;} +.ml3 {margin-left: 3em;} +.ml4 {margin-left: 4em;} +.ml12 {margin-left: 12em;} +.ml13 {margin-left: 13em;} +.ml14 {margin-left: 14em;} +.poem { margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} +.poem br {display: none;} +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} +.poem span.i0 { display: block; margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; } +.poem span.i1 { display: block; margin-left: 0.5em; + padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Yakoob Beg, by Demetrius Boulger + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Life of Yakoob Beg + Athalik Ghazi, and Badaulet; Ameer of Kashgar + +Author: Demetrius Boulger + +Release Date: September 12, 2010 [EBook #33712] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF YAKOOB BEG *** + + + + +Produced by The Bookworm, [bookworm.librivox AT gmail.com], +Asad Razzaki and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h1><span id="title">THE LIFE<br /> +<small><small>OF</small></small><br /> +<big>YAKOOB BEG;</big><br /> +<small>ATHALIK GHAZI, AND BADAULET;</small><br /> +AMEER OF KASHGAR.</span> + +<span id="id">BY</span> + +<span id="author">DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER,</span> +<span>MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.</span></h1> + +<p class="center"><br /><br /><i><big>WITH MAP AND +APPENDIX.</big></i></p> + +<p class="center"><br /><br />LONDON:<br /> +W<span class="super">M</span> H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO +PLACE, S.W.<br /> +1878.</p> + +<p class="center">[<i>All rights reserved.</i>]</p> +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">LONDON:<br /> +PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,<br /> +MILFORD LANE, STRAND, W.C.</p> +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> + +<h2>THE LIFE<br /> +<small>OF</small><br /> +<big>YAKOOB BEG.</big></h2> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">TO MY FATHER,<br /> +<br /> +<big>BRIAN AUSTEN BOULGER,</big><br /> +<br /> +<span class="old"><big>I Dedicate</big></span><br /> +<br /> +<small>THE FOLLOWING PAGES, AS SOME FAINT TOKEN +OF FILIAL AFFECTION AND GRATITUDE.</small></p> +<hr /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p> +<div class="chapter" id="preface"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> following account of the life of Yakoob Beg was +written with a twofold intention. In the first place, it +attempts to trace the career of a soldier of fortune, who, +without birth, power, or even any great amount of +genius, constructed an independent rule in Central Asia, +and maintained it against many adversaries during the +space of twelve years. The name of the Athalik Ghazi +became so well known in this country, and his person +was so exaggerated by popular report, that those who +come to these pages with a belief that their hero will +be lauded to the skies must be disappointed. Yakoob +Beg was a very able and courageous man, and the task +he did accomplish in Kashgaria was in the highest +degree creditable; but he was no Timour or Babur. +His internal policy was marred by his severity, and the +system of terrorism that he principally adopted; and +his external policy, bold and audacious as it often was, +was enfeebled by periods of vacillation and doubt. Yet +his career was truly remarkable. He was not the +arbiter of the destinies of Central Asia, nor was he +even the consistent opponent of Russian claims to +supremacy therein. He was essentially of the common +mould of human nature, sharing the weaknesses and +the fears of ordinary men. The Badaulet, or "the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> +fortunate one," as he was called, was essentially indebted +to good fortune in many crises of his career. He +cannot, in any sense, be compared to the giants produced +by Central Asia in days of old; and among +moderns Dost Mahomed of Afghanistan probably should +rank as high as he does. Yet he gives an individuality +to the history of Kashgar that it would otherwise lack. +The recent triumphs of the Chinese received all their +attraction to Englishmen from the decline and fall of +Yakoob Beg, the hero they had erected in the country +north of Cashmere.</p> + +<p>In the second place, the following pages strive to +bring before the English reader the great merits of +China as a governing power; and this object is really +the more important of the two. It is absolutely +necessary for this country to remember that there are +only three Great Powers in Asia, and of these China is +in many respects the foremost. Whereas both England +and Russia are simply conquering Governments, China +is a mighty and self-governing country. China's rule +in Eastern Turkestan and Jungaria is one of the most +instructive pages in the history of modern Asia, yet it +may freely be admitted that the brief career of Yakoob +Beg gave an interest to the consideration of the Chinese +in Central Asia that that theme might otherwise have +failed to supply. The authorities used in the compilation +of the facts upon which the following pages +have been erected are principally and above all the +official Report of Sir Douglas Forsyth, and the files of +the <i>Tashkent</i> and <i>Pekin Gazettes</i> since the beginning +of 1874. Mr. Shaw's most interesting work on "High +Tartary," Dr. Bellew's "Kashgar," and Gregorieff's +work on "Eastern Turkestan," have also been consulted +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span> +in various portions of the narrative. A vast mass of +newspaper articles have likewise been laid under contribution +for details which have not been noticed anywhere +else.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, the author would ask the English +reader to consider very carefully what the true lesson of +Chinese valour and statesmanship may be for us, because +those qualities have now become the guiding power in +every Indian border question, from Siam and Birma to +Cashmere. Mr. Schuyler's "Turkestan," which still +maintains its place as the leading work on Central Asia, +although not treating on the affairs of Kashgar, has +been frequently referred to for the course of affairs in +Khokand; but, in the main, Dr. Bellew's historical +narrative in Sir D. Forsyth's Report has been followed.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of contents"> +<tr><td align="center" class="chap1"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td><td class='pgno'><span class="sml">PAGE</span></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Geographical Description of Kashgar</span></td><td class='pgno'>1</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Ethnographical Description of Kashgar</span></td><td class='pgno'>14</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">History of Kashgar</span></td><td class='pgno'>22</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Conquest of Kashgar by China</span></td><td class='pgno'>41</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Chinese Rule in Kashgar</span></td><td class='pgno'>54</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Birth of Yakoob Beg and Career in the Service of +Khokand</span></td><td class='pgno'>76</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Invasion of Kashgar by Buzurg Khan and Yakoob Beg</span></td><td class='pgno'>92 +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Wars with the Tungani</span></td><td class='pgno'>119</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Yakoob Beg's Government of Kashgar</span></td><td class='pgno'>137</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Yakoob Beg's Policy towards Russia</span></td><td class='pgno'>173</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Yakoob Beg's Relations with England</span></td><td class='pgno'>212</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Yakoob Beg's Last War with China, and Death</span></td><td class='pgno'>236</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Chinese Reconquest of Kashgar</span></td><td class='pgno'>268</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Chinese Factor in the Central Asia Question</span></td><td class='pgno'>277</td></tr> +<tr><td>APPENDIX.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap ml3"><a href="#Page_303">The Position of Lob-nor</a></span></td><td class='pgno'>303</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap ml3"><a href="#Page_308">Treaty between Russia and China</a></span></td><td class='pgno'>308</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap ml3"><a href="#Page_315">Treaty between England and Cashmere</a></span></td><td class='pgno'>315</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap ml3"><a href="#Page_320">Treaty between Russia and Kashgar</a></span></td><td class='pgno'>320</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap ml3"><a href="#Page_322">Treaty between England and Kashgar</a></span></td><td class='pgno'>322</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#Page_330"><span class="smcap ml3">Rules for the Guidance of the Joint Commissioners</span><br /> +<span class="smcap ml3">appointed for the New Route to Eastern Turkestan</span></a></td><td class='pgno'>330</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap ml3"><a href="#Page_334">A Story from Kashgar</a></span></td><td class='pgno'>334</td></tr> +</table> +</div></div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><br /><br /><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<p class="center"><big><big><b>YAKOOB BEG.</b></big></big><br /><br /></p> + +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_I"></a><span>CHAPTER I.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF KASHGAR.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> state of Kashgar, which comprises the western +portion of Eastern or Chinese Turkestan, has been +defined as being bounded on the north by Siberia, on +the south by the mountains of Cashmere, on the east +by the Great Desert of Gobi, and on the west by the +steppe of "High Pamere." This description, while sufficiently +correct for general speaking, admits of more +detail in a work dealing at some length with that +country. Strictly, the name Kashgar or Cashgar applies +only to the city, and it was not until after the time of +Marco Polo, when it was the most populous and opulent +town in the whole region, that it became used for the +neighbouring country. The correct name is either +Little Bokhara or Eastern Turkestan, and the Chinese +call it Sule. Recent writers have styled the territory +of the Athalik Ghazi Kashgaria. It certainly extended +through a larger portion of Chinese Turkestan than +did any past native rule in Kashgar, the Chinese of +course excepted. The definition given above of the +limits of Kashgar states that on the north it is +bounded by Siberia, but this is erroneous, for the extensive +territory of Jungaria or Mugholistan intervenes. +Jungaria under the Chinese was known as Ili from its +capital, and now under the Russians is spoken of as +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +Kuldja, another name for the same city. This very +extensive and important district was included in the +same government with Kashgar when the Chinese +dominated in all this region from their head-quarters +at Ili; but in the final settlement after the disruption +of the Chinese power in 1863, while Kashgar fell to +the Khoja Buzurg Khan, and the eastern portion of +Jungaria, together with the cities of Kucha, Karashar, +and Turfan south of the Tian Shan range, to the +Tungani; Kuldja or Ili was occupied by the Russians. +The frontier line between Kuldja and Kashgar is very +clearly marked by the Tian Shan, and the same effectual +barrier divides the continent into two well-defined +divisions from Aksu to Turfan and beyond. Eastern +Turkestan is, therefore, bounded on the north by the +Tian Shan, and on the south the Karakoram Mountains +form a no less satisfactory bulwark between it and +Kohistan and Cashmerian Tibet. As has been said, on +the west the steppe of Pamir and on the east the desert +of Gobi present distinct and secure defences against +aggression from without in those directions. There are +few states in Asia with a more clearly marked position +than that of which we have been speaking. Nature +seems to have formed it to lead an isolated and independent +existence, happy and prosperous in its own resources +and careless of the outer world; but its history has been +of a more troubled character, and at only brief intervals +has its natural wealth been so fostered as to make it that +which it has been called, "the Garden of Asia." This +condition of almost continual warfare and disturbance +during centuries, has left many visible marks on the +external features of the country, and in nothing is this +more strikingly evident than in the small population. +A region which contains at the most moderate estimate +250,000 square miles, is believed by the highest +authorities to contain less than 1,000,000 inhabitants. +In breadth Kashgaria may be said to extend from +longitude E. 73° to 89°, and in width from latitude N. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> +36° to 43°; but the ancient kingdom of Kashgar has +been always considered to have reached only to Aksu, +a town about 300 miles north-east of Kashgar. When +the Chinese about fifty years ago conceded certain trade +privileges to Khokand, they were not to have effect east +of Aksu; this fact seems conclusive as to the recognized +limits of the ancient dynasty of Kashgar. The capital +of this district, which at one time has been a flourishing +kingdom under a native ruler, at another a tributary of +some Tartar conqueror, and then distracted by the +struggles of his effete successors, and at a third time a +subject province of the Chinese, has fluctuated as much +as the fortunes of the state itself. Now it has been +Yarkand, now Kashgar, and yet again, on several occasions, +Aksu. The claims of Kashgar seem to have prevailed +in the long run, for, although Yarkand is still +the larger city, Yakoob Beg established his capital at +Kashgar, and made that town known throughout the +whole of Asia by the means of his government.</p> + +<p>Kashgar is situated in a plain in the north of the +province, and the small river on which it is built is +known as the Kizil Su. Immediately beyond it the +country becomes hilly and mountainous, until in the far +distance may be seen the snow-clad peaks of the Tian +Shan, and the Aksai Plateau. Although the population +is barely 30,000, there is now an air of brisker activity +in the bazaars and caravanserais of this capital than in +any other city in the country. The trade carried on +with Russia in recent years has given some life to the +place; but few, if any, merchants proceed more inland +than this, whether they come from Khokand or from +Kuldja. The town stretches on both sides of the river, +which is crossed by a wooden bridge; but there are no +buildings of any pretensions for external beauty or +internal comfort. The <i>orda</i> or palace of the Ameer, +which is in Yangy Shahr, five miles from the city, is a +large gloomy barrack of a place with several buildings +within each other; the outer ones are occupied by the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +household troops and by the court officials, and the +inner one of all is set apart for the family and <i>serai</i> +of the ruler himself. In connection with this is a +hall of audience, in which he receives in solemn state +such foreigners as it seems politic for him to honour. +In the old days, Kashgar used to be a strongly fortified +position, but the only remains of its former strength are +the ruins which are strewn freely all around. Kashgar +is, therefore, an open and quite defenceless town, and +lies completely at the mercy of any invader who might +come along the high road from Aksu or Bartchuk, or +across the mountains from Khokand or Kuldja; but at +Yangy Shahr, about five miles south of Kashgar, Yakoob +Beg constructed a strong fort, where he deposited all his +treasure, and this may be taken to be the citadel of +Kashgar as well as the residence of the ruler. Yangy +Shahr means new city, and as a fortification erected by +a Central Asian potentate with very limited means, it +must be considered to be a very creditable piece of +military workmanship. The Andijanis or Khokandian +merchants who have at various times settled here, form +a very important class in this town in particular, and it +was they who more than any one else contributed to the +success of the invasion of Buzurg Khan and Mahomed +Yakoob. It is, however, said that these merchant classes +had become to some extent dissatisfied with the late +state of things, whether because Yakoob Beg did not +fulfil all his promises, or for some other reason, is not +clear. If Kashgar under its late rule was not restored +to that prosperous condition which excited the admiration +of Marco Polo, and the Chinese traveller, Hwang +Tsang, before him, it may be considered to have been +as fairly well-doing as any other city in either Turkestan, +while life and property were a great deal more secure +than in some we could mention.</p> + +<p>Situated about half-way on the road to Yarkand is +Yangy Hissar, a town which has always been of importance +both as a military position and as a place of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +trade. It has greatly fallen into decay, however, but +still possesses a certain amount of its former influence +from being a military post, and from the exceptional +fertility of the neighbouring country.</p> + +<p>Yarkand, about eighty miles as the crow flies, and 120 +by road, to the south-east of Kashgar, is still the most +populous of all the cities of Eastern Turkestan. It lies +in the open plain on the Yarkand river, and its walls, +four miles in circuit, testify to its former greatness. +Under the Chinese it was quite the most flourishing +town in the region, and even now Sir Douglas Forsyth +estimates that it contains 40,000 people, while the surrounding +country has nearly 200,000 more. The fruit +gardens and orchards, which extend in a wide belt round +it, give an air of peculiar prosperity to the country, and +quite possibly induce travellers to take a too sanguine +view of the resources of the country. In addition to the +abundance of fruit and grain produce that is brought +into the city for sale, there is a large and profitable +business carried on in leather. Yarkand has almost a +monopoly of this article, and the consumption of it +is very great indeed. The Ameer himself took large +quantities yearly for his army, for, in addition to that +required for boots and saddles, many of his regiments +wore uniforms of that substance.</p> + +<p>But, although Yarkand is the chief market-place of +the richest province, and although its population is +thriving and energetic, there is a general <i>consensus</i> of +opinion that it has become much less prosperous and +much more of a rural town since the transference of +the seat of government to Kashgar, and the disappearance +of Chinese merchants with the Chinese ruler. A +very intelligent merchant of the town replied as follows +to questions put to him, as to the Chinese and native +rulers, and it will be seen that it was especially favourable +to the claims of the Chinese as the better masters.</p> + +<p>"What you see on market-day now, is nothing to the +life and activity there was in the time of the Khitay. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +To-day the peasantry come in with their fowls and eggs, +with their cotton and yarn, or with their sheep and +cattle and horses for sale, and they go back with printed +cotton, a fur cap, or city made boots, or whatever domestic +necessaries they may require, and always with +a good dinner inside them; and then we shut up our +shops and stow away our goods till next week's market-day +brings back our customers. Some of us, indeed, go +out with a small venture in the interim to the rural +markets around, but our great day is market-day in +town. It was very different in the Khitay time. +People then bought and sold every day, and market-day +was a much jollier time. There was no Kazi Rais, +with his six Muhtasib, armed with the <i>dira</i> to flog +people off to prayer, and drive the women out of the +streets, and nobody was bastinadoed for drinking spirits +and eating forbidden meats. There were mimics and +acrobats, and fortune-tellers and story-tellers, who +moved about amongst the crowd and diverted the +people. There were flags and banners and all sorts +of pictures floating at the shop fronts; and there was +the <i>jallab</i>, who painted her face and decked herself in +silks and laces to please her customers." And then, +replying to a question whether the morals were not +more depraved under this system than under the strict +Mahomedan rule of the Athalik Ghazi, the same witness +went on to say—"Yes, perhaps so. There were many +rogues and gamblers too, and people did get drunk and +have their pockets picked. But so they do now, though +not so publicly, because we are under Islam, and the +shariàt is strictly enforced."</p> + +<p>This very graphic piece of evidence gives a clearer +picture of the two systems of government, than perhaps +paragraphs of explanatory writing; and, to return to +the immediate subject before us, it shows that Yarkand +has deteriorated in wealth and population since the +Chinese were expelled from it fifteen years ago.</p> + +<p>Khoten is situated 150 miles south-east of Yarkand, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +and about ninety miles due east of Sanju. It lies on the +northern base of the Kuen Lun Mountains, and is the +most southern city of any importance in Kashgaria. +Under the Chinese, it was one of the most flourishing +centres of industry, and as the <i>entrepôt</i> of all trade with +Tibet it held a bustling active community. The Chinese +called it Houtan, and even now it is locally called Ilchi. +In addition to the wool and gold imported from Tibet, +it possessed gold mines of its own in the Kuen Lun +range, and was widely celebrated for its musk, silk, and +jade. It likewise has suffered from the departure of the +Chinese; and the energy and wealth of that extraordinary +people have found, in the case of this city also, +a very inadequate substitute in the strict military order +and security introduced by Yakoob Beg.</p> + +<p>Ush Turfan, New Turfan, is a small town on the road +from Kashgar to Aksu, and is not to be confounded +with the better known Turfan which is situated in the +far east on the highway to Kansuh. This latter town is +called Kuhna Turfan, or Old Turfan, to distinguish it +from the other. Ush Turfan, without ever having been +a place of the first importance, derived very considerable +advantage from its position on the road followed by the +Chinese caravans, and Yakoob Beg converted it into a +strong military position by constructing several forts +there.</p> + +<p>Aksu, one of the old capitals of Kashgar, may fairly +be called the third city of the state, although it has, +perhaps, more than any other declined since the expulsion +of the Khitay. Before that event took place there +was a road across the mountains to Ili, by the Muzart +glacier, and relays of men were kept continually employed +in maintaining this delicately constructed road in a state +fit for passage both on foot and mounted. But all this +has been discontinued for many years now, and not only +is the road quite impassable, but it would require much +labour and more outlay to restore it to its former utility. +In the neighbourhood of this town there are rich mines +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +of lead, copper, and sulphur. These have, practically +speaking, been untouched in recent years. Coal is also +the ordinary fuel among the inhabitants; and both in +intelligence as well as in worldly prosperity, the good +people of Aksu used to be entitled to a foremost position +among the Kashgari. As a consequence of the blocking +up of the Muzart Pass, the old trade with Kuldja has +completely disappeared, and all communications with +this Russian province are now carried on by the Narym +Pass to Vernoe. This change benefits the city of +Kashgar, but is a decided loss to Aksu. Aksu may still +justly rank as an important place, and under very +probable contingencies may regain all the ground it has +lost. In conclusion, we may say that Yakoob Beg has +converted its old walls and castles into fortifications, +which are said to be capable of resisting the fire of +modern artillery.</p> + +<p>We have enumerated six cities—Kashgar, Yangy +Hissar, Yarkand, Khoten, Ush Turfan, and Aksu—and +these constitute the territory of Kashgar proper. At +one time, indeed, it was called Alty Shahr, or six cities, +from this fact. In addition to these may be mentioned, +in modern Kashgaria, Sirikul, or Tashkurgan, in the +extreme south-west, which is principally of importance +as the chief post on the frontier of Afghanistan. Near +Sirikul are Badakshan and Wakhan, and it has been +asserted that Shere Ali, of Afghanistan, viewed with a +suspicious eye the presence of Kashgar in this quarter. +It is quite certain that he would not have tolerated +that further advance along the Pamir, which Yakoob +Beg seemed on several occasions inclined to make. +Sirikul commands the northern entrance of the Baroghil +Pass, and has consequently been often mentioned in +recent accounts of this road to India.</p> + +<p>Maralbashi, or Bartchuk, a military post of some +strength, is strategically important, as being placed at +the junction of the roads from Kashgar and Yarkand, +which lead by the bed of the Yarkand river to Kucha. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +But it possesses greater interest for us, as being the +chief town of the district inhabited by the extraordinary +tribe of the Dolans. These people are in the most backward +state of intelligence that it is possible to imagine +human beings to be capable of. In physical strength +and stature they are, perhaps, the most miserable objects +on the face of the earth, but their social position is still +more deplorable. Some of their customs are of the most +disgusting character, and their dwellings, such as they +are, are of the rudest kind and subterranean. Travellers +who have seen them in the larger cities, say that all the +rumours that have been circulated about them do not +exaggerate the true facts of the case; and the most +pitiable part of the matter is, that they have become so +resigned to their degraded position, that they are averse +to any measure calculated to improve their existence. +They have been compared to the Bhots of Tibet, but +these latter are quite superior beings in comparison +with them. They are treated with contempt and derision +by all the neighbouring peoples.</p> + +<p>Kucha is, or rather was, another very flourishing +city which has never recovered the loss of Chinese +wealth, and the subsequent disturbances during the +Tungan wars. At one time Kucha had at the least +50,000 people, and it was not less famed than Aksu for +the resources and ingenuity of its people. But now it +is almost a deserted city. The greater part of the old +town is a mass of ruins, and during the nine years that +have elapsed since the Tungani were crushed by the +Athalik Ghazi, scarcely anything has been done to repair +the damage caused in those very destructive wars.</p> + +<p>Korla, Kouralia, or Kouroungli, as it has been +named, and Karashar, two towns which lie to the east +of Kucha, have likewise never revived from the period of +anarchy and bloodshed, through which the whole of +this district has passed; but even the state of these +places contrasts favourably with the far worse ruin +wrought at Turfan. Turfan, perhaps more than any +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +other, profited by the trade with China, for, although +it may not itself have been as rich as either Aksu or +Kucha, it derived a certain source of income as the +rendezvous of all the caravans proceeding either east +or west, or north to Urumtsi and Chuguchak. Very +often a delay of several weeks took place, before merchants +had arranged all the details for crossing the Tian +Shan to Guchen, or for proceeding on to Hamil through +the desert, and Turfan flourished greatly thereby. Now +its streets are desolate, the whole country round it is +represented to be a desert, and all its former activity +and brightness have completely disappeared. Yakoob +Beg had extended his rule a short distance east of +Turfan, to a place called Chightam, but Turfan may be +styled his most eastern possession.</p> + +<p>We have now given a somewhat detailed description +of the chief cities of Kashgaria, and in doing so we have +distinctly intended thereby to convey the impression to +the reader that it is only these and their suburbs that +were at all productive under the late <i>régime</i>. To +those who have been to Kashgar, nothing has remained +more vividly impressed on their mind, than the exceedingly +prosperous appearance of the farms in the belt of +country from Yarkand to Kashgar; but at the same +time this wealth of foliage and of blossom has only made +the barrenness of the intervening and surrounding +country more palpable. The farms are certainly not +small in extent, but rather isolated from each other, and +surrounded by orchards of plums, apples, and other +fruit trees, in which they are completely embowered. +A Kashgarian village is not a main street with a line +of cottages and a few large farms; but it is a conglomeration +of farmsteads covering a very extensive area +of country, and presenting to the eye of a stranger +rather a thinly peopled district than a community of +villagers. Again, although the soil is naturally fertile, +the system of agriculture is of an exhaustive character, +and it seems probable that only a small portion of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +land on each farm is at all productive. But these +settlements, which present an exterior of rural happiness +and simplicity, are but oases in an enormous extent of +barren country. If each proprietor seems to possess +more land than he can require, and if the fertile soil +produces bountifully that which is unskilfully sown +therein, the total amount of land under cultivation +is still very limited indeed. Worse still, the soil is +gradually exhausted, and as the system of sowing but one +kind of grain seems to have taken deep root among the +people, it is to be feared that it may be perpetuated +without hope of recovery. There is a constant difficulty +to be overcome, too, on account of the meagre supply +of water. The general aspect of the region is barren, +a bleak expanse stretches in all directions, and in the +distance on three sides the outlines of lofty ranges complete +the panorama. The scarcely marked bridle track +that supplies the place of a highway in every direction +except where the Chinese have left permanent tokens of +their presence, offers little inducement to travellers to +come thither; nor must these when they do come expect +anything but the most imperfect modes of communication +and of supply that a backward Asiatic district can +furnish. If we wish to imagine the scene along the road +from Sanju to Yarkand, we have only to visit some of +the wilder of the Sussex Wealds to have it before us in +miniature. The spare dried-up herbage may be still +more spare, and the limestone may be more protruding +on the Central Asian plain; and the wind will certainly +remind you that it comes either from the desert or from +the mountain regions; but you have the same undulating, +dreary expanse that you have above Crowborough. +The miserable sheep watched by some nomad Kirghiz +will alone forcibly remind you that you are far away +from the heights of the South Downs. In the far +distance you will see the cloud-crested pinnacles of the +Sanju Devan or of the Guoharbrum, and then the +traveller cannot but remember that he is in one of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +most inaccessible regions in the world. But if these +southern roads are scarcely worthy of the name, the +great high road from Kashgar to Aksu, Kucha, Korla, +Karashar, and Turfan is a masterpiece of engineering +construction. It need not fear to brave comparison with +those of imperial Rome herself, and remains an enduring +monument to Chinese perseverance, skill, and capacity +for government. In China itself there are many great +and important highways, but there the task was facilitated +by the possession of great and navigable rivers. +In Eastern Turkestan no such assistance was to be found, +and consequently this road, along which was conducted all +the traffic that passed from China to Jungaria, Kashgar, +Khokand, and Bokhara, had to be maintained in the +highest state of efficiency. To do this we cannot doubt +was a most expensive undertaking, and, not mentioning +such an exceptional work as the Muzart Pass, one that +required a very perfect organization to accomplish with +the success that for more than a century marked it.</p> + +<p>The great drawback in the geographical position of +Kashgar, is the want of a cheap and convenient outlet +by water. The country itself suffers in a less degree +from the same cause, but with a more perfect system of +irrigation, the rivers, such as the Artosh, &c., which in +spring carry down the mountain snows, might be made +to give a more extended supply throughout western +Kashgar at all events. The climate is equable, and the +people suffer from no very prevalent disease, except in +the more mountainous parts, and in Yarkand, where +goitre is of frequent occurrence. The people themselves +seem to be frugal and honest, but indeed there are so +many races to be met with in this "middle land," that +no general description can be given of them all. The +Andijanis, or Khokandian merchants, are the most prosperous +class in the community, and they appear to be, +from all accounts, possessed of more than an average +amount of business capacity in the arts of buying and +selling. The Tarantchis are the descendants of Kashgarian +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +labourers imported by the Chinese into Kuldja +in 1762, and there is still both in the army and in the +state a large number of Khitay remaining, who were +permitted to pursue in secret the observances of their +religion. The other races are ill disposed towards them, +and attribute all the vices they can think of to their +doors. But these Khitay managed to efface themselves +in the country, and although they formed a very important +minority among the males, they never appear +to have been regarded in the light of a possible danger +when their brethren from China should draw near. +In addition to the native Kashgari, and these two +important elements just mentioned, there are numerous +immigrants from the border states, particularly from +Khokand, to the people of whom Yakoob Beg naturally +manifested especial favour. We have now given at +some length a description of the geographical features +of Kashgar, and are about to follow it up with an +ethnological description as well as a historical statement +of the past features of the same region. It is +hoped that these preliminary chapters will clear the way +from some obscurity for a correct appreciation of the +career of the late Athalik Ghazi.</p> + +<p>Kashgaria may be said to be a portion of Asia which +possesses some great advantages of position and very +considerable resources, but by a singularly hard fortune, +except for the brief period of Chinese rule in modern +times, it has been so distracted by intestine disturbances +that it has retrograded further and further with each year. +It is quite possible that its natural wealth has been too +hastily taken for granted, and that it does not possess +the necessary means of restoring itself in some degree +to its former position. This is quite possible, but the +best authorities at our disposal seem to point to a more +promising conclusion, and to justify us in assuming that +the position, natural resources, and general condition of +Kashgar will enable a strong and settled rule to raise +it into a really important and flourishing confederacy.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_II"></a><span>CHAPTER II.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">ETHNOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF KASHGAR.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the extensive region stretching from the Caspian +and Black Seas to the Kizil Yart and Pamir plateaus, +and from the Persian Gulf to Siberia, the two great +families, the Aryan and the Turanian, have in past +centuries striven for supremacy. The latter, embracing +in its bosom in this part of the world the more +turbulent and warlike tribes, succeeded in subjecting +those who claimed the same parent stock as European +nations. The Tajik or Persian is the chief representative +in this region of the Aryan family, and he has now +for many centuries been the subject of the Turk rulers +of the various divisions of Western Turkestan. These +latter are the personifiers of Turanian traditions. The +Tajik appears to have been subdued, not so much by +the superiority of his conqueror in the art of war, as by +his own inclination to lead a peaceful and harmless life. +The pure Tajik, hardly to be met with now anywhere in +Asia, except in the mountainous districts of the Hindoo +Koosh, is represented to us to have been of an imposing +presence, with a long flowing beard, aquiline nose, and +large eyes. He is generally tall and graceful; yet in +Khokand and Bokhara the Tajik is at present viewed +much as the Saxons were by the Normans. In those +states, too, a man is spoken of by his race. He is an +Usbeg, a Kipchak, a Kirghiz, or a Tajik, as the case +may be, and by this means the rivalry of past ages is +to some extent preserved down to the present time. It +is the dissension spread, or rather the destruction of any +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +sympathy between the various races caused, by these +outward tokens of diversity in origin, that has made +Western Turkestan the familiar home of intestine disturbance, +which has in its turn led up to the easy +dismemberment of the various Khanates by Russian +intrigue and by Russian force. In Eastern Turkestan +the rivalry of races has become less bitter, and in nothing +is this better manifested than in the fact that there a +man is described by his native town. He may be a Tajik, +or an Usbeg, or a Kirghiz, or a Kipchak, too, but he is +only known as a Yarkandi, or a Kashgari. And while +we are at once struck by this broad and salient difference +in popular custom, and consequently in popular +sentiment also, between the Western and Eastern +divisions of Turkestan, a slight inquiry is sufficient to +show that the antipathies of the various races towards +each other have become much more a thing of the past +in Kashgaria than they have in the Khanates of Khokand +and its neighbours. At all events, the antipathies +that still prevail in that state are clearly traceable to +other causes than Aryan-Turanian hostility, and are +undoubtedly produced either by religious fanaticism, +motives of personal ambition, or the hatred roused by +Chinese pretensions on the one hand, and Khokandian +on the other, to the supreme control of Kashgaria. +Bearing these facts clearly in mind, it is evident that +ethnographical descriptions will not make the political +relations of the peoples of the state more easily +intelligible; yet, as matter of historical import, these +cannot be altogether passed over in silence.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of the little known regions now +variously known as Jungaria and Eastern Turkestan +were, until recent years, considered to be of pure Tartar +origin, and consequently members of the Turanian +family. There are some still who believe that this +definition is the most accurate. Others dispute it on +various grounds, and with much plausibility. There is +no question that the original inhabitants, historically +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +speaking, were the Oigurs, or Uigurs, and these people +were certainly Tartars. But frequently the Tajik +merchants who traded with Kashgar in the earlier +centuries of the Middle Ages, took up their abode in +the country, and by degrees a large colony of Tajik +immigrants was formed on the foundation of the +original Oigur stock. These Tajiks gradually became +Tartarised, but they still retained the unmistakable +characteristics of the Aryan family. The two brothers +Schlagintweit, and Mr. Shaw following in their footsteps, +were the first to maintain this view, which is becoming +generally accepted. We have, therefore, in Kashgar +the strange spectacle of a Tajik people becoming not +only unidentifiable from the Turanian stock with which +it has been intermingled; but we have also a race +tolerance that is unknown in any other portion of +Asia. Undoubtedly the hostility of the settled and +peaceful Andijani immigrant and Kashgari resident to +the irreclaimable Kirghiz is deep-rooted, and, so long as +the latter continues a source of danger to all peaceful +communities, abiding; but even this sentiment, and the +religious hatred that has at various epochs marked the +political intercourse of Buddhist and Mahomedan, are +probably less durable, and susceptible of greater improvement +in the future, than the race antipathies that +seem perennially vital among the tribes of Western Asia. +The vast majority of the inhabitants of Alty Shahr +are of Tajik descent. In the course of centuries the +purity of their lineage has been leavened by much intermingling +with Tartar blood, both at the time of the +Mongol subjection and of the Chinese. In addition to +these two great divisions, there are many Afghan +and Badakshi settlers, who have flocked to Kashgar +whenever the progress of events seemed to justify the +expectation that military service in that state would +prove a remunerative engagement. Many of these +remained, and they have also left a clear impression on +the features of the inhabitants. It is, however, to pre-historic +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +times, or certainly to a period lost in the mist +of history, that we must refer for that general exodus +of the Aryan family from the Hindoo Koosh and the +plains of Western Asia into the more secluded prairies +of Kashgar, which took place when the Turanian +nations first spread like destroying locusts over the face +of that continent. It was at this period that Khoten, +which in its name shows its Aryan origin, was founded.</p> + +<p>The great nomadic tribe of the Kirghiz, or Kara +Kirghiz, as the Russians call them, to distinguish them +from the Kirghiz of the various hordes who, by the +way, are not true Kirghiz at all, has at all times played +a fitful, yet important part in the histories of Khokand, +Jungaria, and Eastern Turkestan. Preserving their +independence in the inaccessible region lying west of +Lake Issik Kul, and along the Kizil Yart plateau and +range, this tribe has always been a source of trouble to +its neighbours, whosoever they might be. On various +occasions, too, they have joined the career of conquest +to their usual avocation of plunder, and under the few +great leaders that have arisen amongst them they have +appeared as conquerors, both of Eastern and Western +Turkestan. But their achievements have never been of +a permanent nature. Like the irregular undisciplined +mass of horsemen which constitute their fighting force, +their chief strength lay in a sharp and decisive attack. +They had not the organization or the resources necessary +for the accomplishment of any conquest of a permanent +kind. Their incursions, even when most +formidable and most sweeping, were essentially mere +marauding onslaughts. Their object was plunder, not +empire; and having secured the former, they recked +little of the value of the latter. At one time they were +able to carry their raids in almost any direction with +perfect impunity; but as settled governments arose +around their fastnesses, and curtailed their field of +operations, what had been a life of adventure through +simple love of excitement, became a struggle for sheer +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +existence. The region where they dwelt was far too +barren to support throughout the year even the limited +numbers of the Kirghiz, and yearly they had to issue +forth against prepared and disciplined enemies in search +of the sustenance that, to preserve their existence, had +to be obtained. But for the intestine quarrels that were +sapping the life strength of the Asiatic states slowly +away, there is no doubt that the Kirghiz would have +been gradually exterminated. Soon, however, they had +the skill to avail themselves of these disagreements to +sell their services as soldiers to the highest bidders; and +although they were not equal to the Kipchak tribes in +valour, their alliance was considered of importance, and +on many a dubious occasion sufficed to turn the fortune +of the day. By such measures of policy their existence +has been preserved, and at the present time they perform +much the same functions, and are regarded in much the +same manner by their neighbours, as in the past.</p> + +<p>The Kipchaks, another great tribe, who however are +scarcely represented at all in Kashgaria, pride themselves +on being the most select of all the Usbegs, but +their day of power has passed by, for the present at all +events. Thirty years ago they were at the height of +their success, but they incurred the jealousy of other +Usbeg tribes and of the Kirghiz. Owing to the abilities +of their great chief, Mussulman Kuli, they succeeded in +erecting in Khokand a powerful state, which was able +to restrain the encroachments of Bokhara, at that time +the great enemy of the former Khanate. But the plots +that broke out against them in 1853, in conjunction with +the advance of Russia on the Syr Darya, were crowned +with success, and with the execution of Mussulman +Kuli the Kipchak power was completely broken. Since +that date, however, several of the more distinguished +leaders who have appeared on the scene, such as Alim +Kuli and Abdurrahman Aftobatcha, have been members +of this clan. The eastern portion of the dominion +of Yakoob Beg is almost exclusively inhabited by +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +Calmucks, or tribes of Calmuck descent. The great +majority of the inhabitants of Manchuria and Jungaria +are of Calmuck descent, and even in Russia in Europe +there are many settlements of this tribe along the +Volga and the Don. None of these, however, possess +any political importance except those who inhabit the +country north of Gobi and between Eastern Turkestan +and China, and the chief of these are the Khalkas. +The Calmucks are attached by old associations to the +Government of Pekin; and, although they have sometimes +revolted against, and often caused trouble to, the +Central Government, they have generally acknowledged +their culpability and submitted to the Chinese authorities. +In the revolt of the Tungani the Calmucks +remained true to China, and performed very opportune +service on various occasions. The Chinese army in +Eastern Turkestan was mainly recruited from among +these tribes, who became distinguished from the Tungani +by their religion and fidelity.</p> + +<p>The origin of the Tungani, or Dungans, as the +Russians call them, is much in dispute; and as they +played so important a part in the loss of Kashgar and +Ili by China, as well as in the history of the rule of +Yakoob Beg, it may be as well to put the facts as they +stand at some length before the reader. There is no +question, we believe, that the Chinese in applying the +term Tungani attach the meaning thereto of Mahomedan. +There is equal reason for supposing that the +term Khitay, literally meaning simply Chinese, has +been applied to the Buddhists by general usage. If +we acknowledge the validity of these two assumptions—and, +so far as we have been able to ascertain, the +best authorities have adopted them—there would be +little difficulty in explaining who the Tungani were. +Granting these, they would simply be the Mahomedan +subjects in the eastern portions of China. But others +believe that the Tungani are a distinct race, presenting +peculiar ethnological features. According to this version, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +the tribe of the Tungani can be traced back as +a distinct community to the fifth and sixth centuries, +when they were seated along the Tian Shan range, +with their capital at Karashar. The most recent investigations, +under Colonel Prjevalsky, are believed to show +no signs of there having been any important cities in this +quarter. It may be convenient to mention here, that +at that time they were Buddhists; but when Islamism +broke over Asia in the eighth century, they were among +the first to adopt the new tenets. This defection from +the religion of China brought them into collision with +the Emperors of Pekin, and many of these Tungani +were deported into Kansuh and Shensi, where we are +to suppose they continued a race apart, with their own +religion and their own code of morality, for more than +ten centuries. Even granting the possibility of such a +consistency to a new religion, which history informs us +was thrust upon them at the point of the sword, it seems +scarcely credible that we should not hear more of this +troublesome tribe in Chinese history. Frequent allusions +are made in imperial edicts and other official proclamations +to the Tungani, but always in reference to their +religion, and not in any way as if they were any other +but heretic Chinamen. Besides, even in this way little is +heard of the Tungani until the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries, when very sharp measures were taken +against them by the emperors, solely because religious +propagandists from their ranks were appearing as +enemies of a Buddhist Government. The theory that +the Tungani were a people and not a sect is new, but +it is possible that it may be a true discovery. On the +other hand, it is far more probable that it is only an +ingenious attempt at elucidating what appears on the +face of it to be a simple matter enough. The reader +must decide for himself between the two versions. If +the Tungani are to be considered a distinct race, then +the majority of the inhabitants of Eastern Turkestan +are not Calmucks, but Tungani; if the view taken here +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +is adopted, then they are Calmucks who have at various +times adopted Mahomedanism. These are the chief +tribes of this portion of Central Asia; and in the following +pages it may be as well to bear in mind that +Khitay is applied exclusively to the Buddhist or governing +class, and Tungani to the Mahomedan or subject +race in Kansuh and its outlying dependencies. As race +antipathies have not entered during recent times so +much into the contests of the people of the regions +immediately under consideration as religions, the difference +as to the true significance of the term Tungani +does not materially affect one's view of the general +question.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_III"></a><span>CHAPTER III.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">HISTORY OF KASHGAR.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> great difficulty encountered in giving a description +of the past history of Kashgar is to evolve, out of the +series of successive conquests and subjections that have +marked the existence of that state for almost two +thousand years, a narrative which shall, without confusing +the reader with a mere repetition of names that +convey little meaning, place the chief features of its +history before us in a light that may make its more +recent condition intelligible to us. We may say in commencement, +that those who desire a historical account +in all its fulness of Kashgar must turn to that contributed +by Dr. Bellew to the Official Report of Sir +Douglas Forsyth on his embassy to Yarkand. They +will there find ample details of the events that took +place in this region of Central Asia from the commencement +of our era; but a mere reiteration of the various +calamities, with brief and intermittent periods of prosperity, +each wave of which bore so striking a similarity +to its predecessor, would not serve the purpose we have +at present in view—viz., of considering its own history, +for the purpose of better understanding its relations with +its neighbours and with China, and how the state consolidated +by the Athalik Ghazi was constructed on ruins +handed down by an almost indistinguishable antiquity.</p> + +<p>For a considerable number of years anterior to the +ninth century, the Chinese Empire extended to the +borders of Khokand and Cashmere. But the dissensions +that marked the latter years of the Tang dynasty +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +were not long in producing such weakness at the extremity +of this vast empire that the subject races and +their proper ruling families were enabled to obtain +either their personal liberty or their lost positions once +more, unhappily without in any case achieving with +the severance of their connection with China any perceptible +amelioration in their lot—indeed, on almost +every occasion only binding themselves with harder +fetters, and sinking into a deeper state of servitude. +When the petty princelets of Kashgar, Yarkand, +Turfan, and the rest broke away from their allegiance +to Pekin, and when the imperial resources were unable +to coerce their rebellious subjects, the whole country +passed under the hands of their feudatories, who +split up into innumerable factions, waged continuous +war, and sacrificed the happiness and welfare of the +subject people to a desire to promote their own individual +interests. As the barons and counts of Italy in +the Middle Ages devastated some of the fairest provinces +of Europe, so these Oigur princes fought for +their own hand in the valleys of the Artosh and the Ili. +It is very possible that this state of things would have +continued until China became sufficiently strong and +settled to reassert once more her dormant rights over +her lost provinces, but that a new force appeared on the +western frontiers of Kashgar. As early as 676 the +Arabs, under Abdulla Zizad, had crossed over from +Persia, and were carrying destruction and terror in +their course along the banks of the Oxus. At that +moment a beautiful and gifted queen, named Khaton, +ruled for her son in Bokhara. She had not long been +left a widow when her country was threatened by this +unexpected and terrible invasion. Although assistance +came to the queen from all the neighbouring States, +including Kashgar, she was defeated twice in the open +field, and compelled to seek safety within the walls of +her capital. But the Arab leader was unable to take +the city by storm, and slowly retired, with a large +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +number of captives and an immense quantity of booty, +back to Persia. Some years later the Arabs again +returned, but withdrew on the payment of a heavy +indemnity. Another chief, Kutaiba, was still more +successful, for on one occasion he carried fire and sword +through Kashgar to beyond Kucha. This was the first +occasion on which the doctrines of Mahomed had been +carried into the realms of China, and with so cogent +an argument as the sword it is not wonderful that some +hold was secured on the country. Subsequent expeditions +in the next few centuries strengthened this +beginning, and it was not long before the ruling classes +of Kashgar became infected with the new doctrine.</p> + +<p>In the tenth century, Satuk Bughra Khan, the ruling +prince of Kashgar, who had been converted to Islam, +forced his people to adopt that religion, although it is +tolerably clear that up to this time there had been no +acknowledgment of supremacy to the representative of +Mahomed on earth. A disunited state, which had on +several occasions felt the heavy hand of the authority of +its generals, and at whose very gates its power was consolidated, +could not but be in some sort of dependence +to the stronger power, as there was no ally to be found +sufficiently powerful to protect it, now that the Chinese +had retrogressed into Kansuh. Towards the end of +the tenth century the Mahomedans met with a series of +reverses from the Manchoo and Khoten troops, who still +preserved their relations, political and commercial, with +China. It was in the neighbourhood of Yangy Hissar +that their general, Khalkhalu, inflicted the most serious +defeat on the Mahomedan rulers of Kashgar, but within +the next twenty years, assistance having come from +Khokand, these defeats were retrieved, and Khoten +itself for the first time passed under the rule of Islam. +The family of Bughra Khan was now firmly established +as rulers of Eastern Turkestan, and their limits were +almost identical with those of the late Yakoob Beg.</p> + +<p>The Kara Khitay, who had migrated from the country +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +bordering on the Amoor and the north of China, after +long wanderings, had settled in the western parts of +Jungaria, and, having founded the city of Ili, in course +of time formed, in union with some Turkish tribes, a +powerful and cohesive administration. Their chief was +styled Gorkhan, Lord of Lords, and their religion was +Buddhism. It was of this tribe, according to some, +that the celebrated Prester John, or King John, was +supposed to be the chief in the Middle Ages. Some +neighbours who had been harassed by predatory tribes +came to Gorkhan for assistance, which was willingly +conceded; but, having successfully repulsed the Kipchaks +and other tribes, this leader did not withdraw from the +country he had occupied as a friend and ally. Not only +did he then annex Kashgar and Khoten, but he crossed +the Pamir into the province of Ferghana, and in a short +period brought Bokhara, Samarcand, and Tashkent under +his dominion. This extensive empire was of very brief +duration however, and civil war was waged for more +than half a century after the first successes of Gorkhan, +in which Khiva, or Khwaresm, and the Kara Khitay +fought for supremacy. A chief of the Naiman tribe of +Christians, Koshluk by name, then entered the lists +against the aged Gorkhan, who was, after some hard +fighting, defeated and captured. This was in the year +1214. Koshluk's triumph was also, however, of very +brief duration, for he now came into contact with one +of the most formidable antagonists that the soil of Asia +has ever produced, Genghis Khan.</p> + +<p>The Mongols or Mughols began to appear as a distinct +tribe about the same time that the Kara Khitay +migrated to Jungaria, and as early as the commencement +of the twelfth century they had carried destruction into +the Chinese provinces of Shensi and Kansuh. When +Genghis Khan appeared upon the scene he found the +tribe which he was destined to lead to such great +triumphs in a state of singular strength, and its neighbours +either at discord among themselves or only just +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +recovering from a long period of anarchy. The Chinese +were particularly divided at that moment, and Genghis +Khan, who had family connections in that empire, soon +found it an easy task to lead successful inroads into the +heart of his rich but defenceless neighbour. Genghis +Khan was born at Dylon Yulduc, in the year 1154. +His father, Mysoka Bahadur, was a great warrior, and +waged several successful wars with the Tartars. The +earlier years of Genghis Khan were occupied exclusively +in overcoming the difficulties of his own position. +His tribe, divided into several distinct bodies, formed +only one confederacy when a foe had to be encountered +in the field. It required years to remove the dislike +they experienced at submission to a distinct authority; +and it was only when the renown of his military +achievements threw a halo over his name that these +tribes could be induced to acknowledge a supremacy +which they had become powerless to resist. But during +these years, when he led a life unknown and insignificant +as the chief of a small nomad clan, he was all +the time preparing for a wider career, and for a more +extended authority. It was while he was residing in +the remote district round the salt springs of Baljuna +that he drew up the code on which his administrative +system was founded. It was based on the fundamental +principle of obedience to the head, on the maintenance +of order and sobriety in the ranks of the +warriors, and on the equal participation in the spoils +of battle by all; but its regulations were so strict on +the former points, and the gain of the individual had +to be so completely sacrificed for the advantage of the +many, that at first the establishment of this code of +order had rather the effect of driving his followers from +him, than of attracting to his standard zealots capable +of the conquest of a world. It was not until the year +1203, when he was nearly forty-nine years of age, that +Genghis Khan succeeded in bringing all the Mongol +tribes under his leadership. No sooner had he accomplished +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +this much than he embarked on military +enterprises, which, in the course of a very few years, +placed the greater part of Asia at his disposal. Having +subjugated various Tartar and Tangut tribes, he included +them in his military organization, and by making +them embrace his system of compulsory service in the +army, he found himself in the possession of an enormous +following. Genghis Khan therefore ruled at the +time we have specified over Kashgar, including Khoten, +Jungaria, and the Tangut country; and there was no +force capable of opposing his except, in the east China, +and in the west the government of Khiva, at this period +omnipotent in Western Turkestan. The rumours which +reached the Shah of Khwaresm of the formation of this +new confederacy in Mugholistan induced him to send +an embassy to discover the true facts of the case, and +accordingly, while Genghis Khan was prosecuting a +war against the Chinese, there arrived in his camp the +emissaries of Western Asia. Haughty and imperious +as this conqueror undoubtedly was, he received the +embassy affably, and with expressions of the deepest +friendship. He sent them back with rich presents and +the following characteristic message:—"I am King of +the East. Thou art King of the West. Let merchants +come and go between us and exchange the products of +our countries." In furtherance of this wish he sent a +mission composed of merchants and officials to represent +the advantages that would be derived from mutual +intercourse. But the Shah of Khiva, either incredulous +of the formidableness of the adversary with whom he +had to deal, or mistaking his own strength, did not +reciprocate the amicable expressions of Genghis Khan, +nor, when the merchants who had been despatched to his +country were murdered, did he make any offer of reparation. +Such treatment would not be tolerated by any +civilized ruler of the nineteenth century, much less was it +brooked by an irresponsible conqueror, whose will was +his sole law, in the thirteenth. As soon as his campaign +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +with China had closed with success, Genghis Khan +made every preparation for the punishment of this act +of treachery. It was then that Genghis Khan, with an +armed horde of many hundred thousands, burst upon +the astonished peoples of Western Asia like a meteor +from the east. It was then that some of the fairest +regions of the earth were given over to a soldiery to +devastate, a soldiery who had raised the work of destruction +to the level of one of the fine arts; and whose +handiwork in Bokhara, Balkh, Samarcand, Khiva and +the lost cities of the desert, is to be seen clearly imprinted +in the ruins which mark the site of ancient +capitals, even at the present moment, 700 years after +the Tartar conqueror swept all resistance from his +path. Afghanistan, and the mountain ranges which are +now considered to be impassable by Russians, did not +retard the progress of this "Scourge of God." Cabul, +Candahar, Ghizni fell to the warriors of far distant +Mongolia, as they fell not forty years ago to British +valour, and as they must again fall when the onset shall +be made with equal intrepidity and with equal discipline. +And not content with having defaced the map +of Asia, with having converted rich and populous cities +into masses of ruins, and with having depopulated +regions once prolific in all that makes life enjoyable, +Genghis Khan carried the terror of his name into +the most remote recesses of the Hindoo Koosh. He +wintered in the district of Swat on our north-west +frontier, a territory which is quite unknown to us +except by hearsay, and which has only been occupied +by the Mongol and Macedonian conquerors. From his +headquarters on the banks of the Panjkora he sent +messengers to Delhi; and it is uncertain whether he +did not meditate the addition of an Indian triumph to +those already obtained.</p> + +<p>A rebellion in the far eastern portion of his dominions +distracted his attention from the Indus, and he +was compelled to hasten with all speed to quell in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +person the rising that was jeopardising his position +in the seat of his power. He hastily broke up from +his quarters in Swat, and, by the valley of the Kunar +and Chitral, he entered Kashgar, through the Baroghil +Pass. Although he suffered much loss from a journey +across mountain roads, which were scarcely practicable +in the early spring, he succeeded in reaching Yarkand, +with his main body, and hastening across Turkestan +arrived at Karakoram, his capital, in time to quell the +disturbance. After this his life was spent in conquering +China, a feat which he never accomplished. But in +several campaigns, extending over a period of about +twenty years, he worsted the Imperial troops so continually, +that before his death, in 1227, he had occupied +all the northern provinces of that empire, with Pekin, +and left to his son and successor, Ogdai Khan, the task +of completing the work which he had commenced. On +the death of Genghis Khan, his vast possessions were +divided amongst his children, and Kashgar, including +Jungaria, Khwaresm, and Afghanistan, fell to the lot +of Chaghtai Khan. This ruler was able to hold during +his life the extensive territory he had succeeded to; +but on his death dissensions broke out in all quarters of +the country, and produced a fresh distribution of the +various provinces. It may be mentioned that, although +Chaghtai was a fanatical Buddhist and a confirmed +debauchee, he was a prudent and sagacious ruler, and +no unworthy successor to his distinguished father. The +dissensions that broke out on his decease continued, +with more or less violence, for a period of almost 100 +years after that event took place, and they finally only +received a momentary solution in the formation of a +new kingdom of Mugholistan, or Jattah Ulus, as it +was more specifically called, under one of Chaghtai's +descendants.</p> + +<p>As briefly and as clearly as possible, we will endeavour +to lay before the reader the chief events of this troubled +epoch, when the numerous progeny of Genghis Khan +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +warred throughout the whole extent of Central Asia, +and a term was only at last placed to their restlessness +by their disappearance. In the first place, it may be as +well to mention, that the religions of Christ, Buddha, +and Mahomed, were equally tolerated in Eastern +Turkestan during the greater part of this period. The +Arab invasion and the advance of Islam, had been +hurled back beyond Bokhara "the Holy," by the +victorious arms of the great Buddhist conqueror, Genghis +Khan; and for a long period after the Mongol +conquests, little was heard of attempts at conversion to +the tenets of the "true Prophet." But it must not +be supposed that, although Genghis Khan, in the sack +of Bokhara, had almost exterminated the race of Mahomedan +priests, he was disposed to stamp out the new +heresy from his realms. Having crushed its power in +the field, he was quite content to let it live on or die +out, so long as his imperial or personal interests were +not affected. So we have the strange picture before us, +of the three great doctrines of the earth flourishing side +by side in Eastern Turkestan in the fourteenth century. +The Nestorian Christians of Kashgar, who in the time +of Marco Polo were rich and flourishing, were obliged +later on to succumb to the violent measures of the other +members of the community, and have entirely disappeared +for many centuries.</p> + +<p>Shortly after the death of Chaghtai Khan, Kaidu, a +great-grandson of Genghis, obtained the throne of +Kashgar and Yarkand; and a few years later on, by a +skilful piece of diplomacy, backed up by force, added +thereto the greater part of Khokand and Bokhara. +His triumph was, however, of brief duration, and he +was displaced by other competitors. Dava Khan, the +son of Burac, the great-grandson of Chaghtai, had been +appointed governor of Khoten, but his ambition was +not satisfied with less than the throne of Western +Turkestan also. He eventually obtained his desire; +but in a rash moment he threw himself in the path of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +the Chinese Emperor, Timour Khan, who was returning +from a raid carried almost to the gates of Lahore. He +was defeated somewhere in the neighbourhood of +Maralbashi, and was compelled to acknowledge the +supremacy of China. He is of some note to us, as +having been the father of Azmill Khoja, who was +selected as ruler by the people themselves, about the +year 1310, and from whom descend that line of Khoja +kings of Kashgar, who have clung to their hereditary +claims for a longer time than any other royal Central +Asian house. The last of the Chaghtai Khans who +held the sceptre with any effective purpose, was Kazan +Ameer. On his death another period of trouble broke +out, and military governors and rival princelets of +dubious titles advanced their pretensions to the vacant +seat. Up to this all the rulers had, however, been +Buddhists. Toghluc Timour, one of the few remaining +representatives of the Genghis families, had only been +saved by the pity of a leading man in Kashgar, from +one of the most extensive massacres of his kinsmen, and +for years he was obliged to lead an uncertain existence +in the mountains or deserts bordering on the state. +His associations were all Buddhist; but one day he was +so struck by the definition of the "true faith" given +by the descendant of a Mahomedan priest, spared by +Genghis Khan at the destruction of Bokhara, that he +made a vow to become a Mussulman when he had +regained his rights. Not long after this the turn of +events in Kashgar made people seek for some person +with recognized claims to be their ruler, and none in +this respect surpassed Toghluc Timour. He, on succeeding +to the throne, openly owned his conversion to +Islam, and in a few years he was gradually imitated +by all the leading chiefs of Turkestan. From this +time downwards to the present day, the religion of the +majority in this state has been Mahomedanism, except +perhaps during the Chinese rule, when the number of +Chinese merchants, officials, and soldiers, put the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +minority of the followers of Buddha on a par with those +of the rival religion. Toghluc died in 1362.</p> + +<p>It was about this time that the second great +conqueror of Asia appeared upon the scene. Timour +was born in 1333 in the Shahrisebz suburb of Kish. +He was the son of Turghay, governor of that district +and chief of the Birlas tribe, and on the death of his +father he himself became governor of Kish also. +During his earlier years he was hospitably received at +the Court of Kazan Ameer, and that ruler, in addition to +giving him several high and distinguished appointments, +married him to his beautiful granddaughter Olja Turkan +Khaton. Timour did not continue long in favour at +Court. His restless spirit impelled him to fields of +greater activity than any the Ameer could, or indeed felt +disposed to, place at his disposal. He openly mutinied +against the central authority in his government of +Kish, and on being overthrown by the troops of the +state, he sought safety with his wife among the +Turcomans of the Khivan desert. Among these +uncertain nomads he felt scarcely secure, and collecting +round him a small band of desperadoes, he entered +upon a more ambitious enterprise by undertaking a +marauding expedition into the Persian province of +Seistan. This was attended with considerable success, +but he himself was wounded in the foot by an arrow. +From the effects of this wound he never completely +recovered, and was known henceforth as Timour Lang, +Timour the Lame, whence the well-known name of +Tamerlane. The <i>éclat</i> obtained by this marauding +expedition stood him in good stead, for shortly afterwards +he was able to raise a sufficient force to invade +Tashkent. He occupied the whole of what is now +Russian Khokand including Ferghana, and he placed a +fresh occupant on the throne, Kabil Shah, in 1363. In +the following years he contended for supremacy with +another chief named Husen, and in 1369 had so far +been victorious that he threw off the mask, and declared +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +himself king. He made Samarcand his capital, and +converted that once populous city into the wonder and +admiration of Western Asia. Having settled his +internal affairs, he commenced operations against the +states lying beyond his border. The mountaineers of +Badakshan were the first to incur his wrath, and after +several stubborn battles they were obliged to acknowledge +his supremacy. He then turned his attention +to his northern frontiers, beyond which the Jattah +princes reigned in Jungaria. He overcame their prince, +Kamaruddin, in several encounters, but not with complete +success until his final campaign against him in +1390. As he advanced they retired to the fastnesses east +of Lake Issik Kul, and only reissued from their hiding-places +when the invader had withdrawn.</p> + +<p>To return to Kashgar, on the death of Toghluc, his +son Khize Khoja was displaced and did not regain +possession of his kingdom till 1383, when he was thirty +years of age. He was a stanch Mussulman, and was +on terms of as much amity and as close alliance with +Timour as it was possible for any neighbour, wishing to +preserve his independence, to be. Allied as he was with, +yet not participating in the wars of Timour, against the +Jattahs, he suffered in common with those people from +the expedition of 1389–90, when both sides of the Tian +Shan were ravaged by the armies of that ruler. Although +for the next fifteen years they maintained friendly +relations, it can easily be imagined that Khize Khoja +was not very comfortable with so formidable a suzerain +just over his frontiers. The irksomeness of the position +is well illustrated by the orders transmitted to Khize +Khoja by Timour, to have corn planted and cattle collected +at certain places for the immense army which he +was levying for the invasion of China. It was while +engaged in fulfilling these commands, that news reached +the ruler of Kashgar that this "Scourge of God" had +died suddenly on the 5th of February, 1405. Khize +Khoja himself survived but a short time afterwards. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +For the second time within the short space of 150 years +had the possessions of a great conqueror to undergo +the process of redistribution. In Timour's case it was +simpler than it had been in that of Genghis Khan, for +the former ruler left no worthy representative of his +cause as the Mongol conqueror had in Ogdai and +Chaghtai. The branches of the great family of +Genghis struck root so deeply, that down to modern +times he has had descendants who perpetuate his name, +but Timour left none such. With the death of his +favourite son Jehangir, his hopes of having a worthy +successor expired.</p> + +<p>Kashgar was in particular the scene of confusion and +trouble, and it was not until about 1445 that any settled +government was attained, when Seyyid Ali, grandson of +the aged and patriotic minister Khudadar, restored some +order and cohesion to the distracted country for a short +period. He died in 1457. During these years Yunus, +king of Jungaria, played a very prominent part in all +the disturbances that were occurring on his borders. +He is represented to have been a very enlightened +prince, and emissaries from foreign nations returned +from his court relating with surprise how they had +found a courteous and refined man where they expected +to have seen a coarse and savage Mongol. While +Yunus ruled in Jungaria another striking individual was +predominant in Kashgar. Ababakar, son of Saniz, who +was the son of Seyyid Ali, ruler of Kashgar, was one of +the few sovereigns of that state whose acts entitle them +to consideration. During a long and troubled tenure of +power he had the good fortune to overcome many +difficulties, and although his career was to become +clouded before his death, the brilliant years that preceded +the catastrophe justify us in considering his career +for a little while. He was a great athlete, hunter and +soldier, and was so favoured by his mother on that +account that he distanced his brethren in the race for +supremacy. As governor of Khoten he soon absorbed +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +Yarkand, and long and furious were the wars he +waged with Hydar, the ruler of Kashgar, who was +assisted by Yunus of Jungaria. Nor, although successful +on several occasions in the field against the allied +forces, could Ababakar hope to overcome the huge armies +at the disposal of Yunus; and it was not until Hydar +himself foolishly broke off from Yunus, that Ababakar +succeeded in asserting his claim to all Eastern Turkestan. +War then broke out between Hydar and Yunus, and the +latter with the assistance of large reinforcements from +Jungaria overthrew and captured his former ally. But +these dissensions favoured the cause of Ababakar, and +on the death of Yunus in 1486, his possession of +Kashgar became undisputed. The first serious danger +with which he was menaced after his complete possession +of Kashgar, was in 1499, when Ahmad, the son of +Yunus, or Alaja the "slayer," as he was generally +called, invaded his territory at the head of the Jattah +Mongols. The campaign was in the commencement +indecisive, but Ababakar before long triumphed over +his northern invader.</p> + +<p>During the next fifteen years Ababakar ruled in peace +and prosperity in Kashgar, accumulating great riches +and presenting an object of attraction to his covetous +neighbours. During these years the country, although +ruled in an arbitrary way, flourished, and, as one of the +native chronicles put it, "A traveller could go from +Andijan to Hamil on the borders of China without fear +of molestation, and without having to make an extra +long march in order to find a place wherein to rest and +obtain refreshment." But in 1513 a storm broke upon +his country that resulted in his complete overthrow. Said, +son of Ahmad and brother of Mansur, who was ruling in +Jungaria, undertook the invasion of Kashgar in that +year, and it was not long before he occupied Kashgar, +which, however, Ababakar left but a heap of ruins. +His advance on Yangy Hissar was opposed, but, having +defeated the army of Kashgar before that city, he occupied +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +it without any further opposition, and thus secured +what has been called the key of Yarkand as well as of +Kashgar. For some months Ababakar remained shut +up in Yarkand, but on the approach of Said's army he +abandoned that position and fled to Khoten. But not +long afterwards he retired still further into the mountainous +country south-east of Kashgar, and halted some +time at Karanghotagh. But being first plundered and +then deserted by his attendants, he withdrew into the +valleys and deserts of the Tibetan table-land. For many +months he wandered, half-starved and solitary, in this +deserted region, and at last it was reported that he had +been found murdered by some of the mountaineers. +Such was the end of the once magnificent Ababakar, a +prince who in his fortunes reminds us very much of the +great Darius. That he was avaricious is clear to those +who read of the great treasures he had stored away; +that he was bloodthirsty and cruel is impossible of +denial; but that he possessed in his earlier years many +of the virtues, with some of the vices, of a great ruler +is equally incontestable. His son Jehangir, whom he +had left in command at Yarkand, on the approach of the +army of Said fled to Sanju, and was in a few months +captured and executed. About this epoch the third +great Asiatic conqueror was appearing on the scene. +Babur was born in 1481, and was chosen to succeed +his father Uman Sheikh on the throne of Khokand, +by the nobles of that state, when he was only twelve +years of age. This conqueror of India influenced but +indirectly the fortunes or Kashgar. His career was in +another sphere, and it is not necessary here to enter +into any description of his life, such as has been given +of his predecessors Genghis Khan and Timour.</p> + +<p>Said, having overcome Ababakar, employed himself +in extending his rule over the neighbouring states. +He was seized with the desire of occupying that mountainous +region, which is divided into almost as many +petty states as it contains mountain chains, lying between +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +our Indian frontier and the Pamir and Badakshan. +But although he employed all his resources in endeavouring +to subject the Kafirs of Bolor, or Kafiristan +as it is now called, he was unable to make any +permanent additions in this direction. In other years +he carried fire and sword into Tibet and Cashmere; and +it was when returning from one of these expeditions, +in the year 1532, that he expired from the effects of the +rarefied atmosphere, near the Karakoram pass. His +death was the signal for the outbreak of fresh disturbances. +His legitimate sons were ousted by Rashid, +the son of Said by a slave, who had already distinguished +himself as a general in the wars against +Kafiristan and Tibet, and on the death of Rashid after +a brief reign, the confusion became, if possible, worse +confounded. It would be tedious in the extreme to +follow the variations that now took place. Benedict +Goes, a Portuguese missionary and traveller, found a +ruler named Mahomed Khan on the throne in 1603, +by whom he was hospitably received; but as he had +placed the sister of the Khan, when returning from a +pilgrimage to Mecca, under an obligation to him, this is +scarcely a fair criterion either of the personal merits of +this ruler, or of the state of civilization to which the +country had attained.</p> + +<p>It was now that the Khoja family appeared prominently +upon the scene. Two factions were playing the +parts of Montagu and Capulet in Eastern Turkestan in +the earlier years of the seventeenth century. They were +known as the Aktaghluc and Karataghluc, and in the +course of their strife the leader of the former called in +to his aid the Khoja Kalar of Khodjent, a descendant +of Azmill before mentioned. It was in the year 1618 +that this Khoja first came to Kashgar, and his grandson, +Hadayatulla, was the chief means of attracting +the affections of the people to this family. That +veneration has not disappeared to-day, and the Hazrat +Afak, as he is generally spoken of, is scarcely inferior in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +the eyes of the people to Mahomed himself. The +great miracles he is reported to have wrought, and the +peculiar sanctity which attached to him during his life, +gave him complete ascendancy throughout the country, +and before his death he was entrusted with the supreme +authority. His son, Yahya or Khan Khoja, succeeded +him during his lifetime, but was murdered in a riot +a few months after the death of Hadayatulla. Then +recommenced with fresh vigour the old series of disturbances. +Aspirant after aspirant appeared in the political +arena, but, as each had little claim to lead on account +of original merit, a successful rival always was forthcoming, +and so this wearying cycle continued until +1720.</p> + +<p>The course of the history of Kashgar has now been +brought down to the commencement of the eighteenth +century, during which a fresh change occurred in the +history of the country by the Chinese conquest. It may +be well, therefore, before narrating that event and the +causes which immediately produced it, to consider the +chief lessons taught us by the history of Eastern +Turkestan, as revealed in the preceding pages. The +most cursory reader must have been struck by the fact, +that only twice in the course of eight centuries did the +country secure a firm and settled government, and they +were when two conquerors, Genghis Khan and +Tamerlane, reduced every semblance of authority to +one bare level of subjection. At fitful moments there +arose, indeed, some leader, Yunus, Ababakar, or the +first Khojas, capable of preserving for a few years his +frontiers against the inroads of hostile neighbours, and +of maintaining an outward show of prosperity and +tranquillity to foreign travellers; but even such gleams +of sunshine as these were transitory on the dark horizon +of the condition of mankind in Central Asia. With +the fall of each pretender, too, hopes of an improvement +became fainter in the breasts of the people; and when +the successors of the Khoja saint showed themselves +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +not less amenable to the errors and frailties of their +predecessors than any past ruler had been, it was to some +extraneous circumstance, we may feel sure, that the +people looked for aid. There is an old saying in this +part of the world, that when "the people's tithe of +bricks is full, then comes a Moses in the land;" and it +cannot be doubted that in the year 1720 the people of +Kashgar had suffered much and for so long, that relief, +so that it came effectually from some quarter or another, +could not be otherwise than welcome. But the Moses +who had been, for centuries almost, expected, had as yet +not proved forthcoming, and as "hope deferred maketh +the heart sick," so had the Kashgari lost the courage +even to look forward to a period when their life of +misery, under oppressive tyrants and exorbitant taxation, +aggravated by every form of peculation in its levy, +might be changed for a more favourable state of being. +There can be no doubt that if the chaos which reigned +throughout Jungaria and Kashgar had continued +much longer those vast regions would have been completely +exhausted. As it was the population decreased +in alarming proportions, and the wealth and general +resources of the country disappeared with no apparent +means of supplying the gap. What is, perhaps, most +surprising of all is that all these later rulers seem to +have lived in a sort of fools' paradise with regard to +the resources of their state. The thought never seems +to have occurred to them that there must be an end +some day or other to a realm distracted by continual +wars and sedition, and that subjects who have been +tyrannised over for centuries will at last rise up in arms +and teach their tyrants, in the words of the poet, "how +much the wretched dare." These Khans or Ameers of +Central Asia are not worthy of one moment's consideration +for their own sake; but, as some account of +them is a proper preparation for the modern history of +Kashgar, they have been described in this chapter. +From the disappearance of Chinese authority in Central +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +and Western Asia in the eighth and ninth centuries, +down to the commencement of the eighteenth century, +the history of Kashgar, in common with that of its +neighbours, was a series of misfortunes. There is +nothing to attract our sympathies in any of the rulers, +with the exception perhaps of Yunus; and all our commiseration +is monopolised for the unhappy races who +peopled that region. We therefore have arrived at this +crisis in a fit state to appreciate the feelings of the +Kashgari at the changes that occurred in the eighteenth +century; and before we consider, in a fresh chapter, +those alterations we may close this without regret at +the disappearance of a long line of Central Asian +Khans, who possessed scarcely one redeeming quality +among many vices.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_IV"></a><span>CHAPTER IV.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">THE CONQUEST OF KASHGAR BY CHINA.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">Before</span> continuing the narrative of the events that took +place in Kashgar after the year 1720, until it fell into +the hands of the Chinese in 1760, it may be as well to +consider briefly the history of China, in order that it +may be intelligible to us how that power was induced +to undertake such far distant enterprises, and how, +moreover, it was able to accomplish them successfully. +In the earlier years of the seventeenth century the +dynasty of Ming was seated on the throne of Pekin, +but its power had been shaken to its foundations by +repeated disasters in wars with the Mantchoo Tartars, +who had wrested the province of Leaou Tung from the +Emperor Wan-leh, before his death in 1620. The +Mantchoos are said to have been the descendants of the +Mongol conquerors of the thirteenth century, who had +been forced to take refuge in the wilds north of China +when the native Chinese rose up and destroyed their +power. Whether this very plausible suggestion be true +or not, or whether, as some affirm, these were a new +race issuing from the frozen regions of Kamschatka and +driven south by the necessity for obtaining sustenance for +their increasing numbers, matters little for our present +purpose. It is certain that they were a warlike people at +this time, and that they could bring considerable numbers +into the field, and it is very probable that, when +they had obtained some success, their ranks were swollen +by recruits from their Tartar kinsmen of Eastern Jungaria. +On the death of the Chinese Emperor Wan-leh, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +dissensions broke out in China as to his successor, and +in the struggle that ensued the Mantchoos were invited +in to support the cause of one of the claimants. Their +aid turned the scale in his favour; but when the fortunes +of war had been clearly manifested, the Mantchoos +showed no disposition to take their departure as had +been stipulated. As the Saxons in our own history, +and the Mongols in the Chinese had acted, so now did +the Mantchoos, and in 1644 their first Emperor +Chuntche was installed in the imperial dignities, as +the first of the present ruling dynasty of Tatsing, or +"sublimely pure," When Chuntche was crowned by +his victorious soldiery, it must not be supposed that he +had conquered the whole of China. During the seventeen +years of his reign he was constantly engaged in +warring with the native Chinese forces; but always +with invariable success. In 1661 Kanghi, his son, +ascended the throne, and by a series of judicious measures +and successful enterprises, firmly maintained the +position won in China by his father. It was during +this brilliant reign that Tibet was annexed to the +Chinese Empire, and from Cochin-China and the frontiers +of Birma to the River Amoor there was none to +question the power of the Mantchoo Government. It +cannot be doubted that the conquest of Tibet opened up +fresh ideas in the minds of the Chinese as to their right +to rule in Eastern Turkestan; and with the re-assertion +of their old suzerainty over the Tibetan table-land, the +remembrance of a similar claim, at a far distant epoch, +over Jungaria and Turkestan would be forced on the +minds of the Chinese people, until some ambitious ruler +or viceroy might avail himself of the opportunity of +distinction by acquiescing in, and giving effect to, the +popular desire. Kanghi was too prudent to jeopardize +his recently consolidated state by expeditions either +into Jungaria or Turkestan; and was quite satisfied +with the respect shown to his empire by the Eleuthian +princes of those regions. On Kanghi's death, in 1721, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +his son, Yung-Ching, came to the throne, and during +his short reign, the example of his two predecessors not +to interfere in the troubles of the states lying beyond +Kansuh, was closely followed. Yung-Ching died in +1735, and thus made way for his ambitious and warlike +son, Keen-Lung. When Keen-Lung first commenced +to reign for himself he found that he was +irresponsible ruler of a most powerful empire, at peace +within itself, and satisfied to all outward seeming with +its <i>de facto</i> government. His treasury was full; the +country was, perhaps, at its very highest point of prosperity, +and the sovereign had only to maintain in this +wealth and vigour the nation which had been brought +to such a pitch by the wisdom of his predecessors. +To a warlike monarch, however, the career of ruler of a +thriving, peace-loving, and domestic people, has never +been a palatable one, and Keen-Lung thought, as have +many other great sovereigns of our own age, that the +only use of a wealthy and numerous subject race was to +enable the ruler to undertake high-sounding enterprises, +and to spread the terror of his name through distant +regions. The reputation and the real strength of the +Chinese Empire were so great at this time in Asia, that +no single power, or even any possible confederacy, would +have thought of entering the lists against it. Keen-Lung +had, therefore, no just cause for hostilities with +the neighbouring states, as they were always too willing +to offer the amplest reparation for any cause of offence +to the Imperial dignity. The conquest of Turkestan +was therefore an object with which he would heartily +sympathise; and when we remember his warlike disposition, +and the exact condition of China at the time, +possessing a superabundance of wealth, and of numbers +sufficient to achieve far more difficult enterprises than +the one in question, it is easier to understand the eagerness +with which Keen-Lung intervened in the affairs of +Jungaria, when the following opportunity, which we +are about to narrate, offered for so doing. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is now time to return to Kashgar and narrate the +events that were happening in that troubled district. +The feud between the Aktaghluc and Karataghluc +factions reached its height when Afak, who had been +placed on the throne of Yarkand by the Calmucks, under +Galdan, the chief representative of the Aktaghluc, +succeeded in expelling all the prominent supporters of +the rival clan. Afak ruled for some years, but with +difficulty maintained himself in some parts of Kashgar, +against the Calmucks, Kirghiz, and Kipchak. His +sons had no better fortune, and the state was finally +divided between a Kipchak and a Kirghiz leader. +These quarrelled between themselves, but happily they +each expired in the first encounter. Acbash, one of the +sons of Afak, was executed at Yangy Hissar in the +course of this contention; but he had previously called +in to his assistance from Khodjent, in Khokand, a +Khoja, Danyal, of the rival Karataghluc faction. This +roused the enmity of the more bitter among the Aktaghluc, +and, on this, Khoja Ahmad was brought in to +represent their interests. Danyal was besieged in +Yarkand, but, with the assistance of a contingent of +Kirghiz, he was able to repulse his assailants. But, +although successful in the field, Danyal was compelled +shortly afterwards to flee, and leave his rival in possession +of the state. He fled to the Calmucks, in Jungaria, +and pleaded so well, that an army was lent him +to regain Kashgar. Victory attended this expedition, +but the Calmuck leader, who had captured Ahmad at +the siege of Kashgar, instead of placing Danyal in +power, took both him and his rival as prisoners to his +capital of Ili. With so forcible a settlement of the +question, little room was left for useless complaining to +the ambitious Danyal, and from this time down to the +Chinese conquest, the Calmuck rulers of Ili asserted +their right to supremacy over Eastern Turkestan. +Danyal, himself, was appointed, some years later on, +governor of Kashgar, now called Alty Shahr, or six +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +cities; but, under him, there was a local governor for +each town, appointed by the Calmucks themselves. +His power was more apparent than real. His eldest +son was kept at Ili as a hostage for the good behaviour +of his father, and Danyal, himself, had frequently to +proceed to Ili to make his report on the state of affairs +in Kashgar. Such was the condition of Kashgar, as a +subject province of the Calmuck rulers of Ili, governed +by Danyal, a member of the Karataghluc party, in the +year 1740. On the death of Galdan, the son of Arabdan +Khan of Jungaria, in 1745, two chiefs, Amursana and +Davatsi, or Tawats, seized the governing power, and for +a time they divided the authority fairly between them; +but it was not long before they fell out, and resolved to +advance their own interests at the expense of each other. +Amursana was unable to cope with the armies of his +rival, Davatsi, and, having been defeated in several +encounters, fled from Jungaria to China. On his arrival +at Lanchefoo he demanded permission to proceed to +Pekin to lay his grievances at the feet of the Emperor, +and to offer in his name, and in that of many of his +compatriots, the districts of Ili and of Kashgar to his +omnipotent majesty.</p> + +<p>The request was granted, and Keen-Lung received +him with favour, promised to consider what he had +stated, and, in the meanwhile, gave him titles and +revenues within the Chinese Empire. Amursana's +address was so insinuating, and he played so skilfully +on the king's ambition and love for military renown, +that at last Keen-Lung consented to lend him the +forces, which he had been so lavish of promises to +secure. In 1753, the Chinese army, under Amursana, +appeared in Jungaria, and, after several desperate encounters, +Davatsi was driven out of that state, and, according +to one account, was delivered up to the Chinese +by Khojam Beg, the governor of Ush Turfan. According +to another version, he was captured in the field; +but both agree that he was taken to Pekin and there +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +executed. Amursana, having regained his position in +Jungaria, now turned his attention to the conquest of +its dependency, Kashgar. He was now supreme in +Jungaria, with his capital at Ili; but his army, which +maintained him in his position, was a Khitay force, +owing allegiance solely to the Emperor of Pekin, and +only obeying the instructions issued by his general accompanying +the Eleuth prince Amursana. At this +epoch Yusuf, a son of Galdan, had seized the chief +authority in Kashgar, and, raising a cry that the true +religion of Islam was in danger from the advance of the +Khitay, endeavoured to rally to his cause in the struggle +that he saw was approaching the Mahomedan governments +of Khokand and Bokhara. Amursana, on the +northern frontiers of Kashgar, was eagerly watching for +the opportunity to arise for an active interference in +that state, and Yusuf was prudent in seeking beyond +his frontiers for allies that were able to assist him +against the machinations of his foes. Yusuf had made +himself the leader and representative of the Karataghluc +party in the state, and Amursana accordingly resolved +to put forward the pretensions of the rival Aktaghluc +faction. In this design the Chinese general acquiesced, +and, with the assistance of the Calmuck governors of +Ush Turfan, and Aksu, no delay interfered with its +prompt realization. The descendants of the ancient +Khojas were consequently sought out, and Barhanuddin, +son of Ahmad, was selected for the purpose. He, +at the head of a mixed following, promptly seized +Ush Turfan, and was there received with acclamation, +and several of the minor tribes joined him at once. +Yusuf was, however, hurrying up with a large force +from Yarkand, and Barhanuddin's chances seemed to be +more than doubtful, when Yusuf died on the way. His +son Abdulla, who took the name of Khoja Padshah, +hastened on, however, and besieged Barhanuddin in +Ush Turfan. Abdulla then endeavoured to come to +terms with Barhanuddin, and made overtures for the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +reconciliation of the Karataghluc and Aktaghluc parties +to be cemented in a crusade against the invading +Khitay. Barhanuddin, a true Mussulman, was personally +inclined to accept the arrangement offered, but, +as he was surrounded by Chinese officials and their +allies, he was constrained to give instead the advice +that Abdulla should surrender to the Chinese and acknowledge +their supremacy. Abdulla was not at all willing +to forfeit his independence without some struggle, +and the siege of Ush Turfan was pressed on. In the +camp of the besieging forces there were some who +favoured the pretensions of Barhanuddin, and these +deserting from the Karataghluc cause, the remaining +forces of Abdulla were compelled to retreat with precipitation. +Barhanuddin immediately advanced on +Kashgar, where he was received with open arms. +Yarkand soon afterwards fell into his possession, and the +conquest of Kashgar by the descendant of the Khojas +and the triumph of the Aktaghluc party were complete.</p> + +<p>So far the Chinese had been merely spectators of +the progress of events in Kashgar. Amursana had +induced them to approve of this enterprise of Barhanuddin, +and they had given general support in the +war with Yusuf and his son; and it was not until +Barhanuddin, elated with his success, set their wishes +at defiance, that they resolved to occupy the country. +But before that, Amursana's career had been cut short. +Although escorted by a large force of native Chinese +troops, he had aspired, in 1757, to establish himself +as an independent prince in Jungaria, and had broken +loose from Chinese control. The forces he raised were, +however, defeated with remarkable ease by the Chinese, +and Amursana was compelled to flee once more from his +home—this time with no certain refuge, as he had +before in Pekin. The Russians were then in possession +of Siberia, but their influence for good or for ill beyond +their desert and almost impenetrable stations was practically +<i>nil</i>; but, such as it was, it seemed to Amursana +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +the only place affording any prospect of security. He +died at Tobolsk, in 1757, soon after he arrived there; +but the implacable Chinese haughtily demanded from +the Russians his body as a proof of his decease, and the +Russian government sent it to Kiachta for surrender +to them. Such was the career of the ill-fated, but +ambitious, Amursana, who was the immediate cause +of the introduction of Chinese power into Eastern +Turkestan.</p> + +<p>With so unmistakable a proof before his eyes of the +power of the Chinese, it is strange to find Barhanuddin +also proving contumacious in Kashgar, but so it +was. In 1758, the very next year after the death of +Amursana, this ruler and his brother Khan Khoja +broke out in open mutiny to the Chinese. At Ili some +Khitay officers were maltreated, and outspoken contempt +was shown for Chinese commands. Such attitude +could not be brooked by any established rule, and, to do +the Chinese simple justice, never had been tolerated by +them on any occasion; and accordingly a Chinese army +was despatched from Ili to chastise this recalcitrant +ruler, and to remind him that the arm of Chinese power +was terribly long. Barhanuddin and his brother were +defeated in several pitched battles, city after city opened +its gates to the dreaded invader, and the last representatives +of the Khojas were compelled to seek refuge +in the isolated region of Badakshan. But even here +they were not safe. The terror of the Chinese name +had gone before them, and the sovereign of Badakshan, +eager to propitiate the conqueror, sent the heads of the +two brothers to the Chinese general, who was advancing +from Yarkand. Only one of the numerous sons of +Barhanuddin escaped the destruction wrought in the +family of the Khojas by the victorious Chinese: his +name was Khoja Sarimsak. The Chinese had now +completely annexed all the territory north of the +Karakoram and east of the Pamir and Khokand, and +it does not appear that in doing so they had suffered +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +any great loss. By availing themselves of Amursana's +claims in Jungaria they had obtained a firm foothold in +that state, and then by an equally skilful manipulation +of the rival parties of Aktaghluc and Karataghluc, they +had extended their authority over Kashgar as well. +When their puppets, Amursana and Barhanuddin, +became restive as Chinese vassals, and strove for independence, +the Chinese forces were called into action and +swept all opposition from their path. All this may +seem the most unjustifiable ambition, nor do we wish +to palliate in any way the terribly harsh repressive +measures adopted by the Chinese. There is no doubt +that, so long as there remained the shadow of any +opposition to their rule, they did not temper their +power with any exhibition of mercy. It is computed +that almost half a million of people were slain during +the wars of these two or three years, and that the great +majority of these were the innocent inhabitants, who +had been massacred. Nor, although we should be +disposed to think that this is a greatly exaggerated +number, have we any reason to doubt that the sword of +the Chinese was called into use whenever any resistance +was offered to their advance, and that the feelings of +the soldiers were embittered to a great extent by +religious fervour, in their encounters with the Mussulmans. +The Chinese, having conquered Kashgar, turned +their arms against Khokand, and entered Tashkent and +the city of Khokand in triumph. As the year 1760 +was drawing to a close, quite a panic was spreading +through Western Asia at the advance of the Chinese. +Afghanistan, then as now the only formidable Mahomedan +territory left intact from foreign conquest, +was implored by the suffering Islamites to check the +Chinese advance. Then, as recently on a somewhat +similar occasion, Afghanistan thought prudence the +better part of valour, and confined her action to the +invasion of Badakshan, which she coveted, in order +to punish its ruler for the murder of the fugitive +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +Khojas. But, having terrified Khokand, the Chinese +wisely retired to the proper frontier of Kashgar, and +then set about consolidating their rule there by an +energy and administrative capacity which must excite +the admiration of every governing nation.</p> + +<p>It was some years, however, before the conquest of +Kashgar, which had been so rapidly accomplished, could +be considered to have been altogether completed. +Fresh troops had to be summoned from Kansuh, and +military settlers imported in large numbers from Shensi +and other Chinese provinces, to supply the place of the +massacred Kashgari. Settlers were also brought from +the neighbourhood of Urumtsi and Hamil; and with +these and imperial troops sent from Pekin, the Chinese +felt complete masters of the situation. It was only +then that the Chinese viceroy considered himself sufficiently +strong to place his army in detachments in the +various cities. Up to that time it had been kept +mobilised in one, or at most two or three stations, +ready for instant action. When the Chinese withdrew +from Khokand they imposed a tribute on that state, +and then they turned their arms against the nomad +tribes on the north of the Jungarian frontier. The +various hordes of the Kirghiz nomads sent in their +submission one after the other, and the Chinese +invariably accepted their fealty, and as a rule rewarded +their duteous behaviour with Chinese titles and rank +Thus Ablai, Chief of the Middle Horde, was made Prince +in 1766, and Nur Ali, of the Little Horde, went so far +as to send special emissaries to Pekin, where they were +favourably received, and returned with recompenses for +the fidelity of their master. The Chinese had thus +secured their position in Jungaria and Kashgar before +the dose of 1765, and by their possession of Khoten, +they had opened up communications with their province +of Tibet. On the south they possessed an admirable +frontier, and it was only in the south-west that any +check seemed to be put upon their advance. As already +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +mentioned, the Ameer of Afghanistan had overran +Badakshan, in chastisement for the murders of Barhanuddin +and his brother; and he was continually +receiving applications to declare an open war against +the Chinese. His own troubles with the rulers of +Scinde and Persia were sufficient to keep his religions +sympathies within due bounds. But he sent an embassy +to Pekin, to point out that his fellow-religionists were +suffering under the conquering sway of the Chinese +forces in Central Asia; and on its return with an +unsatisfactory reply, he appears to have stationed a +large body of troops in Badakshan. The proud Durani +monarch was probably eager to oppose the Chinese, but, +wiser than his contemporaries in Turkestan and Jungaria, +he accurately reckoned up the risks of the enterprise, +and contented himself with the maintenance of +the powerful empire he had erected on the ruins of +the conquests of Nadir Shah. When the Afghans had +done so much, and given promises of aid in the defence +of Samarcand, it is not to be wondered at if the people +of Kashgar thought they would do more, and risings +took place in several parts of the state, notably at Ush +Turfan. The Chinese measures were prompt and +effectual; the rebellion was suppressed, the inhabitants +massacred, and the town destroyed. This failure struck +so complete a panic into the hearts of the people, that +no inducements, for more than half a century, could +encourage them to rise against the Chinese. The +Chinese conquest of Kashgar gave an effectual solution +to the rivalries of the numerous claimants to its sovereignty, +and among other competitors to the Khojas, +that is, to the descendants of that Sarimsak who alone +survived the massacre of his family in 1760. While +very possibly the people may have suffered that mental +depression which must accompany the installation of a +foreign rule, and despite the very harsh and unmistakable +evidences given by the Chinese of their intolerance +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +of opposition, there was some prospect, notwithstanding +these, that the Chinese would prove permanent +masters, and that their rule would consequently become +milder and milder every year. It was this feeling, that +things could not become much worse, that rendered the +Kashgari apathetic in their resistance to the Chinese. +They did not dare to expect much improvement in +their lot; but at all events they might suppose that +Chinese massacres would cease with the disappearance +of resistance, whereas massacres by their own countrymen +and tyrants had been for centuries an every-day +occurrence.</p> + +<p>Before considering the Chinese occupation of Kashgar, +it may be useful to give some description of the Aktaghluc +and Karataghluc parties, of whose rivalry the +history of Kashgar in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and +eighteenth centuries is so full. It may be remembered +that in 1533, Reshid, the younger son of Said, who +had distinguished himself in his father's wars, seized +the state from his brothers, to whom he was inferior +both in age and in birth on his mother's side. In +effecting this he availed himself of the alliance of the +Usbeg rulers west of Pamir, and during the negotiations +that were transacted between them, the distinguished +divine, Maulana Khoja Kasani, of Samarcand, visited +him. He was greeted with the most striking marks of +Reshid's affection, and granted a large estate in Kashgar. +He married and left two sons in that state to represent +his interests and share his possessions. The elder son, +whose mother was a Samarcand lady, was averse to the +younger, whose mother was a native of Kashgar. In +the course of time they each rose prominently in the +service of the state, but they transmitted their antipathy +to their descendants. Khoja Kalan, the elder, whose +influence was greatest in Yarkand and Karatagh, was +the founder of the Karataghluc, or "Black Mountaineers." +Khoja Ishac, the younger, whose influence was greatest +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +in Kashgar and Actagh, another form of Altai, was the +founder of the Aktaghluc, or "White Mountaineers." +The descendants of either of these Khojas, or priests, +the sons of the great divine of Samarcand, claim the +title of Khoja, but that must not be confounded with +the more exclusive signification it possesses as representing +the once ruling family.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_V"></a><span>CHAPTER V.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">THE CHINESE RULE IN KASHGAR.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Chinese conquest of Jungaria and Eastern Turkestan +having become an accomplished fact, what did the new +rulers do to justify their forcible interference in Central +Asia? What measures did they adopt to conciliate the +subject peoples, and what to increase the prosperity of +a vast region, naturally fertile, but impoverished by +centuries of improvident government and of civil +anarchy and war? Did they follow the precedent that +had been set them by every past ruler of those countries, +and leave the people to their own devices, to +starve or to exist as best they might, so long as the +tribute money was forthcoming? Did the Chinese +Viceroys of Ili, or their lieutenants in Kashgar, Yarkand, +Aksu, or Kucha adopt a policy of inaction, and pursue +a line of conduct of unprincipled selfishness in advancing +their own personal fortunes, and thus prove that they +were of the same stamp as all other Asiatic despots, +careless of the day and utterly regardless of the morrow? +The best way to see how they acted, what they did, +and what they did not that was possible, is to follow +their rule in Kashgar with some attention. In itself +this may be found to be no uninstructive lesson for us, +who are also a great governing people; and from the +perusal of what the Chinese administrators did in +Central Asia we may arise willing to accord them high +praise, because we are better able than other nations to +appreciate the difficulties of their task.</p> + +<p>After the fall of Amursana, the Chinese, in the first +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +place, organized their administrative system upon the +following basis:—The supreme authority was vested in +the hands of the Viceroy of Ili. Under him an amban, +or lieutenant-governor, administered affairs in Kashgar. +His place of abode was Yarkand. In internal matters +the Yarkand Amban was without a superior south of the +Tian Shan, but in external affairs he only acted in +subordination to the Viceroy of Ili, who alone was in +communication with Pekin. Under each of these potentates +there were the usual deputy-ambans and Tay +Dalays, or military commanders. All the cities had +Gulbaghs constructed outside of them, and these forts +were held by Chinese troops—that is, by a mixture of +Khitay and Tungani. It is computed that 20,000 +troops used to garrison Kashgar and the neighbourhood +alone. The military posts were restricted to Chinamen, +and the higher judicial and administrative offices were +also withheld from the subjected race. But these were +the only privileges retained by the Chinese.</p> + +<p>The Khan, or chief Amban, who resided in Yarkand, +made all the appointments to the minor offices, which +were filled almost exclusively by Mahomedans. The +only precaution the Chinese seem to have taken was to +refuse employment to a Kashgari in his native town, so +that a Yarkandi would have to go to Aksu, or some +other place away from his home, if he desired to participate +in the government of his country. But beyond +this there was no restriction, and nominally the Hakim +Beg, the highest Mussulman officer, ranked on an +equality with the Chinese amban. His subordinates +were all Mahomedans, with the exception of his personal +guard of Khitay troops. In the hands of these +natives of the country lay all the administration of +justice among their co-religionists, the collection of the +revenue, and the levying of customs dues on the frontier +and of trade taxes in the cities. It was only when +cause for litigation arose between a Buddhist and a +Mussulman that the amban interfered. We have +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +therefore the instructive spectacle before us of a Buddhist +conquest becoming harmonized with Mussulman +institutions, and Chinese arrogance not content with +tolerating, but absolutely fostering, a régime to which +its hostility was scarcely concealed. This is the only +instance of the Chinese exhibiting such more than +Asiatic restraint towards Mahomedans; for their dealings +with Tibet, a country of peculiar sanctity and Buddhist +as well, is not a case in point. The scheme worked +well, however. Chinese strength was husbanded by +being employed only when absolutely necessary to be +called into play, and the people, to a great degree their +own masters, did not realise the fact of their being a +subjected nation. Their first anxiety was the payment +of their taxes—far from exorbitant, as it had been +under their own rulers; but that task accomplished, +they could free their minds from care.</p> + +<p>Very often their own countryman, the Hakim Beg, +was a greater tyrant than the Chinese amban in the +fort outside their gates; but against his exactions they +could obtain speedy redress. When their Hakims, or +Wangs as the Chinese called them, became unpopular in +a district, the amban promptly removed them; even if he +considered they were not much to blame, he always transferred +them to some other district. The first object in +the eyes of the amban was the maintenance of order, +and he knew well enough that order could not be maintained, +unless he resorted to force, which he studiously +avoided, if the people were discontented. The people +therefore could repose implicit trust in the Chinese +amban securing a fair hearing and justice for them in +their disagreements with their own leaders; and the +Mussulman Wangs, who were the old ruling class, saw +the unfortunate tax-payer at last secure from their +tyranny through the clemency of a Buddhist conqueror. +We are justified in assuming that the population saw +the force of these patent facts, and that, if not perfectly +to be relied on in any emergency, the Chinese had no +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +danger to expect from the tax-producing and patient +Kashgari.</p> + +<p>So long as the Chinese rule remained vigorous—that +is, for about the first fifty years—the Ambans worked +in perfect concord with the Wangs, and through them +with the people. But the internal relations between +these various personages became more complicated and +less cordial through the importation, about the beginning +of this century, of a fresh factor into the question. +The Chinese had granted the cities west of, and including, +Aksu very considerable privileges in carrying on +trade with Khokand; and in the course of commercial +intercourse a Khokandian element was slowly imported +into these cities, when it became a people within a +people, enjoying the prosperity to be derived from the +Chinese Empire, but not experiencing any sentiment of +gratitude towards those by whom the favours were +conferred. After some years, when these Khokandian +immigrants had become numerous, the Chinese acquiesced +in their selecting a responsible head for each +community, and this head, or Aksakal, was nominated +by the Khan of Khokand, the only temporal sovereign +these people recognized. The creation of this third power +in the state, which was first sanctioned as a matter of +convenience, was to be fraught with the direst consequences +for the Chinese. The Khitay would be justified +in saying that the Aksakals were "the cause of +all their woe," in Kashgar at all events. The Aksakals +were far too prudent to challenge the supremacy of the +Chinese officials, and their first object was rather to +make themselves independent of the Wangs than to +compete with the Ambans. In this they were successful, +for the Chinese neglected to take into account the +dangers that might arise from these same bustling, intriguing, +and alien Aksakals. The Wangs had always +been obedient vassals, but the plausibility of the Aksakals +put them on a par with their rivals. The Chinese +washed their hands of the quarrel, and may have +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +imagined that their rule was made more assured by +divisions among the Mussulmans. In this they were +mistaken. The Aksakals, who after a time repudiated +their obligations to the Wangs, became the centre of +all the intrigue that marked the last half-century of +Chinese rule, and, puffed up by their triumph over the +Wangs, did not hesitate to challenge the right of the +Ambans to exercise jurisdiction over them. But of +this more later on.</p> + +<p>While the Chinese adopted these liberal measures in +their dealings with the Mussulman population, they +did not neglect those other duties which belong to the +government by right. The greatest benefit they could +confer was of course the preservation of order, and to +maintain the balance impartially between the numerous +litigants was the first article in the creed of the Chinese +viceroys. As tranquillity settled down over these distracted +regions, trade revived. The native industries, +which had greatly fallen off, became once more active; +and foreign enterprise was attracted to this quarter, +which Chinese power soon made the most favoured +region in Central Asia. But the rulers did not rest +content with the mere preservation of good order. +They did not leave it to the inclination of an indolent +people to progress at as tortoise-like a speed as they +would wish; but they themselves set the example which +the rest felt bound to imitate. Not only did the enterprising +Khitay merchant from Kansuh and Szchuen +visit the marts of Hamil and Turfan, but many of +this class penetrated into Kashgar proper, where they +became permanent settlers. These invaluable agents +supplied the deficiency that had never before been filled +up in the life of the state, for they brought the highest +qualities of enterprise and practical sagacity, together +with capital, as their special characteristics. In the +train of these Khitay merchants came wealth and increased +prosperity. Yarkand, Kashgar, Aksu, and +Khoten became cities of the first rank, and the population +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +of the country in the year 1800 was greater than +it had ever been before.</p> + +<p>There was perfect equality too between all the +various races in respect to trade. The Chinese did not +demand special immunities for their own countrymen, as +might have been expected. The Khitay, who came all +the way from Lanchefoo in search of a fortune, must +be prepared to compete in an equal race with the +Khokandi, the Kashgari, or the Afghan. His nationality +would obtain for him no immunity from being +taxed, or could give him no advantage over the foreign +or native traders. The main portion of the trade of +the country remained in the old hands. Khokand +benefited as much as Kashgar by the trade, and China, +in a direct manner, least of the three.</p> + +<p>The Chinese have at all times been justly famous for +their admirable measures for irrigating their provinces. +The wonderful canals which cut their way, where there +are no great rivers, in China proper are reproduced even +in this outlying dependency. Eastern Turkestan is one +of the worst-watered regions in the world. In fact +there is only a belt of fertile country round the +Yarkand river, stretching away eastward along the +slopes of the Tian Shan as far as Hamil. The few +small rivers which are traced here and there across the +map are during many months of the year dried up, and +even the Yarkand then becomes an insignificant stream. +To remedy this, and to husband the supply as much as +possible, the Chinese sank dykes in all directions. By +this means the cultivated country was slowly but +surely spread over a greater extent of territory, and the +vicinity of the three cities of Kashgar, Yangy Hissar, +and Yarkand became known as the garden of Asia. +Corn and fruit grew in abundance, and from Yarkand +to the south of the Tian Shan the traveller could pass +through one endless orchard. On all sides he saw +nothing but plenty and content, peaceful hamlets and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +smiling inhabitants. These were the outcome of a +Chinese domination.</p> + +<p>The Chinese, besides possessing a dual line of communication +with their own country, one north and the +other south of the Tian Shan, had also a caravan route +from Khoten to Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. There was +also some intercourse with Cashmere by this way. The +jade, for which Khoten was justly, and is still, famous, +was exported in immense quantities, both to Tibet and +to China, through Maralbashi. This mineral was held +in high esteem by Chinese ladies, and alone sufficed to +make the prosperity of Khoten assured. Gold, silk, and +musk, were other articles included in the commerce of +this flourishing city. There was also, in the Chinese +time, a very extensive manufacture of carpets and cotton +goods. The gold mines, which, with two exceptions, +have not been worked since the same time, are believed +to be scarcely touched, and only await a fostering hand +to be put in working order once more.</p> + +<p>The Chinese also devoted great attention to the coal +mines in the vicinity of Aksu, and these were worked +both by private enterprise and the Government. Coal +was an article of common use in that city, but it does +not appear to have been exported beyond the neighbourhood. +It is known that the Chinese took greater +interest in the development of the internal means of +wealth of the country than in inducing foreigners to +enter it. Thus, we see that mines, in a special degree, +received state approval and support. The gold mines of +Khoten, the coal of Aksu, and the zinc of Kucha, are +all conspicuous instances of this; as, under all past, +and the recent Mahomedan, rule, they have been most +foolishly, but consistently neglected.</p> + +<p>Nor were those special trades for which Kashgar had +in prosperous moments been renowned, neglected. The +leather-dressers of Yarkand and Aksu, the silk-mercers of +Kashgar and Khoten, were never so busy as in the +warlike days of Keen-Lung, and the great mass of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +people, the agricultural class in the villages, was equally +prosperous and well governed. Trade was fostered on +all sides, and the conquering power was content to stand +aside and witness the steady progress of its subjects +towards hitherto unattained and unattainable prosperity.</p> + +<p>Lastly, the Chinese directed their attention to the +improvement of the means of communication between +one part of the province and another. It was absolutely +necessary to the security of their rule that there should +be an easy and always open road between Ili and +Kashgar. Therefore, a way was cut, at great expense, +through the Tian Shan, north of Aksu, and this pass +was known as the Muzart, or Glacier. So difficult was +the country through which it passed, and such the +danger from ice-drifts and snow-storms, that relays of +men had to be kept constantly at work in order to +prevent it getting out of repair for a day. The construction +of this road was, in the first place, most +expensive, but, perhaps, the cost of repairing was much +more. This, the most striking engineering achievement +of the Chinese, has become practically useless, through +fifteen years of neglect. If China is to regain Ili, it +will, no doubt, be restored. The passes west of this, by +the Narym River to Vernoe, and through Terek to +Khokand, were those selected by Yakoob Beg to supply +its place.</p> + +<p>The next object to which the Chinese specially paid +attention was the preservation of their road home to +China. Thus the road in Tian Shan Pe Lu, and the other +in Tian Shan Nan Lu, were kept in the most effective +state possible. The former, north of the mountains, +passed through Manas and Urumtsi to Hamil; the latter, +south of them, through Aksu and Kucha to the same +place. The alternative route from Kucha to Kashgar +and Yarkand, through Maralbashi, was also much used, +more especially, however, by those who desired to break +off at that outpost in the desert to reach Khoten and +Sanju. In each city there was appointed a committee +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +to superintend the roads in the district, and this Road +Board was a highly important and useful corporation. +It was by such measures as these that the Chinese +made their rule a blessing to Kashgar and Jungaria for +more than fifty years. Of course, there was the fiscal +side of these schemes of public utility. Roads could +not be opened up and maintained in order, canals could +not be dug, the state could not administer justice, promote +trade, and make itself respected abroad, without +an assured revenue, and this revenue, after the first ten +years, was very productive.</p> + +<p>The principal taxes were the tithe on the produce of +the land, called "<i>ushr</i>" and the <i>zakat</i> (fortieth), on +merchandise and cattle. Then, in the cities, there was +a house tax, which was essentially, like our own income +tax, a war tax, fluctuating in accordance with the +military necessities, caused by foreign or civil war. +From the mines, too, the state derived a large annual +sum, which was generally devoted to some object of +public utility. There was also the tribute money from +the Kirghiz nomads, whose flocks and horses were numbered +and taxed at a low rate, in return for which they +were taken under the protection of China. In addition +to these great taxes there were several smaller ones, such +as a fee on fuel sold in the market, and another levy +on milch-kine kept in cities. A writer on Kashgar has +said that these "proved a ready means of oppression, +and a prolific source of that discontent which left the +rulers without a single helping hand, or sympathising +heart, in the hour of their distress and destruction." +But this assumption of cause and effect is scarcely just.</p> + +<p>Of course, all taxes can be made a ready means of +oppression by the tax-gatherer, who, in this case, was a +Mussulman and fellow-countryman. But taxes are +absolutely necessary to all good government, and when +we consider what China did with her revenue, with +what public spirit her representatives laid it out in +plans for the advantage of the state, can we pronounce an +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +opinion that she imposed unfair burdens on the subjected +race? Moreover, no one denies the prosperity +general throughout Kashgar in those days, a period +looked back to with regret by the inhabitants during +the most favoured years of Yakoob Beg's rule. It is +not in accordance with facts, then, to imply that the +Chinese ground Kashgar under them by severe taxation, +and whatever petty tyranny there was, was carried +on not by the Khitay Ambans, but by the Mahomedan +Wangs.</p> + +<p>In the hour of distress and destruction the people, +indeed, proved traitorous to their best friends, or, more +generally, apathetic; leaving to the energetic Andijani +element within their gates the task of crossing swords +with Buddhist rule, to which the hostility of these +immigrants had always been declared.</p> + +<p>The short-sightedness of the Kashgari played the +game of the more fanatical and ambitious people of +Khokand; but the rule of China did not pass out of +Eastern Turkestan until the disturbances of forty years +had generated ill-feeling that formerly was not, and had +so embittered the relations of governing and governed, +that what had come to be considered a lenient and +impersonal government, assumed all the darker hues of +a military and foreign despotism. Even then China did +not fall until there was dissension within herself, when, +split into three hostile camps, her sword dropped nerveless +from her hand in Central Asia, 2,000 miles away from +her natural border. To follow Chinese rule in Kashgar +down to 1820, is to observe the monotonous course of +never varying prosperity. From that year to 1860, the +tale is of a different complexion, less monotonous but +also less satisfactory.</p> + +<p>In 1758 and 1760 Chinese armies entered Khokand. +Tashkent fell in the former year, and the capital in the +latter. The Chinese then withdrew, after imposing a +tribute upon Khokand. During the long reign of +Keen-Lung—that is, down to 1795—the tribute was +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +regularly paid. After that year, however, the payment +became irregular, and border warfare of frequent occurrence +between the two neighbours. At last, in 1812, +Khokand, then under an able prince, refused to pay tribute +any longer, and the Chinese acquiesced in the repudiation. +Nor did the change in the relations between +China and Khokand stop here; for, a few years afterwards, +the Chinese found it expedient to pay Khokand +an annual sum to keep the Khoja family, whose representatives +were residing in Khokand, from intriguing +against them. The amount of the subsidy was £3,500 +of our money. In addition to this, the Khan of Khokand +was permitted to levy a tax on all Mahomedan +merchandise sold in Kashgar through Andijan merchants. +This tax was collected by the Aksakals before +mentioned, and was a very profitable source of income +for the impecunious khans. But even these concessions +and perquisites did not satisfy the Mussulmans +of Central Asia, who saw in Chinese moderation an +evidence of weakness and decline. The Aksakals, in +these years of Mahomedan revival, became political +agents of the greatest importance. It was they who +gave a point to all the discontent there might be in +Kashgar; it was they who attributed to the Chinese +the blame for whatever evils this world is never wholly +free from; and it was they who agitated for the return +of the old Khoja kings, who were always destined, in +their eyes, to bring the most perfect happiness. With +such causes at work both within and without their position, +the Chinese had not to wait long before their +authority was more openly challenged.</p> + +<p>Sarimsak, the only member of the Khoja family surviving +the massacre by the Chinese, had fled, as a child, +into the impenetrable recesses of Wakhan. From +thence, in later years, he had gone to settle in Khokand, +where he married. This prince had three sons—Yusuf, +Bahanuddin, and Jehangir, the youngest and +best known. In 1816, the first outbreak against +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +Chinese authority occurred, when a small rising took +place in Tash Balik, a town to the west of Kashgar. +This was speedily put down, and its leaders executed. +It was but the forerunner of the storm.</p> + +<p>In 1822, Jehangir resolved to reassert his claims over +Kashgar, and, while his eldest brother continued to +reside in retirement at Bokhara, he joined the Kara +Kirghiz. With a party of these, under the command +of their chief, Suranchi Beg, Jehangir raided up to the +city of Kashgar. He was there repulsed in the suburbs, +and compelled to flee. He then joined the Kirghiz of +Bolor round Narym, who were nominally feudatories of +China, and, with their aid, commenced a petty sort of +border war. A small Chinese force was despatched +against him, and drove the Kirghiz up as far as Fort +Kurtka. On their return from this successful attack, +they were, however, surprised in one of the defiles, and +almost all were destroyed. This was the first reverse +the Chinese had ever met with in the field, and it was +at once bruited about through all parts of Central Asia. +It gave a life to the Khoja cause which it had hitherto +lacked, and adventurers from all parts flocked to the +standard Jehangir now raised on the borders of Kashgar. +The Khan of Khokand so far assisted him as to +send him a skilled general, Isa Dadkhwah, and extended +over his cause that protection and sanction which Khokand +has ever since thrown over the Khoja family.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1826, Jehangir advanced in force +against Kashgar, and the Chinese, despising their assailant, +left their fortifications to encounter him in the +open. A battle then ensued, of which the particulars +have not come down to us, but which resulted in the +defeat of the Chinese. Jehangir entered Kashgar in +triumph, was received with acclamations by the people, +urged on by the Aksakals, and proclaimed himself sovereign +of the country, under the style of Seyyid Jehangir +Sultan. His first act—the most significant exposure of +the true sentiment of the Kashgarian people there well +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +could be—was to order the execution of the Mahomedan +Wang of Kashgar, by name Mahomed Seyyid.</p> + +<p>The fall of Kashgar was the signal to the Aksakals +throughout Altyshahr to begin that work for which +they had been long preparing. In Yangy Hissar, Yarkand, +and Khoten risings at once took place. The +Chinese, surprised and unarmed, were butchered in the +streets, and the Gulbaghs, as the visible token of the +foreign rule, were razed with the ground.</p> + +<p>The Gulbagh of Kashgar itself alone held out, but it +at last fell, after sustaining a long siege, into the hands +of Jehangir. His triumph completed, he had to concern +himself more with his relations with Khokand +than about the Chinese, who were mysteriously quiet. +Mahomed Ali Khan, of Khokand, who thought that +Jehangir's success was solely due to him, laid claim +to a certain historical superiority over his vassal of +Kashgar, to which the Khoja prince was not willing +to assent. A large Khokandian army which had been +sent to Kashgar returned, after losing 1,000 men +before the walls of the Gulbagh, and its withdrawal was +the signal for plots and counterplots to break out in the +palace of the new ruler. These he promptly repressed, +reduced the intriguing general, Isa Dadkhwah, in rank, +and had emancipated himself from his thraldom to Khokand, +when the news came that the Chinese were at last +returning.</p> + +<p>Although the western portion of Altyshahr had fallen +away from the Chinese, Aksu and Maralbashi remained +true to their allegiance. The Chinese still possessed +the military keys of the country. Moreover, their possession +of Ili gave them an enormous strategical advantage, +and in the Tungan population they possessed +an almost inexhaustible supply for recruiting "revindicating" +armies. It is apropos here to state that +China retained both of these advantages down to the +time of Buzurg Khan and Yakoob Beg, and that, so +long as she possessed them, the utmost Mussulman +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +fanaticism and Khokandian patronage of the Khojas +could do was futile against the arrest of fate. During +six months Jehangir ruled in Kashgar, and during six +months the Chinese viceroy made his preparations at +Ili for a thorough revenge. An army of more than +100,000 men, raised from the Tungani, the Calmucks, +and the Khitay garrison, was despatched from Ili, and +in January, 1827, entered Aksu. Here all the brigades +were concentrated, and the Viceroy, in conjunction with +the general under him, by name Chang-Lung, drew up +the plan of campaign, which was as follows:—A small +army of 12,000 men was sent against Khoten across the +desert through Cày Yoli, while the remainder of the +host advanced on Maralbashi. Here another detachment +of 7,000 strong was directed against Yarkand, +while the main body marched on Kashgar by the banks +of the Kizil Su.</p> + +<p>Their advance was unopposed until they reached +Yangabad, or Yangiawat, where Jehangir had concentrated +an army computed at 50,000 men, but probably +considerably less. When the armies sighted each other +they pitched their camps in preparation for the decisive +contest that was at hand. In accordance with immemorial +custom, each side put forward on the following +day its champion. On the part of the Chinese a gigantic +Calmuck archer opposed on the part of Jehangir an +equally formidable Khokandi. The former was armed +with his proper weapons, the latter with a gun of some +clumsy and ancient design, and while the Khokandi +was busily engaged with his intricate apparatus, the +Chinese archer shot him dead with an arrow through +the breast. Of course, neither army would have acquiesced +in the decree of the God of Battles as shown by +the fate of its champion, but, in this case, it was true +that—</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Who spills the foremost foeman's life,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">His party conquers in the strife."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>After a sharp, but brief, skirmish, the Kashgarian army +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +withdrew in confusion, and the following day the +Chinese surrounded Kashgar on three sides. During +the night the heart of Jehangir misgave him, and he +fled to the Karatakka mountains. But here the snow +had rendered the passes impracticable, and, after hiding +for a few days in that difficult region, he was captured +by the Chinese. His fate was that usually met with by +traitors to that empire, for, being sent to Pekin, he was +executed after torture. In this war Ishac Wang, of +Ush Turfan, played a great part against the Khoja +prince, and was rewarded for his good service by being +appointed Wang of Kashgar. The Chinese constructed +a fresh fort, Yangyshahr, in the place of the destroyed +Gulbagh, and left a large Khitay garrison under Jah +Darin. But Ishac Wang, who was given some such +title as Prince of Kashgar, was soon afterwards deposed +and recalled to China.</p> + +<p>The Chinese authority was re-established without +difficulty in the three cities, and peace settled down +over Eastern Turkestan. But the repressive and punitive +measures that the Chinese felt compelled to adopt +raised a bitterer sentiment in the minds of the people +than had previously existed. The Chinese were, indeed, +only employing the same weapons that had been +used against themselves, but none the less did these +reciprocal atrocities dissipate whatever friendship there +had been. Among other acts the Chinese removed +12,000 Mahomedan families from Kashgar to Ili, and +these, destined to play an important part in the history +of that province, became known as Tarantchis, or +Toilers.</p> + +<p>The Chinese resolved to punish Khokand as well. +They broke off all trade with that state, and happy +would it have been for them if they could have continued +to preserve a closed frontier. But the Khan of +that time was Mahomed Ali Khan, the most ambitious, +as he was the ablest, of the princes of that country. +He had just annexed Karategin, and had acquired some +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +of the outlying provinces of Badakshan, which Mourad +Beg, of Kundus, had absorbed about the same time. It +was not probable that he would put up with the Chinese +defiance. He was prudent enough to delay his advance +until the main body of their army had been withdrawn. +But, as soon as he was informed that the Chinese had +gone back to Ili, Mahomed Ali, calling Yusuf, Sarimsak's +eldest son, from his retirement in Bokhara, placed +him at the head of an army, under the charge of his +own brother-in-law, Hacc Kuli Beg. The Chinese were +worsted at Mingyol, and all the cities west of Aksu +turned against the Chinese, as before, and proclaimed +for Yusuf Khoja. Then the massacres were repeated, +and the invasion of Yusuf was that of Jehangir over +again in exact detail. But Yusuf's triumph was still +more brief. Whereas Jehangir had ruled for nine +months, Yusuf only swayed the sceptre for three.</p> + +<p>The Chinese movements were delayed by small Mussulman +revolts in Barkul and Shensi until the spring of +1831, but then, when they returned, they found that +Yusuf and the Khokandian army had retreated some +months before. The facts were that the moment Khokand +invaded Kashgar, Bokhara attacked Khokand, and +Hacc Kuli Beg had to be recalled to cope with matters +more pressing than Khoja rights. With the general +had gone Yusuf, far from anxious to encounter the +Chinese alone. The return of the Khokandian army +sufficed to dispel all danger from Bokhara, and, a few +months after, Mahomed Ali Khan recommenced operations—in +the east this time—against the Kirghiz under +Chinese protection. The Chinese were thoroughly sick +of these petty disputes, and made a treaty with Khokand, +by which that state acquired fresh commercial +privileges, in addition to the old ones, and by which the +importance of the Aksakals rather increased than waned. +Mahomed Ali Khan had acquired all he wanted, and +discouraged the Khoja party, as, indeed, the terms of +this treaty compelled him to do. The risings under +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +Jehangir and Yusuf were undoubtedly a great blow to +Chinese prestige. To all appearance each had nearly +been successful, and the Chinese, whose prestige was +enormous in Central Asia—quite as great as that of +Russia is now—had been, on one or two occasions, +openly defeated. But, after all, this was a little matter +compared to the shock the sentiments, called into being +by sixty happy years, had received. Between Buddhist +and Mussulman, between Chinaman and Central Asiatic, +all the old antipathy was revived in the butcheries of +Yarkand and Kashgar. The Kashgari showed that they +could not appreciate the benefits they had received from +China, and the Chinese, enraged at the slaughter of +their countrymen, and, perhaps, also at the ingratitude +evinced towards them, retaliated in kind. They did +not appreciate that moderation, which Europeans have +not always shown under similar circumstances, and +wrought out their revenge in their own ancient +fashion. It is absolutely necessary that the reader +should remember that the two rapidly succeeding +invasions of Jehangir and Yusuf form a turning-point +in the history of the Chinese rule in Kashgar. Up to +that epoch it is difficult to find words sufficient to do +justice to China's beneficent government there; after +that year it would be absurd to employ the same language. +For the change the chief blame must fall upon +the fickle and ungrateful Kashgari themselves, and then +on the intriguing Andijanis. The Chinese are justified, +at least, in saying that, having for more than half a +century ruled this people with justice, they only relaxed +in their efforts to promote its well-being when their unarmed +countrymen and soldiers had been surprised and +butchered by thousands.</p> + +<p>Strange, and almost contradictory, as it may appear, +there was a brief respite during which things seemed +to have got into their old groove of happy prosperity; +and the chief credit for this must be given to a Mahomedan +sub-governor of the Chinese viceroy. Zuhuruddin, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +such was his name, had raised himself to the high +post of Amban in Kashgar, a post never before held +by any other than a Khitay. By birth he was of +Kashgar, but he always represented himself as having +been born and brought up in Khokand, where he had +been imprisoned for a political offence. For seven or +eight years he governed Kashgar to the perfect satisfaction +both of the people and of the Chinese, and +among some of his public acts may be mentioned the +reconstruction of new forts outside the cities, in the +place of those destroyed in the recent revolts. These +were known now as Yangyshahr instead of Gulbagh. +But in 1846 Zuhuruddin's rule was disturbed by hostilities +on the part of Khokand and the Khojas.</p> + +<p>In 1845 Khudayar Khan had been called to the +throne after the death of Mahomed Ali, but his +authority was not without its rivals. In the state of +confusion that then ensued, Khokandian adventurers +urged the Khoja princes, who were now represented by +the sons of Jehangir, to renew their old attacks against +the Chinese. To these advisers the Khojas turned a +willing ear, and preparations were accordingly made +for the enterprise. At that time Khokand was full +of adventurers to whom Mahomed Ali had been able to +give constant employment, but who now under the +more peaceful rule of Khudayar idled their time in the +cities of that khanate. Among these and the ever +willing Kirghiz, it was not difficult for the princes of +Kashgar to raise an army, formidable in numbers, if +not remarkable for cohesion. At that time there were +seven prominent Khoja princes in Khokand, of whom +we may here mention Eshan Khan, usually called Katti +Torah, Buzurg Khan, and Wali Khan. This inroad +did not take its name from any one of these, but from +them all combined; thus it was distinguished as Haft +Khojagan, or that of the Seven Khojas.</p> + +<p>With his brothers and relations and a considerable +following, Katti Torah advanced upon Kashgar, always +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +the first object of these invaders, which fell after a siege +of thirteen days through treachery. This was the only +success they achieved; the other cities would have nothing +to do with them; and after two months' indulgence +in unbridled licence the Chinese beat them in a fight at +Kok Robat, and drove them out of the country. For +the first time there was an air of ridicule thrown over +these Khoja invasions in the eyes of the Kashgari, +while the outrages they had committed during their +brief stay had raised bitterer feelings still. Zuhuruddin, +who fell under the displeasure of the Chinese, was +removed from his post, and fresh Ambans, once more +Khitay, were appointed. For nine years the Khojas +remained passive, but in 1855 Wali Khan and his +brother Kichik Khan, began to bustle once more on the +Kashgarian frontier. It was not until 1857 that Wali +Khan succeeded in forcing the advanced guard of +pickets maintained in the passes by the Chinese, but +having accomplished that his triumph was rapid. +Kashgar fell into his possession by a <i>coup de main</i>, and +once more a Khoja prince was seated in the <i>orda</i> at +Kashgar. Artosh and Yangy Hissar fell into his possession, +and he threatened Yarkand. But everywhere the +Chinese garrisons remained unconquered in the forts, +biding the exhaustion of their foe and the arrival of +reinforcements. After a rule of nearly four months the +armies of Wali Khan having been then defeated by +the Chinese, the Khoja fled to the remote state of +Darwas, where he was surrendered to Khokand by its +chief Ismail Shah. This ruler, the most tyrannical, +bloodthirsty, and licentious of all the Khojas, met the +fate which he deserved long afterwards at the hands of +Yakoob Beg. His temporary tenure of power is still +remembered with dread by the people, who consider +him to have been the most incarnate monster who ever +held the destinies of their country in his hand. The +Chinese were more severe in their punitive measures +after this campaign than they had been after any other, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +but, notwithstanding the part Khudayar and his people +had played in Wali Khan's affair, the old relations +between "these incompatible people," as Dr. Bellew +aptly calls them, were restored. After this event there +was but one minor disturbance caused by an inroad of +Kirghiz nomads, headed by the sons of one of the +principal victims of Chinese vengeance, but this had +no political importance.</p> + +<p>The invasion of Wali Khan was the last of those +Khoja expeditions which took place prior to the Tungan +revolt. In the thirty-two years that elapsed from the +date of Jehangir's attempt to that of his son, there +had in all been four of them. That of Jehangir himself +being the first; of his elder brother Yusuf, the +second; of Yusuf's eldest son, Katti Torah, the third; +and of Jehangir's second son, Wali, the fourth. Not +one of these is in any sense noteworthy, except for the +crimes with which it was attended, and none of them +did more than inflict an untold amount of misery and +suffering on their own followers, as well as on the +people they claimed to represent by right divine. It +may also be noticed that with each enterprise there was +a decline in moral character. Thus Jehangir was infinitely +the best of them in every sense, and ruled fairly +according to his lights. His brother Yusuf was of a +more timid mind, but evidently not less imbued with +some notion as to the sanctity of his mission. But +from these to Katti Torah is a long descent. That +prince seemed to aspire to securing his personal comfort +and enjoyment alone, and disregarded all his subjects' +complaints at the arbitrary rule of his deputies. But +Wali Khan, the next of these Khoja kings from "over +the mountains," excelled his cousin in vice, and tyranny, +and utter want of purpose, not to speak of honour, +quite as much as Katti Torah surpassed their sires. +Nor can there be much hesitation in saying, from what +Buzurg Khan did during the few months he held +power, that, had not Yakoob Beg clipped his flight, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +he would have surpassed Wali Khan in his own peculiar +vices. The reader will scarcely be disposed to take +much interest in this irredeemable family, mad with the +insanity of wickedness. But in justice to the Chinese, +and to Yakoob Beg, it is only right that the rivals of the +former should be made to appear in their true colours. +All the sanctity that a peculiarly venerable descent from +Hazrat Afak could give; all the stories told of the good +deeds of some of their ancestors; all the affection that +naturally attaches to a native rule, and all the dislike +that must undermine a foreign, be it never so beneficent; +all these things were destroyed by the weakness and ill +success that attended the first two Khojas, and by the +cruelty, indifference, and licentiousness that marked the +last two. When Buzurg Khan came he found loyalty +to the Khoja the heirloom of a few families, not of a +people.</p> + +<p>Had the Chinese restrained their vindictive feelings +after the war with Jehangir, and proclaimed a free +pardon to every one save the Khokandis, and then +devoted their attention with the old vigour to peaceful +pursuits, we believe that the Chinese rule would have +been permanently secured. At that moment the Chinese +were strong enough to have defied Khokand, and to +have broken off all intercourse with that state. By +dismissing the Aksakals, and severing the connection +between the two states, the Chinese would have dispelled +a danger that was for forty years to be ever before them, +and, in the end, when the Tungani also rose, was to +overcome them. Even clemency after Yusuf's inroad, +which was really caused by the Chinese repressions, +might not have been wholly in vain, and would have +consolidated their position, when reinvigorated by +Zuhuruddin's tenure of power. But the Chinese did +not appreciate the quality of mercy. They could be +just and impartial in the ordinary avocations of life, +but to those who revolted against their authority they +showed no trace of human feeling. For a man to rebel +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +against them was certain death; for a people, history +tells us, the fate was not far different. Nor in dealing +with such did they hesitate to supplement their military +strength by the most despicable of artifices. Garrisons, +accorded honourable terms, ruthlessly butchered; +princes, who threw themselves on their mercy, deported +to Pekin to be hanged or tortured out of life: these +are frequent occurrences in the history of China, and of +her career in Central Asia the tale is identical. Yet, +while drawing a veil over these blots on an otherwise +brilliant surface, should we not desire to conceal them +wholly from the view. It is necessary that they should +be stated to understand what Chinese domination means +as a whole; of its great benefits there can be no doubt, if +the people will remain quiescent. For fifty years, or for +five hundred, China will rule an unmurmuring people +with justice, and lead them into the paths of prosperity +and peace; but if they rebel, if they openly defy authority, +if they invite a hostile stranger within their borders, +the punishment will be as sweeping, as cruel, and, in +one and a higher sense, as wrongfully foolish, whether +the association of the races may have been for fifty +years or five centuries, as it was in the case of Kashgar. +There is not much reason for hoping that China will +deviate from her ancient custom, on the occasion now +transpiring, of demanding "an eye for an eye" and +"a tooth for a tooth."</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VI"></a><span>CHAPTER VI.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">THE BIRTH OF YAKOOB BEG AND CAREER IN THE +SERVICE OF KHOKAND.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have now traced the history of Kashgar and of the +neighbouring states down to the year 1860, immediately +before the last Khoja invasion under Buzurg +Khan, and the Kooshbege, Mahomed Yakoob. Before +giving an account of that enterprise it is necessary that +the reader should know what the past career of the +future Athalik Ghazi had been. The previous chapters +have, it is hoped, thrown some light on the state of +Central Asia, and will assist the student of the question +in comprehending how it was that Yakoob Beg achieved +success, and what claims he may have to be considered +a great ruler, for having done a work that is unique in +the annals of modern Asia.</p> + +<p>Mahomed Yakoob was born in or about the year +1820, in the flourishing little town of Piskent, in the +khanate of Khokand. His father, Pur Mahomed +Mirza, had, at various periods of his life, filled positions +of responsibility in the government of the towns in +which he resided. Thus, a native of Dihbid, near +Samarcand, he had migrated to Khodjent, in the reign +of Mahomed Ali Khan, with the intention of entering +the priestly order. There, although he enrolled himself +as a student in a religious seminary, for some reason or +other, he appears to have changed his mind, and, instead +of entering the Church, turned his attention to secular +affairs. He was soon made Kazi of Kurama, a district +and town of Khokand, and married a lady of that +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +place. By this marriage he had one son, Mahomed +Arif, who has since filled several posts of trust in +Kashgar, notably that of Governor of Sirikul; but of late +this half-brother of Yakoob Beg seems to have been, +either for incompetence or some other reason, under a +cloud. Pur Mahomed, or Mahomed Latif, as he was +more usually called, changed his residence from Kurama +to Piskent, about the year 1818, and he shortly after +his settlement in his new abode married again, his +second wife being the sister of Sheik Nizamuddin, the +Kazi of Piskent. Yakoob Beg was the issue of this +marriage. The family of Yakoob Beg's father seems +originally to have come from Karategin, on the borders +of Badakshan, but in the time of the Usbeg conquest +of that district the father of Mahomed Latif, then an +infant, took refuge in Khokand. It is uncertain +whether Mahomed Latif was born before their arrival +at Dihbid or afterwards; and it is now asserted that he +claimed descent from Tamerlane. Whether this was a +claim brought forward when his son was advancing in +the world or not, it is impossible to test its accuracy. +The parents of Yakoob Beg were therefore not without +some pretensions, and it would seem that the bad +fortune, from which for some generations they had +been suffering, was beginning to disappear before the +ability of Yakoob Beg raised it to a higher point than +ever. In addition to the claims of his father and +grandfather as Kazis of an important community, a +sister of Yakoob Beg married Nar Mahomed Khan, +Governor of Tashkent; and, as we shall see later on, +this connection was very instrumental in promoting the +interests of the youthful Yakoob.</p> + +<p>Piskent, Pskent, or Bis-kent, as it is sometimes spelt, +is still a flourishing little community, fifty miles south +of Tashkent, on the road to Khodjent. Its inhabitants +are a thrifty, good-tempered set of people, who take +great pride in the fact that the great Athalik Ghazi, +the supporter of Islam, and the reputed terror of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +Russians, was one of themselves. In this little settlement +there are many Tajiks, and this, doubtless, with +other reasons, induced Mahomed Latif, a Tajik himself, +to take up his abode there. To the east of Piskent the +mountains begin to rise, which stretch onward until +they become the Tian Shan and the Kizilyart ranges, and +in these elevated regions the Tajik descendants muster +in strong numbers. The Tajiks are Persian in their +origin, and consequently of the Aryan stock, in contradistinction +to the Turk or Tartar ruling class in Western +Turkestan. They have, however, for so many generations +been restricted to a limited career in the organization +of the state, that, quite unjustly as it is, they +have come to be regarded as an inferior race. English +writers have fallen into this mistake, and have accepted +as correct the definition given by the Turks of this +subject race. As a matter of fact the contrary holds +true, and the Tajik is superior to any of his masters +in point of mental capacity. They are represented +to still retain the fine presence and long flowing +beards which distinguish those of Aryan blood from +their Tartar opposite; and in height and strength they +quite eclipse every other race of Central Asia. It was +of this race that Yakoob Beg was the representative, +and, although the greater part of his life was passed in +ruling nations almost exclusively Tartar, some of the +more prominent among his supporters, as well as the +flower of his army, boasted that they, too, represented +that master race, whose birth-place was to be found in +the Indian Caucasus. The Tajiks still speak a Persian +dialect, and their Iranian origin is thereby rendered +almost indisputable.</p> + +<p>Mahomed Yakoob's early years were passed at his +home at Piskent, and it is said that it was intended that +he should follow the profession which his father had repudiated. +As a youth he was too wayward to submit +to any check on his impulses, and the design of educating +him as a "mollah," if it was ever seriously entertained, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +was abandoned long before he arrived at man's estate. +He appears to have passed the first twenty years of +his life in an idle, uneventful manner at Piskent, and +then suddenly to have resolved to seek his fortune as +best he might in the troubled waters of Khokandian +politics. In 1845, we find him in the train of the +newly seated khan, Khudayar, as "mahram," or chamberlain, +and shortly afterwards, by the influence of his +brother-in-law, the Governor of Tashkent, nominated a +Pansad Bashi, a commander of 500. This was in 1847, +about which year he married a Kipchak lady of Zuelik, a +village in the district of Ak Musjid. He had three sons, +of whom we shall hear more hereafter, by this marriage—Kooda +Kul Beg, Kuli Beg, and Hacc Kuli Beg. Later +on, in the year 1847, he was raised to the rank of Koosh-Bege, +or "lord of the family"—more intelligibly described +as vizier—and entrusted with the charge of the +important post on the Syr Darya, called Ak Musjid, +"White Mosque." This post he held with credit for six +years, until 1853, when the Russians commenced that +forward movement, of which we have not yet seen the +close. At that time, Russia had not acquired one of the +numerous strategic points now in her possession. The +Syr Darya then was as far off from her frontier as the +Oxus is now. Ak Musjid, built in the lower reaches of +the river, and representing a Khokandian outpost of +exceptional importance, was the grand obstacle in the +path of the Russians operating from Kazalinsk, at the +mouth of the Syr Darya. It was resolved, therefore, that +this post, which, doubtless, encouraged all the marauders +in the neighbourhood to continue their depredations +against the Russian caravans, should be wrested from the +hands of its owners, and either razed to the ground or +converted into a Russian stronghold. General Perovsky +was entrusted with this undertaking. The distance +from Kazalinsk, or Fort No. 1, to Ak Musjid is not +much over 200 miles, along the banks of the Syr +Darya. Not many commissariat arrangements were +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +necessary, nor did the distance to march require much +time to delay the Russian officer in beginning his +operations against the fort. The army with which +he appeared before the walls may not have been large +in numbers when compared with the armies of modern +times, but, in all that makes a disciplined force formidable, +it was exceptionally well supplied. The artillery +was in greater strength than is usually considered +necessary, and the expedition was still more efficient in +engineers and cavalry. The garrison of Ak Musjid was, +on the other hand, ill supplied, both in provisions and in +ammunition, and the fort itself presented, neither in its +position nor in its construction, any feature that an +engineer officer would have considered calculated to +make it capable of sustaining the attack of artillery for +twenty-four hours. The Russian lines were constructed +in the most approved method; but twice were their +approaches destroyed, and twice their mines counter-mined. +During twenty-six days the Russian bombardment +was fast and furious, and during all that +time the Khokandian defence was stubborn and persistent. +But all the efforts of the garrison to break +through the beleaguering lines were unavailing, and +after so long a cannonade little more resistance could +be expected from ramparts which were pierced in several +places by wide and gaping breaches. The resolute +commandant, who had done everything required by the +most exacting code of military honour, confessed that +there was nothing to be gained by a continued defence, +and as it was known that the Russians were making +preparations for an early assault, a messenger was +despatched without delay to the Russian commander, +expressing the willingness of the garrison to capitulate +on honourable terms. General Perovsky, who had +expected an easy triumph here, and possibly some more +extended triumph in farther regions, was indignant at +the resistance opposed to him by a paltry place like Ak +Musjid, and received the messenger from the fort with +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +ill-concealed impatience. Scarcely bestowing any attention +on the letter, couched in humble terms as it was, of +the commandant, General Perovsky petrified the astonished +emissary with the declaration that on the +morrow the fort would be taken by assault. This +arbitrary assertion of his power, which was carried +into practice, of course successfully, the next day, on +an occasion when magnanimity ought to have been +shown by the successful general, does not redound to the +credit of the officer in question, and throws an instructive +light on the latitude left to Russian generals in +their instructions, and on the opinion felt for Central +Asiatics by the civilizing representatives of the White +Czar. To say that General Perovsky was urged to this +act of gratuitous tyranny by a desire to obtain a cross +of either St. Anne or St. George, is, after all, only to +magnify the offence, and that Ak Musjid has taken the +name of its conqueror, Fort Perovsky, is the means of +perpetuating, not his fame, but his infamy, and the +courageous conduct of the defenders. In the winter +following its fall Yakoob Beg, with Sahib Khan, +brother of the Khan of Khokand, attempted to retake +the fort, but the <i>coup</i> proved abortive, and the Russians +have never receded from their new acquisition.</p> + +<p>Khudayar Khan had been elevated to the throne of +Khokand in 1845, by the energy of Mussulman Kuli, +a Kipchak chief, of singular astuteness, and aptitude for +business. During his tenure of the post of Wazir, +Khokand was peacefully and beneficently governed; but, +as on every similar occasion in Central Asia, the ruler +soon became jealous of the popularity acquired by his +minister, although his own position was in reality confirmed +by the wise measures of the very man to whom +he had conceived a covert hostility. So with Khudayar +Khan, the effeminate, and his minister, Mussulman +Kuli, in the decade of which we are now speaking; as +with Buzurg Khan, the debauchee, but correct representative +of the Khojas, and his general and vizier, the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +Kooshbege, Mahomed Yakoob, in the following. In +1858, Mussulman Kuli was seized by order of Khudayar +Khan, and barbarously murdered; and from that occurrence +the decadence of this unfortunate ruler of Khokand +can be traced until, at last, he became a mere +pensioner on the bounty of the Russians. Although +Yakoob Beg became, to a certain extent, notorious +for his gallant defence of Ak Musjid, it would appear, +from his being styled after that event simply "Mir," or +chief, that he had sunk in grade in his official status. +It is probable that the chief cause of this was his failure +to retake it, and not his ill success in defending it. He +was, however, entrusted with the charge of the Kilaochi +fort, a post which he held down to the murder of Mussulman +Kuli.</p> + +<p>Khudayar Khan had an elder brother, Mullah Khan, +who had been passed over by Mussulman Kuli, when +the state was put in order after the dissensions that arose +on the death of the great ruler, Mahomed Ali. Now, +on the death of Mussulman Kuli, who had given vitality +to the régime of Khudayar, Mullah Khan and his +partisans began to intrigue once more. Several Kipchak +and Kirghiz leaders joined his cause, and Yakoob Beg +at once became one of his most active supporters. Khudayar +Khan was deposed, and retired into temporary +seclusion. For his services to the new ruler Yakoob +Beg was made Shahawal, an officer corresponding to a +chamberlain or court intendant. He was soon restored +to his old rank of Kooshbege, and appointed governor +of the frontier fort of Kurama, the same place of which +his father had been Kazi. And in 1860 he came still +more to the front, when he was summoned to Tashkent +to assist Kanaát Shah, the Nahib of Khokand, in making +preparations in case the Russians, who had for some +time seemed to be threatening Khokand, should cross +the frontier. Mullah Khan was murdered at this time, +having held the reins of power but for the brief space +of two years, and Khudayar Khan emerged from his +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +hiding place. He was welcomed both by Kanaát Shah +and Yakoob Beg; and in return for their support he +consented to forget the past. Yakoob Beg, as his +reward, received the governorship of Kurama. It was +during these troubles that Alim Kuli, a Kirghiz chieftain, +appeared upon the scene. He possessed many of +the attributes that distinguished his predecessor Mussulman +Kuli, and his successor, in the eyes of the people, +Yakoob Beg. He had undoubtedly a great capacity +for intrigue, but was inferior to the former in administrative +capacity, and to the latter in military skill. He +now set Shah Murad, grandson of Shere Ali Khan, up +as a claimant to the throne, and was speedily joined by +Yakoob Beg, who once more abandoned the cause of +Khudayar Khan, who, it must be remembered, had +always treated Yakoob Beg in a friendly way, and who +in their early days had been his boon companion. This +conspiracy was unsuccessful, and Yakoob Beg, who had +yielded up Khodjent, with the defence of which he had +been entrusted by Alim Kuli, on the approach of the +forces of Khudayar Khan, took refuge in Bokhara. +Here he was favourably received, and resided as a noble +attached to the court. In 1863 the Ameer of Bokhara, +Muzaffur Eddin, marched a large army into Khokand +for the purpose of restoring his brother-in-law, Khudayar, +to the throne, for he had again been deposed by +the intrigues of Alim Kuli; Yakoob Beg accompanied +this force, and once more appears, for the last time, +on the troubled arena of Khokandian politics. The +Bokhariot army was soon recalled, and Khudayar Khan +was left to face the difficulties of his position unaided. +In a few months an arrangement was come to between +Alim Kuli and Yakoob Beg and other leading nobles +against Khudayar. Sultan Murad, who had first been +supported and then murdered by Alim Kuli, having +been thus effectually removed, this king-maker had +set up Sultan Seyyid in his place. Yakoob Beg so far +profited by this new confederacy that he was restored to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +his old offices and perquisites, and sent once more to hold +his former post as governor of Kurama. He collected +as many allies as he was able, and brought them with +him to assist in the capture of Khodjent. On this +important town being secured the regent Alim Kuli +passed through Kurama on his way to seize and settle +the capital, Tashkent. He appointed a connection of +his own, Hydar Kuli, with the title of Hudaychi, as +governor of Kurama, and took Yakoob Beg in his +train to Tashkent. Shortly after their arrival at +Tashkent, news came of the Russian occupation of +Tchimkent, and the survivors of the force driven out +by Tchernaief soon appeared with a confirmation of +the intelligence. This was in April, 1864, and until +October of that year, when the Russians appeared before +the town, Yakoob Beg was engaged in strengthening +the fortifications of the capital. When the army of +General Tchernaief did appear in the neighbourhood, +Yakoob Beg, with a rashness that cannot be too strongly +condemned, went forth to encounter it in the open. As +might have been expected, the Russians were victorious, +and Yakoob Beg was compelled to seek refuge with +his shattered forces within the walls of Tashkent. The +Russians themselves had suffered some loss, and either +awed by the bold demeanour of their old antagonist, or, +as is more probable, encountering some difficulty in +bringing up supplies, and being unprovided with a +siege train, thought the more prudent policy would be +to retire to Tchimkent until reinforcements and other +necessaries should arrive. Alim Kuli, in the course of +a few days after this reverse, arrived at Tashkent in +person with a large body of troops, and employed all +his energies in strengthening the defences before the +return of the Russians. It is very certain that on +this occasion, the first on which Yakoob Beg had a +command of any consequence, he permitted his natural +impetuosity to get the better of his discretion, and +that it was the height of madness on his part to enter +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +into an engagement in the open with the disciplined and +formidable forces of Tchernaief, when, by leaving that +general to undertake the siege of Tashkent, he might +have had it in his power to inflict a serious, and for the +time conclusive, blow against the Russians when the +reinforcing army of Alim Kuli came up. With half +his army discouraged by defeat, Alim Kuli found himself +restricted to a policy of inaction, through the +over-hastiness of his lieutenant. The Russians did not +return until after the departure of Yakoob Beg for +Kashgar, but when they did they found that Alim Kuli +had made every preparation in his power to receive +them. On the first occasion they were again forced to +retreat after a skirmish which the Khokandians claim +as a victory; but in 1865 they appeared before the +walls in greater force. Alim Kuli, with a gathering +vastly superior in numbers to the Russians, attacked +them a few miles to the north of Tashkent, and the +fortunes of the day hung in the balance, until the fall +of Alim Kuli, who, whilst boldly leading a charge of +Kirghiz cavalry, was pierced in the chest by a musket +ball. He was carried from the field by a faithful officer, +and expired that night in Tashkent. Alim Kuli appears +to have been actuated to some extent by a disinterested +patriotism, as much as by more personal motives. +With his fall, and the departure of Yakoob Beg +for another sphere of operations, all hope of a continued +state of independence for Khokand was dissipated. +After this severe defeat the Russians laid close +siege to Tashkent. The Khokandians in their distress +applied to Bokhara for aid, and the Russians hastened +to occupy Chinaz to intercept it. The Bokhariot army +was routed by the Russian army under General Romanoffski +at the battle of Irjar, in May, 1866, eleven +months after Tashkent had been occupied by Tchernaief. +It was during this period of anarchy, with a hostile +Russian and an allied Bokhariot force on his soil, that +Khudayar Khan once more supplanted the nominee of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +Alim Kuli, Sultan Seyyid, and at the close of the campaign +Khudayar was left in possession of the southern +portion of Khokand. This Khan appears to have been of +an unambitious nature, for, during his various exiles, he +devoted himself to private business with an energy he +had never shown in the management of the public +affairs, and when he at last sank into private life and became +a pensioner of the Russian Court, on the complete +annexation of his state, he is said to have acquired not +only a happiness, but many virtues unknown to him in +his more elevated lot. The unfortunate Sultan Seyyid, +after wandering for some years out of Khokand, was, +when he ventured to return in 1871, executed. Many +of the partisans of Seyyid on the defeat by the +Russians, and on the overthrow of his rivals by Khudayar, +sought refuge in the mountains of the Kizilyart, +whence they proceeded to join Yakoob Beg in Kashgar, +where they arrived at a most opportune moment as will +be seen.</p> + +<p>To return to Yakoob Beg. After his defeat before +Tashkent he was employed under Alim Kuli in repairing +the defences of that town and collecting troops +from the whole district, but his reputation had been +lowered by that reverse. There was a certain jealousy +between the Kirghiz chief and the Tajik soldier of +fortune. Yakoob Beg saw in Alim Kuli an obstacle to +his further promotion, and Alim Kuli recognized in the +Kooshbege a possible rival and successor. Any excuse +therefore to keep Yakoob Beg in the background, or +indeed to get rid of him altogether, would be very +welcome to Alim Kuli. We hear little more of the +unsuccessful general until his departure for Kashgar a +few months afterwards. He had to wipe out in other +regions and against other foes the stain he had incurred +in his encounters with the Russians.</p> + +<p>While these events were in progress at Tashkent, an +envoy arrived there from Sadic Beg, a Kirghiz prince +on the frontiers of Ili and Kashgar. He brought +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +intelligence that his master had availed himself of the +dissensions among the Chinese, to seize the city of +Kashgar, and he requested the Khan of Khokand to +send him the heir of the Khojas, in order that he might +place him on the throne. As the facts really stood, +Sadic Beg had only laid siege to Kashgar, and, finding +that he was met with a strenuous resistance, had +recourse to the plan of setting up a Khoja king to +strengthen his failing efforts, but of the true state of +affairs in Kashgar it is evident that everybody in +Tashkent was primarily ignorant. The Khokandian +policy had always been, however, to maintain their +interests intact in Eastern Turkestan, and to weaken +in every possible way the credit of the Chinese. An +envoy bringing news of a fresh revolt in Kashgar was, +therefore, sure of a friendly reception at Tashkent, even +if he did not return with some more striking tokens of +amity. But on this occasion the danger from Russian +movements was so close at hand, and all the efforts of +the state were so concentrated in preparations for defence, +that Alim Kuli, whatever he may have thought of its +prospects, and however much he may have sympathized +with its object, was unable to give the Kirghiz emissary +any aid in his enterprise. When, however, Buzurg +Khan, the only surviving son of Jehangir Khan, +either of his own free will, or instigated, as some say, +by Yakoob Beg, offered to assert his claims on Kashgar, +Alim Kuli expressed his approval of the design, and +gave his moral assistance so far as was compatible with +no active participation therein. He, however, gave +Buzurg Khan the services of Kooshbege Mahomed +Yakoob to act as his commander-in-chief, or Baturbashi. +Thus did Alim Kuli free himself from his troublesome +subordinate, and despatched on an errand which seemed +likely to end in disgrace and defeat, but which really +led to empire, the only native whom he dreaded as being +capable of supplanting him.</p> + +<p>Yakoob Beg had up to this point given little promise +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +of future distinction. He had, indeed, earned the +reputation of being a gallant soldier, if a not very +prudent one; and in the intrigues that had marked the +history of his state for twenty years, he had borne his +fair share. But no one would have dreamt of prognosticating +that he possessed the ability necessary to win +campaigns against superior forces, and then to erect a +powerful state on the ruins that fell into his possession. +The most favourable opinion would have been, that he +would have died manfully as a soldier, and as a true +Mussulman. When he embarked in the enterprise of +conquering Kashgar, he was no longer in the first flush +of youth, but was a man who covered his fiery spirit +and great ambition with a cloak of religious zeal and +diplomatic apathy. Twenty years' experience in the +most intriguing court in Central Asia had placed every +muscle at his complete command, and even in the most +disastrous moments in his career, he is always +represented as being calm and collected—calm in his +belief in Kismut, and collected in a persuasion of his +own resources. One fact that will account for the +slowness with which he advanced into notoriety is that +he was entirely dependent on his own capacity for +promotion. He had no wealth, no large following, and +in the two leaders, Kipchak and Kirghiz, Mussulman and +Alim Kuli, he had competitors of almost equal merit with +himself, while they each possessed personal power and +family connections that placed them far beyond the reach +of the hardy soldier and court chamberlain. Some of his +detractors had availed themselves of his impecuniosity +to circulate stories of his having had dealings with +the Russians; but these, although invested with circumstances +originating in non-Russian quarters, are +probably without any truth. The chief charge, to be +taken for what it is worth, is, that the weakness of his +defence of the Ak Musjid district, after the fall of the +fort, was owing to his having received a large bribe +from the Russians. Another is, that in 1863, after his +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +return from Bokhara, he neglected to retard the Russian +movements for a pecuniary consideration. In both +cases the sum mentioned is very large; and besides the +apparent falseness of these rumours, we have only to +consider that he was not worth a bribe, and that his +opposition to the Russians was marked by all the want +of foresight of religious zeal. All these considerations +make such rumours appear in their true light; and +although we are aware that a follower of Yakoob Beg +confirmed, if he did not originate, these charges, +it seems to us that the Russians, if there had been +truth in the report, would long ago have placed the fact +before the peoples of Asia, and required Yakoob Beg +when Ameer of Kashgar to have acted in a more +friendly way towards his former employers. But the +simple reason that Yakoob Beg could not have rendered +any service to the Russians worth the thousands of +pounds he is said to have received, ought to demolish +the whole fabrication. If Yakoob Beg's life proves one +thing more than another, it was that he was a most +fanatical Mussulman, and as such hating the Russians, +as the most formidable enemy of Islam, with the most +intense hate his fiery nature was capable of. This +man's whole life must have been the greatest hypocrisy +if he was not genuine in his religious intolerance, +and that intolerance rendered any connivance with +Russian measures an impossibility. Owing to his early +connection with the church, and his maternal grandfather's +high position therein, Yakoob Beg was always +distinguished for the strict orthodoxy of his views. +Through all his life he seems to have made it his chief +object to keep the church on his side. When he was +reduced to the most desperate straits in his after life in +Kashgar, when some of the most faithful of his +followers fell off from him, and when even Buzurg +Khan, the man whom he had placed upon a throne, +declared him a rebel and a traitor, he never lost heart +so long as the ministers of the church held by him; and, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +on the other hand, they, recognizing the fidelity of their +champion, supported him through good and ill repute. +Whilst residing at Bokhara "the holy" he had attached +to his person several of the most distinguished preachers +of Islam throughout Asia, and he had taken all the +vows that give a peculiar sanctity to the relations that +connect the layman with his priest. It was here that +he publicly announced his intention of going on +pilgrimage to Mecca; an intention which he repeated +on several occasions during his rule of Kashgar, but +was obliged, by the position and precarious existence of +that state, always to perform by deputy. When he had +established himself as ruler, his first measure was to +re-enforce the Shariàt and to endow several shrines +that had been erected to the memory of the chief +Khoja saints. It was by such means that he at every +crisis of his life had striven to make his interests +identical with those of his religion, and when he +became a responsible and successful prince his past life +stood him in such good stead, that he easily came to be +regarded throughout Asia as the most faithful and +redoubtable supporter of Islam.</p> + +<p>At this period of his life he is described by one who +knew him as being of a short but stoutish build, with +a keenly intelligent and handsome countenance. He +had, during the vicissitudes of his career in Khokand, +been so often near assassination, or execution, that the +result of the morrow had, to all external appearance, +become a matter of secondary consideration to him, and +his features, schooled to immobility by a long career of +court intrigue, appeared to the casual observer dull and +uninteresting. When, however, the conversation turned +on subjects that specially interested him, such as the +advance of Russia, the future of Islam, or the policy of +England, he threw aside his mask, and became at once +a man whose views, with some merit in themselves, +were rendered almost convincing by the singular charm +of his voice and manner. He was honourably distinguished +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +at all times by the simplicity of his dress, and +his freedom from the pretension and love of show +characteristic of most Asiatics; and at the very highest +point of his power he was only a soldier, occupying a +palace. As was well said of Timour, the Athalik Ghazi +placed the "foot of courage in the stirrup of patience," +and he evidently set himself to copy the great lessons +of military success that might be learnt from the careers +of Genghis Khan, Timour, and Baber. Such is some +account of the commander-in-chief to the expedition of +Buzurg Khan. The Khoja, himself, was a man about +the same age as his lieutenant, but in every other +respect as different as he well could be. Personally a +coward, fond of show and every kind of luxury, and of the +treacherous, fickle nature that marked his race, he had +done nothing during his past life to compensate for the +want of the most ordinary virtues. Although he participated +in the expedition of Wali Khan, he showed no +possession of merit, and in the subsequent occupation +that the Khojas maintained in Kashgar during a few +weeks, he, perhaps more than any other of his kinsmen, +disgusted the people by his open and unbridled licentiousness. +Such were the two men who, in the latter +days of 1864, set out from Tashkent for the recovery +of a kingdom. Of their chances of success few would +have ventured then to predict a settlement in their +favour; none, certainly, such as was obtained by +Yakoob Beg. It is now time for us to relate how they +fared in Eastern Turkestan.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VII"></a><span>CHAPTER VII.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">THE INVASION OF KASHGAR BY BUZURG KHAN AND +YAKOOB BEG.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Chinese were on several occasions, as we have seen, +threatened in Eastern Turkestan by the pretensions of +the Khojas, and the secret or open machinations of +Khokand. But they had at all times triumphed over +every combination of circumstances, so long as they +themselves were united. The temporary success of +Jehangir Khan was obliterated by the excesses which +characterized his occupation of the country, and by the +energy and large display of force, with which the +Chinese pacified the state on his flight; and the last, +under Wali Khan, can scarcely be dignified by any +other appellation than that of a marauding incursion. +But a great and important change had occurred in the +few years that had elapsed since 1859. The Chinese +no longer presented a collected force to the onslaught of +an assailant. In every quarter of their empire, victorious +rebels had established themselves, and had +detracted in an immeasurable degree from the effective +strength of the Government. A Mahomedan ruler +swayed over the Panthays, in Yunnan, from his capital +at Ta-li-foo; the Taepings round Nankin were at the +summit of their career, just before the appearance of +Colonel Gordon, when, in 1862, a fresh danger broke out +in the provinces of Kansuh and Shensi. From a remote +period there had been extensive Mussulman settlements +in these provinces, and so early as the seventeenth +century they had been the cause of trouble to the great +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +Kanghi. The Emperor Keen-Lung, indeed, at one +time attempted to settle the question for ever by ordering +the massacre of every Mahomedan over fifteen years +of age. Even this sweeping measure did not have the +desired effect, and whether persecution was the means +or not of giving vitality to the cause, it is certain that +they had become more numerous, more resolute, and +more confident in their own superiority to the other +Chinese by the middle of the present century. These +Mahomedans were known as Tungani, Dungani, or +Dungans, while the Buddhist Chinese are spoken of +as Khitay. Many writers are not satisfied with this +simple explanation of the name Tungani, and will have +it that they were a distinct race, who were either transported +to China at some period of Chinese conquest, or +were compelled to seek refuge there by some advancing +barbarian horde. They even assert that they can trace +the name and origin of this people to a tribe dwelling +in the country of the lower waters of the Amoor; but +while there is complete uncertainty on the subject it +seems simpler to accept the signification that the word +Tungani conveys to the Chinese, and that is Mahomedan. +We know, for certain, that these people had +resided in Kansuh and its neighbouring province for +centuries—that they were remarkable for a superiority +in strength and activity over the Khitay, and that they +possessed the virtues of sobriety and honesty. They +were also not infected by the disease of opium smoking, +and we should imagine them to have been a quiet, contented, +and agreeable people at their most prosperous +period. Their physical superiority to the Khitay would +probably be owing to their abstention from "bang" +and opium, and we need not suppose that they were the +descendants of a stronger race, who had issued from the +frigid north, when we have an explanation so much simpler +and more natural at hand. They were found by +their Khitay rulers to form excellent soldiers, policemen, +and other Government servants, such as carriers, &c. In +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +this last employment many found their way to Hamil, +thence to Turfan and Urumtsi, and their numbers were +increased by discharged soldiers, who remained as military +settlers sooner than return to Kansuh. In the course of +a few generations their numbers became much greater, +until, at last, in the cities we have named, they formed the +majority of the inhabitants. In Kuldja, too, they were +very numerous, but south of the Tian Shan they do not +seem to have advanced westward of Kucha in any great +force. At Aksu the Andijan influence, supreme in Western +Kashgar, presented an impassable barrier to the Tungani, +who, it must be remembered, had no sympathy +with Khokand. The Tungani were, therefore, Mahomedan +subjects of China, originating in Kansuh, but +who had also, in the course of time, spread westward +into Chinese Turkestan and Jungaria. They were employed +in the service of the country without restriction, +nor can we find that they were subjected to any unfair +usage, after the measures taken against them in the +earlier days of Keen-Lung. They may not have been +as highly favoured as the Sobo tribes, and they may +have been subjected to some ridicule in Kansuh; but in +Jungaria they were on an equality with all the other +Chinese, and immeasurably better placed in the political +scale than the Andijanis or Tarantchis. The Chinese +had just grounds for believing that no danger to their +rule in Eastern Turkestan or Jungaria would ever be +caused by the Tungani, and it is not easy to explain +how their reasonable anticipations were falsified. The +Tungani were fervent, if not the most orthodox in +form of, Mahomedans, and it would appear that they +were not free from a belief in their own superiority to +the Khitay. This feeling was fostered by the "mollahs," +or priests, who became very active within the Chinese +dominions, when these had been extended by conquest +into the heart of Asia. As if in retaliation for a Khitay +conquest the Mahomedan religion was undermining the +outworks of its rival's power slowly, but surely. The +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +impulse given to trade by the security and patronage +that accompanied Chinese rule was, at least from a +purely Chinese point of view, neutralized as an advantage +by the admission into the empire of energetic and +eloquent preachers of the superior merits of Mahomedanism. +It required many generations before the effect +of their efforts became perceptible, and it was not until +the power of China fell into an extraordinary decline—a +decline which many thought, with some show of reason, +was to herald the fall, but which later events have +seemed to make but the prelude to a more vigorous +life than ever—that these Mahomedan missionaries +among the Tungani knew that the time to reap what +they had sown with patience and persistency was at +hand. It is impossible not to connect this event in some +degree with that unaccountable revival of fanaticism +among Mahomedans, which has produced so many important +events during the last thirty years, and of which +we are now witnessing some of the most striking results.</p> + +<p>In 1862, a riot occurred in a small village of Kansuh; +it was suppressed with some loss of life, and people were +beginning to suppose that it possessed no significance, +when a disturbance broke out on a large scale at Houchow, +or Salara. The Tungani had risen, and the unfortunate +unarmed Khitay were massacred right and +left. The rising soon assumed the proportions of a +civil war, and the infection spread to the neighbouring +province of Shensi. Then ensued scenes of the most +atrocious barbarity. The Khitay, who all their lives +had lived at peace and as neighbours with the Tungani, +were butchered without mercy. The Mahomedan +priests seized all the governing power into their +own hands, and set their followers the example of unscrupulous +ferocity. The movement, even if we make +allowance for the difficulties besetting the government +in other regions, must be considered to have been attended +by unexpected success. It can only be accounted +for by the supposition that the Khitay were +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +taken completely by surprise, and realized neither the +extent nor the nature of the danger to which they were +exposed. Before the end of 1862, a Tungan government +was established in Kansuh, and its jurisdiction +was for a time acknowledged in Shensi. The priests +formed an administration amongst themselves, and set +themselves to the task of consolidating what they had +won, and of preparing for the time when the Chinese +should come for vengeance. The events happening +in Kansuh were naturally of interest to the Tungani +in the country lying beyond it, and it was not long +before the example set them was followed in Hamil, +Turfan, Urumtsi, Manas, and other cities of that district. +The same success attended the movement here +as in Kansuh. The Chinese power was subverted, the +Khitay massacred with greater circumstances of cruelty, +if possible, and a new Tungan state was formed in +those cities. Each district retained a nominal independence, +under the headship of a priest, or body of priests, +or of one of the native Tungan princes, and then the +movement spread with irresistible strides to Karashar, +Kucha, and Aksu. There it stopped, and south of the +Tian Shan the Tungan revolt proper never extended +west of Aksu.</p> + +<p>In Altyshahr and Kuldja for some months longer +the Chinese maintained the external show of power, +but all their communications with China were cut off, +and neither in numbers nor resources had they sufficient +means to cope with the Tungani unaided. They +would have accomplished as much as could have been +expected from them if they succeeded in keeping possession +of that which they still occupied. The Tungan +element in Kucha and Aksu was not predominant. +It had to share power with the Khojas, and, as we shall +see later on, the Khojas of these two cities seized the +governing power for themselves. It was the appearance +of the Tungan sedition in these cities, which +occupy a middle relation to the purely Chinese cities +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +of Hamil and Urumtsi, and the almost totally Khokandian +cities of Yarkand and Kashgar, that roused +the Kashgari to a full appreciation of the importance +to themselves of this movement, and the Chinese garrisons +and settlers to an equally just realization of +their own danger. The Kashgari, not free from the +fanaticism of all their co-religionists, and naturally +elated at the successes of the Tungani, forgot, with their +well proved fickleness, all the benefits they had received +from the Chinese, and waited eagerly for a favourable +opportunity to come for them to imitate the example +set them by their eastern neighbours. Nor had they +long to wait, although it was not from them that came +the first spark that lighted the firebrand of civil war +and anarchy throughout the length and breadth of +Altyshahr.</p> + +<p>It will be remembered that the Khokandian government +had the right to nominate in each city, where they +received dues on Mahomedan merchandise, an agent or +tax-collector to look after the proper levy of the tax. +In some of the larger cities this official would require +a considerable staff of assistants, and thus a certain +number of skilled Khokandian officials were permanently +located on Kashgarian or Chinese territory. +After the failure of the expedition of Wali Khan, in +which these officials seem to have disappeared, either +having become merged in the body of his partisans or +sacrificed during the massacres of that time, a fresh +batch of Khokandians was installed, and occupied, in a +legal sense, the same position as their predecessors. +It would appear, however, that the natural result of +their aid to Wali Khan followed, and that the Chinese +Ambans regarded their presence with scarcely concealed +dislike, and proclaimed that these Khokandian tax-gatherers +were devoting more of their attention to the +propagation of heretical religious and political doctrines +than to the collection of dues on silk and other articles +of commerce. It would require but the slightest untoward +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +circumstance to fan this ill-feeling into the most +insatiate hatred and hostility. The danger was rendered +the more serious when the Chinese Ambans perceived +for the first time that the sympathies of a large +portion of their Tungan soldiery were estranged from +them. It was doubtful whether the Tungan regiments +could be relied on against a fresh Khoja revolt, +and it was certain that they would not combine in any +repression of the Mahomedan religion, even though the +sufferers should only be Andijanis. Such was the state +of the public mind in Altyshahr in 1862, when the +Tungani revolted and obtained success in Kansuh and +Shensi.</p> + +<p>As early as 1859 the hostility of the Chinese Ambans +to the Andijani tax-collectors received a forcible illustration +in the town of Yarkand. At that time Afridun +Wang was governor, and, whether there was any personal +enmity at the root of the action or not, he found +little difficulty in convincing both himself and the other +Chinese residents that the Andijani agent had been +stirring up discontent against them in the town. Accordingly, +as self-preservation is the first law of nature, +this Khokandian official, with his attendant, was arrested +and executed. There may have been some +foundation for the accusations made by Afridun Wang +against his rival: more probably there was none; but +on referring the matter to the Viceroy of Ili for decision +it was decided that the governor should be removed. +The Khokandian government sent fresh agents, and it +is not stated that any reparation was given to the families +of the sufferers. From this it would appear that +the post of tax-collector in Altyshahr for His Highness +the Khan of Khokand was not a very desirable +position. Afridun Wang retired to his native town of +Turfan, where, three years later on, he contributed more +than any one else to the success of the Tungan movement. +His policy, if anti-Khokandian, was pro-Mahomedan +or Tungan, and his case is very typical of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +nature of this rising. In Turfan he continued to be +one of the chief men, until, six years later on, it fell to +the Athalik Ghazi.</p> + +<p>His successor in the governorship of Yarkand did not +interfere with the Khokandian officials, but for this +moderation he made up by the exactions he committed +on the residents, more particularly on the Mahomedan +portion of them. His extortions and cruelties had the +effect as much of disgusting his own followers as of +rousing a spirit of opposition among the oppressed. +It was while things were in this uncertain state at +Yarkand that the governor received secret notice of +the Tungan revolt in Kansuh, and he at once perceived +that, when this important intelligence became +known, not only would his own Tungan troops become +more openly mutinous, but that the Khojas might seize +the opportunity to assert their claim to the country once +more. In this special case, in addition to the general +apprehension that would be felt by any Chinese governor +at the aspect of affairs, there was personal fear for +the unjustifiable acts of his government, and the Amban, +in his trepidation, resolved on the most strenuous precautions +to avert the danger from himself. He summoned +a council of war of his Buddhist lieutenants, +and stated the exact position to them; how the +Tungan portion of their forces could not be depended +on; how the Tungan settlers would join them; and +how the Andijani agents would do their utmost to unite +in one cause against themselves all those who followed +the teaching of Islam; and how all these events, +which before were possible, had been rendered probable +by the Tungan successes in the east. He dwelt on +the fact that no time was to be lost in the execution of +such precautions as they thought necessary; that at +any moment the news might arrive, and then they +would be in a minority; and he did not attempt to +conceal the purport of his address—that he was in +favour of sharp measures, of going to the root of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +evil at once, and of massacring every Mussulman in +the town. The council of war was not prepared to endorse +such a violent proceeding without careful consideration. +There were many dissentients, and the meeting +was adjourned. It reassembled, and, on this occasion, +although the supporters of more moderate measures had +decreased, it adjourned once more before deciding. The +danger evidently appeared more appalling to the governor +than to his subordinates; perhaps also there +was some personal dislike for their chief even among +his Khitay following. At the second meeting they +seemed, indeed, more willing to acquiesce in his proposed +strong measures, and this may have been caused +by their observation of the state of public opinion in +the interval. But even then no final decision could be +arrived at, and the Khitay never had a chance after that +of making any defence in Yarkand. The Tungan +troops were not long in hearing, through their chief +officer, Mah Dalay, that there was a plot on foot among +the Khitay to disarm, or, as others said, to massacre +them, and they then learnt of the Mahomedan revolt in +China and along the road thither. They immediately +determined to be beforehand with the Amban and his +lukewarm council, and no weak hesitation marred the +execution of their plot, as it had that of the Chinese +governor.</p> + +<p>The Khitay troops, unarmed, were surprised during +the night, and cut down without quarter, and the small +body of survivors sought refuge in the Yangyshahr fort. +This was in August, 1863, and no fewer than 7,000 +Khitay soldiers are computed to have fallen on this +single occasion. The Tungan troops were thereupon +joined by the townspeople, and the question then to be +decided was, who was to be supreme, the Tungani or +the Andijan-Kashgari Mahomedans. The former were +simply an unlettered and rather savage soldiery; the +latter possessed keen intellects for manipulating a fanatical +people, and for improvising an administration of a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +superficial character. The balance of power was evenly +distributed until reinforcements arrived from Aksu and +Kucha to the anti-Tungan party. Two Khojas who +had been banished from Kucha, for endeavouring to +promote their own interests in the name of Khokand, +had fled to Aksu, where they met the same fate. In +this latter flight many of similar principles joined them, +so that when they reached Yarkand they had a numerous +force at their back. The Khojas in the first place +joined their forces to the Tungani, to storm the remaining +Khitay in the Yangyshahr. The Khitay after +a gallant resistance perceived that further opposition +was impossible. Then occurred one of those deeds, +which, if Europe instead of Asia had been the scene, +would have been handed down to posterity as a rare +example of military devotion and courage, but which, +although not unique even in the annals of the campaign +we are entering upon, having occurred in little-known +Eastern Turkestan, is not realized as an event that has +actually taken place. It is a myth of the myth-land to +which it belongs. And yet, when we read how the Amban +summoned all his officers to his chamber, where he +sat in state surrounded by his wives, his family, and his +servants; how all were silent, and yet sedate and prepared; +how, at the given signal that all were present, and that +the foe was at the gate, the aged warrior dropped his +lighted pipe into the mine beneath; how the exulting +foe won after all but a barren triumph; and how the +Khitay taught the natives that if they had forgotten +how to conquer they had not how to die, we feel that +there is an under-current throughout the story, that, +apart from the admiration it must command, has claims +to our own special sympathy. The Chinese, as we did +in India in the dark hours of 1857, asserted their +superiority over the semi-barbarous races under their +sway, even when all hopes of a recovery seemed to +be abandoned. After the fall of the citadel the Khoja +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +element was supreme in Yarkand, and a priest named +Abderrahman was set up as king.</p> + +<p>The other cities of Altyshahr promptly followed the +example of Yarkand, and the Chinese power was completely +subverted on all hands. The Khitay were massacred +whenever they fell into the hands of the Mahomedans, +and the only places that still held out were the +citadels, notably the Yangyshahr of Kashgar. The +inhabitants of this city appear to have been unable to +keep their advantage over the Chinese, for they appealed +to the Kirghiz to come in and assist them. These +nomads, under their chief, Sadic Beg, were nothing +loth to join in expelling the Chinese, as such a change +could only increase their advantages by substituting an +unsettled for a settled government. Siege was accordingly +laid to the citadel of Kashgar, but the irregular +troops of the new allies were unable to make any impression +on the fort, defended as it was by a large +Khitay garrison. If the Chinese commander had +assumed a more active policy, he might have destroyed +his opponents, but he was waiting for the arrival of +reinforcements, which he expected before many +months. In not relying solely on his own resources +he proved himself unable to read the changed signs of +the time; if, indeed, he was not already meditating that +surrender, which he ultimately concluded with Yakoob +Beg. Sadic Beg, finding himself unable to take the +fort, and knowing that it was uncertain how long the +Kashgari would remain friendly to himself, resolved to +play the part of king-maker, and sent the embassy to +Tashkent for a Khoja to come and rule Kashgar, only +he omitted to say that Kashgar was not conquered.</p> + +<p>We can now return to Buzurg Khan and his commander-in-chief. +When they left Tashkent they had +only a following of six, among whom were Abdulla, +Pansad; Mahomed Kuli, Shahawal; and Khoja Kulan, +Hudaychi. All of these played a very prominent +part under Yakoob Beg. From Tashkent they went to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +Khokand, where their numbers rose to sixty-eight. +Here the final preparations were made, and during the +first days of January, 1865, this band of adventurers +crossed the Khokand frontier into Eastern Turkestan. +The mountain forts seem to have been deserted, for +no opposition was encountered in the passage of the +Terek defile. Several small bodies of troops joined +them, and they reached Mingyol in the neighbourhood +of Kashgar with increased numbers and confidence. +Sadic Beg had conceived a more sanguine view of his +situation by this time, and half repented that he had +invited the Khojas in at all, more particularly when he +found that the Khoja had a following of his own, and +a skilled commander and minister in Yakoob Beg. +He then strove to dissuade Buzurg Khan from proceeding +further with an enterprise fraught with great peril, +for he represented the Chinese as sure to return, when +summary vengeance would be exacted. But his arguments +were unavailing. Either Buzurg Khan or his +adviser, Yakoob Beg, was deaf to all entreaty. The enterprise +they had embarked on must be continued to +the bitter end. They could not think of returning to +Khokand with nothing accomplished, with the stigma +attaching to them of a retreat when there had been +no foe. Sadic Beg could not but submit with the best +grace possible; and Buzurg Khan was accordingly +placed on the throne of his ancestors.</p> + +<p>In his "<i>orda</i>" or palace he administered justice and +received the congratulations of his own followers and +of the Andijani townspeople. The court rules were +drawn up on the model of those in use in Khokand, +and while the expedition had but established itself, in +an uncertain manner, in one city it was thought necessary +that etiquette should be as strictly defined and +enforced as if all this were taking place in a brilliant +and luxurious capital. In a few days Sadic Beg, on +finding that he played but a secondary part, revolted, +and set himself up as ruler at Yangy Hissar. It was +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +now that Yakoob Beg came to the front, and assumed +the control of affairs until the fall of the contemptible +Buzurg. With great difficulty after the desertion of +their Kirghiz allies was a force of 3,000 men collected +around the new Khoja in Kashgar. Sadic Beg advanced +on the capital with a much larger army, and +Yakoob Beg had for a time to remain on the defensive. +Each day, however, brought in recruits to his camp, +while, the army of the Kirghiz leader presenting no +object of sympathy to the people, his rival's remained +stationary, if it did not decrease. An encounter at +last commenced between the two forces which was +made general by the intrepidity of Abdulla. The +Kirghiz levies of Sadic were unable to withstand the +vigorous charges that were led against them, and broke +after a short combat into headlong flight. In the +mountains the Kirghiz gathered around their chieftain +in force, and, hovering on the northern districts of +Kashgar, presented a danger that must be removed by +Yakoob Beg before he could advance farther. His +troops were therefore directed to proceed against the +Kirghiz in their fastnesses, and it was not long before +the Kirghiz, driven into a corner, turned at bay on their +pursuer. The forces on either side were about equal, +some 5,000 men in either army. But, as is customary +in the East, the Kirghiz army put forth a champion, +Suranchi by name, who had obtained great renown for +his extraordinary height and strength. The challenge +did not remain unanswered, for Abdulla stepped forward +to the encounter. The fight, though furious, was short, +and the smaller Khokandian warrior was victorious over +his more ponderous antagonist. The Kirghiz power +after this reverse was broken up, and Sadic Beg took +refuge with Alim Kuli at Tashkent. Yakoob Beg's +first campaign against the Kirghiz, who had sworn +alliance with him, and by whose invitation he was present +in Kashgar, had thus ended victoriously, and he +was now able to resume the main purpose of conquering +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +Kashgar. Having rendered Kashgar secure from surprise +on the north, and leaving a force to maintain their +hold on it, and to keep in check the Khitay garrison, +Buzurg and Yakoob proceeded south to occupy Yangy +Hissar. The town was occupied without difficulty, but +an attempt to storm the citadel in which the Khitay +had taken refuge was repulsed with loss. Sending +Buzurg Khan back to Kashgar, Yakoob Beg resolved +to go on to Yarkand and endeavour to bring that city +under their immediate influence.</p> + +<p>At this period he loudly proclaimed that there should +be no differences among the Tungani, or Mahomedans, +in their war with the Buddhists, and that Khojas and +Tungani had but one interest in common. As we +have seen, the Tungan disturbances broke out first in +Yarkand of any city of Altyshahr, and accordingly an +earlier settlement founded on a compromise had been +attained there, than was the case in its northern +neighbours, Kashgar and Yangy Hissar, where an +ambitious Kirghiz chief had sought to carve a +kingdom for himself. After Abderrahman Khoja had +been made king or ruler in Yarkand, and after the +Khitay had been destroyed with their citadel, a fresh +arrangement was agreed upon between the Tungani +and the Khoja party. By its terms the Tungani +maintained possession of the citadel, and the Khojas +held jurisdiction in the city. Neither of them would be +disposed to view with any friendly eye the appearance +of a claimant to supremacy in the person of a Khoja +sovereign of the whole country, and it was as the representative +of such a person that Yakoob Beg resolved to +visit Yarkand. His march was delayed as much as +possible, and it was not without some difficulty that he +at last obtained admittance with his small following +into the city. Yakoob Beg was naturally incensed at +this inimical treatment from his fellow-religionists, and +he soon set himself to the task of humbling the +dominant Khojas of Yarkand. During a street riot +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +that was probably instigated by the wily Khokandian, +the leading Khojas were seized, and their followers +expelled from the city. With a force of only a few +hundred men, Yakoob Beg had established himself as +master in the largest city of the country; his success +on this occasion was very temporary. As ill fortune +would have it for him, a fresh army of 2,000 men from +Kucha had arrived at Tagharchi, and, there joined by +the forces from Yarkand and the neighbourhood, presented +a very formidable appearance. They marched +on the city at once with complete confidence in their +superior numbers, and Yakoob Beg, always in favour of +the boldest course, marched out to meet them. In a +skirmish, however, the detachment under Abdulla was +badly cut up owing to the rashness of that officer, and +Yakoob Beg at once recognized the necessity for a +prompt retreat. During the following night he made +a forced march and arrived the next day at Yangy Hissar +with no very great loss in men, but without any baggage +whatever. The enterprise to Yarkand then appeared +in its true light as a rash venture.</p> + +<p>The Khitay in the fort of Yangy Hissar still held +out, and Yakoob Beg resolved to overcome them before +he attempted any fresh enterprise. He called up +reinforcements from Kashgar, and pressed the siege +with renewed vigour, and alter strictly environing it for +forty days the garrison surrendered. Although Yakoob +Beg himself seemed desirous of showing moderation to +the prisoners, more than 2,000 Chinese were massacred. +During all these petty events, which had not produced +even the results of past Khoja enterprises, there had +been discontent and division within, as well as opposition +from without. At this time a fresh danger +was appearing on the horizon. A Badakshi army was +advancing with hostile intent on Sirikul, and although +Yakoob Beg disregarded its approach while he pressed +on the works against the citadel of Yangy Hissar, when +that fort fell it attracted his attention once more. The +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +Khitay garrison in the Yangyshahr of Kashgar was +also a source of danger to the newly founded dynasty, +and, although its inactivity had continued for a long +period, it was uncertain at what moment it might pass +off. We can only account for the extraordinary lethargy +of the Chinese commander by supposing that he was in +complete ignorance of what was passing in the country. +At many moments it must seem to an observer of the +facts that the Chinese governor, who had under him 6,000 +or 7,000 disciplined troops, could have crushed all the +opposition of such heterogeneous crowds as those fighting +under or against Yakoob Beg were up to this time. +With the destruction of the Yangy Hissar garrison the +prospects of Yakoob Beg greatly improved, and less opportunity +was left to the Chinese governor for assuming +the offensive, than when he possessed an ally in so close a +position as Yangy Hissar. Yakoob Beg also resolved to +press the Khitay still more in this their last stronghold, +and before he encountered other opponents to +crush the Khitay, as he already had the Kirghiz. +At this point Sadic Beg reappears in Kashgar at the +head of a Kirghiz force to oppose Yakoob Beg, and for +a moment it seemed as if he were to have better fortune +on this occasion. But Abdulla, the most trusted as +well as the most courageous of Yakoob Beg's lieutenants, +collected such forces as he could, boldly threw himself +in his path, and, having routed Sadic in a sanguinary +engagement, prepared to press that unfortunate chieftain +into flight or ruin. Yakoob Beg, in want of allies and +soldiers however, interfered and suggested an alliance +instead of a war <i>à outrance</i>. The thwarted Sadic was +only too glad to get off on such favourable terms, and +joined his forces to those of his late enemy now +besieging the Khitay with renewed vigour. This +merciful termination of a difficulty, that might have +become serious had it not been cured in time, was a +performance very creditable in a diplomatic sense to +Yakoob Beg. In a small way it may be compared with +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +Frederick the Great's action at Pirna, where he received +the services of 40,000 Saxon troops. But, perhaps, still +more remarkable was the manner in which Yakoob Beg +averted the danger from the Badakshi army. The +Badakshi, like their kinsmen the Afghans, may be considered, +<i>cæteris paribus</i>, to be superior soldiers, on account +of their larger build and more active habits, to other +Asiatics, so that Yakoob Beg with his half-disciplined +followers would have had some difficulty and must have +incurred considerable loss in overcoming these new invaders. +He made overtures to them, and the Badakshi, +seeing that he was likely to give them exciting and +profitable employment, entered into negotiations with +him. The result was that they took service under him; +and Yakoob Beg for the first time found himself at the +head of a large army, composed of Khokand, Kashgar, +Kirghiz, and Badakshan levies. It was fortunate for +himself that he had been able to arrange his affairs so +satisfactorily, for a fresh danger was approaching from +the east.</p> + +<p>The reader may have observed that we have said little +of Buzurg Khan during the operations of the campaign +up to this point. Indeed, there is little or nothing +to say of the movements of that prince, for he had +been mainly stationary at Kashgar, where he passed +his time in his harem, or besotted under the use of +drugs. Yakoob Beg had from the very commencement +come to the front as responsible chief, and as events +progressed the people and the army came to look upon +him as their future ruler. But Yakoob Beg, it would +seem, was really in earnest in supporting the Khoja +prince, for on several occasions not only did he give +Buzurg the most salutary advice, but he also compelled +him to take an active part in the public business. Such +fits of action were most distasteful to the effeminate +prince, and he always returned with renewed zest to +the illicit pleasures in which he indulged. One of the +occasions on which Yakoob Beg endeavoured to instil +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +into his sovereign some idea of the responsibilities of +his office was this invasion by the Khoja-Tungani power +of Altyshahr. Early in the summer a large force, estimated +at 40,000 men, collected by the cities of Aksu, +Kucha, and Turfan, appeared at Maralbashi, whence +it equally threatened Kashgar or protected Yarkand. +Yakoob Beg's utmost efforts, if we are to credit the +native report, only availed to bring some 2,500 men into +the field; but it is more reasonable to suppose, that, +with his Kirghiz, Kipchak, and Badakshi auxiliaries, +he had many more troops under him, perhaps 12,500 +instead of 2,500 men. Be the exact numbers of the +forces what they may, however, it is certain that he +was greatly outnumbered by the invader, and that the +diverse elements of his army detracted very much from +its effective strength. The Tungan army advanced from +Maralbashi on Yangy Hissar, where Yakoob Beg had +concentrated his army. He had drawn Buzurg Khan +and such of the court followers as he could from their +ignominious inaction in the capital to encounter the +dangers and risks of a field of battle. Both sides were +eager for the encounter, which took place in the +neighbourhood of Yangy Hissar. The tactical disposition +made by Yakoob Beg of his forces was such as +would command the approval of skilled officers, and, +having done all that mortal man could do to insure the +result, he commended himself and his cause to Allah. +The battle was long and stoutly contested. During +hours it was impossible to say to which side the balance +of victory was inclining; at last the Kirghiz troops, +half-hearted in their fighting, were driven from the field, +and the Badakshi division, which had up to that +moment stubbornly held its ground, immediately +followed the shameful example thus set it. There now +only remained the division under the immediate orders +of Yakoob Beg to withstand the onset of a whole army +victorious in two different quarters of the field. The +situation, on which the fate of the whole enterprise +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +depended, might have filled the boldest heart with +momentary despair. Yakoob Beg had, however, so +braced himself to the effort, that no more than ordinary +emotion was permitted to betray the disturbed mind +within, and with the exclamation that "Victory is the +gift of God," he inspired his soldiery to continue the +fight throughout the afternoon. The enemy, dismayed +at the dauntless courage shown by this mere handful of +men, and having incurred great loss in his effort to +crush them, drew off his weakened forces towards +evening; and Yakoob Beg, boldly seizing the opportunity +for assuming the offensive, drove them from the +field in disorder and with considerable loss. In addition +to the loss in killed and wounded, more than 1,000 +Tungan soldiers enlisted under the standard of Yakoob +Beg, and that general found himself on the morrow of +one of his greatest battles, with a greater force under +his command than he had just before it commenced. +This great triumph gave fresh lustre to the Khoja +family, and redounded to the military renown of +Yakoob Beg. Nor should it be forgotten that on this +occasion he showed that he possessed, besides military +genius of some merit, qualities of an estimable character. +For the first time in the annals of these wars the +prisoners were treated with some consideration. For +some reason or other this victory was not followed up, +and the defeated Kucha army retired on Maralbashi, +which it continued to hold for some months longer. +The indirect results of this victory were scarcely less +important, however, than the immediate and direct consequences +of it.</p> + +<p>Buzurg Khan, who had been present at this battle, +was among the first to seek refuge in flight; and when +he received intelligence of the final success his satisfaction +was almost eclipsed by his personal chagrin and +mortification. Up to this event he had been content to +let Yakoob Beg act the king so long as he could indulge +undisturbed in his debaucheries; but from this date +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +there became mingled with his wounded vanity a conviction +that Yakoob Beg was becoming so powerful and +so popular that he might prove a dangerous subject. +The weak-minded prince then permitted himself to be +made the tool of every rival that the success of Yakoob +Beg had raised up for himself either in the court or in +the camp, and listened to tales brought him of his lieutenant's +plots, when the conspirators most to be feared +by himself were the ambitious chieftains in whose power +he was placing his person and his crown. After the +defeat of the Kucha army, the ruling parties in Yarkand +thought it would be wise to come to terms with +their victorious and aggressive neighbour, and accordingly +an embassy was despatched to Yangy Hissar by +the Khojas of Yarkand to tender their submission to the +sovereign of Kashgar, and to ask to be favoured by the +nomination of a city governor, who would be agreeable +to Buzurg Khan and his vizier, Yakoob Beg. It is +suggestive to watch how the name of the vizier occupies +almost as prominent place in all their addresses as that +of his master. The Tungan governor in the Yarkand +Yangyshahr, not to be behindhand in his worship of +the rising sun, immediately sent a similar expression of +obedience to Kashgar.</p> + +<p>The course of events once more takes us back to +Kashgar, where the Chinese still held the citadel against +all comers. But with each fresh success of Yakoob Beg +over his numerous opponents, and with the spread of +the Tungan power into Jungaria, hope almost completely +deserted the unfortunate Khitay, who, in this +solitary fort, alone maintained the name of Chinese +authority. Treason, within the walls, was now to aid +the efforts from without. Kho Dalay, the superior +officer in the citadel, although not the commandant, +came to an arrangement with Yakoob Beg, by which +honourable terms were conceded to the garrison; and +3,000 Khitay troops surrendered and settled in Kashgar. +They were required to acknowledge formally the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +supremacy of the Khoja, and to make a profession of +Islamism. But they were never really interfered with +in the observance of their own rites among themselves, +and had nothing to complain of in their duty. They +were called after their recantation "Yangy Mussulmans," +or "New Mussulmans." These were the last Khitay +troops who surrendered to the new conquerors, and with +them every vestige of Chinese authority disappeared +from every part of Jungaria and Eastern Turkestan. +Even among this garrison, reduced by a long siege and +its attendant deprivations to despair, there was a small +minority who preferred death to the dishonour involved +in surrender. Chang Tay, the commandant, refused to +be any party to the arrangement made between Kho +Dalay and Yakoob Beg. When the day approached +for the entry of the Kashgarian army, this resolute +Amban withdrew to his palace, and having collected his +family and dependents around him blew them all up +with the explosion of a mine that he had constructed +underneath. In the confusion that arose from this +incident, the enemy broke into the fort, and it was not +for some hours that Yakoob Beg succeeded in obtaining +control over them once more. During that interval of +insubordination many Khitay were murdered, but not +without resistance. Kho Dalay and almost 3,000 men +remained to take service in the conquering army, as +already explained. The new alliance was cemented by +the marriage of Yakoob Beg to the beautiful daughter +of Kho Dalay, by whom he has had several children, +too young as yet to take any part in public affairs. +Perhaps Yakoob Beg's moderation to the Khitay is to +be explained by this circumstance, and it is certain that +down to the very end his Khitay wife exercised great +influence over her husband.</p> + +<p>This was in September, 1865, nine months after his +first arrival in Altyshahr, and in that period he had +worked, if not very rapidly, with considerable thoroughness. +The Khitay destroyed, the Kirghiz subdued, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +and the Tungan influence checked in its aggression +against Western Kashgar, such was the tale of his +achievements. Several battles and sieges successfully +brought to an issue, and a numerous army formed +out of the diverse fragments of conquered and conquerors. +Personally, too, Yakoob Beg had done +much towards preparing the public mind for the assumption +of power by himself, and the reigning chief +had done still more by his neglect of duty and abandonment +to pleasure. Buzurg Khan might stand for +the typical <i>roi fainéant</i>, and Yakoob Beg was a more +than ordinarily resolute and determined <i>maire du palais</i>.</p> + +<p>The citadel of Kashgar had not long surrendered +when messengers arrived, reporting the near approach +of a large body of men from Khokand, but who they +were, or with what intention they came, none knew. +These were the unsuccessful conspirators against Khudayar +Khan, who, after the death of Alim Kuli, had obtained +his power once more; and these having been driven +out of Khokand by his armies, were compelled to seek +refuge in Kashgar. Yakoob Beg sent them the laconic +message, while they were hovering on the frontier, that +"if they came as friends, they were welcome; if as foes, +he was ready to fight them." Until the arrival of this +declaration there appears to have been some hesitation +among the Khokandians what to do, as some were wishing +to attempt the conquest of Kashgar in their own +interests; but when so clear a statement was sent +them by Yakoob Beg, and when they learnt more +definitely of the permanence of his success, they +threw off their reserve and joined the confederacy of +Kashgar. In the meanwhile fresh disturbances were +breaking out in Yarkand, and thither he proceeded in +the later months of 1865 to quell them, taking Buzurg +Khan with him. On his arrival before the town both +the Khojas and the Tungani hastened to profess the +greatest desire to fulfil his wishes, although they kept +him outside their gates. It is probable that neither +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +party could have offered any prolonged resistance to +him, had they not been encouraged to do so by +Buzurg Khan. That prince had for some time been +fretting against the iron will of his lieutenant, and, now, +in an ill humour at being carried from his amusements +and idleness at Kashgar to suffer the deprivations of a +camp life before Yarkand, broke loose from all control, and +plotted in his own camp, and in the enemy's, to free himself +from his troublesome general. The plot among the +Tungan soldiery had assumed alarming proportions, and +all was ready to put an end to the career of Yakoob, +when it was fortunately discovered by his faithful friend +Abdulla. Precautions were taken, and the plot in the +camp was effectually thwarted; but Yakoob Beg was +not strong enough then to show his resentment. This +danger was only removed to give place to another. The +Tungani soldiers in Yakoob's service now opened up communications +with their kinsmen in the Yangy-Shahr, +and they formed the following plan to destroy the remaining +portion of the Kashgarian forces. The garrison +was to simulate a desire to yield into the hands of Yakoob +Beg both their own persons and the fort, and when he, +unsuspecting any covert design, should be lulled into a +false sense of security, the Tungani in his service could +join the Tungani in the fort in making a night attack +on the other forces. The plan promised well. Yakoob +Beg was deceived by the friendly overtures of the Tungani, +and relaxed his precautions, and, during the +night that was to precede the surrender of the Tungani, +the conspirators marched out of the fort, and being +joined, as had been arranged, by the other confederates, +surprised Yakoob Beg and his immediate followers. +A desperate resistance was offered by the half-armed +men, but the Tungani were victorious, and Yakoob Beg +had much difficulty in collecting around him on the +morrow a few hundred soldiers. Among those, however, +was Abdulla and some of his more trusted companions. +The Kirghiz under Sadic Beg could not +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +be trusted, and it seemed that that chief was still inclined +to play for his own hand. At this, the most +critical period of his life, Yakoob Beg's tact and resolution +were most conspicuous. When he was surrounded +on every hand by hostile factions, and could count on +the fidelity of scarce five hundred men, he triumphed +over every obstacle, and rose omnipotent over the petty +jealousies and dissensions of those who sought to crush +him. Buzurg Khan seized the moment of this disaster +to draw off into a separate camp with a large body of +troops and all the Kirghiz, and it is very possible, as +has been asserted, that he instigated the successful +Tungan <i>coup</i>. There is no evidence that he did, and I am +personally of opinion that it originated among the Tungani +themselves, and that Buzurg Khan only rejoiced at +its occurrence, as he would have done at any other +reverse to Yakoob. The position now was as follows:—In +the citadel were the victorious Tungani, and in the +town they shared the distribution of power with the +townspeople. Outside in one part was Buzurg Khan, +with a force that was equivocal in its sympathies, and +that might at any moment become hostile, to Yakoob +Beg; and in another part was Yakoob Beg himself and +his attenuated following. Affairs could not look less +hopeful, and if the three parties could have accommodated +their own differences for but the short space of +twenty-four hours, Yakoob Beg must infallibly have +been destroyed: as it was, they did nothing with an +enemy like Yakoob Beg in their proximity, and permitted +him to redeem all he had lost by his too great credulity +in the good faith of his brother Mussulmans. Let us +now see how he saved himself. The first point to do +was to restore the courage and self-confidence of his own +soldiers, and to do that, it was necessary to strike a +sharp blow that was sure of success. The fort could not +be taken by a <i>coup de main</i>, but the city, large and straggling, +presented a more inviting aspect for such an +attempt. Abdulla, the Murat of the army of Kashgar, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +with the most determined intrepidity, carried it by +assault, although here again he attacked without awaiting +the arrival of the other contingents. Like Edward Bruce,</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"Such was his wonted reckless mood,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Yet desperate valour oft made good,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Even by its daring, venture rude,<br /></span> +<span class="i1">Where prudence might have failed."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>This achievement put an end to the rejoicings among +the Tungani, and compelled them to recognize what a terribly +energetic and enterprising foe they had to deal with. +But, at this moment, a severe mishap occurred which +almost neutralized the advantage thus gained. Buzurg +Khan, unable either to crush Yakoob Beg or to enjoy +the indulgences to which he had enslaved himself, resolved +to secure the latter, happen what might. He +accordingly fled from Yarkand with many followers, +and retired to his palace at Kashgar. There, not content +with pillaging the palace of Yakoob Beg, he proclaimed +him a traitor and rebel, and offered a reward to whomsoever +should bring him his head. Another general +was appointed to the command of the army, and preparations +were made for defending Kashgar against any +attempt of Yakoob Beg to attack it. But fortunately +the Tungani in the citadel of Yarkand were not aware +of this dissension among the Kashgari, and as they were +struck with admiration for the valour of Yakoob Beg, they +surrendered to him soon after the flight of Buzurg. He +was then able to turn his undivided attention to his +refractory chief. Yakoob Beg had always, as we have said, +befriended the church; he was now to experience some +benefit for that very commendable respect. Among the +first means of crushing Yakoob Beg that Buzurg Khan had +employed was an appeal to the Sheikh-ul-islam of Kashgar +to proclaim his Baturbashi outside the pale of the +law. This the ecclesiastic refused to do, and asserted, on +the contrary, that Yakoob Beg had deserved well both +of his country and of the Mahomedan world. Foiled in +his effort to stir up a religious feeling against his general, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +Buzurg Khan was reduced to the more cogent, but in +his hands quite useless, argument of the sword. Nor +was the field, limited as it must appear to us, free from +other pretenders. Sadic Beg, instead of coalescing with +Buzurg Khan, set up his own pretensions to rule the +country; and the Kucha Khojas and Tungani began to +collect troops in view of possible eventualities.</p> + +<p>The army of Buzurg Khan, which had marched out +to oppose the entry of Yakoob Beg, was outflanked and +defeated by Abdulla in the country between Yangy +Hissar and the capital; and Yakoob Beg, pressing on +with irresistible strides, was received in Kashgar with +the acclamations of the people and of his soldiers. He +was then publicly proclaimed ruler, and his friend the +Sheikh-ul-islam ratified the people's choice. Buzurg +Khan, who had taken refuge in the Yangy-Shahr, was +seized in his palace there, after a very slight resistance. +Some of the more prominent of Yakoob Beg's rivals +were executed, and Buzurg Khan himself was placed in +a state of honourable confinement. He still persisted in +futile intrigues, and so long as he remained in Kashgar +was a source of endless trouble to the new government. +For more than eighteen months he was permitted to remain +however, and then, being detected in instigating +the murder of Yakoob Beg, was banished to Tibet. +After wandering for some years, he found his way to +Khokand, where he is believed to be still residing with a +large family. He may be considered to have been the last +Khoja prince ruling Kashgar, for it is scarcely probable +that, in any future settlement of that country, a restoration +of the old reigning family will be supported by any one. +He is no exaggerated type of the rule among Central +Asian despots, who present to our gaze a long series of +petty tyrants and debauchees, until for a few years they +are displaced by a successful soldier such as the Athalik +Ghazi, or by a skilful minister such as Mussulman Kuli +was in Khokand.</p> + +<p>The Kirghiz chief, Sadic Beg, did not long hold out +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +against the consolidated power of Yakoob Beg; and the +Kucha movements were suspended. In a little more +than twelve months Yakoob Beg had occupied Kashgar, +Yangy Hissar, and Yarkand. Sirikul and Khoten +also acknowledged his rule; but his further operations +against them will be narrated by-and-by. He felt now +so secure in his seat that he permitted the Badakshi +contingent to return home, presenting each soldier +with a large present. Ever since that time Yakoob +Beg seems to have maintained some influence in Badakshan, +and to have been inclined on several occasions +to compete with Shere Ali of Afghanistan for the possession +of that province. His ambition was never +fully revealed in this quarter; but it is certain that +Shere Ali regarded him with scarcely concealed suspicion +and dislike.</p> + +<p>With the assumption of personal power by Yakoob +Beg, on the deposition of the Khoja Buzurg Khan, the +first part of the enterprise undertaken in the later days +of 1864 was brought to a termination. In the more +extended operations of Yakoob Beg against the Tungani +and Khoten, may be perceived the effects of events +outside his immediate sphere upon, this energetic ruler, +who, until his last years, never realized the strength +of the Russians, and who had, up to the year 1870 +when Kuldja was occupied, convinced himself that he +could retard the progress of the great Northern power. +It was that idea, besides a thirst for military renown +and excitement, that urged him on to the construction +of what he fondly believed might prove a formidable +and extensive state. As ruler of Kashgar, he could +not be anything but a kind of vassal of the Khan of +Khokand; as monarch of Eastern Turkestan, he might +treat on terms of equality with the Czar of Russia or +the Emperor of China. It was no unworthy ambition, +and Yakoob Beg, created Athalik Ghazi, Champion +Father, in 1866 by the Ameer of Bokhara, accomplished +so much of it as was possible.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><span>CHAPTER VIII.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">WARS WITH THE TUNGANI.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">Yakoob Beg</span>, having deposed Buzurg Khan and suppressed +all resistance on the part either of the Tungani +or of the Chinese in Western Kashgar, had some leisure +to make a careful survey of his exact position. The +result of the desultory fighting of the previous twelve +months had been eminently satisfactory to himself; +but, to say the least, it was dubious how long this +state of things might last. Former adventurers had +accomplished as much as he had, but the Chinese +had always returned with renewed vigour. How was +Yakoob Beg to know that the rumours were well +founded which asserted that that empire had been sore +stricken in other fields than against the Tungani, and +that even the victories over the Taepings were not considered +a complete set-off to the disasters in every other +quarter of the empire? European critics predicted +that the last hour of the Chinese Empire was fast approaching; +but Yakoob Beg, with far more imperfect +means of intelligence at his disposal, feared still, even +when the citadel of Kashgar surrendered, that the +Khitay would return for revenge. His fears were not +groundless, as we now know, but he anticipated events +by more than ten years. Yakoob Beg was not so sanguine +in his own resources or good fortune that he +believed that he should not have to encounter the +danger that had overwhelmed all his predecessors, and +his first object accordingly was to gather all his +strength together in a compact mass to resist the +Chinese when they should come. But the dissensions +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +that had, during the conquest of Altyshahr, manifested +themselves so palpably in the ill-assorted conglomeration +which had gathered round the standard of Buzurg +Khan brought home to the mind of Yakoob Beg the +disadvantages of a divided people. He accordingly +determined that, whatever else he might fail or succeed +in achieving, his most resolute effort should be to +weld into one cohesive and effective whole Andijani +and Tungani, Kashgari and Khitay. It was no mean +ambition; but to cement such discordant elements +a policy of "blood and iron" was required. Yakoob +Beg did not shrink certainly in its application; but +when he had accomplished the task he had set himself to +bring about he discovered that the cost had been so great +that the state, both in population and in wealth, was +at a lower point than it had ever been before. But in +the earlier days of 1866 no doubt crossed his mind on +this latter point. It must be remembered that, strange +to say, the great success of Yakoob Beg in Kashgar +had alienated the sympathy of the government of Khokand +from his cause; and, although this may be explained +by the antipathy of Khudayar Khan, now +firmly seated on the throne, who could not entertain +any amity for a subject who had on several occasions deserted +his cause, it is impossible to attribute to that sentiment +alone a fact which must have had some deeper and +less personal explanation. At all stages of the history +of these petty princes of Asia are we met by the spectacle +of mutual jealousy and recrimination, whenever +any one of themselves seemed about to exalt himself +above his fellows, either by the success of his arms or +by the beneficence of his rule. Rarely, indeed, had +any of them shown that he possessed more than ordinary +ability or courage; but, whenever the phenomenon +did appear, he was at once proclaimed by his neighbours +to be a dangerous innovation, and as such to be +thwarted and opposed. The practice has come down +to our own day, and during the long wars that Russia +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +has waged in Asia we have never beheld two states, no +matter how insignificant, combine to oppose the common +foe. The Khokandians have never aided the Bokhariots +or the Khivans, nor have the Afghans or the +Kashgari the Khokandians. They have kept the ring, +so to speak, as each of them has gone down singly +before the prowess of the Muscovite, in a manner that +ought to excite the admiration of all those who preserve +the memories of the traditional honours of the +prize ring; but, as their own existence has been the +penalty, it is questionable whether their conduct, inspired +by regard for no law of chivalry, but simply by +mutual antipathy, has been very prudent. Over such +petty jealousies had Yakoob Beg to triumph before he +could hope to complete his dream of an united Kashgaria. +His path was beset with difficulties. In satisfying himself +with too little he might imperil what he had secured, +but in attempting too much he might jeopardize everything +he had won. Under such circumstances the boldest +man might have stood uncertain, and the most resolute +inactive until hurried into action by the progress +of events. For some months Yakoob Beg seems to +have remained uncertain what should be his next move.</p> + +<p>In 1865, before his last advance on Yarkand, he had +seized Maralbashi or Bartchuk, and by so doing not only +had he secured communication between Aksu and Yarkand, +but also between Aksu and Khoten. This position, +lying 200 miles to the east of Yangy Hissar, has always +been and is still very important, and Yakoob Beg is +supposed to have fortified it very strongly. This success +was the permanent result of his great victory over the +Tungani from Aksu and Kucha in the neighbourhood +of Yangy Hissar, and it effectually secured his flank +during further operations. It was not, however, until he +turned his attention to the southern city of Khoten, +that the importance of this acquisition was made incontestable. +Then it enabled him to devote his attention +exclusively to the extension of his sway southward to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +the mountains of Karakoram and Kuen Lun, beyond +which he might expect no enemy. In Khoten the Mufti +Habitulla had been invested with supreme control, after +the deposition of the Chinese authorities; and during +his government of the city and district, order appears +to have been maintained without unnecessary exactions. +When Yakoob Beg made his first appearance in Yarkand, +after his earlier successes round Kashgar, it will be remembered +that the Yarkandi acknowledged the supremacy +of the new Khoja king. Their example was +speedily followed by Habitulla of Khoten, and it is not +stated that, even during the progress of hostilities with +Yarkand, this ruler repudiated the arrangement into +which he had entered. It is true that he was far removed +from the immediate sphere of action, but that will not +alone account for an indifference to the progress of events +in Kashgar, which Khoten had never manifested on any +previous occasion. Khoten may, therefore, be considered +to have been exceptionally well behaved towards the new +Khoja dynasty located at Kashgar; and when Yakoob +Beg advanced to the south of Yarkand, Habitulla +hastened to send representatives to the camp of the +conqueror. They were received with consideration, but +deep down in the breast of Yakoob Beg there lurked +either an inveterate distrust of, or dislike to, the Mufti +Habitulla. Dissembling his true feelings, Yakoob Beg +sent a message requesting the presence of the Mufti in +his camp. The Mufti, deluded by the friendly treatment +bestowed on his emissaries, came with many of his +relations and followers into the camp of the Kashgarian +general. At first, we are told, they were treated with +every mark of respect and kindness; they were feasted +and clothed in precious garments, but all these honours +were but the preliminaries to the concluding ceremony. +During the progress of the evening meal they were +disarmed, and led out to execution, while an attack was +made from several quarters on the town. Even then +the resistance was prolonged, and the slaughter by the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +infuriated soldiery of the Athalik Ghazi continued long +after all serious opposition had ceased. It is impossible +to exonerate Yakoob Beg from the chief blame on this +occasion, and if he had been a civilized European general, +we should have made use of the phrase, that "It must +ever remain a blot on his career;" but it would be the +height of irony to apply such a phrase to this unscrupulous +Asiatic, who, if not worse than the school in +which he was brought up, was certainly not much better +in a moral sense. As the fact stands, the seizure of +Khoten, and the massacre of the unarmed leaders of that +city, appear to have been acts as unnecessary as they +were unjustifiable. Khoten may have seemed to the +Athalik Ghazi of exceptional importance for several +reasons, and he may have felt doubtful of the fidelity +of Habitulla and his followers; but, so far as we are +aware, the reasons for this action are shadowy in the extreme, +even regarded from the point of view of political +expediency. Down to the present day, too, the memory +of this massacre, needless even in the eyes of a people +accustomed to the shortest cuts to power by wholesale +slaughter, has rankled in the minds of the inhabitants +of Khoten and Sanju, and the Athalik Ghazi was least +popular in that part of his state in which, according to +the traditions of his predecessors, his action had been +most sweeping, and accordingly most safe. This was +early in the year 1867, and the Athalik Ghazi had now +an opportunity for settling his relationship with his +eastern neighbours, the Tungani.</p> + +<p>The Tungan movement proper originated, as explained +in the last chapter, in the Chinese provinces of +Kansuh and Shensi, and then extended with scarcely a +check to Turfan south of the Tian Shan and to Urumtsi +north of that range. The flame soon spread from Turfan +to Karashar, Kucha, and Aksu, and at all of these +towns it was fomented by the appearance of the new +element of the Mahomedan Khokandian, and native +settlers, acting in combination with the Chinese Tungani. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +North of the Tian Shan the movement received a temporary +repulse; and it is necessary to say something in +explanation of the course of the Mahomedan revival in +Ili before we proceed to discuss the earlier wars of Yakoob +Beg with the Tungani. As early as 1860 serious +complications had arisen in that province, although +the Chinese had always been more firmly situated there +than in Kashgar. In that year a plot was concocted +to murder the Chinese viceroy and to upset the existing +government. It was discovered, however, and fell +through. There appear to have been more causes at +work in Ili to produce discontent than in the southern +state, and it was not so much a question here between +Khitay and Tungani, as it was between a people clamouring +for work, for less taxation, and for payment for +what they had done, and an administration that was +unable to satisfy the demands made upon it from all +sides. That last resource of a government at its wits' +ends for money, the depreciation of the current coin and +the issue of fictitious paper, was adopted by the Viceroy +of Ili. The measure, which it had been expected would +lessen the difficulty, only added fuel to the flame. The +situation of affairs was becoming desperate; the people +were encouraged by the disasters of the Chinese in the +neighbouring states to increase the number of their +demands; and the Chinese officials appear to have lost +their heads in the storm that was gathering from all sides +around them. They were but the effete representatives +of a system which in its vigorous days had claims to +general admiration, and they are only saved from incurring +our contempt by the possession of courage, the +sole virtue left them. When the Chinese first conquered +Eastern Turkestan they brought from Kashgar a large +number of settlers, and placed them in the country +round Ili. They became known as Tarantchis, and, in +the course of two or three generations, had increased +into a very numerous community. These were always +at heart disaffected to the Chinese, but, as they occupied +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +a very subordinate position, would probably never have +thought of revolt had not a large division of the conquerors +set them the example of insubordination. So +soon as the discontent among the working classes had +assumed formidable proportions by the pecuniary embarrassment +of the Chinese, and the Tungan successes +in the east of Jungaria had raised a fanatical feeling to +swell the hatred against a declining and Buddhist rule, +the Tarantchis were not backward for their part in reviving +their almost forgotten grievances, and in joining in a +defensive and offensive alliance with the Tungani. Each +party collected such forces as they could, out in the +encounter that ensued the disciplined soldiers of the +Viceroy overcame the far more numerous mob by which +they were opposed. The fortress of Bazandai, however, +within the next few days, fell into the power of the +insurgents, and that achievement more than compensated +for the disaster in the open field. Ili itself surrendered +in January, 1866, and a Tungani-Tarantchi +government was formed. The Chinese viceroy had +in the meanwhile destroyed himself and many of his +followers and assailants by setting fire to a mine of +gunpowder under his palace. The Tungan element +gradually superseded the Tarantchi in the administration +of the state, and the five years of independence, +which continued until the Russians came in 1871, were +chiefly marked by petty disagreements which had no +influence on the progress of events in this part of Asia. +The trade with Ili fell off, and many other valid reasons +for Russian intervention were accumulated during those +few years of national existence.</p> + +<p>With the beginning of 1867, Yakoob Beg, secure +on the south and on the west from aggression, found +himself in a position to cope with the disjointed but +allied Tungan states on his north and east. The hostility +of the Tungani and Khojas of Aksu and Kucha had +been already demonstrated, and it was to be surmised +that they were only waiting to recover from the disastrous +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +campaign of 1865 to renew their efforts to drive the +Khokandian adventurers out of Kashgar. The facts +that they acknowledged the same religious tenets, and +that they had overcome, to some extent, a common +enemy in the Chinese, and that they certainly had +each to fear most from their return, seem to have +weighed little with either the Tungani or the Athalik +Ghazi. To do the latter simple justice, it must be +remembered that the Tungani had been the aggressors, +and that their attitude never ceased to be unfriendly +towards himself. It is certain that he made some efforts +to effect an amicable arrangement with the ruling party +in Aksu, but his advances were received with coldness, +and both the Khojas and the Tungani of that city held +aloof from all intercourse with the new-comer. Both +parties remained watching each other for some time, +each waiting for the other to take the initiative. The +Tungani had experienced the weight of the military +power of Yakoob Beg, when they had taken the offensive +in the earlier days of his appearance at Kashgar. It +was, therefore, not very probable that they would repeat +the experiment when he presented a far more formidable +and united presence to their attack. Practically speaking, +Yakoob Beg was safe from invasion from the east +so long as he maintained order within his own frontier; +and the Tungani in Ili on his north had manifested no +special hostility against his state. Secure from any +aggression on the part of the Tungani, Yakoob Beg +might with some reason have declined to push to extremities +his relations with them. It was certainly inconvenient +that an antagonistic state should exist on his +very borders, but, as he was in a very strong position for +defence, the disadvantages of abandoning it to assume +an offensive policy were all the more apparent. What +necessity could be alleged to justify a scarcely excusable +attack in a moral sense, and a quite unnecessary in a +political? The proximity of Aksu was in a strategic +sense more than neutralized by the possession of Maralbashi, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +and, with the lapse of time and the return of +peace, the trade route from Kashgar to Aksu might be +expected to revive once more. But such temporizing +measures as these, involving the endurance of Tungan +indifference, could not be brooked by the Athalik Ghazi. +The orthodoxy of these Mahomedans was not above +suspicion, and to so devout and energetic a Sunni as +Yakoob Beg these differences were scarcely less offensive +than if they had been believers in a rival religion. +Dictatorial announcements were made to the Khoja-Tungan +rulers of Aksu; and, on their persisting in +defiance, Yakoob Beg collected his forces to chastise +them. The doctrines of the Tungani were impeached +as not being in strict accordance with the Shariàt, and +the religious fervour of the Sunnis was appealed to, to +bring these recalcitrant people to an acknowledgment +of the error of their ways. In addition to the semi-religious +element thus imported into the question, +Yakoob Beg also laid claim to the country up to Kucha +as part of the old territory of the Khoja kings.</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1867 his army set out in two +divisions for Aksu. The Tungani appear to have been +paralyzed when the danger that had for many months +appeared menacing came upon them. The resistance +encountered at Aksu, naturally and artificially a very +strong place, was not prolonged, and Yakoob Beg swept +on against Kucha. Here the Tungani, having somewhat +recovered from their trepidation, made a desperate +stand, and with the reinforcements that had arrived from +Turfan presented a sufficiently formidable appearance. +The ruling authorities in Kucha were Khojas, who in +the time of the Chinese had the custody of a shrine sacred +to the memory of a Mahomedan saint, but who at the +outbreak of disturbances left the temple for the council +chamber, and the offering up of prayers to the memory +of the saint for the more difficult task of issuing edicts +for the management of a people. Unhappily for their +reputation in our eyes, they had specially distinguished +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +themselves in the massacres of the Khitay. Their +brief tenure of power seems to have been fairly beneficent, +and, in the lull that succeeded the deposition of +the Chinese and preceded the invasion of Yakoob Beg, +they obtained without doing anything very noteworthy +the approval and affection of their subjects. At Kucha, +therefore, more than 500 miles distant from his own +capital, with a long line of hostile country in his +rear, Yakoob Beg found himself opposed by the full +power of the Tungani. Previous to advancing beyond +Aksu he had sent back officers to Kashgar to bring up +fresh levies, and he had resorted to that doubtful +expedient of drafting into his army many of the +Tungani captured at Aksu. Arrived in front of Kucha +he was unable to prosecute the siege with any vigour +until the arrival of his reinforcements. The moment of +delay was attempted to be turned to account by Yakoob +Beg and some of the more prudent of his counsellors; +but the Tungani, whether unwilling to acknowledge +their inferiority or incredulous of the good faith of the +Athalik Ghazi, refused to enter into negotiations that +they asserted were unnecessary. Yakoob Beg had invaded +them in their possessions, and he had annexed +Aksu; the only condition in which they could acquiesce +was a withdrawal of his army. All the efforts of the +more peaceful and the more prudent on either side were +unavailing, and each party used every exertion to bring +up fresh troops to decide the question of superiority between +Tungani and Kashgari. For several weeks the +two armies stood facing each other, the one stationed on +the hills to the north and west of the city, commanding +the main road from Aksu, the other in the environs and +the fortifications of the city itself. The Tungani were far +the more numerous, but in the quality of his main body, +and in general efficiency both of weapons and of experience +among the officers, the advantage was completely +on the side of Yakoob Beg. The nucleus of his force +comprised Afghan, Khokandian, and Badakshi troops, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +veterans in the wars of the two previous years. The +Tungani were either the assassins of helpless Chinese, or +the fugitives of Aksu or Yangy Hissar. They were imperfectly +armed, without any organization, and without +any competent leaders. Above all, the cause they were +fighting for was vague, and many of them in their +hearts sympathized more with Yakoob Beg than they did +with their own chiefs. The Kashgarian army, on the +other hand, was encouraged by a long series of brilliant +achievements, and looked forward with eagerness to the +fray as the means of exalting their own religion, and as +affording them an opportunity for advancing their own +personal interests by the plunder of so rich a city as +Kucha. The reinforcements were consequently eagerly +expected, and some of the more ardent spirits demanded +that they should be led without delay against the enemy. +Yakoob Beg was so far prudent that he refused to be +urged into premature action by the impetuosity of his +followers, and the arrival of reinforcements sooner than +was anticipated enabled him not only to keep the excitement +of his soldiery within due bounds, but also to +commence active operations at an earlier date than had +seemed possible. The Tungan leaders, deluded by the +inaction of Yakoob Beg into a belief that he was unable +to prosecute the enterprise he had undertaken, assumed +the offensive, only to be worsted in several minor +engagements. The Tungan troops were driven within +the walls, and the siege was prosecuted with the closest +rigour. The garrison of Kucha was not sufficiently +numerous to guard in proper strength the wide-stretching +suburbs and extensive fortifications of the existing +Kucha, and the cities that had in olden days stood upon +its site. Not many days elapsed before Yakoob Beg +perceived that the defence was confined to a limited +portion of the fortifications, and that several points +were entirely neglected. He resolved, therefore, to put +an end to the slow process of a siege by carrying the +town by a general assault. With the whole of his +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +available force he attacked the city on three sides; but +the Tungani resisted strenuously, and all his direct +attacks were repulsed with heavy loss. To his son +Khooda Kul Beg he had entrusted an attack in the +rear of the city, and on the success of that movement +now entirely depended the result of the assault on +Kucha. That division by great good fortune and the +gallantry of its leader was victorious, and, although this +promising son of Yakoob Beg, then only a little more +than twenty years of age, was killed in the confusion +that ensued on the entrance into the city, Kucha fell. +The triumph was, perhaps, not too dearly purchased. The +Tungan power had received a blow, which took the +sting out of its menace, and effectually protected Kashgar +from any possible confederacy among the Tungan cities. +Yakoob Beg followed up the success of Kucha with all +his usual promptitude, but his power was not yet sufficiently +matured to justify him in carrying on extensive +operations at such a distance from the base of his +resources. But another reason at this time combined +to recall his attention to another part of his dominions. +The Russians were advancing both in Khokand and in +the district of Vernoe to the west of Kuldja.</p> + +<p>It was evident that prudence demanded a prompt +return, and for the present all further triumph must be +abandoned. However, before Yakoob Beg returned to +regulate events in the western portion of his dominions, +he had the satisfaction of receiving the submission +humbly tendered by the ruling bodies of Karashar, +Turfan, Hamil, and Urumtsi. After this brilliant +campaign, he slowly retraced his steps through Kucha +to Aksu. Then he turned into the mountains, and +reduced Ush Turfan, which in his onward march he +had passed by; and, after this acquisition, the Tungani +of Ili expressed a desire to enter into terms of amity +with one who had brought his empire into direct contact +with their state. All these events occurred during +the year 1867; and, although now and then uncertain +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +rumours reached England of these changes in Eastern +Turkestan, the world in general, even the Russian +world, remained indifferent to the progress of events of +which it is now difficult to trace the exact course. But, +with the close of this first Tungan campaign, and with +the extension of the new state up to the walls of Kucha, +the Russian Government, as will be seen in a later +chapter, endeavoured to arrive at some clear view on +the exact condition of the newly formed confederacy to +which they in their career of conquest were approaching +so rapidly.</p> + +<p>This commencement of foreign interest in, nay, +almost supervision of, his actions in Eastern Turkestan, +imposed some restriction on the hitherto unrestrained +caprice of Yakoob Beg, and the country beyond Kucha +up to Turfan was saved for a short time from the +depredations from which in 1871–73 it suffered so +much. On his return to Kashgar after this triumphant +progress, and after having annexed the three important +cities, Aksu, Kucha, and Ush Turfan, the danger which +had seemed to threaten the state from Russia passed +off, and Yakoob Beg proceeded to consolidate his hold +on what he had secured. Aksu and Kucha were fortified, +and various small forts were constructed in the +passes leading to Khokand and Kuldja. Every precaution +was taken that he had it in his power to observe, +to ensure the safety of his little kingdom from without, +and for the moment all murmur within seemed to be +hushed by the loud acclamations at the victories of the +Athalik Ghazi. He had, indeed, accomplished no slight +task, and could afford to regard his handiwork with +some complacency. To erect a powerful state on the +ruins of the Chinese power, and to unite in some sort +of settled government turbulent races and antagonistic +sects, was no mean achievement; and to all the credit due +to such Yakoob Beg has indisputable claims. But for +him, confusion and disunion would have settled down +over Eastern Turkestan, until either the Russians or the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +Chinese had come to establish a respectable government; +but for him Kashgar would have lapsed into a +state of almost hopeless disorder, and Russian triumphs +would have been facilitated. But, when Yakoob Beg +returned to find that he was not seriously threatened in +Kashgar, he experienced deep regret and mortification +that he had abstained from prosecuting his wars with +the Tungani with a greater vigour. He eagerly looked +forward to an excuse for resuming his discontinued +operations against them. In the interval that elapsed, +he waged a small war in the mountainous region of his +territory extending into Badakshan and the Chitral. +Sirikul had, ever since the appearance of the Badakshi +army in the service of Kashgar, acknowledged a certain +kind of obedience to Yakoob Beg; but in 1868, the +governor hitherto supported by the Athalik Ghazi +broke out into revolt, and committed several acts of +depredation in the contiguous districts of Sanju and +Yarkand. Yakoob Beg without delay despatched a +small force against him, and, by the help of some +mountain guns and the judicious employment of a +small but select body of cavalry, was successful in overcoming +all resistance with very slight loss. In February, +1869, Yakoob Beg, having tried several milder +alternatives, formally annexed this district, and carried +the inhabitants into Yarkand. He resettled the territory +with Kirghiz nomads and Yarkandis. Once more, +he was able to turn his attention to the east, and in +1869 commenced those final campaigns against the +Tungani which only ceased with the reappearance of +the Chinese. The great blot in the career of Yakoob +Beg is the resumption of hostilities against the Tungani. +In 1867, when he first engaged with any vigour +the Tungani, some excuse may be found for that unforeseeing +action, in the fact that the Tungani were unbroken, +and might have proved formidable neighbours. +But in 1869, they had been hurled back on Korla, and, +although it may be true that they were inconvenient +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +neighbours, robbing caravans and molesting travellers, +it is difficult to justify the later campaigns of Yakoob +Beg against them, especially as they were conducted by +himself and his lieutenants with exceptional ferocity. +But, however weak may have been the impulse, and +however disastrous in the result may have been his crusade +against the Tungani, it was not difficult to discover +a plausible excuse for proceeding to extreme measures +with his troublesome neighbours. In the autumn of +1869, Korla fell before his triumphant arms, and it +would appear that he then turned north into the valleys +of the Tekes and the Yuldus, two rivers rising in the +Tian Shan, and flowing through Jungaria. This movement +aroused the susceptibilities of the Russians, and +afforded a very simple excuse for the acquisition of +Kuldja. In that state, disturbances had arisen between +the Tungani and the Tarantchis, and it must have fallen +an easy prey to the Athalik Ghazi had he been permitted +to advance. The Russians had, however, in +1871, entered Kuldja, and explained their action by +asserting that they had only done so to restore order, +and to prevent its falling into the hands of Yakoob +Beg. They merely held it in trust for the Chinese, so +they said, and would restore it to them, its rightful +owners, so soon as they should be able to keep permanent +possession of it. While Yakoob Beg despatched +a large detachment into the country of the Tian Shan, +his main body was prosecuting with vigour the war +against Karashar and Turfan. Yakoob Beg did not +always conduct the war in person, for his two sons, +Kuli Beg and Hacc Kuli Beg, were now growing up, +and they, assisted by some of the older lieutenants, +triumphed in various actions over the Tungan rulers of +Turfan and Hamil, while even the princes of Urumtsi +and Manas over the Tian Shan were unable to oppose +the valour and energy of their adversary. The glory +of these military achievements was tarnished by the +ruthless manner in which the district was laid waste, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +and the inhabitants were massacred; and the senselessness +of these proceedings only required an hour of trial, +such as the Chinese invasion, to prove how fatal it would +be to the enacters of these atrocities. Without any +great cessation, their operations were carried on down +to the end of 1873, and it does not appear that Yakoob +Beg derived any benefit whatever from these costly and +remote undertakings. Although the Tungan chiefs of +Urumtsi and Hamil were on several occasions defeated +by the armies of the Athalik Ghazi, their cities were +never occupied, and they consequently escaped that +desolation which stretched from the walls of Kucha to +the regions north of Lake Lob. Chightam, a small town +lying half way between Turfan and Hamil, was the +extreme point to which the Kashgarian forces penetrated. +The noble families of Urumtsi, Turfan, and +Hamil were almost totally destroyed in the fall of +Turfan; and their place in their own cities was seized +by Tungan generals and adventurers, who began to +retreat westward from Kansuh, on the rumours of +Chinese preparations for invading Jungaria.</p> + +<p>The wars against the Tungani certainly served one +useful purpose in enabling Yakoob Beg to collect a +large and disciplined force round his standard; but the +attractions of service in his army lost much of their +value in the eyes of the hardier clans of Turkestan and +the neighbouring states, when it became known that +the prospect of loot and prize money in districts impoverished +by several years of hostilities had diminished. +The rigour of the discipline maintained, too, +was irksome to nomads and irregulars accustomed to +the easier service and freedom from restraint of the other +Asiatic princes; and during the later years of his rule +there were many desertions, and a difficulty was encountered +in inducing recruits to enter his army. The +old practice, employed with such success in the earlier +years of his rule, of inducing the conquered to combine +with the conqueror, was no longer possible, for +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +extermination had become the order of the day. The +Usbegs, Kirghiz, and other tribes, could not supply in +sufficient numbers the requirements of the state, and +the Tungani, who should have comprised the largest +portion of the subjects of the Athalik Ghazi, were +coerced into subjection with an undiscriminating +severity. The result was really a paralysis through +sheer want of people, and it was not known until the +hour of trial came how weakened his forces had become. +Every inducement was held forth to Afghan, +Badakshi, and, above all, to Indian soldiers to join, +but these, although they formed a nucleus of trustworthy +and efficient soldiers, were far too few to constitute +a formidable army. We are justified in assuming +from the facts that these Tungan wars, conducted +in an unsparing manner, were the greatest mistake +that marked the career of Yakoob Beg. So far as his +occupation of Kucha goes, he could at least say that he +had secured a valuable prize. He had acquired every +part of what could be considered Kashgar, and his +kingdom was effectually guarded, and his revenues +prospectively increased, by the possession of the great +cities of Aksu and Kucha. He might exclaim with +justice that he had eclipsed all his predecessors in military +prowess, and if he had been wise he would then +have turned his attention to the well government of +his state, and by so doing have demonstrated that he +was of a higher capacity for ruling a people, as well as +for commanding an army, than any Khoja prince of +the past. Had he abstained from prosecuting with +such unflagging persistency his inveterate dislike of the +Tungani, he might easily have come to terms with his +neighbours, and the harm they could have done him +would have been infinitesimally small. But the chief +advantage of that more prudent policy would have been +visible when the Chinese advanced to chastise the +Tungani. Not only would the Tungani have been +more capable of resisting the Khitay, not only would +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +Manas and Urumtsi have been capable of offering a +more determined defence, but the Tungani could have +retired on Turfan, and held the country round that +town, as well as Karashar and Korla, for a protracted +period against General Kin Shun. The Athalik Ghazi +with untouched resources could have awaited with just +confidence the advance of the Chinese upon his strong +frontier city of Kucha, and, as the Chinese accomplished +the difficult task of crushing the Tungani, he +would have had the satisfaction of knowing that in all +probability the Chinese effort would have been spent +before it reached his own borders.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to judge men except by the results +of their actions, and the result of Yakoob Beg's incessant +and unnecessary interference with the Tungani +was that the Chinese army was able in a few months to +dissipate the remaining Tungan communities, and to +encounter in the full flush of their triumph the numerically +weaker forces of Yakoob Beg. It is, therefore, +impossible to exonerate the ruler from great blame in +hastily undertaking operations which a little consideration +ought to have shown to be unwise. Having +traced Yakoob Beg's wars with the Chinese Mahomedans, +it is time to consider his rule of Kashgaria proper, and +the events that during these years were transpiring in +other quarters of the state.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_IX"></a><span>CHAPTER IX.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">YAKOOB BEG'S GOVERNMENT OF KASHGAR.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">Yakoob Beg's</span> chief claim to our consideration is that, +for more than twelve years, he gave a settled government +to a large portion of Central Asia, and that, however +faulty his external policy may have been in critical +moments, his internal management was founded on a +practical and sufficiently just basis. As a warrior he +had done much to justify admiration, and had proved +on many a well-fought field, and in many a desperate +encounter, his claims to be considered a fearless and +resolute soldier; but in this quality he was equalled, if +not excelled, by his own lieutenant, Abdulla Beg, the +Murat of Kashgar, while some of the deeds of his son, +Beg Bacha, will rank in daring and surpass in ferocity +anything achieved by the Athalik Ghazi. But in +capacity for administration Yakoob Beg far surpassed +his contemporaries, and the merit of his success was +enhanced, not so much by the originality of the method +adopted, as by the unique vigour and perseverance with +which it was put into force. The secret of his power +can only be discovered by constantly bearing in mind +the fact that he had constituted himself the champion +of the Mahomedan religion in Central Asia. The +Ameers of Bokhara and Afghanistan might trifle with +the seductive promises of the Russians, and might consent +to sacrifice the interests of their religion for a +transitory advancement of their worldly possessions; +but to such degradations the Athalik Ghazi—true +"champion father" as he was—never stooped. With +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +whatever imaginary power the sympathy and good-will +of the Mahomedan peoples of Turkestan may have +clothed this ruler, there is no question that his attitude +towards the Muscovite would have warranted the +assertion of greater power than was ever attributed to +him; and the secret of this delusion, an attitude of +defiant strength without any solid foundation for so +bold a course, can only be unravelled by remembering +that the Athalik Ghazi strove to represent, not so +much Kashgaria, as the whole Mahomedan world of +Central Asia. The necessities of his own position, +when, having conquered Kashgar, he found that he +had aroused the susceptibilities of the Russians, compelled +him to seek in every direction for aid, and to +have recourse to every artifice for increasing his +strength, or its semblance, in order to avoid the dissolution +of his state and a subjection to the Czar. So +well did he succeed in his efforts, and so prompt were +his movements and so fearless his attitude, that the +Russians were deluded into a belief—which was, as we +emphatically insist, unfounded—that Kashgar would +prove a more formidable antagonist than either Bokhara, +or Khokand, or Khiva.</p> + +<p>The interior management of a state, which, young +in years, yet seemed to tower among its fellows, might +be supposed to be a very interesting topic to dilate +upon; but on this subject there is less direct evidence +than could be wished. Even Sir Douglas Forsyth, in +his official report, is not able to throw as much light as +is desired on the inner working of the administrative +system of Yakoob Beg. Still, such as it is, with the +exception of the Russian writer, Gregorieff, he is the +only authority on the subject.</p> + +<p>To commence with the court and the immediate +surroundings of Yakoob Beg, we are struck by two +inconsistencies. In the first place, there were no great +nobles, or indeed adherents or his family; those chiefs +who, whether they were Khokandian nobles or Kirghiz +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +or Afghan adventurers, had proved their fidelity to +his rule, and their capacity for service, were actively +employed as governors of districts, or as commandants +of fortresses in the wide-stretching dominions of their +imperious master. Periodically they came to pay their +respects in the capital, and at frequent intervals Yakoob +Beg, in his journeys to the frontier, visited them, and +superintended their operations in person; but, in so active +a community where there was a dearth of mankind, the +intellectually gifted members of the society were too +valuable to be permitted to devote their energies and +their attention to the object of becoming palace ornaments. +Yakoob Beg had forced himself on a people who +regarded him with indifference, and he had to maintain +himself in his place by a never relaxing vigour. To +make this possible, he required a large staff of efficient +and trustworthy subordinates, who may be divided into +three classes of various capacities, viz., soldiers, administrators, +and tax-gatherers. Until the last few months +of his reign there was no symptom that his system was +declining in vigour, or that his supply of competent +officials was limited and susceptible of being exhausted. +Even in his most prosperous years, however, there was +always a difficulty in obtaining a full supply; and +in all inferior posts the disaffected Khitay had to be +employed. The Tungani of Kucha and Aksu were +scarcely more to be trusted in an emergency than their +Buddhist kinsmen. Yet the extensive civil service of +the state, which undertook the education, the religion, +the civil order, the local administration of the people +all into its own hands, had to be kept in working order, +whatever else might happen. It can at once be perceived +that, when a government which never obtained any deep +hold on the affections of the people had only a limited +population to draw upon, it was only a question of time +to solve the difficulty by an exhaustion of the supply of +suitable brain material, or by the uprising of an, at heart, +dissatisfied people. No one will ever understand the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +secret of Yakoob Beg's rule unless he constantly bears +in mind that his strict orthodoxy as a Mussulman, and +his still stricter enforcement of the laws of his religion +within his borders, were elements of strength only in +his external relations; in his internal affairs they placed +him in the light of a tyrant, and prevented his people +ever experiencing any enthusiasm for his person and +rule. It is doubtful whether outside the priesthood and +the more fanatical Andijanis there was any great religious +zeal at all, and it is quite a delusion to speak of +the Kashgari, as a whole, as being fanatical Mahomedans, +in the same degree that it is true to say so of the +Bokhariots or Afghans. In addition to there being no +noble or wealthy official class in the city of Kashgar, +there was also the strange inconsistency of an intensely +strict etiquette being enforced side by side with extreme +plainness in costume and ceremonial. It is rare indeed +to hear any traveller to Kashgar speaking of the richness +or finery of court functionaries. Even Hadji Torah, +or the Seyyid Yakoob Khan, as he is now called, and Mahomed +Yunus, the governor of Yarkand, two of the most +trusted and prominent followers of the Athalik Ghazi, +were not to be distinguished from a host of minor luminaries +in the court circle by any external insignia of +their elevated position. Some of the military, officers +of the household troops, wore a device of a dragon's +head worked in silk over their plain uniform of leather; +and this seems to have been a custom surviving the +disappearance of the Chinese. Hadji Torah—who recently +visited this country, and who had on previous +occasions travelled in Russia, Turkey, and India—however, +alone among Kashgarian notables, had introduced +into his household some of the comforts and luxuries of +European life. His example was not imitated by many +others, and, after a brief period of fashion, the improvements +he had striven to make popular died out and were +lost sight of. The ordinary dress of a person above the +rank of gentleman is a large blanket-like cloak worn +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +over a close-fitting tunic and breeches; and the dress of +the peasant is similar, only his cloak is usually a sheepskin. +The Ameer himself set the example of exceeding +plainness in his costume, and his followers were far too +skilled courtiers to vary their practice from that of their +ruler. But what his court lacked in pomp it gained in +impressiveness by the perfect system of etiquette enforced, +and by the external show of reverence to the +ruler and to his religion, manifested in every petty detail +of the palace ceremonial. The Ameer received publicly +in his audience-chamber every day, when all petitions +and stringent punishments were submitted to him. His +<i>shaghawals</i>, or foreign secretaries, made their report to +him on whatever business might be most pressing, +whether it was concerning his relations with India or +Russia, with Afghanistan or the Tungani; and the local +governors, who might happen to have arrived at the +capital, were received in audience, either to present their +personal respects to the ruler, or their reports of the +government of their provinces. But with the exception +of a few of his kinsmen, and more intimate associates, +such as Abdulla, none were permitted to be seated in +his presence. Even these could not sit within a certain +distance of their sovereign. All subjects who were +allowed to approach his person had to do so in the +humblest manner, and with the deepest expressions of +humility and subjection. His son, Kuli Beg, was still +more particular in his intercourse with his subjects. +Even his cousin, Hadji Torah, a man whose experience +and lineage entitled him to exceptional consideration, +never placed himself on an equality with this youthful +despot, and always clothed his words and thoughts +when in conversation with him in an outward show of +humble respect and deferential obsequiousness. It will +be at once surmised, and, so far as our information +warrants an opinion, with correctness, that all this terrorism +alienated any good feeling from the ruling family +that its prowess in the field and the cabinet might have +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +secured for it. In Kashgar we have a forcible proof of +the truth of Tennyson's line, that "he who only rules +by terror doeth grievous wrong;" and yet, founded as it +was on a military system, and on the deepest distrust of +the subject races, it could not well have been otherwise.</p> + +<p>The most unmistakable proof of how Yakoob Beg's +rule was founded, and how it was maintained, is to be +seen in the fact that his <i>orda</i>, or palace, was one large +barrack, the interior compartments of which were +devoted to the accommodation of the royal household. +His out-houses were filled with cannon of every description, +from antiquated Chinese irjirs to modern Krupps and +Armstrongs, and his select corps of artillerymen, clothed +in a scarlet uniform, seldom left the chief cities, except +for serious operations against foreign enemies. At the +Yangy-Shahr of Kashgar, too, he kept his military stores, +and it was said that in his workshops there he was able +to construct cannon and muskets in considerable numbers +in imitation of the most perfect weapons of European +science. But it must be noted that we have no record of +any of his home-made weapons being used in actual +hostilities, while the supply of arms received from +Russia, or this country, is known to have been made +the most of. Besides the natural aptitude of his subjects +of Chinese descent for imitation, he had in his +service, particularly in his artillery, many sepoys who +had deserted our service either at the time of the mutiny +or since. These soldiers, valuable either as non-commissioned +officers or in higher ranks still, combined with +a large number of good troops from Khokand and the +mountain tribes of the neighbourhood, gave a cohesion +and vigour to the whole army that was simply inestimable. +That army, it may be here convenient to say, +was divided into two classes widely differing from each +other, and called upon, except in an emergency, when +all the resources of the state were summoned to take +part in its defence, to perform duties as opposite as their +own composition. The army of the Ameer, founded on +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +that confused assemblage with which he conquered +Kashgar, was divided into two bodies, the <i>jigit</i> or +<i>djinghite</i>, the horse soldier, and the <i>sarbaz</i>, or foot +soldier. The former of these was the more formidable +warrior, being selected for personal strength or skill. +The <i>jigits</i> were trained to fight on foot as well as on +horse, and were armed with a long single-barrelled gun +and a sabre. Their uniform was a serviceable coat of +leathern armour mostly buff in colour, and to all intents +and purposes they correspond with our dragoons, or, +perhaps, still more closely with the proposed corps of +mounted riflemen. The <i>sarbaz</i>, among whom are +included the artillerymen, presented greater varieties of +efficiency than his mounted comrade; still he had gone +through some regular drill and training, and resided in +barracks. He was a regular soldier, and might be trusted +in defence of his country up to a certain point. In +numbers it is impossible to state accurately how many +<i>jigits</i> and <i>sarbazes</i> there were in the service of the state; +some months ago they would have been placed as high +as 50,000 or 60,000 strong, possibly at a higher number +still; now we are wiser on the subject, and we have gone +to the other end of the scale. It is probable, however, +that Yakoob Beg never had 20,000 perfectly trustworthy +soldiers in his army, and that after the conclusion +of the Tungan wars, half that number would more +accurately represent his force of <i>jigits</i> and <i>sarbazes</i>. +But in addition to the more or less effective main body, +there was a nondescript following of Khitay, Tungani, +half-savage Kirghiz, and rude degraded savages like the +Dolans, that in numbers would have presented a very +formidable appearance. The Khitay must at once be +struck out of the estimate, for they were never permitted +to go beyond the immediate vicinity of Yarkand +and Kashgar, where they kept themselves apart, and +were employed as military servants, as sentries, and as +workmen in the military shops and factories. The +Tungani, who enrolled themselves at various epochs in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +the service of Kashgar, were more than dubious in +their fidelity to the state; besides they were of such +questionable courage, that they were no allies of any +importance. Even as compared with one another, these +were of varying kinds of efficiency; the Tungani who +joined Yakoob Beg in the earlier portion of his career +seeming to be the best of them. Those who joined +after the fall of Aksu and Kucha, less efficient and more +ambiguous in their fidelity; and those who dwelt in the +country from Korla to Turfan and Manas, were totally +inefficient, and not to be trusted to any degree whatever. +The Kirghiz and Kipchak nomads were rather a +source of danger to their friends than of dread to their +foes. Yakoob Beg had, therefore, at his orders but a +very limited force to maintain his own dynasty against +the machinations of Khoja and Tungan, and to defend +a long and vulnerable frontier against many powerful +and ambitious neighbours. It was absurd for him to +think of venturing single-handed across the path of +Russia, and to do him justice he never deluded himself +into the idea that he could. All he seems to have +aspired to was to resist to the uttermost any invasion of +his territory by them, and to die sooner than surrender. +Limited in numbers as his regular forces were, they seem +to have had every claim to be placed high in the rank of +Asiatic soldiers. They were certainly not as formidable +a body as the Sikhs or Ghoorkas, probably not as the +Afghans; still they were infinitely superior, except in numbers, +to any forces the Ameer of Bokhara or the Khan of +Khokand could place in the line of battle. To Yakoob +Beg alone belongs the credit of their organization.</p> + +<p>Yakoob Beg's system of administration was simple in +the extreme. A <i>Dadkwah</i>, or governor, was appointed +for each district, and in his hands was vested the supreme +control in all the affairs of his province. Yet he was no +irresponsible minister who could tyrannize as he pleased. +Tyrannize in small ways, undoubtedly, many of them did, +but, as the life of the subject could only be taken away +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +by order of the ruler himself, the most powerful weapon +in the hands of an unscrupulous viceroy was removed.</p> + +<p>At stated periods, too, he had to proceed to Kashgar +to give a report of the chief occurrences in his province, +and on such occasions petitions containing charges +against the Dadkwah were formally considered in his +presence. It may be said that this proceeding was a +farce, and it is probably true that a favoured viceroy +could laugh at any ordinary accusation against his character. +But that would be an exceptional case. Many +Dadkwahs were reduced in official rank, for malpractices, +and some, such as Yakoob Beg's own half-brother, were +removed for incompetence in their charges. Side by side, +too, with the Dadkwah, ruled the Kazi or Judge, who, +if of course not on a par in rank with the viceroy, was still +invested with complete authority in all legal decisions +on crime. This prominence given to the legal authorities +had a good effect on the public mind, for, although +the Kazi, as a rule, might not dare to thwart the wishes +of the Dadkwah, the effect of the law being supreme +was scarcely detracted from. And what was that law? it +may naturally be asked. Precisely the same as the law of +every other Mahomedan state, with a few innovations +traceable to the influence of the Chinese. The Shariát, +the holy code of the Prophet followed in all the Sunni +states, was enforced by Yakoob Beg, with particular +severity; and in its working no sense of mercy was +permitted to temper the harshness of its regulations. +Crimes committed by women were punished with greater +inflictions than the same committed by men; and the +ordinary punishments, whipping, mutilation, and torture +could be inflicted by order of the Dadkwah. Only in +capital cases had the decision to rest with the sovereign. +Thieves, beggars, and vagrants found wandering about +the streets at prohibited hours were immediately locked +up, and brought before the Kazi, who would either +administer a caution, or a whipping, if the accused had +previously offended. Another check on the abuse of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +power by the officials was to be found in the following +regulation. A charge to be visited with a severer punishment +than twenty heavy strokes from the <i>dira</i>—a leather +strap, fixed in a wooden handle—had to be investigated +by a member of each official rank; so the Kazi passed +a culprit on, with his comments, to the Mufti, the Mufti +to the Alim, and the Alim to the Dadkwah. If any of +these officials dissented from the remarks of his subordinate, +and the matter was found impossible to arrange +by mutual concessions, it was either referred to the +sovereign for solution, or was permitted to fall through. +The Dadkwah had also to be present at every punishment +within his jurisdiction, and was directly responsible +to the Ameer for any miscarriage of justice. The Kazi +Rais, or head judge, had the right to decide all minor +matters for himself—for instance, in his patrols through +the streets, if he met a woman unveiled he could order +her to be struck so many times with the <i>dira</i>; or if he +found a man selling adulterated food, or using light +weights, he could confiscate his goods, or in some other +manner mulct him in addition to administering a certain +number of strokes. He and his attendants were particularly +energetic and zealous in compelling idlers about +the bazaars to repair to the mosques at prayer time, and +in a very paternal and authoritative manner did the Rais +exercise his petty power for the good of his people. +Even on his despotism there was some check, as he had +no authority to inflict more than forty blows with the +<i>dira</i> for one offence. Intimately connected with the +administration of justice was the police system, which +in its intricate ramifications permeated all sections of +society. Much as we may feel admiration for the judicial +code, which, up to a certain point admirably administered, +ensured a certain kind of rough justice throughout the +Athalik Ghazi's dominions, the police laws and discipline +have greater claims to our favourable opinion, as evidences +of an astonishing capacity for government. In +his legal code, Yakoob Beg simply adopted the laws +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +enforced on all true believers by the Koran, and he had +no claims to originality as a lawgiver. But as a ruler +adopting all those checks on sedition which lie at the +disposal of an unscrupulous sovereign, and which were +brought to such a pitch of perfection under Fouché +and the Second Empire, Yakoob Beg has reason to be +placed in the very highest class of such potentates. In +this achievement, too, he was not a plagiarist, and, as he +must have been ignorant of similar regulations existing +in Europe, he must be allowed the credit of having +originated a system of police in which it is difficult to +find a single flaw. In China, indeed, something of the +same kind has at all times existed, and at periods when +the Emperor grasped the sceptre firmly, and made his +individuality felt in the management of affairs, the police +were one of the most active tools of power. But even +in that empire there is no record of their having attained +so complete a control over the actions and sentiments of +the people as in Kashgaria during the last decade. It +appears, too, that in superiority of system lay the sole +pre-eminence of the latter; for the Tungan, or policeman, +of China was, individually man for man, a superior +class to the Kashgarian and other constables of Yakoob +Beg. In short, the whole credit of their existence belongs +to that ruler.</p> + +<p>Let us now give some account of this important +body. It was divided into two chief divisions quite +distinct from and irrespective of each other, secret +and municipal. The <i>secret</i> was not, like ours, a perceptible +class of detectives, acting in combination with the +municipal, to which was entrusted the discovery of crimes +and conspiracies. It may loosely be described as consisting +of every member of the community, for all +desired to stand well with the powers that be, and the +easiest way to attain that object would be to place all +confidential information at their disposal. But it is +evident that even in a state of irresponsible power, like +Kashgar, a clear encouragement, such as this, to invent +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +libels of one's neighbours, could only end in unprofitable +litigation and confusion. There was certainly a check +on the too zealous imaginations of the subjects, and, +although there is not much evidence on the subject, it +appears to have been twofold. In the first place a +libeller incurred the risk of receiving very severe punishment, +particularly if the person libelled were of saintly +lineage, or if he filled any official post. This operated +as a check on too hasty accusations, especially when it +became known that the reward for such service was +seldom speedily forthcoming, and scarcely ever answered +the expectations of the informer. But this check, which +alone seems to have been adopted in the earlier years of +Yakoob Beg's authority, was found to be insufficient as +his power became consolidated. The secret police then +became organized to a certain degree; that is to say, they +so far formed a distinct corps that a member had to be +approved of either by the Dadkwah or the Rais. So +well, however, was the secret of their individuality +maintained that few of them were generally known to +the people. Suspicion was wide-spread throughout all +ranks of society, and the governor in his <i>orda</i>, or the +Rais in his hall of justice, or the shopkeeper in his booth, +or the artisan in his hut, never felt safe that his neighbour, +the man with whom he was holding the most +friendly converse, was not dissecting his expressions to +discover whether they contained anything treasonable. +Members of this formidable body were always attached +to the suite of either foreign envoys or merchants; and +their presence in the rear of the <i>cortége</i>, always effectually +closed the mouths of the inhabitants, or only induced +them to open them to give false or contradictory replies.</p> + +<p>There can be no doubt that this secret organization, +brought to a high pitch of perfection during the later +years of his reign, gave a consistency and strength to +Yakoob Beg's tenure of power that was wanting to all +his predecessors. In leaving this part of the system, it +is as well to point out in conclusion that this detective +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +force was only useful in discovering what was about to +occur in the state among Andijani or Tungani, and +that it was powerless to attempt the repression by force +of any outbreak of popular feeling. Its members were +simply spies, and as a body its value vanished when its +members became generally known. Constant changing, +and the introduction of fresh members, were the sole +effectual means of preserving the <i>incognito</i> of a large +body of men, and women even, who preserved official +communication only with the local governor or judge.</p> + +<p>The municipal police were subdivided into urban and +suburban, and they present a complete contrast to the +vague body we have just attempted to describe. Their +functions were known and recognizable. They were +the functionaries who put into practice the behests of +the Kazi, and they maintained order in the streets and +bazaars, much as our own do. The <i>Corbashi</i> is the head +of this body, and his subordinates are styled <i>tarzagchi</i>. +They wore a distinct uniform, and had drilling grounds +attached to barracks, in which, however, they were not +all compelled to reside. They were essentially military +in their rules, and presented a powerful first front to all +evil-doers and would-be rebels. It was they who accompanied +the Kazi Rais in his daily circuit of the streets +and market-place, and it was from their weapon, the <i>dira</i>, +that the ordinary punishment was received. Their principal +avocation seems to have been to maintain order in +the towns during the night-time, for in the day we only +hear of a few of them being detailed for personal attendance +on the Dadkwah and Kazi. With sunset their +true importance is more visible, for not only were they +stationed in all main thoroughfares, squares, and other +open places of the city; but until sunrise patrols at +frequent intervals throughout the night visited all the +chief quarters of the town. The power vested in their +hands during these hours was very great, and it was +dangerous for any stranger to venture out after prohibited +hours. All persons found in the streets after +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +sunset were arrested and incarcerated until the morning, +when, if they could give a satisfactory account of themselves, +they were released, with a caution not to keep such +unseemly hours for the future. If, however, they were +unable to explain their business, a further term of +imprisonment was imposed; and it was a matter of some +difficulty for a stranger to obtain his complete liberty +for some time afterwards. The suburban police fulfilled +much the same duties, and on all the country roads +patrols passed up and down during the night, while +pickets were stationed at the cross-roads. In the same +manner as in the towns all travellers, except those +armed with a passport, were interned for a minute investigation +into their affairs in the morning. And +"thieves, beggars, and wanderers" were chastised at +the discretion of the local magistrate. The vagrant laws +were as much enforced, too, as they were in this country +in the days of Queen Elizabeth, and in a general mode +of interference with the thoughts and actions of its subjects, +the Kashgarian government had attained a height +of excellence that would entitle it to rank with the +Inquisition. Still there was order. No riots occurred +to distract the harmony of the public weal, and to an +external observer, especially to one belonging to a country +where order is considered the greatest <i>desideratum</i>, +the government of the Athalik Ghazi seemed to be the +perfection of an Asiatic state, and that order a reason for +attributing all other virtues to its originator.</p> + +<p>Travellers, however, who were provided with a passport, +were accorded privileges of transit, and were permitted, +if they felt so disposed, to continue their journeys during +hours interdicted to less privileged mortals. In each +chief town there were offices for the issue of these permits +to travel. Not many obstacles were thrown in the +path of those, who left permanent guarantees in the +shape of property behind them for their return, in +accomplishing their desire for travel; but rarely was +permission granted to any one, not blessed with these +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +worldly advantages, to proceed farther than the neighbouring +district. Indeed in all cases leave to visit +foreign states, other than Khokand or Bokhara, was a +matter of difficulty to be obtained, and only in the most +exceptional cases was it granted. But it appears that +there were some evasions of this regulation by a simulation +of religious zeal, for the Sheikh-ul-Islam had it in his +power to grant permits to leave the country on pilgrimages +to Bokhara the "holy," or to Mecca. In +themselves the passports were simple in phraseology. +They merely stated the name and address of the +traveller, the nature of his business, and his destination. +Having obtained the consent of the Dadkwah, and the +authority of the Kazi, no difficulty was experienced +in procuring the necessary slip of paper. Infractions +of this permission, by too long an absence, or by proceeding +in some forbidden direction, were visited on a +first offence with a fine. On a repetition of it, however, +the punishment became more severe. It would be +interesting to know how these protectors of the +public peace were paid, and by what means. But +on this point there is little trustworthy information. +We, however, know of one tax which was devoted to +the support of the urban police, but of the funds from +which the suburban were remunerated, we have no +authority for any assertion. A weekly tax was levied +from all the shop and booth owners, to go towards the +payment of their protectors; but it is not supposed that +this amounted to a sufficient sum to maintain the large +force in the more important cities. The difference was +probably paid out of the state coffers under the head of +justice. Judging from this we cannot be far wrong in +assuming that a similar tax was levied on the farmers +and country residents for the support of the suburban +police; and as the secret police required less outlay in the +country than in the cities, it is possible that that tax more +nearly defrayed the total cost, than it did in Yarkand +or Kashgar. The police supervision and the military +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +terrorism, freely resorted to on all occasions offering an +excuse for such an extreme measure, have not been without +their effect in leaving traces of their existence and +influence in the daily life of the Kashgari, and on the +countenances and sentiments of the subject peoples. +Where formerly lived a light-hearted and happy race +there now seemed as if a never-to-be-removed gloom +had settled down on the face of the land, and neither the +assurance of security nor the irregular encouragement of +the ruler to commerce could remove the blight that had +fallen upon the energies and happiness of the people. +As one of them expressed it, in pathetic language, +"During the Chinese rule there was everything; there +is nothing now." The speaker of that sentence was +no merchant, who might have been expected to be depressed +by the falling-off in trade, but a warrior and +a chieftain's son and heir. If to him the military +system of Yakoob Beg seemed unsatisfactory and irksome, +what must it have appeared to those more +peaceful subjects to whom merchandise and barter +were as the breath of their nostrils? All the advantages +of a perfect police system, heavily weighted +by the incumbrance of a costly addition of spies and +tale-bearers, would seem as nothing compared with the +loss incurred by the fetters placed on individual motion +and enterprise. Considered by itself, the police organization +of Kashgar was, perhaps, the most perfect +design achieved by Yakoob Beg, and his community of +spies will rank with anything in effectiveness that has +ever been accomplished by any potentate. But as a +permanent addition to his strength it is permissible to +doubt whether he really secured his rule by employing +the latter, or obtained much more by the formation of +the former than the services of a trained body of trustworthy, +courageous men. The restrictions imposed on +trade by the severance of all communications with the +East by the Tungan wars and by the limited amount of +liberty granted the native Kashgari, proved most deterrent +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +to all mercantile adventure, and placed in the +hands of Khokandians or Russians on the north, and +of Cashmerians and Punjabis on the south, most of the +trade still carried on with Eastern Turkestan.</p> + +<p>The trade carried on by the Athalik Ghazi's state, if +we are to judge solely by amount, with foreign countries, +was greatest with Russia and her dependencies; but +if we investigate the matter more closely we find that +the result is a little more satisfactory to ourselves. +The direct trade that was carried on by way of Leh with +Khoten and Sanju was steadily increasing, while that of +Russia by Khokand had for some time remained stationary, +if it had not even decreased. And then much +of the Russian trade has to be scored to this country, +for in the marts of Kashgar, underneath Russian exteriors, +were very often to be found English interiors, and +the brand of well-known Manchester and Liverpool +makers was discovered beneath some gaudy and brilliant-looking +cover hailing from Moscow or Nishni Novgorod. +Besides, recent investigations have proved that +some of the goods exported from Shikarpore, in Scinde, +through the Bholan Pass find their way through the +mountainous districts that intervene into the territory +of his late Highness the Ameer of Kashgar. Nor had +Yakoob Beg totally neglected all means for inducing +merchants to enter his state; indeed, his chief objection +seemed to have been, not that they should have entered +his state, but that they should leave it. Serais were +built in all the chief towns for the accommodation of +such merchants as might take up a temporary abode +within his territory, and the Andijani Serai, or hotel, +specially constructed for merchants from Khokand, was +one of the largest and most striking buildings in the +city of Kashgar. Yakoob Beg had even detailed off +to take care of the serai and its occupants a large +number of the old Khitay, or Yangy Mussulmans, who +were generally employed throughout the city as domestic +servants. When we come to the description of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +the relations of Yakoob Beg with England and with +Russia we will speak more fully of the details of those +treaties of commerce which were ratified on several +occasions, and whose ostensible object was the promotion +of trade and other friendly intercourse.</p> + +<p>We have now considered the army, the police, the administration +of justice, and the court of Yakoob Beg, +and the only chief subject that remains to be discussed are +the principles of finance adopted by the Ameer. To keep +any state, even an Asiatic state, in a fit condition for preserving +its independence, a settled revenue is requisite, +and Yakoob Beg, whose atmosphere was one of almost +continual warfare, was on several occasions pressed for +money in a manner difficult to be conceived by us. +His military operations languished for the want of +the sinews of war, and we are told on credible authority +that many of his soldiers received only payment +out of the spoil taken at the sack of Turfan and other +places. So long as his ordinary expenditure was increased +by the addition of an extraordinary war outlay, +so long was he unable to make his receipts and +expenditure balance. On the cessation of hostilities +against the Tungani, and the partial revival +of trade in consequence, his fiscal affairs assumed a +brighter aspect, and it is possible that during the last +few years of his reign his revenue showed a surplus. +But to obtain that success, a most joyful one to every +embarrassed potentate, Yakoob Beg had to resort to +many strange expedients, and to manifest much patience +and long-suffering; and in overcoming petty obstacles +and minor details, he proved himself to be a man of more +than average ability, no less than he had previously by +the skilful manipulation of armies and intriguers. Here +again he erected a structure distinct and separate from +that handed down to him by the Chinese. Comparatively +speaking, the Chinese had been wealthy to the +Athalik Ghazi, and they received in moderate imposts +on merchandise alone almost a sufficient sum to defray +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +the total cost of their administration. Yakoob Beg had +no such certain source of revenue; he had to raise from +an impoverished and only half-conquered state a sum +almost as large as that required by the Chinese. That +he did it remains the chief proof of his skill as a finance +minister, and is another reason for our regarding this +extraordinary ruler with admiration. We may feel sure +that if we could follow closely the history of his fiscal +efforts, and the numberless plans that proved abortive, +we should have revealed one of the most instructive and +interesting narratives of modern Asia. There are no +materials out of Kashgar, if there are such there, for +such an investigation however, and we can only follow +as best we may be able, the thread of events by the light +of such authorities as are at our disposal. In court and +personal expenditure he set an example that might with +advantage be followed by other rulers in Asia even at +the present day, and in a strict economy and supervision +of the petty sums that in the aggregate make all the +difference in any state between a surplus and a deficit, +were to be found the two guiding principles of his conduct. +Kashgaria might be in a very backward state of +cultivation, and years of commotion and warfare had +undoubtedly thrown it back in the ranks of prosperity +and civilization, but the Athalik Ghazi was persuaded +of the truth of the Latin philosopher's saying, that +"Parsimonia magna vectigalia est." It must be remembered +that Yakoob Beg set himself a different task +to accomplish than had the Chinese. Their idea was +not so much to extend their empire, although there has +always been a tendency with the Chinese to be aggressive +against small neighbours, as to acquire a territory that +could be made a paying thing: much as the pioneers of +Anglo-Saxon conquest have made their impression in +every quarter of the globe in search of wealth and adventure, +did the Chinese by a seemingly irresistible impulse +spread over the continent of Asia. In doing so they were +actuated as much by calculation of possible profit as by +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +any desire for military renown. The Emperor Keen-Lung +himself was flattered by the triumphs achieved +beyond Gobi; but his lieutenants and viceroys aimed at +more mercenary objects, and but for the golden promise +held forth by a permanent conquest of Turkestan would +have induced their master to direct his efforts to some +more profitable undertaking. The Chinese, having +acquired Kashgar, were far too sagacious to use up its +resources by an organized system of pillage, and they +accordingly, let it be granted chiefly with a view to their +own personal aggrandizement, devoted their attention to +the development of its natural wealth by means already +detailed in a previous chapter. For three generations +the officials grew rich on the prosperity of their dependency, +and for the same period the people themselves +were scarcely less flourishing. The Chinese had accepted +no slight responsibility in undertaking the government +of Kashgar on principles identical with those by which +they held authority in Tibet; but, owing to wonderful +perseverance and good management, they triumphed +over every difficulty. The revenue raised for state and +local purposes was very great, and it sufficed to preserve +good order for many years, and to add permanent improvement +to the state in every direction. The task +voluntarily undertaken by the Chinese was far more +onerous than that Yakoob Beg found he had to execute; +but they came to it with many advantages that he +wanted. They had a large and faithful army; he had +only an uncertain gathering, which might flee or desert +on the first symptom of disaster: they had the resources +of a great and powerful empire at their back; he had +nothing but his own energy and determination: and +above all, they had a reputation that added to their +strength and facilitated their undertakings, while he +was regarded as a mere military adventurer, receiving +the contempt of Tungan and Khoja alike. The very +nature of things made the Chinese turn most of their +attention to commerce, while for years Yakoob Beg's +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +sole thought was to consolidate his military strength +and form a large standing army. For many years, then, +Yakoob Beg only spent money on the drilling of soldiers +and the purchase of weapons. Now and then, +when some danger seemed to threaten him, either from +Russia, Afghanistan, or the Tungani, he would devote +considerable sums to the construction of forts in the +line of the menaced position. But his chief expenditure +was confined to his army, and the maintenance of his +dynasty by his police system. The administration of +justice required a certain sum of money, and the Church +for its support came in for a fair share of the good +things that were going. It is clear that his expenditure, +if not very great in our eyes, would severely tax +a population of 1,000,000 people in no very high state +of prosperity. The chief source of wealth in the past +had always been the trade with China, and when that +was broken off, the slight increase in intercourse with +Russia and India was not a sufficient compensation. In +fact, the country was very poor, without the ingenuity +and commercial instincts of the Khitay. During the +days of the war under Buzurg Khan, the only means of +obtaining the necessary revenue was by despoliation and +enforced levies on the occupied portion of the territory. +When the western portion of Kashgaria was subdued, +Yakoob Beg found himself without any money in his exchequer, +and no easy means of filling it presented itself +to him. In these straits he had recourse to an expedient +that, if not very novel, was at all events very effective. +He issued a proclamation to his faithful subjects to the +effect that as conqueror he was landowner of the whole +state; but that he was willing—eager would have been +the more correct expression—to sell it to them at a +cheap rate. He, however, exempted from this the old +possessions of the Chinese Wangs and Ambans, and +distributed their extensive domains among the more +prominent of his followers, who in return acknowledged +their liability to military service. The system was an +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +exact copy of the old feudal régime, and Yakoob Beg was +vested with all the rights and authority of the feudal +lord of the Middle Ages. The parallel is still further +maintained by the large reward that the Church received +for its aid to the new ruler. The old revenues, +devoted to the support of the temples and religious +seminaries in the past, and which had miscarried during +the troublous period of the war for the possession of +Turkestan, were restored, and fresh possessions were +added thereto, to demonstrate the generosity of the sovereign +and his veneration for the religion of Mahomed. +His old friend the Sheikh-ul-Islam was still more fortunate, +and a large estate was set apart for his special enjoyment. +Nor does it appear that the Mussulman priests +abused the fresh power and advantages they thus secured; +for among the toilers in Kashgaria none were more energetic +than they in educating the people, and in extending +their influence over their minds, both for the benefit of +their religion and for the security of the power of the +Athalik Ghazi. But in one respect, and it is impossible +to exaggerate its importance, Yakoob Beg's endeavours +to found a strong military class, bound to him by ties +of past favours and others yet to come, were abortive; for +with rare exceptions his followers refused to fill their +new avocation of landed proprietors. Instead of devoting +their attention to the questions arising from agriculture +and other rural pursuits, they sub-let all their +possessions to Andijani immigrants, and, residing in their +city <i>ordas</i>, gave themselves over either to lascivious +pleasures or to complete indolence. Even so distinguished +a warrior as Abdulla Beg, the slayer of more +than 12,000 persons, as his panegyrists boasted, suffered +from the pervading effeminacy on the cessation of active +hostilities; and in the lower ranks of the service such +deterioration in energy was still more manifest. This +change in the spirit of his earlier supporters, among +other things, obliged Yakoob Beg to depend the more +on the Andijani merchants and shopkeepers, and conduced +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +to his adopting more favourable views on foreign +trade in the later years of his power.</p> + +<p>The sum of money which he immediately received by +the sale of lands placed him in a condition to undertake +those wars against the Tungani, which added so +much to the extent of his territory and to the responsibilities +of his position. Indeed, for several years after +its first enforcement it continued to bring in a certain +amount to the coffers of the State. But even this +resource was transitory, and the sum of money received +by this means and in the shape of spoil, from Yarkand, +Kashgar, Khoten, and other places, was not sufficient to +meet the expenditure caused by the formation of a large +army. Neither of these practices could be regarded as a +permanent means of obtaining a revenue, for the former +would scarcely admit of a repetition, and the latter soon +exhausted itself. So when his rule had become a little +settled, and these modes of raising money, in addition +to the still more reprehensible practice of robbing +foreign merchants, had become out of date to a certain +degree, the Athalik Ghazi had to place his fiscal arrangements +on a more practical and honourable basis. While +he laboured under some disadvantages, already enumerated, +as compared with the Chinese, he had the great +advantage over them that he strove for an object more +easily accomplished than the restoration of Kashgar to +its pristine welfare; and in his budget he had only +steadily to keep in view how much he required to maintain +so many <i>jigits</i>, and so many police in his pay, and +to keep in his exchequer a small surplus for any untoward +emergency. He left the roads to take care of themselves; +the irrigation works, sadly wanted in various parts +of the state, must be reserved for his successors; and all +proposals for the amelioration of the people were shelved +for a more opportune occasion. But so many thousand +<i>jigits</i> must be in the ranks; so many fresh guns and +cartridges must be placed in the arsenals; and so many +adventurers must be induced by good pay to take service +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +in the army as non-commissioned officers, in order that the +rank and file should be well drilled. The very necessities +of his position compelled Yakoob Beg to make all these +military preparations; but the cost was great, and the +sacrifices thus imposed on ruler and on people were a +terrible strain. Recent events make us inclined to believe +that a less active military and foreign policy, and a more +peaceable and domestic one, would have tended to have +added more strength to the Athalik Ghazi's rule than the +somewhat ostentatious military parade to which he had +recourse. Be that as it may, Yakoob Beg instituted in +1867 two taxes, which may be supposed to represent +the two chief classes of receipts during his tenure +of authority. The first of these was a tithe on all the +cereal produce of the country; this tax was called the +<i>Ushr</i>. The second, called the <i>Zakat</i>, was a customs +due levied on all merchandise entering Kashgar. The +<i>Ushr</i> was payable on all land except that occupied by +the Church, or by those who owed military service to the +crown instead of other payment; and even those who +rented land from the noble classes were obliged to surrender +a tithe to the ruler. It would appear, therefore, +from this that it was not so much the land as its legal +possessor who was exempt from liability to the usual +obligations of citizenship. The danger contained in the +acquisition of all the crown lands by Andijani merchants, +and the gradual displacement of his more immediate +followers through the energy of these people, was not +imperceptible to Yakoob Beg, and he accordingly +adopted measures for preventing his nobles selling +their land without his sanction. The receipts from this +<i>Ushr</i> were very considerable, and it was the main source +of his revenue for years. We have some idea of the +approximate value of land in Kashgar. The method of +measuring land for sale, and consequently also for taxation, +is peculiar. It is not by any given size that it is +computed, or, indeed, strictly speaking by the amount +of crop it produces; but at a rate in accordance with +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +the amount of wheat with which it had been planted. +The average rate was about a pound for as much land +as was sown with 20 lb. of wheat. The tenant, as +has been said, paid the government dues and handed +over three-fourths of the net produce to the landlord +as rent, receiving for his portion only the one-fourth +remaining. Under this system it was only in very prosperous +years that any but very large tenants made sufficient +to earn a competent livelihood. In bad years it is +possible that the landlord had to satisfy himself with a +smaller share, if he was not induced to surrender his +claim altogether for the disastrous period. But the tax-farmers, +entrusted with the collection of this rate, were +eager to become rich, no less than to earn a good name +with the authorities for bringing in a list with no defaulters. +The unfortunate people were completely at their +mercy, and without any means of ascertaining the accuracy +of the claim, or of opposing extortionate demands +on the part of the tax-collectors. They paid without a +murmur, perhaps without a suspicion of the imposition +that was being practised upon them, the sum demanded +of them, if they were able; and as their dues were payable +without delay and on demand before anything else +was taken out of the total sum of the produce, the +Athalik Ghazi received his share with regularity, and his +tax-collector pocketed the excess sum for his own satisfaction. +In many cases it is known that the amount +claimed by the official exceeded by threefold the legal +demand. Such a system was no less hurtful to the +ruler than it was ruinous to the people. That in one +tax alone a larger sum should be extracted from the +people for the benefit of the officials than was contributed +for the necessities of the state, exhibited a very +loose system of supervision on the part of the sovereign, +and is a strong piece of evidence that in many ways +Yakoob Beg was a mixture of contradictions. We can +scarcely persuade ourselves that he was aware of these +occurrences, and yet how could he be ignorant of them? +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p> + +<p>In addition to the <i>Ushr</i> there was another tax on home +produce, viz., the <i>Tanabi</i>, or tax on land devoted to the +production of vegetables or fruit. The Tanab is, by the +way, a lineal measure of forty-seven yards, and a Tanabi +is a piece of land forty-seven yards square. On this +extent of land cultivated for vegetables, or fruit, a small +tax was raised. More than any other tax did this vary +according to the character of the district, and to the +quality of the year's crop. It was seldom less than a +shilling a Tanabi, even in the least renowned district, +whereas in some parts, in good years, it was five shillings, +or even more. Here again, however, the middleman +interfered, and exacted as much as he saw there was any +possibility of his obtaining. This tax undoubtedly ought +to have produced a large sum, as a larger portion of the +soil is laid out as fruit and vegetable gardens than for +crops; but whether it was more difficult to raise, or there +was more peculation <i>in transitu</i> from the tax-payer to the +imperial exchequer, it is certain that we hear much less of +this tax than we should be disposed to imagine. The two +great taxes on home productions were therefore a corn due +and a fruit due. The rate was not in itself excessive, and +could be paid by any community without embarrassment. +It is uncertain to what extent the avarice of the officials +had made the conditions of these two taxes more +onerous, although, on the most favourable supposition, +the citizen was mulcted in no inconsiderable sum. A more +serious question for the ruler was, how did it affect +his own position with regard to his subjects? Did +Yakoob Beg appear in the eyes of the Kashgari as an +exacting and oppressive tyrant on account of these heavy +impositions?</p> + +<p>It is impossible to speak on this point with any degree +of certainty, but it is only natural to expect that such +was the case. No tiller of the ground can feel grateful +to a sovereign who required him to hand over almost +one-third of his receipts before he made use of one penny +of them, even for the payment of his rent. It is scarcely +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +probable that Yakoob Beg approved of such enormous +profits going to his officials; but, that having tolerated +petty exactions in his earlier days, he found himself unable +to attempt the task of coping with the evil when +it had assumed such alarming proportions. It is impossible +to believe that he remained in ignorance of what +was occurring under his very eyes, and there is some +evident foundation for the accusation that he participated +in the division of the profits of his tax-gatherers. +We should be loth to admit the accuracy of such a +charge, and yet the arguments in its favour are too +plausible to admit of a very confident contradiction. It +would not speak well for the efficiency of his secret +police if he had remained in ignorance of a fact which +was losing him the sympathy of his subjects.</p> + +<p>The gold mines at Khoten were worked after the fall +of that city in 1868, and continued productive down to +the present time. There is no information on the quantities +of the precious metal that are there turned out in +the year, but it is probable that they are not very great. +The coal mines near Aksu and Kucha are no longer +made use of, except by a few individuals, and the copper +mines in that district have, since the departure of the +Chinese, only been very partially explored. The jade +that used to come in great quantities from Aksu and +Khoten, is still to be found throughout Kashgar; but +although it is probable that it still nearly all comes from +those cities, the Kashgari themselves tell a hesitating +tale as to its place of production. A visitor to Kashgar, +on going the round of the bazaars, soon found that the +people's tongues were tied by the presence, in his train, +of a number of the secret police, who had been specially +told off to prevent the Feringhee obtaining any troublesome +information on the state of the people, or the +resources of the state. A striking instance was given +him of the close attention paid by these guardians of +order to the veriest trifles. The traveller inquired in +one stall where the jade, which was the chief commodity +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +of the merchant in question, came from, and received +the reply, Aksu. Proceeding to another shop in the +street, he repeated the question, when he was informed +that it was imported from Khokand. But the traveller +said, your neighbour told me it came from Aksu. The +shopkeeper, taken aback by this abrupt remark, became +confused, and admitted that it came from Aksu. Warned +by a look from the official, he then repeated his original +assertion that it came from Khokand. The use of all +this absurd shuffling, and attempt to throw dust in +strangers' eyes, is impossible to discover; for it was a +matter of little moment whether jade came from Aksu, +or Khokand, so long as we knew that it formed an +important commodity, both in the rough and in the +chiselled state, in the cities of Kashgaria.</p> + +<p>The customs tax, or <i>Zakat</i>, is sanctioned by the +Shariát, and was levied at all the border posts on the +various roads leading into the state. Up to the ratification +of the treaties with Great Britain and Russia, its +regulations were vague and elastic in the extreme. In +fact, any merchant who might have been so foolhardy +as to venture into Kashgar would have had reason, before +these events, to think himself fortunate if he escaped +the penalty of his rashness; for assuredly his luggage +would not, but would have been confiscated for the +special benefit of his Highness the Ameer. So late as +1869, Russian merchants were robbed of their baggage, +and personally ill-treated, and only after long years of +negotiation did the Russian Government obtain any +satisfaction for the injuries and loss inflicted on one of +their subjects. And then how did the Athalik Ghazi +send the sum of money he agreed to pay for the loss +the merchant had incurred?—why in a depreciated +Chinese currency, part of a large number of coins that +he had found in a disused temple in Kashgar! Before +this, all the external trade had been carried on with +Khokand and Bokhara, Afghanistan and Badakshan, and +the receipts from <i>Zakat</i> were quite insignificant, barring +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +such treasure trove as the spoliation of a merchant +from Tashkent, or from Leh. But with the persistent +efforts on the part of the Russians on the north, and of +the English native merchants on the south, to pierce the +gloom hiding the country of Eastern Turkestan, it became +impossible for Yakoob Beg to maintain much +longer the incognito he was so jealous in maintaining. +Perhaps also the prospect of deriving an income from +<i>Zakat</i>, that should smooth down many of his difficulties, +was not without some influence on his mind when he +came into direct contact with civilized empires. His +expectations were far too sanguine, and he seems to +have once more, during the last twelve months of his life, +become indifferent to the advantages or disadvantages of +trade with his neighbours. In fact, when he placed +his customs on a fair footing, he found that it would +require many years to recoup him for the excessive +exactions he surrendered. The merchants who first +attempted to commence intercourse with Kashgar became +speedily discouraged by the dangers of the route, +and the small opening for a large remunerative trade in +a country whose wealth and population had been magnified +tenfold. In a country where the richest merchant +in the chief town possessed only a capital of £8,000, not +much could be expected in the way of fortune; and +although the legal dues on all merchandise were fixed +at an <i>ad valorem</i> rate of 2½ per cent., it was soon +discovered that if the ruler happened to be in want +of cash he would not scruple to take what he could from +the stranger. Both to the ruler, and to the foreign +merchant, the new arrangement contained distasteful +matter. The former perceived that he had surrendered +some of his imperial rights, and that he was not to be +recompensed by his receiving more money, and the latter +knew that the treaty stipulation would not save him from +having to pay excess fees.</p> + +<p>The <i>Zakat</i>, far from showing the expected disposition +to increase, seemed rather inclined to remain stationary, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +if not to decrease; and the foreign merchant had +obtained some promise on the part of the ruler of personal +protection, and of assistance in the disposal of his +wares. His discontent at the stagnation in the customs +soon showed itself by his exacting excess dues, sometimes +on British, sometimes on Russian, but more often +on Khokandian and Afghan merchants. Instead of +increasing his receipts, these strong measures only +threw them back, and left him in a worse plight than +he was in before. He had not the patience necessary +to enable him to wait with confidence the fuller development +of trade, nor had he the perseverance or tact to +place fresh inducements in the path of merchants to +renew their intercourse with him and his state. Many +visited Kashgar with merchandise a first time; but few, +indeed, repeated the visit. The ruler was off-handed in +his reception of them. They were scarcely accorded +any liberty in their movements, and the profit of their +journey was greatly reduced by the payment of a due +of 5 per cent. instead of the stipulated condition of +2½ per cent. It is a pure fiction, therefore, to say that +trade with Kashgar had increased during the rule of +the Athalik Ghazi through his friendly inclination. If +the amount of merchandise imported into his state had +increased, it was owing only to the necessities of its inhabitants, +and was a fact that must have taken place either +by intercourse direct, or through native states, with the +two great providers of Central Asia. The exaggerated +enthusiasm that it was endeavoured to raise up in this +country about this same mythical ruler of Yarkand +never spread far, and there was always some scepticism, +if there could be no disproof, of the reports of the formidableness +of this new kingdom. Looking calmly at the +real state of Yakoob Beg's position, even at the height +of his power, we find him to have always been a pecuniarily +embarrassed ruler, glad of the smallest windfall in +the shape of the spoil of a single merchant. The <i>Zakat</i>, +his advisers pointed out to him, might be made a most +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +productive source of revenue, if foreign merchants could +be induced to bring their wares into the country. The +loss the people had felt in the departure of the Chinese +might be amply repaired by the appearance of Russian +and English merchants to supply the same place that +they filled. If his aspirations were disappointed, and +the <i>Zakat</i> did not show any signs of possessing that +elasticity which had been predicted, it is probable that +in his impatience, heightened by the perception that +foreign trade might lead to foreign complications, he +did not give the scheme a sufficient time for a fair trial. +His other sources of revenue, <i>Ushr</i> and <i>Tanabi</i>, and the +gold mines of Khoten, brought in a sum enough to +meet the current expenses of the government and to +maintain in his service as many soldiers as his recruiting +officers were able to secure. But there was little if any +surplus; and local improvements, and all outlay that +might have been reproductive and for the benefit of the +people, were strictly forbidden. The only works we can +find constructed by him, with a view to the advancement +of the interests of his subjects, were the merchants' <i>serais</i>, +built in each city, and these were self-supporting. +Yakoob Beg has no claim to being considered as a +beneficent ruler. He was a military dictator, who had +shown a rare power for inaugurating a rough system of +government, and whose campaigns had always been +singularly successful. As a ruler, showing a full appreciation +of the wants of his people, and adopting the +best possible measures to obtain them, he had no claims +to consideration. Indeed, he could not be compared +with the Chinese, who, however personal may have been +their motives, certainly raised the state to a high +pitch of material prosperity, and left many enduring +marks of their past occupation. These two dominations, +foisted on the Kashgari by the strong arm, while +each immeasurably superior to the Khoja claimants, +represented two distinct modes of governing a subject +race. The Chinese endeavoured to conciliate, and to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +make the necessity for their presence felt by the people; +the Athalik Ghazi was supremely indifferent to the +prosperity of his subjects, so long as they were willing +to pay him the tribute money, and to serve in his army. +An exactly opposite result might have been expected, +for there was far more kinship between the Khokandian +adventurer and the Kashgari, than there was between +the Khitay and the Andijani. Admirers of Yakoob +Beg may, of course, plead that his rule had not acquired +sufficient consistency to justify him in tasking his +strength by great undertakings, such as the construction +of roads and canals. In one respect he had not the labour +at his disposal, and he was, consequently, hampered by +a difficulty that the Chinese were free from. Still when +we remember that all these works ought to have been +remunerative, and to have strengthened Yakoob Beg's +individual power, instead of taxing his resources, the +excuse cannot be admitted as entitled to our consideration. +Yakoob Beg has claims only to be admired for +having given us something better than a repetition +of the depravity of the Khoja rulers, and of course +among his coevals he is entitled to far the highest +place. If it is only asked for him that he should be +placed above them, no one can raise the slightest objection +to it; for beyond the shadow of a doubt, he was the +most energetic and talented ruler that had appeared +among the Khanates for several centuries. But it +would be affectation to deny that a higher place than +this has been claimed for him; and before according his +right to occupy it, the evidence on which his claim rests +must be sifted with the greatest care. Even now I do +not say that his claims are unproven; but that it is open +to doubt whether his work has not been exaggerated, I +think must be admitted by every one who has studied +the course of his life in Kashgar. It is absurd to talk +of Yakoob Beg having been an equal of Genghis +Khan or of Timour, in any other way than that of +showing that his personal abilities were of a transcendent +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +order. As a legislator and public benefactor, it is fair +to compare him with the Chinese, who possessed some +advantages over him, but who laboured under some +disadvantages in religion, and other conditions, as compared +with him. And when we do this, after impartial +consideration we find that the balance is greatly in +favour of the Chinese. What can we judge from this, +but that the rule of Yakoob Beg, while presenting +some striking features, was inferior in degree to that of +the Chinese? It is only fair to remember that the difficulties +in his path were great, and that he overcame +many of them. Before closing this chapter some +description of the chief men who assisted him to +conquer the country, and then to govern it, may be +not without interest to the reader.</p> + +<p>First among these, by right of his position as well as +by his high abilities, comes the Seyyid Yakoob Khan, +or Hadji Torah, as he has more conveniently been +called, the prince who has recently visited several of +the principal courts of Europe. He is a near relative +of the Athalik Ghazi, although, strange to say, there +is no consanguinity between them. He is a son of +Nar Mahomed Khan, the governor of Tashkent, who +married as his second wife Yakoob Beg's sister, and +who was instrumental in advancing the interests of +Yakoob Beg during the earlier days of his career in +Khokand. The Seyyid was almost as old as his uncle, +the Ameer of Kashgar, having been born in Tashkent in +1823; but despite this near connection Hadji Torah +played no part in the conquest of Kashgar. Until +Yakoob Beg achieved complete success in his enterprise +in Eastern Turkestan he was considered by Khokandians +of high rank a simple adventurer. The +Seyyid Yakoob Khan was of the best lineage in +Turkestan, and it is very possible that until the year +1867 he regarded his uncle with a considerable amount +of indifference. Certain it is that Hadji Torah was +far otherwise employed than in assisting his relative +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +when the latter was engaged in some of the desperate +encounters of his not uneventful career. In the civil +administration of Khokand he filled, under Alim Kuli, +high posts, such as Principal of the Madrassa of Tashkent, +and then he was appointed Kazi, or Judge. It +was after the fall of Ak Musjid that he commenced +that career of activity as a traveller and a negotiator +which brought him to the shores of the Bosphorus and +to the banks of the Neva and the Thames. That was +in the year 1854, and he was appointed as a sort of +secretary to the embassy of Mirza Jan Effendi, the ambassador +sent by Mollah Khan to Constantinople for +aid. On a subsequent occasion he again visited Constantinople +in a similar capacity, after the death of +Mollah Khan, and during the brief tenure of power +by his successor, Mahomed Khan, the nominee of Alim +Kuli. This was in 1865, and during the troubles that +ensued in Khokand and the final success of Khudayar +Khan, the legal ruler of Khokand and antagonist of +Alim Kuli, Hadji Torah resided quietly at Constantinople, +where Abdul Aziz entertained him with sumptuous +hospitality. It would appear that he obtained +some kind of reputation among the numerous visitors +from either Turkestan who came to Turkey, and apart +from his sacrosanct character few could fail to be impressed +favourably by his cheerful yet dignified manner. +His uncle in 1870 had indeed overcome all opposition +to his rule, and it might at a first glance appear strange +why he should desire to secure the services of a man of +whom he could have seen or known little for many +years. But Hadji Torah possessed abilities and experience +rare among the inhabitants of Central Asia, and +to Yakoob Beg the very talents his nephew possessed +were those he was most in need of.</p> + +<p>In 1870 the Athalik Ghazi was anxious to draw close +the bonds of alliance with the Porte; who could assist +him better than the man who had resided in Constantinople +for several years, and who had formed a friendly +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +intimacy with the Sultan? In 1871 Yakoob Beg first +recognized the imminence of danger to his state from +Russia, then put in possession of Kuldja; who could +instruct him in the most effectual way of warding off +that danger, either by an alliance with England or by +propitiating the Russians, than the travelled Hadji +Torah? The very qualities that the Seyyid Yakoob +Khan possessed were those the Ameer Yakoob Beg stood +most in need of. He might search among all his followers, +those who had shared every vicissitude of his +strange fortunes, and he could not find one other with +an identical capacity. The overtures to his nephew are +thus easily intelligible, and the nephew himself gladly +greeted his entry into a wider career than was that of +an honoured guest on the hospitality of the Porte. +His subsequent embassies in the service of Kashgar to +St. Petersburg, Calcutta, Constantinople, and London +are too recent and too well known to require mention +here. When he settled in Kashgar he married a +daughter of Mahomed Khoja, the Sheikh-ul-Islam of +Kashgaria. His weight with the people was consequently +very great, and his judgment was greatly +valued by the Ameer. Even over Beg Bacha, the +turbulent and ferocious heir-apparent, Hadji Torah +had acquired some influence by his ready tact and +<i>bonhomie</i>.</p> + +<p>Of the two chief personages, Mahomed Khoja and +Abdulla Pansad, the priest and the soldier, who assisted +Yakoob Beg, it is unfortunately impossible to discover +much, and that little has already been stated in the +preceding pages. There can be no doubt, however, +that they were the principal instruments in promoting +the aggrandizement of Yakoob Beg, and the two who +enjoyed more than any other the confidence and +friendship of the man they had supported so faithfully. +But of another well-tried follower we know more, +chiefly through the pages of Dr. Bellew. Mahomed +Yunus seems to have been the most educated and well +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +informed among the governors of Yakoob Beg. He +had the reputation of being quite the best-informed +man in Kashgar, but as the <i>curriculum</i> of instruction +did not include modern languages, it is difficult to +guage the exact degree of that reputation. He was an +old and trusted follower of the Athalik Ghazi, for when +he was in the service of Khokand Mahomed Yunus +officiated as his scribe. He, however, as a civilian, +took no part in the expedition of Buzurg Khan, and it +was not until after the death of Alim Kuli and the +success of Khudayar Khan that he joined his firm +friend and master in Kashgar. So high an opinion +had Yakoob Beg of his talents, and so pressed was he +for skilled rulers, that Mahomed Yunus was at once appointed +Dadkwah of the recently conquered district of +Yarkand, the richest, the most populous, and the most +turbulent of all the governorships in Kashgaria. The +skill with which he brought the troublesome Yarkandis +into complete submission to the new ruler, and the +rare ability he manifested in his administration of his +province down almost to the present time, justify the +selection of his whilome comrade in Khokand. At first +it seems that the governor ruled with a high hand, and +that the slightest symptom of insubordination was +checked by an immediate arrest and a not long-delayed +execution. During the last seven years, however, +his government had become milder, chiefly because all +evil-doers had been got rid of. Among some of the +minor followers may be mentioned Alish Beg, Dadkwah +of Kashgar; Ihrar Khan Torah, the first envoy despatched +from Kashgar to India; and Mahomed Beg of +Artosh: but we have no sufficient information of them +to give an account of them that would be interesting +to the general reader.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_X"></a><span>CHAPTER X.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">YAKOOB BEG'S POLICY TOWARDS RUSSIA.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">Yakoob Beg</span> had in the earlier days of his career come +into contact with the Russians, and although, in the +long interval between the fall of Ak Musjid and his +departure from Khokand, the Russians, chiefly owing +to the prostration resulting from the Crimean War, did +not press on with the energy that their first advance on +the Syr Darya seemed to promise, there is no doubt +that the possibility of its occurrence was the foremost +thought in the minds of Yakoob Beg and his contemporaries. +In 1865, when the Russians threatened and +eventually occupied Tashkent, and brought their frontier +halfway on its journey to the Oxus, Yakoob Beg was +far too much occupied with his own affairs in Kashgar +to attempt any interference in Khokand. With, however, +the dismemberment of Khokand and the rout of the +Bokhariot army in the spring of 1866, his attention +was forcibly claimed by a fact that seemed in the future +to involve him as the next victim of Russian aggrandizement. +In that year, too, he had not only overcome +all resistance in the more important districts of Kashgaria, +but he had to a greater extent than before, become +responsible for the political actions of the people of this +state through the deposition of Buzurg Khan. As early as +1866, it may be assumed that the new ruler of Kashgar +had his attention directed to the movements of his old +antagonist, by their successes against the Khokandians +and Bokhariots; but it is clear that the Russians were +not equally interested in his doings at this period. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +With the occupation of the northern portion of Khokand, +the rule of Russia was brought into nearer proximity +with that of the new power of Kashgar, and it +became only a question of time whether the two +governments were to attain a harmonious agreement, or +whether a series of petty disputes was to result in a +further extension of the Russian Empire, towards both +India and China. The independent portion of the +Khanate of Khokand still intervened, and the difficult +country of the Kizil Yart mountains served the useful +purpose of giving the Athalik Ghazi breathing time, +ere he should arrive at a decision about his future +relations with Russia. Indeed, up to this point the +interest of Russia in the affairs of Kashgar had been +very slight, for it does not appear that much, if any, +intercourse had been carried on between the two territories +in the past. Far otherwise was it in Ili, where +the Russians had for many years been located as +merchants or as consuls. Their station at Almatie or +Vernoe, an important town and fort situated about 50 +miles north of Issik Kul and 250 west of Ili itself, +had in a few years become a large and flourishing city, +instead of preserving its original character of a small +mountain fort. Russian merchants carried on a very +extensive trade by this road with Ili, Urumtsi, Hamil, +and Pekin, and their relations with the Chinese merchants +had attained a very satisfactory basis. It was, +therefore, with no friendly feeling, that the Tungan +rising in Ili was regarded by a very large section of +the Russians in the neighbourhood. The disturbances +that thereupon broke out, effectually put a stop to all +trade in this quarter for some time, and the old traffic, +or such of it as continued, with China had to be conducted +along the less direct route through Siberia. For +six years, the Russians tolerated the uncertain state of +affairs in Ili, where the Tungani and the Tarantchis +disputed between themselves as to which should be +the ruling party; but their dissatisfaction was scarcely +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +concealed at the substitution of a native government +for that of China. When, therefore, Yakoob Beg, having +conquered the country south of the Tian Shan, +seemed to threaten the provinces north of that barrier, +it is not surprising that the Russians availed themselves +of excuses for forestalling him, and for placing their +commercial relations on an equally good footing as they +had been in the past with the inhabitants of Ili, by a +forced occupation of that territory. But the Russians +were resolved to give as little umbrage as possible to +the Chinese. Ili was formally acknowledged to be +Chinese territory, and the Czar voluntarily promised, +through his representative at Pekin, to restore it as soon +as the Emperor of China was able to despatch a sufficient +force to preserve order therein. This tact secured +the permanent goodwill of the Chinese, and Russia +obtained, in several important trade concessions, a very +gratifying reward for her skilful diplomacy. Her +friendly action to the Celestials was also heightened in +its effect by a piece of unfortunate policy on our part. +The Panthays had erected in Yunnan a Mahomedan +power, which seemed to have broken off completely +from Pekin, and report brought such tales to our +frontier of the power and goodwill of the Sultan of +the Panthays ruling in Ta-li-foo, that in an ill-advised +moment we entered into negotiations with this potentate. +The Chinese authorities very naturally took umbrage at +this tacit support of a rebellious vassal, and all our +subsequent efforts have been unable to remove the +suspicions produced by our vacillating attitude on that +occasion. The Russians still further preserved the +appearance of friendship for China by their refusal, +maintained during several years, to acknowledge the +government set up in Kashgar by Buzurg Khan and +Yakoob Beg. This action was however the less worthy +of approval, because at that period the Russians had no +immediate concern in Kashgaria. Their sole interest lay +in the course of events in Jungaria, with which they +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +were intimately connected by trade and political associations, +stretching back for almost a century. Undoubtedly +Jungaria was much affected by commotions in +Kashgaria, and we accordingly see, when the march of +events in the latter province assumed an aspect menacing +to the future independence of Jungaria, the Russians +taking prompt measures to secure the possession of +that province for themselves. When Ili passed into +the hands of Russia, the old trade revived along +this route to a certain degree, and some intercourse +ensued with the Tungani of Urumtsi, Manas and +Hamil. Measures seem to have been taken to impress +on the rulers of those cities the prudence of not interfering +with merchants or travellers, and matters became +to a certain degree satisfactory for Russian tranquillity. +The city of Ili never, however, recovered its former +prosperity, for Vernoe still remains the most important +town in this region. Originally a fort constructed in +1854, as a small mountain post, to defend the road from +the marauding Kirghiz, it has increased from its insignificant +origin into a large settlement of Cossacks and +Calmucks, and is now a very thriving community. It +was, therefore, it must be remembered, primarily with +Jungaria that Russia was interested. So far as the +internal affairs of Kashgar were concerned, she could have +disregarded the dispute between the rivals, Yakoob Beg +and the Chinese; it was only when a powerful Mahomedan +state was erected in Eastern Turkestan, and +threatened both the independence of Ili, and also to +raise up disunion in Khokand, that Russia was compelled +to consider what policy it would be wise to +adopt towards the recently proclaimed Athalik Ghazi. +Whether it was absolutely necessary or even prudent to +annex Ili, may be doubted with some reason, but it is +impossible to find fault with the Russians for that step. +Probably it was the most excusable of all their conquests, +none the less may the decision have been founded on a +misapprehension of circumstances, or it may have been +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +premature to shut Yakoob Beg out from advancing into +a region where he would have been at the complete +mercy of the Russians. Nor is it clear even that +Yakoob Beg had the intention, so generously attributed +to him, of committing what would certainly have +resulted in political extinction, viz., an advance to the +northern side of the Tian Shan. The reader will, we +hope, perceive that as little interest was felt by the +Russians in the events transpiring in Kashgar as there +was in India, and this indifference continued down at +all events to the end of 1866. At that date Yakoob +Beg's enterprise had been crowned with complete success +and the Russian Government, far more promptly +and accurately apprised of the course of events than our +Government in India, was obliged to devote some attention +to this new power, whose appearance was already +beginning to raise a ferment in the Mahomedan +states lying to the west of Kashgar.</p> + +<p>In 1866, however, some indefinite agreement was +arrived at by the commanders of forces along the Naryn +borders, to abstain from interfering with each other's +actions. The Russian forces were permitted to follow +refugees from Khokand and predatory Kirghiz within +the nominal frontier of Kashgar, and when occasion +arose a similar right was accorded to the Kashgarian +officials. By some good fortune, perhaps caused by a +feeling of mutual respect, no collisions of any consequence +occurred between the representatives of the two +powers during these early and vague negotiations. Although +the Russian governors of Siberia and Turkestan +refused to acknowledge either Buzurg Khan or Yakoob +Beg, they seem to have done their best to make use of +these conciliatory measures along the northern frontier as +a lever for inducing Yakoob Beg to make overtures to +them for their support. If such was their intention +the firmness of Yakoob Beg thwarted all their designs, +as will be seen in the sequel. To obtain, however, some +advantage out of the apparent apprehension of the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +Kashgarian ruler for Russian power was absolutely +necessary, if only to demonstrate the perfection to which +Muscovite diplomacy had attained. So, while refusing +to acknowledge the new state in Eastern Turkestan and +deeply deploring the departure of the Chinese, orders +were given to the frontier officers to obtain the sanction +of the Kashgarian officials in the neighbourhood to the +construction of a bridge across the Naryn and of a +military road over the Tian Shan into Kashgar. This +was in 1867, and it is not to be wondered at that +the Kashgarian authorities replied with a categorical +refusal. To have acquiesced in this demand would have +been to have placed the city of Kashgar at the complete +mercy of the Russians. The position of that city is +most disadvantageous in a military point of view, and +the only obstacle an army advancing from Issik Kul has +to encounter is the difficulty of the road from the Naryn +torrent, and the general impracticability of the passes +through this portion of the Tian Shan range. The +Russian government was much disappointed at this +rebuff experienced at the hands of a native ruler, and +accordingly in great haste it was resolved that a fort +should be constructed on the Naryn just within their +frontier. In 1868 this fort was completed, but by that +time a fresh change had taken place in the state of +affairs, and hopes were entertained that an agreement +might yet be arranged by peaceful means with Kashgar. +During these two years there had been continual disturbances +and fighting in Western Turkestan. Bokhara, +instigated, according to Russian assertions, by Yakoob +Beg, had joined with Khokand and Khiva in a combined +uprising against Russia; but in so far as that uprising +was combined it never occurred, for both Bokhara and +Khokand fell an easy prey in detail to the armies of the +Czar. The punishment of Khiva was reserved for a future +occasion, and indeed of all the confederates Khiva was +the only one which obtained any successes in the field. +The most palpable result of that campaign was the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +acquisition of Samarcand by Russia, and for a time all +opposition seemed to be stamped out. No sooner, however, +had the main Russian army returned to Tashkent +than a large force invested the small garrison left in +Samarcand, and the whole country rose in arms again. +The Russian garrison held tightly on to its post, and, +although in comparison to its strength its loss was most +severe, the town was preserved until the arrival of +General Kaufmann with reinforcements. Bokhara then +sued for peace, which, after some delay, was concluded +with the unfortunate Ameer Mozaffur Eddin. By that +treaty the Russians obtained the right to place military +cantonments at Kermina, Charjui, and Karshi. Kermina +is situated about fifty miles east of the town of Bokhara, +on the road from Katti Kurgan and Samarcand; Karshi +about sixty miles south of Katti Kurgan, and half way +to the Oxus; while Charjui is on the Oxus and some +eighty miles west of Bokhara. Of all these the last is +the most important, for thence a direct caravan route +leads to Merv and Meshed. Once more, in 1870–71, +Bokhara entered the field, but the enterprise collapsed +through the unconcerted measures of the allies and the +weakness of Khokand. During these five eventful years +of rebellion amongst the races of Western Turkestan, +Yakoob Beg preserved his neutrality. If the assertion +is correct that he had played an underhand part in the +formation of the league against Russia, assuredly he +endeavoured to make his actions contradict his diplomacy. +Not a Kashgarian soldier participated in the +efforts made so repeatedly by Bokhara and Khokand to +shake off the bonds of Russian vassalage. Like Shere +Ali of Cabul, he devoted his attention exclusively to the +affairs of his immediate province, and wars in the +extreme east of his dominions against co-religionists +were a preferable alternative to the risks attending a +<i>jehad</i> against the most formidable enemy of Islam! +Russia had indeed little to complain of in Yakoob Beg's +interference in their possessions. His instigation of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +premature rebellions, or, if he did not instigate them, the +approval extended to them by some of his chief ministers, +was the very kindest act he could have conferred on the +ruling power of Turkestan, for Russia never has had +anything to fear from any isolated risings among the +people of this part of Central Asia. Nothing less than +an unanimous and concerted rising in Western Turkestan, +aided with a nucleus of regular troops and officers, such +as, to go no farther, either Afghanistan can supply, or +Kashgar could at one time have supplied—nothing less +than this will ever produce a complete catastrophe to the +Russian arms, and in a short campaign of a few months +send the Russian legions back to their old quarters of +thirteen years ago. Whether Yakoob Beg ever was +strong enough to risk the independence of his state on so +important an enterprise may fairly be doubted, and he +showed a commendable prudence in abstaining from hostilities +when he had sufficient matters to occupy all his +attention, and to task all his resources within his own +borders; but assuming such to have been the case, his +indifference to the suffering thereby inflicted on the Khokandians +must remain a blot on his fair fame. If the part +he played in these earlier plots was scarcely honourable, +how much less so was his action in the last rebellion of +1875. But it may be as well to postpone considering that +event until later on in this chapter. Yakoob Beg most +probably took a very selfish view of the state of affairs. +His own extremely uncertain tenure of power made him +anxious lest any storm from beyond his frontier should +wreck the frail bark in which he had asserted his claim +to independence, and the whole object of his policy +was simply to divert attention from himself to other +quarters. The Russians above all must have their work +cut out for them in repression of continual sedition in +their possessions; while each day of respite witnessed +Yakoob Beg in a better position for making a strenuous +resistance when the time should come, according to Russian +ideas, for an attempt to be made to crush his power. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +Viewed from this standpoint, the conduct of Yakoob +Beg towards his fellow-countrymen appears in a slightly +more favourable aspect, although his policy of expediency +has little in it to command admiration. Yet the result +answered his expectations. In 1868 the construction of +Fort Naryn was the avowed preliminary measure to an +occupation of Kashgar; from that danger this policy of +compromise saved him. Again, in 1870, was he pronounced +an incorrigible enemy of the Czar, and an +expedition was prepared which was to bring him to his +senses; once more a revolt in Khokand intervened to +distract Russian attention and Russian arms from the +Naryn to Ferghana. The expedition against Khiva in +1873 also served the purpose of diverting to another +quarter the blow which should, according to many, have +descended on the offending head of the Athalik Ghazi; +and lastly, in 1875 the insurrection in Khokand, the +most serious and the most nearly successful of all the +native wars against Russia, saved him from an invasion +for which every preparation had been made.</p> + +<p>To return to the year 1868, when the Russian government +had constructed the fort on the Naryn, and had +openly proclaimed its intention of punishing the slight +put upon it by Yakoob Beg's refusal to permit the +construction of a road over the mountains to Artosh. +Up to that year the intercourse had been of a semiofficial +character between the officers on either side of +the frontier. We have now come to a phase of the +question of a slightly different import. The Russian +officials endeavoured to obtain from Yakoob Beg concessions +that would be advantageous to their country, at +the same time that they categorically declined to recognize +his official <i>status</i> as an independent prince. Their +antagonist was far too astute to permit himself to be +out-manœuvred by so simple a device, and his officials +were quite unauthorized to enter into any arrangement +without its being brought before their master in the +manner consistent with his dignity. We have seen that +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +the Russians, failing in their diplomatic chicane, had +recourse to threats, although the irony of fate prevented +those threats ever being put into execution. But concurrently +with these efforts on the part of the Russian +government, others of a different kind were being made +by individuals. The Russian merchants of Kuldja +contained in their ranks several men whose enterprise +and courage had been remarkable in the manipulation +of trade with the Chinese and the Tungani. They were +not easily deterred from any undertaking which promised +them brilliant remuneration, even though the +risk and uncertainty might be great. The pioneers of +commerce were free from the fetters that hampered +official movements. It was of little moment to them who +ruled in Kashgaria so long as he extended his protection +to their goods and their persons whilst they were within +his territory. The Russian government viewed with +favour the efforts that were made to cross the Tian Shan, +for on the individual fell the greatest portion of the +risk, while the government profited much by the fruits +of his experience. The Russian merchants were, therefore, +not discouraged by their authorities when they laid +their proposals before General Kolpakovsky, as English +merchants would have been under similar circumstances +by the authorities at Calcutta—nay, it is tolerably certain +that they received many inducements to persist in their +intention; both their patriotism and desire for advancing +their own worldly concerns were appealed to, to urge them +to attempt to obtain admission into Kashgar. When, +therefore, it became evident in 1868 that nothing was +to be obtained from Yakoob Beg by indirect means, and +when it was also decided that a military remedy would +not be convenient, the field was fairly cleared for another +kind of performers to begin operations.</p> + +<p>Early in the year 1868 a Russian merchant, named +Kludof, collected at Vernoe a small caravan. His chief +commodities consisted of those gewgaws, which, prepared +in Moscow, have been found, according to Russian +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +experience, the most marketable articles in Western +Turkestan; but, in addition to these trumpery packages, +more useful necessaries, such as cotton goods and cutlery, +were taken as specimens of some of the real advantages +that would come in the wake of Russian trade. Kludof +set out with the intention of crossing the Tian Shan +by the Naryn, and making for the border town of Ush +Turfan, whence Kashgar is easily reached by the high +road. But he had not proceeded far beyond Fort Naryn, +then in course of construction, when he was attacked +by a band of marauders. With the loss of all his +possessions he must still be considered fortunate in +having escaped without any serious personal injury. +Perhaps the robbers were inspired with some respect +for the person of a Russian subject, or, as the indictment +against Yakoob Beg affirms, by the express orders +of that ruler, who wished to deter, without causing any +serious complication with the government, Russian +subjects of any kind whatever from entering his +kingdom. As it happened, however, Kludof was a +very determined fellow, one not easily balked when +he had set his mind on accomplishing anything. The +government viewed his case with commiseration, and he +was assisted in collecting together another caravan of +larger proportions than its predecessor. But before +setting out on the same road he determined to make an +effort to reach the ear of Yakoob Beg himself, and by a +singular piece of good fortune he was able to do so +through a Kashgarian subject residing in Kuldja. The +presents, judiciously selected, with which he accompanied +his letter complaining of the injury he had +received at the hands of Kirghiz subjects of the ruler +of Kashgar, yet only demanding as a reparation permission +to come into that state as a peaceful subject of +the Czar, fully propitiated Yakoob Beg, who sent a safe +conduct to Vernoe for Kludof and his caravan. This +merchant made a most favourable impression on the +ruler of Kashgar, and it seemed at one moment as if he +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +would achieve what all the diplomacy of the two previous +years had failed in accomplishing. Even Yakoob Beg +was induced to take a slight step towards a better +agreement with his neighbour, for in the summer of +1868, he sent Shadi Mirza, one of his nephews, to +Vernoe, requesting that he might be permitted to go +on to Tashkent, to place before the governor of Turkestan +certain proposals from his master for a complete +understanding with Russia. Simultaneously with the +despatch of Shadi Mirza by Yakoob Beg, a Russian +officer, Captain Reinthal, was commissioned by General +Kolpakovsky, the governor of Kuldja, to proceed to +Kashgar and demand the surrender of some Kirghiz +robbers, who, from within Yakoob Beg's dominion, had +sallied forth to pillage Russian merchants. They had +also seized several inhabitants of Khokand and the +Naryn district; and the Russian government demanded +the unconditional surrender of these individuals as her +subjects. Captain Reinthal was instructed to make +these two demands in a peremptory way, and to convince +the new government that Russia would not permit +any infraction of the spirit of the treaties concluded +with the old government under the Chinese. Captain +Reinthal was received in a sufficiently hospitable +manner, but his movements were scrupulously restricted +to the city. He did not, on this occasion, learn much +of importance about the country, but he was impressed +favourably by the appearance of such of the army as +he saw. The Kirghiz robbers were captured by the +order of Yakoob Beg, but he stoutly refused to surrender +them. The Russian prisoners were also kept in +honourable confinement as a guarantee for the safe return +of Shadi Mirza. They were, however, permitted to +return to Russian territory when it became known that +Shadi Mirza was progressing favourably with his +mission to Tashkent. Captain Reinthal accomplished +little or nothing on this embassade, and had to report, +on his return to his superior, the strange tidings that +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +the new power was resolved to play an independent part +in Asia, and to answer defiance with defiance, and +threat with threat. This report must have seemed +scarcely credible, but there is no doubt that Captain +Reinthal advised, as the result of his experience, the +adoption of a lenient and friendly policy towards the +new-comer. This concession to a Central Asian despot +was not agreeable at head-quarters, and the question +was shelved for the time. Shadi Mirza, who had been +detained at Vernoe, was at last permitted to continue +his journey to Tashkent, where he found General Kaufmann +absent in Europe. Instructions were then issued +to send him on to St. Petersburg, where he arrived in +the last days of 1868. He had several informal interviews +with the governor of Turkestan, but he was not +received by the Czar or any of the higher officials. In +fact, he was only treated as an ordinary traveller, and +not as the representative of a neighbouring state. +Nothing up to this had been done by the Russian +government, showing that they recognized Yakoob Beg +as ruler of Kashgaria. The Chinese were still, in their +eyes, the <i>de jure</i> owners of that province, whoever might +be the temporary owners <i>de facto</i>. On the return of +Shadi Mirza to Kashgar, in January, 1869, the relations +between Russia and Yakoob Beg may be said to have +returned to the exact <i>status quo ante</i>. All the Russian +demands for trade had been unsuccessful, and, except the +brilliant journey of Mr. Kludof, no one had broken +through the mystic charm that shut out the Garden +of Asia from all foreign spectators. Their envoy, Captain +Reinthal, had been treated in a precisely similar +manner to that in which Shadi Mirza had been received +at Vernoe and St. Petersburg; and a firm and dignified +attitude had effectually checked the Russian officer when +he attempted to express those threats which formed the +principal part of his instructions. There was something +imposing in the quiet way in which Yakoob Beg +asserted his equality in rank with the Czar of All the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +Russias. His invariable reply, when the great power +of Russia was made use of as an argument to overcome +his refusal to accede to the trade concessions demanded, +was, "My brother, the White Czar, is a most powerful +monarch, and rules over the greater portion of the +earth, and I am only an insignificant prince in comparison +to him. But none the less can I encounter the +danger like a true man, and esteem it a happiness to +die in defence of my country and my faith." To so +courageous and so honourable a reply what rejoinder +could be made by the abashed officers? It is impossible +to refuse Yakoob Beg the highest admiration for his +stanchness in his opposition to Russia. If for his own +narrow interests it may have been imprudent to throw +down the gage of battle so freely, all the more does that +attitude claim respect when we see him trampling on +purely selfish motives, and asserting his claim to leadership +in that wider question of Asiatic against Muscovite, +of Mahomedan against Greek. Had he only been +consistent throughout his career, had he only been as +firm in his convictions and as prompt in carrying them +into practice as he generally was, when the occasion +came for a great effort against Russia, how different +might have been his own fate and the present aspect of +affairs in Central Asia!</p> + +<p>For some time after these abortive proceedings the +Russians abstained from any direct interference in Kashgar, +but the conferring of the title of Athalik Ghazi, or +Commander of the Faithful, on Yakoob Beg by the Ameer +of Bokhara had roused the susceptibilities of Russia too +much to be allayed. It seemed, indeed, as if this acknowledgment +of the orthodoxy of Yakoob Beg by the Head of +Islam in Central Asia heralded forth some understanding +between the two states, and that a menace was directed +against the Russian government. Whether there was any +agreement between Mozaffur Eddin and Yakoob Beg it +is not possible at present to say, but that such should +have been brought about by their mutual antipathy to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +Russia would not have been very wonderful. However, +in the disturbances of 1870 Yakoob Beg took no active +part. While the Russian arms were triumphing over +every opponent in their newly acquired province of +Ferghana and its vicinity, Yakoob Beg was busily engaged +with the Tungani, who at that time were causing +trouble to him along his far eastern frontier. The revolt +collapsed in Khokand, and Yakoob Beg, apparently +unconcerned with the events transpiring in the West, +was carrying his victorious arms to new conquests in +the East. During the year 1870, when murmurs of the +approaching storm were becoming audible, the Russian +government endeavoured to obtain the alliance of Khudayar +Khan, of Khokand, for the purpose of bringing +Yakoob Beg within their influence. This Khan had, as +has been already mentioned, been betrayed by Yakoob +Beg, who had followed the example of the ambitious Vizier +Alim Kuli, and was now mainly dependent on the Russians +for support against his rebellious subjects. He could +not be considered in any way, therefore, as likely to be +favourably disposed towards his neighbour of Kashgar, +or as lukewarm in the cause of his protectors and benefactors. +The Russians felt assured of his hearty support +in advocating their plan, which was as follows. From +time immemorial, as has been seen in the sketch of the +history of Kashgar, there have been two rival elements +in Kashgaria—the Chinese and the Khokandian. The +Chinese was triumphant in modern times for a little +more than a century, while the Khokandian has, more +or less, at all other times been paramount. But whenever +a native dynasty had attained a certain degree of +security therein, it was always threatened by the ambitious +designs of the Khan of Khokand, who had +generally contributed most towards its successful establishment. +The Russian government resolved to avail +themselves of this historical fact to pour into the ear of +Khudayar Khan insidious counsels as to his claims as +feudal lord over Eastern Turkestan. There once more, so +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +they argued, had a Khokandian subject formed an independent +and rival administration, and all his victories +had been won by Khokandian sympathies, and by the +good right arms of Khokandian subjects. And how had +this soldier of fortune acted towards his own country +when he had received everything from her that he +needed? By offering an asylum to all those who had +participated in the plots against Khudayar Khan himself, +by encouraging sedition in the state itself against +the Russians and their nominee, Khudayar, the legal +ruler of the state. As if these crimes were not sufficiently +serious, he had added thereto the insult of having +refused to recognize in Khudayar his liege lord; and +Khudayar's own personal fears were worked upon to +yield that acquiescence to the Russian proposal that was +necessary to secure its success. It was pointed out to +him that a strong military power in Kashgar might give +an impetus to the plots then fermenting in the active +brain of Aftobatcha, the ambitious son of Mussulman +Kuli, the prime minister and vizier of thirty years ago. +The arguments were specious, and it cannot be doubted +that they made some impression on Khudayar Khan. +This much-to-be-pitied ruler, forced by the necessities of +his position to humour his Russian advisers, still had +the courage to refuse to assert his claims as lord over +Kashgar. With a gentle irony he pointed to the map, +and showed how Khokand's frontier should extend +farther to the west than it did, and that a conquest over +the barren regions of the Kizil Yart would be but a +sorry equivalent for the loss of Tashkent and Hodjent. +He, however, promised to make use of his best means +for inducing Yakoob Beg to make overtures to the +Russian government for the ratification of a treaty of +commerce. So Khudayar Khan indited a letter to +Yakoob Beg, at the dictation of his Russian friends, to +this effect; but he silvered the pill by a private message +giving information of the Russian intentions in the +future. The tenor of that communication was that the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +Russians were less eager than might have been supposed +to bring matters to a final crisis with Yakoob +Beg, and that they were most desirous of settling the +question without any flagrant loss of dignity by being +the first to recommence negotiations. Both publicly +and privately Khudayar Khan advised that the Athalik +Ghazi should make some concessions in form to the +Russian government. The Russians themselves, having +failed to induce Khudayar Khan to put pressure on +Yakoob Beg, appear to have arrived at the same conclusion +as that set out in the letters of Khudayar. +Yakoob Beg must make the sign, and they would meet +him half way in his desire to share in the great benefits +accruing from a Muscovite alliance. The authorities at +Tashkent went so far as to flatter themselves that they +had attained a solution of one of their chief annoyances. +They had, by making use of the mediation of Khudayar, +gone so far as to open the door for Yakoob Beg to abase +himself. Such condescension was unheard of, and no +doubt was entertained but that this proud Mahomedan +ruler would gladly hasten to avail himself of the last +chance accorded him by the clemency of the Czar.</p> + +<p>But they were reckoning without their host. Yakoob +Beg quickly perceived that the bold exterior of the Russian +demands concealed a vacillating purpose, and that +a power which would go out of its way so far to bring +about an arrangement, would yield much more when +the discussion became directly carried on. He had +evidently impressed the few Russians who had visited +him with a belief in his strength, and rumour had +magnified his resources, and converted his small and +heterogeneous following into a regular and trained army. +He was not the man to destroy, when the game was +almost in his hands too, all the favourable impressions, +that stood him in such good stead during his career, +which his policy for four years had succeeded in creating +about his personality. After a suitable delay his formal +reply to the official letter of Khudayar arrived, and its +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +contents must have been eminently displeasing to the +Russians. In general terms he refused to enter into +negotiations with the Russians, because they had refused +to acknowledge his own government, and had ever supported +the cause of his enemies the Chinese. But, not +content with this blunt refusal to the offer made from +Tashkent, he went on to minor matters and dealt with +the question of Russian policy in specific language. +The common enemy of him and all his co-religionists was +not worthy of any consideration from him or his allies, +the rulers of Khokand and Bokhara. "The Russians +that have come here, into my state of Kashgar, look at +these localities and become acquainted with the state +of the country, and therefore it is better to forbid their +coming, for they are a treacherous and crooked-minded +people." In such plain terms did Yakoob Beg speak of +a power which could without any serious risk have +crushed him at any moment. Yet in one sense his +boldness was the height of prudence, and succeeded +when perhaps a less decided attitude would have completely +failed. The Russians were fairly deluded in their +estimate of their new antagonist, and all means having +been exhausted for inducing Yakoob Beg to abandon his +indifferent attitude towards themselves, it began to be +seriously discussed at Tashkent whether, if simply for +the purpose of obtaining accurate information of his +country, it would not be prudent to acknowledge the +existence of a ruler who had for nearly six years been +established as responsible sovereign of a very large portion +of Asia. The path was smoothed, too, for the +Russian diplomatists by Yakoob Beg sending a letter to +the governor of Turkestan, stating that it was useless +for the Czar to attempt the establishment of diplomatic +relations through the good offices of Khudayar Khan; but +that if the Russians really desired to enter into alliance +with him they could send an embassy to him, when formal +steps could be commenced for securing the trade and +other agreements that were desirable. The letter was a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +very dignified piece of writing, such as one European +sovereign would have sent to another in the Middle Ages. +"He did not deny," he said, "either the power or the +resources of Russia, but as a brave man he placed his +trust in God, and he would never shirk the contest, +because all he aspired to was to die for his faith." +This letter produced a great impression at Tashkent, +and it was resolved to send an ambassador to Kashgar.</p> + +<p>Before pursuing the narrative, it may be as well to +sum up what had passed between Russia and Kashgar up +to this period, for henceforth these two states were to +stand in a completely different relationship towards each +other. The Russians strove to induce Yakoob Beg to +make the most favourable commercial and political concessions +to them, while they refused to grant him any +equivalent, except the dubious one, "advantage from the +produce of Russian manufactures." They even added +insult to injury by openly proclaiming that they only +recognized the Chinese as the rulers of Kashgar, and +refused to discuss the arguments advanced by Shadi +Mirza in favour of his uncle's claim to be considered <i>de +facto</i> sovereign. They adopted an attitude of bullying +towards this Asiatic prince, and loudly proclaimed in +their practice the truth of the aphorism, that might is +right. They backed up their verbal threats on several +occasions by a show of military preparations, but not +once did they put those threats into execution. On the +other hand, Yakoob Beg's policy was consistent throughout +and dignified. While studiously avoiding any aggressive +measures, even under the excuse of defensive precautions, +he was always firm in his refusal to recognize +any of the semi-official overtures that were repeatedly +made to induce him to show his hand. Instead of +appearing in the light of a suppliant, as according to +all precedent he should, he assumed the position of a +dictator. "Acknowledge me as legally constituted ruler +of Kashgaria, or else there is an end to all negotiation. +Send a properly accredited ambassador to me, and he +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +shall be honourably received. A representative of +recognized rank shall then convey my token of friendship +to your master. Refuse to grant me these just +considerations, and my kingdom is closed to your +merchants and officials without exception. Admission +shall only be obtained over my own body and that of +my devoted army." For the first time in the annals +of Russian history an Asiatic ruler had tired out the +finessing and intrigue that had become customary +with that empire as the means for infinite conquest. +Yakoob Beg was the only sovereign who refused to +be subservient to the Czar, and eventually achieved a +diplomatic triumph over his representatives. In the +spring of 1872, Yakoob Beg was at the very acme of +his prosperity. Not yet had he commenced those later +campaigns against the Tungani, which more than anything +else tended to weaken his power and to raise discontent +against his administration; and, fresh from his +diplomatic success over the Russians, he appeared in the +eyes of many Asiatics as a fit champion to redeem their +fortunes in a conflict with Russia. Excusable as their +enthusiasm undoubtedly was, it is tolerably certain that +the power of Yakoob Beg was exaggerated both by the +adulation of his friends and by the nervous susceptibilities +of the Russians. It is noteworthy that Russia +proved herself on one occasion to be quite as liable to +this latter disease as England is assumed to be.</p> + +<p>To Baron Kaulbars, the explorer of the sources of the +Syr Darya, was entrusted the delicate mission of representing +the Russian government for the first time at the +court of the Athalik Ghazi, and to no better diplomatist +could it have been consigned. He set out from Kuldja +early in May, 1872, carrying with him a large collection +of presents for the ruler and his chief advisers, and +arrived in Kashgar without any mishap in June of the +same year. Here he was received in the most cordial +manner, and the consideration and hospitality exhibited +towards him by the ruler were beyond all expectation. In +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +the picturesque phraseology of the East, the Athalik +Ghazi, at his first audience with Baron Kaulbars, said, +"Sit upon my knees, on my bosom, or where ye like; for +ye are guests sent me from heaven." The most complete +freedom of action was accorded, for the first time, to all the +members of the embassy, and two merchants who had +accompanied it for the purpose of exploring the country +received a safe-conduct to go on to Yarkand and Khoten. +Yakoob Beg scarcely attempted to conceal his gratification +at the presence of the Russians; possibly his pleasure +chiefly arose from such an unmistakable admission of his +skill as a diplomatist. But in every way facilities were +afforded his visitors for seeing all objects of interest +round Kashgar. Reviews were held in honour of the +occasion, and as there happened to be a considerable +number of troops in the vicinity, passing through to +operate against the Tungani beyond Kucha, the show +was imposing enough. The Russians were favourably +impressed by what they saw, and Baron Kaulbars +expressed himself surprised at the military exactitude +with which the manœuvres were carried out. Yakoob +Beg, always open to flattery, exclaimed in an enthusiastic +moment, "I look upon the Russians as my dearest +friends; if I had not, should I have shown you my +military power? Assuredly it is not usual even with +you to make known one's actual condition to an +enemy." Matters were now in a fair way to a pleasant +solution. Baron Kaulbars and Yakoob Beg were +mutually delighted; but, after the time for pleasant talk +had expired, it was necessary that some definite arrangements +should be drawn up for the political and commercial +relations of the two countries in the future.</p> + +<p>The chief objects the Russians had in view when they +sent Baron Kaulbars to Kashgar were three. In the first +place they wanted to acquire general information about +that state, and to discover whether Yakoob Beg was as +powerful as report had asserted. In the second, they +wished to put their relations on such a recognized basis +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +with him that they might know what policy he was disposed +to adopt in Turkestan and Kuldja; and in the +third they desired to secure the monopoly of the trade +of his state, so that they might forestall British enterprise, +already beginning to direct its attention to this +quarter, since the journeys of Messrs. Shaw and Forsyth. +The last of these was the easiest to obtain, and the Athalik +Ghazi considered all the Russian proposals with regard +to trade in a very amicable spirit; but with regard to the +second <i>desideratum</i> nothing but the vaguest generalities +could all the tact and ingenuity of Kaulbars succeed in +obtaining from his host. The first object was amply +secured, in so far as geographical and scientific information +was concerned; but the precautions taken by the +Athalik Ghazi to deceive the Russians as to his power +and hold on the country appear to have been successful. +Baron Kaulbars certainly confirmed much that had previously +rested on mere hearsay; the question is rather, +did he not vouch for more than his experience justified +him in doing? The result of his mission was, that the +Athalik Ghazi was elevated to a position on a level with +the Ameer of Cabul, and there is no doubt whatever that +such a comparison was not warranted by the facts. A +treaty was signed by the Athalik Ghazi and Baron +Kaulbars, on the 2nd of June, 1872, but according to +the Old Style, still adopted by the Russians, this was +the 21st of May, St. Constantine's day. There are two +stories with respect to this coincidence, and there is as +much evidence for one version as there is for the other.</p> + +<p>It was said at the time that Yakoob Beg was so +desirous of showing his goodwill to the Russians that he +had insisted on signing it on that day in honour of the +Grand Duke Constantine. Now there were two or three +improbabilities in this statement that struck several +observers. In the first place it was extremely improbable +that Yakoob Beg knew it was St. Constantine's +day at all; and again, in the second place he was quite +as probably ignorant of the existence of a Grand Duke +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +Constantine. At all events, there was no valid reason +why a Central Asian ruler should conceive that his politeness +to that Grand Duke in particular would demonstrate +his desire to be on good terms with Russians in general. +The other version, which, like many other circumstances, +has only leaked out in the pages of Mr. Schuyler, is +altogether more probable, and is not open to the same +objections. According to this, it was Baron Kaulbars, +who of course was aware of the saint's day, who demanded +that the treaty should bear that date, and who, as soon +as it was signed, sent off a message to General Kaufmann +saying that the Athalik Ghazi, out of friendship to that +general, had specially requested that the treaty should +be signed on that day in honour of General Kaufmann's +patron saint. However flattered that distinguished general +and governor may have felt at the delicate attention +of his ambassador, he had to decline the proposed +honour; and in the despatch that was sent to St. Petersburg, +describing the event, the name of the Grand Duke +Constantine was substituted for his own. There is little +doubt that this is the correct statement, and it certainly +suggests quite a revelation as to the system in +Russian Asia of making things pleasant and agreeable +to one another, always, however, assuming that there be +an exceptional degree of power and pomp reserved for +his Excellency General Kaufmann.</p> + +<p>Soon after the signature of this treaty, which bears +the name of its framer, Baron Kaulbars took his departure, +with many expressions of friendship and goodwill +from the Athalik Ghazi. Arrangements were, however, +made, before he left, for an envoy to visit Tashkent from +Yakoob Beg. This ambassador took with him the +signed stipulations to be ratified, and was received at +Tashkent with every demonstration of amity and respect. +So certain did the Russian government appear that their +relations with Kashgar would, if only for a short period, +be satisfactory, that special care was taken to make a +favourable impression on the Kashgarian envoy, and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +after a short residence in the capital of Turkestan, the +nephew of Yakoob Beg, Hadji Torah, who had followed +the train of the treaty on a special mission, went on to +St. Petersburg, where he was entertained by the Czar, +taken to the reviews, and treated in a most hospitable and +princely fashion. The contrast between the reception +accorded to him in 1873 and that to Shadi Mirza in +1869 clearly marks the difference that was considered in +well-informed official circles to have taken place in their +relations with Kashgar.</p> + +<p>We have now to consider whether the Russian Government +was justified in assuming so confidently that it +had secured the permanent friendship of the Mahomedan +ruler of Eastern Turkestan. On concluding his visit at St. +Petersburg, Hadji Torah turned south, and after stopping +for a brief delay at Moscow and Odessa, he arrived in +Constantinople, where he already had many friends and +connections. Without inquiring too deeply into his actions +at the Imperial City—for of them the reader will +be able to judge best by the sequel—we will here simply +observe, that having also concluded his residence on the +Golden Horn, he took passage by the Suez Canal for India, +and arrived there in time to join the mission of Sir Douglas +Forsyth, then on its way to Kashgar. Hadji Torah therefore +brought to his uncle a vast amount of information +concerning the three Powers chiefly concerned in the fortunes +of Kashgar—Russia, Turkey, and England. But +even before his return home, fresh disagreements had +broken out between Russia and Yakoob Beg. The year 1872 +had not closed, before the Athalik Ghazi concluded some +secret negotiations that had been pending for some time +with the Sultan, and this champion of Islam appeared in +a new and holier light to Asiatics as Emir, or Ameer. +He acknowledged the suzerainty of the Porte; and, not +content with this formal declaration, gave an extra significance +to the event by issuing a fresh coinage, bearing +on one side the head of Abdul Aziz. The Russians +were, it can well be imagined, displeased at this alliance +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +between two Mahomedan states which might both be +considered hostile to their interests, and a very large +party in military circles clamoured for an expedition to +be sent at once against the insolent Mussulman. At one +moment it seemed as if this bellicose party was to gain +the day, for the testimony of all the officers and merchants +who had visited Kashgar showed that each day +Yakoob Beg was becoming more formidable. Prompt +measures were pressed on the government of Tashkent, +and General Kaufmann seemed half disposed to acquiesce +in the proposal to inflict summary chastisement on the +Athalik Ghazi. Fortunately for Kashgar, the Khan of +Khiva had been an older offender in the eyes of the +Russians, and the Home Government peremptorily forbade +any steps being taken in the regions bordering on +the Chinese Empire. It is sufficiently clear that the +moderation of the home authorities was a wiser policy +than the impulsive demands of certain officers in Tashkent; +but it is not so evident why Yakoob Beg abstained +from appearing in the <i>rôle</i> of the liberator of Khokand, +at so opportune a moment as that afforded by the great +expedition against Khiva in 1873. The treaty of Baron +Kaulbars had stipulated for the free admission of Russian +merchants into the state on the payment of a 2½ per +cent. <i>ad valorem</i> duty. Not only was there to be no +further exaction, but good treatment was guaranteed to +such Russian subjects as desired to travel in Kashgar, +and who came provided with a passport, and permission +to travel, from a Russian governor. During Baron +Kaulbars' residence in the country, nothing could be +more considerate than the treatment extended towards +the members of his suite, and the merchants who went +on to Yarkand were afforded facilities for disposing of +the small stock of merchandise which they had brought +with them on this journey. This friendly reception of +such merchants as came to Kashgar was maintained +during the period over which these negotiations extended +down to the departure of Yakoob Beg's own ambassador +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +from Russian territory; but with the arrival of Hadji +Torah at Constantinople, and the proclamation of the +fact that Yakoob Beg had been elevated to the dignified +position of Emir by the Sultan of Roûm, a change came +over the spirit of his policy towards Russia. Indeed, +Yakoob Beg saw himself menaced by an unforeseen danger +in this treaty of commerce. He had formerly been +averse to the presence of Russian merchants in his state +because he regarded them as spies; but now that the +necessities of his position had to some extent compelled +him to enter into a formal treaty with their government, +he perceived that his little state literally ran the risk of +being invaded by the Russian merchants and traders who +flocked to Kuldja for the purpose of participating in the +spoils to be obtained by trafficking with the inhabitants +of Eastern Turkestan. He had always been averse to +trade. He was a warrior, and inclined to feel and to +express contempt at the juggling tricks of Muscovite +or Khitay.</p> + +<p>But as the former could provide him with better +weapons for his army, and warmer clothes for his people, +in addition to trinkets for his <i>serai</i>, their presence, if only +they came in limited numbers, and at stated intervals, +could be tolerated; but when he perceived they were +about to descend on his state, like so many birds of prey +on an abandoned carcase, and when he surmised that in +all likelihood they would endeavour to mix themselves +up in the political divisions of Kashgar as they had in +Bokhara and Khokand, he determined to impose some +other check on their visits besides that insignificant 2½ +per cent. on goods that returned a profit of cent. per +cent. He had given his plighted word, however, that +merchants should receive fair treatment, and how could +he find a loophole to avoid fulfilling what he had promised, +and yet at the same time escape bringing about an +open rupture with the Russian Government. The matter +required most delicate manipulation, but Yakoob Beg +proved himself equal to the occasion. It was not to be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +expected, however, that Yakoob Beg could accomplish +his task of discouraging Russian enterprise without +giving some umbrage to the government.</p> + +<p>Despite the friendly reception of Baron Kaulbars, +there still remained some uncertainty in the minds of +individuals, whether the Athalik Ghazi was as sincere +in his protestations as he would have it believed. +There was, consequently, some disinclination among the +merchants of Kuldja to be the first to send a caravan +to Kashgar. They were all willing enough to share +the profits, but it was a risky experiment all the same; +and each would prefer that his neighbour should inaugurate +the enterprise. In commercial circles, there was +much discussion on the new state, and the prospects of +trade therewith, and there was much talk as to "who +should bell the cat." The hesitation, if indeed so +natural a sentiment deserves to be specified here, soon +passed off, and Mr. Pupyshef, a merchant, who had +had very large business connections with most parts +of Central Asia, resolved to send the first consignment +of merchandise to Kashgar. Mr. Pupyshef was, +however, unable to go in person, so his caravan set +out under the charge of his clerk Somof. It arrived +without "let or hindrance" in Kashgar, where Mr. +Somof was provided with accommodation in the Caravanserai +specially set apart for foreign merchants. But +a change was at once perceptible in the sentiments of +the ruler, as the personal freedom of the members of +the expedition was curtailed, and all their movements +were watched with the most exacting surveillance; and +the residence of Mr. Somof was brief in the extreme, +for the Athalik Ghazi himself bought up the whole of +his stock of merchandise. Viewed as a commercial +speculation, this result should have been eminently +satisfactory; the Russian merchant had to experience +no loss from delay in finding a purchaser for his articles. +There was, however, another matter to be taken +into consideration, and that was the mode of payment +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +by the purchaser. Mr. Somof received so many Chinese +coins at a value fixed by the Ameer himself, and Mr. +Pupyshef, on the return of his representative, estimated +the loss at 15,000 roubles. The Russian government +took up the case of their subject, and presented a +remonstrance at Kashgar, demanding the immediate +restitution of the loss incurred by the Russian merchant. +Yakoob Beg's reply to this summary request +was a model of courtesy and tact. He denied altogether +that Mr. Somof had in any way been interfered +with. That gentleman was always at perfect liberty to +do what, and to go where, he pleased, and he was +quite mistaken in supposing that he, the Ameer, had +purchased his goods. The Badaulet had nothing whatever +to do with trade, which he left entirely to his +subjects. He was simply a warrior and a follower of +the Prophet. He had nevertheless instituted inquiries +into the matter, and he had discovered that some of his +officers, who should be punished, had purchased the +merchandise in his name, hoping thereby to obtain it at +a cheaper rate. The Athalik Ghazi expressed his +regret at the occurrence, and would be most happy +to refund whatever sum the Russian government considered +their subject had lost by the transaction. A +commission was appointed at Tashkent, to inquire into +all the circumstances of the case, and after some discussion +the demand of Mr. Pupyshef was reduced from +15,000 to 12,000 roubles. The Ameer acquiesced in the +decision, but many months elapsed before Mr. Pupyshef +received his money, and then it was again in a depreciated +Chinese coinage. We are justified in assuming +that this was all planned, and that the obstacles thrown +in the path of Mr. Pupyshef were part and parcel of a +systematic attempt to disgust Russian merchants with +Kashgar. The Russian government, too, was afforded +no clear case for complaint, as Yakoob Beg expressed +his regret without reserve for the occurrence, all the +responsibility of which he shifted on to the shoulders +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +of some of "his officials whom he had ordered to be +punished." He paid without a murmur the fair +demands of Mr. Pupyshef, and if there was some delay +in the refunding of the money, it must be attributed to +the poverty of his exchequer, and not to any want +of goodwill. The burden of his complaint was, "I am +a poor prince; my country is impoverished by the wars +that have occurred since the departure of the Chinese; +and you will find little therein to repay you for your +trouble and expense in entering it. Why therefore will +you persist in coming to it? You can do neither yourselves +nor my people any good by doing so, and you +only cause me anxiety and trouble in preserving your +countrymen from insult and injury, which you must +admit I have ever done." There was an under-current +of truth in this statement of the case, although it was +not credited in Kuldja, where everything that went amiss +was set down to the hostility of the Ameer. Yakoob +Beg had, however, succeeded in throwing cold water on +the enthusiastic preparations that were being made for +exploiting Eastern Turkestan, and his mode of doing so +had been quite original and characteristic. Few rulers +would have foreseen that the best way to get rid of a +troublesome visitor was to purchase what he had brought +to sell to the people; and that the simple remedy of +paying in a questionable currency would suffice to deter +hundreds from following the example of Mr. Somof. +Yakoob Beg, however, was not satisfied with leaving +well alone. Having paid the claim of Mr. Pupyshef, it +might have been supposed that he would maintain a +discreet silence on his intentions in the future with +regard to Russian merchants. He might have let the +question, indeed, find, as it would have found, its own +solution; but, in a weak moment, to place his own +<i>bona fides</i> beyond suspicion, he desired the Russian +government to send another merchant to Kashgar, and +then it could judge by his reception whether the Ameer +was not amicably disposed towards his "close allies," +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> +the Russians. The Russian authorities took him at his +word, and after an interval of more than twelve months, +during which Kashgar had been unvisited by a Russian +merchant, another, a Mr. Morozof, came to put Yakoob +Beg's assertions to the test. True to his word, the +reception of this gentleman was most cordial. Facilities +were placed in his way for getting purchasers of his +articles, and the Ameer bought for his arsenals such +of them as seemed suitable. Mr. Morozof returned to +Kuldja, narrating how cordially he had been welcomed +by the ruler himself, and how the enterprise had commercially +been a success. Others followed his example, +and during the last two and a half years of his rule +Russian merchandise, either through Russian or native +agents, found its way in considerable quantities into +Kashgar. But this trade was always liable to periods +of depression through the clouds that frequently darkened +the political horizon, and the Russians did not +derive the advantages from trade with this state, that +they had previously convinced themselves they were to +do. Indeed, English manufactures, after the year 1873, +entered into keen competition with theirs in the cities of +Kashgar, and had driven their goods out of the market of +Yarkand at all events before the close of the year 1876. +But this fact only served to impress more forcibly on +the Russians the necessity either for annexing Kashgaria +or establishing on its throne some puppet, who would +be content with the post of deputy of the Czar. Indeed, +many suggested that the Chinese should be brought +back; but then they were so far off, and apparently so +weak. The party advocating the absorption of Kashgaria +every day became stronger and more pronounced; +and all observers agree that it was only a question of +time when the imperial fiat should go forth for the +extinction of the rule of Yakoob Beg. Colonel Reinthal +was sent in 1874, to endeavour to place matters on a +more hopeful footing, but with little success. In addition +to the question of trade privileges, the Russians, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +in negotiating with native states, or securing treaties +at the point of the sword, always demanded the right of +having consular agents in the chief cities of the state. +The ostensible duty of these official representatives +was to look after the interests of their government, and +to protect the lives and property of Russian subjects as +best they might be able. So far as these very necessary +functions were concerned, Russia had a perfect right in +demanding these safeguards, when such were deemed +to be required. But unfortunately for the reputation +of that country, the experience of Asiatics had amply +demonstrated that these declared duties were the least +important part of their office.</p> + +<p>Their secret instructions were to lose no opportunity +of discovering the drift of public sentiment in the state +where they were stationed; to learn all the ramifications +of the dynastic intrigues that unfortunately form the +chief incidents in the history of these states, and to +promote, by every means at their disposal, the interests +of the great empire into whose service they had been +admitted. When such latitude was allowed in their +instructions, and so many private and public inducements +were offered to raise their zeal, it cannot be +matter of surprise if we find the government informed +promptly of the shiftings of public opinion in the independent +and semi-independent Khanates of Central Asia. +Yakoob Beg was keenly alive to the dangers that would +arise to him personally from the introduction of such a +system into Kashgar, where the discordant elements +out of which he had welded a military organization +were far from being completely healed. If the presence +of a mirza in Khokand and Bokhara had entailed a +decade of troubles and of gradual subjection, what was +he to expect, a mere military adventurer and a foreigner +in the land, from their presence in Eastern Turkestan? +But Baron Kaulbars had demanded this concession, perhaps +more than any other, and Yakoob Beg had to yield +something in form, if he did not surrender much in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +substance, to the importunities of his visitor. As a +great favour he consented to the appointment of <i>caravanbashis</i>, +or superintendents of the personal comforts of the +merchants when they should arrive; but a <i>caravan-bashi</i> +was an uneducated, unimportant personage, from whom +nothing need be feared. This did not at all please the +Russian administrators, and all their subsequent efforts +were mainly devoted to the attempt to obtain an alteration +of this unimportant personage into the prying and +inquisitive <i>mirza</i>. To defeat their design Yakoob Beg +was no less firmly resolved, and the history of the +embassies, from that of Baron Kaulbars to that of Captain +Kuropatkine, was one long course of fruitless efforts +to force the hand of the Athalik Ghazi on this point. +Colonel Reinthal was sent in 1874, after the successful +journey of Mr. Morozof, to see if any better arrangement +could be attained, but, although the Ameer entertained +him very hospitably, he fared no better than any +of his predecessors. In that year, too, Yakoob Beg's +position had become firmer in his own state. The +Tungani had been driven back north of the Tian Shan +beyond Turfan, and into the regions east of Lake Lob; +the disaffection, too, in the cities of Kucha and Korla +was also, to all appearance, dying out; but, above all, +the vast ægis of English protection had appeared to +be thrown over the integrity of his state. However +unjustified this supposition was by the treaty with Sir +Douglas Forsyth, the Ameer made as much use as possible +of his new-found ally; and the large section of Anglo-Indians, +and authorities in this country on the affairs of +Central Asia, who, either out of sympathy for the man, +or from a belief in the identity of British interests with +his cause, proclaimed the advisability of supporting him +against Russian aggression, gave a colourable excuse to +his declaration that England had extended for the first +time in her Trans-Himalayan policy her protection to +a native state lying north of her natural frontier. The +Russian governments in Siberia and Turkestan, emphatically +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +cautioned by their Foreign Office to give this +country no cause for umbrage, were at first inclined to +make that assertion an excuse for pushing their friendly +relations with the Ameer; but their advances were not +reciprocated, and as it became more clear that the +importance of the Forsyth mission had been greatly +exaggerated by the representations of the Ameer, the +language of the Russian authorities became once more +peremptory and menacing. In short, matters after more +than two years' discussion had retrogressed to the condition +they were in before the Kaulbars treaty. The +Russians had not obtained their chief desire, the establishment +of consular agents in Kashgar, and Yakoob +Beg, as in the past, boldly met threat with threat. Relying +on his increased reputation as the most orthodox +and the most puissant of Mahomedans in Central Asia, +and confident that England would intervene between +the Russians and the collapse of his state, he even went +so far as to temper his defiant, and almost bellicose, +attitude with such irony as the following incident is a +characteristic specimen of. Early in the year 1874 the +Duke of Edinburgh married Marie Alexandrovna, the +only daughter of the Czar; and Yakoob Beg seized the +occasion to send a message of congratulation to the +Czar of All the Russias on the auspicious event—saying, +that he had heard that the son of his good ally, +the Queen of England and of India, was about to wed +the daughter of his friend the Czar, and that he hastened +to send him his congratulations upon the event. To this +effusive epistle no reply was deigned, and it is doubtful +whether it ever got farther than Tashkent. There is +no difficulty in arriving at the conclusion that such +exhibitions as this is an instance of <ins class="corr" title="original had: detracted">detraction</ins> from the +otherwise great and striking characteristics of the ruler of +Kashgar. His opposition to Russia was most laudable; +his maintenance of his privileges as an independent ruler +was prudent and worthy of our respect; but his petty +insults to Russia were neither wise nor dignified. He +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> +was clearly in the right in checking the aggressive +instincts of Russia, clothed in the specious garb of +commercial advantage; he commands not less our +admiration for the energetic and persistent manner in +which he thwarted every endeavour to introduce Russian +espionage and intrigue into Kashgaria; but why should +he have weakened the effect of these splendid achievements, +why should he have risked all he had secured, +by so senseless an insult as the message to the Czar that +has been just referred to?</p> + +<p>The authorities in Tashkent, perceiving that it was +doubtful whether English public opinion was ripe yet +for an active interference in Central Asia, reverted, +despite all orders from the home authorities to the +contrary, to their original intention of coercing the +ruler of Kashgar. In 1874, therefore, all preparations +for commencing the campaign in the approaching spring +were made ready. Provisions and munitions of war +were despatched to Naryn, and an auxiliary division +was to make a flank movement by the Terek Pass on +the west. It has been laid to the charge of the Russian +generals in Asia, that expeditions are arranged for their +mutual advantage, both in obtaining higher rank and +orders. So seriously bitten had every officer since +Perovsky become by the desire for promotion and distinction, +that the disease became generally known as the +St. George or the St. Ann Cross fever. Now during +the seven years previous to the date at which we have +arrived, if there had been a fair share of distinction and +spoil for the soldiers and the lower ranks of the officers, +some of those in higher posts considered that they were +aggrieved by the monopoly of supreme credit obtained +by General Kaufmann. This, indeed, had shown itself +very clearly after the fall of Khiva, a success for which +Kaufmann obtained all the credit, and yet towards +which the division under his command contributed little +or nothing. The etiquette, too, maintained in the little +court at Tashkent, and the semi-regal state observed by +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +the successful general, were irksome to officers more +accustomed to the licence of a camp than to the punctilio +of a palace. Nor were there wanting more sinister +motives still among some of the chief general officers +who filled the subordinate posts in the service of the +Czar's representative. Prominent among them was +the youthful Scobelef, who, burning to distinguish himself, +clamoured loudly for some expedition which, when +accomplished successfully, would be recompensed with +the Cross of St. George. Strong as General Kaufmann +may really be in the good opinion of his superiors, he +was unable to resist, if he were inclined, the demands +pressed upon him by Scobelef and his father, and the +more warlike portion of his forces. It is said, that in +addition to these palpable reasons there were others +touching the family rivalries of the Kaufmanns and +Scobelefs, who appear to have been at feud with each +other when younger men in the service of the palace, +when Nicholas was Czar. To remove these differences, +and to satisfy the demands of his other subordinates, +General Kaufmann consented that an expedition should +be arranged against Kashgar, and entrusted to the +command of the younger Scobelef. Towards the end +of 1874 the war-cloud was drawing ominously over the +Athalik Ghazi, and to all observers it seemed as if it +were about to break with destructive violence on his +devoted head. Loudly was it asserted that nothing but +British intervention would save him, and it was only +too clear that England's policy would be guided by +events. The Viceroy had certainly not advised that +an active participation should be undertaken in this +question. The failure, too, of the Granville-Gortschakoff +negotiations to define a neutral zone had convinced +this country of the inutility of solving the question +between the two countries by treaty. But it was not +clear that, even if Kashgar were to fall into the power of +Russia, our interests would suffer so much as to justify +us in adopting an extreme remedy. The path being +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +thus left clear for Russia to strike, every precaution +was taken by Generals Kaufmann and Scobelef that +the blow should be sharp and decisive. Not fewer than +20,000 Russian troops in all were to be directed against +Yakoob Beg, who too late now attempted some concessions +to his neighbours. Such troops as he could raise +were massed in the neighbourhood of Kashgar, while +another force under his son was stationed at Aksu. +But of the result there could not be two opinions. Very +few weeks' respite remained to the intended victim, when +an event occurred which changed the whole current of +Russian thought into a different channel. Yakoob Beg +was saved by the outbreak of disturbances in Khokand, +and, although the Russians never acknowledged that +they were so serious as to prevent them persisting in +their Kashgarian enterprise, still gradually the troops +who had been despatched to the frontier were recalled, +and those who had been ordered to set out for Naryn +were retained in Tashkent and Hodjent, the two towns +chiefly threatened. Although this event is not part of +Kashgarian history, yet it performed so useful a function +to that state, which indeed it may be said to have saved, +that some brief account of it here may not be unwelcome.</p> + +<p>Khudayar Khan, after the death of Alim Kuli, his +hostile minister, in 1865, had been reinstated in his +possession of Khokand, partly by the efforts of his own +faction, and partly by Russian assistance. From that +year to the year 1875 he was <i>de facto</i> as he was <i>de jure</i> +Khan of Khokand, and, although imbroiled on several +occasions with Russia and with his own subjects in those +ten years, he still maintained a nominal independence in +the western half of Khokand, with his capital at the city +of the same name. For some reason, however, this Khan +never was popular. So far as we know concerning him, +he does not appear to have been any way worse than +his neighbours; but one party in the state accused him +of being a tool of the Russians, while another, urged +on by the agents employed by that government, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +declared that he was gradually drifting the country into a +hopeless contest with that Power. Widespread throughout +the state there was dissatisfaction at his rule, and +the occasion afforded by a commotion among the Kirghiz +was eagerly seized by his subjects to rise for the purpose +of subverting his power. At first this movement +seemed to possess no importance for the Russians, and +was regarded as one of those dynastic squabbles that +had become too ordinary an occurrence to occasion any +surprise. The insurrectionary party, too, had put on +the throne Nasruddin, the eldest son of the Khan, a +youth who was supposed to be friendly to Russia, and +who was not likely to prove in any way formidable, +having become passionately addicted to <i>vodka</i> drinking. +But behind this ostensible ruler there were others who +aspired to greater eminence than the king-makers of a +petty state like Khokand. Chief among these was +Khudayar's brother-in-law, Abderrahman Aftobatcha, +who was entrusted with the chief control of the military +arrangements. This chief was the son of Mussulman +Kuli, the Kipchak minister of Khudayar's earlier days. +Either incredulous of the maintenance of a neutral +attitude by Russia, or urged on by a patriotic impulse +to free the enslaved portion of Khokand, these confederates +issued a proclamation of war against General +Kaufmann. The border districts rose in response to +the proclamation, the communications between Tashkent +and Hodjent were severed, and confusion for a +time reigned supreme within the Russian possessions. +The Khokandian forces hesitated to make any serious +attack and wasted their time in useless depredations in +the mountains. Had a prompt move been made on +Tashkent, or even on Hodjent, the insurrection might +have been successful. Bokhara might have struck in at +the critical moment, and Yakoob Beg awoke from the +lethargy into which his warlike spirit was sinking. Such +was not to be, however; and gradually the Russian scare +wore off. Colonel Scobelef scoured the country with +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +his Cossacks; telegraphic communication was restored +between Hodjent and Tashkent; and the country was +rapidly cleared of the rebels. The fugitives who had +accompanied Khudayar in his flight were sent to the +rear, and reinforcements were hastily summoned to take +part in the necessary offensive measures against Khokand. +It will be sufficient here to say that, having +been defeated in the fight at Makhram and several +other small engagements, the party of Nasruddin and +Aftobatcha sued for peace. This was granted, but Khokand +became the Russian province of Ferghana, Colonel +Scobelef was raised to a major-general, and obtained his +Cross of St. George by the battle of Makhram. This +event, generally known as the revolt of the Khokandians +against Russia of 1875, marks an important era, for it +convinced the Khokandians and other Asiatics that any +attempt to obtain their liberty, short of a concerted and +organized movement, would be fruitless. There has +been no renewal of the attempt that then failed, but +which ought to have achieved more success.</p> + +<p>To the discord unhappily existent among its victims +has Russia been chiefly indebted for the facility with +which her Asiatic conquests have been acquired, and to +the same ally it seems probable that she will be chiefly +indebted for their preservation. There is no clearer +evidence of this than the history of this last war with +Khokand. But when we endeavour to divide the share +of culpability for this dissension, we are on this occasion +bound to admit that the chief blame attaches to Yakoob +Beg. More than any other Asiatic ruler had he assumed +to himself the title of general protector of his religion +and his order, against the conquering strides of Russia; +more than any other had he fostered, by his bold and +defiant attitude towards that state, the belief that there +still remained some hope of coping with the danger by +a united league of Central Asian states; more than any +other had he seemed to justify this aspiration; and more +than any other must he be held culpable when he permitted +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +the moment that seemed most auspicious to slip +by unutilized. Moreover, when this insurrection broke +out in Khokand, he had made every preparation to defend +himself against a Russian invasion. He saw the +Russians compelled, by the very necessities of their +position, to call off their forces to other quarters, and +yet he abstained from striking a blow in defence of +those interests which he had ever declared were most +sacred to him. It is impossible to explain such apathy +on so important an occasion as this was; and his refusal +to strike in on the side of Aftobatcha must remain the +greatest blot on an otherwise brilliant reputation. With +the collapse of that effort, and the subsequent occupation +of Ferghana, Russian attention seemed to become more +occupied with the state of affairs on the Oxus and in +Cabul, than with the fortunes or misfortunes of Kashgar. +During the few months that intervened between +the annexation of Khokand and the appearance of the +Chinese north of the Tian Shan, Yakoob Beg adopted +a more conciliatory policy towards Russia, and might in +a short time have sunk into the position of a somewhat +more important Khudayar or Mozaffur Eddin. Other +events intervened, however, and gave a complete change +to the question, as will be considered in a later chapter. +We take our leave of this narrative of his dealings with +Russia with an admiration that would be perfect but for +the weakness he exhibited in 1875. Even that vacillation +will scarcely destroy all the claim that his bold +defiance and consistent opposition to all Russian pretensions +to supremacy over Eastern Turkestan gives him to +our respectful and admiring consideration.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XI"></a><span>CHAPTER XI.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">YAKOOB BEG'S RELATIONS WITH ENGLAND.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">In</span> describing the relations that subsisted between England +and Kashgar, while under the rule of Yakoob Beg, +there will be no necessity for us to enter so deeply into +the under-currents that guided those relations, as was +necessary in the preceding chapter, where we detailed the +rivalry of Russia and Kashgar. While England could +hold out a hand of friendship to the Athalik Ghazi, +because he sought to please us by making commercial +concessions, Russia felt doubly piqued with the man who +for long refused her a similar foothold, and who, for a +brief space, went still farther in his defiance, secure—as +he thought—under British protection. Our government +could not fail to see, in the bold conduct of this ruler, +the result of a mistaken notion of what it would do +in the event of a war in Central Asia, and it strove to +bring home to the mind of Yakoob Beg and his emissaries +a sense of our determination not to interfere +beyond the Karakoram. Looking back now on the +old legends that successive travellers brought us from +Eastern Turkestan, where such strange things had been +wrought, where the Chinese had been expelled, and a +new king from Khokand enthroned, and regarding them +in the light of our greatly extended information, even +since Mr. Shaw penned his interesting volume on High +Tartary, it will not be without some interest to trace +back the story of how Yakoob Beg's name first became +known to us, and how, for eight or nine years, a large +section of Englishmen wove a romance round his name, +and converted "the land of the six cities" into a fertile +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> +and populous region, which might serve as a barrier +to Russian progress, and which, like Cabul elsewhere, +should extend as another "cushion" from the mountains +of Hindostan to the Celestial range of the Chinese. +Those dreams have vanished now, and in their place has +risen up the very unromantic and matter-of-fact spectacle +of a Chinese triumph.</p> + +<p>Whoever has chanced to reside in the valleys of the +Himalaya—Mr. Shaw is the authority—must experience +a desire to know of the countries beyond that range. +The desire is natural, but the obstacles of nature are +stupendous. To enter Tibet has been the object of +numerous Englishmen, from the time of Warren Hastings, +yet that object has been only attained by three +of our countrymen, the latest sixty-six years ago. There +are forty or fifty passes of various degrees of practicability +leading into Tibet from Nepaul, Sikhim, and +Bhutan; and to act as a spur to the explorer there is a +highly civilized and peaceable race just beyond our +border of whom we know scarcely anything. Yet the +vision of Warren Hastings and of Thomas Manning +remains unfulfilled.</p> + +<p>North of the Karakoram there were no similar incentives. +Mr. Moorcroft who, fifty years ago, resided +in Ladakh, does not appear to have manifested any +desire to pierce the iron barrier to the north, although +towards Ruduk and Tibet he turned as if irresistibly +fascinated. The character which the brothers Michell +gave Little Bokhara, or Eastern Turkestan, expressed +a fact, which long deterred any traveller from attempting +to explore it. "Little Bokhara," they said, "was a +country where every man carried his life in his hand, +and there were indubitable excuses for each successive +traveller who recoiled before the hardships and dangers +of a journey through that country." But although no +Englishman traversed the dizzy passes of the Karakoram +and the Kuen Lun, now and then the people from +Sanju, Khoten, and the neighbourhood came to Ladakh, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +where they brought intelligence of the political events +that were taking place further north. Their intelligence +was often completely false, it was always vague and exaggerated, +but it, at all events, told us whether peace or +war, satisfaction or dissatisfaction, was the existing circumstance +in Eastern Turkestan. It was known in a +general sense that China was the nominal ruler of this +vast region; but the exact relations China held there, +how she conquered the country and when, and by what +means she retained her conquest, all these were unascertained. +There had, indeed, been one break in this state of +darkness when the learned traveller, Adolph Schlagintweit, in +1857, penetrated, with a few native followers, into +Kashgar. The initial difficulties were successfully overcome, +and fortune seemed at first disposed to smile upon +his enterprise. Herr Schlagintweit had come, however, +at a singularly inopportune moment. The Khoja Wali +Khan had just invaded Kashgar, and his forces had +spread as far south as Yarkand, when the traveller +approached that city. He appears to have been able to +report himself to the Aksakal, representing Cashmere +at Yarkand, who, in turn, communicated with the Chinese +Amban, for permission for him to enter the city; but +while detained outside the walls he was captured by a +roving party of Wali Khan's army. He was at once hurried +off to Wali Khan's head-quarters at Kashgar, where +that despot, in a fit of fury, brought about by excess in +"bang," ordered him to be executed. His followers +escaped, and brought back the tale of his death to +Ladakh.</p> + +<p>Such was the untoward fate of the first explorer of +Kashgar. In the course of the early summer of 1868, +it became generally known that the Chinese had been +driven out of Kashgar, and that Yakoob Beg was ruling +the country, under the title, conferred upon him by the +Ameer of Bokhara, of Athalik Ghazi. He had sent a +sort of semi-official messenger, Mahomed Nazzar, in +that year into the Punjab, to take notes, as it were, of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +our dominions. Mr. Shaw, in Ladakh, had heard of the +recent changes in Eastern Turkestan, and mentioned to +this envoy on his return the desire he had to visit +Kashgar, and see the widely famed Athalik Ghazi. The +envoy received the proposition with enthusiastic approval, +but it was considered more prudent to await the formal +assent of the ruler himself. After overcoming the difficulties +that beset his task, with prompt resolution Mr. +Shaw entered the dominions of the Athalik Ghazi in +December, 1868, being the first Englishman who had +ever entered Little Bokhara. His reception was singularly +cordial, and everything that the officials could do +to make his sojourn in the country pleasant to him was +done. One and all of the Khokandian dignitaries received +him as a friend and a brother; and even Mahomed +Yunus, Dadkwah of Yarkand, the second man in the +kingdom, treated him in a spirit of marked cordiality. +It should be remembered that Mr. Shaw went there +without any official <i>status</i> whatever, and simply as an +English traveller. Of course, it was the best policy for +the Kashgarian rulers to greet him hospitably, and prove +that they had completely pacified Eastern Turkestan; +but in pointing out the hospitable reception that was +given to Mr. Shaw, it is impossible to detract from its +merit by referring to such latent political motives as +these. Yakoob Beg received the English traveller in +special audience at Kashgar, and treated him in the +most cordial manner. On Mr. Shaw offering him a few +presents that he had brought from India, such as rifles, +&c., the ruler laughed, and said, "What need is there of +presents between you and me? We are already friends, +and your safe arrival has been sufficient satisfaction to +me." During Mr. Shaw's residence in Kashgar, which +extended over a period of three months, he had three +interviews with the Athalik Ghazi, who on each occasion +became, if possible, more friendly than on the previous +one. Mr. Shaw was fairly treated on the whole, +and has of all writers on Kashgar given us the most +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> +graphic description of the people and the country. Mr. +Shaw's position was to a certain extent compromised by +the arrival of another Englishman, the lamented Mr. +Hayward, who was murdered in a somewhat mysterious +manner, three or four years afterwards, in the neighbourhood +of the Cashmerian fortress of Gilgit. Both +travellers were for a time detained in a sort of honourable +confinement in Kashgar, but all ended happily, and +the first two English explorers of Eastern Turkestan +returned in perfect safety to Ladakh. The result of +Mr. Shaw's interesting journey was not made known in +England until 1871, after he had set out and returned +from Kashgar a second time, in the first embassy of +Mr., now Sir, Douglas Forsyth. The result of this +visit to Yarkand and Kashgar was almost magnetic. +Not only did the Indian Government promptly take +into its consideration the question of what our political +relations were to be with the Athalik Ghazi, but the +whole Anglo-Indian community turned an attentive ear +to the stories told of the new country. A new avenue +for commerce had been opened up, and Eastern Turkestan +might, after all, prove the true gateway to the marts of +Bokhara and Kuldja. In our more immediate vicinity +there was the jade trade of Khoten to be revived, and +the wool of Tartary, of ancient fame, should alone form +a staple article of commerce. For Manchester goods +and Indian wares there was also a very inviting prospect +in the thickly populated districts of Yarkand and +Kashgar, which were at first supposed to contain a much +larger population than as a matter of fact they did. At +first it is probable that the main sentiment was one of +satisfaction on commercial grounds alone; later on, the +progress of events in Khokand and Kuldja made the +political motives appear more prominently before English +minds. A trading company was formed in conception, +but it did not begin operations until several years later +on, after the signature of the Forsyth treaty, for which, +and the official regulations concerning the working of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> +that company, the reader may be referred to the Appendix +of this volume.</p> + +<p>Mr. Shaw himself formed a very roseate estimate of +the future of the trade between India and Kashgar, and +participated with all his wonted activity in promoting +the fortunes of the Yarkand Trading Company from his +advantageous post at Lêh. Although the more sanguine +expectations were never realized, the company itself was +successful, and performed a very useful work under no +easy circumstances. Its functions are suspended during +the uncertainty that always follows a change in the +ruling power of a state, until it is seen what steps are +taken by the Chinese, or this country, to perpetuate, +under the Chinese sway, those good feelings which first +arose under Yakoob Beg. Many are sceptical of the +possibility of living on terms of good neighbourship +with the Chinese, and of carrying on an intercourse, +which certainly does not exist anywhere along the whole +extent of the Anglo-Chinese frontier. But these persons +will scarcely admit that the Chinese are to blame in +this respect if we neglect the subject, for Russia by +right of several treaties, and by right also of diplomatic +tact, has a commercial <i>status</i> in every northern mart of +the Chinese Empire, from Ourga to Urumtsi, Manas, +Chuguchak, Kuldja and Kashgar. If the Chinese were +reinstalled in every one of their old possessions, yet +Russia would have a legal foothold in all those outlying +dependencies. English commerce must not by any +means despair of success in opening up the interior of +China from the direction of India and Cashmere. In +most cases, political action generally follows upon commercial +enterprise; but in our dealings with the Chinese +the order is reversed, and political overtures and diplomatic +arrangements must clear the way for the commerce +that must infallibly spring up between Hindostan and +not only Tartary and Tibet, but also the home provinces +of Yunnan and Szchuen. The root of the difficulty is +no doubt to be found in the fact that the Mantchoo +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +caste is in many respects as much a race apart from +the mass of Chinamen as the Norman was in England +during the twelfth century. The Mantchoo mandarin +believes that in some undefined manner the introduction +of European science and civilization into China +would tend to lower his influence and political power. +But if we are wise, we shall ignore this sentiment, and +endeavour to reach the people through their legitimate +authorities, the Tartar conquering race of two centuries +and a half ago, and not by attempting to influence the +rulers by a propagandist crusade among the people, as +some advise.</p> + +<p>Some months after the return of Mr. Shaw to Lêh, +the Athalik Ghazi, who had doubtless considered very +attentively that gentleman's suggestion to maintain a +representative at Lahore, despatched an envoy to India +for the purpose of expressing his desire for the establishment +of friendly relations with the British Government, +for the development of trade between the +countries, and for the visit of a British officer to his +capital. He had fully realized by this time what Mr. +Shaw meant by saying that he came in no official capacity. +If he intended, therefore, to reap any reward for +the manifestation of his friendship towards England, or +to be able to play England's alliance off against Russia's +hostility, he discovered that he must take the initiative. +In consequence of that discovery, Ihrar Khan came to +India, and was entertained by our Government in a +very friendly manner. It was in response to Ihrar +Khan's visit that Mr. Forsyth was sent as our first +envoy to Kashgar, in the following year.</p> + +<p>Mr. Forsyth was accompanied by Mr. Shaw, who had +volunteered for the service, and by Dr. Henderson. He +reached Yarkand, by the same route as that followed +by Mr. Shaw, in safety, and without suffering any great +amount of inconvenience. But the mission had reached +the scene of its labours at a very inopportune moment. +The Athalik Ghazi had just been summoned away to the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +far eastern frontier to repress hostile movements on the +part of the Tungan cities of Turfan and Urumtsi, and +it was very uncertain for how long a time he might be +detained there. Mr. Forsyth accordingly left Yarkand +in the month of September on his return journey, +without having had an opportunity of settling the +future of the relations between India and Kashgar. +Dr. Henderson, in his "Lahore to Yarkand," chronicled +the events of this journey to the region north of the +Himalaya.</p> + +<p>The very next year, 1871, Yakoob Beg sent Ihrar +Khan once more to India to renew his protestations of +friendship, entrusting him with letters, not only for the +Viceroy but also for Her Majesty the Queen. But there +was no immediate result from this later overture.</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile Russia had broken ground more +firmly in Eastern Turkestan. The treaty of commerce +between Russia and her neighbour, which had been for +several years on the carpet, had at last been signed at +Kashgar on the 8th of June, 1872. That treaty conceded +no inconsiderable trade privileges to Russia, for, +as will be seen from a perusal of its clauses, Russian +goods entering the country could not be subjected to a +higher tax than 2½ per cent. <i>ad valorem</i>. In fact, but for +Yakoob Beg's prudence in restricting the appointment +of Russian commercial agents in the cities to the inferior +<i>caravan-bashi</i>, a far different personage to the Aksakal, +that treaty would have placed Kashgar virtually in the +possession of General Kaufmann. Even as it was, +Russia, regarded as a foe, had out-distanced England, +who was held to be a friend; and for a considerable +time afterwards, English commerce, which had no status +there, hesitated to seek admission into the dominions of +the Athalik Ghazi.</p> + +<p>But the treaty of Baron Kaulbars was in its essence +a sham, for no good feeling sprang up between the +countries; and where there was distrust on either side, +trade languished, as was to be expected. Two months +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> +after this treaty, Yakoob Beg sent his nephew, the Seyyid +Yakoob Khan, on a special embassy to Russia, whence +he went on to Constantinople, and returned <i>viâ</i> India. +He then had several long discussions with our authorities +relative to the measures that should be adopted +to place everything on a friendly footing between +Kashgar and ourselves. The Sultan had conferred +upon the ruler of Kashgar the high title of Emir ul +Moomineen, and shortly afterwards Yakoob Beg proclaimed +himself in consequence of that decree Emir or +Ameer of Kashgar, under the title of Yakoob Khan. It +is appropriate here to say something of these two titles, +Khan and Beg. In this work the ruler of Kashgar has +been consistently called Beg or prince, and not Khan or +lord; and for the following reasons. The title of Khan +is much higher than that of Beg; it is, moreover, +hereditary. Gibbon, whose authority in these Central +Asian matters stands higher than many modern +scholars will admit, defines it as the distinguishing +mark of the descendants of Genghis Khan. His +heirs and their children became the Khans of Western +Asia. The Mongol who grafted himself on the +Turk and the Usbeg, brought with him the unique +authority that was vested by public voice in the house +of Genghis, the Khan of Khans. Now, although in his +later days Yakoob Beg, or his admirers, invented a +lineage for himself back to Timour, consequently making +him of Mongol descent, it is highly improbable that this +mythical descent was based on any reliable <i>data</i>, nor +can we admit any other claim to according Yakoob Beg +that higher title than one that will stand the criticism of +history. Yakoob Beg was not free from some of that +craving that haunts the minds of rulers "born out of +the purple" to claim cousinship with the select caste +of former sovereigns; and the visible embodiment of +temporal sovereignty in Turkestan was this very title of +Khan, which has been so much abused in its application.</p> + +<p>It is wrong, in a strict sense, to apply the title of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> +Khan to Yakoob Beg, although he undoubtedly made +use of it during the last three years of his reign; but +as a matter of mere convenience, it is also misleading. +On the stage of Asiatic politics there is another Yakoob +Khan, who is, by descent, a Khan, and possesses qualities +not less eminent than did his namesake in Eastern +Turkestan. Confusion was often caused by the confounding +of one of these personages with the other, +whereas if each had been defined by his legitimate title, +there would have been no misunderstanding. Towards +the close of the year 1873, the Seyyid Yakoob Khan, +who, by descent, could claim the title which was not his +uncle's, returned to India, where he found that the +English mission was a few days ahead of him on its +journey to Kashgar.</p> + +<p>The Indian government had, in the meanwhile, appointed +Mr. T. Douglas Forsyth as their envoy to +Kashgar once more, and, during the summer of 1873, +preparations were busily in progress for the important +embassy that was to counteract the adverse effects of +Baron Kaulbars' treaty. As this is the turning-point +in Anglo-Kashgarian relations, it is necessary to follow +it in considerable detail. Upon Mr. Forsyth's embassy +depends the whole fabric of our policy in, and intercourse +with, Eastern Turkestan during the past four years. In +fact, but for Sir Douglas Forsyth's Report and Treaty, +even Mr. Shaw's interesting volume and intrepid journey +would have failed to have preserved the vitality +of our interest in Kashgar and its ruler.</p> + +<p>By the month of July, everything was in readiness +for a forward movement, but owing to the delay in the +arrival of Seyyid Yakoob Khan, or Hadji Torah as he +was more usually termed, Mr. Forsyth still lingered +at Murree. Captains Biddulph and Trotter, and Dr. +Stoliczka, in the meanwhile set out for Lêh to explore +the routes between that town and Shahidoola. These +three gentlemen explored the country beyond Ladakh +very carefully, although it had already been described +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +by Messrs. Shaw and Hayward, and Dr. Cayley. Mr. +Forsyth and the headquarters, after a short stay at +Srinagar in Cashmere, arrived at Lêh on the 20th of +September. It may be useful to give here the names of +those who comprised this important embassy. In the +first place there was the envoy himself, Mr., now Sir, +T. Douglas Forsyth, C.B., and now K.C.S.I. His second +in command was Lieut.-Colonel T. E. Gordon, C.S.I., +who, after the prime object of the mission had been +accomplished, explored a very considerable portion of +the Pamir, the result of whose investigations is to be +found in his work "The Roof of the World." Then +came Dr. Bellew, C.S.I., Surgeon-Major, entrusted with +the medical control of the expedition. The three military +men—Captains Chapman, Trotter, and Biddulph—held +various functions; the first as secretary, the latter +two in scientific capacities. In addition to these there +were the learned Dr. Stoliczka, who died from the effects +of the rarefaction of the atmosphere; an English corporal +of a Highland regiment, and six native officers and skilled +assistants. There was also an escort of ten sowars, one +naick, and ten sepoys furnished by the Corps of Guides.</p> + +<p>The appointments of the embassy were also most +carefully selected, and with special regard to the difficulties +that lay before it in the obstacles of nature, and +the inconveniences attending complete dependence on +natives for the means of transporting the large quantity +of <i>impedimenta</i>. One hundred mules "of a fair stamp" +were accordingly purchased in India by Tara Sing, a +merchant, and the treasurer to the embassy. And these +were equipped with saddles and trunks of a special +pattern, made in the government workshops at Cawnpoor. +Altogether, then, this English embassy to Kashgar +was a very formidable undertaking, and in its proportions +assumed something of the appearance of a small +army; in camp there were "300 souls and 400 animals." +The day had gone by when English travellers entertained +doubts of entering Kashgar in company at the same +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +time, lest they should arouse the apprehensions of the +people. Mr. Forsyth came vested with all the authority +of his Sovereign and the Viceroy, to negotiate a treaty of +amity with the ruler of Kashgar, and the people generally +saw in that fact a guarantee of the preservation of +their liberties and independence.</p> + +<p>So far as Shahidoola, the journey was in a well known +region, and outside the frontier of Yakoob Beg. At +that place the first sign of that ruler's power was encountered +in the same way as Mr. Shaw, five years +before, had witnessed the advanced limit of the power of +the Athalik Ghazi in a southerly direction. A captain +of the Kashgarian army, Yuzbashi Mahomed Zareef +Khan, had been deputed to receive our envoy at the +frontier, and to give him a hearty welcome. After a +rest of four days, the whole expedition, advancing in two +bodies over the Grim Pass, Sanju Devan, entered the inhabited +territory of Sanju. Here Hadji Torah, who had +been travelling "post" after them from India, caught +them up, and by his tact and real friendship for this +country, contributed greatly to the complete success of +the mission. The passage of the Grim Pass, although +accomplished with success, was no easy task. Dr. +Bellew, in his book "Kashmir and Kashgar," gives the +following graphic description of it, which may be quoted +with advantage as showing some of the "obstacles of +nature" to the advance either of an army or a caravan +in this quarter:—</p> + +<p>"The scene which now burst upon our view is one +not easy to describe, still less to forget. Immediately +on either hand, like the portals of a gate, stood bare +banks of silver grey slate, which gently spread away +on each side into the slopes that, inclining together, +formed the theatre of the spectacle they limited. And +immediately in front commenced that gentle rise over +slabs of slate <i>débris</i>—the natural dark hue of which +was lost in the bright sparkle of its abundant mica—which +led at once on to the field of our vision. Here, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> +at the foot of the ascent, one step took us from the +tiresome monotony of the bare rocks behind, with all +their dulness of hue, on to the snow, which overspread +all before with a white sheet of the most dazzling +brilliance. On the left and on the right it spread with +uniform regularity to the crests of the bounding ridges +in those directions; whilst in front, it rose up as a vast +wall, whose top cut the sky in a succession of sharp +peaks with a clearness of outline rarely witnessed. +And above all, stretched the wide expanse of heaven, +with a depth unsearchable, in the speckless purity of +its azure, and with a calm such as often precedes the +storm. Wonderful was the scene!"</p> + +<p>Such is the description of an eye-witness of this +striking scene, which in its solemnity approached the +sublime, in its grandeur the terrible. The last hundred +feet of the ascent was a sheer wall of ice, like +the Matterhorn, and up this the troopers' horses, and +the baggage mules and ponies, had to be lifted by +human force. More than a whole day was occupied +in surmounting this obstacle alone, but it was surmounted +with the small loss of eight mules and three +ponies. With the crossing of the Grim Pass, the +difficulties of nature disappeared, and henceforth the +course of the mission lay in the more sheltered plains +of Kashgaria.</p> + +<p>After leaving Sanju, the country had, for some days' +journey, an appearance of barrenness, that was only +relieved by the avidity with which patches of more +promising soil had been cultivated, a fact which testified +alike to the beneficence of the ruler and to the assiduity +of his people. There is good reason for believing that +in the Yarkand and Khoten districts, Yakoob Beg's +administration was most successful. This may have +been caused by the superior qualities of the people over +the Tungani, and mixed populations farther east; but +it must also be attributed to the absence of those +desolating wars which went on without any long +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +intervals down to the year 1874, in the country held by +the Tungani. The treachery of Yakoob Beg in murdering +the Khan Habitulla of Khoten had aroused +suspicions as to his good faith that only lay dormant +during the days of his power; but the people of Khoten, +Sanju, Karghalik, and Kilia were far too thrifty +and too prudent to sit down supinely and dwell upon +their wrongs. They neither forgot nor forgave, but they +suppressed all trace of seditious opinions against the +new ruler.</p> + +<p>The next city which Mr. Forsyth reached, Karghalik, +showed still further signs of prosperity and civilization. +"An eating-house, with its clean table, and forms, and +piles of china plates and bowls, at once took us back +across the seas to the recollection of many a country +restaurant in France." Special preparations had in +every way been made for the reception of the representatives +of England, and Mr. Forsyth expressed his +surprise at finding fire-places, like our own, ventilators, +and rich carpets from Khoten, famous in days of yore +for its manufacture of those articles, in the quarters +that had been set apart as his residence. Similar +preparations had been made at every stopping place, +and the people not less than the sovereign did their +best, and spared no exertion, to make the stay of the +Feringhees as pleasant as possible for them. More than +that, even at the resting places during the daily march, +the headman or local magnate, without exception, always +entertained them at a "dastarkhwan," that is to say, at +a course of refreshments. The "dastarkhwan" literally +means table-cloth, and consists of any number of +distinct dishes, sometimes as many as a hundred, held +by as many attendants. This is a national custom, +from which there is never any deviation. It is incumbent +upon the guest to break bread first, and then +present it to his host. One of their customs is refreshing +to any one who has come fresh from India, with all its +troublesome caste distinctions. "Be the host Turk or +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> +British, he and his guests eat alike from the same dish, +and hand food to the surrounding attendants, who are +troubled with no scruples of caste to interfere with their +hearty appetite."</p> + +<p>The mission was now drawing close to Yarkand, +politically and commercially the most important city in +the state, and accordingly preparations were made for a +formal entry. At a village called Zilchak a chamberlain, +or Yasawal-Bashi, came out with a party of the +royal body-guard, Yakoob Beg's favourite <i>jigits</i>, in +their buff leather uniform, to act as an escort, and the +party was swollen <i>en route</i> by numerous influential +citizens and merchants, who advanced to give an early +welcome to the new arrivals. By these additions quite +an imposing cavalcade drew nigh to the walls of +Yarkand. The quarters set apart for the Englishmen +were in the fort, which lies to the north of the city, +so that Yarkand had to be ridden through before +their halting place was reached. The people who +thronged to witness the sight seemed very well +disposed, and altogether there was every reason to +feel well satisfied with these mutual first impressions, +which, some had asserted, would be far from pleasant.</p> + +<p>The following day there was an interview of ceremony +with the Dadkhwah of Yarkand, Mahomed Yunus Jan, +for whose history the reader is referred to Chapter IX., +and then the visitors were permitted to go wherever +they liked. On Mr. Forsyth's former visit a similar +freedom had not been accorded him. Their first appearance +in the streets was the occasion for a great deal of +bustling on the part of the curious, but of friendly goodwill +also. All the principal streets and bazaars were +visited in turn, such as the butchers' street, or market, +where the varieties of meat were clearly to be seen, and +their quality tested by their tails or heads being left untouched. +It appears to be the fashion in Yarkand to +purchase the necessaries of life during the morning, and +the luxuries in the evening. There is a special evening +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> +bazaar, called Shám, where hats and other clothes, in +addition to various other articles, are put up for sale in +the afternoon. This, when lit up with Chinese lamps, +must have presented a stirring sight, very similar to a +country fair in our country. Sir Douglas Forsyth does +not tell us whether under Yakoob Beg it was customary +to illuminate this bazaar with the gaudy lamps of the +Chinese, or whether our imagination of such a scene +must be referred back to the days of the old domination.</p> + +<p>Nor were these harmonious relations confined to the +lower people and ourselves alone. Their rulers set an +example that all strove to imitate. Between the officers +of the mission and the Dadkhwah something more +cordial than a chivalrous sentiment of guest towards +host sprang up, and was heartily reciprocated; while +Hadji Torah smoothed down all difficulties by his ready +tact and never-failing resource. The latter did not +remain the whole time of the three weeks that the +mission remained at Yarkand, but set out for the capital, +in order to put the Ameer <i>au courant</i> with English +affairs, and the exact objects our authorities had before +them with regard to his country.</p> + +<p>Mahomed Yunus had placed at the disposal of the mission +a considerable number of the carts of the country, +which proved very serviceable. These carts are strongly +built, with two wheels, six feet in diameter, and are +drawn by four or six ponies, as the case may be. They +are not permitted to carry a greater weight than ten +hundredweight, but with that load it is quite customary +for them to perform journeys of twenty and twenty-five +miles a day. In carts of this kind the heavier baggage +was carried from Yarkand to Kashgar, while the members +of the mission with a lighter camp followed on +some days afterwards. While mentioning these carts, +so superior to the Indian modes of conveyance, we will +remark that they also are used as omnibuses and stage +coaches. They ply frequently between the fort and +city of Kashgar, a distance of five miles, and they are +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +also used as a stage coach doing the whole distance +from Yarkand to Kashgar in five stages. But no company, +with its regulations and bye-laws has a monopoly +of this branch of locomotion, and there is a tariff fixed +by law which cannot be departed from.</p> + +<p>On the 28th of November the mission set out from +Yarkand, and for a certain distance high officials, by +order of the Dadkwah, bore it company to speed +it on its journey. From Yarkand to Yangy Hissar the +country was equally prosperous-looking, but there was +much desert land as well. The villages of Kok Robat +and Ak Robat (names meaning Blue and White Post-house +respectively) wore a flourishing look, and the +appearance of Yakoob Beg's soldiery, still <i>jigits</i>, who +looked prim on parade, and yet could play the part of +waiter, carpenter, or what not, with equal facility, added +a sense of order and cohesion to the whole display. The +appearance of Yangy Hissar was made more imposing +to the view by the proximity of the formidable fort +Yakoob Beg had erected there; but in itself, owing to +the houses being surrounded by mud walls, with crenellated +tops, it closely resembled a fortification. There +was only a brief stay here, and the mission then commenced +its last stage of all. The 4th of December, +1873, was the eventful day which first saw an English +envoy enter that capital, which Mr. Shaw had visited +four years before in a non-official capacity. Special +quarters had been prepared, at a short distance from +the fort, where is also the royal palace, for the envoy, +and these Elchi Khana had been fitted up in a very comfortable, +if not luxurious style. Ihrar Khan Torah, who +had visited India as envoy twice before, was the +first to pay a visit to the new arrivals, and to request +that they would come at once to see the Athalik Ghazi. +The following description is Sir Douglas Forsyth's own +account of his first interview with the Ameer:—</p> + +<p>"According to etiquette we dismounted at about forty +paces from the gateway, and walked slowly along with +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +Ihrar Khan, the Yasawal-Bashi, or head chamberlain, +with white wand in hand going ahead. In the outer +gateway soldiers were seated on a dais with their firearms +laid on the ground before them, their arms folded, +and their eyes on the ground. We then crossed obliquely +an empty court-yard, and passing through a second gateway +filled with soldiers, crossed another court, on all +sides of which soldiers in gay costumes were ranged +seated. From this court we passed into the penetralia, a +small court, in which not a soul was visible, and everywhere +a deathlike stillness prevailed. At the further +end of this court was a long hall, with several window +doors. Ihrar Khan then led us in single file, with +measured tread, to some steps at the side of the hall, +and, entering almost on tiptoe, looked in, and, returning, +beckoned with his hand to me to advance alone. As I +approached the door he made a sign for me to enter, and +immediately withdrew. I found myself standing at the +threshold of a very common-looking room, perfectly +bare of all ornament, and with a not very good carpet on +the floor: looking about I saw enter at a doorway on +the opposite side a tall stout man, plainly dressed. He +beckoned with his hand, and I advanced, thinking that +it must be a chamberlain who was to conduct me to +'the presence.' Instinctively, however, I made a bow +as I advanced, and soon found myself taken by both +hands, and saluted with the usual form of politeness, +and I knew that I was standing before the far-famed +ruler of Eastern Turkestan. After a few words of welcome +the Athalik led me across the room and seated me +near him, by the side of a window. At this moment a +salute of fifteen guns was fired. His Highness asked +in an eager tone after the health of Her Majesty, and +of the Viceroy, and soon afterwards called, in a low voice, +to Ihrar Khan to bring in the other officers. They +came in one by one, and each was shaken by the hand, +and made to sit down by my side. Then there was a +long and somewhat trying pause, during which the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +Athalik eyed each one of us with intent scrutiny. I had +been told that etiquette forbade the guest to speak much +on the first interview, and that it was a point of good +manners to sit perfectly still with downcast eyes.... +After this silent ordeal had been undergone for some +time, at a sign from the Athalik, sixteen soldiers came +in with the dastarkhwan, and the Athalik breaking a +loaf of bread shared it with us. After the cloth was +removed, we, remembering our lesson in manners, rose +up, and stroking our beards, said, 'Allah o Akbar;' soon +after which the Athalik said, 'Khush, amadeed' ('You +are welcome')."</p> + +<p>Thus ended this imposing interview, imposing not for +any magnificence or barbaric splendour that appertained +either to the court or person of the ruler, but by reason +of the mysterious character of the Ameer himself, of his +vague power and influence, and of the hold he had acquired +over such of his subjects as comprised his court +and his body guard. All his Khokandian friends and +relations, whose fortunes, indeed, depended on his power, +were stanchly attached to his person. It could not be +given to envoys to possess such complete prescience as +to foresee that the jarring elements, that still existed +beneath the surface would suffice to overthrow his rule +still more irretrievably when it received its first shock +from external foes. To the observer, the appearance of +Yakoob Beg and his military following was the highest +evidence of latent power. Order was supreme, and discipline +was as apparent in the palace of the Ameer as in +the barrack yards of his fortresses.</p> + +<p>The formal interview took place on the 11th of +December, when the presents from our government to +the Ameer, carried by over 100 men, were delivered to +His Highness. There were guns of all kinds, including +two small cannon, vases, &c., &c.; but the token of +friendship at which the ruler showed most symptoms +of pleasure was the autograph letter of Her Majesty. +This letter was enclosed in a "magnificent casket of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +pale yellow quartz, clamped with gilt bands and handles, +and bossed with onyx stones." The Ameer received +this with unconcealed satisfaction, several times repeating, +"God be praised." And then he made those +declarations of friendship which, taken in conjunction +with our admiration for the man, were the means of +riveting England and Kashgar into a closer alliance +than any that has as yet subsisted between ourselves +and any other Central Asian ruler. "Your Queen is a +great sovereign. Her government is a powerful and a +beneficent one. Her friendship is to be desired, as it +always proves a source of advantage to those who +possess it. The Queen is as the sun, in whose genial +rays such poor people as I flourish. I particularly +desire the friendship of the English. It is essential to +me. Your rule is just. The road is open to every one, +and from here to London any one can come and go with +perfect freedom."</p> + +<p>On the 13th of December our representatives paid +their first visit to the city of Kashgar. The country +round Kashgar is very fertile, highly cultivated, and +thickly populated, and the mission was not less struck +by the air of prosperity prevalent here than it had been +at Yarkand. In addition, the people had a healthier +appearance, mainly through the absence of goitre. The +Dadkhwah of Kashgar, Alish Beg, who was a Kashgari +and not a Khokandian, was not less friendly than the +Governor of Yarkand had been, and a very pleasant day +was passed in his company. On the 18th a grand +review was held, but for some reason, far from clear, +only of the old Chinese troops who had taken service +under the new ruler when Kashgar citadel fell. The +description of the manœuvres which this force performed +reads more like the display of an itinerant circus than +of a disciplined army, but, nevertheless, these Khitay +troops were excellent material for an army. Their +practice with the <i>tyfu</i>, an awkward weapon, being a sort +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> +of gun-cannon, carried by two men and served by three, +was pronounced very good up to 250 yards.</p> + +<p>It is proper to state here, very clearly, that while the +English mission was on Kashgarian soil it lived and +travelled free of all expense, and as the Ameer paid his +subjects in hard cash for whatever service they rendered, +it is obvious that for a small state such as his was this +was no trivial expense. It is only fair that this fact +should be as widely known as possible, for some discontent +was aroused by a similar hospitality being extended +to the Seyyid Yakoob Khan last year. That discontent +arose from ignorance; for it is hardly to be imagined +that any Englishman would grumble at reciprocating +the courteousness of a Central Asian potentate. The +mission remained at the capital almost four months, +and altogether the time passed very pleasantly. The +weather was certainly rigorous; but then there was +much to be done in the way of business, sight-seeing +and amusement.</p> + +<p>On the 2nd of February Yakoob Beg placed his seal +to the treaty of commerce, and this act concluded the +business portion of the English mission. On the 16th +of March formal leave was taken of the Athalik Ghazi, +and the mission returned to India. It had accomplished +its task with pre-eminent success, and the Forsyth Embassy +deserves long to be remembered as the most ably +conducted and practically useful embassy that ever set +out from India.</p> + +<p>Since the signature of that treaty the Turkestan +Trading Company has been very actively engaged in +despatching several caravans annually into Kashgaria; +but now, whether temporarily or permanently remains +to be seen, its operations have come to a standstill. In +these later years, Mr. Shaw, in his old post as Commissioner +in Ladakh, had been as quietly performing his +useful work as ever before; and there were rumours +that he was to receive his reward in being sent as +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +another envoy, or rather as a resident agent, into Kashgaria, +last year. If the appointment were made, it has +at this date (October 1st) been for the time suspended; +and such entirely new considerations have come into +play that it may be postponed for an indefinite period. +Hadji Torah's visit to this country, in June and July, +1877, when the Turko-Russian war had rendered the +Eastern Question once more acute, revived our interest, +which had been flagging, in Eastern Turkestan. But +he came at an unfortunate moment, for June brought +us tidings of reverses round Turfan, and July did not +pass away without the intelligence of the death of the +Athalik Ghazi himself.</p> + +<p>There had, before the receipt of this definite intelligence, +been absurd rumours of the part Yakoob Beg +was resolved to play in Central Asia as the ally of the +Porte, while he, poor man, was opposing with despair, +and at the cost of his life, a relentless and irresistible +foe. Such is the irony of circumstance! The vanquished +in Asia was by some freak of imagination converted +in Europe into the arbiter of a great question, +and the guide of all those peoples of either Turkestan +who chafe at the bit because of Russian rule. But in +reality, with the return of Sir Douglas Forsyth, our +relations with Kashgar, which at one time promised +to have been most cordial, languished for want of a +motive. No amount of admiration would suffice to +make us permanently guarantee Kashgar against Russia, +for the bare facts concerning the intervening country +at once chilled the sympathy at our hearts. The Grim +Pass, and the road lined with desiccated travellers and +animals, effaced the bright picture of the orchards of +Kashgar and the busy streets of Yarkand. There was +a sigh of profound relief, that would not be suppressed, +when Sir Douglas Forsyth's report made the fact clear, +that wherever else India might be menaced she was safe, +at least, from attack north of Cashmere. It is true that +there is a feasible route from Khoten to Ruduk, and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> +thence to India; but Yakoob Beg did not hold it, and +its consideration was considered to be beside the +question. In fact, after 1874, we entertained much the +same opinion towards Kashgar and Yakoob Beg that +we did towards Poland and Kosciusko; and we were +beginning to reconcile ourselves to a Russian installation +in that state, when the returning Chinese made us +reflect more deeply on Central Asian matters, and +discover that after all has been said against the assertion +there exists a third, and hitherto neglected, great Power +in Central Asia. There was never anything save a +kindly feeling between the two countries, and all who +could admire bravery and justice and hospitality and +frank courtesy were attached to the individual who had +proved that he possessed all these attributes in no mean +degree. But there was no deeper sympathy than this, +or rather there was no stronger connecting link. The +Indian government felt that it would be championing +an unrecognized cause in supporting Yakoob Beg +against all comers, and in the press of more urgent +matters our relations with the Athalik Ghazi became +lost sight of.</p> + +<p>The effect of this treatment upon the Ameer was not +unapparent, and during the last twelve months of his +rule he had become more Russian and less English in +his policy. But we preserved "the even-tenor of our +way." Yakoob Beg had no hold over us such as must +always be possessed by the ruler of Afghanistan. Practically +speaking, his state was more inaccessible to us +than Tibet, and the Russians at Yarkand would be a +source of far less danger to us than warlike and hostile +Chinese might become at Lhasa. To sum up, England +and Kashgar were friends because they had no reason +to be foes; but they were indifferent friends. The tear +might be shed for mutual misfortunes, and condolences +might be uttered when cause for grief arose; but that +was all. There was no alliance in the true sense, nor +was there firm and unswerving friendship. There was +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> +a brief space occupied by sympathy and goodwill; then +ensued an unbroken period of unvarying indifference. +Before 1877, the spark that had been kindled by Mr. +Shaw, and fanned to the dimensions of a flame by Sir +Douglas Forsyth, had gone out, and with its extinction +passed away the solid fabric that many had hoped to +rear upon the base which the enterprise of a few intrepid +men had diligently prepared. Whether we were prudent +or imprudent, true or false, kind or unkind, Yakoob +Beg leaned on a broken reed when he bade defiance to +Russia, trusting on our support. This chapter of our +policy in Central Asia may be closed as speedily as +possible; if we do not come out of it with much glory, +it is to be hoped that a lenient posterity may judge our +demerits with a merciful consideration for the preservation +of a strict and irresponsible neutrality.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XII"></a><span>CHAPTER XII.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">YAKOOB BEG'S LAST WAR WITH CHINA, AND DEATH.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">Until</span> the close of the autumn of 1876 Yakoob Beg +had not devoted much personal attention to his eastern +frontier. After the first Tungan war and the capture +of Kucha he had confided to his son and his lieutenants, +the charge of maintaining order in the annexed districts, +and of protecting his dominions against any hostile +attempt on the part of the Chinese. About the month +of September in that year couriers arrived with strange +tidings in Kashgar. The message, we can well imagine, +was terrible in its brevity. The Chinese had appeared +north of the Tian Shan. They had sacked Urumtsi, +and were laving close siege to Manas. Their numbers +rumour had magnified to almost a hundred thousand +combatants, and they came armed with all the auxiliaries +Western science could supply.</p> + +<p>Before following the movements of the ruler of +Kashgar upon the receipt of this intelligence, it will +be necessary to consider what had been the history of +this Chinese army which had so suddenly appeared +in Jungaria. When in the natural course of events the +Chinese government, having solved the Taeping and +Panthay difficulties, having restored order where disorder +had been supreme, and having created an army where +there had been only a disorganized rabble, turned its +attention to the question, which it had never lost sight +of, of chastising the Tungan rebels beyond Kansuh, +the victorious soldiers of Yunnan, instead of being +disbanded, were invited to participate in a fresh campaign +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +in the regions beyond Gobi. It requires no great +stretch of imagination to realize the scene when the +imperial edict came before these veterans, calling on +all true soldiers to vindicate their country's honour and +their outraged religion against the Tungan outcasts; +how the generals, such as Chang Yao, set an example of +enthusiasm which the main body of their soldiers +speedily followed. In the presence of such military +enthusiasm we are transported back to the days of +imperial Rome, when the subjection of one province +was only the prelude to some fresh triumph, and when +every campaign found in the ranks of the army the +veterans of the last. So it was that the victors of +Talifoo, by long marches through Szchuen and Shensi, +reached Lanchefoo, the capital of Kansuh, where the +viceroy of that province was gathering together the +munitions of war, and the recruits who were to swell +the nucleus of trained soldiers to the proportions +suitable to an invading army. Some have considered, +and we are far from denying that there is much to +support such a view, that there was a political motive +at the root of this enterprise, the motive being a desire +on the part of the ruling family to give employment to +a large disciplined body of men, who if retained in +China proper would be at the service of any powerful +conspirator or presumptuous aspirant to imperial +honours. Whether there is any foundation or not for +this supposition, it is certain that those troops who +were not required for garrison work in Yunnan were +taken by a round-about route at a great distance from +the capital to the north-west frontier town of Lanchefoo, +there to prepare for the most arduous military +enterprise China had undertaken since her conquest of +Eastern Turkestan in the last century.</p> + +<p>It is not certain when these movements began to be +carried out, but there appears to be no reason to doubt +that the advanced portion of the Chinese army had commenced +its march westward before the end of the year +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> +1874. In the barren region between Lanchefoo and +Hamil, a tract of country some 900 miles as the crow +flies, but probably nearer 1,200 by the road followed by +the Chinese, such difficulties were encountered that one +if not two winters were occupied in overcoming these +preliminary obstacles to the advance of the main force. +The interval was not passed in complete idleness at +headquarters, where magazines of arms and stores were +being collected, recruits enlisted and drilled, and the +plan of campaign that was to astonish Asia, if not Europe +also, was being drawn up by the Viceroy of Kansuh +in person and his able lieutenants. At last, with the +break of spring upon the desert plains of Gobi, the +Chinese army, which numbered in its entirety some +50,000 men, set out on the long road across the desert +to the more fertile regions lying north and south of the +Celestial Mountains. Of the details of this portion of +the enterprise the <i>Pekin Gazette</i> is strangely reticent. +The most profound secrecy was observed, and, although +it was known that military events were in progress in +the north-west, their object and their extent were mysteries. +After the delay experienced by the advanced +guard, which had to form fixed encampments, or rather +settlements, in the desert, and plant the corn that was +to enable it to advance in the following spring, no +serious check was experienced by the Chinese until they +appeared before the walls of Urumtsi, which the Tungan +leaders had resolved to defend.</p> + +<p>Although several officers in the service of Yakoob +Beg happened to be in the city, and several of the leading +Tungani resided there, the defence was not prolonged, +and after a few days Urumtsi surrendered to the Chinese. +Many of the inhabitants had fled to the neighbouring +city of Manas, but the garrison was massacred by order +of the Chinese generals. There is no mention in this +case of what fate befell those of the inhabitants who +remained.</p> + +<p>Urumtsi surrendered towards the close of August, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> +1876, and on the 2nd of September the Chinese sat +down before the fortifications of Manas, a much more +strongly situated city, and defended with the whole force +of the Tungan people. The first panic at the appearance +of the Chinese had passed off, and the defenders of +Manas recognized that they were not only fighting for +their cause and independence, but also for their lives +and the honour of their families. The terrible lesson +of Urumtsi was not without its effect upon the resolute +but despairing garrison of Manas. The capture of +Urumtsi was a creditable performance in a military sense, +but the campaign had to be decided before the ramparts +of Manas. On the 2nd of September the Chinese batteries +commenced to play on the north-east portion of +the wall, and for two months the bombardment was +carried on on all sides with more or less vigour. Several +assaults were repulsed, and the Tungani, in face of +superior odds and weapons, had behaved like brave men. +But the Chinese were as persistent in their attack after +an eight weeks' siege as they had been on the first day +of their arrival, and the provisions of the Tungani were +almost exhausted. With their supplies ebbed also their +courage, and, after an unsuccessful sortie, the Tungan +general, Hai-Yen, presented himself to the Chinese outposts +begging to be accorded an honourable capitulation. +Ostensibly, terms were granted—or, rather, to put the +matter as it is expressed in the official Chinese report, +everything was left vague—and on the 6th of November +Hai-Yen and the main body of his fighting men came +forth from the city towards the Chinese camp. The subsequent +events are not clear, but it seems that the attitude +of this body was suspicious. The men were armed, +they were in a well-ordered phalanx, and to the Chinese +on the hills around it looked as if they were about to +attempt to cut their way through. Once the Chinese +generals entertained the suspicion, they proceeded to +act promptly upon it, as if it were an incontestable fact, +and the Tungani, attacked from all sides, by artillery, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> +horse, and foot, were in a short time annihilated. Such +of their chiefs as were not slain were brought before the +Chinese generals, and forthwith executed "with the +extreme of torture." Every able-bodied man found in +the city or its vicinity was massacred; but the report +distinctly states that the women, children, and old men +were spared, and there is no reason to doubt the veracity +of the Chinese. There would, in their eyes, be no need +to palliate such strictly just acts of retribution as these.</p> + +<p>Not content with having chastised the living Tungani, +by annihilating them, as a race capable of self-defence +for a generation to come, the bodies of some of +the prime movers in the Tungan movement in its +infancy, such as To-teh-lin, Heh-tsun, and Han-Hing-Nung, +were exhumed and quartered, as an example to +all traitors to the Chinese Empire. The fall of Manas +struck a blow that resounded throughout Central Asia, +and at the intelligence a panic spread among all the +peoples of Chinese Turkestan and Jungaria. The enterprise +had been conducted with such astonishing secrecy, +and the blow had been struck with such rapidity and +skill, that the effect was enhanced by these causes, new +alike in the annals of China and Central Asia. Not +only had the Khitay returned for revenge, but they had +brought with them all the auxiliaries that make +England and Russia the dominant powers in that +continent. The Khitay no longer advanced in the +clumsy formation of a long-forgotten age, but in +obedience to orders based on the models of France +and Germany. Their artillery was not a source of +danger to the artillerists alone, but as effective as the +workshops of Herr Krupp can supply. But, above all, +their generals had made still more astonishing progress. +In the sieges of Urumtsi and Manas they had proved +themselves to be no mean tacticians; in their next and +more extended enterprise they were to show that they +must be ranked still higher as strategists.</p> + +<p>Before the end of 1870 the Tungani had ceased to be +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> +an independent people. The great majority of them +had fallen either in the field or by the hand of the +executioner; and with their disappearance the first +portion of the task of the Chinese army was completed. +The blood of the Khitay massacred in 1862 and 1863 +was atoned for, and Chinese prestige restored to as +great a height as at any time it had been in the present +century. More remained to be accomplished, in its danger +as in its result more important, which we have now to +consider, before their full task should be consummated; +but the Chinese army and its generals had done, even +up to this point, a feat of which any country might be +proud.</p> + +<p>These events appear sudden and strange to us +who are far removed from their influence, and who +only entertain a languid kind of supercilious interest +in matters in which the Chinese are the guiding spirit. +But what must they have appeared to Yakoob Beg in +his palace at Kashgar, although that palace was 1,000 +miles removed from the spot where his victorious +enemies lay encamped? It is impossible for us to +gauge the feeling of apprehension with which these +first triumphs of the Chinese were viewed throughout +Eastern Turkestan; and if the bold heart of the +Athalik Ghazi did not misgive him, it was not through +any light spirit as to the gravity of the danger.</p> + +<p>Intelligence of the fall of Manas reached Yakoob +Beg, probably, before the end of November, and in +consequence of the lateness of the season he had the +whole of the winter before him to make his preparations +for defence. The surrender of these cities was not +generally known in this country until April, 1877, +when we also heard of Yakoob Beg's march eastward +to protect his menaced frontier. There is very little to +be learnt of the internal affairs of Kashgar between +March, 1876, and March, 1877; that is to say, between +the close of the revolt in Khokand, with the surrender +of Abderrahman Aftobatcha, and the mustering of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> +Yakoob Beg's army round the city of Turfan, or +Tarfur. There can be no doubt that in that period +some important changes had taken place in the sentiment +of the Kashgarian people; these changes may +not have been very perceptible to a casual observer, +yet in their consequences they were as important as +manifest sedition. It is not difficult to suggest what +some of these modifications may have been; of what +they resulted in there can be no doubt—the weakening +of the power of the Athalik Ghazi.</p> + +<p>Yakoob Beg's over-caution in November, 1875, when +the last rising broke out in Khokand, damaged his +prestige more than a lost battle. It damped the +ardour of the Khokandian element among his followers, +and when we remember that these were his ablest and +most devoted partisans, this alone was a serious blow. +But there are many tokens that the disaffection was +not confined to any special party among his people, +but was spread amongst them all. The Tungan wars +had never been popular, and had been costly and +sanguinary operations. The old trade with Russian +territory, that once had been so lucrative, languished +for want of a fostering hand, and the difficulties of +that northern range of mountains, which the patience +and care of the Chinese had for a time pierced through, +were made the most of to prevent intercourse with +Kuldja and Vernoe. More than all, too, all Yakoob +Beg's skill as a "manipulator of phrases" could not +conceal the fact that his treaty with England was a +failure. It did not give him that British protection +which alone he cared for, and it did not provide, through +the greater obstacles of nature, his people with that +new trade outlet which was the sole object worth +securing in their eyes. The Forsyth treaty seemed to +bring the relations of England and Kashgar to a +sudden termination; and the Kashgari were quite +shrewd enough to perceive that the Athalik Ghazi +would not be buttressed by English bayonets against +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> +Russian aggression, if that instrument was to be held, +as in their eyes it could not be otherwise than held, +the only connecting link between the countries. The +consequence of this belief was a resignation to a +Russian subjection at no distant date.</p> + +<p>Yakoob Beg's tenure of power would be morally +weakened by the existence of these causes for discontent +among his people, and it was at such a moment, when +they had perhaps only slightly become clear to his +eyes, that the return of the Chinese was heralded. In +the face of a great and common danger a well-affected +people would have rallied round their head, and in the +crisis have found a joint necessity to produce a better +understanding than existed before among their component +parts. The country east of Kucha, where it was +inhabited at all, was inhabited by the few survivors of +the massacres ordered by Yakoob Beg's representatives. +Amongst these there could be no great amount of affection +towards his cause. The garrison of the city of +Kashgar consisted in the main of the pardoned Khitay +soldiers—Yangy Mussulmans, as they were called—and +from them no stanch support could be expected against +their Buddhist countrymen (see Appendix). The Tungani +of Kucha and Aksu and the neighbourhood were the +most numerous recruits in the army, and from them at +least it might have been supposed that the Athalik +Ghazi would obtain faithful service. Even among +them, however, there was discontent. They had +everything to dread at the hands of the Chinese. +It was they who had massacred the helpless Khitay, +a deed from the stain of which Yakoob Beg at least +was free; and it was they against whom the wrath of +China would in the first place be directed. But they +had also their grudges against the ruler. He had +beaten them in the field of battle, and had compelled +more than he had induced them to join his army. +They hated the Mahomedan Andijani only one degree +less than the Buddhist Chinaman, and their ambitious +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> +game had been foiled by the military talents of their +present ruler. They had run, in the years 1862–65, +all the risk attaching to a revolt against China, and +when they had accomplished their task they found +themselves defrauded of their reward. Therefore, in +the face of a Chinese invasion there was disunion in +the ranks of the very Mahomedan rebels who had +originated all these troubles. The nucleus of Yakoob +Beg's army, when these have been struck out as non-efficient, +was small indeed; but it was only on that +nucleus he could depend in fighting for his crown +and his religion.</p> + +<p>During the winter of 1876, when he was busy in +collecting arms, ammunition, and stores at Yarkand and +Kashgar, he must have discovered many of these discordant +elements; yet he pushed his preparations resolutely +on. He conceived that under the circumstances +the boldest policy would be the most prudent, and that +if he could but beat the Chinese in the field by superior +tactics he might ride triumphant over all his difficulties +and dangers. With these views uppermost in his mind +he concentrated all his forces, Tungan included, along +the southern slopes of the Tian Shan, with his headquarters +at Turfan. The Russian officer, Captain +Kuropatkine, who had been sent to Kashgar on a +mission, and who had journeyed through the whole +extent of Kashgaria to meet the Ameer at Turfan, +computed Yakoob Beg's army at the following strength, +and supplied the accompanying information concerning +its disposition along the frontier.</p> + +<p>The fort of Devanchi, guarding the principal defile +through the mountain range, was garrisoned by 900 +<i>jigits</i>, armed with muskets and two guns—one a breech-loader. +At Turfan there were with the Ameer 3,500 +<i>jigits</i> and 5,000 <i>sarbazes</i>, with 20 guns, mostly of +ancient make. Toksoun, a fortified place, some miles +nearer Korla, on the main road, was occupied by +4,000 <i>jigits</i> and 2,000 <i>sarbazes</i> with five guns. Hacc +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> +Kuli Beg had command here. At Korla there were +also about 1,500 men, who were brought up to the +front shortly after Captain Kuropatkine's departure. +With these 17,000 men, scattered over a widely +extended area, Yakoob Beg had to defend himself +against an enemy superior in numbers, and, as the +result showed, in generalship as well.</p> + +<p>The Russian officer gave, on his return, a very gloomy +account of Yakoob Beg's affairs, predicting the speedy +disintegration of his state. He also asserted that the +Tungani were deserting in great numbers, and that +everywhere east of Kucha there was discontent and +distrust of the Kashgarian rulers. This disparaging +account was confirmed by Colonel Prjevalsky, some +months afterwards, upon his return from his adventurous +journey to Lob Nor. In a letter, dated from +Little Yuldus, May 28, 1877, he said he had been very +kindly received, but also suspiciously watched by +Yakoob Beg. "All the way from Hoidu Got to Lob +Nor he was escorted by a guard of honour, who +officiously endeavoured to satisfy his smallest wishes, +but would not allow him, or any of his people, to come +in contact with the inhabitants. Yakoob Beg somewhat +peremptorily asked Colonel Prjevalsky to explain +why the Russians had provisioned the Chinese forces +arrayed against him; but, in an interview at Korla, he +again and again assured the Russian traveller that he +was a friend and well-wisher to Russia. Notwithstanding +these precautions, Colonel Prjevalsky and the +other members of the expedition succeeded in making +the natives tell them that they were disgusted with the +military despotism of Yakoob Beg, and that they hoped +the Russians would soon be coming."</p> + +<p>The information contained in this letter refers to the +end of April, 1877, or to a time after the first defeat of +Yakoob Beg by the Chinese, and his withdrawal to +Korla; but it is <i>à propos</i> in this place as confirming +Captain Kuropatkine's remarks. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p> + +<p>In addition to the 17,000, more or less, disciplined +soldiers whom Yakoob Beg had mustered at the frontier, +Captain Kuropatkine mentioned 10,000 Doungans—that +is, the Tungani inhabitants of this eastern region. +Not only were these notoriously untrustworthy, but +they were also badly armed, and were, on the whole, a +source of weakness rather than of strength. Before +the close of the month of February the Athalik Ghazi +was at Turfan, constructing forts at Toksoun and +towards the Tian Shan, and endeavouring to inspire +his followers with his own indomitable spirit.</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile the Chinese had not been idle. +They had, after their triumph over the Tungani, +established their headquarters at Guchen, near Urumtsi, +and had so far secured their communications with +Kansuh that a regular service of couriers was organized, +and a continual supply of arms, military stores, and +men flowed across Gobi to the invading army. For +instance, a large arsenal for the storage of arms was +erected at Lanchefoo, and on one occasion as many as +10,000 rifles of the Berdan pattern were sent in a +single convoy. While Tso Tsung Tang, the Viceroy of +Kansuh and Commander-in-Chief, was making these +preparations north of the Tian Shan, for forcing the +range with the melting of the snow, another Chinese +general, Chang Yao, was stationed at Hamil for the +purpose of seconding the main attack by a diversion +south of the range. In estimating the total number of +the Chinese army at 60,000 men—that is, 50,000 round +Guchen and 10,000 at Hamil—we would express only +what is probable. The total number may have been +more or less, but in estimating it at 60,000 men we +believe we are as close to exactitude as is possible under +the circumstances. In the month of March the Chinese +generals had made all their preparations for attacking +Yakoob Beg. So far as our geographical information +goes there is no direct road from Guchen to Turfan, +and consequently the chief Chinese attack was made +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> +from Urumtsi against Devanchi, where Yakoob Beg had +constructed a fort. But, although the larger army was +manœuvring north of the Tian Shan, the decisive blow +was in reality struck by the smaller force advancing +from Hamil. If we are to judge from the disposition +of the Kashgarian army, the movements of this brigade +had not obtained that attention from the Athalik Ghazi +which they merited.</p> + +<p>General Chang Yao captured the small towns of +Chightam and Pidjam in the middle of April without +encountering any serious opposition. And from the +latter of these places, some fifty miles east of Turfan, +commenced that concerted movement with his superior, +Tso Tsung Tang, which was to overcome all Kashgarian +resistance. A glance at the map will show that +Yakoob Beg at Turfan was caught fairly between two +fires by armies advancing from Urumtsi and Pidjam, +and if defeated his line of retreat was greatly exposed +to an enterprising enemy. Upon the Chinese becoming +aware of the success of their preliminary movements a +general advance was ordered in all directions. It is +evident that the Chinese were met at first with a +strenuous resistance at Devanchi, and that the forcing +of the Tian Shan defiles had not been accomplished +when news reached the garrison that their ruler had +been expelled from Turfan by a fresh Chinese army. It +was then that confusion spread fast through all ranks of +the followers of Yakoob Beg; in that hour of doubt and +unreasoning panic the majority of his soldiers either +went over to the enemy or fled in headlong flight to +Karashar. In this moment of desperation the Athalik +Ghazi still bore himself like a good soldier. Outside +Turfan he gave battle to the invader, and though driven +from the field by overwhelming odds he yet once more +made a stand at Toksoun, forty miles west of Turfan, and +when a second time defeated withdrew to Karashar to +make fresh efforts to withstand the invading army. +Yakoob Beg probably lost in these engagements not less +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> +than 20,000 men, including Tungani, by desertion and +at the hands of the enemy. He consequently conceived +that it would be prudent to withdraw still farther into +his territory, and accordingly left Karashar, after a few +days' residence, for Korla.</p> + +<p>Some weeks before the occurrence of these striking +events Yakoob Beg had sent an envoy to Tashkent to +solicit the aid of the Russians against the advancing +Chinese. But the Russians only gave his messenger +fair words, and did not interfere with Mr. Kamensky's +commercial transactions with the Chinese army. At the +moment, too, Russia was so busily occupied in Europe +that she had no leisure to devote to the Kashgarian +question.</p> + +<p>The Chinese had for many years been good friends +with Russia, and Yakoob Beg had all his life been a +scarcely concealed enemy. Between two such combatants +the sympathies of the Russian government must at +first have certainly gone with the former; nor had +Yakoob Beg's attitude towards Russia of late been as +discreet as it might have been. His nephew, the Seyyid +Yakoob Khan, was notoriously an agent for some +indefinite purpose at Constantinople. His protection of +the Bokharan prince, Abdul Melik, or Katti Torah, the +most bitter enemy of Russia in Central Asia, was also +ill calculated to attract Russian sympathy to his side.</p> + +<p>Moreover there was little or nothing to arouse +Russian susceptibilities in Chinese victories so far +distant as Urumtsi or Turfan. In many respects, too, +this Chinese invasion was a relief for Russia. It freed +her hands in Central Asia in a manner that perhaps +will never be sufficiently appreciated. Buddhist victories +in Eastern Turkestan struck a severe blow at Mahomedan +vigour throughout the Khanates, and the waning +prestige of the Badaulet, or the "fortunate one," acted +as a warning of strange significance to all the neighbouring +princes.</p> + +<p>It is not difficult, therefore, to discover valid reasons +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +why the Russians declined to negotiate between the +combatants, and although Yakoob Beg endeavoured to +come to terms with the Chinese, on the understanding +that his personal safety should be guaranteed, all his +diplomatic overtures were met by categorical refusals.</p> + +<p>The Chinese after entering Toksoun came to a sudden +halt, for which the causes are not evident. But the +terror of their name had gone before them, and the +country east of Karashar was hurriedly abandoned by +its inhabitants. The Chinese delay may have been +caused by the necessity for collecting provisions to +enable them to advance further, or perhaps it may have +arisen from the outbreak of some epidemic, as asserted +by one of the Indian journals. On this point the +<i>Pekin Gazette</i> is profoundly silent. The number for the +23rd of June contained a narrative of the operations +round Turfan, and also a list of the honours and rewards +given to the successful generals; but it and its subsequent +issues are silent as to the causes for the Chinese inactivity +that then for many months ensued. The most +striking sentence in this report is that which says that +"the Mahomedans who submitted themselves were +permitted to revert to their peaceful avocations;" +and if this be true, this is one instance, at all events, of +the Chinese exercising moderation. Strange as it may +seem, with this preliminary success the vigour of the +Chinese invasion appeared to die away, and for five +months nothing more was heard of the whereabouts of +the Chinese army. In that interval the most important +events occurred in Kashgaria, but with these, the +Chinese, although the originators of them, had nothing +to do. In the closing scene of all of the eventful life +we have been in these pages considering the invading +Khitay had no part. They were probably not aware of +what was taking place some 300 miles from their camp +until many weeks after it had happened; and then +conceived that their best policy would be to give time +for the disintegrating causes at work within the state to +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> +have their full effect before they advanced westward<ins class="corr" title="Missing period added">.</ins> +When Colonel Prjevalsky saw Yakoob Beg it must have +been within a very short period of his death. The +shadow of approaching events may have been upon the +defeated conqueror, who from recent disaster could +only presage worse yet to come.</p> + +<p>Of the exact manner of Yakoob Beg's death there +are various accounts. The most probable is that he was +murdered by a party of conspirators, who were led by +Hakim Khan Torah. The date given is the 1st of +May. That Yakoob Beg should meet with a violent +death, considering that he was surrounded by such +doubtful followers as the Tungan chiefs, is not to be +marvelled at, and that the first reverse in his career +should be the signal for fresh disturbances is only what +we should expect from a consideration of his country and +its peoples in the light of past history. So far, then, as +the assertion goes, that Yakoob Beg was murdered, there +is nothing improbable about it. But there are many +discrepancies in the accompanying narrative. The first +intelligence of the death of the Ameer of Kashgar was +contained in a telegram published in the <i>Times</i> of +July 16 last year. It stated that his death occurred +at Korla, after a short illness, and that he had +nominated as his successor Hakim Khan Torah, to the +express disregard of his own sons. The telegram went +on to say that Hakim Khan had declined to accept the +gift, and that the Ameer's eldest son, Beg Kuli Beg, had +succeeded to the throne. A few days after this telegram +Hakim Khan Torah was identified with the +ancient dynasty of Kashgar, which Yakoob Beg had +first seated on the throne, and then displaced in the +person of Buzurg Khan. All this intelligence came +from Tashkent. On the 23rd of July we learnt in this +country, from the same source, that Beg Kuli Beg had +notified his father's death and his own accession to the +throne to General Kaufmann. There no longer +remained any doubt that Yakoob Beg was really dead. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p> + +<p>For some reason or other Beg Kuli Beg does not +appear to have been a favourite with the Russians; but +this aversion to him was based on some mistake, for +Beg Kuli Beg was certainly unfriendly to England, and +was scarcely civil to our envoy, Sir Douglas Forsyth. +Moreover, he at once placed himself in communication +with the Russian government, asking for advice as to +the course he should pursue with regard to the Chinese +invasion, and renewing his father's request that Russia +should stop the supplies sent to Urumtsi and Turfan +from Kuldja. It was reported, but not confirmed, that +his latter demand was complied with.</p> + +<p>Nothing more was heard of the history of these +events until the end of August, when news reached +India through Ladakh and Cashmere that Yakoob Beg +"had been assassinated by Hakim Khan Torah, the son +of Buzurg Khan." This was the first hint that Yakoob +Beg had fallen by the hands of discontented partisans. +In itself so natural, it threw fresh light on the strange +deed he was reported to have done of disinheriting his +own family, and it speedily became the accepted version. +The question then was, who was Hakim Khan Torah? +Two versions were put forward; one was that he was +the son of Buzurg Khan, the other that he was a Khoja +chief of Kucha. The former was the more plausible, +but as his name does not occur in Sir Douglas Forsyth's +exhaustive report, it is open to some objection, more +particularly when we are told that he bore a principal +part in the conquest of Kashgar by Yakoob Beg. The +latter suggestion was much more difficult to prove, but +was not open to the same objection. Grant that +Hakim, or Aali, Khan Torah was a pardoned Kucha chief +when that city fell into the hands of the Athalik +Ghazi, and there was nothing extraordinary in his +having proved a traitor. Assume that he still conceived +he had claims upon the governorship of that city, of +which the <i>Turkestan Gazette</i> asserts he had been +Dadkwah, and there is nothing inconsistent in his +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> +having sought to realize his own ambitious schemes +the moment fortune frowned upon his conqueror. That +Hakim Khan, if son to Buzurg Khan, should seek to +revenge his father's deposition and life of exile is +not in itself strange we admit; but if he were a subjected +ruler, who regarded Yakoob Beg as an adventurer +from Khokand with no claims to his fealty, his +plot against and murder of the Kashgarian prince at +once appears not only possible, but the true story. As +a leading Khoja of Kucha he would also have claims +to represent one branch of the old reigning family of +Kashgar. In the face, too, of a great and pressing +danger from the Chinese, his hereditary enemies, a son +of Buzurg Khan would scarcely make confusion worse +confounded by murdering the <i>de facto</i> sovereign; whereas +a Kucha leader might aspire to play in such a crisis +the same part that Amursana did in the last century. +It was said that Hakim Khan entered into some +negotiations with the Chinese, who gave him little +encouragement.</p> + +<p>The <i>Turkestan Gazette</i> still adhered to its original +statement that Yakoob Beg had died of fever on the +1st of May, after an illness of seven days' duration, and +that on the 13th of May the body was brought in +state from Korla to Kashgar for the purpose of being +deposited in the mausoleum of Appak Khoja. Then, +according to the <i>Turkestan Gazette</i>, there ensued one of +those atrocious deeds which have so often marked the +history of Central Asian states. The second son of the +dead Ameer, Hacc Kuli Beg, who had been with +him during his last moments, escorted the funeral +cortége, and was met at a short distance from the city +by his elder brother, Kuli Beg. The elder son at once +knelt before his father's coffin, and then rising, without +a moment's delay fired a pistol at his brother, who +dropped down dead. Not content with this fratricide, +Kuli Beg had the whole of the escort put to the sword, +and returned to Kashgar with his own followers escorting +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> +the coffin. We know nothing whatever of the +reasons for this atrocious act, but the fact of Kuli Beg +being in Kashgar, and not in the east, shows how +Hakim Khan was able to establish his authority in +Kucha and Korla. It will be more convenient to +consider in another chapter the further course of these +internal troubles, and also the final triumph of the +Chinese.</p> + +<p>There are, therefore, two versions of how Yakoob +Beg met his death, and in support of each view there +is a certain amount of evidence. All the information +on the subject has been recorded, and it is conflicting. +The Chinese reports in the <i>Pekin Gazette</i> ignore the +subject altogether. Their personal hatred was directed +more against Bayen Hu, a Tungan leader who had fled +from Hamil some years before, than against the +Athalik Ghazi. Of the main fact that Yakoob Beg +died at Korla in May, 1877, there is no doubt, and +that the most eventful career that has marked its track +in the history of Central Asia for several generations was +then brought to a close.</p> + +<p>Whatever opinion may be formed of the man from his +varied fortunes, there will be few who will deny that he +possessed great mental qualities; some will be found, no +doubt, to question his action in deposing Buzurg Khan, +and with more justice may his earlier life be blamed +for his repeated desertion of his friend and patron +Khudayar. Others will call to mind his vacillating conduct +in 1875, and deny that he possessed that decision +of character which is the salient feature in all truly +great men. His unnecessary wars with the Tungani, +and the short-sighted policy he pursued of extending +his empire up to the vicinity of China, were also calculated +to lower his claims to be considered a general or a +statesman. In extenuation of these acts, which decidedly +undermined the fabric of his rule, it may be mentioned +that there is one side of Yakoob Beg's character that +has never received sufficient attention. It is what was +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +the secret to his foreign policy. He certainly did not +aspire, as many thought, to contest unaided the palm of +superiority with Russia in Central Asia. He was far too +well informed to dream of that. Nor could he expect +to be able to extend his power to the south, where both +Afghanistan and Cashmere would resent his presence. +The only option left to him as a conqueror was to +continue aggrandizing himself at the expense of China. +We know not what dreams may have entered the mind +of the stanch Mussulman in his palace at Kashgar of +uniting in one crusade against China all the followers of +the Prophet in Central Asia and of emulating the deeds +of some of his predecessors who had carried fire and sword +into the border provinces of China, and whom even the +Great Wall could not withstand. Over these bright +imaginings, arising from tales told of the decadence of +China, we know not how much Yakoob Beg may have +brooded as he saw his power spread eastward through +fifteen degrees of longitude, through Aksu to Kucha, +Kucha to Korla, Korla to Karashar, and Karashar to +Turfan, until from his far outpost at Chightam he could +almost see the rich cities of Hamil and Barkul, cities +which are the key to Western China and Northern Tibet, +and imagine them to be within his grasp. But the +policy of Yakoob Beg will not be clearly appreciated, +unless we bear in mind that these ambitious longings +were held in check by fear of Russia, and by the +hostility of the Tungani, who continued to plot even +when subdued. His keen spirit must have chafed +greatly under the inability to accomplish that which +he conceived to be possible, and despite his numerous +triumphs he was at heart a disappointed man.</p> + +<p>Moreover, during these later years, when the task he +had set before him had been nearly accomplished, and he +had leisure to look around, he was no longer young or as +energetic as he had been. He was entering, for an Asiatic, +upon the evening of life, and had no longer the physical +power to essay any protracted and desperate enterprise. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +For a "forlorn hope" he was as eager and as effective as +ever, but for those undertakings which require not only +desperate courage but also forethought and patience he +was no longer fit. But the Chinese invasion dispelled +all these, and many other illusions. In their eyes and +before their power, he was only another Sultan of Talifoo. +His great qualities, which attracted sympathy +and a certain amount of respect, in India and England +were vain in the eyes of a people whose "empire has," +in their own tongue, "been planted by heaven." Before +Chinese viceroys and Mantchoo chivalry Khokandian +soldiers and Mussulman pride must be held vain. So +thought the Chinese, if they thought upon the subject +at all. And so must we think who view past history +by the aid of Yakoob Beg's overthrow. Yakoob Beg's +rule in Kashgar was for twelve years a visible fact; it +was recognized by England and by Russia. The Central +Asian Khans gladly acknowledged the admission of +another to their fast dwindling ranks. Even Shere Ali, +an ostensibly powerful ruler, honoured Yakoob Beg not +so much with his friendship as with his jealousy. Yet +it was all fleeting fast away.</p> + +<p>In comparison with Chinese power his was as nothing; +in comparison with Chinese perseverance his was weakness; +in comparison with Chinese tactics, his tactics were +those of a school-boy; and even in comparison with +Chinese courage his courage had to confess an equal. +There was not only the dead weight of numbers against +him, but there was also the quick weight of superior intellect. +There were superior strategy and superior weapons; +greater force and greater determination; no +hesitation in action, and perfect <ins class="corr" title="original had: unaminity">unanimity</ins> in council; all +combined to crush one poor forlorn man, fighting with all +the desperation of despair for life, if not for liberty. +Worthier of a better fate, and meeting destiny with the +calm that is natural to brave men, Yakoob Beg's defeat +and death may serve to "point a moral and adorn a tale." +The tale has been told in these pages with as close a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> +regard for fact as the meagre records will supply, and +for the personage whose name is the pivot round which +the main facts concentrate, it may be claimed that he +deserved attention even from Englishmen. It may well +be that some future generation may recur to this career +with interest as marking the only real break in the +Chinese domination in Eastern Turkestan. When the +massacres and other atrocities that marked the Khoja +invasions and the Tungan outbreak on both sides shall +have been forgotten or condoned, then it will be +admitted that, despite the great benefits conferred by +China on the people in the way of trade-fostering and +good government, there was some merit in the administration +which a Khokandian soldier had unaided created +in this region. High credit, then, let us, who view the +subject from an impartial stand-point, pay this departed +warrior, who as a soldier met few equals, as a governor +none in his long career. Much as we may marvel at, +and perhaps impugn, Chinese strength, let us not judge +Yakoob Beg harshly, because Chinamen out-manœuvred +him, and overthrew him in fair fight. It is an easy +gauge to apply, and one which would dispel all the +reputation the Athalik Ghazi had secured, if we deny the +Chinese the great qualities those who know them best +will accord them without hesitation. But in applying +so shallow a test to the case before us, we should be +wronging our own understanding quite as much as its +victim. However much we may blame Yakoob Beg for +going out to encounter an enemy whom he ought to +have awaited either at Kucha or Aksu, his valour, and +also his mistaken contempt for the Chinese, are made +all the more clear. We may fairly claim for him that he +was the most remarkable man Central Asia in its fullest +extent has produced since Nadir Shah; and that he +accomplished with insignificant means a task which +ordinary men, though born in the purple and ruling a +prosperous and thickly populated state, might have +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> +failed to do. What better epitaph could be placed over +a courageous and just ruler?</p> + +<p>The moral of his career is a short one, but for us full +of significance. Those independent rulers who establish +themselves for a space on the confines of China +are mere ephemeral excrescences; birds of passage who +must betake themselves away, if they can, when their +little hour has struck. English governments have never +understood the vitality of Chinese institutions. They +should appreciate it better in the future.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a><span>CHAPTER XIII.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">THE CHINESE RECONQUEST OF KASHGAR.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">When</span> Yakoob Beg died at Korla the task of reconquering +Kashgar had barely commenced. The Chinese army, +victorious at Turfan, was lingering in idleness round +that city, exhausted, as some believed, by the greatness +of the effort. It was not clear even that the Chinese +aspired to achieve any greater triumph than that they +had already won, viz., the subjection of the Tungani, a +subjection which could not be considered accomplished so +long as Yakoob Beg remained in the neighbourhood at +the head of a large army; and that with the withdrawal of +the Kashgarian army to Karashar the Chinese generals +might call a halt of an indefinite duration. Nor did it +follow as a matter of necessity that because the Chinese +had <ins class="corr" title="original had : aken">taken</ins> Turfan they could capture Kashgar or +Yarkand. Distance alone was no slight obstacle, and +when added to the barrenness of the country, which +would be made more desolate by the retreating army +of the Mussulmans, an impartial observer might have +hesitated to predict any very speedy triumph for the +Chinese. But besides these, there were other impediments, +of which a prudent general had to take careful +cognizance. To seize Karashar or Korla only needed a +bold attack; but to subject Kucha might have been a +more arduous undertaking than was even the siege of +Manas. A delay of two months in the heart of Eastern +Turkestan must have strained the resources of the +Chinese very much, and might have ruined their whole +enterprise. And even if Kucha fell there still remained +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> +Aksu, and afterwards Ush Turfan in the north, and +Maralbashi in the south, barring the way to the vital +portion of the state round Kashgar and Yarkand. Now +the death of Yakoob Beg did not remove any one of +these defences, and for a time it was believed that his +son, who had always the repute of being a good soldier, +would make the best of the very strong line of defence +that he undoubtedly possessed. As a matter of fact, the +death of Yakoob Beg was an irretrievable disaster, for +it destroyed whatever cohesion and unity there were in +the country. He himself might have been unable to +avert a final overthrow, but the contest would have +been made more protracted. Therefore in the months of +May and June, 1877, immediately after the death of the +Athalik Ghazi, it is strictly true to say that the Chinese +reconquest of the country had barely commenced.</p> + +<p>The hesitation shown by the invading generals after +the victory of Turfan was at first caused by a belief in +the formidableness of their antagonist, and, when that +antagonist died, by a prudent resolve to permit the +disintegrating causes that speedily manifested themselves +in Kashgaria to have full time to work in their +favour. Meanwhile they formed their plans in secret, +laid in large stores of supplies from Russian territory, +and explored the little-known passes of Tekes and +Yuldus. A large number of fresh troops was received +from the Calmucks north of Chuguchak, who during the +worst period of the Tungan revolt had preserved that +city for the Chinese.</p> + +<p>But before following the forward movement of the +Chinese it is necessary to say something of the internal +disturbances in Eastern Turkestan, more especially of the +rivalry of Beg Bacha and Hakim Khan for supremacy. +In the first place, it is necessary that it should be +distinctly understood that of the events that occurred +in Kashgaria between the death of the Athalik Ghazi +and the final advance of the Chinese army we are really +without any definite intelligence at all, and it is not +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> +probable that we shall ever be accurately informed of +the course of events during those five months. In the +absence of exact <i>data</i>, we must assume the events to +have taken place which are most in accordance with +probability. On Yakoob Beg's death, his eldest son, +Beg Kuli Beg, was either in the city of Kashgar or +somewhere on the road thither. It is probable that he +had been despatched to the rear, to bring up reinforcements +after the defeat at Turfan, and in his absence +Hacc Kuli Beg, the Ameer's second son, assumed the +command of the army when his father died. It is certain +that he accompanied the funeral cortége of Yakoob +Beg back to Kashgar, and that he was murdered outside +the walls by his brother. It was during this +time that Hakim Khan Torah appeared upon the +scene. It should be remembered that tidings of the +death of Yakoob Beg travelled very slowly to this +country, and that almost immediately after it arrived we +received intelligence of events that had occurred many +weeks after the death of the Ameer. We were therefore +hearing at the same time the particulars of the circumstances +of Yakoob Beg's death, and of those commotions +which broke out some weeks after that event.</p> + +<p>When Hacc Kuli Beg left Korla no personal representative +remained there of the dynasty of the Athalik +Ghazi, and during that interval the occasion arose for +the intriguing elements that a mixed court, such as +that of Yakoob Beg, could never be free from. Hakim +Khan seized that opportunity, and established his +authority in Karashar, Korla, and, probably, Kucha +also; and during a short time Kashgaria was accordingly +divided into three hostile camps. It appears that +Beg Bacha, lulled into a false sense of security by the +inactivity of the Chinese, resolved to chastise the +insolence of his rebellious governor, a task which he +should have left for the Chinese. A war then broke +out between Beg Bacha and Hakim Khan, which +exhausted the few resources that still remained to a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> +ruler of Kashgar. The contest appears to have been of +a desultory nature, and although the final result was in +favour of Beg Bacha, he never appears to have recovered +possession of Karashar and Korla. In the neighbourhood +of Aksu the battle of this war took place, and +Hakim Khan was defeated, "by the overwhelming +numbers of his enemy." Beg Bacha's chief loss was the +death of Mahomed Yunus, the Dadkhwah of Yarkand, +his ablest and most faithful adviser. Hakim then fled +to Russian territory, with 1,000 <i>sarbazes</i>, who were +promptly interned by order of General Kolpakovsky, +and there he sought to restore his shattered fortunes +by carrying on intrigues with the Russian government. +It is scarcely necessary to say that these came to nothing, +and that Hakim Khan has sunk into that insignificance +which, to judge from his acts when called into public +life, is his most befitting atmosphere.</p> + +<p>While engaged on this successful campaign east of +Aksu, an event occurred of singular significance, as +illustrating the condition of Kashgar under Beg Bacha. +The Kirghiz chief Sadic Beg, who had disappeared +from the scene since his old rivalry with Yakoob Beg +thirteen years before, seized the opportunity afforded by +Beg Bacha's embarrassment to attack the city of Kashgar, +denuded of the greater portion of its garrison. He +plundered the suburbs, and only withdrew when the +young Ameer hastened back from Aksu to defend his +capital. The Kirghiz, true to their nature, at once +sought the desolate regions of Kizil Yart. They had, +however, made the confusion arising from the death of +the Ameer and the disaffection of Hakim Khan worse +confounded, and completed those elements of weakness +and discord which had always proved an invaluable ally +to the Chinese. By themselves both Hakim Khan and +the Kirghiz depredator were beneath contempt; but +with an enemy established on the soil of the country, +they assumed a too clear and mischievous importance. +The minor seditions that manifested themselves in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> +Sirikul and at Khoten completed the round of dissension +that, combined with external force, shattered the +fair show of Yakoob Beg's empire. We are completely +ignorant of the details of the disturbances that were +reported to have taken place round Tashkurgan or +Sirikul; but it is plausible to suppose that these were +caused either by inroads on the part of the Wakhis +or Badakshis, or by some fresh Kirghiz attack. The +inhabitants of Tashkurgan being Yarkandi settlers, it +is not probable that the rising, or whatever form the +commotion assumed, originated with them; at Khoten +the rising was more tangible, and more easily understood. +The people of that city never forgave Yakoob +Beg his treachery towards their ruler, and the instant +he disappeared they hastened to take their revenge. +When the Kashgarian garrison was withdrawn the +towns-people simply deposed their <i>dadkwah</i>, and nominated +a ruler of their own, who retained authority until +the triumph of the Chinese made it politic for them +and him to bow to the rising sun. The example of +Khoten had been followed by Sanju and the vicinity; +and thus the whole southern portion of the state +acquiesced in the Chinese conquest, after the fall of +Kashgar, without the necessity for a single Chinese +soldier to be advanced south of Yarkand. It seems +probable that at this very moment the Chinese troops +have remained content with the submission of these +districts, and have not garrisoned those important towns +which skirt the Kuen Lun range with their own +soldiers.</p> + +<p>When Beg Bacha returned post haste to Kashgar, to +encounter the Kirghiz, we said that Sadic Beg fled to +the Kizil Yart; but he did not remain there long, for +soon we find him back again at the capital in high favour +with the Ameer, with whom he had come to terms. His +Kirghiz followers were taken into the pay of the state, +and just as this alliance had been struck up, tidings +came of events that made that alliance, however futile +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> +and insignificant, a matter of the first necessity, both to +Kirghiz and Kashgar. The Chinese army was at last +advancing. The danger that had for five months been +hanging in suspense over the devoted heads of a Mussulman +people was close upon them. The long-feared +and long-expected Khitay were drawing nigh to the +capital, in irresistible strength; and the apprehensions +of a cowed people made them know, too surely, that their +end was at hand. The dissensions among the people +themselves, the discord in the ruling house, and the +dissentient elements in every effort towards unity, had +all operated in favour of the invader. While the Chinese +had plotted and prepared in the deliberate manner of a +great nation, the people of Kashgar had entered into +cabals and schemes of party tactics that were well nigh +ludicrous. And all the time that the sap of their vigour +was being expended, the Chinese generals were drawing +the noose more closely together that was to strangle the +newly erected state beyond all chance of recovery. It +would almost seem as if the Kashgari and their rulers had +recovered from their first shock at the Chinese invasion, +and were becoming reconciled to their presence east of +Korla, when they experienced a second, more severe, and +more lasting shock, in the announcement that the Chinese +were again advancing. Their brief contentment passed +away, and all their old terror revived in tenfold force. +Hope died within their bosoms, and the resignation of +despair only nerved them to bear a fate which their own +valour should have striven to avert. It is time for us +now to return to the Chinese army, and to follow its +decisive operations.</p> + +<p>North of the Tian Shan the supreme command was +vested in the hands of Tso Tsung Tang, generalissimo of +the army operating against Kashgar, and Viceroy of the +province of Kansuh. South of it the commanders were +Generals Kin Shun and Chang Yao, the former the hero +of the siege of Manas, the latter of the diversion against +Turfan from Hamil. The base of the former was Manas, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> +of the latter Turfan. Their sources of supply were +Hamil, Barkul, and Chuguchak, within the Chinese +frontier, and Kuldja, Semiretchinsk, and Semipalatinsk, +without. Their weapons and ammunition were transported +across the desert from Lanchefoo, and their ranks +were swollen by recruits from the Calmuck and other +tribes. It does not appear that the Chinese were very +eager to enlarge their army in size; they rather aimed at +increasing its efficiency by the distribution of Berdan +rifles and Krupp's cannon; and during the heat of the +summer months they remained at rest in their recently +acquired possessions. Nor is it probable that those +epidemics broke out in their ranks which it was asserted +had appeared amongst them. A sensational paragraph +was published in the <i>Tashkent Gazette</i>, which was copied +by some of the London newspapers, asserting that a +species of cholera, known in Kashgar by the name of +<i>vuoba</i>, had decimated the Chinese army, and that in +consequence of that calamity its advance was permanently +checked. Certainly, this was a piece of gross +exaggeration, even if there were a substratum of fact for +the assertion. Then, again, we were apprised, on high +authority, that the Russian government had put a stop +to the despatch of provisions to the country occupied by +the Chinese army, at the request of its new-found friend, +Beg Bacha. Yet there is no question that the caravans +of Mr. Kamensky continued to pass between Kuldja +and Manas, and that the chief caterers for the Chinese +army were the Russian merchants of Central Asia. In +the course of their intercourse the best feelings do not +appear to have prevailed between the Russians and +Chinese. The latter, flushed with their triumph, had +become arrogant, and were too fond of referring to the +question of Kuldja to be agreeable to the actual possessors +of that province. On one or two occasions these +verbal disputes assumed a more dangerous aspect, and +from words the disputants proceeded to blows. Whether +this collision was magnified or not, the Russian government +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +took no diplomatic steps to secure reparation for +injury to their subjects, and continued to wink at, if they +did not actually approve of, their merchants supplying +the Chinese. The clearest proof of this is that the moment +Aksu fell a large caravan was despatched there +by Mr. Kamensky. Still there was no little bad blood +between the two people, and for a long time it was +doubtful whether Russia would preserve her attitude of +neutrality until Kashgar had been finally subdued. Beneath +all this doubt, and the uncertainty of the strength +and of the ultimate intentions of China, there existed a +sentiment of dissatisfaction in the minds of the Russians +at the renown China was acquiring, as well as at the prospect +of having to restore a rich and paying province.</p> + +<p>In short, beneath the Tungan and the Kashgarian +questions there smouldered the Kuldja question. Having +now shown how well prepared the Chinese were at every +point, how well armed, and how well fed was the tactical +unit, and how Russia, although far from indifferent as to +the results, was really abetting the side of China, we +may pass on to those more active movements which +proved that the Chinese generals possessed the ability +and military knowledge necessary to make full use of +the very powerful weapon which they had created, and +which was capable of accomplishing the most arduous of +enterprises.</p> + +<p>The first move was made south of the Tian Shan. +So far as we know, Tso Tsung Tang did not break up +from Manas until many weeks afterwards. A brigadier-general, +by name Tang Jen-Ho, left Toksoun on the +25th of August, 1877, with the advanced guard, to occupy +the outlying villages of Subashi and Agha Bula. He +does not appear to have had under him more than a few +hundred men. A fortnight later, on the 7th of September, +Generals Tung Fuh-siang and Chang Tsun followed +after him with 1,500 troops, all infantry. They advanced +through Agha Bula, Kumush, and Usha Tal to Kuhwei. +At this place the troops were concentrated. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span></p> + +<p>The chief duty of these detachments was to prepare +the road for the advance of the main body, to lay in at +stated places stores of fuel and water, and to erect temporary +fortifications. So thoroughly was this portion of +the task performed, that General Kin Shun, now known +as Liu Kin-Tang, gave the order for a general forward +movement on the 27th of September.</p> + +<p>The infantry followed the main road, while the +cavalry, under the immediate orders of the general, +proceeded by by-paths in the same direction. On the +2nd of October the Chinese army south of the Tian +Shan was assembled at Kuhwei. Its numbers were +probably about fifteen thousand men all told. On the +24th of September a small force of Kashgarian troops +threatened General Tang Jen-Ho's communications, but +on the appearance of the Chinese they "turned tail and +dashed away." The very next day after his arrival at +Kuhwei General Kin Shun continued his forward movement. +Two brigadier-generals, whose names it is not +necessary to mention, were entrusted with one division, +6,000 strong, with which to perform a flanking movement +against Korla. The commander in person led his +main body against Korla, arriving at the River Kaidu, +which flows into Lake Bostang, half-way between Karashar +and Korla. But his advance was here checked, +as Bayen Hu, the rebel leader, had flooded the country +by damming up the course of the river. The depth of +the inundation was said to be in the deepest parts over +a man's head, and in the shallowest it came up to the +horses' cruppers. The Chinese march was then changed +to a northerly direction, in order to strike the river +higher up, where the obstruction raised by the enemy +would be more easily overcome. A cart-road was carefully +constructed along these alkaline plains, and the +Kaidu was dammed to stop the flow from the upper +course, and a bridge was erected over it. This détour +had caused some delay, yet Karashar was reached on the +7th of October, four days after Kin Shun had set out in +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +person from Kuhwei. The inundation from the Kaidu +had spread as far as here, and the town was several feet +under water. All the official and private residences had +been destroyed alike, and the Turki-Mussulman, as the +<i>Pekin Gazette</i> styles them, population had been compelled +by Bayen Hu to follow him in his retreat. It +would be interesting to know whom the Chinese meant +by Bayen Hu, but it is almost impossible to say. +As it was not Hakim Khan, the most probable personage +would be one of the Tungan leaders, either of +Urumtsi or Hamil, who had been mediatized by Yakoob +Beg and placed in command of the Turfan region. He +appears to have been the commander of that portion of +the Kashgarian army which was left round Korla.</p> + +<p>Not only was Karashar deserted by its inhabitants, +but so was the whole country round about. Some, +indeed, had fled to the mountains, but these were afraid +to return when they saw the Chinese established in +their homes. And then the conquerors followed out +their usual plan by settling fresh colonists in the town. +The Mongol noble, Cha-hi-telkh, was directed to move +up some hundreds of the members of his tribe to occupy +this important post, to restore the homes and to retill +the fields; and while this work of restoration was proceeding +on territory conquered by the Chinese, that +through which they passed in hostile guise was subjected +to far other treatment. On the 9th of October the +Chinese marched against Korla from two sides, and on +that day a cavalry skirmish took place, in which fifteen +of Bayen Hu's horsemen were slain, and two taken +prisoners. From the evidence of these, who were dressed +in the Khokandian garb, but were Mussulman subjects +of China, being natives of Shensi, it was learnt that +Bayen Hu had withdrawn with all his forces to Kucha, +taking with him the produce of the country and the +majority of the people. They affirmed that the small +detachment to which they belonged was only a scouting +party, sent out to learn what the Chinese army was doing. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> +When the Chinese had exhausted their stock of information +they beheaded them. The same day they entered +Korla, which they found to be completely deserted, +although not flooded. The walls remained, but many +of the houses had been thrown down. Here the general +was nearly reduced to a desperate plight, as the provision +train, which was transported by cart and camel, did not +come up, and there was the prospect of starvation compelling +the victorious army to retreat. But happily the +thought struck the able general, or perhaps some one +gave him a hint, that there might be some stores concealed +in the city which the Kashgari had been unable +to carry away with them. Accordingly the whole army +set to work to search the houses, and to dig into the +ground in all likely places for hidden stores. Their toil +was soon rewarded, and "several tens of thousand +catties' weight of food" were discovered. As a catty +weighs 1¾ lb., this was no slight supply for an army of +men which was probably under 10,000 strong. These +concerted movements of the army south of the Tian +Shan placed the country as far west as Karashar in the +possession of the invader. Their next advance, which +they could not expect to be as unopposed as their late +one, would bring them into the plain of Kashgar. No +sooner had Karashar and Korla fallen into their possession +than an edict was issued inviting the Mahomedan +population to return to their homes, and many of them +accepted the invitation. In this quarter the arms of +China were not disgraced by any excesses, and moderation +towards the unarmed population extenuated their +severity towards armed foes.</p> + +<p>While halting some days at Korla, Kin Shun heard +that Bayen Hu was coercing the people east of Kucha +at Tsedayar and other places, and compelling them to +withdraw to Kucha and to destroy their crops. He at +once resolved to frustrate the plan, and set out in person +at the head of 1,500 light infantry and 1,000 cavalry to +protect the inhabitants. By forced marches, sometimes +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> +carried on through the better part of the night, he +reached Tsedayar on the 17th of October, when he learnt +that Bayen Hu had driven off the whole of the population, +and was already at Bugur, on the road to Kucha. +At the next village to Tsedayar, a fortified post known +as Yangy Shahr, he found that Bayen Hu was still +ahead of him, and that he was setting fire to the villages +on his line of march. Kin Shun left a portion of his +infantry behind to put out the conflagration, and resolutely +pressed on with the remainder of his force to +Bugur. This small town had also been set on fire, but +here the rapidity of the Chinese general's advance was +rewarded with the news that the enemy's army, with a +large number of the inhabitants, was only a short distance +ahead. The rear-guard, composed of 1,000 cavalry, +was soon touched, and the Kashgari, emboldened by the +small numbers of the Chinese, came on to the attack in +gallant fashion. Their charge was broken, however, by +the steadiness of the Chinese infantry, armed with excellent +rifles, and the cavalry performed the rest. The +Kashgari left 100 slain on the field of battle and twelve +prisoners. From these latter it was discovered that the +main body of 2,000 soldiers was some distance on the road +to Kucha, with the family of Bayen Hu and the villagers +under its charge. It was too late to advance further +that day, but on the next the forward movement was +resumed. A large multitude—"some tens of thousands +of people"—was speedily sighted by the advanced guard, +but on examining these through glasses it was discovered +that scarcely more than a thousand carried arms. +All the troops were then brought to the front, and Kin +Shun issued instructions that all those found with arms +in their hands should be slain, but the others spared.</p> + +<p>The armed portion of the Kashgarian army drew +off from the unarmed, leaving in the midst the large +assemblage of Mussulman villagers who were being +carried off to Kucha. These were sent to the rear by +order of Kin Shun, and distributed in such of the villages +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +as were most convenient. In the meanwhile a +sharp fight took place a few miles in the rear of the old +position, near a village called Arpa Tai. The action +appears to have been well contested, but the superior +tactics and weapons of Kin Shun's small army prevailed; +and the Mussulman army retreated with considerable +loss and in great disorder. Kin Shun followed up his +success with marvellous rapidity and restless energy, +while the Kashgarian troops fled incontinently to Kucha, +abandoning the people and the country to the invader. +The unfortunate inhabitants implored with piteous entreaties +the mercy of the conqueror, and it is with +genuine satisfaction we record the fact that Kin Shun +informed them of their safety, and bade them have no +further alarm.</p> + +<p>By this time it is probable that the Chinese army had +been largely reinforced from the rear, for we have now +come to a more arduous portion of the enterprise, the +attack against Kucha. When the Chinese appeared +before its walls they found that a battle was proceeding +there between the Kashgarian soldiers and the townspeople, +who refused to accompany them in a further +retreat westward. On the appearance of the Chinese +army, the Kashgarian force evacuated the city, and +joined battle with it on the western side of Kucha. The +Chinese at once attacked them, at first with little success; +and a charge of the cavalry, numbering some four or five +thousand men, was only repulsed with some difficulty. +But the cannon of the Chinese were playing with remarkable +effect upon the Mahomedans, and the Chinese +reserves were every moment coming upon the ground. +The infantry were at last ordered to advance, under +cover of a heavy artillery fire, and the cavalry made a +charge at a most opportune moment. The whole army +then broke and fled in irretrievable confusion, leaving +more than a thousand of their number on the ground. +Their general, Ma-yeo-pu the Chinese called him, was +wounded early in the day, but, although stated to be a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +noted man, it is impossible to recognize his identity under +the Chinese appellation. This was certainly the most +sanguinary and the best-contested action of the whole war. +The numbers on each side were probably about 10,000 +men, and it was won as much by superior tactics and +skill as by brute force and courage. All the movements +of the Chinese were characterized by remarkable forethought, +and evinced the greatest ability on the part of +the general and his lieutenants, as well as obedience, +valour, and patience on the part of his soldiers. The +rapid advance from Kuhwei to Karashar, the forced +march thence to Bugur, the capture of Kucha, the forbearance +of the conqueror towards the inhabitants, all +combine to make this portion of the war most creditable +to China and her generals, to Kin Shun in particular. +The reason given in the Official Report for the Kashgarian +authorities attempting to carry off the population +was that the rebels wished in the first place to deprive +the invading force of all assistance, thus making further +pursuit a work of difficulty, and in the second place, to +ingratiate themselves with the new Pahia (probably +Bacha) of Kashgar, Kuli Beg, by delivering this large +mass of Turki-Mussulmans into his hands. Bayen +Hu was, therefore, certainly not Hakim Khan. It is +tolerably clear that he must have been either a Tungan +refugee or a subordinate of Beg Bacha's.</p> + +<p>A depôt was formed at Kucha, and a large body of +troops remained there as a garrison; but the principal +administrative measures were directed to the task of +improving the position of the Turki-Mussulman population. +A board of administration was instituted for the +purpose of providing means of subsistence for the destitute, +and for the distribution of seed-corn for the benefit +of the whole community. It had also to supervise the +construction of roads, and the establishment of ferry +boats, and of post-houses, in order to facilitate the movements +of trade and travel, and to expedite the transmission +of mails. Magistrates and prefects were appointed +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> +to all the cities, and special precautions were taken +against the outbreak of epidemic or of famine. All these +wise provisions were carried out promptly, and in the +most matter-of-fact manner, just as if the legislation +and administration of alien states were the daily avocations +of Chinamen. There is no reason to believe that +in the vast region from Turfan to Kucha the Chinese +have departed from the statesmanlike and beneficent +schemes which marked their re-installation as rulers; +and whatever harshness or cruelty they manifested towards +the Tungani rebels and the Kashgarian soldiers +was more than atoned for by the mildness of their treatment +of the people.</p> + +<p>On the 19th, or more probably the 22nd of October, +Kin Shun resumed his forward movement, encountering +no serious opposition. His first halt was at a village +called Hoser, where he halted for one night, which he +employed in inditing the report to Pekin, which described +the successes and movements of the previous three weeks. +At the next town, known as Bai, Kin Shun halted to +await the arrival of the rear-guard, under General Chang +Yao. This force came up before the close of October, +and the advance against Aksu was resumed. Up to this +point the chief interest centred in the army south of +the Tian Shan, and in the achievements of Kin Shun. +Our principal, in fact our only, authority for this portion +of the campaign is the <i>Pekin Gazette</i>.</p> + +<p>We have now to describe the movements of the +Northern Army, which was under the immediate command +of Tso Tsung Tang, and which was operating +in the north of the state, in complete secrecy. +That general had under him, at the most moderate +computation, an army of 28,000 men. By some it was +placed at a higher figure; but a St. Petersburg paper, +on the authority of a Russian merchant, who had been +to Manas, computed it to be of that strength. It was +concentrated in the neighbourhood of Manas, and along +the northern skirts of the Tian Shan; and also on the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> +frontier of the Russian dominions in Kuldja. To all +appearance this army was consigned to a part of enforced +inactivity, since it was impossible to enter Kuldja, +and thus proceed by their old routes through the passes +of Bedal or Muzart. But it was not so; the travels of +Colonel Prjevalsky in the commencement of 1877 had +not been unobserved by the Chinese, and it was assumed +that where a Russian officer with his Cossack following +could go, there also could go a Chinese army. By those +little-known passes, which are made by the Tekes and +Great Yuldus rivers, the Chinese army, under Tso Tsung +Tang, crossed over into Kashgaria; and it is probable +that the two armies joined in the neighbourhood of Bai. +It was by this stroke of strategy on the part of Tso Tsung +Tang that the Chinese found themselves before the walls +of Aksu, with an overwhelming army, at the very sight +of which all thought of resistance died away from the +hearts of the Mussulman peoples and garrisons. Tso +Tsung Tang appeared before the walls of Aksu, the bulwark +of Kashgar on the east, and its commandant, panic +stricken, abandoned his post at the first onset. He was +subsequently taken prisoner by an officer of Kuli Beg, +and executed. The Chinese then advanced on Ush Turfan, +which also surrendered without a blow. As we said, the +Chinese have not published any detailed description of +this portion of the war, and we are consequently unable +to say what their version is of those reported atrocities at +Aksu and Ush Turfan, of which the Russian papers have +made so much. There is no doubt that a very large +number of refugees fled to Russian territory, perhaps +10,000 in all, and these brought with them the tales of +fear and exaggerated alarm. We may feel little hesitation +in accepting the assertion as true, that the armed +garrisons were slaughtered without exception; but that +the unarmed population and the women and children +shared the same fate we distinctly refuse to credit. There +is every precedent in favour of the assumption that a more +moderate policy was pursued, and there is no valid reason +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> +why the Chinese should have dealt with Aksu and Ush +Turfan differently to Kucha or Turfan. The case of +Manas has been greatly insisted upon by the agitators +on this "atrocity" question; but there is the highest +authority for asserting that only armed men were massacred +there. This the Chinese have always done; it is +a national custom, and they certainly did not depart from +it in the case of the Tungani and Kashgar. But there +is no solid ground for convicting them of any more +heinous crime, even in the instances of Manas and Aksu, +which are put so prominently forward.</p> + +<p>Early in December the last move of all began against +the capital, and on the 17th of that month the Chinese +took it by a <i>coup de main</i>. Beg Kuli Beg, according to +one account, fought a battle outside the town, in which +he was defeated; according to another report, he had +withdrawn to Yarkand, whence he fled to Russian territory, +when he heard of the fall of Kashgar. It is more +probable that he resisted the Chinese attack on Kashgar, +for he certainly reached Tashkent, in company with the +Kirghiz Chief, Sadic Beg, who was wounded in that +battle. With the fall of Kashgar the Chinese reconquest +of Eastern Turkestan was completed, and the +other cities, Yangy Hissar and Yarkand, speedily shared +the same fate. Khoten and Sirikul also sent in formal +promises of subjection. But the capture of Kashgar +virtually closed the campaign. No further resistance +was encountered, and the new rulers had only to begin +the task of reorganization. When Kashgar fell the +greater portion of the army, knowing that they could +expect no mercy at the hands of the Chinese, fled to +Russian territory, and then spread reports of fresh +Chinese massacres, which probably only existed in their +own imagination. There can be no doubt that the +Chinese triumph has been thorough, and that it will be +many years before the people of Eastern Turkestan will +have again the heart to rebel against their authority. +The strength of China has been thoroughly demonstrated, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> +and the vindication of her prestige is complete. +Whatever danger there may be to the permanence of +China's triumph lies rather from Russia than from the +conquered peoples of Tian Shan Nan Lu; nor is there +much danger that the Chinese laurels will become faded +even before an European foe. Tso Tsung Tang and +his lieutenants, Kin Shun, who has since fallen into disgrace,—perhaps +he had excited the envy of his superior—and +Chang Yao, accomplished a task which would reflect +credit on any army and any country. They have given +a lustre to the present Chinese administration which +must stand it in good stead, and they have acquired a +personal renown that will not easily depart. The +Chinese reconquest of Eastern Turkestan is beyond +doubt the most remarkable event that has occurred in +Asia during the last fifty years, and it is quite the most +brilliant achievement of a Chinese army, led by Chinamen, +that has taken place since Keen-Lung subdued the +country more than a century ago. It also proves, in a +manner that is more than unpalatable to us, that the +Chinese possess an adaptive faculty that must be held +to be a very important fact in every-day politics in +Central Asia. They conquered Kashgar with European +weapons, and by careful study of Western science and +skill. Their soldiers marched in obedience to instructors +trained on the Prussian principle; and their generals +manœuvred their troops in accordance with the +teachings of Moltke and Manteuffel. Even in such +minor matters as the use of telescopes and field glasses +we find this Chinese army well supplied. Nothing was +more absurd than the picture drawn by some over-wise +observer of this army, as consisting of soldiers fantastically +garbed in the guise of dragons and other hideous +appearances. All that belonged to an old-world theory. +The army of Eastern Turkestan was as widely different +from all previous Chinese armies in Central Asia as it +well could be; and in all essentials closely resembled +that of an European power. Its remarkable triumphs +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> +were chiefly attributable to the thoroughness with which +China had in this instance adapted herself to Western +notions.</p> + +<p>With the flight of Beg Kuli Beg to Tashkent +closed the career of the house of the Athalik Ghazi in +Kashgar. Whatever turn events may take in this portion +of Central Asia, whatever schemes there may be +formed in Khokand, or elsewhere, of challenging anew +the Chinese domination, it will not be round the banner +of Kuli Beg that the ousted Khokandian officials will +rally. By his flight in the hour of danger, by the hesitation +which marked all his movements, and by the +murder of his brother in cold blood, this prince, of +whom much at one time was expected, has irretrievably +ruined both his career and his reputation. If on any +future occasion Russia should seek to play the part +played of old by Khans of Khokand in the internal +history of Kashgar, it will not be Kuli Beg whom they +will put forward as their puppet. His old rival, Hakim +Khan, stands a much better chance than he, more especially +if it be true that he is the representative of the +Khojas, being the son of Buzurg Khan, as many have +asserted. But the fact remains clear, that all the dreams +of Yakoob Beg of founding a personal dynasty in +Eastern Turkestan are now dispelled beyond all prospect +of realization.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a><span>CHAPTER XIV.</span> +<span class="chapsub1">THE CHINESE FACTOR IN THE CENTRAL ASIAN +QUESTION.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> overthrow of the Tungani, and the reconquest of +Kashgaria, have not completed the task that lay before +Chinese generals and soldiers in Central Asia. Great +and remarkable as those triumphs were, the Chinese are +not satisfied with them, because there yet remains more +work to be done. They have restored to the Emperor +Tian Shan Nan Lu, but so long as the Russians +hold Kuldja, Tian Shan Pe Lu is only half won back. +Moreover, so long as a great military power is domiciled +in Kuldja, China's hold on the country west of Aksu +must be only on sufferance. As of old, the Chinese so +often reconquered Kashgar, when it had shaken off the +Chinese rule, from Ili, so might the Russians at their +good pleasure play the same part against the Chinese. +In short, the Russians remaining in Ili would neutralize +all the advantages that China had secured by her recent +military success. But, although there is a foundation of +well grounded apprehension at the strategical advantages +of Russia, at the root of China's demand for the +surrender of Kuldja, that is not the only cause, or +even the principal one, for the Chinese making it. Of +all their Central Asian possessions, Ili was the most +cherished, and it was to recover that region more especially +that Tso Tsung Tang undertook those arduous +campaigns which have so far ended in triumph, and +which were designed for, among other purposes, the +purpose of giving that Viceroy a prestige and influence +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> +that would enable him to play the rival to Li Hung +Chang. Ili was their metropolis in Central Asia, and its +fall marked the wide difference that there was between +the Tungan-Khoja rising of 1862–63 and all its predecessors. +The fall of Ili meant the fall of Chinese +power, and Chinese power cannot be held to be completely +restored so long as Ili remains in alien hands. +On this point the Chinese are very keen.</p> + +<p>Russia, on the other hand, hesitates to hand over Ili +for various reasons. In the first place, it is not certain +that China has <i>permanently</i> reconquered Eastern +Turkestan, nor is it clear that the Imperial exchequer +will be able to bear a continual strain upon it for +Central Asian expenditure. Moreover there is the unknown +quantity of the rivalry of Li Hung Chang and +Tso Tsung Tang, and whatever influence the latter may +have with the army and the ruling caste on account of +his Mantchoo blood, the former holds the purse in his +hands, and can at any <ins class="corr" title="original had: momet">moment</ins> paralyse Chinese activity and +strength in Central Asia. The Russians also, whatever +rash promises they may have given at Pekin—and they +certainly did promise to retrocede Kuldja to China, +whenever the Chinese should be strong enough to +return to Central Asia—formally (<i>teste</i> General Kolpakovsky's +proclamation) annexed Kuldja "in perpetuity." +In the eyes of the people of Central Asia, that proclamation +defines Russia's tenure of Kuldja, and not the +vague promise that was uttered in the ears of the +authorities at Pekin. Now Russia knows this as well +as we do; and she is aware that no strict adherence to +her word of honour will induce the people of Western, +as well as of Eastern, Turkestan to believe that she +retrocedes Kuldja for any other cause than fear of the +Chinese. The Khokandians, the Bokhariots, as well +as the Kirghiz, the Calmucks, and the Kashgari, will +all argue that Russia restores Kuldja not through any +desire to fulfil her engagements, but simply because she +cannot decline to fulfil them without engaging in a war +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> +with China, and her compliance with the demand would +then be construed as an admission of her disinclination to +encounter China in the field. In fact, even if Russia had +promptly restored Kuldja, she would not have secured +the credit she might have claimed for her good faith, +and she would have had no guarantee that the Chinese +would have rested content with the cession of Ili proper +and not gone on to claim, in a moment of military +arrogance, the restoration of the Naryn district, which +China at a period of weakness had herself ceded to +Russia more than twenty years ago. Then, besides these +objections to the surrender of Kuldja on political +grounds, there are commercial and fiscal reasons why +Russia should be loth to restore this province. Not only +has it become highly prosperous and thickly populated +under Russian rule, but it has also been raised into one +of the most fiscally remunerative portions of the +Russian possessions in Central Asia, and then there is its +admirable frontier in the Tian Shan, which places the +future trade with the western parts of China more at +its disposal, than it is through the Semipalatinsk and +Chuguchak route, and, above all, it effectually dispels all +sense of real danger from attack. The Chinese would +find that to force the Tian Shan range into Kuldja would +be a task almost impossible for them, and they would +be compelled to enter the province from the north by +Karkaru. By so doing, they would leave the whole +of their flank and line of communication exposed to an +attack with telling effect both at Manas and in Kashgar, +and with a scientific foe such as Russia, no sane +Chinaman could dream of attacking Kuldja except in +the most overwhelming force. It may be as well to +sketch here the history of Russia's rule in Kuldja from +1871 to the present time, before proceeding with the +consideration of the questions aroused by the difficulty +between Russia and China.</p> + +<p>When an independent government had been founded +in Kuldja in 1866, a ruler of the name of Abul Oghlan +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> +was placed upon the throne. He appears to have been +a Tungan, and he certainly was a truculent and self-confident +potentate. He refused to abide by the stipulations +of the Treaties of Kuldja and Pekin, and in +petty matters as in great, set himself in direct opposition +to Russia. For five years he pursued his career +undisturbed by exterior influences, and during that +period he tolerated the inroads of his subjects into +Russian territory, urged the Kirghiz tribes beyond his +frontier to revolt, and forbade Russian merchants to +enter his dominions. On a small scale, he aped the +manners subsequently adopted by Yakoob Beg. But +he was only a minor and insignificant despot. His +people groaned under his tyranny, and the 75,000 +slaves within his dominions were only too anxious to +be relieved from their bondage by any deliverer whatsoever. +The state of Kuldja, as administered by Abul +Oghlan, was pre-eminently one that would fall to pieces +at the first rude shock from outside. For five years, or +thereabouts, the Russian authorities at Vernoe, Naryn, +and in Semiretchinsk put up with his veiled hostility; +but when it became evident that his state was on the +eve of falling into divers fragments, of which Yakoob +Beg would, probably, come in for the lion's share, the +Russians, whose patience had become well-nigh exhausted, +resolved not to be forestalled in Kuldja, either by the +Athalik Ghazi, or the Tungani Confederation. A kind +of <i>ultimatum</i> was presented to Kuldja, in which Abul +Oghlan was given a last chance of retaining power, if +he consented to ratify the terms of the past treaties +with China. He does not appear to have distinctly +refused to do so, when he was required to enter into +this agreement with Russia. But he prevaricated and +delayed, until at last the patience of the Muscovite +authorities was quite exhausted. They resolved to +destroy the government of Abul Oghlan, to annex +Kuldja, and to bring their frontier down to the Tian +Shan. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p> + +<p>In May, 1871, Major Balitsky crossed the river +Borodshudsir, which formed the boundary between +the two countries, and, at the head of a small detachment, +advanced some distance into the dominions of +Abul Oghlan. His force, however, was small, and, after +a brief reconnaissance, he retired within Russian territory. +Six weeks afterwards the main body under +General Kolpakovsky crossed the frontier into Kuldja +and marched on the capital. That invading army consisted +of only 1,785 men and sixty-five officers. At first +the forces of Abul Oghlan offered a brave resistance, +but the Russian cannon and rifles carried everything +before them; and on the 4th of July the ruler presented +himself at the Russian outposts. When taken +before General Kolpakovsky, he said, "I trusted to the +righteousness of my cause, and to the help of God. +Conquered, I submit to the will of the Almighty. If +any crime has been committed, punish the sovereign, +but spare his innocent subjects." The next day the +Russian general entered the capital after a campaign +that had only lasted eight or nine days. Protection +was promised to all who would lay down their arms, +and the army of Abul Oghlan was disbanded. Abul +Oghlan was pensioned, and Orel was appointed as his +place of residence. Kuldja or "Dzungaria," as it is +called in the proclamation, was annexed "in perpetuity," +and became the Russian sub-governorship of Priilinsk. +There can be no doubt but that the Russian occupation +of Kuldja was an unqualified benefit to the inhabitants +of that region. The declaration of the abolition of +slavery alone released seventy-five thousand human +beings from a life of hardship and hopelessness. The +return of trade, which had become stagnant, ensured +the prosperity and advancement of the active portion +of the community, and during the seven years Russia +has ruled in Kuldja, the people have steadily progressed +in moral and material welfare. The population has +during the same period remarkably increased, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> +valleys of the Ili teem with a population at once contented +and prosperous. The rule of Russia in Kuldja +is the brightest spot in her Central Asian administration. +The Chinese in demanding the retrocession of +Kuldja labour under the one disadvantage that they +come to oust a beneficent rule. This disadvantage is +made the greater by the bad name the Chinese have +earned in Kashgar and the Tungan country, by the +atrocities they are said to have committed. Those who +will take the trouble to scan the matter carefully, +and to consult the <i>Pekin Gazette</i>, as much as they do +the <i>Tashkent</i>, will find that these atrocities are for the +most part the creation of panic, and of malicious observers, +and in the few cases where Chinese vindictiveness +overcame military discipline, as at Manas and Aksu, +we have clear evidence that women and children were +spared. The <i>Tashkent Gazette</i> has laboured strenuously, +and not in vain, to disseminate the report of Chinese +atrocities; and one London paper has so far assisted +the object of the Russian press in raising a feeling of +indignation against China, on account of these reported +massacres in Eastern Turkestan, that it has placed +translations of these charges before the English reader, +and, on the authority of the <i>Tashkent Gazette</i>, has +indicted and summarily convicted the Chinese of the +grossest acts of inhumanity. We would venture to +suggest, that in common fairness to the Chinese this +journal should place before its readers the temperately +worded and dignified reports that have appeared in the +<i>Pekin Gazette</i> of those events upon which the <i>Tashkent +Gazette</i> has commented so indignantly.</p> + +<p>As we said, the Chinese are fully resolved to regain +Ili. They may not be able to induce Russia easily to +surrender it, yet they will not despair. In all probability +they will fail altogether to re-acquire it by diplomatic +means, yet they will not omit to employ all the +artifices that are sanctioned by modern diplomacy. +There have been rumours that China intended handing +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> +over to Russia a strip of territory in Manchuria, which +would give to the Russian harbour of Vladivostock a +land communication with the forts on the Amoor. But +this rumour had no solid foundation, and the latest +intelligence goes to show that China's successes beyond +Gobi, instead of making her moderate in the north, have +given her confidence sufficient to arouse her into a state +of opposition to further encroachments on the part of +Russia in that direction. It is now said that Russia +demands pecuniary indemnification for the money she +has expended in raising Kuldja to its present highly +prosperous condition; and at a first glance nothing +could seem fairer, nor do we think that the Chinese +would have raised objections to the payment of a moderate +sum. But the sum demanded by the Russians is +far from moderate. The exact amount has not been +mentioned, but the Chinese declare that it exceeds the +total cost of the campaign in the north-west, and that +certainly was not less than two millions sterling. This +is, of course, too exorbitant, and is only put forward as +a reason for declining to abide by her former agreement, +and to give her diplomatists a <i>locus standi</i> in their discussions +with the Chinese representatives. A Chinese +Embassy has been authorized to proceed to St. Petersburg, +and to endeavour to effect an understanding with +Russia upon the Kuldja question; but it does not +appear to have started, and the real settlement lies in +the hands of Tso Tsung Tang and General Kaufmann. +The latest report is that the former has demanded afresh +the restoration of Kuldja; the Russian reply is awaited +with eagerness and some anxiety. In the meanwhile +the Chinese have suffered a local reverse of no significance +at the hands of a chief of Khoten, and their +power does not seem to extend south of Yarkand. But +they are hurrying up reinforcements, and 20,000 fresh +troops had reached Manas some weeks ago. They have +also an extensive recruiting ground amongst the Calmucks, and +their position of Chuguchak might be of great +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> +strategical importance. If the Kuldja question give +rise to a Russo-Chinese war, the Chinese are sufficiently +numerous and sufficiently prepared to task the capacity +of an army of 20,000 Russians; and it is quite certain +there are not 5,000 in Kuldja at present. But the +Kuldja question, despite the prominence it has attained, +is only one, if the most important and pressing, of +those questions that are raised and suggested by the +appearance of the Chinese in Central Asia. More +especially is this the case if, as can scarcely be doubted, +the Russians refuse to restore Kuldja; yet the Chinese, +knowing the strength of their adversary, shall hesitate +to attack where they cannot but recognize that the +penalties of failure must be immense. In that event +the Kuldja question will long remain unsolved, and for +a time perhaps it will be forgotten. But the Chinese +will not forget, nor will they condone the offence. But +whatever may be the interval, and however great the +delay, the Kuldja question will continue to remain a +most important portion of Central Asian politics, and +must, so long as it is unsettled, operate in a manner +adverse to the interests of Russia. The Chinese need +only maintain their camps at Chuguchak, Karakaru, +Manas, Aksu, Ush Turfan and Kashgar, and slowly +bring up reinforcements from Kansuh and from the +Calmuck country, to render Russia's hold on Kuldja +dangerously insecure. In fact, in this matter the Chinese +have the game in their own hands, and can play a +waiting game; whereas Russia can only hope to profit +by precipitation on the part of Tso Tsung Tang. If +the Chinese refuse to hold any intercourse with the +faithless Russians, and simply content themselves with +the declaration that they cannot re-enter into political +or commercial relations with them until Kuldja is retroceded, +Russia can never rest tranquil either in Kuldja, +Naryn, or Khokand. Above all, so long as she is occupied +in Western Asia as she is at present, she could +never dare to cross the path of China, and enter upon a +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> +war which would rage from Vladivostock and the Amoor +to Kuldja and Kashgar. Therefore the settlement of +the Kuldja question is not such an easy matter as might +be supposed; nor does it find Russia so strong or China +so weak as might have been expected. But after all, +as we have just said, the Kuldja question is not the +only one suggested by the appearance of the Chinese in +Eastern Turkestan. There is the far wider one raised +by the appearance of the Chinese as a factor in the great +Central Asian question. The three great Asiatic Powers +have now converged upon a point; what is to be the +result?</p> + +<p>The only way to be in a position to venture upon a +surmise as to the future, is to realize in its full significance +the lessons of the past. What have been the +mutual relations between England, Russia, and China? +We have assumed throughout this volume, and we +shall assume here, the irreconcilable hostility of England +and Russia, in Asia at all events, veneered over +as it is by a lacquer of politeness and civilization. We +have only to consider the relations between England +and China, and between Russia and China. To take +the latter first, they have always been united by ties of +friendship and reciprocity in commercial and political +rights. Their intercourse has been on the whole singularly +harmonious, and while we have been compelled to +wage three wars to obtain a standing for our merchants +in the seaports, Russia, without being compelled to +resort to anything like the same extreme measures, +has been able to secure all she, or her merchants, +wanted in Middle and Western China. She has made +the Amoor a Russian river; she dominates the Yellow +and Japanese seas from Vladivostock; and she has +acquired in her position among the Khalkas, and in +Kuldja, two portals to various weak points in the +Chinese Empire. Yet all the time she has been on +terms of the closest amity with China. She has several +commercial treaties of the most favourable character, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> +and she has always been on the footing of "the most +favoured nation." But she has been more than that; +she has been the most favoured nation. But the +Chinese have not failed to observe that this good +understanding with Russia has, so far as advantages +arising from it go, been a very one-sided affair. For +all Russia's protestations of friendship and good-will, +what advantages has China reaped from those high-flown +promises? Whereas, the patriotic Chinaman +has but to look to the Amoor, and to the attenuated +province of Manchuria, to see what Russian friendship +means. He can go farther still. He has only to +enquire into the relations Russia has managed to +conclude with the Taranath Lama; he has only to hear +what the people of Ourga think of Russia's position in +the vicinity of that important city; and he cannot fail +to form a very clear and decided opinion as to what +Russia's friendship signifies. The Chinese have, in the +full extent of their northern frontier, a great question +in discussion with Russia. So long as China was weak, +and consequently unable to resent the patronage of her +friend, so long was Russia able to play "my lady +bountiful" with a good grace and perfect success. +But the moment China became strong, and in a position +to resent the condescension of her whilome ally, the +Chinese took a different tone, and already we hear of +the Chinese assuming a semi-hostile attitude in the +Amoor region. But whereas China's apprehension—for +it is apprehension that is at the root of her hostility +to Russia, at Russia's designs in Manchuria and among +the Khalkas is vague at present—her indignation is +clear and easily defined at Russia retaining possession +of Kuldja after she has demanded its restoration. In +short, all her apprehension along the northern frontier, +which has slumbered, but never died out, since the +Russians seized the Amoor posts during the Crimean +War, is reduced to a focus in Central Asia, where Russia +appears inclined to throw herself in the path of, or at +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +least to retard, their victorious career. It is not so +much the Kuldja question, which is of local importance, +that is of pressing moment, as the rupture between +Russia and China, that a crisis in the Issik Kul region +will make complete. That rupture has already taken +place, and no concession on the part of Russia will +restore her good name with the Chinese. She may +hand Kuldja over now, or she may keep it by the +strong arm if she can; but she has forfeited all claim +to consideration by the Chinese, through delaying to +accede to that which those people consider in every +sense their right and due. Had Russia at once said to +China, "We will abandon Kuldja, and only require you +to guarantee the safety of the population," there would +have been not only the preservation of the good understanding +between the countries, but there might have +been, for fresh purposes, a Russo-Chinese alliance in +Central Asia. That alliance must have been fraught +with danger to this country, and for reasons that will +best be described under the head of Anglo-Chinese +relations.</p> + +<p>But the Russian authorities failed to grasp the +situation in its full extent. They treated the Kuldja +question as a mere local affair, and they trifled with +the Chinese as if the latter had no very strong interest +in the matter. They altogether ignored the terrible +earnestness of the Chinese character, and they treated the +demands of Tso Tsung Tang in a spirit of levity that +must have roused the ire of that general. Their policy, +regarded from any point of view, was shallow and +unwise, but, bearing in mind the past tact and diplomatic +skill shown by Russia in her dealings with China, +it must appear more shallow and foolish. Of course +this Kuldja question differs from all previous questions +in the essential point of all, that here for the first time +Russia had to go back instead of advancing, as always +had been the case heretofore. The Russian authorities +simply regarded the matter from the point of view of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> +what effect it would have upon the peoples of Central +Asia. They persuaded themselves that to hand over +Kuldja would be to give an impetus to every hostile +element in Western Turkestan, as well as to lower their +prestige generally throughout Asia. As a leading +Russian paper expressed it, "the retrocession of Kuldja +would be an act of political suicide, for not only would +it raise the prestige of China to a higher point than +ever before, but it would also undermine our position in +Eastern Asia, by giving the Chinese a strong military +position within our natural frontier. For these reasons +Kuldja cannot be restored." That paragraph sums up +the arguments the Russians will employ in defence of +their continuing to retain possession of Kuldja. They +add something to their effect in the popular mind by +diatribes against the Chinese for rumoured barbarities, +by drawing comparisons, flattering to themselves and +to their administrative capacity, between the present +condition of Kuldja, and what it would become under a +restored Chinese rule. In depicting what this would +be, they entirely ignore the prosperous condition of +Kuldja before the Tungan revolt, and they appear to +assume that the anarchy existing there, when they +entered it in 1871, was due to the Chinese, instead of +being caused by the ingratitude and fickleness of its +own people. And they shut their eyes to the great +benefits China conferred upon Central Asia during the +century that she was paramount therein. They would +like us, and every other observer of the crisis, to do the +same. That is impossible, for the teaching of history +is clear, and points to a diametrically opposite conclusion. +We do not dispute the beneficence of Russia's +government of Kuldja. We freely admit it. That is +no reason for maligning the Chinese, and asserting that +they are utter barbarians; nor is it a reason, in the eyes +of Chinamen, for a refusal to restore Kuldja. By +refusing to entertain the overtures of Tso Tsung Tang, +which were made, there is reason to believe, before the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> +attack on Yakoob Beg, the Russians huffed the Chinese; +and by procrastinating ever since, when questioned upon +the subject, they have still further displeased them. +The Russians are aware of this, and feel convinced that, +no matter how obliging they might be disposed to be, +the Chinese will now no longer appreciate their moderation. +If we admit this, as can scarcely be gainsaid, +what becomes of the Kuldja question, and of its +peaceful solution that many claim to see? How can it +be peacefully solved, if Russia will not accede to the +terms from which China is resolved not to budge? +Surely not by a fresh commotion on the part of the +Mussulman population, which some persons have pretended +to forecast by magnifying a petty success that +has been obtained by the insignificant ruler of Khoten +over a Chinese detachment. Surely not by such trivial +circumstances as the hostility of an outlying dependency, +will China be either expelled from Kashgar, or +induced to forego her claims on Kuldja. The success of +the Khoten chief is but a minor incident in the campaign, +and for that district and its people it must be +pronounced a great misfortune. The Chinese will exact +a terrible revenge. The Kuldja question will not be +solved by such means, English readers can feel assured; +and the hostility of Russia and China towards each other +will become more pronounced every day. Already petty +disturbances are reported to have taken place along the +border. Russian merchants have been molested by parties +of brigands, among whom the assailed assert there were +Chinese soldiers; and no satisfaction could be obtained +from their generals. Representations have been made +to Tso Tsung Tang upon the subject, and his reply +has not been very amicable. Russian caravans, which +were always welcome during the progress of the war at +Manas, Karakaru, and Urumtsi, are now no longer +greeted with the same cordiality, and the Chinese are +evincing an intention to close their frontier to Russians. +Few caravans, the <i>Tashkent Gazette</i> informs us, now care +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +to leave Kuldja for the territory occupied by the Chinese +army; and slowly, but none the less surely, is the old +alliance between Russia and China departing to join the +things that were, but are not. But, although so much +is clear, it is almost impossible to predicate the future +course of the Kuldja question. It is not probable that +Tso Tsung Tang will openly attack the Russians, yet +his hand may be forced by the home authorities, and +he may be left no alternative between that and the +abandonment of his enterprise. It must be always +remembered that Russia's best weapon is intrigue at +Pekin, and a skilful envoy might so far manipulate the +rivalry between Tso and Li Hung Chang as to induce +the latter to paralyze the ambition of the former by +withholding supplies and reinforcements from the army +of Central Asia. So unpatriotic a course would, we +believe, be hateful to Li Hung Chang, and it, certainly, +would be attended with great danger, sure to recoil +upon his guilty head, if for a personal rivalry he debased +himself so far as to become the tool of his country's +foe. But yet it is in vain to deny that there is danger +to the preservation of China's most cherished interests +in the rivalry of some of her chief statesmen. The +Kuldja question, which scarcely admits of peaceful +solution in Central Asia, might be solved in the palace +at Pekin more easily and more effectually than by a +campaign on a large scale in Jungaria and Turkestan; +and there is a possibility that Russia may by this means +seek to nullify the danger from Tso Tsung Tang, and +to stultify the recent Chinese successes. It is very +doubtful whether they would succeed, for Chinese +opinion runs high upon the topic, and the Mantchoo caste +is united in its support of its member Tso Tsung Tang. +Even if they did, it would only be shelving the Kuldja +question, for so long as the Chinese remain in Kashgaria, +and at Manas and Karakaru, they must regard the presence +of Russia in Kuldja as a slight to themselves, as +well as a menace to their line of communications. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span></p> + +<p>But every probability is against their succeeding. Li +Hung Chang's position is not so secure that he can dare +to put himself in face of those who champion a national +cause, as is the re-absorption of Chinese Turkestan. The +return of Tso Tsung Tang with his veterans would be +the least danger that the adoption of an unpatriotic +policy would entail. If this home danger, then, does +not arise, the Kuldja question will be settled between +Tso and the Russian authorities in Khokand and Kuldja. +The result of that discussion cannot be doubtful. The +advocates on either side are soldiers, each equally confident +in their own abilities and power, and each flushed +by a long tide of success. They will come to the discussion +of the question with heated blood and excited +nerves; reason will not be the presiding goddess at the +council board. There will be accusations and recriminations +bandied from one side to the other. If such be +the case, the Kuldja question will not be long in discussion, +and before the close of the present year perhaps, +but more probably early next spring, there will be war +between Russia and China along the Tian Shan range. +Even if Tso is content to permit his arguments to be +clothed in diplomatic language, there will be no solution +of the difficulty, so long as Russia remains where she is; +and consequently the difference will be as great between +Russia and China as if there were open hostilities between +the countries. And this, after all, is the main +point, for the destruction of all friendly sentiment +between Russia and China means the addition of +another element to "the great game in Central Asia," +and that element, as an adverse one to Russia, is a +beneficial circumstance for this country. The difference +over the Kuldja question magnifies the previously existing +discordant points between the countries, and irretrievably +wrecks whatever prospect there once was of +Russia and China pursuing an identical policy towards +Baroghil and Cashmere. We have now to consider the +past relations between England and China, in order that +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> +we may be in a position to appreciate the full significance +of China's reappearance in Central Asia, and +also what is to be the probable outcome of the gradual +approximation of the three Great Powers, and the slow +extinction of the once innumerable petty states of +Asia.</p> + +<p>What, then, have been the mutual relations between +England and China in the past? There is no necessity +to enter into the question of the footing we are on along +the sea-coast, for that is really beside the question; nor +need we recapitulate the wars which we have at various +times been compelled to wage in Eastern China. The +result of those wars, those treaties, and that constant +inter-communication has been, that Englishmen have +secured a foothold in many of the principal cities, and +that English trade is supreme there. But the relations +along the land frontier are quite the opposite of those +obtained on the sea-board, and they are influenced by +entirely different considerations. During the last century, +and for a considerable portion of the present, we +were not, strictly speaking, neighbours of the Chinese; +for between the two empires there intervened a belt of +semi-independent states, who nominally owned allegiance +to China. Some of these were Nepaul, Sikhim, +Bhutan and Birmà, with its dependency of Assam. It +was in the days of Lord Cornwallis that we first realized +the significance of the fact that Chinese prestige had +penetrated south of the Himalaya. The Ghoorka rulers +of Nepaul had, on several occasions, molested the peaceable +Tibetans, and at last had grown so bold, that on +one expedition they advanced as far as Lhasa, which +they plundered. At that moment the aged Keen-Lung +was meditating the retirement from public life, which a +few years afterwards, like the Asiatic Charles the Fifth +that he was, he adopted; but, on the news of this insult +to his authority, his warlike spirit fired up, and he vowed +that the marauders of Khatmandoo should dearly pay +for their audacity. A large army, of the reputed strength +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +of 70,000 men, was collected, and the Chinese generals +advanced by the Kirong Pass upon the Nepaulese capital. +A desperate battle was fought along this elevated road, +resulting in victory to the Chinese. Several other +encounters took place with the same result, and the +Ghoorkas were compelled to sue for terms. The Chinese +showed no disposition to stay their advance, until Lord +Cornwallis mediated between the foes, and peace ensued. +Nepaul acknowledged its suzerainty to China, and agreed +to send tribute every five years to Pekin. For more +than half a century this was regularly sent, but during +the last thirty years it has been either discontinued, or +has grown irregular. But for us the main point is, +after all, that the Chinese, although yielding to the +remonstrance of Lord Cornwallis, really did so with a +bad grace. We had stood between them and their +prey.</p> + +<p>But this was not the full extent of the mistake we +had actually committed. We had annoyed the Chinese; +but we had absolutely offended the people and the ruling +Lamas of Tibet. Warren Hastings had sent two missions—one +under Mr. George Bogle, the other under +Captain Turner—to the Teshu Lama, and by means +of these embassies had broken ground very happily in +Tibet. He had also conferred an obligation upon him +by dealing leniently with the intractable Bhutanese or +Bhuteas; and he had followed up that sense of obligation +by the despatch of two successful missions. When +Lord Cornwallis threw the <i>ægis</i> of British protection +over Nepaul, it is true that we had no diplomatic relationship +with Tibet, but we were on a good footing with +the people generally, having a native representative at +Lhasa named Purungir Gosain, and being in high repute +at Shigatze, the chief city of the southern portion of +Tibet. The Tibetans, the instant the Ghoorkas raided +their country, notified the same to our government, and +requested its good offices to prevent the Ghoorkas invading +their country. The Chinese, their lawful protectors, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> +were so far away that much damage could be +inflicted upon them before the Chinese could have time +to despatch a vindicating army; therefore they appealed +to their friends the English, whom they had always +found so just, for assistance in their extremity. Their +appeal was evidently made with the impression that it +would be granted. Therefore it was with double regret +they saw the English remain indifferent while the +Ghoorkas were pressing on against Lhasa, and ravaging +the fertile districts watered by the Sanpu. But their +regret and surprise at our government remaining indifferent +were as nothing compared with their indignation +when they learnt that we were actually interfering on +behalf of the marauding Ghoorkas. We saved the +Ghoorkas from condign chastisement, and we of course +prevented the establishment of a Chinese garrison at +Khatmandoo, which we could whenever we chose have +easily expelled; but we offended the Tibetans and the +Chinese, and induced them to unite in a policy of hostility +against ourselves. After that war (1792) the +Himalayan passes were closed against us, and the Chinese +block-houses have effectually barred the way to +Tibet and Northern Asia ever since. Mr. Thomas Manning, +one of the most intrepid and highly gifted of +English travellers, penetrated into Tibet in 1812, and +resided there some time. But that is the only instance +in which an English traveller overcame Bhutea and +Ghoorka indifference and Chinese hostility. Tibet +remains a sealed book, and, despite treaty rights to enter +it, no Englishman goes thither, although the attraction +is great, and the prize to be secured far from vague +or trivial. The assumed reason is the covert hostility +of the Chinese.</p> + +<p>If we turn farther to the east, to Assam—which we +have absorbed—to Birmà, and even to Siam, we find the +same causes in operation. We recognized in Yunnan +the Panthay Sultan of Talifoo; we have always striven +to treat the kings of Birmà and Siam as independent +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> +princes, whereas they are only Chinese vassals; and we +are believed to have carried on intrigues with the Shans +and other tribes beyond the Assamese frontier. These +steps may be prudent or they may not for other reasons; +but they certainly are imprudent for the reason that +they offend the Chinese. As a policy intended to conciliate +the Chinese, our frontier policy on the north and +the east has been the worst possible, and a tissue of +blunders from beginning to end; and the result is that +for the last half-century we have lived on the very worst +terms with the Chinese. We should have conciliated +them, but we aroused instead all their latent suspicion +and dislike. We should have become friendly neighbours, +and, on the contrary, we are neighbours who, if +not decidedly hostile to each other, shun each other's +presence. And the real base of our sentiment towards +the Chinese is to be seen in the fact that one of the +first articles in the creed of Indian state policy is "to +keep China as far off as possible." That precept, which +may have been very useful, has served its turn, and it +is time that our Indo-Chinese policy should be set upon +a new basis. With China once more supreme upon +our whole northern frontier, and with her presenting +ultimatums at Bangkok, and coercing the ruler of +Mandalay as she esteems fit, it is high time for us, +apart from the Central Asian question altogether, to set +our house in order with the Chinese. The mistakes we +made in championing the Ghoorkas, in acknowledging +the Panthays, and in a general policy of indifference to +Chinese opinion, have all tended to bring about the +present deadlock in our relations with China. Our +acknowledgment of the Athalik Ghazi cannot have conduced +to the creation of any very friendly sentiment +among the Chinese towards us, and, therefore, at the +present moment we must assume that the state of feeling +existing among the Chinese in Tibet and Yunnan towards +us exists in Kashgaria also; and that feeling is a +veiled hostility. Therefore, while the Chinese are beginning +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> +to regard Russia with the hostile feelings that +once were reserved for England, they have by no means +altered their old sentiments towards us. We have done +nothing whatever to induce them to do so. We have not +helped them in any way to regain Kashgar, and on the +whole English opinion may be said to have been more adverse +to, than in favour of, their claims. They have found +in the arsenals of Kashgar and Yarkand many proofs of +England's alliance with, and friendship for, Yakoob Beg; +and, on the other hand, they certainly owe much to the +assistance of Russian merchants, and the forbearance +of the Russian government. Nor should we for an +instant delude ourselves with the fallacy that the Chinese +will look to us for aid against Russia, as Yakoob Beg +did. They have conquered Eastern Turkestan without +us—in fact, despite of our moral opposition; and they +will retain it if they can by their own right arms. It +will not enter their head for an instant to play the old +game of Yakoob Beg, of setting England off against +Russia. But, although they will play a perfectly independent +game, it by no means follows that they will be +hostile to this country, if by some fortunate stroke of +diplomacy we could bring home to their minds the fact +that England is glad at the result of the war in Central +Asia, however much she may have failed during its +progress to recognize which was the rightful cause. +But what is that fortunate stroke of diplomacy to be? +and how is it to be brought to pass? To each of these +questions it would be rash to give any confident reply. +In dealing with the Chinese we are not only treating +with a people whom we very imperfectly understand, +but also with a government the secret springs of whose +policy we neither know nor appreciate. The action we +might therefore adopt, founded though it should be on +the experience of some Englishman versed in the mysteries +of China, might fail to accomplish what it seemed +calculated to secure. It might be crowned with success, +it might be condemned with failure. Of course the first +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> +thing to decide is, how are we to take official cognizance +of China's reconquest of Kashgaria, and how are we to +bring home to the minds of Tso Tsung Tang and his +lieutenants the knowledge that we have repented of our +shortsighted policy towards Yakoob Beg, and are willing +to atone for it in so far as we are able by an ample +recognition of the change in affairs north of the Karakoram?</p> + +<p>The Che-foo Convention gave us the right to send an +embassy to Tibet, on the condition that it should be +acted upon within a given space. We did not avail +ourselves of that concession, and the Chinese, we are +informed, consider that the right has lapsed. We may +have been wise or we may have been foolish—in my +opinion we have been foolish—in declining to enforce +the only real concession China made, in reparation for +the murder of Mr. Margary. Does this concession, +which we never made use of, entitle us to send a mission +to the Chinese in Kashgar? Acting upon this precedent, +are we justified in supposing that the Chinese would +hold out a hand of friendship to an English envoy +coming from Leh to Yarkand? It is much to be +feared that it would not. At the present moment, too, +the country must be in such a disturbed state, that the +Chinese would have a ready excuse if any accident +befel our envoy. Moreover, at the present moment an +envoy would have no definite object before him. A +few years hence, when the Chinese rule shall be completely +restored throughout Eastern Turkestan, it may +be reasonable to expect a revival of trade in this direction; +but at present it would be premature to agitate +for it. Nor would a simple embassy of congratulation +look well. We have too recently befriended the Athalik +Ghazi to make our congratulations to his conqueror +anything but a mockery. The Chinese would be puffed +up with vanity, and think that we were only worshipping +their rising sun. Whatever action we do take +in Central Asia, to effect an understanding with the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> +Chinese, we must be very careful that it has been well +considered, and that it is as cautious as it must be +clearly defined. Any mistake would be simply fatal to +the preservation of good relations with China. Therefore, +we must do nothing. <i>Quieta non movere</i> must be +our motto, and we must only look forward to some +auspicious occasion when it may be possible to enter +into cordial relations with China.</p> + +<p>But, although our hands are tied in Central Asia, +they are not fettered at Pekin, and we certainly should +congratulate, if we have not done so already, the Chinese +on their remarkable successes in the Tian Shan regions. +That step might be pregnant with beneficent results, +and our desire to be on good terms with our new, yet +our old, neighbour might be met in a cordial manner by +the Chinese. The Chinese will not stoop to propitiate +us in order to preserve their rule in Eastern Turkestan; +but it is against common sense to suppose that they +will be eager to embroil themselves with us at the same +moment that they are quarrelling with the Russians. +The Kuldja question must throw China into our alliance, +if we are not precipitate, and do not offer her any slight +by meddling with this semi-independent chief of +Khoten, who is said to have overthrown a Chinese +detachment. And, in negotiating with the rulers of +Kashgaria, we must remember that commercial advantages +are all very well, but that political are infinitely +more important. It has been tersely said that we +patronized Yakoob Beg in order to make a market for +Kangra tea; but the very trivial advantages we secured +in a commercial sense were far more than counterbalanced +by the political disadvantages we derived from +a recognition of the Athalik Ghazi. In dealing with +the Chinese we must not set before us, as our guiding +star, the privilege of supplying the good people of +Kashgar and Yarkand with tea and other necessaries. +What we aspire to is to be on terms of amity with +China, as a power in Central Asia, which will possess +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> +everything it desires when Ili has been restored, and +which most accordingly be inclined to resent with us +the undue aggrandizement of Russia. These are the +future advantages that may accrue from an understanding +between England and China. But at the +present juncture there are others similar in kind, but +immediate in effect. The Afghan question, which now +clamours for solution, and which will scarcely pass +through this crisis without finding our hold on Cabul +made more assured, is in many respects connected with +the Kuldja.</p> + +<p>In each case the ambition of Russia is the motive +power, and in each she seeks to play her game with as +little risk, and as much gain, as possible. In neither +will she fight, if she can avoid the necessity, yet in each +there is a point beyond which her honour and her +interests alike refuse to permit her to remain concealed +and neutral. The solution of the two questions +is being worked out simultaneously, and the progress +of the Afghan question will at least very seriously affect +the later stages of the Kuldja. If Russia has to fight to +defend Shere Ali, then we may be sure that Tso Tsung +Tang's legions will not remain inactive, and that General +Kolpakovsky will either have to beat a retreat to Vernoe, +or engage in a war out of which, on his own resources +alone, it will be impossible for him to issue victorious. +If Russia interfere openly in defence of Shere Ali, +Kuldja must be restored to the Chinese, otherwise +Russia's flank would be exposed to a crushing blow, +which the Chinese would not be slow to take advantage +of. Present events on the Ili and on the Cabul have, +therefore, this much in common, that they both aim, +directly or indirectly, at the fabric of Russian supremacy +in Central Asia. The occupation of Afghanistan by +England, or even a partial occupation of it as is very +probable, would seriously weaken Russian prestige in +Western Turkestan. A Chinese occupation of Kuldja +would undermine her position in Vernoe and Naryn and +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> +among the Kirghiz. Admitting these, is it not natural +to suppose that in each case Russia will fight, or that, +even if she does not fight in each case, she will fight +in the one that she may deem of the most importance? +But we need not pursue the subject farther. The +Chinese are face to face with Russia in the heart of +Central Asia, just as a few short months ago they were +opposed to Yakoob Beg and the power of the Tungani.</p> + +<p>Their army is drawn up in hostile array; it is each +day becoming more numerous and more perfectly prepared. +Its generals are the same who have led it to +constant victory; its main body is the veterans of +three campaigns. The Chinese are persuaded, and it is +impossible to say not justly persuaded, of the righteousness +of their cause. The Russians can have no equal +confidence either in their strength, or in their moral +position. They are not exactly championing a bad +cause, or a lost one, but, in comparison to the Chinese, +they have no legal position. It remains to be seen +whether by force of arms, or by diplomatic superiority, +they can make up for the flaw in their tenure of Kuldja. +Farther on, in the vista of the events yet to come, there +looms the prospect of an Anglo-Chinese alliance, that +must be most beneficial to the peoples of Asia generally. +But, before it will be possible for Englishmen to count +upon the presence of the Chinese as a favourable "factor +in the Central Asian question," our relations with China +must be placed upon a firmer and a more friendly basis +than any which has yet existed. We have it in our +power to do this, and the ever-widening breach between +Russia and China simplifies our task in no slight degree. +The day will come when Russia will discover that the +Kuldja question was no trivial matter at all, and that +to it can be traced many important events in Central +Asia. England may also recognize in it one of the most +useful circumstances that have ever operated in her +favour in her long rivalry with Russia. At the very +crisis of our border history, when we are on the eve of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> +dealing out well merited chastisement to an Ameer of +Cabul, Russia finds herself weakened by being compelled +to discuss a question with China, when her attention is +required elsewhere. She will not yield what the Chinese +demand, yet she dare not refuse; and the latter will +simply bide their time until she is hampered elsewhere. +It is no rash prophecy to say that China will be reinstalled, +either by peaceful means or by force, in Kuldja +before the close of next year, probably long before. An +alliance between any two of the three great Asiatic +Powers must then be conclusive in all Central Asian +matters, and, before that alliance, the third will have the +prudence to submit. It behoves us to learn our lesson, +when that day comes, thoroughly and in good time.</p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span></p> +<h2><a id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX.</h2> +<hr /> + +<h3><span>THE POSITION OF LOB-NOR.</span></h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lake Lob-Nor</span> is placed in the map accompanying this +volume in accordance with the explorations of Colonel +Prjevalsky in 1876–77; the result of which was published +in Dr. Petermann's <i>Mittheilungen</i> as an extra number +during the spring of the present year. The accuracy of +the gallant explorer in identifying Lob-Nor with his +lake of Kara Koshun had not been challenged when +this map was drawn, and when the following good +reasons for doubting its accuracy were published on +the 14th of September, it was too late to make the +necessary alteration.</p> + +<p>The quotation of Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen's +strictures on Colonel Prjevalsky's lakes is taken from +the <i>Athenæum</i> of the 14th of September, 1878:—</p> + +<p>"It would appear that the Russian traveller Prejevalsky, +in his last remarkable journey in the heart of +Central Asia, did not explore Lob-Nor at all, as he +claims to have done. Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen, +one of the first comparative geographers of the day, has +examined the account of the journey, more especially +by the light of Chinese literature, and proves, almost +incontestably to our thinking, that the true Lob-Nor +must lie somewhere north-east of the so-called Kara +Kotchun Lake discovered by Prejevalsky, and that, in +all probability, it is fed by an eastern arm of the Tarim +river. This, at all events, would account for the remarkable +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> +diminution in bulk undergone by the waters +of that stream as they proceed southward, which could +not but strike an attentive reader of the Russian explorer's +narrative. We have not space to reproduce all +the arguments which Von Richthofen adduces, but the +more important are these:—Prejevalsky's lake was +fresh, whereas Lob-Nor has been called <i>The</i> Salt Lake, +<i>par excellence</i>, in all ages; Shaw, Forsyth, and other +authorities, report that the name Lob-Nor was known +in those regions, whereas Prejevalsky found no such +name applied to his lake; the Chinese maps, of the +accuracy of which Von Richthofen has had repeated +proofs, represent Lob-Nor as lying more to the north-east, +and call two lakes lying nearly in the position of +those discovered by Prejevalsky, Khasomo, Khas being +the Mongolian for jade, a famous product of Khotan of +which mediæval traders from China went in quest, passing +by these very lakes <i>en route</i>. Another important +argument is, as we have mentioned, based on the bulk +of water discharged by the Tarim at its mouth. Von +Richthofen's theory presupposes that the Tarim River +has altered its course, and that the main rush of water +is now south-east instead of due east as formerly. The +whole question is well worthy of further investigation, +and it is possible that Prejevalsky, whom a recent +telegram from St. Petersburg reports about to return +to Central Asia, may be enabled to elucidate it. He +will return to Zaissan, the Russian frontier post, and +thence endeavour to make his way into Tibet by way +of Barkul and Hami.</p> + +<p>"It is, however, certain that he will encounter great, +if not insuperable, obstruction, for we learn from private +advices from India, that the ill-advised publication in +the Chefoo Convention of the then proposed mission to +Tibet has resulted in the issue of the most stringent +orders to the Tibetan officials at all the various routes +and passes to allow no European traveller to enter into +the country on any pretext whatever." +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p> + +<p>Having stated the view of Baron Ferdinand von +Richthofen, which is endorsed by the high authority of +the <i>Athenæeum</i>, and which bears, moreover, conviction +upon its face, it is but fair to give the vital portion of +Colonel Prjevalsky's own description. The <i>Geographical +Magazine</i>, for May, 1878 Contains <i>in extenso</i> the report, +and the sentences here quoted are from that translation.</p> + +<p>"At a distance of fifteen versts from the smaller +lake, Kara Buran, the party diverged southward to the +village of Charchalyk, built about thirty years ago by +outlaws from Khotan, of which there are at present 114 +engaged in tilling fields for the state.... Where +Charchalyk now stands, and also at the distance of two +days' journey from it, are the ruins of two towns, called +Ottogush-Shari (from Ottogush, a former ruler) and +Gas-Shari respectively. Close to Lob-Nor (Kara +Koshun) are the ruins of a third and pretty extensive +town called Kune-Shari. From inquires, Prejevalsky +ascertained that about 1861 or 1862 a colony of Russians +numbering about 160 or 170 people, including +women and children, with their pack-horses and armed +with flint-lock muskets, settled on the Lower Tarim +and at Charchalyk, but that they made no long stay, and +soon returned to Urumchi, via Turfan.... Turning +to the Lob-Nor Lake (Kara Koshun), which the travellers +reached in the early days of February, it should be +observed that the Tarim discharges itself first into a +smaller lake (from thirty to thirty-five versts in length, +and between ten and twelve versts in breadth) called +Kara Buran (<i>i.e.</i> black storms) into which the Cherchendaria +flows as well. A great part of the Kara Buran, +as of Lob-Nor, is overgrow with reeds, the +river flowing in its bed in the centre. The name Lob-Nor +is applied by the natives to the whole lower course +of the Tarim, the larger lake being called Chok-kul or +Kara Koshun. This lake, or rather morass, is in the +shape of an irregular ellipse running south-west and +north-east. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span></p> + +<p>"Its major axis is about 90 or 100 versts in length, +its minor axis not more than twenty versts. This information +is derived from the natives, as Prejevalsky +himself explored only the southern and western end, +and proceeded by boat down the river for about half +the length of the lake, further progress being rendered +impossible by the increasing shallowness of the water +and the masses of reeds in every direction. The water +itself is clear and sweet, though there are salt marshes +all round the lake, and beyond them a strip of ground +parallel with the present borders of the lake and +overgrown with tamarisks. It is probable that this +strip was formerly the periphery of the lake, and this +conclusion is corroborated by the natives, who say +that thirty years ago the lake was deeper."</p> + +<p>It is clear that the true position of Lob-Nor has yet +to be defined by modern exploration, but we may safely +assume with the <i>Athenæum</i> that Colonel Prjevalsky's +Kara Koshun is <i>not</i> Lob-Nor. The accompanying map +then, in this particular, is unfortunately erroneous.</p> + +<p>There is every reason for believing that Lob-Nor will +be found in the position assigned to it on the Chinese +chart, the <ins class="corr" title="original had: accurracy">accuracy</ins> of which has been so strikingly +proved by the correct position given to the two lakes +Khas-omo, which are identical with the Kara Koshun +and Kara Bunar of Prjevalsky.</p> + +<p>It would be most interesting to obtain a diary or +other account of those Russian settlers mentioned by +Prjevalsky, who entered the <i>terra incognita</i> of Central +Asia during the halcyon days after the signature of the +Treaty of Kuldja, and just before the outbreak of the +Tungan revolt. It is possible that they may have +solved during their return journey to Urumtsi the +enigma of Lob-Nor without knowing what they had +achieved. The reader will, therefore, have the kindness +to bear in mind that Lob-Nor is really (probably about +three-quarters of a degree) north-east of where it is +placed on the map, and that the lake represented there +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> +is only the Kara Koshun, or Chok Kul of Colonel +Prjevalsky.</p> + +<p>The most recent information is, that Colonel +Prjevalsky adheres to his view as to the position of +Lob-Nor, and is preparing a reply which will be published +in a few weeks from this date (October 1st).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span></p> +<h3><span>TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA.</span> + +<span class="chapsub2">Treaty of Commerce concluded between Russia +and China, at Kuldja, on the 25th Day of +July, 1851, and ratified on the 13th Day of +November, 1851.</span></h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">The</span> plenipotentiary of His Majesty the Emperor of +All the Russias, and the plenipotentiaries of His +Majesty the Bogdokhan of Tatsing, hereby declare; the +Governor General of Ili, and its dependent provinces, +as well as his deputy, have, after consulting together, +concluded in the city of Ili (Kuldja), in favour of the +subjects of both empires, a Treaty of Commerce, which +establishes a traffic in the cities of Ili (Kuldja), and of +Tarbagatai (Chuguchak). This treaty is composed of +the following articles:—</p> + +<h4>Article I.</h4> + +<p>The present Treaty of Commerce, concluded in the +interests of both powers, by demonstrating their mutual +solicitude for the maintenance of peace between, as well +as for the well-being of, their respective subjects, ought +to draw still closer together those links of friendship +which at the present moment unite the two Powers. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span></p> + +<h4>Article II.</h4> + +<p>The merchants of the two Empires will regulate +between themselves the interchange of commerce, and +arrange the various charges at their own will, and without +any extraneous pressure. On the part of Russia a +consul will be appointed to superintend the affairs of +all Russian subjects; and on the part of China, a +functionary of the superior administration of Ili. In +the event of any collision between the subjects of either +Power, each of these agents will decide, in accordance +with justice, the affairs of his own countrymen.</p> + +<h4>Article III.</h4> + +<p>This commerce being opened in consideration of the +mutual friendship of the two Powers, it will not be in +contravention of existing rights on either side.</p> + +<h4>Article IV.</h4> + +<p>Russian merchants going either to Ili (Kuldja) or to +Tarbagatai (Chuguchak) will be accompanied by a +syndic (caravanbashi). When a caravan going to Ili +(Kuldja) shall arrive at the Chinese picket of Borokhondjir, +and when that destined for Tarbagatai +(Chuguchak) shall reach the first Chinese picket, the +syndic shall present to the officer of the guard the +certificate of his government. The said officer, after +having noted the number of men, of beasts, and of loads +of merchandise, shall permit the caravan to pass, and shall +furthermore cause it to be escorted from picket to picket +by an officer and soldiers. During the march, all disturbance, +or cause for such, shall be interdicted to soldiers +and merchants alike. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p> + +<h4>Article V.</h4> + +<p>In order to facilitate the task of officers and soldiers, +Russian merchants shall be obliged, in virtue of the +present treaty, to follow the route chosen by their body +guard, both going and returning.</p> + +<h4>Article VI.</h4> + +<p>If, whilst Russian caravans follow their route outside +the limit of the guard of Chinese soldiers, bands of +brigands from the outer clans (Kirghiz) shall commit +acts of pillage, of assault, or other crimes, the Chinese +government shall not be required to interfere in the +matter. When the caravan shall have arrived on +Chinese territory, similarly also during its residence in +the factories where merchandise is stored, Russian merchants +must themselves guard and defend their property. +They will be expected still more carefully to look after +their animals when out at pasturage. If, despite all +precaution, something should happen to go astray, notice +of such loss must be promptly given to the Chinese +official; who conjointly with the Russian consul shall +trace out with all possible diligence the lost article. If +traces of it are discovered, and those in a village held +by Chinese subjects, and the thief be captured, the +punishment shall be prompt and severe. If the thing +lost be recovered, or any portion of it, it shall be restored +to the person to whom it belonged.</p> + +<h4>Article VII.</h4> + +<p>In the event of disputes, litigations, or other trivial +incidents, between the respective subjects, the Russian +consul and the Chinese official, of whom mention has +previously been made, shall use all their efforts to settle +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> +the affair satisfactorily. But if, despite every effort to +avoid such, a criminal case or one of general importance +should arise, it shall be decided conformably with the +regulations actually in force on the Kiachta frontier.</p> + +<h4>Article VIII.</h4> + +<p>Russian merchants shall arrive each year with their +merchandise between the 25th day of March and the +10th day of December (of our style, or according to the +Chinese calendar between the day Tchin-ming and the +day Tong-tchi); after the latter of these dates, the +arrival of caravans shall cease. If the merchandise +imported during that period (8½ months) should not be +sold, it shall be permissible to the merchants to remain +a longer space in China, in order to complete their sale; +after which the consul shall take charge of their departure. +It is moreover understood that Russian merchants +shall not obtain an escort of officers and soldiers, +neither for going nor for returning, if they have not at +the least twenty camels laden with merchandise. If +a merchant or the Russian consul has need for some +special matter to send an express message, every facility +shall be accorded him for doing so. But in order that +the service of officers and soldiers should not become +too onerous, there shall only be twice in the same month +these extraordinary expeditions outside the line of the +advanced guards.</p> + +<h4>Article IX.</h4> + +<p>Russian and Chinese merchants can see each other +without restriction about matters of business; but +Russian subjects, finding themselves in the factory under +the care of the Russian consul, may not walk about in +the suburbs and the streets, unless provided with a +"permit" from the consul; without such permit, they +must not go out of their enclosure. Whoever shall +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> +go out without permission shall be led back to the +consul, who will proceed against him according to law.</p> + +<h4>Article X.</h4> + +<p>If a criminal belonging to either of the two Empires +should flee to the other, he shall not be afforded +sanctuary; but, on the part of each Power, the local +authorities shall take the most severe measures, and make +the most searching enquiries to arrest him. There +shall be reciprocal extradition of fugitives of this class.</p> + +<h4>Article XI.</h4> + +<p>As it is to be foreseen that the Russian merchants, +who shall come to China on commercial matters, will +have with them carriages and beasts of burden, there +shall be assigned for their use, near the city of Ili, +certain places on the banks of the river Ili, and also near +the city of Tarbagatai other places where there is both +water and pasturage. In these encampments the +Russian merchants shall confide their animals to the +charge of their own people, who shall take care that +neither cultivated lands nor cemeteries shall be in any +case injured or desecrated. Those who may contravene +this enactment shall be brought before the consul to +be punished.</p> + +<h4>Article XII.</h4> + +<p>In the exchange of articles of merchandise between +the merchants of the two Empires, nothing shall be left +on credit on either side. If, notwithstanding this clause, +some one should purchase his merchandise on credit, +the Russian and Chinese officials shall on no account +interfere, and shall admit of no complaint, even if cause +for such might exist. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p> + +<h4> Article XIII.</h4> + +<p>As Russian merchants arriving in China for commercial +reasons should necessarily have special places for +their warehouses, the Chinese government shall assign +them, in the two commercial cities of Ili and Tarbagatai, +plots of land near the bazaar, so that the Russian subjects +may be able to construct there, at their own expense, +dwelling-houses and factories for their wares.</p> + +<h4>Article XIV.</h4> + +<p>The Chinese government shall not interpose obstacles +in any case where Russian subjects celebrate, within their +own buildings, divine service according to the rite of +their religion. In case a Russian subject in China +should happen to die either at Ili or at Tarbagatai, the +Chinese government shall set apart an empty space outside +the walls of those cities, to serve as a cemetery.</p> + +<h4>Article XV.</h4> + +<p>If Russian merchants should take to Ili or Tarbagatai +sheep for the purpose of exchanging them, the +local authorities shall take, on account of the government, +two sheep out of every ten, and shall give in +exchange for each sheep a piece of linen cloth (<i>da-ba</i>, of +the legal measure); the remainder of the animals and +every other kind of merchandise shall be exchanged +between the merchants of the two Empires at a price +mutually agreed upon, and the Chinese government +shall not intermeddle in any manner whatsoever.</p> + +<h4>Article XVI.</h4> + +<p>The ordinary official correspondence between the two +Empires shall be made, on the part of the Russian +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> +government, through the medium of the superior administration +of Western Siberia, and under the seal of that +administration; and on the part of the Chinese government +through the medium, and under the seal, of the +superior administration of Ili.</p> + +<h4>Article XVII.</h4> + +<p>The present Treaty shall be authenticated by the +signatures and seals of the respective plenipotentiaries. +On the part of Russia there will be prepared four copies +in the Russian language, signed by the plenipotentiary +of Russia; on the part of China, four copies in the +Mantchoo language, signed by the Chinese plenipotentiary +and his adjunct. The respective plenipotentiaries +will each keep a copy in the Russian language, and a +copy in the Mantchoo, for the purpose of putting the +treaty into execution, and to serve for constant reference. +A Russian copy and a Mantchoo copy shall be sent to +the directing Senate of Russia; and a copy in each +language to the Chinese Tribunal for Foreign Affairs, to +be there sealed and preserved after the ratification of the +Treaty.</p> + +<p>All the above articles of the present Treaty concluded +by the respective plenipotentiaries of Russia and China +are hereby signed and sealed. The twenty-fifth day of +July, in the year 1851, in the 26th year of the reign of +His Imperial Majesty the Emperor and Autocrat of All +the Russias.</p> + +<p><span class="ml2">(Signed) Colonel in the corps of Engineers.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap ml12">Kovalevski.</span><br /> +<span class="ml13">I Chan,</span><br /> +<span class="ml14">Bovyantai.</span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p> +<h3><span>TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND CASHMERE.</span> + +<span class="chapsub2">Treaty between the British Government and His +Highness Maharaja Runbeer Singh, G.C.S.I., +Maharaja of Jummoo and Cashmere, His Heirs +and Successors, executed on the one part by +Thomas Douglas Forsyth, C.B., in virtue of the +full powers vested in him by His Excellency +the Right Honourable Richard Southwell +Bourke, Earl of Mayo, Viscount Mayo of +Monycrower, Baron Naas of Naas, K.P., +G.M.S.I., P.C., &c., &c., &c., Viceroy and +Governor-General of India, and on the other +part by His Highness Maharaja Runbeer +Singh aforesaid, in person.</span></h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Whereas</span> in the interest of the high contracting parties +and their respective subjects it is deemed desirable to +afford greater facilities than at present exist for the +development and security of trade with Eastern Turkestan, +the following Articles have with this object been +agreed upon:—</p> + +<h4>Article I.</h4> + +<p>With the consent of the Maharaja, officers of the +British Government will be appointed to survey the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> +trade routes through the Maharaja's territories from +the British frontier of Lahoul to the territories of the +Ruler of Yarkand, including the route <i>viâ</i> the Chang +Chemoo Valley. The Maharaja will depute an officer +of his Government to accompany the surveyors, and +will render them all the assistance in his power. A +map of the routes surveyed will be made, an attested +copy of which will be given to the Maharaja.</p> + +<h4>Article II.</h4> + +<p>Whichever route towards the Chang Chemoo Valley +shall, after examination and survey as above, be declared +by the British Government to be the best suited for the +development of trade with Eastern Turkestan shall be +declared by the Maharaja to be a free highway in perpetuity, +and at all times for all travellers and traders.</p> + +<h4>Article III.</h4> + +<p>For the supervision and maintenance of the road in +its entire length through the Maharaja's territories, the +regulation of traffic on the free highway described in +Article II., the enforcement of regulations that may be +hereafter agreed upon, and the settlement of disputes +between carriers, traders, travellers, or others using that +road, in which either of the parties or both of them are +subjects of the British Government or of any foreign +State, two Commissioners shall be annually appointed, +one by the British Government, and the other by the +Maharaja. In the discharge of their duties, and as regards +the period of their residence, the Commissioners +shall be guided by such rules as are now separately +framed, and may, from time to time, hereafter be laid +down by the joint authority of the British Government +and the Maharaja. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p> + +<h4>Article IV.</h4> + +<p>The jurisdiction of the Commissioners shall be defined +by a line on each side of the road, at a maximum width +of two statute <i>koss</i>, except where it may be deemed by +the Commissioners necessary to include a wider extent +for grazing grounds. Within this maximum width the +surveyors appointed under Article I. shall demarcate +and map the limits of jurisdiction which may be decided +on by the Commissioners as most suitable, including +grazing grounds; and the jurisdiction of the Commissioners +shall not extend beyond the limits so demarcated. +The land included within these limits shall +remain in the Maharaja's independent possession, and, +subject to the stipulations contained in this Treaty, the +Maharaja shall continue to possess the same rights of +full sovereignty therein as in any other part of his territories, +which rights shall not be interfered with in any +way by the Joint Commissioners.</p> + +<h4>Article V.</h4> + +<p>The Maharaja agrees to give all possible assistance +in enforcing the decisions of the Commissioners, and in +preventing the breach or evasion of the regulations +established under Article III.</p> + +<h4>Article VI.</h4> + +<p>The Maharaja agrees that any person, whether a subject +of the British Government, or of the Maharaja, or +of the Ruler of Yarkand, or of any foreign State, may +settle at any place within the jurisdiction of the Commissioners, +and may provide, keep, maintain, and let for +hire at different stages the means of carriage and transport +for the purposes of trade. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p> + +<h4>Article VII.</h4> + +<p>The two Commissioners shall be empowered to establish +supply depôts, and to authorize other persons to +establish supply depôts, at such places on the road as +may appear to them suitable; to fix the rates at which +provisions shall be sold to traders, carriers, settlers, and +others, and to fix the rent to be charged for the use of +any rest-houses or serais that may be established on the +road. The officers of the British Government in Kullu, +&c., and the officers of the Maharaja in Ladakh shall be +instructed to use their best endeavours to supply provisions +on the indent of the Commissioners at market +rates.</p> + +<h4>Article VIII.</h4> + +<p>The Maharaja agrees to levy no transit duty whatever +on the aforesaid free highway, and the Maharaja +further agrees to abolish all transit duties levied within +his territories on goods transmitted in bond through +His Highness's territories from Eastern Turkestan to +India and <i>vice versá</i>, on which bulk may not be broken +within the territories of His Highness. On goods imported +into or exported from His Highness's territory, +whether by the aforesaid free highway or any other +route, the Maharaja may levy such import or export +duties as he may think fit.</p> + +<h4>Article IX.</h4> + +<p>The British Government agree to levy no duty on +goods transmitted in bond through British India to +Eastern Turkestan or to the territories of His Highness +the Maharaja. The British Government further agree +to abolish the export duties now levied on shawls and +other textile fabrics manufactured in the territories of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> +the Maharaja, and exported to countries beyond the +limits of British India.</p> + +<h4>Article X.</h4> + +<p>This Treaty, consisting of ten Articles, has this day +been concluded by Thomas Douglas Forsyth, C.B., in +virtue of the full powers vested in him by His Excellency +the Right Honourable Richard Southwell Bourke, +Earl of Mayo, Viscount Mayo, of Monycrower, Baron +Naas of Naas, K.P., G.M.S.I., P.C., &c., &c., Viceroy +and Governor-General of India, on the part of the +British Government, and by the Maharaja Runbeer +Singh aforesaid; and it is agreed that a copy of this +Treaty, duly ratified by His Excellency the Viceroy +and Governor-General of India, shall be delivered to +the Maharaja on or before the 7th of September, 1870. +Signed, sealed, and exchanged at Sealkote on the second +day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight +hundred and seventy, corresponding with the 22nd day +of Bysack Sumbut, 1927.</p> + +<p><span class="ml2">Signature of the Maharaja of + Cashmere.</span><br /></p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="signatories"> +<tr><td align="left">(Signed)</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap ml2">T. D. Forsyth</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align="left"><span class="smcap ml2">Mayo</span>.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>This Treaty was ratified by His Excellency the +Viceroy and Governor-General of India at Sealkote on +the 2nd day of May, 1870.</p> + +<div class="center"><table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="signatory"> +<tr><td align="left">(Signed)</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap ml2">C. U. Aitchison</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">Officiating Secretary to the Government</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">of India, Foreign Department.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span></p> +<h3><span>TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND KASHGAR.</span> + +<span class="chapsub2">The following Conditions of Free Trade were +proposed and agreed upon between General +Aide-de-Camp Von Kaufmann and Yakoob Beg, +Chief of Djety-Shahr.</span></h3> + +<h4>Article I.</h4> + +<p><span class="smcap">All</span> Russian subjects, of whatsoever religion, shall have +the right to proceed for purposes of trade to Djety-Shahr, +and to all the localities and towns subjected to the Chief +of Djety-Shahr, which they may desire to visit in the +same way as the inhabitants of Djety-Shahr have hitherto +been, and shall be in the future, entitled to prosecute +trade throughout the entire extent of the Russian Empire. +The honourable chief of Djety-Shahr undertakes to keep +a vigilant guard over the complete safety of Russian +subjects, within the limits of his territorial possessions, +and also over that of their caravans, and in general over +everything that may belong to them.</p> + +<h4>Article II.</h4> + +<p>Russian merchants shall be entitled to have caravanserais, +in which they alone shall be able to store their +merchandise, in all the towns of Djety-Shahr in which +they may desire to have them. The merchants of Djety-Shahr +shall enjoy the same privilege in the Russian +villages. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p> + +<h4>Article III.</h4> + +<p>Russian merchants shall, if they desire it, have the right +to have commercial agents (caravanbashis) in all the +towns of Djety-Shahr, whose business it is to watch over +the regular courts of trade, and over the legal imposition +of customs dues. The merchants of Djety-Shahr shall +enjoy the same privilege in the towns of Turkestan.</p> + +<h4>Article IV.</h4> + +<p>All merchandise transported from Russia to Djety-Shahr, +or from that province into Russia, shall be liable +to a tax of 2½ per cent. <i>ad valorem</i>. In every case this +tax shall not exceed the rate of the tax taken from +Mussulmans being subject to Djety-Shahr.</p> + +<h4>Article V.</h4> + +<p>Russian merchants and their caravans shall be at +liberty, with all freedom and security, to traverse the +territories of Djety-Shahr in proceeding to countries +conterminous with that province. Caravans from Djety-Shahr +shall enjoy the same advantages for passing +through territories belonging to Russia.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>These conditions were sent from Tashkent on the +9th of April, 1872.</p> + +<p>General Von Kaufmann I., Governor-General of +Turkestan, signed the treaty and attached his seal to it.</p> + +<p>In proof of his assent to these conditions, Mahomed +Yakoob, Chief of Djety-Shahr, attached his seal to them +at Yangy-Shahr, on the 8th of June, 1872.</p> + +<hr class="tb" /> + +<p>This treaty was negotiated by Baron Kaulbars.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span></p> +<h3><span>TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND KASHGAR.</span> + +<span class="chapsub2">Treaty between the British Government and His +Highness the Ameer Mahomed Yakoob Khan, +Ruler of the Territory of Kashgar and Yarkand, +his heirs and successors, executed on the +one part by Thomas Douglas Forsyth, C.B., in +virtue of full powers conferred on him in that +behalf by <ins class="corr" title= + "original had: his">His</ins> Excellency the Right Hon. +Thomas George Baring, Baron Northbrook of +Stratton, and a Baronet, Member of the Privy +Council of Her Most Gracious Majesty the +Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, Grand +Master of the Most Exalted Order of the +Star of India, Viceroy and Governor-General +of India, in Council, and on the other part +by Syud Mahomed Khan Toorah, Member of +the 1st class of the Order of Medjidie, &c., +in virtue of full powers conferred on him by +His Highness.</span></h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Whereas</span> it is deemed desirable to confirm and strengthen +the good understanding which now subsists between the +high contracting parties, and to promote commercial +intercourse between their respective subjects, the following +Articles have been agreed upon: +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>—</p> + +<h4>Article I.</h4> + +<p>The high contracting parties engage that the subjects +of each shall be at liberty to enter, reside in, trade with, +and pass with their merchandise and property into and +through all parts of the dominions of the other; and +shall enjoy in such dominions all the privileges and +advantages with respect to commerce, protection or +otherwise, which are, or may be, accorded to the subjects +of such dominions, or to the subjects or citizens of the +most favoured nation.</p> + +<h4>Article II.</h4> + +<p>Merchants of whatever nationality shall be at liberty +to pass from the territories of the one contracting party +to the territories of the other, with their merchandise +and property at all times, and by any route they please; +no restriction shall be placed by either contracting party +upon such freedom of transit, unless for urgent political +reasons to be previously communicated to the other; +and such restriction shall be withdrawn as soon as the +necessity for it is over.</p> + +<h4>Article III.</h4> + +<p>European British subjects entering the dominions of +His Highness the Ameer, for purposes of trade, or +otherwise, must be provided with passports certifying +to their nationality. Unless provided with such passports +they shall not be deemed entitled to the benefit of +this treaty.</p> + +<h4>Article IV.</h4> + +<p>On goods imported into British India from territories of +His Highness the Ameer, by any route over the Himalayan +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> +passes, which lie to the south of His Highness's +dominions, the British Government engages to levy no +import duties. On goods imported from India into the +territories of His Highness the Ameer, no import duty +exceeding 2½ per cent., <i>ad valorem</i>, shall be levied. Goods +imported, as above, into the dominions of the contracting +parties may, subject only to such excise regulations and +duties, and to such municipal or town regulations and +duties, as may be applicable to such classes of goods +generally, be freely sold by wholesale or retail, and +transported from one place to another within British +India, and within the dominions of His Highness the +Ameer respectively.</p> + +<h4>Article V.</h4> + +<p>Merchandise imported from India into the territories +of His Highness the Ameer will not be opened for +examination, till arrival at the place of consignment. +If any disputes should arise as to the value of such +goods, the customs officer, or other officer acting on the +part of His Highness the Ameer, shall be entitled to +demand part of the goods, at the rate of one in forty, +in lieu of the payment of duty. If the aforesaid officer +should object to levy the duty by taking a portion of +the goods, or if the goods should not admit of being so +divided, then the point in dispute shall be referred to +two competent persons, one chosen by the aforesaid +officer, and the other by the importer, and a valuation +of the goods shall be made, and if the referees shall +differ in opinion, they shall appoint an arbitrator whose +decision shall be final, and the duty shall be levied +according to the value thus established.</p> + +<h4>Article VI.</h4> + +<p>The British Government shall be at liberty to appoint +a Representative at the Court of His Highness the +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> +Ameer, and to appoint a Commercial Agent, subordinate +to him in any town or place considered suitable within +His Highness's territories. His Highness the Ameer +shall be at liberty to appoint a Representative with the +Viceroy and Governor-General of India, and to station +Commercial Agents at any places in British India considered +suitable. Such Representatives shall be entitled +to the rank and privileges accorded to ambassadors by +the law of nations, and the Agents shall be entitled to +the privileges of Consuls of the most favoured nation.</p> + +<h4>Article VII.</h4> + +<p>British subjects shall be at liberty to purchase, sell, +or hire land, or houses, or depôts for merchandise, in +the dominions of His Highness the Ameer, and the +houses, depôts, or other premises of British subjects, +shall not be forcibly entered or searched without the +consent of the occupier, unless with the cognizance of +the British Representative or Agent, and in presence of +a person deputed by him.</p> + +<h4>Article VIII.</h4> + +<p>The following arrangements are agreed to for the +decision of Civil Suits and Criminal Cases within the +territories of His Highness the Ameer, in which British +subjects are concerned:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a.</i>) Civil suits in which both plaintiff and defendant +are British subjects, and Criminal Cases +in which both prosecutor and accused are +British subjects, or in which the accused is a +European British subject, mentioned in the +Third Article of this Treaty, shall be tried by +the British Representative or one of his Agents, +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> +in the presence of an Agent appointed by +His Highness the Ameer;</p> + +<p>(<i>b.</i>) Civil suits in which one party is a subject of +His Highness the Ameer, and the other party +a British subject, shall be tried by the Courts +of His Highness, in the presence of the +British Representative or one of his Agents, +or of a person appointed in that behalf by +such Representative or Agent;</p> + +<p>(<i>c.</i>) Criminal cases in which either prosecutor or +accused is a subject of His Highness the +Ameer shall, except as above otherwise provided, +be tried by the Courts of His Highness +in presence of the British Representative, or +of one of his Agents, or of a person deputed +by the British Representative, or by one of +his Agents;</p> + +<p>(<i>d.</i>) Except as above otherwise provided, Civil and +Criminal Cases in which one party is a British +subject, and the other the subject of a foreign +power, shall, if either of the parties be a +Mahomedan, be tried in the Courts of His +Highness; if neither party is a Mahomedan, +the case may, with consent of the parties, +be tried by the British Representative or one +of his Agents; in the absence of such consent, +by the Courts of His Highness;</p> + +<p>(<i>e.</i>) In any case disposed of by the Courts of His +Highness the Ameer to which a British subject +is party, it shall be competent to the +British Representative, if he considers that +justice has not been done, to represent the +matter to His Highness the Ameer, who may +cause the case to be re-tried in some other +Court, in the presence of the British Representative, +or of one of his Agents, or of a +person appointed in that behalf by such +Representative or Agent.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span></p> + +<h4>Article IX.</h4> + +<p>The rights and privileges enjoyed within the dominions +of His Highness the Ameer by British subjects +under the Treaty, shall extend to the subjects of all +Princes and States in India in alliance with Her +Majesty the Queen; and if, with respect to any such +Prince or State, any other provisions relating to this +Treaty or to other matters should be considered desirable, +they shall be negotiated through the British +Government.</p> + +<h4>Article X.</h4> + +<p>Every affidavit and other legal document filed or +deposited in any Court established in the respective +dominions of the high contracting parties, or in the +Court of the Joint Commissioners in Ladakh, may be +proved by an authenticated copy, purporting either to +be sealed with the seal of the Court to which the +original document belongs, or, in the event of such +Court having no seal, to be signed by the Judge, or by +one of the Judges of the said Court.</p> + +<h4>Article XI.</h4> + +<p>When a British subject dies in the territory of His +Highness the Ameer his movable and immovable property +situate therein shall be vested in his heir, +executor, administrator, or other representative on +interest or (in the absence of such representative) in +the Representative of the British Government in the +aforesaid territory. The person in whom such charge +shall be so vested shall satisfy the claims outstanding +against the deceased, and shall hold the surplus (if any) +for distribution among those interested. The above +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> +provisions, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>, shall apply to the subjects +of His Highness the Ameer, who may die in British +India.</p> + +<h4>Article XII.</h4> + +<p>If a British subject residing in the territories of His +Highness the Ameer becomes unable to pay his debts +or fails to pay any debt within a reasonable time after +being ordered to do so by any Court of Justice, the +creditors of such insolvent shall be paid out of his +goods and effects; but the British Representative +shall not refuse his good offices, if needs be, to ascertain +if the insolvent has not left in India disposable +property which might serve to satisfy the said creditors. +The friendly stipulations in the present Article shall be +reciprocally observed with regard to His Highness's +subjects who trade in India under the protection of the +laws.</p> + +<p>This treaty having this day been executed in duplicate +and confirmed by His Highness the Ameer, one +copy shall, for the present, be left in the possession of +His Highness, and the other, after confirmation by the +Viceroy and Governor-General of India, shall be delivered +to His Highness within twelve months in exchange +for the copy now retained by His Highness.</p> + +<p>Signed and sealed at Kashgar on the second day of +February, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight +hundred and seventy-four, corresponding with the fifteenth +day of Zilhijj, one thousand two hundred and +ninety Hijree.</p> + +<div><table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="signatory"> +<tr><td align="left">(Signed)</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap ml2">T. Douglas Forsyth</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"><span class="ml4">Envoy and Plenipotentiary.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Whereas a Treaty for strengthening the good understanding +that now exists between the British Government +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> +and the Ruler of the territory of Kashgar and +Yarkand, and for promoting commercial intercourse +between the two countries, was agreed to and concluded +at Kashgar, on the second day of February, in the year +of our Lord eighteen hundred and seventy-four, corresponding +with the fifteenth day of Zilhijj, twelve +hundred and ninety Hijree, by the respective Plenipotentiaries +of the Government of India and of His +Highness the Ameer of Kashgar and Yarkand, duly +accredited and empowered for that purpose: I, the +Right Hon. Thomas George Baring, Baron Northbrook +of Stratton, &c., &c., Viceroy and Governor-General +of India, do hereby ratify and confirm the +Treaty aforesaid.</p> + +<p>Given under my hand and seal at Government +House, in Calcutta, this thirteenth day of April, in +the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and +seventy-four.</p> + +<div class="center"><table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="signatory"> +<tr><td align="left">(Signed)</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap ml2">Northbrook</span>.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="seal"> +<p class="center">Seal.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p> +<h3><span>RULES FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE JOINT +COMMISSIONERS APPOINTED FOR THE +NEW ROUTE TO EASTERN TURKESTAN.</span></h3> + +<p>1. As it is impossible, owing to the character of the +climate, to retain the Commissioners throughout the +year, the period during which they shall exercise their +authority shall be taken to commence on 15th May, +and to end on 1st December.</p> + +<p>2. During the absence of either Commissioner, cases +may be heard and decided by the other Commissioner, +subject to appeal to the Joint Commissioners.</p> + +<p>3. In the months when the Joint Commissioners are +absent, <i>i.e.</i> between 1st December and 15th May, all +cases which may arise shall be decided by the Wuzeer +of Ladakh, subject to appeal to the Joint Commissioners.</p> + +<p>4. The Joint Commissioners shall not interfere in +cases other than those which affect the development, +freedom, and safety of the trade, and the objects for +which the Treaty is concluded, and in which one of the +parties, or both, are either British subjects, or subjects +of a foreign state.</p> + +<p>5. In civil disputes the Commissioners shall have +power to dispose of all cases, whatever be the value of +the property in litigation.</p> + +<p>6. When the Commissioners agree, their decision +shall be final in all cases. When they are unable to +agree, the parties shall have the right of nominating a +single arbitrator, and shall bind themselves in writing +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> +to abide by his award. Should the parties not be able +to agree upon a single arbitrator, each party shall name +one, and the two Commissioners shall name a third, and +the decision of the majority of the arbitrators shall be +final.</p> + +<p>7. In criminal cases the powers of the Commissioners +shall be limited to offences such as in British territory +would be tried by a subordinate Magistrate of the First +Class, and as far as possible the procedure of the +Criminal Procedure Code shall be followed. Cases of +a more heinous kind should be made over to the +Maharaja for trial, if the accused be not a European +British subject; in the latter case he should be forwarded +to the nearest British Court of competent jurisdiction +for trial.</p> + +<p>8. All fines levied in criminal cases, and all stamp +receipts levied according to the rates in force for civil +suits in the Maharaja's dominions, shall be credited to +the Cashmere Treasury. Persons sentenced to imprisonment +shall, if British subjects, be sent to the nearest +British jail. If not British subjects, offenders shall be +made over for imprisonment in the Maharaja's jails.</p> + +<p>9. The practice of cow-killing is strictly prohibited +throughout the jurisdiction of the Maharaja.</p> + +<p>10. If any places come within the line of road from +which the towns of Leh, &c., are supplied with fuel or +wood for building purpose, the Joint Commissioners +shall so arrange with the Wuzeer of Ladakh that those +supplies are not interfered with.</p> + +<p>11. Whatever transactions take place within the +limits of the road shall be considered to refer to goods +in bond. If a trader opens his load, and disposes of a +portion, he shall not be subject to any duty so long as +the goods are not taken for consumption into the Maharaja's +territory across the line of road. And goods left +for any length of time in the line of road subject to the +jurisdiction of the Commissioners shall be free.</p> + +<p>12. Where a village lies within the jurisdiction of +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> +the Joint Commissioners, then, as regards the collection +of revenue, or in any case where there is necessity for +the interference of the usual Revenue authorities on +matters having no connection with the trade, the Joint +Commissioners have no power whatever to interfere; +but, to prevent misunderstanding, it is advisable that +the Revenue officials should first communicate with the +Joint Commissioners before proceeding to take action +against any person within their jurisdiction. The Joint +Commissioners can then exercise their discretion to +deliver up the person sought, or to make a summary +inquiry to ascertain whether their interference is necessary +or not.</p> + +<p>13. The Maharaja agrees to give rupees 5,000 this +year for the construction of the road and bridges, and +in future years His Highness agrees to give rupees +2,000 per annum for the maintenance of the road and +bridges. Similarly for the repairs of serais a sum of +rupees 100 per annum for each serai will be given. +Should further expenditure be necessary, the Joint +Commissioners will submit a special report to the Maharaja, +and ask for a special grant. This money will +be expended by the Joint Commissioners, who will +employ free labour at market rates for this purpose. +The officers in Ladakh and in British territory shall +be instructed to use their best endeavours to supply +labourers on the indent of the Commissioners at market +rates. No tolls shall be levied on the bridges on this +line of road.</p> + +<p>14. As a temporary arrangement, and until the line +of road has been demarcated, or till the end of this year, +the Joint Commissioners shall exercise the powers described +in these rules over the several roads taken by +the traders through Ladakh from Lahoul and Spiti.</p> + +<div class="center"><table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="signatory"> +<tr><td>(Signed)</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap ml2">Maharaja Runbeer Singh.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td>〃</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap ml2">T. D. Forsyth.</span></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span></p> + +<p>(These rules were agreed upon in 1872, between the +Indian Government and Cashmere, for the purpose of +promoting trade with Eastern Turkestan and Central +Asia, which had been sanctioned by the Treaty of Commerce +of 1870.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span></p> +<h3><span>A STORY FROM KASHGAR.</span></h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mirza Mulla Rahmat</span>, of Kashgar, who arrived at +Peshawur lately, on his way to Mecca, has told what he +knows about events in Kashgar. The following is his +story:—In the month of Jamadi-us-sani 1294 (June-July, +1877), that Mahomed Yakoob Khan, the Badshah +of Kashgar, collected a large army to fight the Chinese. +He died near the town of Balisan (? Bai), and his army +then recognized Hakim Khan Torah as his successor. +The mullahs in Kashgar in the meantime appointed +Beg Kuli Beg, Yakoob's eldest son, as their Badshah, +according to Yakoob's will. Hakim Khan and the +army which joined him then came to Aksu, where Beg +Kuli Beg also arrived, meaning to capture the place +and the person of the usurper. A battle was fought +between Kuli Beg and Hakim Khan on the 26th and +27th of Rajah (27th and 28th July, 1877), and Hakim +Khan was defeated. Many of the soldiers belonging +to Hakim Khan's force fell in the battle, and many +others were starved, and some were drowned crossing +a river. Hakim Khan then went into Russian territory +with 1,000 chosen soldiers. Beg Kuli Beg now seized +several towns and returned to Kashgar. In the meantime +Naiz Hakim Beg, the Governor of Khoten, rebelled, +and Kuli Beg met him in the field, and captured +Khoten. The Beg was scarcely a week at that place +when he heard that the Chinese had arrived at Aksu +and had taken it. An officer (Kho Dalay?) of the +Chinese army who had turned Mahomedan (but subsequently +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> +recanted) attacked Yangy Shahr, the capital, +and, capturing it, shut himself up there. The town was +then besieged by the Governor of Kashgar, and the +siege continued for fifty days. Then Kuli Beg came +up, and, forcing his entry into the town, took possession +of it, and destroyed the fort. But on the 10th of Zillhij +(16th of December) a strong Chinese force entered the +country, and rapidly reconquered the possessions of the +late Yakoob Khan. Beg Kuli Beg then fled with his +men to Tashkent, which he reached by Mingyol Osh and +Marghilan, and put himself under the protection of +the Russian Governor there. Mulla Yunus Jan, the +Governor of Yarkand, and his son and brother fell into +the hands of Hasan Jan Bai, Ikskal (? Aksakal).</p> + +<p>The above is taken from the columns of an Indian +journal, and is inserted here for the purpose of showing +that the converted Chinese, or Yangy Mussulmans, did +revolt from their allegiance to Yakoob Beg the instant +a Khitay force appeared in Altyshahr. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX OF SUBJECTS.</h2> + +<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">Aali, <i>see</i> <a href="#Hakim_Khan">Hakim Khan</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ababakar, 34–<a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Abderrahman Aftobatcha, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209-210</a><ins class="corr" title="Period replaced with comma">,</ins> <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Abderrahman Khoja (King of Yarkand), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Abdul Aziz, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Abdul Melik, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Abdullah"></a>Abdullah (Yusuf's son), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Abdullah Pansad, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114-116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Abdullah Zizad, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ablai (Kirghiz chief), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Acbash, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ægis of British protection, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Afak, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Afghan Ameer sends embassy to Pekin, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Afghanistan, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Afghan settlers, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Afridun Wang, <a href="#Page_98">98-99</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Agha Bula, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Ahmad"></a>Ahmad, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ak Musjid, siege of, <a href="#Page_79">79-81</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ak Robat, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aksai Plateau, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aksakal, <a href="#Page_57">57-58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aksakals (risings under), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aksu, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">coal at, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">siege of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aktaghluc, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44-46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_52">52-53</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alaja "the slayer," <a href="#Page_35">35</a>; <i>see</i> <a href="#Ahmad">Ahmad</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alim, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alim Kuli, <a href="#Page_83">83-85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Alish Beg, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Almatie, <i>see</i> <a href="#Vernoe">Vernoe</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Alty_Shahr"></a>Alty Shahr, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Amban"></a>Amban, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">of Yarkand, or Khan Amban, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ameer, or Emir, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ameers of Central Asia, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Amoor, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Amursana, <a href="#Page_45">45-48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Andijani, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Andijani Serai, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Appak Khoja, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arabdan Khan, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arabs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Arpa Tai, battle of, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Artosh, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Aryan family, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Athalik Ghazi, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Azmill Khoja, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Babur, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Badakshan, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Badakshi settlers, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Badaulet, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bahanuddin (son of Sarimsak), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bai, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Barhanuddin, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Baroghil, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Bartchuk"></a>Bartchuk, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>; <i>see</i> also <a href="#Maralbashi">Maralbashi</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bayen Hu, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bazandai, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bedal Pass, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Beg, <a href="#Page_220">220-221</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Beg Bacha, <i>see</i> <a href="#Kuli_Beg">Kuli Beg</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bellew, Dr., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Benefits conferred by China on Kashgar, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Berdan rifles, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Bhots, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Biddulph, Capt., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Birlas, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Birma, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Black Sea, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bokhara, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">Russian treaty with, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">sack of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bolor, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bostang Lake, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Buddhism, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Buddhists, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Bugur, fight at, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Burac, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Buzurg Khan, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">intrigues against Yakoob Beg, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">deposed by Yakoob Beg, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Cabul, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Calmucks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Calmuck settlements, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Canals, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Candahar, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Caravanbashi, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Carts used in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_227">227-228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cashmere, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Caspian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cay Yoli, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chaghtai Khan, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cha-hi-telkh, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Champion Father, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chang Lung, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chang Tay, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chang Yao, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chapman, Capt., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Charjui, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chightam, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">China, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinaz, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese and Khokand, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese army, character of, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese at Lhasa, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese Empire in Central Asia, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese, first reverse of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54-75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese merchants, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese moderation, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese north of Tian Shan, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese overthrow Tungani, <a href="#Page_236">236-237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese pay Khokand annual sum, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese principle in ruling Kashgar, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese reconquer Kashgar, <a href="#Page_258">258-276</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese revindicating army, strength of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese rule, benefits and disadvantages of, <a href="#Page_74">74-75</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese, strategical advantages of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chinese Turkestan, <i>see</i> Eastern Turkestan.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chitral, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Christians, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chuguchak, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Chuntche, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Coal mines, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Cochin China, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Comparison between rule of Chinese and Yakoob Beg, <a href="#Page_168">168-169</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255-257</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Corbashi, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Corps of artillerymen, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Crusade, propagandist, against Khitay, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Czar, the, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Dadkwah, <i>passim</i>, functions of, <a href="#Page_144">144-145</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Danyal, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Darius, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Darwas, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dastarkhwan, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dava Khan, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Davatsi"></a>Davatsi, <a href="#Page_45">45-46</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Delhi, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Destruction caused by Genghis Khan, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Devanchi, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Devan defile, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Difference between Eastern and Western Turkestan, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dihbid, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Disunion in Central Asia, <a href="#Page_120">120-121</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210-211</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">in China, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_259">259-263</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Djinghite, <i>see</i> <a href="#Jigit">Jigit</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dolans, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dungani, <i>see</i> <a href="#Tungani">Tungani</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dungans, <i>see</i> <a href="#Tungani">Tungani</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Durani, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Dylon Yulduc, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst"><a id="Eastern_Turkestan"></a>Eastern Turkestan, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38-42</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Edinburgh, Duke of, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Effects of Khoja risings on China's prestige, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Effects of past misrule in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Elchi Khana, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eleuthian, or Eleuth princes, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Emir, or Ameer, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">England's policy towards China, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<i>see</i> <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">chapter 14</a> also.</li> +<li class="isub1">towards Kashgar, <a href="#Page_212">212-235</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">trade with Kashgar, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">trans-Himalayan policy, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>; <i>see</i> <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">chapter 14</a> also.</li> + +<li class="indx">English mission guests of Yakoob Beg, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Eshan Khan, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Ferghana, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">First outbreak against China in Eastern Turkestan, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Forsyth, Sir T. D., <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218-219</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Forsyth's report, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">interview with Yakoob Beg, <a href="#Page_228">228-230</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">second mission to Kashgar, <a href="#Page_221">221-232</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Galdan, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"Garden of Asia," <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Genghis Khan, <a href="#Page_25">25-20</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">code of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ghizni, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gibbon, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Glacier, <i>see</i> <a href="#Muzart_Pass">Muzart Pass</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gobi, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Goes Benedict, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Goitre, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gordon, Col., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gorkhan, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Granville-Gortschakoff negotiations, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Great road from Kashgar to Hamil and Kansuh, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Great_Yuldus"></a>Great Yuldus, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gregorieff, Professor, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Grim Pass, <a href="#Page_223">223-224</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Guchen, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Gulbagh, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Guoharbrum, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Hacc Kuli Beg (Khokandian general), <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hacc Kuli Beg (Yakoob Beg's son), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252-253</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hadayatulla, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Hadji_Torah"></a>Hadji Torah, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169-171</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Haft Khojagan, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hai Yen, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hakim Beg, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Hakim_Khan"></a>Hakim Khan, <a href="#Page_250">250-253</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259-261</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hamil, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Han Hing Nung, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hastings, Warren, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hayward, Mr., <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hazrat Afak, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Heh Tsun, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Henderson, Dr., <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Her Majesty, autograph letter of, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"High Tartary," <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Himalaya, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Himalayan passes, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hindoo Koosh, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hodjent, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hordes, Kirghiz, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hoser, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Houchow, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Houtan, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Husen, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hwang Tsang, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Hydar Kuli, Hudaychi, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><ins class="corr" title="original had: Hyder">Hydar</ins>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Ihrar Khan Torah, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ilchi, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ili, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>; <i>see</i> <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">chapter 14</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ili, Viceroy of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Irjar, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Isa Dadkwah, <a href="#Page_65">65-66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Ishac_Wang"></a>Ishac Wang, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Islamism, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ismail Shah, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Issik Kul, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Jade, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163-164</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jallab, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jattah Ulus, or Jattahs, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Jehangir (Ababakar's son), <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jehangir (Sarimsak's son), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65-68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jehangir (Timour's son), <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Jigit"></a>Jigit, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Jungaria, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Kabil Shah, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kafiristan, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kafirs, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kaidu River, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><ins class="corr" title="original had: Kalkhalu">Khalkhalu</ins>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kamaruddin, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kamensky, Mr., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kamschatka, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kanaát Shah, <a href="#Page_82">82-83</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kanghi, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kansuh, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kara Khitay, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kara Kirghiz, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karakoram, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karakoram (city), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karanghotagh, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karashar, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karataghluc, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_52">52-53</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karatakka mountains, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karategin, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karghalik, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Karshi, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kashgar River, <i>see</i> <a href="#Kizil_Su">Kizil Su</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kashgari resigned to Chinese conquest, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kashgar, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">history of, <a href="#Page_22">22-40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kashgaria, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kashgarian valley, description of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kashgarian scenery, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kashgari not fanatics, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">dress of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"Kashmir and Kashgar," <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Katti Torah, Khoja, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kaufmann, General, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kaulbars, Baron, <a href="#Page_192">192-195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kaulbars Treaty, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kazalinsk, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kazan Ameer, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kazi, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kazi Rais, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Keen-Lung, <a href="#Page_43">43-45</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kermina, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khalkas, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khan, <a href="#Page_220">220-221</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khan Amban, <i>see</i> <a href="#Amban">Amban of Yarkand</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khan Khoja, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khans of Central Asia, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khaton, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khitay, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khitay merchants, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khiva, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khivan desert, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khize Khoja, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kho Dalay, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoja Ahmad, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoja family, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoja invasion, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoja Ishac, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoja Kalan, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoja Kalar, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoja Kings, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoja Kulan, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoja Padshah, <i>see</i> <a href="#Abdullah">Abdullah</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khojam Beg, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Khokand"></a>Khokand, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khokand pays tribute to China, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63-64</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khokand, rising in, <a href="#Page_209">209-210</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khokandian intrigues, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khokandian tax-gatherers, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoten, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121-123</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224-225</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">rising at, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoten gold mines, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khoten jade, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khudadar, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khudayar Khan, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81-86</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187-189</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208-209</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Khwaresm, <i>see</i> Khiva.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kiachta, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kichik Khan, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Kin_Shun"></a>Kin Shun, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266-272</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kipchak, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kirghiz, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">nomads submit to China, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kish, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Kizil_Su"></a>Kizil Su, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kizil Yart, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kludof, <a href="#Page_182">182-185</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kohistan, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Kok Robat, battle of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kolpakovsky, General, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kooda Kuli Beg, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Koosh Bege, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Korla"></a>Korla, description of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Koshluk, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kouralia, <i>see</i> <a href="#Korla">Korla</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kouroungli, <i>see</i> <a href="#Korla">Korla</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kucha, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127-130</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">battle at, <a href="#Page_270">270-271</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kucha coal mines, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kucha Khojas, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kuen Lun, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kuhna Turfan, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; <i>see</i> <a href="#Turfan">Turfan</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kuhwei, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kuldja, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kuldja question, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Kuli_Beg"></a>Kuli Beg, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252-253</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260-263</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kumush, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kunar, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kurama, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kuropatkine, Capt., <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244-245</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kurtka Fort, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Kutaiba, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Ladakh, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lahore, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"Lahore to Yarkand," <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Lake_Lob"></a>Lake Lob, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lanchefoo, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Laws in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_145">145-146</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Leaoutung, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lêh, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lhasa, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Little Bokhara, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Liu Kin Tang, <i>see</i> <a href="#Kin_Shun">Kin Shun</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Lob Nor, <i>see</i> <a href="#Lake_Lob">Lake Lob</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Mah Dalay, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomedanism in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomedanism, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomed Ali Khan (ruler of Khokand), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomed Arif, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomed Beg of Artosh, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomed Khan, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomed Khoja, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>; <i>see</i> also <a href="#Sheikh-ul-Islam">Sheikh-ul-Islam</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomed Kuli, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomed Latif, <i>see</i> <a href="#Pur_Mahomed">Pur Mahomed</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomed Nazzar. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomed Seyyid Wang, of Kashgar, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mahomed Yunus Jan, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171-172</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Makhram, battle of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Manas, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">siege of, <a href="#Page_239">239-240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Manchuria, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Manning, Thomas, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mansur, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mantchoo, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Maralbashi"></a>Maralbashi, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>; <i>see also</i> <a href="#Bartchuk">Bartchuk</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Marco Polo, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Maulana Khoja Kasani, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ma-yeo-pu, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mecca, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Merv, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Meshed, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Michell, Messrs, opinion on Kashgar, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Military settlers, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mines in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ming dynasty, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mingyol, battle at, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mir, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mirza, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mirza Jan Effendi, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mollah Khan, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mongols, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mongols, murder of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Moorcroft, Mr., <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Moral of Yakoob Beg's career, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Morozof, Mr., <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Moscow gewgaws, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"Moses in the land," <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mourad Beg, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mozaffur Eddin, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mufti, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mufti Habitulla, <a href="#Page_122">122-123</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">murder of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mughol <i>see</i> Mongol.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mugholistan. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Muhtasib, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mussulman Kuli, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81-82</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Muzart_Pass"></a>Muzart Pass, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Mysoka Bahadur, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Nadir Shah, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Naiman tribe, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nankin, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Nar Mahomed Khan, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Naryn, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nasruddin, <a href="#Page_209">209-210</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nestorian Christians, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">New Turfan, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Nur Ali (Kirghiz), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Ogdai Khan, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oigur princes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Oigurs"></a>Oigurs, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Old saying in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Olja Turkan Khaton, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Opinion of Chinese rule, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Orda, or palace, at Kashgar, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Orda, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Oxus, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Pamere, <i>see</i> <a href="#Pamir">Pamir</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Pamir"></a>Pamir, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Panjkora, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Panthays, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pekin, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Pekin Gazette</i>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Perovsky, General, <a href="#Page_79">79-81</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Perovsky Fort, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Persia, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Piskent, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Population of Kashgaria, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">of city of Kashgar, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">of city of Kucha, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">of city of Yarkand, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Powers interested in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Presents to Yakoob Beg, <a href="#Page_230">230-231</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Prester John, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Prince of Kashgar, <i>see</i> <a href="#Ishac_Wang">Ishac Wang</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Prjevalsky, Col., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Pupyshef, Mr., <a href="#Page_199">199-200</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Pur_Mahomed"></a>Pur Mahomed Mirza, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Rashid, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Reinthal's, Capt., mission to Kashgar, <a href="#Page_184">184-185</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202-204</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Rising against Russia, folly of, if not combined, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Risings in Khokand, <i>see</i> <a href="#Khokand">Khokand</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Road between Ili and Kashgar, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"Road Board," <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Romanoffski, General, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"Roof of the World," <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Royal Body Guard, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Ruduk, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russia at Vernoe, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russia demands Consuls in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russia in Central Asia, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russia in Kuldja or Ili, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-177</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279-282</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russia invades Kuldja, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russia promises to restore Ili, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russian attitude towards Chinese, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russian merchants, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russian policy towards Kashgar, <a href="#Page_177">177-209</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Russian trade with Kashgar, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Sadic Beg, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">embassy to Tashkent, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">truce with, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sahib Khan, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Said, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Salara, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Samarcand, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Saniz, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sanju, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sanju Devan, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sarbaz, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sarimsak Khoja, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Satuk Bughra Khan, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schlagintweit, Messrs., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Schuyler, Eugene, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scobelef, Gen., <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scobelef, Col., <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Scourges of God, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seistan, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seven Khoja princes, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seyyid Ali, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Seyyid Yakoob Khan, <i>see</i> <a href="#Hadji_Torah">Hadji Torah</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shadi Mirza, <a href="#Page_184">184-185</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shahidoolah, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shahrisebz, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sham, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shariàt, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shaw, Robt., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Sheikh-ul-Islam"></a>Sheikh-ul-Islam, <a href="#Page_116">116-117</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sheikh Nizamuddin, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shensi, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shere Ali (Cabul), <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Shere Ali Khan (Khokand), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Siberia, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sirikul, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Six Cities, <i>see</i> <a href="#Alty_Shahr">Altyshahr</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sobo tribes, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Somof, Mr., <a href="#Page_109">109-200</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">St. George and St. Anne Cross Fever, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Stoliczka, Dr., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Story of St Constantine's day, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Subashi, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"Sublimely Pure," <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sule, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sultan Mourad, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Sultan Seyyid, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Suranchi Beg, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Syr Darya, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Swat, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Szchuen, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Taepings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tagharchi, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tajik, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Talifoo, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tamerlane, <i>see</i> <a href="#Timour">Timour</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tanab, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tanabi, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tang dynasty, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tang Jen Ho, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tangut, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tarantchis. <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124-125</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tarfur, <i>see</i> <a href="#Turfan">Turfan</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tartar, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tarzagchi, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tash Balik, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tashkent, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">battle of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">etiquette at, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i>Tashkent Gazette</i>, <i>see</i> <a href="#Turkestan">Turkestan</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tashkurgan, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tatsing, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tawats, <i>see</i> <a href="#Davatsi">Davatsi</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Taxes in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151-160</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tay Dalay, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tchernaief, <a href="#Page_84">84-85</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tchimkent, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tekes, river and pass, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tenure of land in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Terek Pass, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tian Shan, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tian Shan Nan Lu, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tian Shan Pe Lu, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tibet, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">Cashmerian, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tibetan table-land, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Timour"></a>Timour, <a href="#Page_32">32-34</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Timour Khan (Chinese Emperor), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Timour, Yakoob Beg's descent from, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tobolsk, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Toghluc Timour, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Toksoun, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">battle at, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">To Teh Lin, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trade, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trade privileges, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trade with China, <a href="#Page_217">217-218</a>; <i>see</i> <a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">chapter 14</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trade with Kashgar, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216-217</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Treaty between England and Kashgar, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Treaty between Russia and Kashgar, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Treaty with Khokand, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Trotter, Captain, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tsedayar, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Tso_Tsung_Tang"></a>Tso Tsung Tang, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">army of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Tungani"></a>Tungani, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93-94</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tungan rising proper, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123-124</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">in Kuldja, <a href="#Page_124">124-125</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tungani desert Yakoob Beg, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tungani unorthodox, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">defend Kucha, <a href="#Page_127">127-130</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Turanian family, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Turcomans, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Turfan"></a>Turfan, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">battle at, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Turfan Ush, <i>see</i> <a href="#Ush_Turfan">Ush Turfan</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Turghay, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Turkestan, Eastern, <i>see</i> <a href="#Eastern_Turkestan">Eastern Turkestan</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">Western, <i>see</i> <a href="#Western_Turkestan">Western Turkestan</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><i><a id="Turkestan"></a>Turkestan Gazette</i>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Turkestan Trading Company, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Tyfu, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Uigurs, <i>see</i> <a href="#Oigurs">Oigurs</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Uman Sheikh, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Urumtsi, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">siege of, <a href="#Page_238">238-239</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Usbeg, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></li> + +<li class="indx">Usha Tal, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"Ushr" tax, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Ush_Turfan"></a>Ush Turfan, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">rising at, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Vagrants, laws against, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Value of land in Kashgar, <a href="#Page_160">160-161</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Vernoe"></a>Vernoe, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Viceroy of Ili, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Viceroy of Kansuh, <a href="#Page_237">237-238</a>; <i>see also</i> <a href="#Tso_Tsung_Tang">Tso Tsung <ins class="corr" title="original had: Tung">Tang</ins></a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"Vodka," <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">"Vuoba," <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Wakhan, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wali Khan, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">character of, <a href="#Page_72">72-73</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wangs, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wanleh, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Wealth of Kashgar merchants, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Western_Turkestan"></a>Western Turkestan, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">Yahya, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Yakoob_Beg"></a>Yakoob Beg, birth of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">early career, <a href="#Page_78">78-91</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">character of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">charges against, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sets out against Kashgar, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">expedition against Kashgar, <a href="#Page_103">103-118</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">fails to take Yarkand, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">defeats Tungan army near Yangy Hissar, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">marries Kho Dalay's daughter, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">attacks Yarkand again, <a href="#Page_113">113-116</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reverse at Yarkand, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">takes Yarkand, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reasons for wars with Tungani, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">wars with Tungani, <a href="#Page_126">126-127</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127-130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132-136</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">retrospect of his invasion of Kashgar, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">his army, <a href="#Page_134">134-135</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142-144</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">policy towards Tungani, <a href="#Page_135">135-136</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">internal policy, <a href="#Page_137">137-139</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">foreign policy, <i>see</i> chapters <a href="#CHAPTER_X">10</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">11</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">court of, <a href="#Page_138">138-139</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">police system of, <a href="#Page_146">146-152</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">principles of finance of, <a href="#Page_154">154-167</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">expenses of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">revenue of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reply to Russian threats, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191-192</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">reply to Khudayar Khan'sovertures, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">sends envoy to Tashkent, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">arrangement with Sultan, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">his opinion of trade, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">out-manœuvres Russia, <a href="#Page_199">199-201</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">congratulates Czar on marriage of his daughter, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">prepares to defend himself against Russia, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">weakness of his foreign policy, <a href="#Page_210">210-211</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">policy towards England, <a href="#Page_218">218-233</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">decline of friendship towards England, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">prepares to defend himself against China, <a href="#Page_244">244-246</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">comparison with China, <a href="#Page_241">241-249</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">death of, <a href="#Page_250">250-253</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">résumé of career, <a href="#Page_253">253-257</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yakoob Khan, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>; <i>see</i> <a href="#Yakoob_Beg">Yakoob Beg</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yakoob Khan, of Cabul, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yangabad, battle of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yangy Hissar, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">fort surrenders to Yakoob Beg, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yangy Mussulmans, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yangy Shahr, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <i>passim</i>.</li> +<li class="isub1">at Yarkand, gallant defence of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">at Kashgar, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111-112</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yarkand, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">embassy to, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">river, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">Tungan rising in, <a href="#Page_99">99-102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105-106</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yuldus, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>; <i>see also</i> <a href="#Great_Yuldus">Great Yuldus</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yung Ching, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yunus, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yusuf (son of Galdan), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yusuf (son of Sarimsak), <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Yuzbashi Mahomed Zareef Khan, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> + +<li class="ifrst">"Zakat" tax, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164-167</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Zilchak, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Zuelik, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> + +<li class="indx">Zuhuruddin, <a href="#Page_70">70-72</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center">Woodfall & Kinder, Printers, Milford Lane, +Strand, London, W.C.</p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="notebox"> +<a id="TN"></a> + +<h2>Transcriber's note:</h2> + +<p>Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been retained as +in the original.</p> + +<p>A few typographical errors have been corrected. They are +shown in the text with <ins class="corr" title= +"like this">mouse-hover popups</ins>. Position your mouse over +the word to see the correction.</p> + +<p>The following corrections have been made to the text:</p> + +<ul class="index"> +<li>Page 205: detracted replaced with detraction.</li> + +<li>Page 250: Missing period added at the end of +sentence.</li> + +<li>Page 255: unaminity replaced with unanimity.</li> + +<li>Page 258: Missing t added, aken replaced with taken.</li> + +<li>Page 278: momet replaced with moment.</li> + +<li>Page 306: accurracy replaced with accuracy.</li> + +<li>Page 337: Period replaced with comma after +209-210.</li> + +<li>Page 339: Hyder replaced with Hydar.</li> + +<li>Page 340: Kalkhalu replaced with Khalkhalu.</li> +</ul> +</div> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Yakoob Beg, by Demetrius Boulger + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF YAKOOB BEG *** + +***** This file should be named 33712-h.htm or 33712-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/7/1/33712/ + +Produced by The Bookworm, [bookworm.librivox AT gmail.com], +Asad Razzaki and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/33712.txt b/33712.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..225e35d --- /dev/null +++ b/33712.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11807 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of Yakoob Beg, by Demetrius Boulger + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Life of Yakoob Beg + Athalik Ghazi, and Badaulet; Ameer of Kashgar + +Author: Demetrius Boulger + +Release Date: September 12, 2010 [EBook #33712] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF YAKOOB BEG *** + + + + +Produced by The Bookworm, [bookworm.librivox AT gmail.com], +Asad Razzaki and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + + + Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been retained as in + the original. + + Some typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected. A + complete list follows the text. + + Words italicized in the original are surrounded by _underscores_. + + Superscripted words are surrounded by {} brackets. + + The 'oe' ligature is represented as oe. + + + + + THE LIFE + + OF + + YAKOOB BEG; + + ATHALIK GHAZI, AND BADAULET; + + AMEER OF KASHGAR. + + BY + + DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER, + + MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. + + _WITH MAP AND APPENDIX._ + + LONDON: + W{M} H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W. + 1878. + + _[All rights reserved.]_ + + + LONDON: + PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER, + MILFORD LANE, STRAND, W.C. + + + + + THE LIFE + + OF + + YAKOOB BEG. + + + + + TO MY FATHER, + + BRIAN AUSTEN BOULGER, + + I Dedicate + + THE FOLLOWING PAGES, AS SOME FAINT TOKEN + OF FILIAL AFFECTION AND GRATITUDE. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The following account of the life of Yakoob Beg was written with a +twofold intention. In the first place, it attempts to trace the career +of a soldier of fortune, who, without birth, power, or even any great +amount of genius, constructed an independent rule in Central Asia, and +maintained it against many adversaries during the space of twelve years. +The name of the Athalik Ghazi became so well known in this country, and +his person was so exaggerated by popular report, that those who come to +these pages with a belief that their hero will be lauded to the skies +must be disappointed. Yakoob Beg was a very able and courageous man, and +the task he did accomplish in Kashgaria was in the highest degree +creditable; but he was no Timour or Babur. His internal policy was +marred by his severity, and the system of terrorism that he principally +adopted; and his external policy, bold and audacious as it often was, +was enfeebled by periods of vacillation and doubt. Yet his career was +truly remarkable. He was not the arbiter of the destinies of Central +Asia, nor was he even the consistent opponent of Russian claims to +supremacy therein. He was essentially of the common mould of human +nature, sharing the weaknesses and the fears of ordinary men. The +Badaulet, or "the fortunate one," as he was called, was essentially +indebted to good fortune in many crises of his career. He cannot, in any +sense, be compared to the giants produced by Central Asia in days of +old; and among moderns Dost Mahomed of Afghanistan probably should rank +as high as he does. Yet he gives an individuality to the history of +Kashgar that it would otherwise lack. The recent triumphs of the Chinese +received all their attraction to Englishmen from the decline and fall of +Yakoob Beg, the hero they had erected in the country north of Cashmere. + +In the second place, the following pages strive to bring before the +English reader the great merits of China as a governing power; and this +object is really the more important of the two. It is absolutely +necessary for this country to remember that there are only three Great +Powers in Asia, and of these China is in many respects the foremost. +Whereas both England and Russia are simply conquering Governments, China +is a mighty and self-governing country. China's rule in Eastern +Turkestan and Jungaria is one of the most instructive pages in the +history of modern Asia, yet it may freely be admitted that the brief +career of Yakoob Beg gave an interest to the consideration of the +Chinese in Central Asia that that theme might otherwise have failed to +supply. The authorities used in the compilation of the facts upon which +the following pages have been erected are principally and above all the +official Report of Sir Douglas Forsyth, and the files of the _Tashkent_ +and _Pekin Gazettes_ since the beginning of 1874. Mr. Shaw's most +interesting work on "High Tartary," Dr. Bellew's "Kashgar," and +Gregorieff's work on "Eastern Turkestan," have also been consulted in +various portions of the narrative. A vast mass of newspaper articles +have likewise been laid under contribution for details which have not +been noticed anywhere else. + +In conclusion, the author would ask the English reader to consider very +carefully what the true lesson of Chinese valour and statesmanship may +be for us, because those qualities have now become the guiding power in +every Indian border question, from Siam and Birma to Cashmere. Mr. +Schuyler's "Turkestan," which still maintains its place as the leading +work on Central Asia, although not treating on the affairs of Kashgar, +has been frequently referred to for the course of affairs in Khokand; +but, in the main, Dr. Bellew's historical narrative in Sir D. Forsyth's +Report has been followed. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER I. + PAGE + GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF KASHGAR 1 + + CHAPTER II. + + ETHNOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF KASHGAR 14 + + CHAPTER III. + + HISTORY OF KASHGAR 22 + + CHAPTER IV. + + THE CONQUEST OF KASHGAR BY CHINA 41 + + CHAPTER V. + + THE CHINESE RULE IN KASHGAR 54 + + CHAPTER VI. + + THE BIRTH OF YAKOOB BEG AND CAREER IN + THE SERVICE OF KHOKAND 76 + + CHAPTER VII. + + THE INVASION OF KASHGAR BY BUZURG KHAN + AND YAKOOB BEG 92 + + CHAPTER VIII. + + WARS WITH THE TUNGANI 119 + + CHAPTER IX. + + YAKOOB BEG'S GOVERNMENT OF KASHGAR 137 + + CHAPTER X. + + YAKOOB BEG'S POLICY TOWARDS RUSSIA 173 + + CHAPTER XI. + + YAKOOB BEG'S RELATIONS WITH ENGLAND 212 + + CHAPTER XII. + + YAKOOB BEG'S LAST WAR WITH CHINA, + AND DEATH 236 + + CHAPTER XIII. + + THE CHINESE RECONQUEST OF KASHGAR 268 + + CHAPTER XIV. + + THE CHINESE FACTOR IN THE CENTRAL + ASIA QUESTION 277 + + APPENDIX. + + THE POSITION OF LOB-NOR 303 + TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA 308 + TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND CASHMERE 315 + TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND KASHGAR 320 + TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND KASHGAR 322 + RULES FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE JOINT + COMMISSIONERS APPOINTED FOR THE + NEW ROUTE TO EASTERN TURKESTAN 330 + A STORY FROM KASHGAR 334 + + + + +YAKOOB BEG. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF KASHGAR. + + +The state of Kashgar, which comprises the western portion of Eastern or +Chinese Turkestan, has been defined as being bounded on the north by +Siberia, on the south by the mountains of Cashmere, on the east by the +Great Desert of Gobi, and on the west by the steppe of "High Pamere." +This description, while sufficiently correct for general speaking, +admits of more detail in a work dealing at some length with that +country. Strictly, the name Kashgar or Cashgar applies only to the city, +and it was not until after the time of Marco Polo, when it was the most +populous and opulent town in the whole region, that it became used for +the neighbouring country. The correct name is either Little Bokhara or +Eastern Turkestan, and the Chinese call it Sule. Recent writers have +styled the territory of the Athalik Ghazi Kashgaria. It certainly +extended through a larger portion of Chinese Turkestan than did any past +native rule in Kashgar, the Chinese of course excepted. The definition +given above of the limits of Kashgar states that on the north it is +bounded by Siberia, but this is erroneous, for the extensive territory +of Jungaria or Mugholistan intervenes. Jungaria under the Chinese was +known as Ili from its capital, and now under the Russians is spoken of +as Kuldja, another name for the same city. This very extensive and +important district was included in the same government with Kashgar when +the Chinese dominated in all this region from their head-quarters at +Ili; but in the final settlement after the disruption of the Chinese +power in 1863, while Kashgar fell to the Khoja Buzurg Khan, and the +eastern portion of Jungaria, together with the cities of Kucha, +Karashar, and Turfan south of the Tian Shan range, to the Tungani; +Kuldja or Ili was occupied by the Russians. The frontier line between +Kuldja and Kashgar is very clearly marked by the Tian Shan, and the same +effectual barrier divides the continent into two well-defined divisions +from Aksu to Turfan and beyond. Eastern Turkestan is, therefore, bounded +on the north by the Tian Shan, and on the south the Karakoram Mountains +form a no less satisfactory bulwark between it and Kohistan and +Cashmerian Tibet. As has been said, on the west the steppe of Pamir and +on the east the desert of Gobi present distinct and secure defences +against aggression from without in those directions. There are few +states in Asia with a more clearly marked position than that of which we +have been speaking. Nature seems to have formed it to lead an isolated +and independent existence, happy and prosperous in its own resources and +careless of the outer world; but its history has been of a more troubled +character, and at only brief intervals has its natural wealth been so +fostered as to make it that which it has been called, "the Garden of +Asia." This condition of almost continual warfare and disturbance during +centuries, has left many visible marks on the external features of the +country, and in nothing is this more strikingly evident than in the +small population. A region which contains at the most moderate estimate +250,000 square miles, is believed by the highest authorities to contain +less than 1,000,000 inhabitants. In breadth Kashgaria may be said to +extend from longitude E. 73 deg. to 89 deg., and in width from latitude N. 36 deg. +to 43 deg.; but the ancient kingdom of Kashgar has been always considered to +have reached only to Aksu, a town about 300 miles north-east of Kashgar. +When the Chinese about fifty years ago conceded certain trade privileges +to Khokand, they were not to have effect east of Aksu; this fact seems +conclusive as to the recognized limits of the ancient dynasty of +Kashgar. The capital of this district, which at one time has been a +flourishing kingdom under a native ruler, at another a tributary of some +Tartar conqueror, and then distracted by the struggles of his effete +successors, and at a third time a subject province of the Chinese, has +fluctuated as much as the fortunes of the state itself. Now it has been +Yarkand, now Kashgar, and yet again, on several occasions, Aksu. The +claims of Kashgar seem to have prevailed in the long run, for, although +Yarkand is still the larger city, Yakoob Beg established his capital at +Kashgar, and made that town known throughout the whole of Asia by the +means of his government. + +Kashgar is situated in a plain in the north of the province, and the +small river on which it is built is known as the Kizil Su. Immediately +beyond it the country becomes hilly and mountainous, until in the far +distance may be seen the snow-clad peaks of the Tian Shan, and the Aksai +Plateau. Although the population is barely 30,000, there is now an air +of brisker activity in the bazaars and caravanserais of this capital +than in any other city in the country. The trade carried on with Russia +in recent years has given some life to the place; but few, if any, +merchants proceed more inland than this, whether they come from Khokand +or from Kuldja. The town stretches on both sides of the river, which is +crossed by a wooden bridge; but there are no buildings of any +pretensions for external beauty or internal comfort. The _orda_ or +palace of the Ameer, which is in Yangy Shahr, five miles from the city, +is a large gloomy barrack of a place with several buildings within each +other; the outer ones are occupied by the household troops and by the +court officials, and the inner one of all is set apart for the family +and _serai_ of the ruler himself. In connection with this is a hall of +audience, in which he receives in solemn state such foreigners as it +seems politic for him to honour. In the old days, Kashgar used to be a +strongly fortified position, but the only remains of its former strength +are the ruins which are strewn freely all around. Kashgar is, therefore, +an open and quite defenceless town, and lies completely at the mercy of +any invader who might come along the high road from Aksu or Bartchuk, or +across the mountains from Khokand or Kuldja; but at Yangy Shahr, about +five miles south of Kashgar, Yakoob Beg constructed a strong fort, where +he deposited all his treasure, and this may be taken to be the citadel +of Kashgar as well as the residence of the ruler. Yangy Shahr means new +city, and as a fortification erected by a Central Asian potentate with +very limited means, it must be considered to be a very creditable piece +of military workmanship. The Andijanis or Khokandian merchants who have +at various times settled here, form a very important class in this town +in particular, and it was they who more than any one else contributed to +the success of the invasion of Buzurg Khan and Mahomed Yakoob. It is, +however, said that these merchant classes had become to some extent +dissatisfied with the late state of things, whether because Yakoob Beg +did not fulfil all his promises, or for some other reason, is not clear. +If Kashgar under its late rule was not restored to that prosperous +condition which excited the admiration of Marco Polo, and the Chinese +traveller, Hwang Tsang, before him, it may be considered to have been as +fairly well-doing as any other city in either Turkestan, while life and +property were a great deal more secure than in some we could mention. + +Situated about half-way on the road to Yarkand is Yangy Hissar, a town +which has always been of importance both as a military position and as a +place of trade. It has greatly fallen into decay, however, but still +possesses a certain amount of its former influence from being a military +post, and from the exceptional fertility of the neighbouring country. + +Yarkand, about eighty miles as the crow flies, and 120 by road, to the +south-east of Kashgar, is still the most populous of all the cities of +Eastern Turkestan. It lies in the open plain on the Yarkand river, and +its walls, four miles in circuit, testify to its former greatness. Under +the Chinese it was quite the most flourishing town in the region, and +even now Sir Douglas Forsyth estimates that it contains 40,000 people, +while the surrounding country has nearly 200,000 more. The fruit gardens +and orchards, which extend in a wide belt round it, give an air of +peculiar prosperity to the country, and quite possibly induce travellers +to take a too sanguine view of the resources of the country. In addition +to the abundance of fruit and grain produce that is brought into the +city for sale, there is a large and profitable business carried on in +leather. Yarkand has almost a monopoly of this article, and the +consumption of it is very great indeed. The Ameer himself took large +quantities yearly for his army, for, in addition to that required for +boots and saddles, many of his regiments wore uniforms of that +substance. + +But, although Yarkand is the chief market-place of the richest province, +and although its population is thriving and energetic, there is a +general _consensus_ of opinion that it has become much less prosperous +and much more of a rural town since the transference of the seat of +government to Kashgar, and the disappearance of Chinese merchants with +the Chinese ruler. A very intelligent merchant of the town replied as +follows to questions put to him, as to the Chinese and native rulers, +and it will be seen that it was especially favourable to the claims of +the Chinese as the better masters. + +"What you see on market-day now, is nothing to the life and activity +there was in the time of the Khitay. To-day the peasantry come in with +their fowls and eggs, with their cotton and yarn, or with their sheep +and cattle and horses for sale, and they go back with printed cotton, a +fur cap, or city made boots, or whatever domestic necessaries they may +require, and always with a good dinner inside them; and then we shut up +our shops and stow away our goods till next week's market-day brings +back our customers. Some of us, indeed, go out with a small venture in +the interim to the rural markets around, but our great day is market-day +in town. It was very different in the Khitay time. People then bought +and sold every day, and market-day was a much jollier time. There was no +Kazi Rais, with his six Muhtasib, armed with the _dira_ to flog people +off to prayer, and drive the women out of the streets, and nobody was +bastinadoed for drinking spirits and eating forbidden meats. There were +mimics and acrobats, and fortune-tellers and story-tellers, who moved +about amongst the crowd and diverted the people. There were flags and +banners and all sorts of pictures floating at the shop fronts; and there +was the _jallab_, who painted her face and decked herself in silks and +laces to please her customers." And then, replying to a question whether +the morals were not more depraved under this system than under the +strict Mahomedan rule of the Athalik Ghazi, the same witness went on to +say--"Yes, perhaps so. There were many rogues and gamblers too, and +people did get drunk and have their pockets picked. But so they do now, +though not so publicly, because we are under Islam, and the shariat is +strictly enforced." + +This very graphic piece of evidence gives a clearer picture of the two +systems of government, than perhaps paragraphs of explanatory writing; +and, to return to the immediate subject before us, it shows that Yarkand +has deteriorated in wealth and population since the Chinese were +expelled from it fifteen years ago. + +Khoten is situated 150 miles south-east of Yarkand, and about ninety +miles due east of Sanju. It lies on the northern base of the Kuen Lun +Mountains, and is the most southern city of any importance in Kashgaria. +Under the Chinese, it was one of the most flourishing centres of +industry, and as the _entrepot_ of all trade with Tibet it held a +bustling active community. The Chinese called it Houtan, and even now it +is locally called Ilchi. In addition to the wool and gold imported from +Tibet, it possessed gold mines of its own in the Kuen Lun range, and was +widely celebrated for its musk, silk, and jade. It likewise has suffered +from the departure of the Chinese; and the energy and wealth of that +extraordinary people have found, in the case of this city also, a very +inadequate substitute in the strict military order and security +introduced by Yakoob Beg. + +Ush Turfan, New Turfan, is a small town on the road from Kashgar to +Aksu, and is not to be confounded with the better known Turfan which is +situated in the far east on the highway to Kansuh. This latter town is +called Kuhna Turfan, or Old Turfan, to distinguish it from the other. +Ush Turfan, without ever having been a place of the first importance, +derived very considerable advantage from its position on the road +followed by the Chinese caravans, and Yakoob Beg converted it into a +strong military position by constructing several forts there. + +Aksu, one of the old capitals of Kashgar, may fairly be called the third +city of the state, although it has, perhaps, more than any other +declined since the expulsion of the Khitay. Before that event took place +there was a road across the mountains to Ili, by the Muzart glacier, and +relays of men were kept continually employed in maintaining this +delicately constructed road in a state fit for passage both on foot and +mounted. But all this has been discontinued for many years now, and not +only is the road quite impassable, but it would require much labour and +more outlay to restore it to its former utility. In the neighbourhood of +this town there are rich mines of lead, copper, and sulphur. These +have, practically speaking, been untouched in recent years. Coal is also +the ordinary fuel among the inhabitants; and both in intelligence as +well as in worldly prosperity, the good people of Aksu used to be +entitled to a foremost position among the Kashgari. As a consequence of +the blocking up of the Muzart Pass, the old trade with Kuldja has +completely disappeared, and all communications with this Russian +province are now carried on by the Narym Pass to Vernoe. This change +benefits the city of Kashgar, but is a decided loss to Aksu. Aksu may +still justly rank as an important place, and under very probable +contingencies may regain all the ground it has lost. In conclusion, we +may say that Yakoob Beg has converted its old walls and castles into +fortifications, which are said to be capable of resisting the fire of +modern artillery. + +We have enumerated six cities--Kashgar, Yangy Hissar, Yarkand, Khoten, +Ush Turfan, and Aksu--and these constitute the territory of Kashgar +proper. At one time, indeed, it was called Alty Shahr, or six cities, +from this fact. In addition to these may be mentioned, in modern +Kashgaria, Sirikul, or Tashkurgan, in the extreme south-west, which is +principally of importance as the chief post on the frontier of +Afghanistan. Near Sirikul are Badakshan and Wakhan, and it has been +asserted that Shere Ali, of Afghanistan, viewed with a suspicious eye +the presence of Kashgar in this quarter. It is quite certain that he +would not have tolerated that further advance along the Pamir, which +Yakoob Beg seemed on several occasions inclined to make. Sirikul +commands the northern entrance of the Baroghil Pass, and has +consequently been often mentioned in recent accounts of this road to +India. + +Maralbashi, or Bartchuk, a military post of some strength, is +strategically important, as being placed at the junction of the roads +from Kashgar and Yarkand, which lead by the bed of the Yarkand river to +Kucha. But it possesses greater interest for us, as being the chief +town of the district inhabited by the extraordinary tribe of the Dolans. +These people are in the most backward state of intelligence that it is +possible to imagine human beings to be capable of. In physical strength +and stature they are, perhaps, the most miserable objects on the face of +the earth, but their social position is still more deplorable. Some of +their customs are of the most disgusting character, and their dwellings, +such as they are, are of the rudest kind and subterranean. Travellers +who have seen them in the larger cities, say that all the rumours that +have been circulated about them do not exaggerate the true facts of the +case; and the most pitiable part of the matter is, that they have become +so resigned to their degraded position, that they are averse to any +measure calculated to improve their existence. They have been compared +to the Bhots of Tibet, but these latter are quite superior beings in +comparison with them. They are treated with contempt and derision by all +the neighbouring peoples. + +Kucha is, or rather was, another very flourishing city which has never +recovered the loss of Chinese wealth, and the subsequent disturbances +during the Tungan wars. At one time Kucha had at the least 50,000 +people, and it was not less famed than Aksu for the resources and +ingenuity of its people. But now it is almost a deserted city. The +greater part of the old town is a mass of ruins, and during the nine +years that have elapsed since the Tungani were crushed by the Athalik +Ghazi, scarcely anything has been done to repair the damage caused in +those very destructive wars. + +Korla, Kouralia, or Kouroungli, as it has been named, and Karashar, two +towns which lie to the east of Kucha, have likewise never revived from +the period of anarchy and bloodshed, through which the whole of this +district has passed; but even the state of these places contrasts +favourably with the far worse ruin wrought at Turfan. Turfan, perhaps +more than any other, profited by the trade with China, for, although it +may not itself have been as rich as either Aksu or Kucha, it derived a +certain source of income as the rendezvous of all the caravans +proceeding either east or west, or north to Urumtsi and Chuguchak. Very +often a delay of several weeks took place, before merchants had arranged +all the details for crossing the Tian Shan to Guchen, or for proceeding +on to Hamil through the desert, and Turfan flourished greatly thereby. +Now its streets are desolate, the whole country round it is represented +to be a desert, and all its former activity and brightness have +completely disappeared. Yakoob Beg had extended his rule a short +distance east of Turfan, to a place called Chightam, but Turfan may be +styled his most eastern possession. + +We have now given a somewhat detailed description of the chief cities of +Kashgaria, and in doing so we have distinctly intended thereby to convey +the impression to the reader that it is only these and their suburbs +that were at all productive under the late _regime_. To those who have +been to Kashgar, nothing has remained more vividly impressed on their +mind, than the exceedingly prosperous appearance of the farms in the +belt of country from Yarkand to Kashgar; but at the same time this +wealth of foliage and of blossom has only made the barrenness of the +intervening and surrounding country more palpable. The farms are +certainly not small in extent, but rather isolated from each other, and +surrounded by orchards of plums, apples, and other fruit trees, in which +they are completely embowered. A Kashgarian village is not a main +street with a line of cottages and a few large farms; but it is a +conglomeration of farmsteads covering a very extensive area of country, +and presenting to the eye of a stranger rather a thinly peopled district +than a community of villagers. Again, although the soil is naturally +fertile, the system of agriculture is of an exhaustive character, and it +seems probable that only a small portion of the land on each farm is at +all productive. But these settlements, which present an exterior of +rural happiness and simplicity, are but oases in an enormous extent +of barren country. If each proprietor seems to possess more land than +he can require, and if the fertile soil produces bountifully that +which is unskilfully sown therein, the total amount of land under +cultivation is still very limited indeed. Worse still, the soil is +gradually exhausted, and as the system of sowing but one kind of grain +seems to have taken deep root among the people, it is to be feared that +it may be perpetuated without hope of recovery. There is a constant +difficulty to be overcome, too, on account of the meagre supply of +water. The general aspect of the region is barren, a bleak expanse +stretches in all directions, and in the distance on three sides the +outlines of lofty ranges complete the panorama. The scarcely marked +bridle track that supplies the place of a highway in every direction +except where the Chinese have left permanent tokens of their presence, +offers little inducement to travellers to come thither; nor must these +when they do come expect anything but the most imperfect modes of +communication and of supply that a backward Asiatic district can +furnish. If we wish to imagine the scene along the road from Sanju to +Yarkand, we have only to visit some of the wilder of the Sussex Wealds +to have it before us in miniature. The spare dried-up herbage may be +still more spare, and the limestone may be more protruding on the +Central Asian plain; and the wind will certainly remind you that it +comes either from the desert or from the mountain regions; but you have +the same undulating, dreary expanse that you have above Crowborough. The +miserable sheep watched by some nomad Kirghiz will alone forcibly remind +you that you are far away from the heights of the South Downs. In the +far distance you will see the cloud-crested pinnacles of the Sanju Devan +or of the Guoharbrum, and then the traveller cannot but remember that he +is in one of the most inaccessible regions in the world. But if these +southern roads are scarcely worthy of the name, the great high road from +Kashgar to Aksu, Kucha, Korla, Karashar, and Turfan is a masterpiece of +engineering construction. It need not fear to brave comparison with +those of imperial Rome herself, and remains an enduring monument to +Chinese perseverance, skill, and capacity for government. In China +itself there are many great and important highways, but there the task +was facilitated by the possession of great and navigable rivers. In +Eastern Turkestan no such assistance was to be found, and consequently +this road, along which was conducted all the traffic that passed from +China to Jungaria, Kashgar, Khokand, and Bokhara, had to be maintained +in the highest state of efficiency. To do this we cannot doubt was a +most expensive undertaking, and, not mentioning such an exceptional work +as the Muzart Pass, one that required a very perfect organization to +accomplish with the success that for more than a century marked it. + +The great drawback in the geographical position of Kashgar, is the want +of a cheap and convenient outlet by water. The country itself suffers in +a less degree from the same cause, but with a more perfect system of +irrigation, the rivers, such as the Artosh, &c., which in spring carry +down the mountain snows, might be made to give a more extended supply +throughout western Kashgar at all events. The climate is equable, and +the people suffer from no very prevalent disease, except in the more +mountainous parts, and in Yarkand, where goitre is of frequent +occurrence. The people themselves seem to be frugal and honest, but +indeed there are so many races to be met with in this "middle land," +that no general description can be given of them all. The Andijanis, or +Khokandian merchants, are the most prosperous class in the community, +and they appear to be, from all accounts, possessed of more than an +average amount of business capacity in the arts of buying and selling. +The Tarantchis are the descendants of Kashgarian labourers imported by +the Chinese into Kuldja in 1762, and there is still both in the army and +in the state a large number of Khitay remaining, who were permitted to +pursue in secret the observances of their religion. The other races are +ill disposed towards them, and attribute all the vices they can think of +to their doors. But these Khitay managed to efface themselves in the +country, and although they formed a very important minority among the +males, they never appear to have been regarded in the light of a +possible danger when their brethren from China should draw near. In +addition to the native Kashgari, and these two important elements just +mentioned, there are numerous immigrants from the border states, +particularly from Khokand, to the people of whom Yakoob Beg naturally +manifested especial favour. We have now given at some length a +description of the geographical features of Kashgar, and are about to +follow it up with an ethnological description as well as a historical +statement of the past features of the same region. It is hoped that +these preliminary chapters will clear the way from some obscurity for a +correct appreciation of the career of the late Athalik Ghazi. + +Kashgaria may be said to be a portion of Asia which possesses some great +advantages of position and very considerable resources, but by a +singularly hard fortune, except for the brief period of Chinese rule in +modern times, it has been so distracted by intestine disturbances that +it has retrograded further and further with each year. It is quite +possible that its natural wealth has been too hastily taken for granted, +and that it does not possess the necessary means of restoring itself in +some degree to its former position. This is quite possible, but the best +authorities at our disposal seem to point to a more promising +conclusion, and to justify us in assuming that the position, natural +resources, and general condition of Kashgar will enable a strong and +settled rule to raise it into a really important and flourishing +confederacy. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +ETHNOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF KASHGAR. + + +In the extensive region stretching from the Caspian and Black Seas to +the Kizil Yart and Pamir plateaus, and from the Persian Gulf to Siberia, +the two great families, the Aryan and the Turanian, have in past +centuries striven for supremacy. The latter, embracing in its bosom in +this part of the world the more turbulent and warlike tribes, succeeded +in subjecting those who claimed the same parent stock as European +nations. The Tajik or Persian is the chief representative in this region +of the Aryan family, and he has now for many centuries been the subject +of the Turk rulers of the various divisions of Western Turkestan. These +latter are the personifiers of Turanian traditions. The Tajik appears to +have been subdued, not so much by the superiority of his conqueror in +the art of war, as by his own inclination to lead a peaceful and +harmless life. The pure Tajik, hardly to be met with now anywhere in +Asia, except in the mountainous districts of the Hindoo Koosh, is +represented to us to have been of an imposing presence, with a long +flowing beard, aquiline nose, and large eyes. He is generally tall and +graceful; yet in Khokand and Bokhara the Tajik is at present viewed much +as the Saxons were by the Normans. In those states, too, a man is spoken +of by his race. He is an Usbeg, a Kipchak, a Kirghiz, or a Tajik, as the +case may be, and by this means the rivalry of past ages is to some +extent preserved down to the present time. It is the dissension spread, +or rather the destruction of any sympathy between the various races +caused, by these outward tokens of diversity in origin, that has made +Western Turkestan the familiar home of intestine disturbance, which has +in its turn led up to the easy dismemberment of the various Khanates by +Russian intrigue and by Russian force. In Eastern Turkestan the rivalry +of races has become less bitter, and in nothing is this better +manifested than in the fact that there a man is described by his native +town. He may be a Tajik, or an Usbeg, or a Kirghiz, or a Kipchak, too, +but he is only known as a Yarkandi, or a Kashgari. And while we are at +once struck by this broad and salient difference in popular custom, and +consequently in popular sentiment also, between the Western and Eastern +divisions of Turkestan, a slight inquiry is sufficient to show that the +antipathies of the various races towards each other have become much +more a thing of the past in Kashgaria than they have in the Khanates of +Khokand and its neighbours. At all events, the antipathies that still +prevail in that state are clearly traceable to other causes than +Aryan-Turanian hostility, and are undoubtedly produced either by +religious fanaticism, motives of personal ambition, or the hatred roused +by Chinese pretensions on the one hand, and Khokandian on the other, to +the supreme control of Kashgaria. Bearing these facts clearly in mind, +it is evident that ethnographical descriptions will not make the +political relations of the peoples of the state more easily +intelligible; yet, as matter of historical import, these cannot be +altogether passed over in silence. + +The inhabitants of the little known regions now variously known as +Jungaria and Eastern Turkestan were, until recent years, considered to +be of pure Tartar origin, and consequently members of the Turanian +family. There are some still who believe that this definition is the +most accurate. Others dispute it on various grounds, and with much +plausibility. There is no question that the original inhabitants, +historically speaking, were the Oigurs, or Uigurs, and these people +were certainly Tartars. But frequently the Tajik merchants who traded +with Kashgar in the earlier centuries of the Middle Ages, took up their +abode in the country, and by degrees a large colony of Tajik immigrants +was formed on the foundation of the original Oigur stock. These Tajiks +gradually became Tartarised, but they still retained the unmistakable +characteristics of the Aryan family. The two brothers Schlagintweit, and +Mr. Shaw following in their footsteps, were the first to maintain this +view, which is becoming generally accepted. We have, therefore, in +Kashgar the strange spectacle of a Tajik people becoming not only +unidentifiable from the Turanian stock with which it has been +intermingled; but we have also a race tolerance that is unknown in any +other portion of Asia. Undoubtedly the hostility of the settled and +peaceful Andijani immigrant and Kashgari resident to the irreclaimable +Kirghiz is deep-rooted, and, so long as the latter continues a source of +danger to all peaceful communities, abiding; but even this sentiment, +and the religious hatred that has at various epochs marked the political +intercourse of Buddhist and Mahomedan, are probably less durable, and +susceptible of greater improvement in the future, than the race +antipathies that seem perennially vital among the tribes of Western +Asia. The vast majority of the inhabitants of Alty Shahr are of Tajik +descent. In the course of centuries the purity of their lineage has been +leavened by much intermingling with Tartar blood, both at the time of +the Mongol subjection and of the Chinese. In addition to these two great +divisions, there are many Afghan and Badakshi settlers, who have flocked +to Kashgar whenever the progress of events seemed to justify the +expectation that military service in that state would prove a +remunerative engagement. Many of these remained, and they have also left +a clear impression on the features of the inhabitants. It is, however, +to pre-historic times, or certainly to a period lost in the mist of +history, that we must refer for that general exodus of the Aryan family +from the Hindoo Koosh and the plains of Western Asia into the more +secluded prairies of Kashgar, which took place when the Turanian nations +first spread like destroying locusts over the face of that continent. It +was at this period that Khoten, which in its name shows its Aryan +origin, was founded. + +The great nomadic tribe of the Kirghiz, or Kara Kirghiz, as the Russians +call them, to distinguish them from the Kirghiz of the various hordes +who, by the way, are not true Kirghiz at all, has at all times played a +fitful, yet important part in the histories of Khokand, Jungaria, and +Eastern Turkestan. Preserving their independence in the inaccessible +region lying west of Lake Issik Kul, and along the Kizil Yart plateau +and range, this tribe has always been a source of trouble to its +neighbours, whosoever they might be. On various occasions, too, they +have joined the career of conquest to their usual avocation of plunder, +and under the few great leaders that have arisen amongst them they have +appeared as conquerors, both of Eastern and Western Turkestan. But their +achievements have never been of a permanent nature. Like the irregular +undisciplined mass of horsemen which constitute their fighting force, +their chief strength lay in a sharp and decisive attack. They had not +the organization or the resources necessary for the accomplishment of +any conquest of a permanent kind. Their incursions, even when most +formidable and most sweeping, were essentially mere marauding +onslaughts. Their object was plunder, not empire; and having secured the +former, they recked little of the value of the latter. At one time they +were able to carry their raids in almost any direction with perfect +impunity; but as settled governments arose around their fastnesses, and +curtailed their field of operations, what had been a life of adventure +through simple love of excitement, became a struggle for sheer +existence. The region where they dwelt was far too barren to support +throughout the year even the limited numbers of the Kirghiz, and yearly +they had to issue forth against prepared and disciplined enemies in +search of the sustenance that, to preserve their existence, had to be +obtained. But for the intestine quarrels that were sapping the life +strength of the Asiatic states slowly away, there is no doubt that the +Kirghiz would have been gradually exterminated. Soon, however, they had +the skill to avail themselves of these disagreements to sell their +services as soldiers to the highest bidders; and although they were not +equal to the Kipchak tribes in valour, their alliance was considered of +importance, and on many a dubious occasion sufficed to turn the fortune +of the day. By such measures of policy their existence has been +preserved, and at the present time they perform much the same functions, +and are regarded in much the same manner by their neighbours, as in the +past. + +The Kipchaks, another great tribe, who however are scarcely represented +at all in Kashgaria, pride themselves on being the most select of all +the Usbegs, but their day of power has passed by, for the present at all +events. Thirty years ago they were at the height of their success, but +they incurred the jealousy of other Usbeg tribes and of the Kirghiz. +Owing to the abilities of their great chief, Mussulman Kuli, they +succeeded in erecting in Khokand a powerful state, which was able to +restrain the encroachments of Bokhara, at that time the great enemy of +the former Khanate. But the plots that broke out against them in 1853, +in conjunction with the advance of Russia on the Syr Darya, were crowned +with success, and with the execution of Mussulman Kuli the Kipchak power +was completely broken. Since that date, however, several of the more +distinguished leaders who have appeared on the scene, such as Alim Kuli +and Abdurrahman Aftobatcha, have been members of this clan. The eastern +portion of the dominion of Yakoob Beg is almost exclusively inhabited +by Calmucks, or tribes of Calmuck descent. The great majority of the +inhabitants of Manchuria and Jungaria are of Calmuck descent, and even +in Russia in Europe there are many settlements of this tribe along the +Volga and the Don. None of these, however, possess any political +importance except those who inhabit the country north of Gobi and +between Eastern Turkestan and China, and the chief of these are the +Khalkas. The Calmucks are attached by old associations to the Government +of Pekin; and, although they have sometimes revolted against, and often +caused trouble to, the Central Government, they have generally +acknowledged their culpability and submitted to the Chinese authorities. +In the revolt of the Tungani the Calmucks remained true to China, and +performed very opportune service on various occasions. The Chinese army +in Eastern Turkestan was mainly recruited from among these tribes, who +became distinguished from the Tungani by their religion and fidelity. + +The origin of the Tungani, or Dungans, as the Russians call them, is +much in dispute; and as they played so important a part in the loss of +Kashgar and Ili by China, as well as in the history of the rule of +Yakoob Beg, it may be as well to put the facts as they stand at some +length before the reader. There is no question, we believe, that the +Chinese in applying the term Tungani attach the meaning thereto of +Mahomedan. There is equal reason for supposing that the term Khitay, +literally meaning simply Chinese, has been applied to the Buddhists by +general usage. If we acknowledge the validity of these two +assumptions--and, so far as we have been able to ascertain, the best +authorities have adopted them--there would be little difficulty in +explaining who the Tungani were. Granting these, they would simply be +the Mahomedan subjects in the eastern portions of China. But others +believe that the Tungani are a distinct race, presenting peculiar +ethnological features. According to this version, the tribe of the +Tungani can be traced back as a distinct community to the fifth and +sixth centuries, when they were seated along the Tian Shan range, with +their capital at Karashar. The most recent investigations, under Colonel +Prjevalsky, are believed to show no signs of there having been any +important cities in this quarter. It may be convenient to mention here, +that at that time they were Buddhists; but when Islamism broke over Asia +in the eighth century, they were among the first to adopt the new +tenets. This defection from the religion of China brought them into +collision with the Emperors of Pekin, and many of these Tungani were +deported into Kansuh and Shensi, where we are to suppose they continued +a race apart, with their own religion and their own code of morality, +for more than ten centuries. Even granting the possibility of such a +consistency to a new religion, which history informs us was thrust upon +them at the point of the sword, it seems scarcely credible that we +should not hear more of this troublesome tribe in Chinese history. +Frequent allusions are made in imperial edicts and other official +proclamations to the Tungani, but always in reference to their religion, +and not in any way as if they were any other but heretic Chinamen. +Besides, even in this way little is heard of the Tungani until the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when very sharp measures were taken +against them by the emperors, solely because religious propagandists +from their ranks were appearing as enemies of a Buddhist Government. The +theory that the Tungani were a people and not a sect is new, but it is +possible that it may be a true discovery. On the other hand, it is far +more probable that it is only an ingenious attempt at elucidating what +appears on the face of it to be a simple matter enough. The reader must +decide for himself between the two versions. If the Tungani are to be +considered a distinct race, then the majority of the inhabitants of +Eastern Turkestan are not Calmucks, but Tungani; if the view taken here +is adopted, then they are Calmucks who have at various times adopted +Mahomedanism. These are the chief tribes of this portion of Central +Asia; and in the following pages it may be as well to bear in mind that +Khitay is applied exclusively to the Buddhist or governing class, and +Tungani to the Mahomedan or subject race in Kansuh and its outlying +dependencies. As race antipathies have not entered during recent times +so much into the contests of the people of the regions immediately under +consideration as religions, the difference as to the true significance +of the term Tungani does not materially affect one's view of the general +question. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +HISTORY OF KASHGAR. + + +The great difficulty encountered in giving a description of the past +history of Kashgar is to evolve, out of the series of successive +conquests and subjections that have marked the existence of that state +for almost two thousand years, a narrative which shall, without +confusing the reader with a mere repetition of names that convey little +meaning, place the chief features of its history before us in a light +that may make its more recent condition intelligible to us. We may say +in commencement, that those who desire a historical account in all its +fulness of Kashgar must turn to that contributed by Dr. Bellew to the +Official Report of Sir Douglas Forsyth on his embassy to Yarkand. They +will there find ample details of the events that took place in this +region of Central Asia from the commencement of our era; but a mere +reiteration of the various calamities, with brief and intermittent +periods of prosperity, each wave of which bore so striking a similarity +to its predecessor, would not serve the purpose we have at present in +view--viz., of considering its own history, for the purpose of better +understanding its relations with its neighbours and with China, and how +the state consolidated by the Athalik Ghazi was constructed on ruins +handed down by an almost indistinguishable antiquity. + +For a considerable number of years anterior to the ninth century, the +Chinese Empire extended to the borders of Khokand and Cashmere. But the +dissensions that marked the latter years of the Tang dynasty were not +long in producing such weakness at the extremity of this vast empire +that the subject races and their proper ruling families were enabled to +obtain either their personal liberty or their lost positions once more, +unhappily without in any case achieving with the severance of their +connection with China any perceptible amelioration in their lot--indeed, +on almost every occasion only binding themselves with harder fetters, +and sinking into a deeper state of servitude. When the petty princelets +of Kashgar, Yarkand, Turfan, and the rest broke away from their +allegiance to Pekin, and when the imperial resources were unable to +coerce their rebellious subjects, the whole country passed under the +hands of their feudatories, who split up into innumerable factions, +waged continuous war, and sacrificed the happiness and welfare of the +subject people to a desire to promote their own individual interests. As +the barons and counts of Italy in the Middle Ages devastated some of the +fairest provinces of Europe, so these Oigur princes fought for their own +hand in the valleys of the Artosh and the Ili. It is very possible that +this state of things would have continued until China became +sufficiently strong and settled to reassert once more her dormant rights +over her lost provinces, but that a new force appeared on the western +frontiers of Kashgar. As early as 676 the Arabs, under Abdulla Zizad, +had crossed over from Persia, and were carrying destruction and terror +in their course along the banks of the Oxus. At that moment a beautiful +and gifted queen, named Khaton, ruled for her son in Bokhara. She had +not long been left a widow when her country was threatened by this +unexpected and terrible invasion. Although assistance came to the queen +from all the neighbouring States, including Kashgar, she was defeated +twice in the open field, and compelled to seek safety within the walls +of her capital. But the Arab leader was unable to take the city by +storm, and slowly retired, with a large number of captives and an +immense quantity of booty, back to Persia. Some years later the Arabs +again returned, but withdrew on the payment of a heavy indemnity. +Another chief, Kutaiba, was still more successful, for on one occasion +he carried fire and sword through Kashgar to beyond Kucha. This was the +first occasion on which the doctrines of Mahomed had been carried into +the realms of China, and with so cogent an argument as the sword it is +not wonderful that some hold was secured on the country. Subsequent +expeditions in the next few centuries strengthened this beginning, and +it was not long before the ruling classes of Kashgar became infected +with the new doctrine. + +In the tenth century, Satuk Bughra Khan, the ruling prince of Kashgar, +who had been converted to Islam, forced his people to adopt that +religion, although it is tolerably clear that up to this time there had +been no acknowledgment of supremacy to the representative of Mahomed on +earth. A disunited state, which had on several occasions felt the heavy +hand of the authority of its generals, and at whose very gates its power +was consolidated, could not but be in some sort of dependence to the +stronger power, as there was no ally to be found sufficiently powerful +to protect it, now that the Chinese had retrogressed into Kansuh. +Towards the end of the tenth century the Mahomedans met with a series of +reverses from the Manchoo and Khoten troops, who still preserved their +relations, political and commercial, with China. It was in the +neighbourhood of Yangy Hissar that their general, Khalkhalu, inflicted +the most serious defeat on the Mahomedan rulers of Kashgar, but within +the next twenty years, assistance having come from Khokand, these +defeats were retrieved, and Khoten itself for the first time passed +under the rule of Islam. The family of Bughra Khan was now firmly +established as rulers of Eastern Turkestan, and their limits were almost +identical with those of the late Yakoob Beg. + +The Kara Khitay, who had migrated from the country bordering on the +Amoor and the north of China, after long wanderings, had settled in the +western parts of Jungaria, and, having founded the city of Ili, in +course of time formed, in union with some Turkish tribes, a powerful and +cohesive administration. Their chief was styled Gorkhan, Lord of Lords, +and their religion was Buddhism. It was of this tribe, according to +some, that the celebrated Prester John, or King John, was supposed to be +the chief in the Middle Ages. Some neighbours who had been harassed by +predatory tribes came to Gorkhan for assistance, which was willingly +conceded; but, having successfully repulsed the Kipchaks and other +tribes, this leader did not withdraw from the country he had occupied as +a friend and ally. Not only did he then annex Kashgar and Khoten, but he +crossed the Pamir into the province of Ferghana, and in a short period +brought Bokhara, Samarcand, and Tashkent under his dominion. This +extensive empire was of very brief duration however, and civil war was +waged for more than half a century after the first successes of Gorkhan, +in which Khiva, or Khwaresm, and the Kara Khitay fought for supremacy. A +chief of the Naiman tribe of Christians, Koshluk by name, then entered +the lists against the aged Gorkhan, who was, after some hard fighting, +defeated and captured. This was in the year 1214. Koshluk's triumph was +also, however, of very brief duration, for he now came into contact with +one of the most formidable antagonists that the soil of Asia has ever +produced, Genghis Khan. + +The Mongols or Mughols began to appear as a distinct tribe about the +same time that the Kara Khitay migrated to Jungaria, and as early as the +commencement of the twelfth century they had carried destruction into +the Chinese provinces of Shensi and Kansuh. When Genghis Khan appeared +upon the scene he found the tribe which he was destined to lead to such +great triumphs in a state of singular strength, and its neighbours +either at discord among themselves or only just recovering from a long +period of anarchy. The Chinese were particularly divided at that moment, +and Genghis Khan, who had family connections in that empire, soon found +it an easy task to lead successful inroads into the heart of his rich +but defenceless neighbour. Genghis Khan was born at Dylon Yulduc, in the +year 1154. His father, Mysoka Bahadur, was a great warrior, and waged +several successful wars with the Tartars. The earlier years of Genghis +Khan were occupied exclusively in overcoming the difficulties of his own +position. His tribe, divided into several distinct bodies, formed only +one confederacy when a foe had to be encountered in the field. It +required years to remove the dislike they experienced at submission to a +distinct authority; and it was only when the renown of his military +achievements threw a halo over his name that these tribes could be +induced to acknowledge a supremacy which they had become powerless to +resist. But during these years, when he led a life unknown and +insignificant as the chief of a small nomad clan, he was all the time +preparing for a wider career, and for a more extended authority. It was +while he was residing in the remote district round the salt springs of +Baljuna that he drew up the code on which his administrative system was +founded. It was based on the fundamental principle of obedience to the +head, on the maintenance of order and sobriety in the ranks of the +warriors, and on the equal participation in the spoils of battle by all; +but its regulations were so strict on the former points, and the gain of +the individual had to be so completely sacrificed for the advantage of +the many, that at first the establishment of this code of order had +rather the effect of driving his followers from him, than of attracting +to his standard zealots capable of the conquest of a world. It was not +until the year 1203, when he was nearly forty-nine years of age, that +Genghis Khan succeeded in bringing all the Mongol tribes under his +leadership. No sooner had he accomplished this much than he embarked on +military enterprises, which, in the course of a very few years, placed +the greater part of Asia at his disposal. Having subjugated various +Tartar and Tangut tribes, he included them in his military organization, +and by making them embrace his system of compulsory service in the army, +he found himself in the possession of an enormous following. Genghis +Khan therefore ruled at the time we have specified over Kashgar, +including Khoten, Jungaria, and the Tangut country; and there was no +force capable of opposing his except, in the east China, and in the west +the government of Khiva, at this period omnipotent in Western Turkestan. +The rumours which reached the Shah of Khwaresm of the formation of this +new confederacy in Mugholistan induced him to send an embassy to +discover the true facts of the case, and accordingly, while Genghis Khan +was prosecuting a war against the Chinese, there arrived in his camp the +emissaries of Western Asia. Haughty and imperious as this conqueror +undoubtedly was, he received the embassy affably, and with expressions +of the deepest friendship. He sent them back with rich presents and the +following characteristic message:--"I am King of the East. Thou art King +of the West. Let merchants come and go between us and exchange the +products of our countries." In furtherance of this wish he sent a +mission composed of merchants and officials to represent the advantages +that would be derived from mutual intercourse. But the Shah of Khiva, +either incredulous of the formidableness of the adversary with whom he +had to deal, or mistaking his own strength, did not reciprocate the +amicable expressions of Genghis Khan, nor, when the merchants who had +been despatched to his country were murdered, did he make any offer of +reparation. Such treatment would not be tolerated by any civilized ruler +of the nineteenth century, much less was it brooked by an irresponsible +conqueror, whose will was his sole law, in the thirteenth. As soon as +his campaign with China had closed with success, Genghis Khan made +every preparation for the punishment of this act of treachery. It was +then that Genghis Khan, with an armed horde of many hundred thousands, +burst upon the astonished peoples of Western Asia like a meteor from the +east. It was then that some of the fairest regions of the earth were +given over to a soldiery to devastate, a soldiery who had raised the +work of destruction to the level of one of the fine arts; and whose +handiwork in Bokhara, Balkh, Samarcand, Khiva and the lost cities of the +desert, is to be seen clearly imprinted in the ruins which mark the site +of ancient capitals, even at the present moment, 700 years after the +Tartar conqueror swept all resistance from his path. Afghanistan, and +the mountain ranges which are now considered to be impassable by +Russians, did not retard the progress of this "Scourge of God." Cabul, +Candahar, Ghizni fell to the warriors of far distant Mongolia, as they +fell not forty years ago to British valour, and as they must again fall +when the onset shall be made with equal intrepidity and with equal +discipline. And not content with having defaced the map of Asia, with +having converted rich and populous cities into masses of ruins, and with +having depopulated regions once prolific in all that makes life +enjoyable, Genghis Khan carried the terror of his name into the most +remote recesses of the Hindoo Koosh. He wintered in the district of Swat +on our north-west frontier, a territory which is quite unknown to us +except by hearsay, and which has only been occupied by the Mongol and +Macedonian conquerors. From his headquarters on the banks of the +Panjkora he sent messengers to Delhi; and it is uncertain whether he did +not meditate the addition of an Indian triumph to those already +obtained. + +A rebellion in the far eastern portion of his dominions distracted his +attention from the Indus, and he was compelled to hasten with all speed +to quell in person the rising that was jeopardising his position in the +seat of his power. He hastily broke up from his quarters in Swat, and, +by the valley of the Kunar and Chitral, he entered Kashgar, through the +Baroghil Pass. Although he suffered much loss from a journey across +mountain roads, which were scarcely practicable in the early spring, he +succeeded in reaching Yarkand, with his main body, and hastening across +Turkestan arrived at Karakoram, his capital, in time to quell the +disturbance. After this his life was spent in conquering China, a feat +which he never accomplished. But in several campaigns, extending over a +period of about twenty years, he worsted the Imperial troops so +continually, that before his death, in 1227, he had occupied all the +northern provinces of that empire, with Pekin, and left to his son and +successor, Ogdai Khan, the task of completing the work which he had +commenced. On the death of Genghis Khan, his vast possessions were +divided amongst his children, and Kashgar, including Jungaria, Khwaresm, +and Afghanistan, fell to the lot of Chaghtai Khan. This ruler was able +to hold during his life the extensive territory he had succeeded to; but +on his death dissensions broke out in all quarters of the country, and +produced a fresh distribution of the various provinces. It may be +mentioned that, although Chaghtai was a fanatical Buddhist and a +confirmed debauchee, he was a prudent and sagacious ruler, and no +unworthy successor to his distinguished father. The dissensions that +broke out on his decease continued, with more or less violence, for a +period of almost 100 years after that event took place, and they finally +only received a momentary solution in the formation of a new kingdom of +Mugholistan, or Jattah Ulus, as it was more specifically called, under +one of Chaghtai's descendants. + +As briefly and as clearly as possible, we will endeavour to lay before +the reader the chief events of this troubled epoch, when the numerous +progeny of Genghis Khan warred throughout the whole extent of Central +Asia, and a term was only at last placed to their restlessness by their +disappearance. In the first place, it may be as well to mention, that +the religions of Christ, Buddha, and Mahomed, were equally tolerated in +Eastern Turkestan during the greater part of this period. The Arab +invasion and the advance of Islam, had been hurled back beyond Bokhara +"the Holy," by the victorious arms of the great Buddhist conqueror, +Genghis Khan; and for a long period after the Mongol conquests, little +was heard of attempts at conversion to the tenets of the "true Prophet." +But it must not be supposed that, although Genghis Khan, in the sack of +Bokhara, had almost exterminated the race of Mahomedan priests, he was +disposed to stamp out the new heresy from his realms. Having crushed its +power in the field, he was quite content to let it live on or die out, +so long as his imperial or personal interests were not affected. So we +have the strange picture before us, of the three great doctrines of the +earth flourishing side by side in Eastern Turkestan in the fourteenth +century. The Nestorian Christians of Kashgar, who in the time of Marco +Polo were rich and flourishing, were obliged later on to succumb to the +violent measures of the other members of the community, and have +entirely disappeared for many centuries. + +Shortly after the death of Chaghtai Khan, Kaidu, a great-grandson of +Genghis, obtained the throne of Kashgar and Yarkand; and a few years +later on, by a skilful piece of diplomacy, backed up by force, added +thereto the greater part of Khokand and Bokhara. His triumph was, +however, of brief duration, and he was displaced by other competitors. +Dava Khan, the son of Burac, the great-grandson of Chaghtai, had been +appointed governor of Khoten, but his ambition was not satisfied with +less than the throne of Western Turkestan also. He eventually obtained +his desire; but in a rash moment he threw himself in the path of the +Chinese Emperor, Timour Khan, who was returning from a raid carried +almost to the gates of Lahore. He was defeated somewhere in the +neighbourhood of Maralbashi, and was compelled to acknowledge the +supremacy of China. He is of some note to us, as having been the father +of Azmill Khoja, who was selected as ruler by the people themselves, +about the year 1310, and from whom descend that line of Khoja kings of +Kashgar, who have clung to their hereditary claims for a longer time +than any other royal Central Asian house. The last of the Chaghtai Khans +who held the sceptre with any effective purpose, was Kazan Ameer. On his +death another period of trouble broke out, and military governors and +rival princelets of dubious titles advanced their pretensions to the +vacant seat. Up to this all the rulers had, however, been Buddhists. +Toghluc Timour, one of the few remaining representatives of the Genghis +families, had only been saved by the pity of a leading man in Kashgar, +from one of the most extensive massacres of his kinsmen, and for years +he was obliged to lead an uncertain existence in the mountains or +deserts bordering on the state. His associations were all Buddhist; but +one day he was so struck by the definition of the "true faith" given by +the descendant of a Mahomedan priest, spared by Genghis Khan at the +destruction of Bokhara, that he made a vow to become a Mussulman when he +had regained his rights. Not long after this the turn of events in +Kashgar made people seek for some person with recognized claims to be +their ruler, and none in this respect surpassed Toghluc Timour. He, on +succeeding to the throne, openly owned his conversion to Islam, and in a +few years he was gradually imitated by all the leading chiefs of +Turkestan. From this time downwards to the present day, the religion of +the majority in this state has been Mahomedanism, except perhaps during +the Chinese rule, when the number of Chinese merchants, officials, and +soldiers, put the minority of the followers of Buddha on a par with +those of the rival religion. Toghluc died in 1362. + +It was about this time that the second great conqueror of Asia appeared +upon the scene. Timour was born in 1333 in the Shahrisebz suburb of +Kish. He was the son of Turghay, governor of that district and chief of +the Birlas tribe, and on the death of his father he himself became +governor of Kish also. During his earlier years he was hospitably +received at the Court of Kazan Ameer, and that ruler, in addition to +giving him several high and distinguished appointments, married him to +his beautiful granddaughter Olja Turkan Khaton. Timour did not continue +long in favour at Court. His restless spirit impelled him to fields of +greater activity than any the Ameer could, or indeed felt disposed to, +place at his disposal. He openly mutinied against the central authority +in his government of Kish, and on being overthrown by the troops of the +state, he sought safety with his wife among the Turcomans of the Khivan +desert. Among these uncertain nomads he felt scarcely secure, and +collecting round him a small band of desperadoes, he entered upon a more +ambitious enterprise by undertaking a marauding expedition into the +Persian province of Seistan. This was attended with considerable +success, but he himself was wounded in the foot by an arrow. From the +effects of this wound he never completely recovered, and was known +henceforth as Timour Lang, Timour the Lame, whence the well-known name +of Tamerlane. The _eclat_ obtained by this marauding expedition stood +him in good stead, for shortly afterwards he was able to raise a +sufficient force to invade Tashkent. He occupied the whole of what is +now Russian Khokand including Ferghana, and he placed a fresh occupant +on the throne, Kabil Shah, in 1363. In the following years he contended +for supremacy with another chief named Husen, and in 1369 had so far +been victorious that he threw off the mask, and declared himself king. +He made Samarcand his capital, and converted that once populous city +into the wonder and admiration of Western Asia. Having settled his +internal affairs, he commenced operations against the states lying +beyond his border. The mountaineers of Badakshan were the first to incur +his wrath, and after several stubborn battles they were obliged to +acknowledge his supremacy. He then turned his attention to his northern +frontiers, beyond which the Jattah princes reigned in Jungaria. He +overcame their prince, Kamaruddin, in several encounters, but not with +complete success until his final campaign against him in 1390. As he +advanced they retired to the fastnesses east of Lake Issik Kul, and only +reissued from their hiding-places when the invader had withdrawn. + +To return to Kashgar, on the death of Toghluc, his son Khize Khoja was +displaced and did not regain possession of his kingdom till 1383, when +he was thirty years of age. He was a stanch Mussulman, and was on terms +of as much amity and as close alliance with Timour as it was possible +for any neighbour, wishing to preserve his independence, to be. Allied +as he was with, yet not participating in the wars of Timour, against the +Jattahs, he suffered in common with those people from the expedition of +1389-90, when both sides of the Tian Shan were ravaged by the armies of +that ruler. Although for the next fifteen years they maintained friendly +relations, it can easily be imagined that Khize Khoja was not very +comfortable with so formidable a suzerain just over his frontiers. The +irksomeness of the position is well illustrated by the orders +transmitted to Khize Khoja by Timour, to have corn planted and cattle +collected at certain places for the immense army which he was levying +for the invasion of China. It was while engaged in fulfilling these +commands, that news reached the ruler of Kashgar that this "Scourge of +God" had died suddenly on the 5th of February, 1405. Khize Khoja himself +survived but a short time afterwards. For the second time within the +short space of 150 years had the possessions of a great conqueror to +undergo the process of redistribution. In Timour's case it was simpler +than it had been in that of Genghis Khan, for the former ruler left no +worthy representative of his cause as the Mongol conqueror had in Ogdai +and Chaghtai. The branches of the great family of Genghis struck root so +deeply, that down to modern times he has had descendants who perpetuate +his name, but Timour left none such. With the death of his favourite son +Jehangir, his hopes of having a worthy successor expired. + +Kashgar was in particular the scene of confusion and trouble, and it was +not until about 1445 that any settled government was attained, when +Seyyid Ali, grandson of the aged and patriotic minister Khudadar, +restored some order and cohesion to the distracted country for a short +period. He died in 1457. During these years Yunus, king of Jungaria, +played a very prominent part in all the disturbances that were occurring +on his borders. He is represented to have been a very enlightened +prince, and emissaries from foreign nations returned from his court +relating with surprise how they had found a courteous and refined man +where they expected to have seen a coarse and savage Mongol. While Yunus +ruled in Jungaria another striking individual was predominant in +Kashgar. Ababakar, son of Saniz, who was the son of Seyyid Ali, ruler of +Kashgar, was one of the few sovereigns of that state whose acts entitle +them to consideration. During a long and troubled tenure of power he had +the good fortune to overcome many difficulties, and although his career +was to become clouded before his death, the brilliant years that +preceded the catastrophe justify us in considering his career for a +little while. He was a great athlete, hunter and soldier, and was so +favoured by his mother on that account that he distanced his brethren in +the race for supremacy. As governor of Khoten he soon absorbed Yarkand, +and long and furious were the wars he waged with Hydar, the ruler of +Kashgar, who was assisted by Yunus of Jungaria. Nor, although successful +on several occasions in the field against the allied forces, could +Ababakar hope to overcome the huge armies at the disposal of Yunus; and +it was not until Hydar himself foolishly broke off from Yunus, that +Ababakar succeeded in asserting his claim to all Eastern Turkestan. War +then broke out between Hydar and Yunus, and the latter with the +assistance of large reinforcements from Jungaria overthrew and captured +his former ally. But these dissensions favoured the cause of Ababakar, +and on the death of Yunus in 1486, his possession of Kashgar became +undisputed. The first serious danger with which he was menaced after his +complete possession of Kashgar, was in 1499, when Ahmad, the son of +Yunus, or Alaja the "slayer," as he was generally called, invaded his +territory at the head of the Jattah Mongols. The campaign was in the +commencement indecisive, but Ababakar before long triumphed over his +northern invader. + +During the next fifteen years Ababakar ruled in peace and prosperity in +Kashgar, accumulating great riches and presenting an object of +attraction to his covetous neighbours. During these years the country, +although ruled in an arbitrary way, flourished, and, as one of the +native chronicles put it, "A traveller could go from Andijan to Hamil on +the borders of China without fear of molestation, and without having to +make an extra long march in order to find a place wherein to rest and +obtain refreshment." But in 1513 a storm broke upon his country that +resulted in his complete overthrow. Said, son of Ahmad and brother of +Mansur, who was ruling in Jungaria, undertook the invasion of Kashgar in +that year, and it was not long before he occupied Kashgar, which, +however, Ababakar left but a heap of ruins. His advance on Yangy Hissar +was opposed, but, having defeated the army of Kashgar before that city, +he occupied it without any further opposition, and thus secured what +has been called the key of Yarkand as well as of Kashgar. For some +months Ababakar remained shut up in Yarkand, but on the approach of +Said's army he abandoned that position and fled to Khoten. But not long +afterwards he retired still further into the mountainous country +south-east of Kashgar, and halted some time at Karanghotagh. But being +first plundered and then deserted by his attendants, he withdrew into +the valleys and deserts of the Tibetan table-land. For many months he +wandered, half-starved and solitary, in this deserted region, and at +last it was reported that he had been found murdered by some of the +mountaineers. Such was the end of the once magnificent Ababakar, a +prince who in his fortunes reminds us very much of the great Darius. +That he was avaricious is clear to those who read of the great treasures +he had stored away; that he was bloodthirsty and cruel is impossible of +denial; but that he possessed in his earlier years many of the virtues, +with some of the vices, of a great ruler is equally incontestable. His +son Jehangir, whom he had left in command at Yarkand, on the approach of +the army of Said fled to Sanju, and was in a few months captured and +executed. About this epoch the third great Asiatic conqueror was +appearing on the scene. Babur was born in 1481, and was chosen to +succeed his father Uman Sheikh on the throne of Khokand, by the nobles +of that state, when he was only twelve years of age. This conqueror of +India influenced but indirectly the fortunes or Kashgar. His career was +in another sphere, and it is not necessary here to enter into any +description of his life, such as has been given of his predecessors +Genghis Khan and Timour. + +Said, having overcome Ababakar, employed himself in extending his rule +over the neighbouring states. He was seized with the desire of occupying +that mountainous region, which is divided into almost as many petty +states as it contains mountain chains, lying between our Indian +frontier and the Pamir and Badakshan. But although he employed all his +resources in endeavouring to subject the Kafirs of Bolor, or Kafiristan +as it is now called, he was unable to make any permanent additions in +this direction. In other years he carried fire and sword into Tibet and +Cashmere; and it was when returning from one of these expeditions, in +the year 1532, that he expired from the effects of the rarefied +atmosphere, near the Karakoram pass. His death was the signal for the +outbreak of fresh disturbances. His legitimate sons were ousted by +Rashid, the son of Said by a slave, who had already distinguished +himself as a general in the wars against Kafiristan and Tibet, and on +the death of Rashid after a brief reign, the confusion became, if +possible, worse confounded. It would be tedious in the extreme to follow +the variations that now took place. Benedict Goes, a Portuguese +missionary and traveller, found a ruler named Mahomed Khan on the throne +in 1603, by whom he was hospitably received; but as he had placed the +sister of the Khan, when returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca, under an +obligation to him, this is scarcely a fair criterion either of the +personal merits of this ruler, or of the state of civilization to which +the country had attained. + +It was now that the Khoja family appeared prominently upon the scene. +Two factions were playing the parts of Montagu and Capulet in Eastern +Turkestan in the earlier years of the seventeenth century. They were +known as the Aktaghluc and Karataghluc, and in the course of their +strife the leader of the former called in to his aid the Khoja Kalar of +Khodjent, a descendant of Azmill before mentioned. It was in the year +1618 that this Khoja first came to Kashgar, and his grandson, +Hadayatulla, was the chief means of attracting the affections of the +people to this family. That veneration has not disappeared to-day, and +the Hazrat Afak, as he is generally spoken of, is scarcely inferior in +the eyes of the people to Mahomed himself. The great miracles he is +reported to have wrought, and the peculiar sanctity which attached to +him during his life, gave him complete ascendancy throughout the +country, and before his death he was entrusted with the supreme +authority. His son, Yahya or Khan Khoja, succeeded him during his +lifetime, but was murdered in a riot a few months after the death of +Hadayatulla. Then recommenced with fresh vigour the old series of +disturbances. Aspirant after aspirant appeared in the political arena, +but, as each had little claim to lead on account of original merit, a +successful rival always was forthcoming, and so this wearying cycle +continued until 1720. + +The course of the history of Kashgar has now been brought down to the +commencement of the eighteenth century, during which a fresh change +occurred in the history of the country by the Chinese conquest. It may +be well, therefore, before narrating that event and the causes which +immediately produced it, to consider the chief lessons taught us by the +history of Eastern Turkestan, as revealed in the preceding pages. The +most cursory reader must have been struck by the fact, that only twice +in the course of eight centuries did the country secure a firm and +settled government, and they were when two conquerors, Genghis Khan and +Tamerlane, reduced every semblance of authority to one bare level of +subjection. At fitful moments there arose, indeed, some leader, Yunus, +Ababakar, or the first Khojas, capable of preserving for a few years his +frontiers against the inroads of hostile neighbours, and of maintaining +an outward show of prosperity and tranquillity to foreign travellers; +but even such gleams of sunshine as these were transitory on the dark +horizon of the condition of mankind in Central Asia. With the fall of +each pretender, too, hopes of an improvement became fainter in the +breasts of the people; and when the successors of the Khoja saint showed +themselves not less amenable to the errors and frailties of their +predecessors than any past ruler had been, it was to some extraneous +circumstance, we may feel sure, that the people looked for aid. There is +an old saying in this part of the world, that when "the people's tithe +of bricks is full, then comes a Moses in the land;" and it cannot be +doubted that in the year 1720 the people of Kashgar had suffered much +and for so long, that relief, so that it came effectually from some +quarter or another, could not be otherwise than welcome. But the Moses +who had been, for centuries almost, expected, had as yet not proved +forthcoming, and as "hope deferred maketh the heart sick," so had the +Kashgari lost the courage even to look forward to a period when their +life of misery, under oppressive tyrants and exorbitant taxation, +aggravated by every form of peculation in its levy, might be changed for +a more favourable state of being. There can be no doubt that if the +chaos which reigned throughout Jungaria and Kashgar had continued much +longer those vast regions would have been completely exhausted. As it +was the population decreased in alarming proportions, and the wealth and +general resources of the country disappeared with no apparent means of +supplying the gap. What is, perhaps, most surprising of all is that all +these later rulers seem to have lived in a sort of fools' paradise with +regard to the resources of their state. The thought never seems to have +occurred to them that there must be an end some day or other to a realm +distracted by continual wars and sedition, and that subjects who have +been tyrannised over for centuries will at last rise up in arms and +teach their tyrants, in the words of the poet, "how much the wretched +dare." These Khans or Ameers of Central Asia are not worthy of one +moment's consideration for their own sake; but, as some account of them +is a proper preparation for the modern history of Kashgar, they have +been described in this chapter. From the disappearance of Chinese +authority in Central and Western Asia in the eighth and ninth +centuries, down to the commencement of the eighteenth century, the +history of Kashgar, in common with that of its neighbours, was a series +of misfortunes. There is nothing to attract our sympathies in any of the +rulers, with the exception perhaps of Yunus; and all our commiseration +is monopolised for the unhappy races who peopled that region. We +therefore have arrived at this crisis in a fit state to appreciate the +feelings of the Kashgari at the changes that occurred in the eighteenth +century; and before we consider, in a fresh chapter, those alterations +we may close this without regret at the disappearance of a long line of +Central Asian Khans, who possessed scarcely one redeeming quality among +many vices. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE CONQUEST OF KASHGAR BY CHINA. + + +Before continuing the narrative of the events that took place in Kashgar +after the year 1720, until it fell into the hands of the Chinese in +1760, it may be as well to consider briefly the history of China, in +order that it may be intelligible to us how that power was induced to +undertake such far distant enterprises, and how, moreover, it was able +to accomplish them successfully. In the earlier years of the seventeenth +century the dynasty of Ming was seated on the throne of Pekin, but its +power had been shaken to its foundations by repeated disasters in wars +with the Mantchoo Tartars, who had wrested the province of Leaou Tung +from the Emperor Wan-leh, before his death in 1620. The Mantchoos are +said to have been the descendants of the Mongol conquerors of the +thirteenth century, who had been forced to take refuge in the wilds +north of China when the native Chinese rose up and destroyed their +power. Whether this very plausible suggestion be true or not, or +whether, as some affirm, these were a new race issuing from the frozen +regions of Kamschatka and driven south by the necessity for obtaining +sustenance for their increasing numbers, matters little for our present +purpose. It is certain that they were a warlike people at this time, and +that they could bring considerable numbers into the field, and it is +very probable that, when they had obtained some success, their ranks +were swollen by recruits from their Tartar kinsmen of Eastern Jungaria. +On the death of the Chinese Emperor Wan-leh, dissensions broke out in +China as to his successor, and in the struggle that ensued the Mantchoos +were invited in to support the cause of one of the claimants. Their aid +turned the scale in his favour; but when the fortunes of war had been +clearly manifested, the Mantchoos showed no disposition to take their +departure as had been stipulated. As the Saxons in our own history, and +the Mongols in the Chinese had acted, so now did the Mantchoos, and in +1644 their first Emperor Chuntche was installed in the imperial +dignities, as the first of the present ruling dynasty of Tatsing, or +"sublimely pure," When Chuntche was crowned by his victorious soldiery, +it must not be supposed that he had conquered the whole of China. During +the seventeen years of his reign he was constantly engaged in warring +with the native Chinese forces; but always with invariable success. In +1661 Kanghi, his son, ascended the throne, and by a series of judicious +measures and successful enterprises, firmly maintained the position won +in China by his father. It was during this brilliant reign that Tibet +was annexed to the Chinese Empire, and from Cochin-China and the +frontiers of Birma to the River Amoor there was none to question the +power of the Mantchoo Government. It cannot be doubted that the conquest +of Tibet opened up fresh ideas in the minds of the Chinese as to their +right to rule in Eastern Turkestan; and with the re-assertion of their +old suzerainty over the Tibetan table-land, the remembrance of a similar +claim, at a far distant epoch, over Jungaria and Turkestan would be +forced on the minds of the Chinese people, until some ambitious ruler or +viceroy might avail himself of the opportunity of distinction by +acquiescing in, and giving effect to, the popular desire. Kanghi was too +prudent to jeopardize his recently consolidated state by expeditions +either into Jungaria or Turkestan; and was quite satisfied with the +respect shown to his empire by the Eleuthian princes of those regions. +On Kanghi's death, in 1721, his son, Yung-Ching, came to the throne, +and during his short reign, the example of his two predecessors not to +interfere in the troubles of the states lying beyond Kansuh, was closely +followed. Yung-Ching died in 1735, and thus made way for his ambitious +and warlike son, Keen-Lung. When Keen-Lung first commenced to reign for +himself he found that he was irresponsible ruler of a most powerful +empire, at peace within itself, and satisfied to all outward seeming +with its _de facto_ government. His treasury was full; the country was, +perhaps, at its very highest point of prosperity, and the sovereign had +only to maintain in this wealth and vigour the nation which had been +brought to such a pitch by the wisdom of his predecessors. To a warlike +monarch, however, the career of ruler of a thriving, peace-loving, and +domestic people, has never been a palatable one, and Keen-Lung thought, +as have many other great sovereigns of our own age, that the only use of +a wealthy and numerous subject race was to enable the ruler to undertake +high-sounding enterprises, and to spread the terror of his name through +distant regions. The reputation and the real strength of the Chinese +Empire were so great at this time in Asia, that no single power, or even +any possible confederacy, would have thought of entering the lists +against it. Keen-Lung had, therefore, no just cause for hostilities with +the neighbouring states, as they were always too willing to offer the +amplest reparation for any cause of offence to the Imperial dignity. The +conquest of Turkestan was therefore an object with which he would +heartily sympathise; and when we remember his warlike disposition, and +the exact condition of China at the time, possessing a superabundance of +wealth, and of numbers sufficient to achieve far more difficult +enterprises than the one in question, it is easier to understand the +eagerness with which Keen-Lung intervened in the affairs of Jungaria, +when the following opportunity, which we are about to narrate, offered +for so doing. + +It is now time to return to Kashgar and narrate the events that were +happening in that troubled district. The feud between the Aktaghluc and +Karataghluc factions reached its height when Afak, who had been placed +on the throne of Yarkand by the Calmucks, under Galdan, the chief +representative of the Aktaghluc, succeeded in expelling all the +prominent supporters of the rival clan. Afak ruled for some years, but +with difficulty maintained himself in some parts of Kashgar, against the +Calmucks, Kirghiz, and Kipchak. His sons had no better fortune, and the +state was finally divided between a Kipchak and a Kirghiz leader. These +quarrelled between themselves, but happily they each expired in the +first encounter. Acbash, one of the sons of Afak, was executed at Yangy +Hissar in the course of this contention; but he had previously called in +to his assistance from Khodjent, in Khokand, a Khoja, Danyal, of the +rival Karataghluc faction. This roused the enmity of the more bitter +among the Aktaghluc, and, on this, Khoja Ahmad was brought in to +represent their interests. Danyal was besieged in Yarkand, but, with the +assistance of a contingent of Kirghiz, he was able to repulse his +assailants. But, although successful in the field, Danyal was compelled +shortly afterwards to flee, and leave his rival in possession of the +state. He fled to the Calmucks, in Jungaria, and pleaded so well, that +an army was lent him to regain Kashgar. Victory attended this +expedition, but the Calmuck leader, who had captured Ahmad at the siege +of Kashgar, instead of placing Danyal in power, took both him and his +rival as prisoners to his capital of Ili. With so forcible a settlement +of the question, little room was left for useless complaining to the +ambitious Danyal, and from this time down to the Chinese conquest, the +Calmuck rulers of Ili asserted their right to supremacy over Eastern +Turkestan. Danyal, himself, was appointed, some years later on, governor +of Kashgar, now called Alty Shahr, or six cities; but, under him, there +was a local governor for each town, appointed by the Calmucks +themselves. His power was more apparent than real. His eldest son was +kept at Ili as a hostage for the good behaviour of his father, and +Danyal, himself, had frequently to proceed to Ili to make his report on +the state of affairs in Kashgar. Such was the condition of Kashgar, as a +subject province of the Calmuck rulers of Ili, governed by Danyal, a +member of the Karataghluc party, in the year 1740. On the death of +Galdan, the son of Arabdan Khan of Jungaria, in 1745, two chiefs, +Amursana and Davatsi, or Tawats, seized the governing power, and for a +time they divided the authority fairly between them; but it was not long +before they fell out, and resolved to advance their own interests at the +expense of each other. Amursana was unable to cope with the armies of +his rival, Davatsi, and, having been defeated in several encounters, +fled from Jungaria to China. On his arrival at Lanchefoo he demanded +permission to proceed to Pekin to lay his grievances at the feet of the +Emperor, and to offer in his name, and in that of many of his +compatriots, the districts of Ili and of Kashgar to his omnipotent +majesty. + +The request was granted, and Keen-Lung received him with favour, +promised to consider what he had stated, and, in the meanwhile, gave him +titles and revenues within the Chinese Empire. Amursana's address was so +insinuating, and he played so skilfully on the king's ambition and love +for military renown, that at last Keen-Lung consented to lend him the +forces, which he had been so lavish of promises to secure. In 1753, the +Chinese army, under Amursana, appeared in Jungaria, and, after several +desperate encounters, Davatsi was driven out of that state, and, +according to one account, was delivered up to the Chinese by Khojam Beg, +the governor of Ush Turfan. According to another version, he was +captured in the field; but both agree that he was taken to Pekin and +there executed. Amursana, having regained his position in Jungaria, now +turned his attention to the conquest of its dependency, Kashgar. He was +now supreme in Jungaria, with his capital at Ili; but his army, which +maintained him in his position, was a Khitay force, owing allegiance +solely to the Emperor of Pekin, and only obeying the instructions issued +by his general accompanying the Eleuth prince Amursana. At this epoch +Yusuf, a son of Galdan, had seized the chief authority in Kashgar, and, +raising a cry that the true religion of Islam was in danger from the +advance of the Khitay, endeavoured to rally to his cause in the struggle +that he saw was approaching the Mahomedan governments of Khokand and +Bokhara. Amursana, on the northern frontiers of Kashgar, was eagerly +watching for the opportunity to arise for an active interference in that +state, and Yusuf was prudent in seeking beyond his frontiers for allies +that were able to assist him against the machinations of his foes. Yusuf +had made himself the leader and representative of the Karataghluc party +in the state, and Amursana accordingly resolved to put forward the +pretensions of the rival Aktaghluc faction. In this design the Chinese +general acquiesced, and, with the assistance of the Calmuck governors of +Ush Turfan, and Aksu, no delay interfered with its prompt realization. +The descendants of the ancient Khojas were consequently sought out, and +Barhanuddin, son of Ahmad, was selected for the purpose. He, at the head +of a mixed following, promptly seized Ush Turfan, and was there received +with acclamation, and several of the minor tribes joined him at once. +Yusuf was, however, hurrying up with a large force from Yarkand, and +Barhanuddin's chances seemed to be more than doubtful, when Yusuf died +on the way. His son Abdulla, who took the name of Khoja Padshah, +hastened on, however, and besieged Barhanuddin in Ush Turfan. Abdulla +then endeavoured to come to terms with Barhanuddin, and made overtures +for the reconciliation of the Karataghluc and Aktaghluc parties to be +cemented in a crusade against the invading Khitay. Barhanuddin, a true +Mussulman, was personally inclined to accept the arrangement offered, +but, as he was surrounded by Chinese officials and their allies, he was +constrained to give instead the advice that Abdulla should surrender to +the Chinese and acknowledge their supremacy. Abdulla was not at all +willing to forfeit his independence without some struggle, and the siege +of Ush Turfan was pressed on. In the camp of the besieging forces there +were some who favoured the pretensions of Barhanuddin, and these +deserting from the Karataghluc cause, the remaining forces of Abdulla +were compelled to retreat with precipitation. Barhanuddin immediately +advanced on Kashgar, where he was received with open arms. Yarkand soon +afterwards fell into his possession, and the conquest of Kashgar by the +descendant of the Khojas and the triumph of the Aktaghluc party were +complete. + +So far the Chinese had been merely spectators of the progress of events +in Kashgar. Amursana had induced them to approve of this enterprise of +Barhanuddin, and they had given general support in the war with Yusuf +and his son; and it was not until Barhanuddin, elated with his success, +set their wishes at defiance, that they resolved to occupy the country. +But before that, Amursana's career had been cut short. Although escorted +by a large force of native Chinese troops, he had aspired, in 1757, to +establish himself as an independent prince in Jungaria, and had broken +loose from Chinese control. The forces he raised were, however, defeated +with remarkable ease by the Chinese, and Amursana was compelled to flee +once more from his home--this time with no certain refuge, as he had +before in Pekin. The Russians were then in possession of Siberia, but +their influence for good or for ill beyond their desert and almost +impenetrable stations was practically _nil_; but, such as it was, it +seemed to Amursana the only place affording any prospect of security. +He died at Tobolsk, in 1757, soon after he arrived there; but the +implacable Chinese haughtily demanded from the Russians his body as a +proof of his decease, and the Russian government sent it to Kiachta for +surrender to them. Such was the career of the ill-fated, but ambitious, +Amursana, who was the immediate cause of the introduction of Chinese +power into Eastern Turkestan. + +With so unmistakable a proof before his eyes of the power of the +Chinese, it is strange to find Barhanuddin also proving contumacious in +Kashgar, but so it was. In 1758, the very next year after the death of +Amursana, this ruler and his brother Khan Khoja broke out in open mutiny +to the Chinese. At Ili some Khitay officers were maltreated, and +outspoken contempt was shown for Chinese commands. Such attitude could +not be brooked by any established rule, and, to do the Chinese simple +justice, never had been tolerated by them on any occasion; and +accordingly a Chinese army was despatched from Ili to chastise this +recalcitrant ruler, and to remind him that the arm of Chinese power was +terribly long. Barhanuddin and his brother were defeated in several +pitched battles, city after city opened its gates to the dreaded +invader, and the last representatives of the Khojas were compelled to +seek refuge in the isolated region of Badakshan. But even here they were +not safe. The terror of the Chinese name had gone before them, and the +sovereign of Badakshan, eager to propitiate the conqueror, sent the +heads of the two brothers to the Chinese general, who was advancing from +Yarkand. Only one of the numerous sons of Barhanuddin escaped the +destruction wrought in the family of the Khojas by the victorious +Chinese: his name was Khoja Sarimsak. The Chinese had now completely +annexed all the territory north of the Karakoram and east of the Pamir +and Khokand, and it does not appear that in doing so they had suffered +any great loss. By availing themselves of Amursana's claims in Jungaria +they had obtained a firm foothold in that state, and then by an equally +skilful manipulation of the rival parties of Aktaghluc and Karataghluc, +they had extended their authority over Kashgar as well. When their +puppets, Amursana and Barhanuddin, became restive as Chinese vassals, +and strove for independence, the Chinese forces were called into action +and swept all opposition from their path. All this may seem the most +unjustifiable ambition, nor do we wish to palliate in any way the +terribly harsh repressive measures adopted by the Chinese. There is no +doubt that, so long as there remained the shadow of any opposition to +their rule, they did not temper their power with any exhibition of +mercy. It is computed that almost half a million of people were slain +during the wars of these two or three years, and that the great majority +of these were the innocent inhabitants, who had been massacred. Nor, +although we should be disposed to think that this is a greatly +exaggerated number, have we any reason to doubt that the sword of the +Chinese was called into use whenever any resistance was offered to their +advance, and that the feelings of the soldiers were embittered to a +great extent by religious fervour, in their encounters with the +Mussulmans. The Chinese, having conquered Kashgar, turned their arms +against Khokand, and entered Tashkent and the city of Khokand in +triumph. As the year 1760 was drawing to a close, quite a panic was +spreading through Western Asia at the advance of the Chinese. +Afghanistan, then as now the only formidable Mahomedan territory left +intact from foreign conquest, was implored by the suffering Islamites to +check the Chinese advance. Then, as recently on a somewhat similar +occasion, Afghanistan thought prudence the better part of valour, and +confined her action to the invasion of Badakshan, which she coveted, in +order to punish its ruler for the murder of the fugitive Khojas. But, +having terrified Khokand, the Chinese wisely retired to the proper +frontier of Kashgar, and then set about consolidating their rule there +by an energy and administrative capacity which must excite the +admiration of every governing nation. + +It was some years, however, before the conquest of Kashgar, which had +been so rapidly accomplished, could be considered to have been +altogether completed. Fresh troops had to be summoned from Kansuh, and +military settlers imported in large numbers from Shensi and other +Chinese provinces, to supply the place of the massacred Kashgari. +Settlers were also brought from the neighbourhood of Urumtsi and Hamil; +and with these and imperial troops sent from Pekin, the Chinese felt +complete masters of the situation. It was only then that the Chinese +viceroy considered himself sufficiently strong to place his army in +detachments in the various cities. Up to that time it had been kept +mobilised in one, or at most two or three stations, ready for instant +action. When the Chinese withdrew from Khokand they imposed a tribute on +that state, and then they turned their arms against the nomad tribes on +the north of the Jungarian frontier. The various hordes of the Kirghiz +nomads sent in their submission one after the other, and the Chinese +invariably accepted their fealty, and as a rule rewarded their duteous +behaviour with Chinese titles and rank Thus Ablai, Chief of the Middle +Horde, was made Prince in 1766, and Nur Ali, of the Little Horde, went +so far as to send special emissaries to Pekin, where they were +favourably received, and returned with recompenses for the fidelity of +their master. The Chinese had thus secured their position in Jungaria +and Kashgar before the dose of 1765, and by their possession of Khoten, +they had opened up communications with their province of Tibet. On the +south they possessed an admirable frontier, and it was only in the +south-west that any check seemed to be put upon their advance. As +already mentioned, the Ameer of Afghanistan had overran Badakshan, in +chastisement for the murders of Barhanuddin and his brother; and he was +continually receiving applications to declare an open war against the +Chinese. His own troubles with the rulers of Scinde and Persia were +sufficient to keep his religions sympathies within due bounds. But he +sent an embassy to Pekin, to point out that his fellow-religionists were +suffering under the conquering sway of the Chinese forces in Central +Asia; and on its return with an unsatisfactory reply, he appears to have +stationed a large body of troops in Badakshan. The proud Durani monarch +was probably eager to oppose the Chinese, but, wiser than his +contemporaries in Turkestan and Jungaria, he accurately reckoned up the +risks of the enterprise, and contented himself with the maintenance of +the powerful empire he had erected on the ruins of the conquests of +Nadir Shah. When the Afghans had done so much, and given promises of aid +in the defence of Samarcand, it is not to be wondered at if the people +of Kashgar thought they would do more, and risings took place in several +parts of the state, notably at Ush Turfan. The Chinese measures were +prompt and effectual; the rebellion was suppressed, the inhabitants +massacred, and the town destroyed. This failure struck so complete a +panic into the hearts of the people, that no inducements, for more than +half a century, could encourage them to rise against the Chinese. The +Chinese conquest of Kashgar gave an effectual solution to the rivalries +of the numerous claimants to its sovereignty, and among other +competitors to the Khojas, that is, to the descendants of that Sarimsak +who alone survived the massacre of his family in 1760. While very +possibly the people may have suffered that mental depression which must +accompany the installation of a foreign rule, and despite the very harsh +and unmistakable evidences given by the Chinese of their intolerance of +opposition, there was some prospect, notwithstanding these, that the +Chinese would prove permanent masters, and that their rule would +consequently become milder and milder every year. It was this feeling, +that things could not become much worse, that rendered the Kashgari +apathetic in their resistance to the Chinese. They did not dare to +expect much improvement in their lot; but at all events they might +suppose that Chinese massacres would cease with the disappearance of +resistance, whereas massacres by their own countrymen and tyrants had +been for centuries an every-day occurrence. + +Before considering the Chinese occupation of Kashgar, it may be useful +to give some description of the Aktaghluc and Karataghluc parties, of +whose rivalry the history of Kashgar in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and +eighteenth centuries is so full. It may be remembered that in 1533, +Reshid, the younger son of Said, who had distinguished himself in his +father's wars, seized the state from his brothers, to whom he was +inferior both in age and in birth on his mother's side. In effecting +this he availed himself of the alliance of the Usbeg rulers west of +Pamir, and during the negotiations that were transacted between them, +the distinguished divine, Maulana Khoja Kasani, of Samarcand, visited +him. He was greeted with the most striking marks of Reshid's affection, +and granted a large estate in Kashgar. He married and left two sons in +that state to represent his interests and share his possessions. The +elder son, whose mother was a Samarcand lady, was averse to the younger, +whose mother was a native of Kashgar. In the course of time they each +rose prominently in the service of the state, but they transmitted their +antipathy to their descendants. Khoja Kalan, the elder, whose influence +was greatest in Yarkand and Karatagh, was the founder of the +Karataghluc, or "Black Mountaineers." Khoja Ishac, the younger, whose +influence was greatest in Kashgar and Actagh, another form of Altai, +was the founder of the Aktaghluc, or "White Mountaineers." The +descendants of either of these Khojas, or priests, the sons of the great +divine of Samarcand, claim the title of Khoja, but that must not be +confounded with the more exclusive signification it possesses as +representing the once ruling family. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE CHINESE RULE IN KASHGAR. + + +The Chinese conquest of Jungaria and Eastern Turkestan having become an +accomplished fact, what did the new rulers do to justify their forcible +interference in Central Asia? What measures did they adopt to conciliate +the subject peoples, and what to increase the prosperity of a vast +region, naturally fertile, but impoverished by centuries of improvident +government and of civil anarchy and war? Did they follow the precedent +that had been set them by every past ruler of those countries, and leave +the people to their own devices, to starve or to exist as best they +might, so long as the tribute money was forthcoming? Did the Chinese +Viceroys of Ili, or their lieutenants in Kashgar, Yarkand, Aksu, or +Kucha adopt a policy of inaction, and pursue a line of conduct of +unprincipled selfishness in advancing their own personal fortunes, and +thus prove that they were of the same stamp as all other Asiatic +despots, careless of the day and utterly regardless of the morrow? The +best way to see how they acted, what they did, and what they did not +that was possible, is to follow their rule in Kashgar with some +attention. In itself this may be found to be no uninstructive lesson for +us, who are also a great governing people; and from the perusal of what +the Chinese administrators did in Central Asia we may arise willing to +accord them high praise, because we are better able than other nations +to appreciate the difficulties of their task. + +After the fall of Amursana, the Chinese, in the first place, organized +their administrative system upon the following basis:--The supreme +authority was vested in the hands of the Viceroy of Ili. Under him an +amban, or lieutenant-governor, administered affairs in Kashgar. His +place of abode was Yarkand. In internal matters the Yarkand Amban was +without a superior south of the Tian Shan, but in external affairs he +only acted in subordination to the Viceroy of Ili, who alone was in +communication with Pekin. Under each of these potentates there were the +usual deputy-ambans and Tay Dalays, or military commanders. All the +cities had Gulbaghs constructed outside of them, and these forts were +held by Chinese troops--that is, by a mixture of Khitay and Tungani. It +is computed that 20,000 troops used to garrison Kashgar and the +neighbourhood alone. The military posts were restricted to Chinamen, and +the higher judicial and administrative offices were also withheld from +the subjected race. But these were the only privileges retained by the +Chinese. + +The Khan, or chief Amban, who resided in Yarkand, made all the +appointments to the minor offices, which were filled almost exclusively +by Mahomedans. The only precaution the Chinese seem to have taken was to +refuse employment to a Kashgari in his native town, so that a Yarkandi +would have to go to Aksu, or some other place away from his home, if he +desired to participate in the government of his country. But beyond this +there was no restriction, and nominally the Hakim Beg, the highest +Mussulman officer, ranked on an equality with the Chinese amban. His +subordinates were all Mahomedans, with the exception of his personal +guard of Khitay troops. In the hands of these natives of the country lay +all the administration of justice among their co-religionists, the +collection of the revenue, and the levying of customs dues on the +frontier and of trade taxes in the cities. It was only when cause for +litigation arose between a Buddhist and a Mussulman that the amban +interfered. We have therefore the instructive spectacle before us of a +Buddhist conquest becoming harmonized with Mussulman institutions, and +Chinese arrogance not content with tolerating, but absolutely fostering, +a regime to which its hostility was scarcely concealed. This is the only +instance of the Chinese exhibiting such more than Asiatic restraint +towards Mahomedans; for their dealings with Tibet, a country of peculiar +sanctity and Buddhist as well, is not a case in point. The scheme worked +well, however. Chinese strength was husbanded by being employed only +when absolutely necessary to be called into play, and the people, to a +great degree their own masters, did not realise the fact of their being +a subjected nation. Their first anxiety was the payment of their +taxes--far from exorbitant, as it had been under their own rulers; but +that task accomplished, they could free their minds from care. + +Very often their own countryman, the Hakim Beg, was a greater tyrant +than the Chinese amban in the fort outside their gates; but against his +exactions they could obtain speedy redress. When their Hakims, or Wangs +as the Chinese called them, became unpopular in a district, the amban +promptly removed them; even if he considered they were not much to +blame, he always transferred them to some other district. The first +object in the eyes of the amban was the maintenance of order, and he +knew well enough that order could not be maintained, unless he resorted +to force, which he studiously avoided, if the people were discontented. +The people therefore could repose implicit trust in the Chinese amban +securing a fair hearing and justice for them in their disagreements with +their own leaders; and the Mussulman Wangs, who were the old ruling +class, saw the unfortunate tax-payer at last secure from their tyranny +through the clemency of a Buddhist conqueror. We are justified in +assuming that the population saw the force of these patent facts, and +that, if not perfectly to be relied on in any emergency, the Chinese had +no danger to expect from the tax-producing and patient Kashgari. + +So long as the Chinese rule remained vigorous--that is, for about the +first fifty years--the Ambans worked in perfect concord with the Wangs, +and through them with the people. But the internal relations between +these various personages became more complicated and less cordial +through the importation, about the beginning of this century, of a fresh +factor into the question. The Chinese had granted the cities west of, +and including, Aksu very considerable privileges in carrying on trade +with Khokand; and in the course of commercial intercourse a Khokandian +element was slowly imported into these cities, when it became a people +within a people, enjoying the prosperity to be derived from the Chinese +Empire, but not experiencing any sentiment of gratitude towards those by +whom the favours were conferred. After some years, when these Khokandian +immigrants had become numerous, the Chinese acquiesced in their +selecting a responsible head for each community, and this head, or +Aksakal, was nominated by the Khan of Khokand, the only temporal +sovereign these people recognized. The creation of this third power in +the state, which was first sanctioned as a matter of convenience, was to +be fraught with the direst consequences for the Chinese. The Khitay +would be justified in saying that the Aksakals were "the cause of all +their woe," in Kashgar at all events. The Aksakals were far too prudent +to challenge the supremacy of the Chinese officials, and their first +object was rather to make themselves independent of the Wangs than to +compete with the Ambans. In this they were successful, for the Chinese +neglected to take into account the dangers that might arise from these +same bustling, intriguing, and alien Aksakals. The Wangs had always been +obedient vassals, but the plausibility of the Aksakals put them on a par +with their rivals. The Chinese washed their hands of the quarrel, and +may have imagined that their rule was made more assured by divisions +among the Mussulmans. In this they were mistaken. The Aksakals, who +after a time repudiated their obligations to the Wangs, became the +centre of all the intrigue that marked the last half-century of Chinese +rule, and, puffed up by their triumph over the Wangs, did not hesitate +to challenge the right of the Ambans to exercise jurisdiction over them. +But of this more later on. + +While the Chinese adopted these liberal measures in their dealings with +the Mussulman population, they did not neglect those other duties which +belong to the government by right. The greatest benefit they could +confer was of course the preservation of order, and to maintain the +balance impartially between the numerous litigants was the first article +in the creed of the Chinese viceroys. As tranquillity settled down over +these distracted regions, trade revived. The native industries, which +had greatly fallen off, became once more active; and foreign enterprise +was attracted to this quarter, which Chinese power soon made the most +favoured region in Central Asia. But the rulers did not rest content +with the mere preservation of good order. They did not leave it to the +inclination of an indolent people to progress at as tortoise-like a +speed as they would wish; but they themselves set the example which the +rest felt bound to imitate. Not only did the enterprising Khitay +merchant from Kansuh and Szchuen visit the marts of Hamil and Turfan, +but many of this class penetrated into Kashgar proper, where they became +permanent settlers. These invaluable agents supplied the deficiency that +had never before been filled up in the life of the state, for they +brought the highest qualities of enterprise and practical sagacity, +together with capital, as their special characteristics. In the train of +these Khitay merchants came wealth and increased prosperity. Yarkand, +Kashgar, Aksu, and Khoten became cities of the first rank, and the +population of the country in the year 1800 was greater than it had ever +been before. + +There was perfect equality too between all the various races in respect +to trade. The Chinese did not demand special immunities for their own +countrymen, as might have been expected. The Khitay, who came all the +way from Lanchefoo in search of a fortune, must be prepared to compete +in an equal race with the Khokandi, the Kashgari, or the Afghan. His +nationality would obtain for him no immunity from being taxed, or could +give him no advantage over the foreign or native traders. The main +portion of the trade of the country remained in the old hands. Khokand +benefited as much as Kashgar by the trade, and China, in a direct +manner, least of the three. + +The Chinese have at all times been justly famous for their admirable +measures for irrigating their provinces. The wonderful canals which cut +their way, where there are no great rivers, in China proper are +reproduced even in this outlying dependency. Eastern Turkestan is one of +the worst-watered regions in the world. In fact there is only a belt of +fertile country round the Yarkand river, stretching away eastward along +the slopes of the Tian Shan as far as Hamil. The few small rivers which +are traced here and there across the map are during many months of the +year dried up, and even the Yarkand then becomes an insignificant +stream. To remedy this, and to husband the supply as much as possible, +the Chinese sank dykes in all directions. By this means the cultivated +country was slowly but surely spread over a greater extent of territory, +and the vicinity of the three cities of Kashgar, Yangy Hissar, and +Yarkand became known as the garden of Asia. Corn and fruit grew in +abundance, and from Yarkand to the south of the Tian Shan the traveller +could pass through one endless orchard. On all sides he saw nothing but +plenty and content, peaceful hamlets and smiling inhabitants. These +were the outcome of a Chinese domination. + +The Chinese, besides possessing a dual line of communication with their +own country, one north and the other south of the Tian Shan, had also a +caravan route from Khoten to Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. There was also +some intercourse with Cashmere by this way. The jade, for which Khoten +was justly, and is still, famous, was exported in immense quantities, +both to Tibet and to China, through Maralbashi. This mineral was held in +high esteem by Chinese ladies, and alone sufficed to make the prosperity +of Khoten assured. Gold, silk, and musk, were other articles included in +the commerce of this flourishing city. There was also, in the Chinese +time, a very extensive manufacture of carpets and cotton goods. The gold +mines, which, with two exceptions, have not been worked since the same +time, are believed to be scarcely touched, and only await a fostering +hand to be put in working order once more. + +The Chinese also devoted great attention to the coal mines in the +vicinity of Aksu, and these were worked both by private enterprise and +the Government. Coal was an article of common use in that city, but it +does not appear to have been exported beyond the neighbourhood. It is +known that the Chinese took greater interest in the development of the +internal means of wealth of the country than in inducing foreigners to +enter it. Thus, we see that mines, in a special degree, received state +approval and support. The gold mines of Khoten, the coal of Aksu, and +the zinc of Kucha, are all conspicuous instances of this; as, under all +past, and the recent Mahomedan, rule, they have been most foolishly, but +consistently neglected. + +Nor were those special trades for which Kashgar had in prosperous +moments been renowned, neglected. The leather-dressers of Yarkand and +Aksu, the silk-mercers of Kashgar and Khoten, were never so busy as in +the warlike days of Keen-Lung, and the great mass of the people, the +agricultural class in the villages, was equally prosperous and well +governed. Trade was fostered on all sides, and the conquering power was +content to stand aside and witness the steady progress of its subjects +towards hitherto unattained and unattainable prosperity. + +Lastly, the Chinese directed their attention to the improvement of the +means of communication between one part of the province and another. It +was absolutely necessary to the security of their rule that there should +be an easy and always open road between Ili and Kashgar. Therefore, a +way was cut, at great expense, through the Tian Shan, north of Aksu, and +this pass was known as the Muzart, or Glacier. So difficult was the +country through which it passed, and such the danger from ice-drifts and +snow-storms, that relays of men had to be kept constantly at work in +order to prevent it getting out of repair for a day. The construction of +this road was, in the first place, most expensive, but, perhaps, the +cost of repairing was much more. This, the most striking engineering +achievement of the Chinese, has become practically useless, through +fifteen years of neglect. If China is to regain Ili, it will, no doubt, +be restored. The passes west of this, by the Narym River to Vernoe, and +through Terek to Khokand, were those selected by Yakoob Beg to supply +its place. + +The next object to which the Chinese specially paid attention was the +preservation of their road home to China. Thus the road in Tian Shan Pe +Lu, and the other in Tian Shan Nan Lu, were kept in the most effective +state possible. The former, north of the mountains, passed through Manas +and Urumtsi to Hamil; the latter, south of them, through Aksu and Kucha +to the same place. The alternative route from Kucha to Kashgar and +Yarkand, through Maralbashi, was also much used, more especially, +however, by those who desired to break off at that outpost in the desert +to reach Khoten and Sanju. In each city there was appointed a committee +to superintend the roads in the district, and this Road Board was a +highly important and useful corporation. It was by such measures as +these that the Chinese made their rule a blessing to Kashgar and +Jungaria for more than fifty years. Of course, there was the fiscal side +of these schemes of public utility. Roads could not be opened up and +maintained in order, canals could not be dug, the state could not +administer justice, promote trade, and make itself respected abroad, +without an assured revenue, and this revenue, after the first ten years, +was very productive. + +The principal taxes were the tithe on the produce of the land, called +"_ushr_" and the _zakat_ (fortieth), on merchandise and cattle. Then, in +the cities, there was a house tax, which was essentially, like our own +income tax, a war tax, fluctuating in accordance with the military +necessities, caused by foreign or civil war. From the mines, too, the +state derived a large annual sum, which was generally devoted to some +object of public utility. There was also the tribute money from the +Kirghiz nomads, whose flocks and horses were numbered and taxed at a low +rate, in return for which they were taken under the protection of China. +In addition to these great taxes there were several smaller ones, such +as a fee on fuel sold in the market, and another levy on milch-kine kept +in cities. A writer on Kashgar has said that these "proved a ready means +of oppression, and a prolific source of that discontent which left the +rulers without a single helping hand, or sympathising heart, in the hour +of their distress and destruction." But this assumption of cause and +effect is scarcely just. + +Of course, all taxes can be made a ready means of oppression by the +tax-gatherer, who, in this case, was a Mussulman and fellow-countryman. +But taxes are absolutely necessary to all good government, and when we +consider what China did with her revenue, with what public spirit her +representatives laid it out in plans for the advantage of the state, can +we pronounce an opinion that she imposed unfair burdens on the +subjected race? Moreover, no one denies the prosperity general +throughout Kashgar in those days, a period looked back to with regret by +the inhabitants during the most favoured years of Yakoob Beg's rule. It +is not in accordance with facts, then, to imply that the Chinese ground +Kashgar under them by severe taxation, and whatever petty tyranny there +was, was carried on not by the Khitay Ambans, but by the Mahomedan +Wangs. + +In the hour of distress and destruction the people, indeed, proved +traitorous to their best friends, or, more generally, apathetic; leaving +to the energetic Andijani element within their gates the task of +crossing swords with Buddhist rule, to which the hostility of these +immigrants had always been declared. + +The short-sightedness of the Kashgari played the game of the more +fanatical and ambitious people of Khokand; but the rule of China did not +pass out of Eastern Turkestan until the disturbances of forty years had +generated ill-feeling that formerly was not, and had so embittered the +relations of governing and governed, that what had come to be considered +a lenient and impersonal government, assumed all the darker hues of a +military and foreign despotism. Even then China did not fall until there +was dissension within herself, when, split into three hostile camps, her +sword dropped nerveless from her hand in Central Asia, 2,000 miles away +from her natural border. To follow Chinese rule in Kashgar down to 1820, +is to observe the monotonous course of never varying prosperity. From +that year to 1860, the tale is of a different complexion, less +monotonous but also less satisfactory. + +In 1758 and 1760 Chinese armies entered Khokand. Tashkent fell in the +former year, and the capital in the latter. The Chinese then withdrew, +after imposing a tribute upon Khokand. During the long reign of +Keen-Lung--that is, down to 1795--the tribute was regularly paid. After +that year, however, the payment became irregular, and border warfare of +frequent occurrence between the two neighbours. At last, in 1812, +Khokand, then under an able prince, refused to pay tribute any longer, +and the Chinese acquiesced in the repudiation. Nor did the change in the +relations between China and Khokand stop here; for, a few years +afterwards, the Chinese found it expedient to pay Khokand an annual sum +to keep the Khoja family, whose representatives were residing in +Khokand, from intriguing against them. The amount of the subsidy was +L3,500 of our money. In addition to this, the Khan of Khokand was +permitted to levy a tax on all Mahomedan merchandise sold in Kashgar +through Andijan merchants. This tax was collected by the Aksakals before +mentioned, and was a very profitable source of income for the +impecunious khans. But even these concessions and perquisites did not +satisfy the Mussulmans of Central Asia, who saw in Chinese moderation an +evidence of weakness and decline. The Aksakals, in these years of +Mahomedan revival, became political agents of the greatest importance. +It was they who gave a point to all the discontent there might be in +Kashgar; it was they who attributed to the Chinese the blame for +whatever evils this world is never wholly free from; and it was they who +agitated for the return of the old Khoja kings, who were always +destined, in their eyes, to bring the most perfect happiness. With such +causes at work both within and without their position, the Chinese had +not to wait long before their authority was more openly challenged. + +Sarimsak, the only member of the Khoja family surviving the massacre by +the Chinese, had fled, as a child, into the impenetrable recesses of +Wakhan. From thence, in later years, he had gone to settle in Khokand, +where he married. This prince had three sons--Yusuf, Bahanuddin, and +Jehangir, the youngest and best known. In 1816, the first outbreak +against Chinese authority occurred, when a small rising took place in +Tash Balik, a town to the west of Kashgar. This was speedily put down, +and its leaders executed. It was but the forerunner of the storm. + +In 1822, Jehangir resolved to reassert his claims over Kashgar, and, +while his eldest brother continued to reside in retirement at Bokhara, +he joined the Kara Kirghiz. With a party of these, under the command of +their chief, Suranchi Beg, Jehangir raided up to the city of Kashgar. He +was there repulsed in the suburbs, and compelled to flee. He then joined +the Kirghiz of Bolor round Narym, who were nominally feudatories of +China, and, with their aid, commenced a petty sort of border war. A +small Chinese force was despatched against him, and drove the Kirghiz up +as far as Fort Kurtka. On their return from this successful attack, they +were, however, surprised in one of the defiles, and almost all were +destroyed. This was the first reverse the Chinese had ever met with in +the field, and it was at once bruited about through all parts of Central +Asia. It gave a life to the Khoja cause which it had hitherto lacked, +and adventurers from all parts flocked to the standard Jehangir now +raised on the borders of Kashgar. The Khan of Khokand so far assisted +him as to send him a skilled general, Isa Dadkhwah, and extended over +his cause that protection and sanction which Khokand has ever since +thrown over the Khoja family. + +In the spring of 1826, Jehangir advanced in force against Kashgar, and +the Chinese, despising their assailant, left their fortifications to +encounter him in the open. A battle then ensued, of which the +particulars have not come down to us, but which resulted in the defeat +of the Chinese. Jehangir entered Kashgar in triumph, was received with +acclamations by the people, urged on by the Aksakals, and proclaimed +himself sovereign of the country, under the style of Seyyid Jehangir +Sultan. His first act--the most significant exposure of the true +sentiment of the Kashgarian people there well could be--was to order +the execution of the Mahomedan Wang of Kashgar, by name Mahomed Seyyid. + +The fall of Kashgar was the signal to the Aksakals throughout Altyshahr +to begin that work for which they had been long preparing. In Yangy +Hissar, Yarkand, and Khoten risings at once took place. The Chinese, +surprised and unarmed, were butchered in the streets, and the Gulbaghs, +as the visible token of the foreign rule, were razed with the ground. + +The Gulbagh of Kashgar itself alone held out, but it at last fell, after +sustaining a long siege, into the hands of Jehangir. His triumph +completed, he had to concern himself more with his relations with +Khokand than about the Chinese, who were mysteriously quiet. Mahomed Ali +Khan, of Khokand, who thought that Jehangir's success was solely due to +him, laid claim to a certain historical superiority over his vassal of +Kashgar, to which the Khoja prince was not willing to assent. A large +Khokandian army which had been sent to Kashgar returned, after losing +1,000 men before the walls of the Gulbagh, and its withdrawal was the +signal for plots and counterplots to break out in the palace of the new +ruler. These he promptly repressed, reduced the intriguing general, Isa +Dadkhwah, in rank, and had emancipated himself from his thraldom to +Khokand, when the news came that the Chinese were at last returning. + +Although the western portion of Altyshahr had fallen away from the +Chinese, Aksu and Maralbashi remained true to their allegiance. The +Chinese still possessed the military keys of the country. Moreover, +their possession of Ili gave them an enormous strategical advantage, and +in the Tungan population they possessed an almost inexhaustible supply +for recruiting "revindicating" armies. It is apropos here to state that +China retained both of these advantages down to the time of Buzurg Khan +and Yakoob Beg, and that, so long as she possessed them, the utmost +Mussulman fanaticism and Khokandian patronage of the Khojas could do +was futile against the arrest of fate. During six months Jehangir ruled +in Kashgar, and during six months the Chinese viceroy made his +preparations at Ili for a thorough revenge. An army of more than 100,000 +men, raised from the Tungani, the Calmucks, and the Khitay garrison, was +despatched from Ili, and in January, 1827, entered Aksu. Here all the +brigades were concentrated, and the Viceroy, in conjunction with the +general under him, by name Chang-Lung, drew up the plan of campaign, +which was as follows:--A small army of 12,000 men was sent against +Khoten across the desert through Cay Yoli, while the remainder of the +host advanced on Maralbashi. Here another detachment of 7,000 strong was +directed against Yarkand, while the main body marched on Kashgar by the +banks of the Kizil Su. + +Their advance was unopposed until they reached Yangabad, or Yangiawat, +where Jehangir had concentrated an army computed at 50,000 men, but +probably considerably less. When the armies sighted each other they +pitched their camps in preparation for the decisive contest that was at +hand. In accordance with immemorial custom, each side put forward on the +following day its champion. On the part of the Chinese a gigantic +Calmuck archer opposed on the part of Jehangir an equally formidable +Khokandi. The former was armed with his proper weapons, the latter with +a gun of some clumsy and ancient design, and while the Khokandi was +busily engaged with his intricate apparatus, the Chinese archer shot him +dead with an arrow through the breast. Of course, neither army would +have acquiesced in the decree of the God of Battles as shown by the fate +of its champion, but, in this case, it was true that-- + + "Who spills the foremost foeman's life, + His party conquers in the strife." + +After a sharp, but brief, skirmish, the Kashgarian army withdrew in +confusion, and the following day the Chinese surrounded Kashgar on three +sides. During the night the heart of Jehangir misgave him, and he fled +to the Karatakka mountains. But here the snow had rendered the passes +impracticable, and, after hiding for a few days in that difficult +region, he was captured by the Chinese. His fate was that usually met +with by traitors to that empire, for, being sent to Pekin, he was +executed after torture. In this war Ishac Wang, of Ush Turfan, played a +great part against the Khoja prince, and was rewarded for his good +service by being appointed Wang of Kashgar. The Chinese constructed a +fresh fort, Yangyshahr, in the place of the destroyed Gulbagh, and left +a large Khitay garrison under Jah Darin. But Ishac Wang, who was given +some such title as Prince of Kashgar, was soon afterwards deposed and +recalled to China. + +The Chinese authority was re-established without difficulty in the three +cities, and peace settled down over Eastern Turkestan. But the +repressive and punitive measures that the Chinese felt compelled to +adopt raised a bitterer sentiment in the minds of the people than had +previously existed. The Chinese were, indeed, only employing the same +weapons that had been used against themselves, but none the less did +these reciprocal atrocities dissipate whatever friendship there had +been. Among other acts the Chinese removed 12,000 Mahomedan families +from Kashgar to Ili, and these, destined to play an important part in +the history of that province, became known as Tarantchis, or Toilers. + +The Chinese resolved to punish Khokand as well. They broke off all trade +with that state, and happy would it have been for them if they could +have continued to preserve a closed frontier. But the Khan of that time +was Mahomed Ali Khan, the most ambitious, as he was the ablest, of the +princes of that country. He had just annexed Karategin, and had acquired +some of the outlying provinces of Badakshan, which Mourad Beg, of +Kundus, had absorbed about the same time. It was not probable that he +would put up with the Chinese defiance. He was prudent enough to delay +his advance until the main body of their army had been withdrawn. But, +as soon as he was informed that the Chinese had gone back to Ili, +Mahomed Ali, calling Yusuf, Sarimsak's eldest son, from his retirement +in Bokhara, placed him at the head of an army, under the charge of his +own brother-in-law, Hacc Kuli Beg. The Chinese were worsted at Mingyol, +and all the cities west of Aksu turned against the Chinese, as before, +and proclaimed for Yusuf Khoja. Then the massacres were repeated, and +the invasion of Yusuf was that of Jehangir over again in exact detail. +But Yusuf's triumph was still more brief. Whereas Jehangir had ruled for +nine months, Yusuf only swayed the sceptre for three. + +The Chinese movements were delayed by small Mussulman revolts in Barkul +and Shensi until the spring of 1831, but then, when they returned, they +found that Yusuf and the Khokandian army had retreated some months +before. The facts were that the moment Khokand invaded Kashgar, Bokhara +attacked Khokand, and Hacc Kuli Beg had to be recalled to cope with +matters more pressing than Khoja rights. With the general had gone +Yusuf, far from anxious to encounter the Chinese alone. The return of +the Khokandian army sufficed to dispel all danger from Bokhara, and, a +few months after, Mahomed Ali Khan recommenced operations--in the east +this time--against the Kirghiz under Chinese protection. The Chinese +were thoroughly sick of these petty disputes, and made a treaty with +Khokand, by which that state acquired fresh commercial privileges, in +addition to the old ones, and by which the importance of the Aksakals +rather increased than waned. Mahomed Ali Khan had acquired all he +wanted, and discouraged the Khoja party, as, indeed, the terms of this +treaty compelled him to do. The risings under Jehangir and Yusuf were +undoubtedly a great blow to Chinese prestige. To all appearance each had +nearly been successful, and the Chinese, whose prestige was enormous in +Central Asia--quite as great as that of Russia is now--had been, on one +or two occasions, openly defeated. But, after all, this was a little +matter compared to the shock the sentiments, called into being by sixty +happy years, had received. Between Buddhist and Mussulman, between +Chinaman and Central Asiatic, all the old antipathy was revived in the +butcheries of Yarkand and Kashgar. The Kashgari showed that they could +not appreciate the benefits they had received from China, and the +Chinese, enraged at the slaughter of their countrymen, and, perhaps, +also at the ingratitude evinced towards them, retaliated in kind. They +did not appreciate that moderation, which Europeans have not always +shown under similar circumstances, and wrought out their revenge in +their own ancient fashion. It is absolutely necessary that the reader +should remember that the two rapidly succeeding invasions of Jehangir +and Yusuf form a turning-point in the history of the Chinese rule in +Kashgar. Up to that epoch it is difficult to find words sufficient to do +justice to China's beneficent government there; after that year it would +be absurd to employ the same language. For the change the chief blame +must fall upon the fickle and ungrateful Kashgari themselves, and then +on the intriguing Andijanis. The Chinese are justified, at least, in +saying that, having for more than half a century ruled this people with +justice, they only relaxed in their efforts to promote its well-being +when their unarmed countrymen and soldiers had been surprised and +butchered by thousands. + +Strange, and almost contradictory, as it may appear, there was a brief +respite during which things seemed to have got into their old groove of +happy prosperity; and the chief credit for this must be given to a +Mahomedan sub-governor of the Chinese viceroy. Zuhuruddin, such was his +name, had raised himself to the high post of Amban in Kashgar, a post +never before held by any other than a Khitay. By birth he was of +Kashgar, but he always represented himself as having been born and +brought up in Khokand, where he had been imprisoned for a political +offence. For seven or eight years he governed Kashgar to the perfect +satisfaction both of the people and of the Chinese, and among some of +his public acts may be mentioned the reconstruction of new forts outside +the cities, in the place of those destroyed in the recent revolts. These +were known now as Yangyshahr instead of Gulbagh. But in 1846 +Zuhuruddin's rule was disturbed by hostilities on the part of Khokand +and the Khojas. + +In 1845 Khudayar Khan had been called to the throne after the death of +Mahomed Ali, but his authority was not without its rivals. In the state +of confusion that then ensued, Khokandian adventurers urged the Khoja +princes, who were now represented by the sons of Jehangir, to renew +their old attacks against the Chinese. To these advisers the Khojas +turned a willing ear, and preparations were accordingly made for the +enterprise. At that time Khokand was full of adventurers to whom Mahomed +Ali had been able to give constant employment, but who now under the +more peaceful rule of Khudayar idled their time in the cities of that +khanate. Among these and the ever willing Kirghiz, it was not difficult +for the princes of Kashgar to raise an army, formidable in numbers, if +not remarkable for cohesion. At that time there were seven prominent +Khoja princes in Khokand, of whom we may here mention Eshan Khan, +usually called Katti Torah, Buzurg Khan, and Wali Khan. This inroad did +not take its name from any one of these, but from them all combined; +thus it was distinguished as Haft Khojagan, or that of the Seven Khojas. + +With his brothers and relations and a considerable following, Katti +Torah advanced upon Kashgar, always the first object of these invaders, +which fell after a siege of thirteen days through treachery. This was +the only success they achieved; the other cities would have nothing to +do with them; and after two months' indulgence in unbridled licence the +Chinese beat them in a fight at Kok Robat, and drove them out of the +country. For the first time there was an air of ridicule thrown over +these Khoja invasions in the eyes of the Kashgari, while the outrages +they had committed during their brief stay had raised bitterer feelings +still. Zuhuruddin, who fell under the displeasure of the Chinese, was +removed from his post, and fresh Ambans, once more Khitay, were +appointed. For nine years the Khojas remained passive, but in 1855 Wali +Khan and his brother Kichik Khan, began to bustle once more on the +Kashgarian frontier. It was not until 1857 that Wali Khan succeeded in +forcing the advanced guard of pickets maintained in the passes by the +Chinese, but having accomplished that his triumph was rapid. Kashgar +fell into his possession by a _coup de main_, and once more a Khoja +prince was seated in the _orda_ at Kashgar. Artosh and Yangy Hissar fell +into his possession, and he threatened Yarkand. But everywhere the +Chinese garrisons remained unconquered in the forts, biding the +exhaustion of their foe and the arrival of reinforcements. After a rule +of nearly four months the armies of Wali Khan having been then defeated +by the Chinese, the Khoja fled to the remote state of Darwas, where he +was surrendered to Khokand by its chief Ismail Shah. This ruler, the +most tyrannical, bloodthirsty, and licentious of all the Khojas, met the +fate which he deserved long afterwards at the hands of Yakoob Beg. His +temporary tenure of power is still remembered with dread by the people, +who consider him to have been the most incarnate monster who ever held +the destinies of their country in his hand. The Chinese were more severe +in their punitive measures after this campaign than they had been after +any other, but, notwithstanding the part Khudayar and his people had +played in Wali Khan's affair, the old relations between "these +incompatible people," as Dr. Bellew aptly calls them, were restored. +After this event there was but one minor disturbance caused by an inroad +of Kirghiz nomads, headed by the sons of one of the principal victims of +Chinese vengeance, but this had no political importance. + +The invasion of Wali Khan was the last of those Khoja expeditions which +took place prior to the Tungan revolt. In the thirty-two years that +elapsed from the date of Jehangir's attempt to that of his son, there +had in all been four of them. That of Jehangir himself being the first; +of his elder brother Yusuf, the second; of Yusuf's eldest son, Katti +Torah, the third; and of Jehangir's second son, Wali, the fourth. Not +one of these is in any sense noteworthy, except for the crimes with +which it was attended, and none of them did more than inflict an untold +amount of misery and suffering on their own followers, as well as on the +people they claimed to represent by right divine. It may also be noticed +that with each enterprise there was a decline in moral character. Thus +Jehangir was infinitely the best of them in every sense, and ruled +fairly according to his lights. His brother Yusuf was of a more timid +mind, but evidently not less imbued with some notion as to the sanctity +of his mission. But from these to Katti Torah is a long descent. That +prince seemed to aspire to securing his personal comfort and enjoyment +alone, and disregarded all his subjects' complaints at the arbitrary +rule of his deputies. But Wali Khan, the next of these Khoja kings from +"over the mountains," excelled his cousin in vice, and tyranny, and +utter want of purpose, not to speak of honour, quite as much as Katti +Torah surpassed their sires. Nor can there be much hesitation in saying, +from what Buzurg Khan did during the few months he held power, that, had +not Yakoob Beg clipped his flight, he would have surpassed Wali Khan in +his own peculiar vices. The reader will scarcely be disposed to take +much interest in this irredeemable family, mad with the insanity of +wickedness. But in justice to the Chinese, and to Yakoob Beg, it is only +right that the rivals of the former should be made to appear in their +true colours. All the sanctity that a peculiarly venerable descent from +Hazrat Afak could give; all the stories told of the good deeds of some +of their ancestors; all the affection that naturally attaches to a +native rule, and all the dislike that must undermine a foreign, be it +never so beneficent; all these things were destroyed by the weakness and +ill success that attended the first two Khojas, and by the cruelty, +indifference, and licentiousness that marked the last two. When Buzurg +Khan came he found loyalty to the Khoja the heirloom of a few families, +not of a people. + +Had the Chinese restrained their vindictive feelings after the war with +Jehangir, and proclaimed a free pardon to every one save the Khokandis, +and then devoted their attention with the old vigour to peaceful +pursuits, we believe that the Chinese rule would have been permanently +secured. At that moment the Chinese were strong enough to have defied +Khokand, and to have broken off all intercourse with that state. By +dismissing the Aksakals, and severing the connection between the two +states, the Chinese would have dispelled a danger that was for forty +years to be ever before them, and, in the end, when the Tungani also +rose, was to overcome them. Even clemency after Yusuf's inroad, which +was really caused by the Chinese repressions, might not have been wholly +in vain, and would have consolidated their position, when reinvigorated +by Zuhuruddin's tenure of power. But the Chinese did not appreciate the +quality of mercy. They could be just and impartial in the ordinary +avocations of life, but to those who revolted against their authority +they showed no trace of human feeling. For a man to rebel against them +was certain death; for a people, history tells us, the fate was not far +different. Nor in dealing with such did they hesitate to supplement +their military strength by the most despicable of artifices. Garrisons, +accorded honourable terms, ruthlessly butchered; princes, who threw +themselves on their mercy, deported to Pekin to be hanged or tortured +out of life: these are frequent occurrences in the history of China, and +of her career in Central Asia the tale is identical. Yet, while drawing +a veil over these blots on an otherwise brilliant surface, should we not +desire to conceal them wholly from the view. It is necessary that they +should be stated to understand what Chinese domination means as a whole; +of its great benefits there can be no doubt, if the people will remain +quiescent. For fifty years, or for five hundred, China will rule an +unmurmuring people with justice, and lead them into the paths of +prosperity and peace; but if they rebel, if they openly defy authority, +if they invite a hostile stranger within their borders, the punishment +will be as sweeping, as cruel, and, in one and a higher sense, as +wrongfully foolish, whether the association of the races may have been +for fifty years or five centuries, as it was in the case of Kashgar. +There is not much reason for hoping that China will deviate from her +ancient custom, on the occasion now transpiring, of demanding "an eye +for an eye" and "a tooth for a tooth." + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE BIRTH OF YAKOOB BEG AND CAREER IN THE SERVICE OF KHOKAND. + + +We have now traced the history of Kashgar and of the neighbouring states +down to the year 1860, immediately before the last Khoja invasion under +Buzurg Khan, and the Kooshbege, Mahomed Yakoob. Before giving an account +of that enterprise it is necessary that the reader should know what the +past career of the future Athalik Ghazi had been. The previous chapters +have, it is hoped, thrown some light on the state of Central Asia, and +will assist the student of the question in comprehending how it was that +Yakoob Beg achieved success, and what claims he may have to be +considered a great ruler, for having done a work that is unique in the +annals of modern Asia. + +Mahomed Yakoob was born in or about the year 1820, in the flourishing +little town of Piskent, in the khanate of Khokand. His father, Pur +Mahomed Mirza, had, at various periods of his life, filled positions of +responsibility in the government of the towns in which he resided. Thus, +a native of Dihbid, near Samarcand, he had migrated to Khodjent, in the +reign of Mahomed Ali Khan, with the intention of entering the priestly +order. There, although he enrolled himself as a student in a religious +seminary, for some reason or other, he appears to have changed his mind, +and, instead of entering the Church, turned his attention to secular +affairs. He was soon made Kazi of Kurama, a district and town of +Khokand, and married a lady of that place. By this marriage he had one +son, Mahomed Arif, who has since filled several posts of trust in +Kashgar, notably that of Governor of Sirikul; but of late this +half-brother of Yakoob Beg seems to have been, either for incompetence +or some other reason, under a cloud. Pur Mahomed, or Mahomed Latif, as +he was more usually called, changed his residence from Kurama to +Piskent, about the year 1818, and he shortly after his settlement in his +new abode married again, his second wife being the sister of Sheik +Nizamuddin, the Kazi of Piskent. Yakoob Beg was the issue of this +marriage. The family of Yakoob Beg's father seems originally to have +come from Karategin, on the borders of Badakshan, but in the time of the +Usbeg conquest of that district the father of Mahomed Latif, then an +infant, took refuge in Khokand. It is uncertain whether Mahomed Latif +was born before their arrival at Dihbid or afterwards; and it is now +asserted that he claimed descent from Tamerlane. Whether this was a +claim brought forward when his son was advancing in the world or not, it +is impossible to test its accuracy. The parents of Yakoob Beg were +therefore not without some pretensions, and it would seem that the bad +fortune, from which for some generations they had been suffering, was +beginning to disappear before the ability of Yakoob Beg raised it to a +higher point than ever. In addition to the claims of his father and +grandfather as Kazis of an important community, a sister of Yakoob Beg +married Nar Mahomed Khan, Governor of Tashkent; and, as we shall see +later on, this connection was very instrumental in promoting the +interests of the youthful Yakoob. + +Piskent, Pskent, or Bis-kent, as it is sometimes spelt, is still a +flourishing little community, fifty miles south of Tashkent, on the road +to Khodjent. Its inhabitants are a thrifty, good-tempered set of people, +who take great pride in the fact that the great Athalik Ghazi, the +supporter of Islam, and the reputed terror of the Russians, was one of +themselves. In this little settlement there are many Tajiks, and this, +doubtless, with other reasons, induced Mahomed Latif, a Tajik himself, +to take up his abode there. To the east of Piskent the mountains begin +to rise, which stretch onward until they become the Tian Shan and the +Kizilyart ranges, and in these elevated regions the Tajik descendants +muster in strong numbers. The Tajiks are Persian in their origin, and +consequently of the Aryan stock, in contradistinction to the Turk or +Tartar ruling class in Western Turkestan. They have, however, for so +many generations been restricted to a limited career in the organization +of the state, that, quite unjustly as it is, they have come to be +regarded as an inferior race. English writers have fallen into this +mistake, and have accepted as correct the definition given by the Turks +of this subject race. As a matter of fact the contrary holds true, and +the Tajik is superior to any of his masters in point of mental capacity. +They are represented to still retain the fine presence and long flowing +beards which distinguish those of Aryan blood from their Tartar +opposite; and in height and strength they quite eclipse every other race +of Central Asia. It was of this race that Yakoob Beg was the +representative, and, although the greater part of his life was passed in +ruling nations almost exclusively Tartar, some of the more prominent +among his supporters, as well as the flower of his army, boasted that +they, too, represented that master race, whose birth-place was to be +found in the Indian Caucasus. The Tajiks still speak a Persian dialect, +and their Iranian origin is thereby rendered almost indisputable. + +Mahomed Yakoob's early years were passed at his home at Piskent, and it +is said that it was intended that he should follow the profession which +his father had repudiated. As a youth he was too wayward to submit to +any check on his impulses, and the design of educating him as a +"mollah," if it was ever seriously entertained, was abandoned long +before he arrived at man's estate. He appears to have passed the first +twenty years of his life in an idle, uneventful manner at Piskent, and +then suddenly to have resolved to seek his fortune as best he might in +the troubled waters of Khokandian politics. In 1845, we find him in the +train of the newly seated khan, Khudayar, as "mahram," or chamberlain, +and shortly afterwards, by the influence of his brother-in-law, the +Governor of Tashkent, nominated a Pansad Bashi, a commander of 500. This +was in 1847, about which year he married a Kipchak lady of Zuelik, a +village in the district of Ak Musjid. He had three sons, of whom we +shall hear more hereafter, by this marriage--Kooda Kul Beg, Kuli Beg, +and Hacc Kuli Beg. Later on, in the year 1847, he was raised to the rank +of Koosh-Bege, or "lord of the family"--more intelligibly described as +vizier--and entrusted with the charge of the important post on the Syr +Darya, called Ak Musjid, "White Mosque." This post he held with credit +for six years, until 1853, when the Russians commenced that forward +movement, of which we have not yet seen the close. At that time, Russia +had not acquired one of the numerous strategic points now in her +possession. The Syr Darya then was as far off from her frontier as the +Oxus is now. Ak Musjid, built in the lower reaches of the river, and +representing a Khokandian outpost of exceptional importance, was the +grand obstacle in the path of the Russians operating from Kazalinsk, at +the mouth of the Syr Darya. It was resolved, therefore, that this post, +which, doubtless, encouraged all the marauders in the neighbourhood to +continue their depredations against the Russian caravans, should be +wrested from the hands of its owners, and either razed to the ground or +converted into a Russian stronghold. General Perovsky was entrusted with +this undertaking. The distance from Kazalinsk, or Fort No. 1, to Ak +Musjid is not much over 200 miles, along the banks of the Syr Darya. Not +many commissariat arrangements were necessary, nor did the distance to +march require much time to delay the Russian officer in beginning his +operations against the fort. The army with which he appeared before the +walls may not have been large in numbers when compared with the armies +of modern times, but, in all that makes a disciplined force formidable, +it was exceptionally well supplied. The artillery was in greater +strength than is usually considered necessary, and the expedition was +still more efficient in engineers and cavalry. The garrison of Ak Musjid +was, on the other hand, ill supplied, both in provisions and in +ammunition, and the fort itself presented, neither in its position nor +in its construction, any feature that an engineer officer would have +considered calculated to make it capable of sustaining the attack of +artillery for twenty-four hours. The Russian lines were constructed in +the most approved method; but twice were their approaches destroyed, and +twice their mines counter-mined. During twenty-six days the Russian +bombardment was fast and furious, and during all that time the +Khokandian defence was stubborn and persistent. But all the efforts of +the garrison to break through the beleaguering lines were unavailing, +and after so long a cannonade little more resistance could be expected +from ramparts which were pierced in several places by wide and gaping +breaches. The resolute commandant, who had done everything required by +the most exacting code of military honour, confessed that there was +nothing to be gained by a continued defence, and as it was known that +the Russians were making preparations for an early assault, a messenger +was despatched without delay to the Russian commander, expressing the +willingness of the garrison to capitulate on honourable terms. General +Perovsky, who had expected an easy triumph here, and possibly some more +extended triumph in farther regions, was indignant at the resistance +opposed to him by a paltry place like Ak Musjid, and received the +messenger from the fort with ill-concealed impatience. Scarcely +bestowing any attention on the letter, couched in humble terms as it +was, of the commandant, General Perovsky petrified the astonished +emissary with the declaration that on the morrow the fort would be taken +by assault. This arbitrary assertion of his power, which was carried +into practice, of course successfully, the next day, on an occasion when +magnanimity ought to have been shown by the successful general, does not +redound to the credit of the officer in question, and throws an +instructive light on the latitude left to Russian generals in their +instructions, and on the opinion felt for Central Asiatics by the +civilizing representatives of the White Czar. To say that General +Perovsky was urged to this act of gratuitous tyranny by a desire to +obtain a cross of either St. Anne or St. George, is, after all, only to +magnify the offence, and that Ak Musjid has taken the name of its +conqueror, Fort Perovsky, is the means of perpetuating, not his fame, +but his infamy, and the courageous conduct of the defenders. In the +winter following its fall Yakoob Beg, with Sahib Khan, brother of the +Khan of Khokand, attempted to retake the fort, but the _coup_ proved +abortive, and the Russians have never receded from their new +acquisition. + +Khudayar Khan had been elevated to the throne of Khokand in 1845, by the +energy of Mussulman Kuli, a Kipchak chief, of singular astuteness, and +aptitude for business. During his tenure of the post of Wazir, Khokand +was peacefully and beneficently governed; but, as on every similar +occasion in Central Asia, the ruler soon became jealous of the +popularity acquired by his minister, although his own position was in +reality confirmed by the wise measures of the very man to whom he had +conceived a covert hostility. So with Khudayar Khan, the effeminate, and +his minister, Mussulman Kuli, in the decade of which we are now +speaking; as with Buzurg Khan, the debauchee, but correct representative +of the Khojas, and his general and vizier, the Kooshbege, Mahomed +Yakoob, in the following. In 1858, Mussulman Kuli was seized by order of +Khudayar Khan, and barbarously murdered; and from that occurrence the +decadence of this unfortunate ruler of Khokand can be traced until, at +last, he became a mere pensioner on the bounty of the Russians. Although +Yakoob Beg became, to a certain extent, notorious for his gallant +defence of Ak Musjid, it would appear, from his being styled after that +event simply "Mir," or chief, that he had sunk in grade in his official +status. It is probable that the chief cause of this was his failure to +retake it, and not his ill success in defending it. He was, however, +entrusted with the charge of the Kilaochi fort, a post which he held +down to the murder of Mussulman Kuli. + +Khudayar Khan had an elder brother, Mullah Khan, who had been passed +over by Mussulman Kuli, when the state was put in order after the +dissensions that arose on the death of the great ruler, Mahomed Ali. +Now, on the death of Mussulman Kuli, who had given vitality to the +regime of Khudayar, Mullah Khan and his partisans began to intrigue once +more. Several Kipchak and Kirghiz leaders joined his cause, and Yakoob +Beg at once became one of his most active supporters. Khudayar Khan was +deposed, and retired into temporary seclusion. For his services to the +new ruler Yakoob Beg was made Shahawal, an officer corresponding to a +chamberlain or court intendant. He was soon restored to his old rank of +Kooshbege, and appointed governor of the frontier fort of Kurama, the +same place of which his father had been Kazi. And in 1860 he came still +more to the front, when he was summoned to Tashkent to assist Kanaat +Shah, the Nahib of Khokand, in making preparations in case the Russians, +who had for some time seemed to be threatening Khokand, should cross the +frontier. Mullah Khan was murdered at this time, having held the reins +of power but for the brief space of two years, and Khudayar Khan emerged +from his hiding place. He was welcomed both by Kanaat Shah and Yakoob +Beg; and in return for their support he consented to forget the past. +Yakoob Beg, as his reward, received the governorship of Kurama. It was +during these troubles that Alim Kuli, a Kirghiz chieftain, appeared upon +the scene. He possessed many of the attributes that distinguished his +predecessor Mussulman Kuli, and his successor, in the eyes of the +people, Yakoob Beg. He had undoubtedly a great capacity for intrigue, +but was inferior to the former in administrative capacity, and to the +latter in military skill. He now set Shah Murad, grandson of Shere Ali +Khan, up as a claimant to the throne, and was speedily joined by Yakoob +Beg, who once more abandoned the cause of Khudayar Khan, who, it must be +remembered, had always treated Yakoob Beg in a friendly way, and who in +their early days had been his boon companion. This conspiracy was +unsuccessful, and Yakoob Beg, who had yielded up Khodjent, with the +defence of which he had been entrusted by Alim Kuli, on the approach of +the forces of Khudayar Khan, took refuge in Bokhara. Here he was +favourably received, and resided as a noble attached to the court. In +1863 the Ameer of Bokhara, Muzaffur Eddin, marched a large army into +Khokand for the purpose of restoring his brother-in-law, Khudayar, to +the throne, for he had again been deposed by the intrigues of Alim Kuli; +Yakoob Beg accompanied this force, and once more appears, for the last +time, on the troubled arena of Khokandian politics. The Bokhariot army +was soon recalled, and Khudayar Khan was left to face the difficulties +of his position unaided. In a few months an arrangement was come to +between Alim Kuli and Yakoob Beg and other leading nobles against +Khudayar. Sultan Murad, who had first been supported and then murdered +by Alim Kuli, having been thus effectually removed, this king-maker had +set up Sultan Seyyid in his place. Yakoob Beg so far profited by this +new confederacy that he was restored to his old offices and +perquisites, and sent once more to hold his former post as governor of +Kurama. He collected as many allies as he was able, and brought them +with him to assist in the capture of Khodjent. On this important town +being secured the regent Alim Kuli passed through Kurama on his way to +seize and settle the capital, Tashkent. He appointed a connection of his +own, Hydar Kuli, with the title of Hudaychi, as governor of Kurama, and +took Yakoob Beg in his train to Tashkent. Shortly after their arrival at +Tashkent, news came of the Russian occupation of Tchimkent, and the +survivors of the force driven out by Tchernaief soon appeared with a +confirmation of the intelligence. This was in April, 1864, and until +October of that year, when the Russians appeared before the town, Yakoob +Beg was engaged in strengthening the fortifications of the capital. When +the army of General Tchernaief did appear in the neighbourhood, Yakoob +Beg, with a rashness that cannot be too strongly condemned, went forth +to encounter it in the open. As might have been expected, the Russians +were victorious, and Yakoob Beg was compelled to seek refuge with his +shattered forces within the walls of Tashkent. The Russians themselves +had suffered some loss, and either awed by the bold demeanour of their +old antagonist, or, as is more probable, encountering some difficulty in +bringing up supplies, and being unprovided with a siege train, thought +the more prudent policy would be to retire to Tchimkent until +reinforcements and other necessaries should arrive. Alim Kuli, in the +course of a few days after this reverse, arrived at Tashkent in person +with a large body of troops, and employed all his energies in +strengthening the defences before the return of the Russians. It is very +certain that on this occasion, the first on which Yakoob Beg had a +command of any consequence, he permitted his natural impetuosity to get +the better of his discretion, and that it was the height of madness on +his part to enter into an engagement in the open with the disciplined +and formidable forces of Tchernaief, when, by leaving that general to +undertake the siege of Tashkent, he might have had it in his power to +inflict a serious, and for the time conclusive, blow against the +Russians when the reinforcing army of Alim Kuli came up. With half his +army discouraged by defeat, Alim Kuli found himself restricted to a +policy of inaction, through the over-hastiness of his lieutenant. The +Russians did not return until after the departure of Yakoob Beg for +Kashgar, but when they did they found that Alim Kuli had made every +preparation in his power to receive them. On the first occasion they +were again forced to retreat after a skirmish which the Khokandians +claim as a victory; but in 1865 they appeared before the walls in +greater force. Alim Kuli, with a gathering vastly superior in numbers to +the Russians, attacked them a few miles to the north of Tashkent, and +the fortunes of the day hung in the balance, until the fall of Alim +Kuli, who, whilst boldly leading a charge of Kirghiz cavalry, was +pierced in the chest by a musket ball. He was carried from the field by +a faithful officer, and expired that night in Tashkent. Alim Kuli +appears to have been actuated to some extent by a disinterested +patriotism, as much as by more personal motives. With his fall, and the +departure of Yakoob Beg for another sphere of operations, all hope of a +continued state of independence for Khokand was dissipated. After this +severe defeat the Russians laid close siege to Tashkent. The Khokandians +in their distress applied to Bokhara for aid, and the Russians hastened +to occupy Chinaz to intercept it. The Bokhariot army was routed by the +Russian army under General Romanoffski at the battle of Irjar, in May, +1866, eleven months after Tashkent had been occupied by Tchernaief. It +was during this period of anarchy, with a hostile Russian and an allied +Bokhariot force on his soil, that Khudayar Khan once more supplanted the +nominee of Alim Kuli, Sultan Seyyid, and at the close of the campaign +Khudayar was left in possession of the southern portion of Khokand. This +Khan appears to have been of an unambitious nature, for, during his +various exiles, he devoted himself to private business with an energy he +had never shown in the management of the public affairs, and when he at +last sank into private life and became a pensioner of the Russian Court, +on the complete annexation of his state, he is said to have acquired not +only a happiness, but many virtues unknown to him in his more elevated +lot. The unfortunate Sultan Seyyid, after wandering for some years out +of Khokand, was, when he ventured to return in 1871, executed. Many of +the partisans of Seyyid on the defeat by the Russians, and on the +overthrow of his rivals by Khudayar, sought refuge in the mountains of +the Kizilyart, whence they proceeded to join Yakoob Beg in Kashgar, +where they arrived at a most opportune moment as will be seen. + +To return to Yakoob Beg. After his defeat before Tashkent he was +employed under Alim Kuli in repairing the defences of that town and +collecting troops from the whole district, but his reputation had been +lowered by that reverse. There was a certain jealousy between the +Kirghiz chief and the Tajik soldier of fortune. Yakoob Beg saw in Alim +Kuli an obstacle to his further promotion, and Alim Kuli recognized in +the Kooshbege a possible rival and successor. Any excuse therefore to +keep Yakoob Beg in the background, or indeed to get rid of him +altogether, would be very welcome to Alim Kuli. We hear little more of +the unsuccessful general until his departure for Kashgar a few months +afterwards. He had to wipe out in other regions and against other foes +the stain he had incurred in his encounters with the Russians. + +While these events were in progress at Tashkent, an envoy arrived there +from Sadic Beg, a Kirghiz prince on the frontiers of Ili and Kashgar. He +brought intelligence that his master had availed himself of the +dissensions among the Chinese, to seize the city of Kashgar, and he +requested the Khan of Khokand to send him the heir of the Khojas, in +order that he might place him on the throne. As the facts really stood, +Sadic Beg had only laid siege to Kashgar, and, finding that he was met +with a strenuous resistance, had recourse to the plan of setting up a +Khoja king to strengthen his failing efforts, but of the true state of +affairs in Kashgar it is evident that everybody in Tashkent was +primarily ignorant. The Khokandian policy had always been, however, to +maintain their interests intact in Eastern Turkestan, and to weaken in +every possible way the credit of the Chinese. An envoy bringing news of +a fresh revolt in Kashgar was, therefore, sure of a friendly reception +at Tashkent, even if he did not return with some more striking tokens of +amity. But on this occasion the danger from Russian movements was so +close at hand, and all the efforts of the state were so concentrated in +preparations for defence, that Alim Kuli, whatever he may have thought +of its prospects, and however much he may have sympathized with its +object, was unable to give the Kirghiz emissary any aid in his +enterprise. When, however, Buzurg Khan, the only surviving son of +Jehangir Khan, either of his own free will, or instigated, as some say, +by Yakoob Beg, offered to assert his claims on Kashgar, Alim Kuli +expressed his approval of the design, and gave his moral assistance so +far as was compatible with no active participation therein. He, however, +gave Buzurg Khan the services of Kooshbege Mahomed Yakoob to act as his +commander-in-chief, or Baturbashi. Thus did Alim Kuli free himself from +his troublesome subordinate, and despatched on an errand which seemed +likely to end in disgrace and defeat, but which really led to empire, +the only native whom he dreaded as being capable of supplanting him. + +Yakoob Beg had up to this point given little promise of future +distinction. He had, indeed, earned the reputation of being a gallant +soldier, if a not very prudent one; and in the intrigues that had marked +the history of his state for twenty years, he had borne his fair share. +But no one would have dreamt of prognosticating that he possessed the +ability necessary to win campaigns against superior forces, and then to +erect a powerful state on the ruins that fell into his possession. The +most favourable opinion would have been, that he would have died +manfully as a soldier, and as a true Mussulman. When he embarked in the +enterprise of conquering Kashgar, he was no longer in the first flush of +youth, but was a man who covered his fiery spirit and great ambition +with a cloak of religious zeal and diplomatic apathy. Twenty years' +experience in the most intriguing court in Central Asia had placed every +muscle at his complete command, and even in the most disastrous moments +in his career, he is always represented as being calm and +collected--calm in his belief in Kismut, and collected in a persuasion +of his own resources. One fact that will account for the slowness with +which he advanced into notoriety is that he was entirely dependent on +his own capacity for promotion. He had no wealth, no large following, +and in the two leaders, Kipchak and Kirghiz, Mussulman and Alim Kuli, he +had competitors of almost equal merit with himself, while they each +possessed personal power and family connections that placed them far +beyond the reach of the hardy soldier and court chamberlain. Some of his +detractors had availed themselves of his impecuniosity to circulate +stories of his having had dealings with the Russians; but these, +although invested with circumstances originating in non-Russian +quarters, are probably without any truth. The chief charge, to be taken +for what it is worth, is, that the weakness of his defence of the Ak +Musjid district, after the fall of the fort, was owing to his having +received a large bribe from the Russians. Another is, that in 1863, +after his return from Bokhara, he neglected to retard the Russian +movements for a pecuniary consideration. In both cases the sum mentioned +is very large; and besides the apparent falseness of these rumours, we +have only to consider that he was not worth a bribe, and that his +opposition to the Russians was marked by all the want of foresight of +religious zeal. All these considerations make such rumours appear in +their true light; and although we are aware that a follower of Yakoob +Beg confirmed, if he did not originate, these charges, it seems to us +that the Russians, if there had been truth in the report, would long ago +have placed the fact before the peoples of Asia, and required Yakoob Beg +when Ameer of Kashgar to have acted in a more friendly way towards his +former employers. But the simple reason that Yakoob Beg could not have +rendered any service to the Russians worth the thousands of pounds he is +said to have received, ought to demolish the whole fabrication. If +Yakoob Beg's life proves one thing more than another, it was that he was +a most fanatical Mussulman, and as such hating the Russians, as the most +formidable enemy of Islam, with the most intense hate his fiery nature +was capable of. This man's whole life must have been the greatest +hypocrisy if he was not genuine in his religious intolerance, and that +intolerance rendered any connivance with Russian measures an +impossibility. Owing to his early connection with the church, and his +maternal grandfather's high position therein, Yakoob Beg was always +distinguished for the strict orthodoxy of his views. Through all his +life he seems to have made it his chief object to keep the church on his +side. When he was reduced to the most desperate straits in his after +life in Kashgar, when some of the most faithful of his followers fell +off from him, and when even Buzurg Khan, the man whom he had placed upon +a throne, declared him a rebel and a traitor, he never lost heart so +long as the ministers of the church held by him; and, on the other +hand, they, recognizing the fidelity of their champion, supported him +through good and ill repute. Whilst residing at Bokhara "the holy" he +had attached to his person several of the most distinguished preachers +of Islam throughout Asia, and he had taken all the vows that give a +peculiar sanctity to the relations that connect the layman with his +priest. It was here that he publicly announced his intention of going on +pilgrimage to Mecca; an intention which he repeated on several occasions +during his rule of Kashgar, but was obliged, by the position and +precarious existence of that state, always to perform by deputy. When he +had established himself as ruler, his first measure was to re-enforce +the Shariat and to endow several shrines that had been erected to the +memory of the chief Khoja saints. It was by such means that he at every +crisis of his life had striven to make his interests identical with +those of his religion, and when he became a responsible and successful +prince his past life stood him in such good stead, that he easily came +to be regarded throughout Asia as the most faithful and redoubtable +supporter of Islam. + +At this period of his life he is described by one who knew him as being +of a short but stoutish build, with a keenly intelligent and handsome +countenance. He had, during the vicissitudes of his career in Khokand, +been so often near assassination, or execution, that the result of the +morrow had, to all external appearance, become a matter of secondary +consideration to him, and his features, schooled to immobility by a long +career of court intrigue, appeared to the casual observer dull and +uninteresting. When, however, the conversation turned on subjects that +specially interested him, such as the advance of Russia, the future of +Islam, or the policy of England, he threw aside his mask, and became at +once a man whose views, with some merit in themselves, were rendered +almost convincing by the singular charm of his voice and manner. He was +honourably distinguished at all times by the simplicity of his dress, +and his freedom from the pretension and love of show characteristic of +most Asiatics; and at the very highest point of his power he was only a +soldier, occupying a palace. As was well said of Timour, the Athalik +Ghazi placed the "foot of courage in the stirrup of patience," and he +evidently set himself to copy the great lessons of military success that +might be learnt from the careers of Genghis Khan, Timour, and Baber. +Such is some account of the commander-in-chief to the expedition of +Buzurg Khan. The Khoja, himself, was a man about the same age as his +lieutenant, but in every other respect as different as he well could be. +Personally a coward, fond of show and every kind of luxury, and of the +treacherous, fickle nature that marked his race, he had done nothing +during his past life to compensate for the want of the most ordinary +virtues. Although he participated in the expedition of Wali Khan, he +showed no possession of merit, and in the subsequent occupation that the +Khojas maintained in Kashgar during a few weeks, he, perhaps more than +any other of his kinsmen, disgusted the people by his open and unbridled +licentiousness. Such were the two men who, in the latter days of 1864, +set out from Tashkent for the recovery of a kingdom. Of their chances of +success few would have ventured then to predict a settlement in their +favour; none, certainly, such as was obtained by Yakoob Beg. It is now +time for us to relate how they fared in Eastern Turkestan. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE INVASION OF KASHGAR BY BUZURG KHAN AND YAKOOB BEG. + + +The Chinese were on several occasions, as we have seen, threatened in +Eastern Turkestan by the pretensions of the Khojas, and the secret or +open machinations of Khokand. But they had at all times triumphed over +every combination of circumstances, so long as they themselves were +united. The temporary success of Jehangir Khan was obliterated by the +excesses which characterized his occupation of the country, and by the +energy and large display of force, with which the Chinese pacified the +state on his flight; and the last, under Wali Khan, can scarcely be +dignified by any other appellation than that of a marauding incursion. +But a great and important change had occurred in the few years that had +elapsed since 1859. The Chinese no longer presented a collected force to +the onslaught of an assailant. In every quarter of their empire, +victorious rebels had established themselves, and had detracted in an +immeasurable degree from the effective strength of the Government. A +Mahomedan ruler swayed over the Panthays, in Yunnan, from his capital at +Ta-li-foo; the Taepings round Nankin were at the summit of their career, +just before the appearance of Colonel Gordon, when, in 1862, a fresh +danger broke out in the provinces of Kansuh and Shensi. From a remote +period there had been extensive Mussulman settlements in these +provinces, and so early as the seventeenth century they had been the +cause of trouble to the great Kanghi. The Emperor Keen-Lung, indeed, at +one time attempted to settle the question for ever by ordering the +massacre of every Mahomedan over fifteen years of age. Even this +sweeping measure did not have the desired effect, and whether +persecution was the means or not of giving vitality to the cause, it is +certain that they had become more numerous, more resolute, and more +confident in their own superiority to the other Chinese by the middle of +the present century. These Mahomedans were known as Tungani, Dungani, or +Dungans, while the Buddhist Chinese are spoken of as Khitay. Many +writers are not satisfied with this simple explanation of the name +Tungani, and will have it that they were a distinct race, who were +either transported to China at some period of Chinese conquest, or were +compelled to seek refuge there by some advancing barbarian horde. They +even assert that they can trace the name and origin of this people to a +tribe dwelling in the country of the lower waters of the Amoor; but +while there is complete uncertainty on the subject it seems simpler to +accept the signification that the word Tungani conveys to the Chinese, +and that is Mahomedan. We know, for certain, that these people had +resided in Kansuh and its neighbouring province for centuries--that they +were remarkable for a superiority in strength and activity over the +Khitay, and that they possessed the virtues of sobriety and honesty. +They were also not infected by the disease of opium smoking, and we +should imagine them to have been a quiet, contented, and agreeable +people at their most prosperous period. Their physical superiority to +the Khitay would probably be owing to their abstention from "bang" and +opium, and we need not suppose that they were the descendants of a +stronger race, who had issued from the frigid north, when we have an +explanation so much simpler and more natural at hand. They were found by +their Khitay rulers to form excellent soldiers, policemen, and other +Government servants, such as carriers, &c. In this last employment many +found their way to Hamil, thence to Turfan and Urumtsi, and their +numbers were increased by discharged soldiers, who remained as military +settlers sooner than return to Kansuh. In the course of a few +generations their numbers became much greater, until, at last, in the +cities we have named, they formed the majority of the inhabitants. In +Kuldja, too, they were very numerous, but south of the Tian Shan they do +not seem to have advanced westward of Kucha in any great force. At Aksu +the Andijan influence, supreme in Western Kashgar, presented an +impassable barrier to the Tungani, who, it must be remembered, had no +sympathy with Khokand. The Tungani were, therefore, Mahomedan subjects +of China, originating in Kansuh, but who had also, in the course of +time, spread westward into Chinese Turkestan and Jungaria. They were +employed in the service of the country without restriction, nor can we +find that they were subjected to any unfair usage, after the measures +taken against them in the earlier days of Keen-Lung. They may not have +been as highly favoured as the Sobo tribes, and they may have been +subjected to some ridicule in Kansuh; but in Jungaria they were on an +equality with all the other Chinese, and immeasurably better placed in +the political scale than the Andijanis or Tarantchis. The Chinese had +just grounds for believing that no danger to their rule in Eastern +Turkestan or Jungaria would ever be caused by the Tungani, and it is not +easy to explain how their reasonable anticipations were falsified. The +Tungani were fervent, if not the most orthodox in form of, Mahomedans, +and it would appear that they were not free from a belief in their own +superiority to the Khitay. This feeling was fostered by the "mollahs," +or priests, who became very active within the Chinese dominions, when +these had been extended by conquest into the heart of Asia. As if in +retaliation for a Khitay conquest the Mahomedan religion was undermining +the outworks of its rival's power slowly, but surely. The impulse given +to trade by the security and patronage that accompanied Chinese rule +was, at least from a purely Chinese point of view, neutralized as an +advantage by the admission into the empire of energetic and eloquent +preachers of the superior merits of Mahomedanism. It required many +generations before the effect of their efforts became perceptible, and +it was not until the power of China fell into an extraordinary +decline--a decline which many thought, with some show of reason, was to +herald the fall, but which later events have seemed to make but the +prelude to a more vigorous life than ever--that these Mahomedan +missionaries among the Tungani knew that the time to reap what they had +sown with patience and persistency was at hand. It is impossible not to +connect this event in some degree with that unaccountable revival of +fanaticism among Mahomedans, which has produced so many important events +during the last thirty years, and of which we are now witnessing some of +the most striking results. + +In 1862, a riot occurred in a small village of Kansuh; it was suppressed +with some loss of life, and people were beginning to suppose that it +possessed no significance, when a disturbance broke out on a large scale +at Houchow, or Salara. The Tungani had risen, and the unfortunate +unarmed Khitay were massacred right and left. The rising soon assumed +the proportions of a civil war, and the infection spread to the +neighbouring province of Shensi. Then ensued scenes of the most +atrocious barbarity. The Khitay, who all their lives had lived at peace +and as neighbours with the Tungani, were butchered without mercy. The +Mahomedan priests seized all the governing power into their own hands, +and set their followers the example of unscrupulous ferocity. The +movement, even if we make allowance for the difficulties besetting the +government in other regions, must be considered to have been attended by +unexpected success. It can only be accounted for by the supposition that +the Khitay were taken completely by surprise, and realized neither the +extent nor the nature of the danger to which they were exposed. Before +the end of 1862, a Tungan government was established in Kansuh, and its +jurisdiction was for a time acknowledged in Shensi. The priests formed +an administration amongst themselves, and set themselves to the task of +consolidating what they had won, and of preparing for the time when the +Chinese should come for vengeance. The events happening in Kansuh were +naturally of interest to the Tungani in the country lying beyond it, and +it was not long before the example set them was followed in Hamil, +Turfan, Urumtsi, Manas, and other cities of that district. The same +success attended the movement here as in Kansuh. The Chinese power was +subverted, the Khitay massacred with greater circumstances of cruelty, +if possible, and a new Tungan state was formed in those cities. Each +district retained a nominal independence, under the headship of a +priest, or body of priests, or of one of the native Tungan princes, and +then the movement spread with irresistible strides to Karashar, Kucha, +and Aksu. There it stopped, and south of the Tian Shan the Tungan revolt +proper never extended west of Aksu. + +In Altyshahr and Kuldja for some months longer the Chinese maintained +the external show of power, but all their communications with China were +cut off, and neither in numbers nor resources had they sufficient means +to cope with the Tungani unaided. They would have accomplished as much +as could have been expected from them if they succeeded in keeping +possession of that which they still occupied. The Tungan element in +Kucha and Aksu was not predominant. It had to share power with the +Khojas, and, as we shall see later on, the Khojas of these two cities +seized the governing power for themselves. It was the appearance of the +Tungan sedition in these cities, which occupy a middle relation to the +purely Chinese cities of Hamil and Urumtsi, and the almost totally +Khokandian cities of Yarkand and Kashgar, that roused the Kashgari to a +full appreciation of the importance to themselves of this movement, and +the Chinese garrisons and settlers to an equally just realization of +their own danger. The Kashgari, not free from the fanaticism of all +their co-religionists, and naturally elated at the successes of the +Tungani, forgot, with their well proved fickleness, all the benefits +they had received from the Chinese, and waited eagerly for a favourable +opportunity to come for them to imitate the example set them by their +eastern neighbours. Nor had they long to wait, although it was not from +them that came the first spark that lighted the firebrand of civil war +and anarchy throughout the length and breadth of Altyshahr. + +It will be remembered that the Khokandian government had the right to +nominate in each city, where they received dues on Mahomedan +merchandise, an agent or tax-collector to look after the proper levy of +the tax. In some of the larger cities this official would require a +considerable staff of assistants, and thus a certain number of skilled +Khokandian officials were permanently located on Kashgarian or Chinese +territory. After the failure of the expedition of Wali Khan, in which +these officials seem to have disappeared, either having become merged in +the body of his partisans or sacrificed during the massacres of that +time, a fresh batch of Khokandians was installed, and occupied, in a +legal sense, the same position as their predecessors. It would appear, +however, that the natural result of their aid to Wali Khan followed, and +that the Chinese Ambans regarded their presence with scarcely concealed +dislike, and proclaimed that these Khokandian tax-gatherers were +devoting more of their attention to the propagation of heretical +religious and political doctrines than to the collection of dues on silk +and other articles of commerce. It would require but the slightest +untoward circumstance to fan this ill-feeling into the most insatiate +hatred and hostility. The danger was rendered the more serious when the +Chinese Ambans perceived for the first time that the sympathies of a +large portion of their Tungan soldiery were estranged from them. It was +doubtful whether the Tungan regiments could be relied on against a fresh +Khoja revolt, and it was certain that they would not combine in any +repression of the Mahomedan religion, even though the sufferers should +only be Andijanis. Such was the state of the public mind in Altyshahr in +1862, when the Tungani revolted and obtained success in Kansuh and +Shensi. + +As early as 1859 the hostility of the Chinese Ambans to the Andijani +tax-collectors received a forcible illustration in the town of Yarkand. +At that time Afridun Wang was governor, and, whether there was any +personal enmity at the root of the action or not, he found little +difficulty in convincing both himself and the other Chinese residents +that the Andijani agent had been stirring up discontent against them in +the town. Accordingly, as self-preservation is the first law of nature, +this Khokandian official, with his attendant, was arrested and executed. +There may have been some foundation for the accusations made by Afridun +Wang against his rival: more probably there was none; but on referring +the matter to the Viceroy of Ili for decision it was decided that the +governor should be removed. The Khokandian government sent fresh agents, +and it is not stated that any reparation was given to the families of +the sufferers. From this it would appear that the post of tax-collector +in Altyshahr for His Highness the Khan of Khokand was not a very +desirable position. Afridun Wang retired to his native town of Turfan, +where, three years later on, he contributed more than any one else to +the success of the Tungan movement. His policy, if anti-Khokandian, was +pro-Mahomedan or Tungan, and his case is very typical of the nature of +this rising. In Turfan he continued to be one of the chief men, until, +six years later on, it fell to the Athalik Ghazi. + +His successor in the governorship of Yarkand did not interfere with the +Khokandian officials, but for this moderation he made up by the +exactions he committed on the residents, more particularly on the +Mahomedan portion of them. His extortions and cruelties had the effect +as much of disgusting his own followers as of rousing a spirit of +opposition among the oppressed. It was while things were in this +uncertain state at Yarkand that the governor received secret notice of +the Tungan revolt in Kansuh, and he at once perceived that, when this +important intelligence became known, not only would his own Tungan +troops become more openly mutinous, but that the Khojas might seize the +opportunity to assert their claim to the country once more. In this +special case, in addition to the general apprehension that would be felt +by any Chinese governor at the aspect of affairs, there was personal +fear for the unjustifiable acts of his government, and the Amban, in his +trepidation, resolved on the most strenuous precautions to avert the +danger from himself. He summoned a council of war of his Buddhist +lieutenants, and stated the exact position to them; how the Tungan +portion of their forces could not be depended on; how the Tungan +settlers would join them; and how the Andijani agents would do their +utmost to unite in one cause against themselves all those who followed +the teaching of Islam; and how all these events, which before were +possible, had been rendered probable by the Tungan successes in the +east. He dwelt on the fact that no time was to be lost in the execution +of such precautions as they thought necessary; that at any moment the +news might arrive, and then they would be in a minority; and he did not +attempt to conceal the purport of his address--that he was in favour of +sharp measures, of going to the root of the evil at once, and of +massacring every Mussulman in the town. The council of war was not +prepared to endorse such a violent proceeding without careful +consideration. There were many dissentients, and the meeting was +adjourned. It reassembled, and, on this occasion, although the +supporters of more moderate measures had decreased, it adjourned once +more before deciding. The danger evidently appeared more appalling to +the governor than to his subordinates; perhaps also there was some +personal dislike for their chief even among his Khitay following. At the +second meeting they seemed, indeed, more willing to acquiesce in his +proposed strong measures, and this may have been caused by their +observation of the state of public opinion in the interval. But even +then no final decision could be arrived at, and the Khitay never had a +chance after that of making any defence in Yarkand. The Tungan troops +were not long in hearing, through their chief officer, Mah Dalay, that +there was a plot on foot among the Khitay to disarm, or, as others said, +to massacre them, and they then learnt of the Mahomedan revolt in China +and along the road thither. They immediately determined to be beforehand +with the Amban and his lukewarm council, and no weak hesitation marred +the execution of their plot, as it had that of the Chinese governor. + +The Khitay troops, unarmed, were surprised during the night, and cut +down without quarter, and the small body of survivors sought refuge in +the Yangyshahr fort. This was in August, 1863, and no fewer than 7,000 +Khitay soldiers are computed to have fallen on this single occasion. The +Tungan troops were thereupon joined by the townspeople, and the question +then to be decided was, who was to be supreme, the Tungani or the +Andijan-Kashgari Mahomedans. The former were simply an unlettered and +rather savage soldiery; the latter possessed keen intellects for +manipulating a fanatical people, and for improvising an administration +of a superficial character. The balance of power was evenly distributed +until reinforcements arrived from Aksu and Kucha to the anti-Tungan +party. Two Khojas who had been banished from Kucha, for endeavouring to +promote their own interests in the name of Khokand, had fled to Aksu, +where they met the same fate. In this latter flight many of similar +principles joined them, so that when they reached Yarkand they had a +numerous force at their back. The Khojas in the first place joined their +forces to the Tungani, to storm the remaining Khitay in the Yangyshahr. +The Khitay after a gallant resistance perceived that further opposition +was impossible. Then occurred one of those deeds, which, if Europe +instead of Asia had been the scene, would have been handed down to +posterity as a rare example of military devotion and courage, but which, +although not unique even in the annals of the campaign we are entering +upon, having occurred in little-known Eastern Turkestan, is not realized +as an event that has actually taken place. It is a myth of the myth-land +to which it belongs. And yet, when we read how the Amban summoned all +his officers to his chamber, where he sat in state surrounded by his +wives, his family, and his servants; how all were silent, and yet sedate +and prepared; how, at the given signal that all were present, and that +the foe was at the gate, the aged warrior dropped his lighted pipe into +the mine beneath; how the exulting foe won after all but a barren +triumph; and how the Khitay taught the natives that if they had +forgotten how to conquer they had not how to die, we feel that there is +an under-current throughout the story, that, apart from the admiration +it must command, has claims to our own special sympathy. The Chinese, as +we did in India in the dark hours of 1857, asserted their superiority +over the semi-barbarous races under their sway, even when all hopes of a +recovery seemed to be abandoned. After the fall of the citadel the +Khoja element was supreme in Yarkand, and a priest named Abderrahman +was set up as king. + +The other cities of Altyshahr promptly followed the example of Yarkand, +and the Chinese power was completely subverted on all hands. The Khitay +were massacred whenever they fell into the hands of the Mahomedans, and +the only places that still held out were the citadels, notably the +Yangyshahr of Kashgar. The inhabitants of this city appear to have been +unable to keep their advantage over the Chinese, for they appealed to +the Kirghiz to come in and assist them. These nomads, under their chief, +Sadic Beg, were nothing loth to join in expelling the Chinese, as such a +change could only increase their advantages by substituting an unsettled +for a settled government. Siege was accordingly laid to the citadel of +Kashgar, but the irregular troops of the new allies were unable to make +any impression on the fort, defended as it was by a large Khitay +garrison. If the Chinese commander had assumed a more active policy, he +might have destroyed his opponents, but he was waiting for the arrival +of reinforcements, which he expected before many months. In not relying +solely on his own resources he proved himself unable to read the changed +signs of the time; if, indeed, he was not already meditating that +surrender, which he ultimately concluded with Yakoob Beg. Sadic Beg, +finding himself unable to take the fort, and knowing that it was +uncertain how long the Kashgari would remain friendly to himself, +resolved to play the part of king-maker, and sent the embassy to +Tashkent for a Khoja to come and rule Kashgar, only he omitted to say +that Kashgar was not conquered. + +We can now return to Buzurg Khan and his commander-in-chief. When they +left Tashkent they had only a following of six, among whom were Abdulla, +Pansad; Mahomed Kuli, Shahawal; and Khoja Kulan, Hudaychi. All of these +played a very prominent part under Yakoob Beg. From Tashkent they went +to Khokand, where their numbers rose to sixty-eight. Here the final +preparations were made, and during the first days of January, 1865, this +band of adventurers crossed the Khokand frontier into Eastern Turkestan. +The mountain forts seem to have been deserted, for no opposition was +encountered in the passage of the Terek defile. Several small bodies of +troops joined them, and they reached Mingyol in the neighbourhood of +Kashgar with increased numbers and confidence. Sadic Beg had conceived a +more sanguine view of his situation by this time, and half repented that +he had invited the Khojas in at all, more particularly when he found +that the Khoja had a following of his own, and a skilled commander and +minister in Yakoob Beg. He then strove to dissuade Buzurg Khan from +proceeding further with an enterprise fraught with great peril, for he +represented the Chinese as sure to return, when summary vengeance would +be exacted. But his arguments were unavailing. Either Buzurg Khan or his +adviser, Yakoob Beg, was deaf to all entreaty. The enterprise they had +embarked on must be continued to the bitter end. They could not think of +returning to Khokand with nothing accomplished, with the stigma +attaching to them of a retreat when there had been no foe. Sadic Beg +could not but submit with the best grace possible; and Buzurg Khan was +accordingly placed on the throne of his ancestors. + +In his "_orda_" or palace he administered justice and received the +congratulations of his own followers and of the Andijani townspeople. +The court rules were drawn up on the model of those in use in Khokand, +and while the expedition had but established itself, in an uncertain +manner, in one city it was thought necessary that etiquette should be as +strictly defined and enforced as if all this were taking place in a +brilliant and luxurious capital. In a few days Sadic Beg, on finding +that he played but a secondary part, revolted, and set himself up as +ruler at Yangy Hissar. It was now that Yakoob Beg came to the front, +and assumed the control of affairs until the fall of the contemptible +Buzurg. With great difficulty after the desertion of their Kirghiz +allies was a force of 3,000 men collected around the new Khoja in +Kashgar. Sadic Beg advanced on the capital with a much larger army, and +Yakoob Beg had for a time to remain on the defensive. Each day, however, +brought in recruits to his camp, while, the army of the Kirghiz leader +presenting no object of sympathy to the people, his rival's remained +stationary, if it did not decrease. An encounter at last commenced +between the two forces which was made general by the intrepidity of +Abdulla. The Kirghiz levies of Sadic were unable to withstand the +vigorous charges that were led against them, and broke after a short +combat into headlong flight. In the mountains the Kirghiz gathered +around their chieftain in force, and, hovering on the northern districts +of Kashgar, presented a danger that must be removed by Yakoob Beg before +he could advance farther. His troops were therefore directed to proceed +against the Kirghiz in their fastnesses, and it was not long before the +Kirghiz, driven into a corner, turned at bay on their pursuer. The +forces on either side were about equal, some 5,000 men in either army. +But, as is customary in the East, the Kirghiz army put forth a champion, +Suranchi by name, who had obtained great renown for his extraordinary +height and strength. The challenge did not remain unanswered, for +Abdulla stepped forward to the encounter. The fight, though furious, was +short, and the smaller Khokandian warrior was victorious over his more +ponderous antagonist. The Kirghiz power after this reverse was broken +up, and Sadic Beg took refuge with Alim Kuli at Tashkent. Yakoob Beg's +first campaign against the Kirghiz, who had sworn alliance with him, and +by whose invitation he was present in Kashgar, had thus ended +victoriously, and he was now able to resume the main purpose of +conquering Kashgar. Having rendered Kashgar secure from surprise on the +north, and leaving a force to maintain their hold on it, and to keep in +check the Khitay garrison, Buzurg and Yakoob proceeded south to occupy +Yangy Hissar. The town was occupied without difficulty, but an attempt +to storm the citadel in which the Khitay had taken refuge was repulsed +with loss. Sending Buzurg Khan back to Kashgar, Yakoob Beg resolved to +go on to Yarkand and endeavour to bring that city under their immediate +influence. + +At this period he loudly proclaimed that there should be no differences +among the Tungani, or Mahomedans, in their war with the Buddhists, and +that Khojas and Tungani had but one interest in common. As we have seen, +the Tungan disturbances broke out first in Yarkand of any city of +Altyshahr, and accordingly an earlier settlement founded on a compromise +had been attained there, than was the case in its northern neighbours, +Kashgar and Yangy Hissar, where an ambitious Kirghiz chief had sought to +carve a kingdom for himself. After Abderrahman Khoja had been made king +or ruler in Yarkand, and after the Khitay had been destroyed with their +citadel, a fresh arrangement was agreed upon between the Tungani and the +Khoja party. By its terms the Tungani maintained possession of the +citadel, and the Khojas held jurisdiction in the city. Neither of them +would be disposed to view with any friendly eye the appearance of a +claimant to supremacy in the person of a Khoja sovereign of the whole +country, and it was as the representative of such a person that Yakoob +Beg resolved to visit Yarkand. His march was delayed as much as +possible, and it was not without some difficulty that he at last +obtained admittance with his small following into the city. Yakoob Beg +was naturally incensed at this inimical treatment from his +fellow-religionists, and he soon set himself to the task of humbling the +dominant Khojas of Yarkand. During a street riot that was probably +instigated by the wily Khokandian, the leading Khojas were seized, and +their followers expelled from the city. With a force of only a few +hundred men, Yakoob Beg had established himself as master in the largest +city of the country; his success on this occasion was very temporary. As +ill fortune would have it for him, a fresh army of 2,000 men from Kucha +had arrived at Tagharchi, and, there joined by the forces from Yarkand +and the neighbourhood, presented a very formidable appearance. They +marched on the city at once with complete confidence in their superior +numbers, and Yakoob Beg, always in favour of the boldest course, marched +out to meet them. In a skirmish, however, the detachment under Abdulla +was badly cut up owing to the rashness of that officer, and Yakoob Beg +at once recognized the necessity for a prompt retreat. During the +following night he made a forced march and arrived the next day at Yangy +Hissar with no very great loss in men, but without any baggage whatever. +The enterprise to Yarkand then appeared in its true light as a rash +venture. + +The Khitay in the fort of Yangy Hissar still held out, and Yakoob Beg +resolved to overcome them before he attempted any fresh enterprise. He +called up reinforcements from Kashgar, and pressed the siege with +renewed vigour, and alter strictly environing it for forty days the +garrison surrendered. Although Yakoob Beg himself seemed desirous of +showing moderation to the prisoners, more than 2,000 Chinese were +massacred. During all these petty events, which had not produced even +the results of past Khoja enterprises, there had been discontent and +division within, as well as opposition from without. At this time a +fresh danger was appearing on the horizon. A Badakshi army was advancing +with hostile intent on Sirikul, and although Yakoob Beg disregarded its +approach while he pressed on the works against the citadel of Yangy +Hissar, when that fort fell it attracted his attention once more. The +Khitay garrison in the Yangyshahr of Kashgar was also a source of danger +to the newly founded dynasty, and, although its inactivity had continued +for a long period, it was uncertain at what moment it might pass off. We +can only account for the extraordinary lethargy of the Chinese commander +by supposing that he was in complete ignorance of what was passing in +the country. At many moments it must seem to an observer of the facts +that the Chinese governor, who had under him 6,000 or 7,000 disciplined +troops, could have crushed all the opposition of such heterogeneous +crowds as those fighting under or against Yakoob Beg were up to this +time. With the destruction of the Yangy Hissar garrison the prospects of +Yakoob Beg greatly improved, and less opportunity was left to the +Chinese governor for assuming the offensive, than when he possessed an +ally in so close a position as Yangy Hissar. Yakoob Beg also resolved to +press the Khitay still more in this their last stronghold, and before he +encountered other opponents to crush the Khitay, as he already had the +Kirghiz. At this point Sadic Beg reappears in Kashgar at the head of a +Kirghiz force to oppose Yakoob Beg, and for a moment it seemed as if he +were to have better fortune on this occasion. But Abdulla, the most +trusted as well as the most courageous of Yakoob Beg's lieutenants, +collected such forces as he could, boldly threw himself in his path, +and, having routed Sadic in a sanguinary engagement, prepared to press +that unfortunate chieftain into flight or ruin. Yakoob Beg, in want of +allies and soldiers however, interfered and suggested an alliance +instead of a war _a outrance_. The thwarted Sadic was only too glad to +get off on such favourable terms, and joined his forces to those of his +late enemy now besieging the Khitay with renewed vigour. This merciful +termination of a difficulty, that might have become serious had it not +been cured in time, was a performance very creditable in a diplomatic +sense to Yakoob Beg. In a small way it may be compared with Frederick +the Great's action at Pirna, where he received the services of 40,000 +Saxon troops. But, perhaps, still more remarkable was the manner in +which Yakoob Beg averted the danger from the Badakshi army. The +Badakshi, like their kinsmen the Afghans, may be considered, _caeteris +paribus_, to be superior soldiers, on account of their larger build and +more active habits, to other Asiatics, so that Yakoob Beg with his +half-disciplined followers would have had some difficulty and must have +incurred considerable loss in overcoming these new invaders. He made +overtures to them, and the Badakshi, seeing that he was likely to give +them exciting and profitable employment, entered into negotiations with +him. The result was that they took service under him; and Yakoob Beg for +the first time found himself at the head of a large army, composed of +Khokand, Kashgar, Kirghiz, and Badakshan levies. It was fortunate for +himself that he had been able to arrange his affairs so satisfactorily, +for a fresh danger was approaching from the east. + +The reader may have observed that we have said little of Buzurg Khan +during the operations of the campaign up to this point. Indeed, there is +little or nothing to say of the movements of that prince, for he had +been mainly stationary at Kashgar, where he passed his time in his +harem, or besotted under the use of drugs. Yakoob Beg had from the very +commencement come to the front as responsible chief, and as events +progressed the people and the army came to look upon him as their future +ruler. But Yakoob Beg, it would seem, was really in earnest in +supporting the Khoja prince, for on several occasions not only did he +give Buzurg the most salutary advice, but he also compelled him to take +an active part in the public business. Such fits of action were most +distasteful to the effeminate prince, and he always returned with +renewed zest to the illicit pleasures in which he indulged. One of the +occasions on which Yakoob Beg endeavoured to instil into his sovereign +some idea of the responsibilities of his office was this invasion by the +Khoja-Tungani power of Altyshahr. Early in the summer a large force, +estimated at 40,000 men, collected by the cities of Aksu, Kucha, and +Turfan, appeared at Maralbashi, whence it equally threatened Kashgar or +protected Yarkand. Yakoob Beg's utmost efforts, if we are to credit the +native report, only availed to bring some 2,500 men into the field; but +it is more reasonable to suppose, that, with his Kirghiz, Kipchak, and +Badakshi auxiliaries, he had many more troops under him, perhaps 12,500 +instead of 2,500 men. Be the exact numbers of the forces what they may, +however, it is certain that he was greatly outnumbered by the invader, +and that the diverse elements of his army detracted very much from its +effective strength. The Tungan army advanced from Maralbashi on Yangy +Hissar, where Yakoob Beg had concentrated his army. He had drawn Buzurg +Khan and such of the court followers as he could from their ignominious +inaction in the capital to encounter the dangers and risks of a field of +battle. Both sides were eager for the encounter, which took place in the +neighbourhood of Yangy Hissar. The tactical disposition made by Yakoob +Beg of his forces was such as would command the approval of skilled +officers, and, having done all that mortal man could do to insure the +result, he commended himself and his cause to Allah. The battle was long +and stoutly contested. During hours it was impossible to say to which +side the balance of victory was inclining; at last the Kirghiz troops, +half-hearted in their fighting, were driven from the field, and the +Badakshi division, which had up to that moment stubbornly held its +ground, immediately followed the shameful example thus set it. There now +only remained the division under the immediate orders of Yakoob Beg to +withstand the onset of a whole army victorious in two different quarters +of the field. The situation, on which the fate of the whole enterprise +depended, might have filled the boldest heart with momentary despair. +Yakoob Beg had, however, so braced himself to the effort, that no more +than ordinary emotion was permitted to betray the disturbed mind within, +and with the exclamation that "Victory is the gift of God," he inspired +his soldiery to continue the fight throughout the afternoon. The enemy, +dismayed at the dauntless courage shown by this mere handful of men, and +having incurred great loss in his effort to crush them, drew off his +weakened forces towards evening; and Yakoob Beg, boldly seizing the +opportunity for assuming the offensive, drove them from the field in +disorder and with considerable loss. In addition to the loss in killed +and wounded, more than 1,000 Tungan soldiers enlisted under the standard +of Yakoob Beg, and that general found himself on the morrow of one of +his greatest battles, with a greater force under his command than he had +just before it commenced. This great triumph gave fresh lustre to the +Khoja family, and redounded to the military renown of Yakoob Beg. Nor +should it be forgotten that on this occasion he showed that he +possessed, besides military genius of some merit, qualities of an +estimable character. For the first time in the annals of these wars the +prisoners were treated with some consideration. For some reason or other +this victory was not followed up, and the defeated Kucha army retired on +Maralbashi, which it continued to hold for some months longer. The +indirect results of this victory were scarcely less important, however, +than the immediate and direct consequences of it. + +Buzurg Khan, who had been present at this battle, was among the first to +seek refuge in flight; and when he received intelligence of the final +success his satisfaction was almost eclipsed by his personal chagrin and +mortification. Up to this event he had been content to let Yakoob Beg +act the king so long as he could indulge undisturbed in his +debaucheries; but from this date there became mingled with his wounded +vanity a conviction that Yakoob Beg was becoming so powerful and so +popular that he might prove a dangerous subject. The weak-minded prince +then permitted himself to be made the tool of every rival that the +success of Yakoob Beg had raised up for himself either in the court or +in the camp, and listened to tales brought him of his lieutenant's +plots, when the conspirators most to be feared by himself were the +ambitious chieftains in whose power he was placing his person and his +crown. After the defeat of the Kucha army, the ruling parties in Yarkand +thought it would be wise to come to terms with their victorious and +aggressive neighbour, and accordingly an embassy was despatched to Yangy +Hissar by the Khojas of Yarkand to tender their submission to the +sovereign of Kashgar, and to ask to be favoured by the nomination of a +city governor, who would be agreeable to Buzurg Khan and his vizier, +Yakoob Beg. It is suggestive to watch how the name of the vizier +occupies almost as prominent place in all their addresses as that of his +master. The Tungan governor in the Yarkand Yangyshahr, not to be +behindhand in his worship of the rising sun, immediately sent a similar +expression of obedience to Kashgar. + +The course of events once more takes us back to Kashgar, where the +Chinese still held the citadel against all comers. But with each fresh +success of Yakoob Beg over his numerous opponents, and with the spread +of the Tungan power into Jungaria, hope almost completely deserted the +unfortunate Khitay, who, in this solitary fort, alone maintained the +name of Chinese authority. Treason, within the walls, was now to aid the +efforts from without. Kho Dalay, the superior officer in the citadel, +although not the commandant, came to an arrangement with Yakoob Beg, by +which honourable terms were conceded to the garrison; and 3,000 Khitay +troops surrendered and settled in Kashgar. They were required to +acknowledge formally the supremacy of the Khoja, and to make a +profession of Islamism. But they were never really interfered with in +the observance of their own rites among themselves, and had nothing to +complain of in their duty. They were called after their recantation +"Yangy Mussulmans," or "New Mussulmans." These were the last Khitay +troops who surrendered to the new conquerors, and with them every +vestige of Chinese authority disappeared from every part of Jungaria and +Eastern Turkestan. Even among this garrison, reduced by a long siege and +its attendant deprivations to despair, there was a small minority who +preferred death to the dishonour involved in surrender. Chang Tay, the +commandant, refused to be any party to the arrangement made between Kho +Dalay and Yakoob Beg. When the day approached for the entry of the +Kashgarian army, this resolute Amban withdrew to his palace, and having +collected his family and dependents around him blew them all up with the +explosion of a mine that he had constructed underneath. In the confusion +that arose from this incident, the enemy broke into the fort, and it was +not for some hours that Yakoob Beg succeeded in obtaining control over +them once more. During that interval of insubordination many Khitay were +murdered, but not without resistance. Kho Dalay and almost 3,000 men +remained to take service in the conquering army, as already explained. +The new alliance was cemented by the marriage of Yakoob Beg to the +beautiful daughter of Kho Dalay, by whom he has had several children, +too young as yet to take any part in public affairs. Perhaps Yakoob +Beg's moderation to the Khitay is to be explained by this circumstance, +and it is certain that down to the very end his Khitay wife exercised +great influence over her husband. + +This was in September, 1865, nine months after his first arrival in +Altyshahr, and in that period he had worked, if not very rapidly, with +considerable thoroughness. The Khitay destroyed, the Kirghiz subdued, +and the Tungan influence checked in its aggression against Western +Kashgar, such was the tale of his achievements. Several battles and +sieges successfully brought to an issue, and a numerous army formed out +of the diverse fragments of conquered and conquerors. Personally, too, +Yakoob Beg had done much towards preparing the public mind for the +assumption of power by himself, and the reigning chief had done still +more by his neglect of duty and abandonment to pleasure. Buzurg Khan +might stand for the typical _roi faineant_, and Yakoob Beg was a more +than ordinarily resolute and determined _maire du palais_. + +The citadel of Kashgar had not long surrendered when messengers arrived, +reporting the near approach of a large body of men from Khokand, but who +they were, or with what intention they came, none knew. These were the +unsuccessful conspirators against Khudayar Khan, who, after the death of +Alim Kuli, had obtained his power once more; and these having been +driven out of Khokand by his armies, were compelled to seek refuge in +Kashgar. Yakoob Beg sent them the laconic message, while they were +hovering on the frontier, that "if they came as friends, they were +welcome; if as foes, he was ready to fight them." Until the arrival of +this declaration there appears to have been some hesitation among the +Khokandians what to do, as some were wishing to attempt the conquest of +Kashgar in their own interests; but when so clear a statement was sent +them by Yakoob Beg, and when they learnt more definitely of the +permanence of his success, they threw off their reserve and joined the +confederacy of Kashgar. In the meanwhile fresh disturbances were +breaking out in Yarkand, and thither he proceeded in the later months of +1865 to quell them, taking Buzurg Khan with him. On his arrival before +the town both the Khojas and the Tungani hastened to profess the +greatest desire to fulfil his wishes, although they kept him outside +their gates. It is probable that neither party could have offered any +prolonged resistance to him, had they not been encouraged to do so by +Buzurg Khan. That prince had for some time been fretting against the +iron will of his lieutenant, and, now, in an ill humour at being carried +from his amusements and idleness at Kashgar to suffer the deprivations +of a camp life before Yarkand, broke loose from all control, and plotted +in his own camp, and in the enemy's, to free himself from his +troublesome general. The plot among the Tungan soldiery had assumed +alarming proportions, and all was ready to put an end to the career of +Yakoob, when it was fortunately discovered by his faithful friend +Abdulla. Precautions were taken, and the plot in the camp was +effectually thwarted; but Yakoob Beg was not strong enough then to show +his resentment. This danger was only removed to give place to another. +The Tungani soldiers in Yakoob's service now opened up communications +with their kinsmen in the Yangy-Shahr, and they formed the following +plan to destroy the remaining portion of the Kashgarian forces. The +garrison was to simulate a desire to yield into the hands of Yakoob Beg +both their own persons and the fort, and when he, unsuspecting any +covert design, should be lulled into a false sense of security, the +Tungani in his service could join the Tungani in the fort in making a +night attack on the other forces. The plan promised well. Yakoob Beg was +deceived by the friendly overtures of the Tungani, and relaxed his +precautions, and, during the night that was to precede the surrender of +the Tungani, the conspirators marched out of the fort, and being joined, +as had been arranged, by the other confederates, surprised Yakoob Beg +and his immediate followers. A desperate resistance was offered by the +half-armed men, but the Tungani were victorious, and Yakoob Beg had much +difficulty in collecting around him on the morrow a few hundred +soldiers. Among those, however, was Abdulla and some of his more trusted +companions. The Kirghiz under Sadic Beg could not be trusted, and it +seemed that that chief was still inclined to play for his own hand. At +this, the most critical period of his life, Yakoob Beg's tact and +resolution were most conspicuous. When he was surrounded on every hand +by hostile factions, and could count on the fidelity of scarce five +hundred men, he triumphed over every obstacle, and rose omnipotent over +the petty jealousies and dissensions of those who sought to crush him. +Buzurg Khan seized the moment of this disaster to draw off into a +separate camp with a large body of troops and all the Kirghiz, and it is +very possible, as has been asserted, that he instigated the successful +Tungan _coup_. There is no evidence that he did, and I am personally of +opinion that it originated among the Tungani themselves, and that Buzurg +Khan only rejoiced at its occurrence, as he would have done at any other +reverse to Yakoob. The position now was as follows:--In the citadel were +the victorious Tungani, and in the town they shared the distribution of +power with the townspeople. Outside in one part was Buzurg Khan, with a +force that was equivocal in its sympathies, and that might at any moment +become hostile, to Yakoob Beg; and in another part was Yakoob Beg +himself and his attenuated following. Affairs could not look less +hopeful, and if the three parties could have accommodated their own +differences for but the short space of twenty-four hours, Yakoob Beg +must infallibly have been destroyed: as it was, they did nothing with an +enemy like Yakoob Beg in their proximity, and permitted him to redeem +all he had lost by his too great credulity in the good faith of his +brother Mussulmans. Let us now see how he saved himself. The first point +to do was to restore the courage and self-confidence of his own +soldiers, and to do that, it was necessary to strike a sharp blow that +was sure of success. The fort could not be taken by a _coup de main_, +but the city, large and straggling, presented a more inviting aspect for +such an attempt. Abdulla, the Murat of the army of Kashgar, with the +most determined intrepidity, carried it by assault, although here again +he attacked without awaiting the arrival of the other contingents. Like +Edward Bruce, + + "Such was his wonted reckless mood, + Yet desperate valour oft made good, + Even by its daring, venture rude, + Where prudence might have failed." + +This achievement put an end to the rejoicings among the Tungani, and +compelled them to recognize what a terribly energetic and enterprising +foe they had to deal with. But, at this moment, a severe mishap occurred +which almost neutralized the advantage thus gained. Buzurg Khan, unable +either to crush Yakoob Beg or to enjoy the indulgences to which he had +enslaved himself, resolved to secure the latter, happen what might. He +accordingly fled from Yarkand with many followers, and retired to his +palace at Kashgar. There, not content with pillaging the palace of +Yakoob Beg, he proclaimed him a traitor and rebel, and offered a reward +to whomsoever should bring him his head. Another general was appointed +to the command of the army, and preparations were made for defending +Kashgar against any attempt of Yakoob Beg to attack it. But fortunately +the Tungani in the citadel of Yarkand were not aware of this dissension +among the Kashgari, and as they were struck with admiration for the +valour of Yakoob Beg, they surrendered to him soon after the flight of +Buzurg. He was then able to turn his undivided attention to his +refractory chief. Yakoob Beg had always, as we have said, befriended the +church; he was now to experience some benefit for that very commendable +respect. Among the first means of crushing Yakoob Beg that Buzurg Khan +had employed was an appeal to the Sheikh-ul-islam of Kashgar to proclaim +his Baturbashi outside the pale of the law. This the ecclesiastic +refused to do, and asserted, on the contrary, that Yakoob Beg had +deserved well both of his country and of the Mahomedan world. Foiled in +his effort to stir up a religious feeling against his general, Buzurg +Khan was reduced to the more cogent, but in his hands quite useless, +argument of the sword. Nor was the field, limited as it must appear to +us, free from other pretenders. Sadic Beg, instead of coalescing with +Buzurg Khan, set up his own pretensions to rule the country; and the +Kucha Khojas and Tungani began to collect troops in view of possible +eventualities. + +The army of Buzurg Khan, which had marched out to oppose the entry of +Yakoob Beg, was outflanked and defeated by Abdulla in the country +between Yangy Hissar and the capital; and Yakoob Beg, pressing on with +irresistible strides, was received in Kashgar with the acclamations of +the people and of his soldiers. He was then publicly proclaimed ruler, +and his friend the Sheikh-ul-islam ratified the people's choice. Buzurg +Khan, who had taken refuge in the Yangy-Shahr, was seized in his palace +there, after a very slight resistance. Some of the more prominent of +Yakoob Beg's rivals were executed, and Buzurg Khan himself was placed in +a state of honourable confinement. He still persisted in futile +intrigues, and so long as he remained in Kashgar was a source of endless +trouble to the new government. For more than eighteen months he was +permitted to remain however, and then, being detected in instigating the +murder of Yakoob Beg, was banished to Tibet. After wandering for some +years, he found his way to Khokand, where he is believed to be still +residing with a large family. He may be considered to have been the last +Khoja prince ruling Kashgar, for it is scarcely probable that, in any +future settlement of that country, a restoration of the old reigning +family will be supported by any one. He is no exaggerated type of the +rule among Central Asian despots, who present to our gaze a long series +of petty tyrants and debauchees, until for a few years they are +displaced by a successful soldier such as the Athalik Ghazi, or by a +skilful minister such as Mussulman Kuli was in Khokand. + +The Kirghiz chief, Sadic Beg, did not long hold out against the +consolidated power of Yakoob Beg; and the Kucha movements were +suspended. In a little more than twelve months Yakoob Beg had occupied +Kashgar, Yangy Hissar, and Yarkand. Sirikul and Khoten also acknowledged +his rule; but his further operations against them will be narrated +by-and-by. He felt now so secure in his seat that he permitted the +Badakshi contingent to return home, presenting each soldier with a large +present. Ever since that time Yakoob Beg seems to have maintained some +influence in Badakshan, and to have been inclined on several occasions +to compete with Shere Ali of Afghanistan for the possession of that +province. His ambition was never fully revealed in this quarter; but it +is certain that Shere Ali regarded him with scarcely concealed suspicion +and dislike. + +With the assumption of personal power by Yakoob Beg, on the deposition +of the Khoja Buzurg Khan, the first part of the enterprise undertaken in +the later days of 1864 was brought to a termination. In the more +extended operations of Yakoob Beg against the Tungani and Khoten, may be +perceived the effects of events outside his immediate sphere upon, this +energetic ruler, who, until his last years, never realized the strength +of the Russians, and who had, up to the year 1870 when Kuldja was +occupied, convinced himself that he could retard the progress of the +great Northern power. It was that idea, besides a thirst for military +renown and excitement, that urged him on to the construction of what he +fondly believed might prove a formidable and extensive state. As ruler +of Kashgar, he could not be anything but a kind of vassal of the Khan of +Khokand; as monarch of Eastern Turkestan, he might treat on terms of +equality with the Czar of Russia or the Emperor of China. It was no +unworthy ambition, and Yakoob Beg, created Athalik Ghazi, Champion +Father, in 1866 by the Ameer of Bokhara, accomplished so much of it as +was possible. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +WARS WITH THE TUNGANI. + + +Yakoob Beg, having deposed Buzurg Khan and suppressed all resistance on +the part either of the Tungani or of the Chinese in Western Kashgar, had +some leisure to make a careful survey of his exact position. The result +of the desultory fighting of the previous twelve months had been +eminently satisfactory to himself; but, to say the least, it was dubious +how long this state of things might last. Former adventurers had +accomplished as much as he had, but the Chinese had always returned with +renewed vigour. How was Yakoob Beg to know that the rumours were well +founded which asserted that that empire had been sore stricken in other +fields than against the Tungani, and that even the victories over the +Taepings were not considered a complete set-off to the disasters in +every other quarter of the empire? European critics predicted that the +last hour of the Chinese Empire was fast approaching; but Yakoob Beg, +with far more imperfect means of intelligence at his disposal, feared +still, even when the citadel of Kashgar surrendered, that the Khitay +would return for revenge. His fears were not groundless, as we now know, +but he anticipated events by more than ten years. Yakoob Beg was not so +sanguine in his own resources or good fortune that he believed that he +should not have to encounter the danger that had overwhelmed all his +predecessors, and his first object accordingly was to gather all his +strength together in a compact mass to resist the Chinese when they +should come. But the dissensions that had, during the conquest of +Altyshahr, manifested themselves so palpably in the ill-assorted +conglomeration which had gathered round the standard of Buzurg Khan +brought home to the mind of Yakoob Beg the disadvantages of a divided +people. He accordingly determined that, whatever else he might fail or +succeed in achieving, his most resolute effort should be to weld into +one cohesive and effective whole Andijani and Tungani, Kashgari and +Khitay. It was no mean ambition; but to cement such discordant elements +a policy of "blood and iron" was required. Yakoob Beg did not shrink +certainly in its application; but when he had accomplished the task he +had set himself to bring about he discovered that the cost had been so +great that the state, both in population and in wealth, was at a lower +point than it had ever been before. But in the earlier days of 1866 no +doubt crossed his mind on this latter point. It must be remembered that, +strange to say, the great success of Yakoob Beg in Kashgar had alienated +the sympathy of the government of Khokand from his cause; and, although +this may be explained by the antipathy of Khudayar Khan, now firmly +seated on the throne, who could not entertain any amity for a subject +who had on several occasions deserted his cause, it is impossible to +attribute to that sentiment alone a fact which must have had some deeper +and less personal explanation. At all stages of the history of these +petty princes of Asia are we met by the spectacle of mutual jealousy and +recrimination, whenever any one of themselves seemed about to exalt +himself above his fellows, either by the success of his arms or by the +beneficence of his rule. Rarely, indeed, had any of them shown that he +possessed more than ordinary ability or courage; but, whenever the +phenomenon did appear, he was at once proclaimed by his neighbours to be +a dangerous innovation, and as such to be thwarted and opposed. The +practice has come down to our own day, and during the long wars that +Russia has waged in Asia we have never beheld two states, no matter how +insignificant, combine to oppose the common foe. The Khokandians have +never aided the Bokhariots or the Khivans, nor have the Afghans or the +Kashgari the Khokandians. They have kept the ring, so to speak, as each +of them has gone down singly before the prowess of the Muscovite, in a +manner that ought to excite the admiration of all those who preserve the +memories of the traditional honours of the prize ring; but, as their own +existence has been the penalty, it is questionable whether their +conduct, inspired by regard for no law of chivalry, but simply by mutual +antipathy, has been very prudent. Over such petty jealousies had Yakoob +Beg to triumph before he could hope to complete his dream of an united +Kashgaria. His path was beset with difficulties. In satisfying himself +with too little he might imperil what he had secured, but in attempting +too much he might jeopardize everything he had won. Under such +circumstances the boldest man might have stood uncertain, and the most +resolute inactive until hurried into action by the progress of events. +For some months Yakoob Beg seems to have remained uncertain what should +be his next move. + +In 1865, before his last advance on Yarkand, he had seized Maralbashi or +Bartchuk, and by so doing not only had he secured communication between +Aksu and Yarkand, but also between Aksu and Khoten. This position, lying +200 miles to the east of Yangy Hissar, has always been and is still very +important, and Yakoob Beg is supposed to have fortified it very +strongly. This success was the permanent result of his great victory +over the Tungani from Aksu and Kucha in the neighbourhood of Yangy +Hissar, and it effectually secured his flank during further operations. +It was not, however, until he turned his attention to the southern city +of Khoten, that the importance of this acquisition was made +incontestable. Then it enabled him to devote his attention exclusively +to the extension of his sway southward to the mountains of Karakoram +and Kuen Lun, beyond which he might expect no enemy. In Khoten the Mufti +Habitulla had been invested with supreme control, after the deposition +of the Chinese authorities; and during his government of the city and +district, order appears to have been maintained without unnecessary +exactions. When Yakoob Beg made his first appearance in Yarkand, after +his earlier successes round Kashgar, it will be remembered that the +Yarkandi acknowledged the supremacy of the new Khoja king. Their example +was speedily followed by Habitulla of Khoten, and it is not stated that, +even during the progress of hostilities with Yarkand, this ruler +repudiated the arrangement into which he had entered. It is true that he +was far removed from the immediate sphere of action, but that will not +alone account for an indifference to the progress of events in Kashgar, +which Khoten had never manifested on any previous occasion. Khoten may, +therefore, be considered to have been exceptionally well behaved towards +the new Khoja dynasty located at Kashgar; and when Yakoob Beg advanced +to the south of Yarkand, Habitulla hastened to send representatives to +the camp of the conqueror. They were received with consideration, but +deep down in the breast of Yakoob Beg there lurked either an inveterate +distrust of, or dislike to, the Mufti Habitulla. Dissembling his true +feelings, Yakoob Beg sent a message requesting the presence of the Mufti +in his camp. The Mufti, deluded by the friendly treatment bestowed on +his emissaries, came with many of his relations and followers into the +camp of the Kashgarian general. At first, we are told, they were treated +with every mark of respect and kindness; they were feasted and clothed +in precious garments, but all these honours were but the preliminaries +to the concluding ceremony. During the progress of the evening meal they +were disarmed, and led out to execution, while an attack was made from +several quarters on the town. Even then the resistance was prolonged, +and the slaughter by the infuriated soldiery of the Athalik Ghazi +continued long after all serious opposition had ceased. It is impossible +to exonerate Yakoob Beg from the chief blame on this occasion, and if he +had been a civilized European general, we should have made use of the +phrase, that "It must ever remain a blot on his career;" but it would be +the height of irony to apply such a phrase to this unscrupulous Asiatic, +who, if not worse than the school in which he was brought up, was +certainly not much better in a moral sense. As the fact stands, the +seizure of Khoten, and the massacre of the unarmed leaders of that city, +appear to have been acts as unnecessary as they were unjustifiable. +Khoten may have seemed to the Athalik Ghazi of exceptional importance +for several reasons, and he may have felt doubtful of the fidelity of +Habitulla and his followers; but, so far as we are aware, the reasons +for this action are shadowy in the extreme, even regarded from the point +of view of political expediency. Down to the present day, too, the +memory of this massacre, needless even in the eyes of a people +accustomed to the shortest cuts to power by wholesale slaughter, has +rankled in the minds of the inhabitants of Khoten and Sanju, and the +Athalik Ghazi was least popular in that part of his state in which, +according to the traditions of his predecessors, his action had been +most sweeping, and accordingly most safe. This was early in the year +1867, and the Athalik Ghazi had now an opportunity for settling his +relationship with his eastern neighbours, the Tungani. + +The Tungan movement proper originated, as explained in the last chapter, +in the Chinese provinces of Kansuh and Shensi, and then extended with +scarcely a check to Turfan south of the Tian Shan and to Urumtsi north +of that range. The flame soon spread from Turfan to Karashar, Kucha, and +Aksu, and at all of these towns it was fomented by the appearance of the +new element of the Mahomedan Khokandian, and native settlers, acting in +combination with the Chinese Tungani. North of the Tian Shan the +movement received a temporary repulse; and it is necessary to say +something in explanation of the course of the Mahomedan revival in Ili +before we proceed to discuss the earlier wars of Yakoob Beg with the +Tungani. As early as 1860 serious complications had arisen in that +province, although the Chinese had always been more firmly situated +there than in Kashgar. In that year a plot was concocted to murder the +Chinese viceroy and to upset the existing government. It was discovered, +however, and fell through. There appear to have been more causes at work +in Ili to produce discontent than in the southern state, and it was not +so much a question here between Khitay and Tungani, as it was between a +people clamouring for work, for less taxation, and for payment for what +they had done, and an administration that was unable to satisfy the +demands made upon it from all sides. That last resource of a government +at its wits' ends for money, the depreciation of the current coin and +the issue of fictitious paper, was adopted by the Viceroy of Ili. The +measure, which it had been expected would lessen the difficulty, only +added fuel to the flame. The situation of affairs was becoming +desperate; the people were encouraged by the disasters of the Chinese in +the neighbouring states to increase the number of their demands; and the +Chinese officials appear to have lost their heads in the storm that was +gathering from all sides around them. They were but the effete +representatives of a system which in its vigorous days had claims to +general admiration, and they are only saved from incurring our contempt +by the possession of courage, the sole virtue left them. When the +Chinese first conquered Eastern Turkestan they brought from Kashgar a +large number of settlers, and placed them in the country round Ili. They +became known as Tarantchis, and, in the course of two or three +generations, had increased into a very numerous community. These were +always at heart disaffected to the Chinese, but, as they occupied a +very subordinate position, would probably never have thought of revolt +had not a large division of the conquerors set them the example of +insubordination. So soon as the discontent among the working classes had +assumed formidable proportions by the pecuniary embarrassment of the +Chinese, and the Tungan successes in the east of Jungaria had raised a +fanatical feeling to swell the hatred against a declining and Buddhist +rule, the Tarantchis were not backward for their part in reviving their +almost forgotten grievances, and in joining in a defensive and offensive +alliance with the Tungani. Each party collected such forces as they +could, out in the encounter that ensued the disciplined soldiers of the +Viceroy overcame the far more numerous mob by which they were opposed. +The fortress of Bazandai, however, within the next few days, fell into +the power of the insurgents, and that achievement more than compensated +for the disaster in the open field. Ili itself surrendered in January, +1866, and a Tungani-Tarantchi government was formed. The Chinese viceroy +had in the meanwhile destroyed himself and many of his followers and +assailants by setting fire to a mine of gunpowder under his palace. The +Tungan element gradually superseded the Tarantchi in the administration +of the state, and the five years of independence, which continued until +the Russians came in 1871, were chiefly marked by petty disagreements +which had no influence on the progress of events in this part of Asia. +The trade with Ili fell off, and many other valid reasons for Russian +intervention were accumulated during those few years of national +existence. + +With the beginning of 1867, Yakoob Beg, secure on the south and on the +west from aggression, found himself in a position to cope with the +disjointed but allied Tungan states on his north and east. The hostility +of the Tungani and Khojas of Aksu and Kucha had been already +demonstrated, and it was to be surmised that they were only waiting to +recover from the disastrous campaign of 1865 to renew their efforts to +drive the Khokandian adventurers out of Kashgar. The facts that they +acknowledged the same religious tenets, and that they had overcome, to +some extent, a common enemy in the Chinese, and that they certainly had +each to fear most from their return, seem to have weighed little with +either the Tungani or the Athalik Ghazi. To do the latter simple +justice, it must be remembered that the Tungani had been the aggressors, +and that their attitude never ceased to be unfriendly towards himself. +It is certain that he made some efforts to effect an amicable +arrangement with the ruling party in Aksu, but his advances were +received with coldness, and both the Khojas and the Tungani of that city +held aloof from all intercourse with the new-comer. Both parties +remained watching each other for some time, each waiting for the other +to take the initiative. The Tungani had experienced the weight of the +military power of Yakoob Beg, when they had taken the offensive in the +earlier days of his appearance at Kashgar. It was, therefore, not very +probable that they would repeat the experiment when he presented a far +more formidable and united presence to their attack. Practically +speaking, Yakoob Beg was safe from invasion from the east so long as he +maintained order within his own frontier; and the Tungani in Ili on his +north had manifested no special hostility against his state. Secure from +any aggression on the part of the Tungani, Yakoob Beg might with some +reason have declined to push to extremities his relations with them. It +was certainly inconvenient that an antagonistic state should exist on +his very borders, but, as he was in a very strong position for defence, +the disadvantages of abandoning it to assume an offensive policy were +all the more apparent. What necessity could be alleged to justify a +scarcely excusable attack in a moral sense, and a quite unnecessary in a +political? The proximity of Aksu was in a strategic sense more than +neutralized by the possession of Maralbashi, and, with the lapse of +time and the return of peace, the trade route from Kashgar to Aksu might +be expected to revive once more. But such temporizing measures as these, +involving the endurance of Tungan indifference, could not be brooked by +the Athalik Ghazi. The orthodoxy of these Mahomedans was not above +suspicion, and to so devout and energetic a Sunni as Yakoob Beg these +differences were scarcely less offensive than if they had been believers +in a rival religion. Dictatorial announcements were made to the +Khoja-Tungan rulers of Aksu; and, on their persisting in defiance, +Yakoob Beg collected his forces to chastise them. The doctrines of the +Tungani were impeached as not being in strict accordance with the +Shariat, and the religious fervour of the Sunnis was appealed to, to +bring these recalcitrant people to an acknowledgment of the error of +their ways. In addition to the semi-religious element thus imported into +the question, Yakoob Beg also laid claim to the country up to Kucha as +part of the old territory of the Khoja kings. + +In the spring of 1867 his army set out in two divisions for Aksu. The +Tungani appear to have been paralyzed when the danger that had for many +months appeared menacing came upon them. The resistance encountered at +Aksu, naturally and artificially a very strong place, was not prolonged, +and Yakoob Beg swept on against Kucha. Here the Tungani, having somewhat +recovered from their trepidation, made a desperate stand, and with the +reinforcements that had arrived from Turfan presented a sufficiently +formidable appearance. The ruling authorities in Kucha were Khojas, who +in the time of the Chinese had the custody of a shrine sacred to the +memory of a Mahomedan saint, but who at the outbreak of disturbances +left the temple for the council chamber, and the offering up of prayers +to the memory of the saint for the more difficult task of issuing edicts +for the management of a people. Unhappily for their reputation in our +eyes, they had specially distinguished themselves in the massacres of +the Khitay. Their brief tenure of power seems to have been fairly +beneficent, and, in the lull that succeeded the deposition of the +Chinese and preceded the invasion of Yakoob Beg, they obtained without +doing anything very noteworthy the approval and affection of their +subjects. At Kucha, therefore, more than 500 miles distant from his own +capital, with a long line of hostile country in his rear, Yakoob Beg +found himself opposed by the full power of the Tungani. Previous to +advancing beyond Aksu he had sent back officers to Kashgar to bring up +fresh levies, and he had resorted to that doubtful expedient of drafting +into his army many of the Tungani captured at Aksu. Arrived in front of +Kucha he was unable to prosecute the siege with any vigour until the +arrival of his reinforcements. The moment of delay was attempted to be +turned to account by Yakoob Beg and some of the more prudent of his +counsellors; but the Tungani, whether unwilling to acknowledge their +inferiority or incredulous of the good faith of the Athalik Ghazi, +refused to enter into negotiations that they asserted were unnecessary. +Yakoob Beg had invaded them in their possessions, and he had annexed +Aksu; the only condition in which they could acquiesce was a withdrawal +of his army. All the efforts of the more peaceful and the more prudent +on either side were unavailing, and each party used every exertion to +bring up fresh troops to decide the question of superiority between +Tungani and Kashgari. For several weeks the two armies stood facing each +other, the one stationed on the hills to the north and west of the city, +commanding the main road from Aksu, the other in the environs and the +fortifications of the city itself. The Tungani were far the more +numerous, but in the quality of his main body, and in general efficiency +both of weapons and of experience among the officers, the advantage was +completely on the side of Yakoob Beg. The nucleus of his force comprised +Afghan, Khokandian, and Badakshi troops, veterans in the wars of the +two previous years. The Tungani were either the assassins of helpless +Chinese, or the fugitives of Aksu or Yangy Hissar. They were imperfectly +armed, without any organization, and without any competent leaders. +Above all, the cause they were fighting for was vague, and many of them +in their hearts sympathized more with Yakoob Beg than they did with +their own chiefs. The Kashgarian army, on the other hand, was encouraged +by a long series of brilliant achievements, and looked forward with +eagerness to the fray as the means of exalting their own religion, and +as affording them an opportunity for advancing their own personal +interests by the plunder of so rich a city as Kucha. The reinforcements +were consequently eagerly expected, and some of the more ardent spirits +demanded that they should be led without delay against the enemy. Yakoob +Beg was so far prudent that he refused to be urged into premature action +by the impetuosity of his followers, and the arrival of reinforcements +sooner than was anticipated enabled him not only to keep the excitement +of his soldiery within due bounds, but also to commence active +operations at an earlier date than had seemed possible. The Tungan +leaders, deluded by the inaction of Yakoob Beg into a belief that he was +unable to prosecute the enterprise he had undertaken, assumed the +offensive, only to be worsted in several minor engagements. The Tungan +troops were driven within the walls, and the siege was prosecuted with +the closest rigour. The garrison of Kucha was not sufficiently numerous +to guard in proper strength the wide-stretching suburbs and extensive +fortifications of the existing Kucha, and the cities that had in olden +days stood upon its site. Not many days elapsed before Yakoob Beg +perceived that the defence was confined to a limited portion of the +fortifications, and that several points were entirely neglected. He +resolved, therefore, to put an end to the slow process of a siege by +carrying the town by a general assault. With the whole of his available +force he attacked the city on three sides; but the Tungani resisted +strenuously, and all his direct attacks were repulsed with heavy loss. +To his son Khooda Kul Beg he had entrusted an attack in the rear of the +city, and on the success of that movement now entirely depended the +result of the assault on Kucha. That division by great good fortune and +the gallantry of its leader was victorious, and, although this promising +son of Yakoob Beg, then only a little more than twenty years of age, was +killed in the confusion that ensued on the entrance into the city, Kucha +fell. The triumph was, perhaps, not too dearly purchased. The Tungan +power had received a blow, which took the sting out of its menace, and +effectually protected Kashgar from any possible confederacy among the +Tungan cities. Yakoob Beg followed up the success of Kucha with all his +usual promptitude, but his power was not yet sufficiently matured to +justify him in carrying on extensive operations at such a distance from +the base of his resources. But another reason at this time combined to +recall his attention to another part of his dominions. The Russians were +advancing both in Khokand and in the district of Vernoe to the west of +Kuldja. + +It was evident that prudence demanded a prompt return, and for the +present all further triumph must be abandoned. However, before Yakoob +Beg returned to regulate events in the western portion of his dominions, +he had the satisfaction of receiving the submission humbly tendered by +the ruling bodies of Karashar, Turfan, Hamil, and Urumtsi. After this +brilliant campaign, he slowly retraced his steps through Kucha to Aksu. +Then he turned into the mountains, and reduced Ush Turfan, which in his +onward march he had passed by; and, after this acquisition, the Tungani +of Ili expressed a desire to enter into terms of amity with one who had +brought his empire into direct contact with their state. All these +events occurred during the year 1867; and, although now and then +uncertain rumours reached England of these changes in Eastern +Turkestan, the world in general, even the Russian world, remained +indifferent to the progress of events of which it is now difficult to +trace the exact course. But, with the close of this first Tungan +campaign, and with the extension of the new state up to the walls of +Kucha, the Russian Government, as will be seen in a later chapter, +endeavoured to arrive at some clear view on the exact condition of the +newly formed confederacy to which they in their career of conquest were +approaching so rapidly. + +This commencement of foreign interest in, nay, almost supervision of, +his actions in Eastern Turkestan, imposed some restriction on the +hitherto unrestrained caprice of Yakoob Beg, and the country beyond +Kucha up to Turfan was saved for a short time from the depredations from +which in 1871-73 it suffered so much. On his return to Kashgar after +this triumphant progress, and after having annexed the three important +cities, Aksu, Kucha, and Ush Turfan, the danger which had seemed to +threaten the state from Russia passed off, and Yakoob Beg proceeded to +consolidate his hold on what he had secured. Aksu and Kucha were +fortified, and various small forts were constructed in the passes +leading to Khokand and Kuldja. Every precaution was taken that he had it +in his power to observe, to ensure the safety of his little kingdom from +without, and for the moment all murmur within seemed to be hushed by the +loud acclamations at the victories of the Athalik Ghazi. He had, indeed, +accomplished no slight task, and could afford to regard his handiwork +with some complacency. To erect a powerful state on the ruins of the +Chinese power, and to unite in some sort of settled government turbulent +races and antagonistic sects, was no mean achievement; and to all the +credit due to such Yakoob Beg has indisputable claims. But for him, +confusion and disunion would have settled down over Eastern Turkestan, +until either the Russians or the Chinese had come to establish a +respectable government; but for him Kashgar would have lapsed into a +state of almost hopeless disorder, and Russian triumphs would have been +facilitated. But, when Yakoob Beg returned to find that he was not +seriously threatened in Kashgar, he experienced deep regret and +mortification that he had abstained from prosecuting his wars with the +Tungani with a greater vigour. He eagerly looked forward to an excuse +for resuming his discontinued operations against them. In the interval +that elapsed, he waged a small war in the mountainous region of his +territory extending into Badakshan and the Chitral. Sirikul had, ever +since the appearance of the Badakshi army in the service of Kashgar, +acknowledged a certain kind of obedience to Yakoob Beg; but in 1868, the +governor hitherto supported by the Athalik Ghazi broke out into revolt, +and committed several acts of depredation in the contiguous districts of +Sanju and Yarkand. Yakoob Beg without delay despatched a small force +against him, and, by the help of some mountain guns and the judicious +employment of a small but select body of cavalry, was successful in +overcoming all resistance with very slight loss. In February, 1869, +Yakoob Beg, having tried several milder alternatives, formally annexed +this district, and carried the inhabitants into Yarkand. He resettled +the territory with Kirghiz nomads and Yarkandis. Once more, he was able +to turn his attention to the east, and in 1869 commenced those final +campaigns against the Tungani which only ceased with the reappearance of +the Chinese. The great blot in the career of Yakoob Beg is the +resumption of hostilities against the Tungani. In 1867, when he first +engaged with any vigour the Tungani, some excuse may be found for that +unforeseeing action, in the fact that the Tungani were unbroken, and +might have proved formidable neighbours. But in 1869, they had been +hurled back on Korla, and, although it may be true that they were +inconvenient neighbours, robbing caravans and molesting travellers, it +is difficult to justify the later campaigns of Yakoob Beg against them, +especially as they were conducted by himself and his lieutenants with +exceptional ferocity. But, however weak may have been the impulse, and +however disastrous in the result may have been his crusade against the +Tungani, it was not difficult to discover a plausible excuse for +proceeding to extreme measures with his troublesome neighbours. In the +autumn of 1869, Korla fell before his triumphant arms, and it would +appear that he then turned north into the valleys of the Tekes and the +Yuldus, two rivers rising in the Tian Shan, and flowing through +Jungaria. This movement aroused the susceptibilities of the Russians, +and afforded a very simple excuse for the acquisition of Kuldja. In that +state, disturbances had arisen between the Tungani and the Tarantchis, +and it must have fallen an easy prey to the Athalik Ghazi had he been +permitted to advance. The Russians had, however, in 1871, entered +Kuldja, and explained their action by asserting that they had only done +so to restore order, and to prevent its falling into the hands of Yakoob +Beg. They merely held it in trust for the Chinese, so they said, and +would restore it to them, its rightful owners, so soon as they should be +able to keep permanent possession of it. While Yakoob Beg despatched a +large detachment into the country of the Tian Shan, his main body was +prosecuting with vigour the war against Karashar and Turfan. Yakoob Beg +did not always conduct the war in person, for his two sons, Kuli Beg and +Hacc Kuli Beg, were now growing up, and they, assisted by some of the +older lieutenants, triumphed in various actions over the Tungan rulers +of Turfan and Hamil, while even the princes of Urumtsi and Manas over +the Tian Shan were unable to oppose the valour and energy of their +adversary. The glory of these military achievements was tarnished by the +ruthless manner in which the district was laid waste, and the +inhabitants were massacred; and the senselessness of these proceedings +only required an hour of trial, such as the Chinese invasion, to prove +how fatal it would be to the enacters of these atrocities. Without any +great cessation, their operations were carried on down to the end of +1873, and it does not appear that Yakoob Beg derived any benefit +whatever from these costly and remote undertakings. Although the Tungan +chiefs of Urumtsi and Hamil were on several occasions defeated by the +armies of the Athalik Ghazi, their cities were never occupied, and they +consequently escaped that desolation which stretched from the walls of +Kucha to the regions north of Lake Lob. Chightam, a small town lying +half way between Turfan and Hamil, was the extreme point to which the +Kashgarian forces penetrated. The noble families of Urumtsi, Turfan, and +Hamil were almost totally destroyed in the fall of Turfan; and their +place in their own cities was seized by Tungan generals and adventurers, +who began to retreat westward from Kansuh, on the rumours of Chinese +preparations for invading Jungaria. + +The wars against the Tungani certainly served one useful purpose in +enabling Yakoob Beg to collect a large and disciplined force round his +standard; but the attractions of service in his army lost much of their +value in the eyes of the hardier clans of Turkestan and the neighbouring +states, when it became known that the prospect of loot and prize money +in districts impoverished by several years of hostilities had +diminished. The rigour of the discipline maintained, too, was irksome to +nomads and irregulars accustomed to the easier service and freedom from +restraint of the other Asiatic princes; and during the later years of +his rule there were many desertions, and a difficulty was encountered in +inducing recruits to enter his army. The old practice, employed with +such success in the earlier years of his rule, of inducing the conquered +to combine with the conqueror, was no longer possible, for +extermination had become the order of the day. The Usbegs, Kirghiz, and +other tribes, could not supply in sufficient numbers the requirements of +the state, and the Tungani, who should have comprised the largest +portion of the subjects of the Athalik Ghazi, were coerced into +subjection with an undiscriminating severity. The result was really a +paralysis through sheer want of people, and it was not known until the +hour of trial came how weakened his forces had become. Every inducement +was held forth to Afghan, Badakshi, and, above all, to Indian soldiers +to join, but these, although they formed a nucleus of trustworthy and +efficient soldiers, were far too few to constitute a formidable army. We +are justified in assuming from the facts that these Tungan wars, +conducted in an unsparing manner, were the greatest mistake that marked +the career of Yakoob Beg. So far as his occupation of Kucha goes, he +could at least say that he had secured a valuable prize. He had acquired +every part of what could be considered Kashgar, and his kingdom was +effectually guarded, and his revenues prospectively increased, by the +possession of the great cities of Aksu and Kucha. He might exclaim with +justice that he had eclipsed all his predecessors in military prowess, +and if he had been wise he would then have turned his attention to the +well government of his state, and by so doing have demonstrated that he +was of a higher capacity for ruling a people, as well as for commanding +an army, than any Khoja prince of the past. Had he abstained from +prosecuting with such unflagging persistency his inveterate dislike of +the Tungani, he might easily have come to terms with his neighbours, and +the harm they could have done him would have been infinitesimally small. +But the chief advantage of that more prudent policy would have been +visible when the Chinese advanced to chastise the Tungani. Not only +would the Tungani have been more capable of resisting the Khitay, not +only would Manas and Urumtsi have been capable of offering a more +determined defence, but the Tungani could have retired on Turfan, and +held the country round that town, as well as Karashar and Korla, for a +protracted period against General Kin Shun. The Athalik Ghazi with +untouched resources could have awaited with just confidence the advance +of the Chinese upon his strong frontier city of Kucha, and, as the +Chinese accomplished the difficult task of crushing the Tungani, he +would have had the satisfaction of knowing that in all probability the +Chinese effort would have been spent before it reached his own borders. + +It is impossible to judge men except by the results of their actions, +and the result of Yakoob Beg's incessant and unnecessary interference +with the Tungani was that the Chinese army was able in a few months to +dissipate the remaining Tungan communities, and to encounter in the full +flush of their triumph the numerically weaker forces of Yakoob Beg. It +is, therefore, impossible to exonerate the ruler from great blame in +hastily undertaking operations which a little consideration ought to +have shown to be unwise. Having traced Yakoob Beg's wars with the +Chinese Mahomedans, it is time to consider his rule of Kashgaria proper, +and the events that during these years were transpiring in other +quarters of the state. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +YAKOOB BEG'S GOVERNMENT OF KASHGAR. + + +Yakoob Beg's chief claim to our consideration is that, for more than +twelve years, he gave a settled government to a large portion of Central +Asia, and that, however faulty his external policy may have been in +critical moments, his internal management was founded on a practical and +sufficiently just basis. As a warrior he had done much to justify +admiration, and had proved on many a well-fought field, and in many a +desperate encounter, his claims to be considered a fearless and resolute +soldier; but in this quality he was equalled, if not excelled, by his +own lieutenant, Abdulla Beg, the Murat of Kashgar, while some of the +deeds of his son, Beg Bacha, will rank in daring and surpass in ferocity +anything achieved by the Athalik Ghazi. But in capacity for +administration Yakoob Beg far surpassed his contemporaries, and the +merit of his success was enhanced, not so much by the originality of the +method adopted, as by the unique vigour and perseverance with which it +was put into force. The secret of his power can only be discovered by +constantly bearing in mind the fact that he had constituted himself the +champion of the Mahomedan religion in Central Asia. The Ameers of +Bokhara and Afghanistan might trifle with the seductive promises of the +Russians, and might consent to sacrifice the interests of their religion +for a transitory advancement of their worldly possessions; but to such +degradations the Athalik Ghazi--true "champion father" as he was--never +stooped. With whatever imaginary power the sympathy and good-will of +the Mahomedan peoples of Turkestan may have clothed this ruler, there is +no question that his attitude towards the Muscovite would have warranted +the assertion of greater power than was ever attributed to him; and the +secret of this delusion, an attitude of defiant strength without any +solid foundation for so bold a course, can only be unravelled by +remembering that the Athalik Ghazi strove to represent, not so much +Kashgaria, as the whole Mahomedan world of Central Asia. The necessities +of his own position, when, having conquered Kashgar, he found that he +had aroused the susceptibilities of the Russians, compelled him to seek +in every direction for aid, and to have recourse to every artifice for +increasing his strength, or its semblance, in order to avoid the +dissolution of his state and a subjection to the Czar. So well did he +succeed in his efforts, and so prompt were his movements and so fearless +his attitude, that the Russians were deluded into a belief--which was, +as we emphatically insist, unfounded--that Kashgar would prove a more +formidable antagonist than either Bokhara, or Khokand, or Khiva. + +The interior management of a state, which, young in years, yet seemed to +tower among its fellows, might be supposed to be a very interesting +topic to dilate upon; but on this subject there is less direct evidence +than could be wished. Even Sir Douglas Forsyth, in his official report, +is not able to throw as much light as is desired on the inner working of +the administrative system of Yakoob Beg. Still, such as it is, with the +exception of the Russian writer, Gregorieff, he is the only authority on +the subject. + +To commence with the court and the immediate surroundings of Yakoob Beg, +we are struck by two inconsistencies. In the first place, there were no +great nobles, or indeed adherents or his family; those chiefs who, +whether they were Khokandian nobles or Kirghiz or Afghan adventurers, +had proved their fidelity to his rule, and their capacity for service, +were actively employed as governors of districts, or as commandants of +fortresses in the wide-stretching dominions of their imperious master. +Periodically they came to pay their respects in the capital, and at +frequent intervals Yakoob Beg, in his journeys to the frontier, visited +them, and superintended their operations in person; but, in so active a +community where there was a dearth of mankind, the intellectually gifted +members of the society were too valuable to be permitted to devote their +energies and their attention to the object of becoming palace ornaments. +Yakoob Beg had forced himself on a people who regarded him with +indifference, and he had to maintain himself in his place by a never +relaxing vigour. To make this possible, he required a large staff of +efficient and trustworthy subordinates, who may be divided into three +classes of various capacities, viz., soldiers, administrators, and +tax-gatherers. Until the last few months of his reign there was no +symptom that his system was declining in vigour, or that his supply of +competent officials was limited and susceptible of being exhausted. Even +in his most prosperous years, however, there was always a difficulty in +obtaining a full supply; and in all inferior posts the disaffected +Khitay had to be employed. The Tungani of Kucha and Aksu were scarcely +more to be trusted in an emergency than their Buddhist kinsmen. Yet the +extensive civil service of the state, which undertook the education, the +religion, the civil order, the local administration of the people all +into its own hands, had to be kept in working order, whatever else might +happen. It can at once be perceived that, when a government which never +obtained any deep hold on the affections of the people had only a +limited population to draw upon, it was only a question of time to solve +the difficulty by an exhaustion of the supply of suitable brain +material, or by the uprising of an, at heart, dissatisfied people. No +one will ever understand the secret of Yakoob Beg's rule unless he +constantly bears in mind that his strict orthodoxy as a Mussulman, and +his still stricter enforcement of the laws of his religion within his +borders, were elements of strength only in his external relations; in +his internal affairs they placed him in the light of a tyrant, and +prevented his people ever experiencing any enthusiasm for his person and +rule. It is doubtful whether outside the priesthood and the more +fanatical Andijanis there was any great religious zeal at all, and it is +quite a delusion to speak of the Kashgari, as a whole, as being +fanatical Mahomedans, in the same degree that it is true to say so of +the Bokhariots or Afghans. In addition to there being no noble or +wealthy official class in the city of Kashgar, there was also the +strange inconsistency of an intensely strict etiquette being enforced +side by side with extreme plainness in costume and ceremonial. It is +rare indeed to hear any traveller to Kashgar speaking of the richness or +finery of court functionaries. Even Hadji Torah, or the Seyyid Yakoob +Khan, as he is now called, and Mahomed Yunus, the governor of Yarkand, +two of the most trusted and prominent followers of the Athalik Ghazi, +were not to be distinguished from a host of minor luminaries in the +court circle by any external insignia of their elevated position. Some +of the military, officers of the household troops, wore a device of a +dragon's head worked in silk over their plain uniform of leather; and +this seems to have been a custom surviving the disappearance of the +Chinese. Hadji Torah--who recently visited this country, and who had on +previous occasions travelled in Russia, Turkey, and India--however, +alone among Kashgarian notables, had introduced into his household some +of the comforts and luxuries of European life. His example was not +imitated by many others, and, after a brief period of fashion, the +improvements he had striven to make popular died out and were lost sight +of. The ordinary dress of a person above the rank of gentleman is a +large blanket-like cloak worn over a close-fitting tunic and breeches; +and the dress of the peasant is similar, only his cloak is usually a +sheepskin. The Ameer himself set the example of exceeding plainness in +his costume, and his followers were far too skilled courtiers to vary +their practice from that of their ruler. But what his court lacked in +pomp it gained in impressiveness by the perfect system of etiquette +enforced, and by the external show of reverence to the ruler and to his +religion, manifested in every petty detail of the palace ceremonial. The +Ameer received publicly in his audience-chamber every day, when all +petitions and stringent punishments were submitted to him. His +_shaghawals_, or foreign secretaries, made their report to him on +whatever business might be most pressing, whether it was concerning his +relations with India or Russia, with Afghanistan or the Tungani; and the +local governors, who might happen to have arrived at the capital, were +received in audience, either to present their personal respects to the +ruler, or their reports of the government of their provinces. But with +the exception of a few of his kinsmen, and more intimate associates, +such as Abdulla, none were permitted to be seated in his presence. Even +these could not sit within a certain distance of their sovereign. All +subjects who were allowed to approach his person had to do so in the +humblest manner, and with the deepest expressions of humility and +subjection. His son, Kuli Beg, was still more particular in his +intercourse with his subjects. Even his cousin, Hadji Torah, a man whose +experience and lineage entitled him to exceptional consideration, never +placed himself on an equality with this youthful despot, and always +clothed his words and thoughts when in conversation with him in an +outward show of humble respect and deferential obsequiousness. It will +be at once surmised, and, so far as our information warrants an opinion, +with correctness, that all this terrorism alienated any good feeling +from the ruling family that its prowess in the field and the cabinet +might have secured for it. In Kashgar we have a forcible proof of the +truth of Tennyson's line, that "he who only rules by terror doeth +grievous wrong;" and yet, founded as it was on a military system, and on +the deepest distrust of the subject races, it could not well have been +otherwise. + +The most unmistakable proof of how Yakoob Beg's rule was founded, and +how it was maintained, is to be seen in the fact that his _orda_, or +palace, was one large barrack, the interior compartments of which were +devoted to the accommodation of the royal household. His out-houses were +filled with cannon of every description, from antiquated Chinese irjirs +to modern Krupps and Armstrongs, and his select corps of artillerymen, +clothed in a scarlet uniform, seldom left the chief cities, except for +serious operations against foreign enemies. At the Yangy-Shahr of +Kashgar, too, he kept his military stores, and it was said that in his +workshops there he was able to construct cannon and muskets in +considerable numbers in imitation of the most perfect weapons of +European science. But it must be noted that we have no record of any of +his home-made weapons being used in actual hostilities, while the supply +of arms received from Russia, or this country, is known to have been +made the most of. Besides the natural aptitude of his subjects of +Chinese descent for imitation, he had in his service, particularly in +his artillery, many sepoys who had deserted our service either at the +time of the mutiny or since. These soldiers, valuable either as +non-commissioned officers or in higher ranks still, combined with a +large number of good troops from Khokand and the mountain tribes of the +neighbourhood, gave a cohesion and vigour to the whole army that was +simply inestimable. That army, it may be here convenient to say, was +divided into two classes widely differing from each other, and called +upon, except in an emergency, when all the resources of the state were +summoned to take part in its defence, to perform duties as opposite as +their own composition. The army of the Ameer, founded on that confused +assemblage with which he conquered Kashgar, was divided into two bodies, +the _jigit_ or _djinghite_, the horse soldier, and the _sarbaz_, or foot +soldier. The former of these was the more formidable warrior, being +selected for personal strength or skill. The _jigits_ were trained to +fight on foot as well as on horse, and were armed with a long +single-barrelled gun and a sabre. Their uniform was a serviceable coat +of leathern armour mostly buff in colour, and to all intents and +purposes they correspond with our dragoons, or, perhaps, still more +closely with the proposed corps of mounted riflemen. The _sarbaz_, among +whom are included the artillerymen, presented greater varieties of +efficiency than his mounted comrade; still he had gone through some +regular drill and training, and resided in barracks. He was a regular +soldier, and might be trusted in defence of his country up to a certain +point. In numbers it is impossible to state accurately how many _jigits_ +and _sarbazes_ there were in the service of the state; some months ago +they would have been placed as high as 50,000 or 60,000 strong, possibly +at a higher number still; now we are wiser on the subject, and we have +gone to the other end of the scale. It is probable, however, that Yakoob +Beg never had 20,000 perfectly trustworthy soldiers in his army, and +that after the conclusion of the Tungan wars, half that number would +more accurately represent his force of _jigits_ and _sarbazes_. But in +addition to the more or less effective main body, there was a +nondescript following of Khitay, Tungani, half-savage Kirghiz, and rude +degraded savages like the Dolans, that in numbers would have presented a +very formidable appearance. The Khitay must at once be struck out of the +estimate, for they were never permitted to go beyond the immediate +vicinity of Yarkand and Kashgar, where they kept themselves apart, and +were employed as military servants, as sentries, and as workmen in the +military shops and factories. The Tungani, who enrolled themselves at +various epochs in the service of Kashgar, were more than dubious in +their fidelity to the state; besides they were of such questionable +courage, that they were no allies of any importance. Even as compared +with one another, these were of varying kinds of efficiency; the Tungani +who joined Yakoob Beg in the earlier portion of his career seeming to be +the best of them. Those who joined after the fall of Aksu and Kucha, +less efficient and more ambiguous in their fidelity; and those who dwelt +in the country from Korla to Turfan and Manas, were totally inefficient, +and not to be trusted to any degree whatever. The Kirghiz and Kipchak +nomads were rather a source of danger to their friends than of dread to +their foes. Yakoob Beg had, therefore, at his orders but a very limited +force to maintain his own dynasty against the machinations of Khoja and +Tungan, and to defend a long and vulnerable frontier against many +powerful and ambitious neighbours. It was absurd for him to think of +venturing single-handed across the path of Russia, and to do him justice +he never deluded himself into the idea that he could. All he seems to +have aspired to was to resist to the uttermost any invasion of his +territory by them, and to die sooner than surrender. Limited in numbers +as his regular forces were, they seem to have had every claim to be +placed high in the rank of Asiatic soldiers. They were certainly not as +formidable a body as the Sikhs or Ghoorkas, probably not as the Afghans; +still they were infinitely superior, except in numbers, to any forces +the Ameer of Bokhara or the Khan of Khokand could place in the line of +battle. To Yakoob Beg alone belongs the credit of their organization. + +Yakoob Beg's system of administration was simple in the extreme. A +_Dadkwah_, or governor, was appointed for each district, and in his +hands was vested the supreme control in all the affairs of his province. +Yet he was no irresponsible minister who could tyrannize as he pleased. +Tyrannize in small ways, undoubtedly, many of them did, but, as the life +of the subject could only be taken away by order of the ruler himself, +the most powerful weapon in the hands of an unscrupulous viceroy was +removed. + +At stated periods, too, he had to proceed to Kashgar to give a report of +the chief occurrences in his province, and on such occasions petitions +containing charges against the Dadkwah were formally considered in his +presence. It may be said that this proceeding was a farce, and it is +probably true that a favoured viceroy could laugh at any ordinary +accusation against his character. But that would be an exceptional case. +Many Dadkwahs were reduced in official rank, for malpractices, and some, +such as Yakoob Beg's own half-brother, were removed for incompetence in +their charges. Side by side, too, with the Dadkwah, ruled the Kazi or +Judge, who, if of course not on a par in rank with the viceroy, was +still invested with complete authority in all legal decisions on crime. +This prominence given to the legal authorities had a good effect on the +public mind, for, although the Kazi, as a rule, might not dare to thwart +the wishes of the Dadkwah, the effect of the law being supreme was +scarcely detracted from. And what was that law? it may naturally be +asked. Precisely the same as the law of every other Mahomedan state, +with a few innovations traceable to the influence of the Chinese. The +Shariat, the holy code of the Prophet followed in all the Sunni states, +was enforced by Yakoob Beg, with particular severity; and in its working +no sense of mercy was permitted to temper the harshness of its +regulations. Crimes committed by women were punished with greater +inflictions than the same committed by men; and the ordinary +punishments, whipping, mutilation, and torture could be inflicted by +order of the Dadkwah. Only in capital cases had the decision to rest +with the sovereign. Thieves, beggars, and vagrants found wandering about +the streets at prohibited hours were immediately locked up, and brought +before the Kazi, who would either administer a caution, or a whipping, +if the accused had previously offended. Another check on the abuse of +power by the officials was to be found in the following regulation. A +charge to be visited with a severer punishment than twenty heavy strokes +from the _dira_--a leather strap, fixed in a wooden handle--had to be +investigated by a member of each official rank; so the Kazi passed a +culprit on, with his comments, to the Mufti, the Mufti to the Alim, and +the Alim to the Dadkwah. If any of these officials dissented from the +remarks of his subordinate, and the matter was found impossible to +arrange by mutual concessions, it was either referred to the sovereign +for solution, or was permitted to fall through. The Dadkwah had also to +be present at every punishment within his jurisdiction, and was directly +responsible to the Ameer for any miscarriage of justice. The Kazi Rais, +or head judge, had the right to decide all minor matters for +himself--for instance, in his patrols through the streets, if he met a +woman unveiled he could order her to be struck so many times with the +_dira_; or if he found a man selling adulterated food, or using light +weights, he could confiscate his goods, or in some other manner mulct +him in addition to administering a certain number of strokes. He and his +attendants were particularly energetic and zealous in compelling idlers +about the bazaars to repair to the mosques at prayer time, and in a very +paternal and authoritative manner did the Rais exercise his petty power +for the good of his people. Even on his despotism there was some check, +as he had no authority to inflict more than forty blows with the _dira_ +for one offence. Intimately connected with the administration of justice +was the police system, which in its intricate ramifications permeated +all sections of society. Much as we may feel admiration for the judicial +code, which, up to a certain point admirably administered, ensured a +certain kind of rough justice throughout the Athalik Ghazi's dominions, +the police laws and discipline have greater claims to our favourable +opinion, as evidences of an astonishing capacity for government. In his +legal code, Yakoob Beg simply adopted the laws enforced on all true +believers by the Koran, and he had no claims to originality as a +lawgiver. But as a ruler adopting all those checks on sedition which lie +at the disposal of an unscrupulous sovereign, and which were brought to +such a pitch of perfection under Fouche and the Second Empire, Yakoob +Beg has reason to be placed in the very highest class of such +potentates. In this achievement, too, he was not a plagiarist, and, as +he must have been ignorant of similar regulations existing in Europe, he +must be allowed the credit of having originated a system of police in +which it is difficult to find a single flaw. In China, indeed, something +of the same kind has at all times existed, and at periods when the +Emperor grasped the sceptre firmly, and made his individuality felt in +the management of affairs, the police were one of the most active tools +of power. But even in that empire there is no record of their having +attained so complete a control over the actions and sentiments of the +people as in Kashgaria during the last decade. It appears, too, that in +superiority of system lay the sole pre-eminence of the latter; for the +Tungan, or policeman, of China was, individually man for man, a superior +class to the Kashgarian and other constables of Yakoob Beg. In short, +the whole credit of their existence belongs to that ruler. + +Let us now give some account of this important body. It was divided into +two chief divisions quite distinct from and irrespective of each other, +secret and municipal. The _secret_ was not, like ours, a perceptible +class of detectives, acting in combination with the municipal, to which +was entrusted the discovery of crimes and conspiracies. It may loosely +be described as consisting of every member of the community, for all +desired to stand well with the powers that be, and the easiest way to +attain that object would be to place all confidential information at +their disposal. But it is evident that even in a state of irresponsible +power, like Kashgar, a clear encouragement, such as this, to invent +libels of one's neighbours, could only end in unprofitable litigation +and confusion. There was certainly a check on the too zealous +imaginations of the subjects, and, although there is not much evidence +on the subject, it appears to have been twofold. In the first place a +libeller incurred the risk of receiving very severe punishment, +particularly if the person libelled were of saintly lineage, or if he +filled any official post. This operated as a check on too hasty +accusations, especially when it became known that the reward for such +service was seldom speedily forthcoming, and scarcely ever answered the +expectations of the informer. But this check, which alone seems to have +been adopted in the earlier years of Yakoob Beg's authority, was found +to be insufficient as his power became consolidated. The secret police +then became organized to a certain degree; that is to say, they so far +formed a distinct corps that a member had to be approved of either by +the Dadkwah or the Rais. So well, however, was the secret of their +individuality maintained that few of them were generally known to the +people. Suspicion was wide-spread throughout all ranks of society, and +the governor in his _orda_, or the Rais in his hall of justice, or the +shopkeeper in his booth, or the artisan in his hut, never felt safe that +his neighbour, the man with whom he was holding the most friendly +converse, was not dissecting his expressions to discover whether they +contained anything treasonable. Members of this formidable body were +always attached to the suite of either foreign envoys or merchants; and +their presence in the rear of the _cortege_, always effectually closed +the mouths of the inhabitants, or only induced them to open them to give +false or contradictory replies. + +There can be no doubt that this secret organization, brought to a high +pitch of perfection during the later years of his reign, gave a +consistency and strength to Yakoob Beg's tenure of power that was +wanting to all his predecessors. In leaving this part of the system, it +is as well to point out in conclusion that this detective force was +only useful in discovering what was about to occur in the state among +Andijani or Tungani, and that it was powerless to attempt the repression +by force of any outbreak of popular feeling. Its members were simply +spies, and as a body its value vanished when its members became +generally known. Constant changing, and the introduction of fresh +members, were the sole effectual means of preserving the _incognito_ of +a large body of men, and women even, who preserved official +communication only with the local governor or judge. + +The municipal police were subdivided into urban and suburban, and they +present a complete contrast to the vague body we have just attempted to +describe. Their functions were known and recognizable. They were the +functionaries who put into practice the behests of the Kazi, and they +maintained order in the streets and bazaars, much as our own do. The +_Corbashi_ is the head of this body, and his subordinates are styled +_tarzagchi_. They wore a distinct uniform, and had drilling grounds +attached to barracks, in which, however, they were not all compelled to +reside. They were essentially military in their rules, and presented a +powerful first front to all evil-doers and would-be rebels. It was they +who accompanied the Kazi Rais in his daily circuit of the streets and +market-place, and it was from their weapon, the _dira_, that the +ordinary punishment was received. Their principal avocation seems to +have been to maintain order in the towns during the night-time, for in +the day we only hear of a few of them being detailed for personal +attendance on the Dadkwah and Kazi. With sunset their true importance is +more visible, for not only were they stationed in all main +thoroughfares, squares, and other open places of the city; but until +sunrise patrols at frequent intervals throughout the night visited all +the chief quarters of the town. The power vested in their hands during +these hours was very great, and it was dangerous for any stranger to +venture out after prohibited hours. All persons found in the streets +after sunset were arrested and incarcerated until the morning, when, if +they could give a satisfactory account of themselves, they were +released, with a caution not to keep such unseemly hours for the future. +If, however, they were unable to explain their business, a further term +of imprisonment was imposed; and it was a matter of some difficulty for +a stranger to obtain his complete liberty for some time afterwards. The +suburban police fulfilled much the same duties, and on all the country +roads patrols passed up and down during the night, while pickets were +stationed at the cross-roads. In the same manner as in the towns all +travellers, except those armed with a passport, were interned for a +minute investigation into their affairs in the morning. And "thieves, +beggars, and wanderers" were chastised at the discretion of the local +magistrate. The vagrant laws were as much enforced, too, as they were in +this country in the days of Queen Elizabeth, and in a general mode of +interference with the thoughts and actions of its subjects, the +Kashgarian government had attained a height of excellence that would +entitle it to rank with the Inquisition. Still there was order. No riots +occurred to distract the harmony of the public weal, and to an external +observer, especially to one belonging to a country where order is +considered the greatest _desideratum_, the government of the Athalik +Ghazi seemed to be the perfection of an Asiatic state, and that order a +reason for attributing all other virtues to its originator. + +Travellers, however, who were provided with a passport, were accorded +privileges of transit, and were permitted, if they felt so disposed, to +continue their journeys during hours interdicted to less privileged +mortals. In each chief town there were offices for the issue of these +permits to travel. Not many obstacles were thrown in the path of those, +who left permanent guarantees in the shape of property behind them for +their return, in accomplishing their desire for travel; but rarely was +permission granted to any one, not blessed with these worldly +advantages, to proceed farther than the neighbouring district. Indeed in +all cases leave to visit foreign states, other than Khokand or Bokhara, +was a matter of difficulty to be obtained, and only in the most +exceptional cases was it granted. But it appears that there were some +evasions of this regulation by a simulation of religious zeal, for the +Sheikh-ul-Islam had it in his power to grant permits to leave the +country on pilgrimages to Bokhara the "holy," or to Mecca. In themselves +the passports were simple in phraseology. They merely stated the name +and address of the traveller, the nature of his business, and his +destination. Having obtained the consent of the Dadkwah, and the +authority of the Kazi, no difficulty was experienced in procuring the +necessary slip of paper. Infractions of this permission, by too long an +absence, or by proceeding in some forbidden direction, were visited on a +first offence with a fine. On a repetition of it, however, the +punishment became more severe. It would be interesting to know how these +protectors of the public peace were paid, and by what means. But on this +point there is little trustworthy information. We, however, know of one +tax which was devoted to the support of the urban police, but of the +funds from which the suburban were remunerated, we have no authority for +any assertion. A weekly tax was levied from all the shop and booth +owners, to go towards the payment of their protectors; but it is not +supposed that this amounted to a sufficient sum to maintain the large +force in the more important cities. The difference was probably paid out +of the state coffers under the head of justice. Judging from this we +cannot be far wrong in assuming that a similar tax was levied on the +farmers and country residents for the support of the suburban police; +and as the secret police required less outlay in the country than in the +cities, it is possible that that tax more nearly defrayed the total +cost, than it did in Yarkand or Kashgar. The police supervision and the +military terrorism, freely resorted to on all occasions offering an +excuse for such an extreme measure, have not been without their effect +in leaving traces of their existence and influence in the daily life of +the Kashgari, and on the countenances and sentiments of the subject +peoples. Where formerly lived a light-hearted and happy race there now +seemed as if a never-to-be-removed gloom had settled down on the face of +the land, and neither the assurance of security nor the irregular +encouragement of the ruler to commerce could remove the blight that had +fallen upon the energies and happiness of the people. As one of them +expressed it, in pathetic language, "During the Chinese rule there was +everything; there is nothing now." The speaker of that sentence was no +merchant, who might have been expected to be depressed by the +falling-off in trade, but a warrior and a chieftain's son and heir. If +to him the military system of Yakoob Beg seemed unsatisfactory and +irksome, what must it have appeared to those more peaceful subjects to +whom merchandise and barter were as the breath of their nostrils? All +the advantages of a perfect police system, heavily weighted by the +incumbrance of a costly addition of spies and tale-bearers, would seem +as nothing compared with the loss incurred by the fetters placed on +individual motion and enterprise. Considered by itself, the police +organization of Kashgar was, perhaps, the most perfect design achieved +by Yakoob Beg, and his community of spies will rank with anything in +effectiveness that has ever been accomplished by any potentate. But as a +permanent addition to his strength it is permissible to doubt whether he +really secured his rule by employing the latter, or obtained much more +by the formation of the former than the services of a trained body of +trustworthy, courageous men. The restrictions imposed on trade by the +severance of all communications with the East by the Tungan wars and by +the limited amount of liberty granted the native Kashgari, proved most +deterrent to all mercantile adventure, and placed in the hands of +Khokandians or Russians on the north, and of Cashmerians and Punjabis on +the south, most of the trade still carried on with Eastern Turkestan. + +The trade carried on by the Athalik Ghazi's state, if we are to judge +solely by amount, with foreign countries, was greatest with Russia and +her dependencies; but if we investigate the matter more closely we find +that the result is a little more satisfactory to ourselves. The direct +trade that was carried on by way of Leh with Khoten and Sanju was +steadily increasing, while that of Russia by Khokand had for some time +remained stationary, if it had not even decreased. And then much of the +Russian trade has to be scored to this country, for in the marts of +Kashgar, underneath Russian exteriors, were very often to be found +English interiors, and the brand of well-known Manchester and Liverpool +makers was discovered beneath some gaudy and brilliant-looking cover +hailing from Moscow or Nishni Novgorod. Besides, recent investigations +have proved that some of the goods exported from Shikarpore, in Scinde, +through the Bholan Pass find their way through the mountainous districts +that intervene into the territory of his late Highness the Ameer of +Kashgar. Nor had Yakoob Beg totally neglected all means for inducing +merchants to enter his state; indeed, his chief objection seemed to have +been, not that they should have entered his state, but that they should +leave it. Serais were built in all the chief towns for the accommodation +of such merchants as might take up a temporary abode within his +territory, and the Andijani Serai, or hotel, specially constructed for +merchants from Khokand, was one of the largest and most striking +buildings in the city of Kashgar. Yakoob Beg had even detailed off to +take care of the serai and its occupants a large number of the old +Khitay, or Yangy Mussulmans, who were generally employed throughout the +city as domestic servants. When we come to the description of the +relations of Yakoob Beg with England and with Russia we will speak more +fully of the details of those treaties of commerce which were ratified +on several occasions, and whose ostensible object was the promotion of +trade and other friendly intercourse. + +We have now considered the army, the police, the administration of +justice, and the court of Yakoob Beg, and the only chief subject that +remains to be discussed are the principles of finance adopted by the +Ameer. To keep any state, even an Asiatic state, in a fit condition for +preserving its independence, a settled revenue is requisite, and Yakoob +Beg, whose atmosphere was one of almost continual warfare, was on +several occasions pressed for money in a manner difficult to be +conceived by us. His military operations languished for the want of the +sinews of war, and we are told on credible authority that many of his +soldiers received only payment out of the spoil taken at the sack of +Turfan and other places. So long as his ordinary expenditure was +increased by the addition of an extraordinary war outlay, so long was he +unable to make his receipts and expenditure balance. On the cessation of +hostilities against the Tungani, and the partial revival of trade in +consequence, his fiscal affairs assumed a brighter aspect, and it is +possible that during the last few years of his reign his revenue showed +a surplus. But to obtain that success, a most joyful one to every +embarrassed potentate, Yakoob Beg had to resort to many strange +expedients, and to manifest much patience and long-suffering; and in +overcoming petty obstacles and minor details, he proved himself to be a +man of more than average ability, no less than he had previously by the +skilful manipulation of armies and intriguers. Here again he erected a +structure distinct and separate from that handed down to him by the +Chinese. Comparatively speaking, the Chinese had been wealthy to the +Athalik Ghazi, and they received in moderate imposts on merchandise +alone almost a sufficient sum to defray the total cost of their +administration. Yakoob Beg had no such certain source of revenue; he had +to raise from an impoverished and only half-conquered state a sum almost +as large as that required by the Chinese. That he did it remains the +chief proof of his skill as a finance minister, and is another reason +for our regarding this extraordinary ruler with admiration. We may feel +sure that if we could follow closely the history of his fiscal efforts, +and the numberless plans that proved abortive, we should have revealed +one of the most instructive and interesting narratives of modern Asia. +There are no materials out of Kashgar, if there are such there, for such +an investigation however, and we can only follow as best we may be able, +the thread of events by the light of such authorities as are at our +disposal. In court and personal expenditure he set an example that might +with advantage be followed by other rulers in Asia even at the present +day, and in a strict economy and supervision of the petty sums that in +the aggregate make all the difference in any state between a surplus and +a deficit, were to be found the two guiding principles of his conduct. +Kashgaria might be in a very backward state of cultivation, and years of +commotion and warfare had undoubtedly thrown it back in the ranks of +prosperity and civilization, but the Athalik Ghazi was persuaded of the +truth of the Latin philosopher's saying, that "Parsimonia magna +vectigalia est." It must be remembered that Yakoob Beg set himself a +different task to accomplish than had the Chinese. Their idea was not so +much to extend their empire, although there has always been a tendency +with the Chinese to be aggressive against small neighbours, as to +acquire a territory that could be made a paying thing: much as the +pioneers of Anglo-Saxon conquest have made their impression in every +quarter of the globe in search of wealth and adventure, did the Chinese +by a seemingly irresistible impulse spread over the continent of Asia. +In doing so they were actuated as much by calculation of possible profit +as by any desire for military renown. The Emperor Keen-Lung himself was +flattered by the triumphs achieved beyond Gobi; but his lieutenants and +viceroys aimed at more mercenary objects, and but for the golden promise +held forth by a permanent conquest of Turkestan would have induced their +master to direct his efforts to some more profitable undertaking. The +Chinese, having acquired Kashgar, were far too sagacious to use up its +resources by an organized system of pillage, and they accordingly, let +it be granted chiefly with a view to their own personal aggrandizement, +devoted their attention to the development of its natural wealth by +means already detailed in a previous chapter. For three generations the +officials grew rich on the prosperity of their dependency, and for the +same period the people themselves were scarcely less flourishing. The +Chinese had accepted no slight responsibility in undertaking the +government of Kashgar on principles identical with those by which they +held authority in Tibet; but, owing to wonderful perseverance and good +management, they triumphed over every difficulty. The revenue raised for +state and local purposes was very great, and it sufficed to preserve +good order for many years, and to add permanent improvement to the state +in every direction. The task voluntarily undertaken by the Chinese was +far more onerous than that Yakoob Beg found he had to execute; but they +came to it with many advantages that he wanted. They had a large and +faithful army; he had only an uncertain gathering, which might flee or +desert on the first symptom of disaster: they had the resources of a +great and powerful empire at their back; he had nothing but his own +energy and determination: and above all, they had a reputation that +added to their strength and facilitated their undertakings, while he was +regarded as a mere military adventurer, receiving the contempt of Tungan +and Khoja alike. The very nature of things made the Chinese turn most of +their attention to commerce, while for years Yakoob Beg's sole thought +was to consolidate his military strength and form a large standing army. +For many years, then, Yakoob Beg only spent money on the drilling of +soldiers and the purchase of weapons. Now and then, when some danger +seemed to threaten him, either from Russia, Afghanistan, or the Tungani, +he would devote considerable sums to the construction of forts in the +line of the menaced position. But his chief expenditure was confined to +his army, and the maintenance of his dynasty by his police system. The +administration of justice required a certain sum of money, and the +Church for its support came in for a fair share of the good things that +were going. It is clear that his expenditure, if not very great in our +eyes, would severely tax a population of 1,000,000 people in no very +high state of prosperity. The chief source of wealth in the past had +always been the trade with China, and when that was broken off, the +slight increase in intercourse with Russia and India was not a +sufficient compensation. In fact, the country was very poor, without the +ingenuity and commercial instincts of the Khitay. During the days of the +war under Buzurg Khan, the only means of obtaining the necessary revenue +was by despoliation and enforced levies on the occupied portion of the +territory. When the western portion of Kashgaria was subdued, Yakoob Beg +found himself without any money in his exchequer, and no easy means of +filling it presented itself to him. In these straits he had recourse to +an expedient that, if not very novel, was at all events very effective. +He issued a proclamation to his faithful subjects to the effect that as +conqueror he was landowner of the whole state; but that he was +willing--eager would have been the more correct expression--to sell it +to them at a cheap rate. He, however, exempted from this the old +possessions of the Chinese Wangs and Ambans, and distributed their +extensive domains among the more prominent of his followers, who in +return acknowledged their liability to military service. The system was +an exact copy of the old feudal regime, and Yakoob Beg was vested with +all the rights and authority of the feudal lord of the Middle Ages. The +parallel is still further maintained by the large reward that the Church +received for its aid to the new ruler. The old revenues, devoted to the +support of the temples and religious seminaries in the past, and which +had miscarried during the troublous period of the war for the possession +of Turkestan, were restored, and fresh possessions were added thereto, +to demonstrate the generosity of the sovereign and his veneration for +the religion of Mahomed. His old friend the Sheikh-ul-Islam was still +more fortunate, and a large estate was set apart for his special +enjoyment. Nor does it appear that the Mussulman priests abused the +fresh power and advantages they thus secured; for among the toilers in +Kashgaria none were more energetic than they in educating the people, +and in extending their influence over their minds, both for the benefit +of their religion and for the security of the power of the Athalik +Ghazi. But in one respect, and it is impossible to exaggerate its +importance, Yakoob Beg's endeavours to found a strong military class, +bound to him by ties of past favours and others yet to come, were +abortive; for with rare exceptions his followers refused to fill their +new avocation of landed proprietors. Instead of devoting their attention +to the questions arising from agriculture and other rural pursuits, they +sub-let all their possessions to Andijani immigrants, and, residing in +their city _ordas_, gave themselves over either to lascivious pleasures +or to complete indolence. Even so distinguished a warrior as Abdulla +Beg, the slayer of more than 12,000 persons, as his panegyrists boasted, +suffered from the pervading effeminacy on the cessation of active +hostilities; and in the lower ranks of the service such deterioration in +energy was still more manifest. This change in the spirit of his earlier +supporters, among other things, obliged Yakoob Beg to depend the more on +the Andijani merchants and shopkeepers, and conduced to his adopting +more favourable views on foreign trade in the later years of his power. + +The sum of money which he immediately received by the sale of lands +placed him in a condition to undertake those wars against the Tungani, +which added so much to the extent of his territory and to the +responsibilities of his position. Indeed, for several years after its +first enforcement it continued to bring in a certain amount to the +coffers of the State. But even this resource was transitory, and the sum +of money received by this means and in the shape of spoil, from Yarkand, +Kashgar, Khoten, and other places, was not sufficient to meet the +expenditure caused by the formation of a large army. Neither of these +practices could be regarded as a permanent means of obtaining a revenue, +for the former would scarcely admit of a repetition, and the latter soon +exhausted itself. So when his rule had become a little settled, and +these modes of raising money, in addition to the still more +reprehensible practice of robbing foreign merchants, had become out of +date to a certain degree, the Athalik Ghazi had to place his fiscal +arrangements on a more practical and honourable basis. While he laboured +under some disadvantages, already enumerated, as compared with the +Chinese, he had the great advantage over them that he strove for an +object more easily accomplished than the restoration of Kashgar to its +pristine welfare; and in his budget he had only steadily to keep in view +how much he required to maintain so many _jigits_, and so many police in +his pay, and to keep in his exchequer a small surplus for any untoward +emergency. He left the roads to take care of themselves; the irrigation +works, sadly wanted in various parts of the state, must be reserved for +his successors; and all proposals for the amelioration of the people +were shelved for a more opportune occasion. But so many thousand +_jigits_ must be in the ranks; so many fresh guns and cartridges must be +placed in the arsenals; and so many adventurers must be induced by good +pay to take service in the army as non-commissioned officers, in order +that the rank and file should be well drilled. The very necessities of +his position compelled Yakoob Beg to make all these military +preparations; but the cost was great, and the sacrifices thus imposed on +ruler and on people were a terrible strain. Recent events make us +inclined to believe that a less active military and foreign policy, and +a more peaceable and domestic one, would have tended to have added more +strength to the Athalik Ghazi's rule than the somewhat ostentatious +military parade to which he had recourse. Be that as it may, Yakoob Beg +instituted in 1867 two taxes, which may be supposed to represent the two +chief classes of receipts during his tenure of authority. The first of +these was a tithe on all the cereal produce of the country; this tax was +called the _Ushr_. The second, called the _Zakat_, was a customs due +levied on all merchandise entering Kashgar. The _Ushr_ was payable on +all land except that occupied by the Church, or by those who owed +military service to the crown instead of other payment; and even those +who rented land from the noble classes were obliged to surrender a tithe +to the ruler. It would appear, therefore, from this that it was not so +much the land as its legal possessor who was exempt from liability to +the usual obligations of citizenship. The danger contained in the +acquisition of all the crown lands by Andijani merchants, and the +gradual displacement of his more immediate followers through the energy +of these people, was not imperceptible to Yakoob Beg, and he accordingly +adopted measures for preventing his nobles selling their land without +his sanction. The receipts from this _Ushr_ were very considerable, and +it was the main source of his revenue for years. We have some idea of +the approximate value of land in Kashgar. The method of measuring land +for sale, and consequently also for taxation, is peculiar. It is not by +any given size that it is computed, or, indeed, strictly speaking by the +amount of crop it produces; but at a rate in accordance with the amount +of wheat with which it had been planted. The average rate was about a +pound for as much land as was sown with 20 lb. of wheat. The tenant, as +has been said, paid the government dues and handed over three-fourths of +the net produce to the landlord as rent, receiving for his portion only +the one-fourth remaining. Under this system it was only in very +prosperous years that any but very large tenants made sufficient to earn +a competent livelihood. In bad years it is possible that the landlord +had to satisfy himself with a smaller share, if he was not induced to +surrender his claim altogether for the disastrous period. But the +tax-farmers, entrusted with the collection of this rate, were eager to +become rich, no less than to earn a good name with the authorities for +bringing in a list with no defaulters. The unfortunate people were +completely at their mercy, and without any means of ascertaining the +accuracy of the claim, or of opposing extortionate demands on the part +of the tax-collectors. They paid without a murmur, perhaps without a +suspicion of the imposition that was being practised upon them, the sum +demanded of them, if they were able; and as their dues were payable +without delay and on demand before anything else was taken out of the +total sum of the produce, the Athalik Ghazi received his share with +regularity, and his tax-collector pocketed the excess sum for his own +satisfaction. In many cases it is known that the amount claimed by the +official exceeded by threefold the legal demand. Such a system was no +less hurtful to the ruler than it was ruinous to the people. That in one +tax alone a larger sum should be extracted from the people for the +benefit of the officials than was contributed for the necessities of the +state, exhibited a very loose system of supervision on the part of the +sovereign, and is a strong piece of evidence that in many ways Yakoob +Beg was a mixture of contradictions. We can scarcely persuade ourselves +that he was aware of these occurrences, and yet how could he be ignorant +of them? + +In addition to the _Ushr_ there was another tax on home produce, viz., +the _Tanabi_, or tax on land devoted to the production of vegetables or +fruit. The Tanab is, by the way, a lineal measure of forty-seven yards, +and a Tanabi is a piece of land forty-seven yards square. On this extent +of land cultivated for vegetables, or fruit, a small tax was raised. +More than any other tax did this vary according to the character of the +district, and to the quality of the year's crop. It was seldom less than +a shilling a Tanabi, even in the least renowned district, whereas in +some parts, in good years, it was five shillings, or even more. Here +again, however, the middleman interfered, and exacted as much as he saw +there was any possibility of his obtaining. This tax undoubtedly ought +to have produced a large sum, as a larger portion of the soil is laid +out as fruit and vegetable gardens than for crops; but whether it was +more difficult to raise, or there was more peculation _in transitu_ from +the tax-payer to the imperial exchequer, it is certain that we hear much +less of this tax than we should be disposed to imagine. The two great +taxes on home productions were therefore a corn due and a fruit due. The +rate was not in itself excessive, and could be paid by any community +without embarrassment. It is uncertain to what extent the avarice of the +officials had made the conditions of these two taxes more onerous, +although, on the most favourable supposition, the citizen was mulcted in +no inconsiderable sum. A more serious question for the ruler was, how +did it affect his own position with regard to his subjects? Did Yakoob +Beg appear in the eyes of the Kashgari as an exacting and oppressive +tyrant on account of these heavy impositions? + +It is impossible to speak on this point with any degree of certainty, +but it is only natural to expect that such was the case. No tiller of +the ground can feel grateful to a sovereign who required him to hand +over almost one-third of his receipts before he made use of one penny of +them, even for the payment of his rent. It is scarcely probable that +Yakoob Beg approved of such enormous profits going to his officials; +but, that having tolerated petty exactions in his earlier days, he found +himself unable to attempt the task of coping with the evil when it had +assumed such alarming proportions. It is impossible to believe that he +remained in ignorance of what was occurring under his very eyes, and +there is some evident foundation for the accusation that he participated +in the division of the profits of his tax-gatherers. We should be loth +to admit the accuracy of such a charge, and yet the arguments in its +favour are too plausible to admit of a very confident contradiction. It +would not speak well for the efficiency of his secret police if he had +remained in ignorance of a fact which was losing him the sympathy of his +subjects. + +The gold mines at Khoten were worked after the fall of that city in +1868, and continued productive down to the present time. There is no +information on the quantities of the precious metal that are there +turned out in the year, but it is probable that they are not very great. +The coal mines near Aksu and Kucha are no longer made use of, except by +a few individuals, and the copper mines in that district have, since the +departure of the Chinese, only been very partially explored. The jade +that used to come in great quantities from Aksu and Khoten, is still to +be found throughout Kashgar; but although it is probable that it still +nearly all comes from those cities, the Kashgari themselves tell a +hesitating tale as to its place of production. A visitor to Kashgar, on +going the round of the bazaars, soon found that the people's tongues +were tied by the presence, in his train, of a number of the secret +police, who had been specially told off to prevent the Feringhee +obtaining any troublesome information on the state of the people, or the +resources of the state. A striking instance was given him of the close +attention paid by these guardians of order to the veriest trifles. The +traveller inquired in one stall where the jade, which was the chief +commodity of the merchant in question, came from, and received the +reply, Aksu. Proceeding to another shop in the street, he repeated the +question, when he was informed that it was imported from Khokand. But +the traveller said, your neighbour told me it came from Aksu. The +shopkeeper, taken aback by this abrupt remark, became confused, and +admitted that it came from Aksu. Warned by a look from the official, he +then repeated his original assertion that it came from Khokand. The use +of all this absurd shuffling, and attempt to throw dust in strangers' +eyes, is impossible to discover; for it was a matter of little moment +whether jade came from Aksu, or Khokand, so long as we knew that it +formed an important commodity, both in the rough and in the chiselled +state, in the cities of Kashgaria. + +The customs tax, or _Zakat_, is sanctioned by the Shariat, and was +levied at all the border posts on the various roads leading into the +state. Up to the ratification of the treaties with Great Britain and +Russia, its regulations were vague and elastic in the extreme. In fact, +any merchant who might have been so foolhardy as to venture into Kashgar +would have had reason, before these events, to think himself fortunate +if he escaped the penalty of his rashness; for assuredly his luggage +would not, but would have been confiscated for the special benefit of +his Highness the Ameer. So late as 1869, Russian merchants were robbed +of their baggage, and personally ill-treated, and only after long years +of negotiation did the Russian Government obtain any satisfaction for +the injuries and loss inflicted on one of their subjects. And then how +did the Athalik Ghazi send the sum of money he agreed to pay for the +loss the merchant had incurred?--why in a depreciated Chinese currency, +part of a large number of coins that he had found in a disused temple in +Kashgar! Before this, all the external trade had been carried on with +Khokand and Bokhara, Afghanistan and Badakshan, and the receipts from +_Zakat_ were quite insignificant, barring such treasure trove as the +spoliation of a merchant from Tashkent, or from Leh. But with the +persistent efforts on the part of the Russians on the north, and of the +English native merchants on the south, to pierce the gloom hiding the +country of Eastern Turkestan, it became impossible for Yakoob Beg to +maintain much longer the incognito he was so jealous in maintaining. +Perhaps also the prospect of deriving an income from _Zakat_, that +should smooth down many of his difficulties, was not without some +influence on his mind when he came into direct contact with civilized +empires. His expectations were far too sanguine, and he seems to have +once more, during the last twelve months of his life, become indifferent +to the advantages or disadvantages of trade with his neighbours. In +fact, when he placed his customs on a fair footing, he found that it +would require many years to recoup him for the excessive exactions he +surrendered. The merchants who first attempted to commence intercourse +with Kashgar became speedily discouraged by the dangers of the route, +and the small opening for a large remunerative trade in a country whose +wealth and population had been magnified tenfold. In a country where the +richest merchant in the chief town possessed only a capital of L8,000, +not much could be expected in the way of fortune; and although the legal +dues on all merchandise were fixed at an _ad valorem_ rate of 2-1/2 per +cent., it was soon discovered that if the ruler happened to be in want +of cash he would not scruple to take what he could from the stranger. +Both to the ruler, and to the foreign merchant, the new arrangement +contained distasteful matter. The former perceived that he had +surrendered some of his imperial rights, and that he was not to be +recompensed by his receiving more money, and the latter knew that the +treaty stipulation would not save him from having to pay excess fees. + +The _Zakat_, far from showing the expected disposition to increase, +seemed rather inclined to remain stationary, if not to decrease; and +the foreign merchant had obtained some promise on the part of the ruler +of personal protection, and of assistance in the disposal of his wares. +His discontent at the stagnation in the customs soon showed itself by +his exacting excess dues, sometimes on British, sometimes on Russian, +but more often on Khokandian and Afghan merchants. Instead of increasing +his receipts, these strong measures only threw them back, and left him +in a worse plight than he was in before. He had not the patience +necessary to enable him to wait with confidence the fuller development +of trade, nor had he the perseverance or tact to place fresh inducements +in the path of merchants to renew their intercourse with him and his +state. Many visited Kashgar with merchandise a first time; but few, +indeed, repeated the visit. The ruler was off-handed in his reception of +them. They were scarcely accorded any liberty in their movements, and +the profit of their journey was greatly reduced by the payment of a due +of 5 per cent. instead of the stipulated condition of 2-1/2 per cent. It +is a pure fiction, therefore, to say that trade with Kashgar had +increased during the rule of the Athalik Ghazi through his friendly +inclination. If the amount of merchandise imported into his state had +increased, it was owing only to the necessities of its inhabitants, and +was a fact that must have taken place either by intercourse direct, or +through native states, with the two great providers of Central Asia. The +exaggerated enthusiasm that it was endeavoured to raise up in this +country about this same mythical ruler of Yarkand never spread far, and +there was always some scepticism, if there could be no disproof, of the +reports of the formidableness of this new kingdom. Looking calmly at the +real state of Yakoob Beg's position, even at the height of his power, we +find him to have always been a pecuniarily embarrassed ruler, glad of +the smallest windfall in the shape of the spoil of a single merchant. +The _Zakat_, his advisers pointed out to him, might be made a most +productive source of revenue, if foreign merchants could be induced to +bring their wares into the country. The loss the people had felt in the +departure of the Chinese might be amply repaired by the appearance of +Russian and English merchants to supply the same place that they filled. +If his aspirations were disappointed, and the _Zakat_ did not show any +signs of possessing that elasticity which had been predicted, it is +probable that in his impatience, heightened by the perception that +foreign trade might lead to foreign complications, he did not give the +scheme a sufficient time for a fair trial. His other sources of revenue, +_Ushr_ and _Tanabi_, and the gold mines of Khoten, brought in a sum +enough to meet the current expenses of the government and to maintain in +his service as many soldiers as his recruiting officers were able to +secure. But there was little if any surplus; and local improvements, and +all outlay that might have been reproductive and for the benefit of the +people, were strictly forbidden. The only works we can find constructed +by him, with a view to the advancement of the interests of his subjects, +were the merchants' _serais_, built in each city, and these were +self-supporting. Yakoob Beg has no claim to being considered as a +beneficent ruler. He was a military dictator, who had shown a rare power +for inaugurating a rough system of government, and whose campaigns had +always been singularly successful. As a ruler, showing a full +appreciation of the wants of his people, and adopting the best possible +measures to obtain them, he had no claims to consideration. Indeed, he +could not be compared with the Chinese, who, however personal may have +been their motives, certainly raised the state to a high pitch of +material prosperity, and left many enduring marks of their past +occupation. These two dominations, foisted on the Kashgari by the strong +arm, while each immeasurably superior to the Khoja claimants, +represented two distinct modes of governing a subject race. The Chinese +endeavoured to conciliate, and to make the necessity for their presence +felt by the people; the Athalik Ghazi was supremely indifferent to the +prosperity of his subjects, so long as they were willing to pay him the +tribute money, and to serve in his army. An exactly opposite result +might have been expected, for there was far more kinship between the +Khokandian adventurer and the Kashgari, than there was between the +Khitay and the Andijani. Admirers of Yakoob Beg may, of course, plead +that his rule had not acquired sufficient consistency to justify him in +tasking his strength by great undertakings, such as the construction of +roads and canals. In one respect he had not the labour at his disposal, +and he was, consequently, hampered by a difficulty that the Chinese were +free from. Still when we remember that all these works ought to have +been remunerative, and to have strengthened Yakoob Beg's individual +power, instead of taxing his resources, the excuse cannot be admitted as +entitled to our consideration. Yakoob Beg has claims only to be admired +for having given us something better than a repetition of the depravity +of the Khoja rulers, and of course among his coevals he is entitled to +far the highest place. If it is only asked for him that he should be +placed above them, no one can raise the slightest objection to it; for +beyond the shadow of a doubt, he was the most energetic and talented +ruler that had appeared among the Khanates for several centuries. But it +would be affectation to deny that a higher place than this has been +claimed for him; and before according his right to occupy it, the +evidence on which his claim rests must be sifted with the greatest care. +Even now I do not say that his claims are unproven; but that it is open +to doubt whether his work has not been exaggerated, I think must be +admitted by every one who has studied the course of his life in Kashgar. +It is absurd to talk of Yakoob Beg having been an equal of Genghis Khan +or of Timour, in any other way than that of showing that his personal +abilities were of a transcendent order. As a legislator and public +benefactor, it is fair to compare him with the Chinese, who possessed +some advantages over him, but who laboured under some disadvantages in +religion, and other conditions, as compared with him. And when we do +this, after impartial consideration we find that the balance is greatly +in favour of the Chinese. What can we judge from this, but that the rule +of Yakoob Beg, while presenting some striking features, was inferior in +degree to that of the Chinese? It is only fair to remember that the +difficulties in his path were great, and that he overcame many of them. +Before closing this chapter some description of the chief men who +assisted him to conquer the country, and then to govern it, may be not +without interest to the reader. + +First among these, by right of his position as well as by his high +abilities, comes the Seyyid Yakoob Khan, or Hadji Torah, as he has more +conveniently been called, the prince who has recently visited several of +the principal courts of Europe. He is a near relative of the Athalik +Ghazi, although, strange to say, there is no consanguinity between them. +He is a son of Nar Mahomed Khan, the governor of Tashkent, who married +as his second wife Yakoob Beg's sister, and who was instrumental in +advancing the interests of Yakoob Beg during the earlier days of his +career in Khokand. The Seyyid was almost as old as his uncle, the Ameer +of Kashgar, having been born in Tashkent in 1823; but despite this near +connection Hadji Torah played no part in the conquest of Kashgar. Until +Yakoob Beg achieved complete success in his enterprise in Eastern +Turkestan he was considered by Khokandians of high rank a simple +adventurer. The Seyyid Yakoob Khan was of the best lineage in Turkestan, +and it is very possible that until the year 1867 he regarded his uncle +with a considerable amount of indifference. Certain it is that Hadji +Torah was far otherwise employed than in assisting his relative when +the latter was engaged in some of the desperate encounters of his not +uneventful career. In the civil administration of Khokand he filled, +under Alim Kuli, high posts, such as Principal of the Madrassa of +Tashkent, and then he was appointed Kazi, or Judge. It was after the +fall of Ak Musjid that he commenced that career of activity as a +traveller and a negotiator which brought him to the shores of the +Bosphorus and to the banks of the Neva and the Thames. That was in the +year 1854, and he was appointed as a sort of secretary to the embassy of +Mirza Jan Effendi, the ambassador sent by Mollah Khan to Constantinople +for aid. On a subsequent occasion he again visited Constantinople in a +similar capacity, after the death of Mollah Khan, and during the brief +tenure of power by his successor, Mahomed Khan, the nominee of Alim +Kuli. This was in 1865, and during the troubles that ensued in Khokand +and the final success of Khudayar Khan, the legal ruler of Khokand and +antagonist of Alim Kuli, Hadji Torah resided quietly at Constantinople, +where Abdul Aziz entertained him with sumptuous hospitality. It would +appear that he obtained some kind of reputation among the numerous +visitors from either Turkestan who came to Turkey, and apart from his +sacrosanct character few could fail to be impressed favourably by his +cheerful yet dignified manner. His uncle in 1870 had indeed overcome all +opposition to his rule, and it might at a first glance appear strange +why he should desire to secure the services of a man of whom he could +have seen or known little for many years. But Hadji Torah possessed +abilities and experience rare among the inhabitants of Central Asia, and +to Yakoob Beg the very talents his nephew possessed were those he was +most in need of. + +In 1870 the Athalik Ghazi was anxious to draw close the bonds of +alliance with the Porte; who could assist him better than the man who +had resided in Constantinople for several years, and who had formed a +friendly intimacy with the Sultan? In 1871 Yakoob Beg first recognized +the imminence of danger to his state from Russia, then put in possession +of Kuldja; who could instruct him in the most effectual way of warding +off that danger, either by an alliance with England or by propitiating +the Russians, than the travelled Hadji Torah? The very qualities that +the Seyyid Yakoob Khan possessed were those the Ameer Yakoob Beg stood +most in need of. He might search among all his followers, those who had +shared every vicissitude of his strange fortunes, and he could not find +one other with an identical capacity. The overtures to his nephew are +thus easily intelligible, and the nephew himself gladly greeted his +entry into a wider career than was that of an honoured guest on the +hospitality of the Porte. His subsequent embassies in the service of +Kashgar to St. Petersburg, Calcutta, Constantinople, and London are too +recent and too well known to require mention here. When he settled in +Kashgar he married a daughter of Mahomed Khoja, the Sheikh-ul-Islam of +Kashgaria. His weight with the people was consequently very great, and +his judgment was greatly valued by the Ameer. Even over Beg Bacha, the +turbulent and ferocious heir-apparent, Hadji Torah had acquired some +influence by his ready tact and _bonhomie_. + +Of the two chief personages, Mahomed Khoja and Abdulla Pansad, the +priest and the soldier, who assisted Yakoob Beg, it is unfortunately +impossible to discover much, and that little has already been stated in +the preceding pages. There can be no doubt, however, that they were the +principal instruments in promoting the aggrandizement of Yakoob Beg, and +the two who enjoyed more than any other the confidence and friendship of +the man they had supported so faithfully. But of another well-tried +follower we know more, chiefly through the pages of Dr. Bellew. Mahomed +Yunus seems to have been the most educated and well informed among the +governors of Yakoob Beg. He had the reputation of being quite the +best-informed man in Kashgar, but as the _curriculum_ of instruction did +not include modern languages, it is difficult to guage the exact degree +of that reputation. He was an old and trusted follower of the Athalik +Ghazi, for when he was in the service of Khokand Mahomed Yunus +officiated as his scribe. He, however, as a civilian, took no part in +the expedition of Buzurg Khan, and it was not until after the death of +Alim Kuli and the success of Khudayar Khan that he joined his firm +friend and master in Kashgar. So high an opinion had Yakoob Beg of his +talents, and so pressed was he for skilled rulers, that Mahomed Yunus +was at once appointed Dadkwah of the recently conquered district of +Yarkand, the richest, the most populous, and the most turbulent of all +the governorships in Kashgaria. The skill with which he brought the +troublesome Yarkandis into complete submission to the new ruler, and the +rare ability he manifested in his administration of his province down +almost to the present time, justify the selection of his whilome comrade +in Khokand. At first it seems that the governor ruled with a high hand, +and that the slightest symptom of insubordination was checked by an +immediate arrest and a not long-delayed execution. During the last seven +years, however, his government had become milder, chiefly because all +evil-doers had been got rid of. Among some of the minor followers may be +mentioned Alish Beg, Dadkwah of Kashgar; Ihrar Khan Torah, the first +envoy despatched from Kashgar to India; and Mahomed Beg of Artosh: but +we have no sufficient information of them to give an account of them +that would be interesting to the general reader. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +YAKOOB BEG'S POLICY TOWARDS RUSSIA. + + +Yakoob Beg had in the earlier days of his career come into contact with +the Russians, and although, in the long interval between the fall of Ak +Musjid and his departure from Khokand, the Russians, chiefly owing to +the prostration resulting from the Crimean War, did not press on with +the energy that their first advance on the Syr Darya seemed to promise, +there is no doubt that the possibility of its occurrence was the +foremost thought in the minds of Yakoob Beg and his contemporaries. In +1865, when the Russians threatened and eventually occupied Tashkent, and +brought their frontier halfway on its journey to the Oxus, Yakoob Beg +was far too much occupied with his own affairs in Kashgar to attempt any +interference in Khokand. With, however, the dismemberment of Khokand and +the rout of the Bokhariot army in the spring of 1866, his attention was +forcibly claimed by a fact that seemed in the future to involve him as +the next victim of Russian aggrandizement. In that year, too, he had not +only overcome all resistance in the more important districts of +Kashgaria, but he had to a greater extent than before, become +responsible for the political actions of the people of this state +through the deposition of Buzurg Khan. As early as 1866, it may be +assumed that the new ruler of Kashgar had his attention directed to the +movements of his old antagonist, by their successes against the +Khokandians and Bokhariots; but it is clear that the Russians were not +equally interested in his doings at this period. With the occupation of +the northern portion of Khokand, the rule of Russia was brought into +nearer proximity with that of the new power of Kashgar, and it became +only a question of time whether the two governments were to attain a +harmonious agreement, or whether a series of petty disputes was to +result in a further extension of the Russian Empire, towards both India +and China. The independent portion of the Khanate of Khokand still +intervened, and the difficult country of the Kizil Yart mountains served +the useful purpose of giving the Athalik Ghazi breathing time, ere he +should arrive at a decision about his future relations with Russia. +Indeed, up to this point the interest of Russia in the affairs of +Kashgar had been very slight, for it does not appear that much, if any, +intercourse had been carried on between the two territories in the past. +Far otherwise was it in Ili, where the Russians had for many years been +located as merchants or as consuls. Their station at Almatie or Vernoe, +an important town and fort situated about 50 miles north of Issik Kul +and 250 west of Ili itself, had in a few years become a large and +flourishing city, instead of preserving its original character of a +small mountain fort. Russian merchants carried on a very extensive trade +by this road with Ili, Urumtsi, Hamil, and Pekin, and their relations +with the Chinese merchants had attained a very satisfactory basis. It +was, therefore, with no friendly feeling, that the Tungan rising in Ili +was regarded by a very large section of the Russians in the +neighbourhood. The disturbances that thereupon broke out, effectually +put a stop to all trade in this quarter for some time, and the old +traffic, or such of it as continued, with China had to be conducted +along the less direct route through Siberia. For six years, the Russians +tolerated the uncertain state of affairs in Ili, where the Tungani and +the Tarantchis disputed between themselves as to which should be the +ruling party; but their dissatisfaction was scarcely concealed at the +substitution of a native government for that of China. When, therefore, +Yakoob Beg, having conquered the country south of the Tian Shan, seemed +to threaten the provinces north of that barrier, it is not surprising +that the Russians availed themselves of excuses for forestalling him, +and for placing their commercial relations on an equally good footing as +they had been in the past with the inhabitants of Ili, by a forced +occupation of that territory. But the Russians were resolved to give as +little umbrage as possible to the Chinese. Ili was formally acknowledged +to be Chinese territory, and the Czar voluntarily promised, through his +representative at Pekin, to restore it as soon as the Emperor of China +was able to despatch a sufficient force to preserve order therein. This +tact secured the permanent goodwill of the Chinese, and Russia obtained, +in several important trade concessions, a very gratifying reward for her +skilful diplomacy. Her friendly action to the Celestials was also +heightened in its effect by a piece of unfortunate policy on our part. +The Panthays had erected in Yunnan a Mahomedan power, which seemed to +have broken off completely from Pekin, and report brought such tales to +our frontier of the power and goodwill of the Sultan of the Panthays +ruling in Ta-li-foo, that in an ill-advised moment we entered into +negotiations with this potentate. The Chinese authorities very naturally +took umbrage at this tacit support of a rebellious vassal, and all our +subsequent efforts have been unable to remove the suspicions produced by +our vacillating attitude on that occasion. The Russians still further +preserved the appearance of friendship for China by their refusal, +maintained during several years, to acknowledge the government set up in +Kashgar by Buzurg Khan and Yakoob Beg. This action was however the less +worthy of approval, because at that period the Russians had no immediate +concern in Kashgaria. Their sole interest lay in the course of events in +Jungaria, with which they were intimately connected by trade and +political associations, stretching back for almost a century. +Undoubtedly Jungaria was much affected by commotions in Kashgaria, and +we accordingly see, when the march of events in the latter province +assumed an aspect menacing to the future independence of Jungaria, the +Russians taking prompt measures to secure the possession of that +province for themselves. When Ili passed into the hands of Russia, the +old trade revived along this route to a certain degree, and some +intercourse ensued with the Tungani of Urumtsi, Manas and Hamil. +Measures seem to have been taken to impress on the rulers of those +cities the prudence of not interfering with merchants or travellers, and +matters became to a certain degree satisfactory for Russian +tranquillity. The city of Ili never, however, recovered its former +prosperity, for Vernoe still remains the most important town in this +region. Originally a fort constructed in 1854, as a small mountain post, +to defend the road from the marauding Kirghiz, it has increased from its +insignificant origin into a large settlement of Cossacks and Calmucks, +and is now a very thriving community. It was, therefore, it must be +remembered, primarily with Jungaria that Russia was interested. So far +as the internal affairs of Kashgar were concerned, she could have +disregarded the dispute between the rivals, Yakoob Beg and the Chinese; +it was only when a powerful Mahomedan state was erected in Eastern +Turkestan, and threatened both the independence of Ili, and also to +raise up disunion in Khokand, that Russia was compelled to consider what +policy it would be wise to adopt towards the recently proclaimed Athalik +Ghazi. Whether it was absolutely necessary or even prudent to annex Ili, +may be doubted with some reason, but it is impossible to find fault with +the Russians for that step. Probably it was the most excusable of all +their conquests, none the less may the decision have been founded on a +misapprehension of circumstances, or it may have been premature to shut +Yakoob Beg out from advancing into a region where he would have been at +the complete mercy of the Russians. Nor is it clear even that Yakoob Beg +had the intention, so generously attributed to him, of committing what +would certainly have resulted in political extinction, viz., an advance +to the northern side of the Tian Shan. The reader will, we hope, +perceive that as little interest was felt by the Russians in the events +transpiring in Kashgar as there was in India, and this indifference +continued down at all events to the end of 1866. At that date Yakoob +Beg's enterprise had been crowned with complete success and the Russian +Government, far more promptly and accurately apprised of the course of +events than our Government in India, was obliged to devote some +attention to this new power, whose appearance was already beginning to +raise a ferment in the Mahomedan states lying to the west of Kashgar. + +In 1866, however, some indefinite agreement was arrived at by the +commanders of forces along the Naryn borders, to abstain from +interfering with each other's actions. The Russian forces were permitted +to follow refugees from Khokand and predatory Kirghiz within the nominal +frontier of Kashgar, and when occasion arose a similar right was +accorded to the Kashgarian officials. By some good fortune, perhaps +caused by a feeling of mutual respect, no collisions of any consequence +occurred between the representatives of the two powers during these +early and vague negotiations. Although the Russian governors of Siberia +and Turkestan refused to acknowledge either Buzurg Khan or Yakoob Beg, +they seem to have done their best to make use of these conciliatory +measures along the northern frontier as a lever for inducing Yakoob Beg +to make overtures to them for their support. If such was their intention +the firmness of Yakoob Beg thwarted all their designs, as will be seen +in the sequel. To obtain, however, some advantage out of the apparent +apprehension of the Kashgarian ruler for Russian power was absolutely +necessary, if only to demonstrate the perfection to which Muscovite +diplomacy had attained. So, while refusing to acknowledge the new state +in Eastern Turkestan and deeply deploring the departure of the Chinese, +orders were given to the frontier officers to obtain the sanction of the +Kashgarian officials in the neighbourhood to the construction of a +bridge across the Naryn and of a military road over the Tian Shan into +Kashgar. This was in 1867, and it is not to be wondered at that the +Kashgarian authorities replied with a categorical refusal. To have +acquiesced in this demand would have been to have placed the city of +Kashgar at the complete mercy of the Russians. The position of that city +is most disadvantageous in a military point of view, and the only +obstacle an army advancing from Issik Kul has to encounter is the +difficulty of the road from the Naryn torrent, and the general +impracticability of the passes through this portion of the Tian Shan +range. The Russian government was much disappointed at this rebuff +experienced at the hands of a native ruler, and accordingly in great +haste it was resolved that a fort should be constructed on the Naryn +just within their frontier. In 1868 this fort was completed, but by that +time a fresh change had taken place in the state of affairs, and hopes +were entertained that an agreement might yet be arranged by peaceful +means with Kashgar. During these two years there had been continual +disturbances and fighting in Western Turkestan. Bokhara, instigated, +according to Russian assertions, by Yakoob Beg, had joined with Khokand +and Khiva in a combined uprising against Russia; but in so far as that +uprising was combined it never occurred, for both Bokhara and Khokand +fell an easy prey in detail to the armies of the Czar. The punishment of +Khiva was reserved for a future occasion, and indeed of all the +confederates Khiva was the only one which obtained any successes in the +field. The most palpable result of that campaign was the acquisition of +Samarcand by Russia, and for a time all opposition seemed to be stamped +out. No sooner, however, had the main Russian army returned to Tashkent +than a large force invested the small garrison left in Samarcand, and +the whole country rose in arms again. The Russian garrison held tightly +on to its post, and, although in comparison to its strength its loss was +most severe, the town was preserved until the arrival of General +Kaufmann with reinforcements. Bokhara then sued for peace, which, after +some delay, was concluded with the unfortunate Ameer Mozaffur Eddin. By +that treaty the Russians obtained the right to place military +cantonments at Kermina, Charjui, and Karshi. Kermina is situated about +fifty miles east of the town of Bokhara, on the road from Katti Kurgan +and Samarcand; Karshi about sixty miles south of Katti Kurgan, and half +way to the Oxus; while Charjui is on the Oxus and some eighty miles west +of Bokhara. Of all these the last is the most important, for thence a +direct caravan route leads to Merv and Meshed. Once more, in 1870-71, +Bokhara entered the field, but the enterprise collapsed through the +unconcerted measures of the allies and the weakness of Khokand. During +these five eventful years of rebellion amongst the races of Western +Turkestan, Yakoob Beg preserved his neutrality. If the assertion is +correct that he had played an underhand part in the formation of the +league against Russia, assuredly he endeavoured to make his actions +contradict his diplomacy. Not a Kashgarian soldier participated in the +efforts made so repeatedly by Bokhara and Khokand to shake off the bonds +of Russian vassalage. Like Shere Ali of Cabul, he devoted his attention +exclusively to the affairs of his immediate province, and wars in the +extreme east of his dominions against co-religionists were a preferable +alternative to the risks attending a _jehad_ against the most formidable +enemy of Islam! Russia had indeed little to complain of in Yakoob Beg's +interference in their possessions. His instigation of premature +rebellions, or, if he did not instigate them, the approval extended to +them by some of his chief ministers, was the very kindest act he could +have conferred on the ruling power of Turkestan, for Russia never has +had anything to fear from any isolated risings among the people of this +part of Central Asia. Nothing less than an unanimous and concerted +rising in Western Turkestan, aided with a nucleus of regular troops and +officers, such as, to go no farther, either Afghanistan can supply, or +Kashgar could at one time have supplied--nothing less than this will +ever produce a complete catastrophe to the Russian arms, and in a short +campaign of a few months send the Russian legions back to their old +quarters of thirteen years ago. Whether Yakoob Beg ever was strong +enough to risk the independence of his state on so important an +enterprise may fairly be doubted, and he showed a commendable prudence +in abstaining from hostilities when he had sufficient matters to occupy +all his attention, and to task all his resources within his own borders; +but assuming such to have been the case, his indifference to the +suffering thereby inflicted on the Khokandians must remain a blot on his +fair fame. If the part he played in these earlier plots was scarcely +honourable, how much less so was his action in the last rebellion of +1875. But it may be as well to postpone considering that event until +later on in this chapter. Yakoob Beg most probably took a very selfish +view of the state of affairs. His own extremely uncertain tenure of +power made him anxious lest any storm from beyond his frontier should +wreck the frail bark in which he had asserted his claim to independence, +and the whole object of his policy was simply to divert attention from +himself to other quarters. The Russians above all must have their work +cut out for them in repression of continual sedition in their +possessions; while each day of respite witnessed Yakoob Beg in a better +position for making a strenuous resistance when the time should come, +according to Russian ideas, for an attempt to be made to crush his +power. Viewed from this standpoint, the conduct of Yakoob Beg towards +his fellow-countrymen appears in a slightly more favourable aspect, +although his policy of expediency has little in it to command +admiration. Yet the result answered his expectations. In 1868 the +construction of Fort Naryn was the avowed preliminary measure to an +occupation of Kashgar; from that danger this policy of compromise saved +him. Again, in 1870, was he pronounced an incorrigible enemy of the +Czar, and an expedition was prepared which was to bring him to his +senses; once more a revolt in Khokand intervened to distract Russian +attention and Russian arms from the Naryn to Ferghana. The expedition +against Khiva in 1873 also served the purpose of diverting to another +quarter the blow which should, according to many, have descended on the +offending head of the Athalik Ghazi; and lastly, in 1875 the +insurrection in Khokand, the most serious and the most nearly successful +of all the native wars against Russia, saved him from an invasion for +which every preparation had been made. + +To return to the year 1868, when the Russian government had constructed +the fort on the Naryn, and had openly proclaimed its intention of +punishing the slight put upon it by Yakoob Beg's refusal to permit the +construction of a road over the mountains to Artosh. Up to that year the +intercourse had been of a semiofficial character between the officers on +either side of the frontier. We have now come to a phase of the question +of a slightly different import. The Russian officials endeavoured to +obtain from Yakoob Beg concessions that would be advantageous to their +country, at the same time that they categorically declined to recognize +his official _status_ as an independent prince. Their antagonist was far +too astute to permit himself to be out-manoeuvred by so simple a +device, and his officials were quite unauthorized to enter into any +arrangement without its being brought before their master in the manner +consistent with his dignity. We have seen that the Russians, failing in +their diplomatic chicane, had recourse to threats, although the irony of +fate prevented those threats ever being put into execution. But +concurrently with these efforts on the part of the Russian government, +others of a different kind were being made by individuals. The Russian +merchants of Kuldja contained in their ranks several men whose +enterprise and courage had been remarkable in the manipulation of trade +with the Chinese and the Tungani. They were not easily deterred from any +undertaking which promised them brilliant remuneration, even though the +risk and uncertainty might be great. The pioneers of commerce were free +from the fetters that hampered official movements. It was of little +moment to them who ruled in Kashgaria so long as he extended his +protection to their goods and their persons whilst they were within his +territory. The Russian government viewed with favour the efforts that +were made to cross the Tian Shan, for on the individual fell the +greatest portion of the risk, while the government profited much by the +fruits of his experience. The Russian merchants were, therefore, not +discouraged by their authorities when they laid their proposals before +General Kolpakovsky, as English merchants would have been under similar +circumstances by the authorities at Calcutta--nay, it is tolerably +certain that they received many inducements to persist in their +intention; both their patriotism and desire for advancing their own +worldly concerns were appealed to, to urge them to attempt to obtain +admission into Kashgar. When, therefore, it became evident in 1868 that +nothing was to be obtained from Yakoob Beg by indirect means, and when +it was also decided that a military remedy would not be convenient, the +field was fairly cleared for another kind of performers to begin +operations. + +Early in the year 1868 a Russian merchant, named Kludof, collected at +Vernoe a small caravan. His chief commodities consisted of those +gewgaws, which, prepared in Moscow, have been found, according to +Russian experience, the most marketable articles in Western Turkestan; +but, in addition to these trumpery packages, more useful necessaries, +such as cotton goods and cutlery, were taken as specimens of some of the +real advantages that would come in the wake of Russian trade. Kludof set +out with the intention of crossing the Tian Shan by the Naryn, and +making for the border town of Ush Turfan, whence Kashgar is easily +reached by the high road. But he had not proceeded far beyond Fort +Naryn, then in course of construction, when he was attacked by a band of +marauders. With the loss of all his possessions he must still be +considered fortunate in having escaped without any serious personal +injury. Perhaps the robbers were inspired with some respect for the +person of a Russian subject, or, as the indictment against Yakoob Beg +affirms, by the express orders of that ruler, who wished to deter, +without causing any serious complication with the government, Russian +subjects of any kind whatever from entering his kingdom. As it happened, +however, Kludof was a very determined fellow, one not easily balked when +he had set his mind on accomplishing anything. The government viewed his +case with commiseration, and he was assisted in collecting together +another caravan of larger proportions than its predecessor. But before +setting out on the same road he determined to make an effort to reach +the ear of Yakoob Beg himself, and by a singular piece of good fortune +he was able to do so through a Kashgarian subject residing in Kuldja. +The presents, judiciously selected, with which he accompanied his letter +complaining of the injury he had received at the hands of Kirghiz +subjects of the ruler of Kashgar, yet only demanding as a reparation +permission to come into that state as a peaceful subject of the Czar, +fully propitiated Yakoob Beg, who sent a safe conduct to Vernoe for +Kludof and his caravan. This merchant made a most favourable impression +on the ruler of Kashgar, and it seemed at one moment as if he would +achieve what all the diplomacy of the two previous years had failed in +accomplishing. Even Yakoob Beg was induced to take a slight step towards +a better agreement with his neighbour, for in the summer of 1868, he +sent Shadi Mirza, one of his nephews, to Vernoe, requesting that he +might be permitted to go on to Tashkent, to place before the governor of +Turkestan certain proposals from his master for a complete understanding +with Russia. Simultaneously with the despatch of Shadi Mirza by Yakoob +Beg, a Russian officer, Captain Reinthal, was commissioned by General +Kolpakovsky, the governor of Kuldja, to proceed to Kashgar and demand +the surrender of some Kirghiz robbers, who, from within Yakoob Beg's +dominion, had sallied forth to pillage Russian merchants. They had also +seized several inhabitants of Khokand and the Naryn district; and the +Russian government demanded the unconditional surrender of these +individuals as her subjects. Captain Reinthal was instructed to make +these two demands in a peremptory way, and to convince the new +government that Russia would not permit any infraction of the spirit of +the treaties concluded with the old government under the Chinese. +Captain Reinthal was received in a sufficiently hospitable manner, but +his movements were scrupulously restricted to the city. He did not, on +this occasion, learn much of importance about the country, but he was +impressed favourably by the appearance of such of the army as he saw. +The Kirghiz robbers were captured by the order of Yakoob Beg, but he +stoutly refused to surrender them. The Russian prisoners were also kept +in honourable confinement as a guarantee for the safe return of Shadi +Mirza. They were, however, permitted to return to Russian territory when +it became known that Shadi Mirza was progressing favourably with his +mission to Tashkent. Captain Reinthal accomplished little or nothing on +this embassade, and had to report, on his return to his superior, the +strange tidings that the new power was resolved to play an independent +part in Asia, and to answer defiance with defiance, and threat with +threat. This report must have seemed scarcely credible, but there is no +doubt that Captain Reinthal advised, as the result of his experience, +the adoption of a lenient and friendly policy towards the new-comer. +This concession to a Central Asian despot was not agreeable at +head-quarters, and the question was shelved for the time. Shadi Mirza, +who had been detained at Vernoe, was at last permitted to continue his +journey to Tashkent, where he found General Kaufmann absent in Europe. +Instructions were then issued to send him on to St. Petersburg, where he +arrived in the last days of 1868. He had several informal interviews +with the governor of Turkestan, but he was not received by the Czar or +any of the higher officials. In fact, he was only treated as an ordinary +traveller, and not as the representative of a neighbouring state. +Nothing up to this had been done by the Russian government, showing that +they recognized Yakoob Beg as ruler of Kashgaria. The Chinese were +still, in their eyes, the _de jure_ owners of that province, whoever +might be the temporary owners _de facto_. On the return of Shadi Mirza +to Kashgar, in January, 1869, the relations between Russia and Yakoob +Beg may be said to have returned to the exact _status quo ante_. All the +Russian demands for trade had been unsuccessful, and, except the +brilliant journey of Mr. Kludof, no one had broken through the mystic +charm that shut out the Garden of Asia from all foreign spectators. +Their envoy, Captain Reinthal, had been treated in a precisely similar +manner to that in which Shadi Mirza had been received at Vernoe and St. +Petersburg; and a firm and dignified attitude had effectually checked +the Russian officer when he attempted to express those threats which +formed the principal part of his instructions. There was something +imposing in the quiet way in which Yakoob Beg asserted his equality in +rank with the Czar of All the Russias. His invariable reply, when the +great power of Russia was made use of as an argument to overcome his +refusal to accede to the trade concessions demanded, was, "My brother, +the White Czar, is a most powerful monarch, and rules over the greater +portion of the earth, and I am only an insignificant prince in +comparison to him. But none the less can I encounter the danger like a +true man, and esteem it a happiness to die in defence of my country and +my faith." To so courageous and so honourable a reply what rejoinder +could be made by the abashed officers? It is impossible to refuse Yakoob +Beg the highest admiration for his stanchness in his opposition to +Russia. If for his own narrow interests it may have been imprudent to +throw down the gage of battle so freely, all the more does that attitude +claim respect when we see him trampling on purely selfish motives, and +asserting his claim to leadership in that wider question of Asiatic +against Muscovite, of Mahomedan against Greek. Had he only been +consistent throughout his career, had he only been as firm in his +convictions and as prompt in carrying them into practice as he generally +was, when the occasion came for a great effort against Russia, how +different might have been his own fate and the present aspect of affairs +in Central Asia! + +For some time after these abortive proceedings the Russians abstained +from any direct interference in Kashgar, but the conferring of the title +of Athalik Ghazi, or Commander of the Faithful, on Yakoob Beg by the +Ameer of Bokhara had roused the susceptibilities of Russia too much to +be allayed. It seemed, indeed, as if this acknowledgment of the +orthodoxy of Yakoob Beg by the Head of Islam in Central Asia heralded +forth some understanding between the two states, and that a menace was +directed against the Russian government. Whether there was any agreement +between Mozaffur Eddin and Yakoob Beg it is not possible at present to +say, but that such should have been brought about by their mutual +antipathy to Russia would not have been very wonderful. However, in the +disturbances of 1870 Yakoob Beg took no active part. While the Russian +arms were triumphing over every opponent in their newly acquired +province of Ferghana and its vicinity, Yakoob Beg was busily engaged +with the Tungani, who at that time were causing trouble to him along his +far eastern frontier. The revolt collapsed in Khokand, and Yakoob Beg, +apparently unconcerned with the events transpiring in the West, was +carrying his victorious arms to new conquests in the East. During the +year 1870, when murmurs of the approaching storm were becoming audible, +the Russian government endeavoured to obtain the alliance of Khudayar +Khan, of Khokand, for the purpose of bringing Yakoob Beg within their +influence. This Khan had, as has been already mentioned, been betrayed +by Yakoob Beg, who had followed the example of the ambitious Vizier Alim +Kuli, and was now mainly dependent on the Russians for support against +his rebellious subjects. He could not be considered in any way, +therefore, as likely to be favourably disposed towards his neighbour of +Kashgar, or as lukewarm in the cause of his protectors and benefactors. +The Russians felt assured of his hearty support in advocating their +plan, which was as follows. From time immemorial, as has been seen in +the sketch of the history of Kashgar, there have been two rival elements +in Kashgaria--the Chinese and the Khokandian. The Chinese was triumphant +in modern times for a little more than a century, while the Khokandian +has, more or less, at all other times been paramount. But whenever a +native dynasty had attained a certain degree of security therein, it was +always threatened by the ambitious designs of the Khan of Khokand, who +had generally contributed most towards its successful establishment. The +Russian government resolved to avail themselves of this historical fact +to pour into the ear of Khudayar Khan insidious counsels as to his +claims as feudal lord over Eastern Turkestan. There once more, so they +argued, had a Khokandian subject formed an independent and rival +administration, and all his victories had been won by Khokandian +sympathies, and by the good right arms of Khokandian subjects. And how +had this soldier of fortune acted towards his own country when he had +received everything from her that he needed? By offering an asylum to +all those who had participated in the plots against Khudayar Khan +himself, by encouraging sedition in the state itself against the +Russians and their nominee, Khudayar, the legal ruler of the state. As +if these crimes were not sufficiently serious, he had added thereto the +insult of having refused to recognize in Khudayar his liege lord; and +Khudayar's own personal fears were worked upon to yield that +acquiescence to the Russian proposal that was necessary to secure its +success. It was pointed out to him that a strong military power in +Kashgar might give an impetus to the plots then fermenting in the active +brain of Aftobatcha, the ambitious son of Mussulman Kuli, the prime +minister and vizier of thirty years ago. The arguments were specious, +and it cannot be doubted that they made some impression on Khudayar +Khan. This much-to-be-pitied ruler, forced by the necessities of his +position to humour his Russian advisers, still had the courage to refuse +to assert his claims as lord over Kashgar. With a gentle irony he +pointed to the map, and showed how Khokand's frontier should extend +farther to the west than it did, and that a conquest over the barren +regions of the Kizil Yart would be but a sorry equivalent for the loss +of Tashkent and Hodjent. He, however, promised to make use of his best +means for inducing Yakoob Beg to make overtures to the Russian +government for the ratification of a treaty of commerce. So Khudayar +Khan indited a letter to Yakoob Beg, at the dictation of his Russian +friends, to this effect; but he silvered the pill by a private message +giving information of the Russian intentions in the future. The tenor of +that communication was that the Russians were less eager than might +have been supposed to bring matters to a final crisis with Yakoob Beg, +and that they were most desirous of settling the question without any +flagrant loss of dignity by being the first to recommence negotiations. +Both publicly and privately Khudayar Khan advised that the Athalik Ghazi +should make some concessions in form to the Russian government. The +Russians themselves, having failed to induce Khudayar Khan to put +pressure on Yakoob Beg, appear to have arrived at the same conclusion as +that set out in the letters of Khudayar. Yakoob Beg must make the sign, +and they would meet him half way in his desire to share in the great +benefits accruing from a Muscovite alliance. The authorities at Tashkent +went so far as to flatter themselves that they had attained a solution +of one of their chief annoyances. They had, by making use of the +mediation of Khudayar, gone so far as to open the door for Yakoob Beg to +abase himself. Such condescension was unheard of, and no doubt was +entertained but that this proud Mahomedan ruler would gladly hasten to +avail himself of the last chance accorded him by the clemency of the +Czar. + +But they were reckoning without their host. Yakoob Beg quickly perceived +that the bold exterior of the Russian demands concealed a vacillating +purpose, and that a power which would go out of its way so far to bring +about an arrangement, would yield much more when the discussion became +directly carried on. He had evidently impressed the few Russians who had +visited him with a belief in his strength, and rumour had magnified his +resources, and converted his small and heterogeneous following into a +regular and trained army. He was not the man to destroy, when the game +was almost in his hands too, all the favourable impressions, that stood +him in such good stead during his career, which his policy for four +years had succeeded in creating about his personality. After a suitable +delay his formal reply to the official letter of Khudayar arrived, and +its contents must have been eminently displeasing to the Russians. In +general terms he refused to enter into negotiations with the Russians, +because they had refused to acknowledge his own government, and had ever +supported the cause of his enemies the Chinese. But, not content with +this blunt refusal to the offer made from Tashkent, he went on to minor +matters and dealt with the question of Russian policy in specific +language. The common enemy of him and all his co-religionists was not +worthy of any consideration from him or his allies, the rulers of +Khokand and Bokhara. "The Russians that have come here, into my state of +Kashgar, look at these localities and become acquainted with the state +of the country, and therefore it is better to forbid their coming, for +they are a treacherous and crooked-minded people." In such plain terms +did Yakoob Beg speak of a power which could without any serious risk +have crushed him at any moment. Yet in one sense his boldness was the +height of prudence, and succeeded when perhaps a less decided attitude +would have completely failed. The Russians were fairly deluded in their +estimate of their new antagonist, and all means having been exhausted +for inducing Yakoob Beg to abandon his indifferent attitude towards +themselves, it began to be seriously discussed at Tashkent whether, if +simply for the purpose of obtaining accurate information of his country, +it would not be prudent to acknowledge the existence of a ruler who had +for nearly six years been established as responsible sovereign of a very +large portion of Asia. The path was smoothed, too, for the Russian +diplomatists by Yakoob Beg sending a letter to the governor of +Turkestan, stating that it was useless for the Czar to attempt the +establishment of diplomatic relations through the good offices of +Khudayar Khan; but that if the Russians really desired to enter into +alliance with him they could send an embassy to him, when formal steps +could be commenced for securing the trade and other agreements that were +desirable. The letter was a very dignified piece of writing, such as +one European sovereign would have sent to another in the Middle Ages. +"He did not deny," he said, "either the power or the resources of +Russia, but as a brave man he placed his trust in God, and he would +never shirk the contest, because all he aspired to was to die for his +faith." This letter produced a great impression at Tashkent, and it was +resolved to send an ambassador to Kashgar. + +Before pursuing the narrative, it may be as well to sum up what had +passed between Russia and Kashgar up to this period, for henceforth +these two states were to stand in a completely different relationship +towards each other. The Russians strove to induce Yakoob Beg to make the +most favourable commercial and political concessions to them, while they +refused to grant him any equivalent, except the dubious one, "advantage +from the produce of Russian manufactures." They even added insult to +injury by openly proclaiming that they only recognized the Chinese as +the rulers of Kashgar, and refused to discuss the arguments advanced by +Shadi Mirza in favour of his uncle's claim to be considered _de facto_ +sovereign. They adopted an attitude of bullying towards this Asiatic +prince, and loudly proclaimed in their practice the truth of the +aphorism, that might is right. They backed up their verbal threats on +several occasions by a show of military preparations, but not once did +they put those threats into execution. On the other hand, Yakoob Beg's +policy was consistent throughout and dignified. While studiously +avoiding any aggressive measures, even under the excuse of defensive +precautions, he was always firm in his refusal to recognize any of the +semi-official overtures that were repeatedly made to induce him to show +his hand. Instead of appearing in the light of a suppliant, as according +to all precedent he should, he assumed the position of a dictator. +"Acknowledge me as legally constituted ruler of Kashgaria, or else there +is an end to all negotiation. Send a properly accredited ambassador to +me, and he shall be honourably received. A representative of recognized +rank shall then convey my token of friendship to your master. Refuse to +grant me these just considerations, and my kingdom is closed to your +merchants and officials without exception. Admission shall only be +obtained over my own body and that of my devoted army." For the first +time in the annals of Russian history an Asiatic ruler had tired out the +finessing and intrigue that had become customary with that empire as the +means for infinite conquest. Yakoob Beg was the only sovereign who +refused to be subservient to the Czar, and eventually achieved a +diplomatic triumph over his representatives. In the spring of 1872, +Yakoob Beg was at the very acme of his prosperity. Not yet had he +commenced those later campaigns against the Tungani, which more than +anything else tended to weaken his power and to raise discontent against +his administration; and, fresh from his diplomatic success over the +Russians, he appeared in the eyes of many Asiatics as a fit champion to +redeem their fortunes in a conflict with Russia. Excusable as their +enthusiasm undoubtedly was, it is tolerably certain that the power of +Yakoob Beg was exaggerated both by the adulation of his friends and by +the nervous susceptibilities of the Russians. It is noteworthy that +Russia proved herself on one occasion to be quite as liable to this +latter disease as England is assumed to be. + +To Baron Kaulbars, the explorer of the sources of the Syr Darya, was +entrusted the delicate mission of representing the Russian government +for the first time at the court of the Athalik Ghazi, and to no better +diplomatist could it have been consigned. He set out from Kuldja early +in May, 1872, carrying with him a large collection of presents for the +ruler and his chief advisers, and arrived in Kashgar without any mishap +in June of the same year. Here he was received in the most cordial +manner, and the consideration and hospitality exhibited towards him by +the ruler were beyond all expectation. In the picturesque phraseology +of the East, the Athalik Ghazi, at his first audience with Baron +Kaulbars, said, "Sit upon my knees, on my bosom, or where ye like; for +ye are guests sent me from heaven." The most complete freedom of action +was accorded, for the first time, to all the members of the embassy, and +two merchants who had accompanied it for the purpose of exploring the +country received a safe-conduct to go on to Yarkand and Khoten. Yakoob +Beg scarcely attempted to conceal his gratification at the presence of +the Russians; possibly his pleasure chiefly arose from such an +unmistakable admission of his skill as a diplomatist. But in every way +facilities were afforded his visitors for seeing all objects of interest +round Kashgar. Reviews were held in honour of the occasion, and as there +happened to be a considerable number of troops in the vicinity, passing +through to operate against the Tungani beyond Kucha, the show was +imposing enough. The Russians were favourably impressed by what they +saw, and Baron Kaulbars expressed himself surprised at the military +exactitude with which the manoeuvres were carried out. Yakoob Beg, +always open to flattery, exclaimed in an enthusiastic moment, "I look +upon the Russians as my dearest friends; if I had not, should I have +shown you my military power? Assuredly it is not usual even with you to +make known one's actual condition to an enemy." Matters were now in a +fair way to a pleasant solution. Baron Kaulbars and Yakoob Beg were +mutually delighted; but, after the time for pleasant talk had expired, +it was necessary that some definite arrangements should be drawn up for +the political and commercial relations of the two countries in the +future. + +The chief objects the Russians had in view when they sent Baron Kaulbars +to Kashgar were three. In the first place they wanted to acquire general +information about that state, and to discover whether Yakoob Beg was as +powerful as report had asserted. In the second, they wished to put their +relations on such a recognized basis with him that they might know what +policy he was disposed to adopt in Turkestan and Kuldja; and in the +third they desired to secure the monopoly of the trade of his state, so +that they might forestall British enterprise, already beginning to +direct its attention to this quarter, since the journeys of Messrs. Shaw +and Forsyth. The last of these was the easiest to obtain, and the +Athalik Ghazi considered all the Russian proposals with regard to trade +in a very amicable spirit; but with regard to the second _desideratum_ +nothing but the vaguest generalities could all the tact and ingenuity of +Kaulbars succeed in obtaining from his host. The first object was amply +secured, in so far as geographical and scientific information was +concerned; but the precautions taken by the Athalik Ghazi to deceive the +Russians as to his power and hold on the country appear to have been +successful. Baron Kaulbars certainly confirmed much that had previously +rested on mere hearsay; the question is rather, did he not vouch for +more than his experience justified him in doing? The result of his +mission was, that the Athalik Ghazi was elevated to a position on a +level with the Ameer of Cabul, and there is no doubt whatever that such +a comparison was not warranted by the facts. A treaty was signed by the +Athalik Ghazi and Baron Kaulbars, on the 2nd of June, 1872, but +according to the Old Style, still adopted by the Russians, this was the +21st of May, St. Constantine's day. There are two stories with respect +to this coincidence, and there is as much evidence for one version as +there is for the other. + +It was said at the time that Yakoob Beg was so desirous of showing his +goodwill to the Russians that he had insisted on signing it on that day +in honour of the Grand Duke Constantine. Now there were two or three +improbabilities in this statement that struck several observers. In the +first place it was extremely improbable that Yakoob Beg knew it was St. +Constantine's day at all; and again, in the second place he was quite as +probably ignorant of the existence of a Grand Duke Constantine. At all +events, there was no valid reason why a Central Asian ruler should +conceive that his politeness to that Grand Duke in particular would +demonstrate his desire to be on good terms with Russians in general. The +other version, which, like many other circumstances, has only leaked out +in the pages of Mr. Schuyler, is altogether more probable, and is not +open to the same objections. According to this, it was Baron Kaulbars, +who of course was aware of the saint's day, who demanded that the treaty +should bear that date, and who, as soon as it was signed, sent off a +message to General Kaufmann saying that the Athalik Ghazi, out of +friendship to that general, had specially requested that the treaty +should be signed on that day in honour of General Kaufmann's patron +saint. However flattered that distinguished general and governor may +have felt at the delicate attention of his ambassador, he had to decline +the proposed honour; and in the despatch that was sent to St. +Petersburg, describing the event, the name of the Grand Duke Constantine +was substituted for his own. There is little doubt that this is the +correct statement, and it certainly suggests quite a revelation as to +the system in Russian Asia of making things pleasant and agreeable to +one another, always, however, assuming that there be an exceptional +degree of power and pomp reserved for his Excellency General Kaufmann. + +Soon after the signature of this treaty, which bears the name of its +framer, Baron Kaulbars took his departure, with many expressions of +friendship and goodwill from the Athalik Ghazi. Arrangements were, +however, made, before he left, for an envoy to visit Tashkent from +Yakoob Beg. This ambassador took with him the signed stipulations to be +ratified, and was received at Tashkent with every demonstration of amity +and respect. So certain did the Russian government appear that their +relations with Kashgar would, if only for a short period, be +satisfactory, that special care was taken to make a favourable +impression on the Kashgarian envoy, and after a short residence in the +capital of Turkestan, the nephew of Yakoob Beg, Hadji Torah, who had +followed the train of the treaty on a special mission, went on to St. +Petersburg, where he was entertained by the Czar, taken to the reviews, +and treated in a most hospitable and princely fashion. The contrast +between the reception accorded to him in 1873 and that to Shadi Mirza in +1869 clearly marks the difference that was considered in well-informed +official circles to have taken place in their relations with Kashgar. + +We have now to consider whether the Russian Government was justified in +assuming so confidently that it had secured the permanent friendship of +the Mahomedan ruler of Eastern Turkestan. On concluding his visit at St. +Petersburg, Hadji Torah turned south, and after stopping for a brief +delay at Moscow and Odessa, he arrived in Constantinople, where he +already had many friends and connections. Without inquiring too deeply +into his actions at the Imperial City--for of them the reader will be +able to judge best by the sequel--we will here simply observe, that +having also concluded his residence on the Golden Horn, he took passage +by the Suez Canal for India, and arrived there in time to join the +mission of Sir Douglas Forsyth, then on its way to Kashgar. Hadji Torah +therefore brought to his uncle a vast amount of information concerning +the three Powers chiefly concerned in the fortunes of Kashgar--Russia, +Turkey, and England. But even before his return home, fresh +disagreements had broken out between Russia and Yakoob Beg. The year +1872 had not closed, before the Athalik Ghazi concluded some secret +negotiations that had been pending for some time with the Sultan, and +this champion of Islam appeared in a new and holier light to Asiatics as +Emir, or Ameer. He acknowledged the suzerainty of the Porte; and, not +content with this formal declaration, gave an extra significance to the +event by issuing a fresh coinage, bearing on one side the head of Abdul +Aziz. The Russians were, it can well be imagined, displeased at this +alliance between two Mahomedan states which might both be considered +hostile to their interests, and a very large party in military circles +clamoured for an expedition to be sent at once against the insolent +Mussulman. At one moment it seemed as if this bellicose party was to +gain the day, for the testimony of all the officers and merchants who +had visited Kashgar showed that each day Yakoob Beg was becoming more +formidable. Prompt measures were pressed on the government of Tashkent, +and General Kaufmann seemed half disposed to acquiesce in the proposal +to inflict summary chastisement on the Athalik Ghazi. Fortunately for +Kashgar, the Khan of Khiva had been an older offender in the eyes of the +Russians, and the Home Government peremptorily forbade any steps being +taken in the regions bordering on the Chinese Empire. It is sufficiently +clear that the moderation of the home authorities was a wiser policy +than the impulsive demands of certain officers in Tashkent; but it is +not so evident why Yakoob Beg abstained from appearing in the _role_ of +the liberator of Khokand, at so opportune a moment as that afforded by +the great expedition against Khiva in 1873. The treaty of Baron Kaulbars +had stipulated for the free admission of Russian merchants into the +state on the payment of a 2-1/2 per cent. _ad valorem_ duty. Not only +was there to be no further exaction, but good treatment was guaranteed +to such Russian subjects as desired to travel in Kashgar, and who came +provided with a passport, and permission to travel, from a Russian +governor. During Baron Kaulbars' residence in the country, nothing could +be more considerate than the treatment extended towards the members of +his suite, and the merchants who went on to Yarkand were afforded +facilities for disposing of the small stock of merchandise which they +had brought with them on this journey. This friendly reception of such +merchants as came to Kashgar was maintained during the period over which +these negotiations extended down to the departure of Yakoob Beg's own +ambassador from Russian territory; but with the arrival of Hadji Torah +at Constantinople, and the proclamation of the fact that Yakoob Beg had +been elevated to the dignified position of Emir by the Sultan of Roum, a +change came over the spirit of his policy towards Russia. Indeed, Yakoob +Beg saw himself menaced by an unforeseen danger in this treaty of +commerce. He had formerly been averse to the presence of Russian +merchants in his state because he regarded them as spies; but now that +the necessities of his position had to some extent compelled him to +enter into a formal treaty with their government, he perceived that his +little state literally ran the risk of being invaded by the Russian +merchants and traders who flocked to Kuldja for the purpose of +participating in the spoils to be obtained by trafficking with the +inhabitants of Eastern Turkestan. He had always been averse to trade. He +was a warrior, and inclined to feel and to express contempt at the +juggling tricks of Muscovite or Khitay. + +But as the former could provide him with better weapons for his army, +and warmer clothes for his people, in addition to trinkets for his +_serai_, their presence, if only they came in limited numbers, and at +stated intervals, could be tolerated; but when he perceived they were +about to descend on his state, like so many birds of prey on an +abandoned carcase, and when he surmised that in all likelihood they +would endeavour to mix themselves up in the political divisions of +Kashgar as they had in Bokhara and Khokand, he determined to impose some +other check on their visits besides that insignificant 2-1/2 per cent. +on goods that returned a profit of cent. per cent. He had given his +plighted word, however, that merchants should receive fair treatment, +and how could he find a loophole to avoid fulfilling what he had +promised, and yet at the same time escape bringing about an open rupture +with the Russian Government. The matter required most delicate +manipulation, but Yakoob Beg proved himself equal to the occasion. It +was not to be expected, however, that Yakoob Beg could accomplish his +task of discouraging Russian enterprise without giving some umbrage to +the government. + +Despite the friendly reception of Baron Kaulbars, there still remained +some uncertainty in the minds of individuals, whether the Athalik Ghazi +was as sincere in his protestations as he would have it believed. There +was, consequently, some disinclination among the merchants of Kuldja to +be the first to send a caravan to Kashgar. They were all willing enough +to share the profits, but it was a risky experiment all the same; and +each would prefer that his neighbour should inaugurate the enterprise. +In commercial circles, there was much discussion on the new state, and +the prospects of trade therewith, and there was much talk as to "who +should bell the cat." The hesitation, if indeed so natural a sentiment +deserves to be specified here, soon passed off, and Mr. Pupyshef, a +merchant, who had had very large business connections with most parts of +Central Asia, resolved to send the first consignment of merchandise to +Kashgar. Mr. Pupyshef was, however, unable to go in person, so his +caravan set out under the charge of his clerk Somof. It arrived without +"let or hindrance" in Kashgar, where Mr. Somof was provided with +accommodation in the Caravanserai specially set apart for foreign +merchants. But a change was at once perceptible in the sentiments of the +ruler, as the personal freedom of the members of the expedition was +curtailed, and all their movements were watched with the most exacting +surveillance; and the residence of Mr. Somof was brief in the extreme, +for the Athalik Ghazi himself bought up the whole of his stock of +merchandise. Viewed as a commercial speculation, this result should have +been eminently satisfactory; the Russian merchant had to experience no +loss from delay in finding a purchaser for his articles. There was, +however, another matter to be taken into consideration, and that was the +mode of payment by the purchaser. Mr. Somof received so many Chinese +coins at a value fixed by the Ameer himself, and Mr. Pupyshef, on the +return of his representative, estimated the loss at 15,000 roubles. The +Russian government took up the case of their subject, and presented a +remonstrance at Kashgar, demanding the immediate restitution of the loss +incurred by the Russian merchant. Yakoob Beg's reply to this summary +request was a model of courtesy and tact. He denied altogether that Mr. +Somof had in any way been interfered with. That gentleman was always at +perfect liberty to do what, and to go where, he pleased, and he was +quite mistaken in supposing that he, the Ameer, had purchased his goods. +The Badaulet had nothing whatever to do with trade, which he left +entirely to his subjects. He was simply a warrior and a follower of the +Prophet. He had nevertheless instituted inquiries into the matter, and +he had discovered that some of his officers, who should be punished, had +purchased the merchandise in his name, hoping thereby to obtain it at a +cheaper rate. The Athalik Ghazi expressed his regret at the occurrence, +and would be most happy to refund whatever sum the Russian government +considered their subject had lost by the transaction. A commission was +appointed at Tashkent, to inquire into all the circumstances of the +case, and after some discussion the demand of Mr. Pupyshef was reduced +from 15,000 to 12,000 roubles. The Ameer acquiesced in the decision, but +many months elapsed before Mr. Pupyshef received his money, and then it +was again in a depreciated Chinese coinage. We are justified in assuming +that this was all planned, and that the obstacles thrown in the path of +Mr. Pupyshef were part and parcel of a systematic attempt to disgust +Russian merchants with Kashgar. The Russian government, too, was +afforded no clear case for complaint, as Yakoob Beg expressed his regret +without reserve for the occurrence, all the responsibility of which he +shifted on to the shoulders of some of "his officials whom he had +ordered to be punished." He paid without a murmur the fair demands of +Mr. Pupyshef, and if there was some delay in the refunding of the money, +it must be attributed to the poverty of his exchequer, and not to any +want of goodwill. The burden of his complaint was, "I am a poor prince; +my country is impoverished by the wars that have occurred since the +departure of the Chinese; and you will find little therein to repay you +for your trouble and expense in entering it. Why therefore will you +persist in coming to it? You can do neither yourselves nor my people any +good by doing so, and you only cause me anxiety and trouble in +preserving your countrymen from insult and injury, which you must admit +I have ever done." There was an under-current of truth in this statement +of the case, although it was not credited in Kuldja, where everything +that went amiss was set down to the hostility of the Ameer. Yakoob Beg +had, however, succeeded in throwing cold water on the enthusiastic +preparations that were being made for exploiting Eastern Turkestan, and +his mode of doing so had been quite original and characteristic. Few +rulers would have foreseen that the best way to get rid of a troublesome +visitor was to purchase what he had brought to sell to the people; and +that the simple remedy of paying in a questionable currency would +suffice to deter hundreds from following the example of Mr. Somof. +Yakoob Beg, however, was not satisfied with leaving well alone. Having +paid the claim of Mr. Pupyshef, it might have been supposed that he +would maintain a discreet silence on his intentions in the future with +regard to Russian merchants. He might have let the question, indeed, +find, as it would have found, its own solution; but, in a weak moment, +to place his own _bona fides_ beyond suspicion, he desired the Russian +government to send another merchant to Kashgar, and then it could judge +by his reception whether the Ameer was not amicably disposed towards his +"close allies," the Russians. The Russian authorities took him at his +word, and after an interval of more than twelve months, during which +Kashgar had been unvisited by a Russian merchant, another, a Mr. +Morozof, came to put Yakoob Beg's assertions to the test. True to his +word, the reception of this gentleman was most cordial. Facilities were +placed in his way for getting purchasers of his articles, and the Ameer +bought for his arsenals such of them as seemed suitable. Mr. Morozof +returned to Kuldja, narrating how cordially he had been welcomed by the +ruler himself, and how the enterprise had commercially been a success. +Others followed his example, and during the last two and a half years of +his rule Russian merchandise, either through Russian or native agents, +found its way in considerable quantities into Kashgar. But this trade +was always liable to periods of depression through the clouds that +frequently darkened the political horizon, and the Russians did not +derive the advantages from trade with this state, that they had +previously convinced themselves they were to do. Indeed, English +manufactures, after the year 1873, entered into keen competition with +theirs in the cities of Kashgar, and had driven their goods out of the +market of Yarkand at all events before the close of the year 1876. But +this fact only served to impress more forcibly on the Russians the +necessity either for annexing Kashgaria or establishing on its throne +some puppet, who would be content with the post of deputy of the Czar. +Indeed, many suggested that the Chinese should be brought back; but then +they were so far off, and apparently so weak. The party advocating the +absorption of Kashgaria every day became stronger and more pronounced; +and all observers agree that it was only a question of time when the +imperial fiat should go forth for the extinction of the rule of Yakoob +Beg. Colonel Reinthal was sent in 1874, to endeavour to place matters on +a more hopeful footing, but with little success. In addition to the +question of trade privileges, the Russians, in negotiating with native +states, or securing treaties at the point of the sword, always demanded +the right of having consular agents in the chief cities of the state. +The ostensible duty of these official representatives was to look after +the interests of their government, and to protect the lives and property +of Russian subjects as best they might be able. So far as these very +necessary functions were concerned, Russia had a perfect right in +demanding these safeguards, when such were deemed to be required. But +unfortunately for the reputation of that country, the experience of +Asiatics had amply demonstrated that these declared duties were the +least important part of their office. + +Their secret instructions were to lose no opportunity of discovering the +drift of public sentiment in the state where they were stationed; to +learn all the ramifications of the dynastic intrigues that unfortunately +form the chief incidents in the history of these states, and to promote, +by every means at their disposal, the interests of the great empire into +whose service they had been admitted. When such latitude was allowed in +their instructions, and so many private and public inducements were +offered to raise their zeal, it cannot be matter of surprise if we find +the government informed promptly of the shiftings of public opinion in +the independent and semi-independent Khanates of Central Asia. Yakoob +Beg was keenly alive to the dangers that would arise to him personally +from the introduction of such a system into Kashgar, where the +discordant elements out of which he had welded a military organization +were far from being completely healed. If the presence of a mirza in +Khokand and Bokhara had entailed a decade of troubles and of gradual +subjection, what was he to expect, a mere military adventurer and a +foreigner in the land, from their presence in Eastern Turkestan? But +Baron Kaulbars had demanded this concession, perhaps more than any +other, and Yakoob Beg had to yield something in form, if he did not +surrender much in substance, to the importunities of his visitor. As a +great favour he consented to the appointment of _caravanbashis_, or +superintendents of the personal comforts of the merchants when they +should arrive; but a _caravan-bashi_ was an uneducated, unimportant +personage, from whom nothing need be feared. This did not at all please +the Russian administrators, and all their subsequent efforts were mainly +devoted to the attempt to obtain an alteration of this unimportant +personage into the prying and inquisitive _mirza_. To defeat their +design Yakoob Beg was no less firmly resolved, and the history of the +embassies, from that of Baron Kaulbars to that of Captain Kuropatkine, +was one long course of fruitless efforts to force the hand of the +Athalik Ghazi on this point. Colonel Reinthal was sent in 1874, after +the successful journey of Mr. Morozof, to see if any better arrangement +could be attained, but, although the Ameer entertained him very +hospitably, he fared no better than any of his predecessors. In that +year, too, Yakoob Beg's position had become firmer in his own state. The +Tungani had been driven back north of the Tian Shan beyond Turfan, and +into the regions east of Lake Lob; the disaffection, too, in the cities +of Kucha and Korla was also, to all appearance, dying out; but, above +all, the vast aegis of English protection had appeared to be thrown over +the integrity of his state. However unjustified this supposition was by +the treaty with Sir Douglas Forsyth, the Ameer made as much use as +possible of his new-found ally; and the large section of Anglo-Indians, +and authorities in this country on the affairs of Central Asia, who, +either out of sympathy for the man, or from a belief in the identity of +British interests with his cause, proclaimed the advisability of +supporting him against Russian aggression, gave a colourable excuse to +his declaration that England had extended for the first time in her +Trans-Himalayan policy her protection to a native state lying north of +her natural frontier. The Russian governments in Siberia and Turkestan, +emphatically cautioned by their Foreign Office to give this country no +cause for umbrage, were at first inclined to make that assertion an +excuse for pushing their friendly relations with the Ameer; but their +advances were not reciprocated, and as it became more clear that the +importance of the Forsyth mission had been greatly exaggerated by the +representations of the Ameer, the language of the Russian authorities +became once more peremptory and menacing. In short, matters after more +than two years' discussion had retrogressed to the condition they were +in before the Kaulbars treaty. The Russians had not obtained their chief +desire, the establishment of consular agents in Kashgar, and Yakoob Beg, +as in the past, boldly met threat with threat. Relying on his increased +reputation as the most orthodox and the most puissant of Mahomedans in +Central Asia, and confident that England would intervene between the +Russians and the collapse of his state, he even went so far as to temper +his defiant, and almost bellicose, attitude with such irony as the +following incident is a characteristic specimen of. Early in the year +1874 the Duke of Edinburgh married Marie Alexandrovna, the only daughter +of the Czar; and Yakoob Beg seized the occasion to send a message of +congratulation to the Czar of All the Russias on the auspicious +event--saying, that he had heard that the son of his good ally, the +Queen of England and of India, was about to wed the daughter of his +friend the Czar, and that he hastened to send him his congratulations +upon the event. To this effusive epistle no reply was deigned, and it is +doubtful whether it ever got farther than Tashkent. There is no +difficulty in arriving at the conclusion that such exhibitions as this +is an instance of detraction from the otherwise great and striking +characteristics of the ruler of Kashgar. His opposition to Russia was +most laudable; his maintenance of his privileges as an independent ruler +was prudent and worthy of our respect; but his petty insults to Russia +were neither wise nor dignified. He was clearly in the right in +checking the aggressive instincts of Russia, clothed in the specious +garb of commercial advantage; he commands not less our admiration for +the energetic and persistent manner in which he thwarted every endeavour +to introduce Russian espionage and intrigue into Kashgaria; but why +should he have weakened the effect of these splendid achievements, why +should he have risked all he had secured, by so senseless an insult as +the message to the Czar that has been just referred to? + +The authorities in Tashkent, perceiving that it was doubtful whether +English public opinion was ripe yet for an active interference in +Central Asia, reverted, despite all orders from the home authorities to +the contrary, to their original intention of coercing the ruler of +Kashgar. In 1874, therefore, all preparations for commencing the +campaign in the approaching spring were made ready. Provisions and +munitions of war were despatched to Naryn, and an auxiliary division was +to make a flank movement by the Terek Pass on the west. It has been laid +to the charge of the Russian generals in Asia, that expeditions are +arranged for their mutual advantage, both in obtaining higher rank and +orders. So seriously bitten had every officer since Perovsky become by +the desire for promotion and distinction, that the disease became +generally known as the St. George or the St. Ann Cross fever. Now during +the seven years previous to the date at which we have arrived, if there +had been a fair share of distinction and spoil for the soldiers and the +lower ranks of the officers, some of those in higher posts considered +that they were aggrieved by the monopoly of supreme credit obtained by +General Kaufmann. This, indeed, had shown itself very clearly after the +fall of Khiva, a success for which Kaufmann obtained all the credit, and +yet towards which the division under his command contributed little or +nothing. The etiquette, too, maintained in the little court at Tashkent, +and the semi-regal state observed by the successful general, were +irksome to officers more accustomed to the licence of a camp than to the +punctilio of a palace. Nor were there wanting more sinister motives +still among some of the chief general officers who filled the +subordinate posts in the service of the Czar's representative. Prominent +among them was the youthful Scobelef, who, burning to distinguish +himself, clamoured loudly for some expedition which, when accomplished +successfully, would be recompensed with the Cross of St. George. Strong +as General Kaufmann may really be in the good opinion of his superiors, +he was unable to resist, if he were inclined, the demands pressed upon +him by Scobelef and his father, and the more warlike portion of his +forces. It is said, that in addition to these palpable reasons there +were others touching the family rivalries of the Kaufmanns and +Scobelefs, who appear to have been at feud with each other when younger +men in the service of the palace, when Nicholas was Czar. To remove +these differences, and to satisfy the demands of his other subordinates, +General Kaufmann consented that an expedition should be arranged against +Kashgar, and entrusted to the command of the younger Scobelef. Towards +the end of 1874 the war-cloud was drawing ominously over the Athalik +Ghazi, and to all observers it seemed as if it were about to break with +destructive violence on his devoted head. Loudly was it asserted that +nothing but British intervention would save him, and it was only too +clear that England's policy would be guided by events. The Viceroy had +certainly not advised that an active participation should be undertaken +in this question. The failure, too, of the Granville-Gortschakoff +negotiations to define a neutral zone had convinced this country of the +inutility of solving the question between the two countries by treaty. +But it was not clear that, even if Kashgar were to fall into the power +of Russia, our interests would suffer so much as to justify us in +adopting an extreme remedy. The path being thus left clear for Russia +to strike, every precaution was taken by Generals Kaufmann and Scobelef +that the blow should be sharp and decisive. Not fewer than 20,000 +Russian troops in all were to be directed against Yakoob Beg, who too +late now attempted some concessions to his neighbours. Such troops as he +could raise were massed in the neighbourhood of Kashgar, while another +force under his son was stationed at Aksu. But of the result there could +not be two opinions. Very few weeks' respite remained to the intended +victim, when an event occurred which changed the whole current of +Russian thought into a different channel. Yakoob Beg was saved by the +outbreak of disturbances in Khokand, and, although the Russians never +acknowledged that they were so serious as to prevent them persisting in +their Kashgarian enterprise, still gradually the troops who had been +despatched to the frontier were recalled, and those who had been ordered +to set out for Naryn were retained in Tashkent and Hodjent, the two +towns chiefly threatened. Although this event is not part of Kashgarian +history, yet it performed so useful a function to that state, which +indeed it may be said to have saved, that some brief account of it here +may not be unwelcome. + +Khudayar Khan, after the death of Alim Kuli, his hostile minister, in +1865, had been reinstated in his possession of Khokand, partly by the +efforts of his own faction, and partly by Russian assistance. From that +year to the year 1875 he was _de facto_ as he was _de jure_ Khan of +Khokand, and, although imbroiled on several occasions with Russia and +with his own subjects in those ten years, he still maintained a nominal +independence in the western half of Khokand, with his capital at the +city of the same name. For some reason, however, this Khan never was +popular. So far as we know concerning him, he does not appear to have +been any way worse than his neighbours; but one party in the state +accused him of being a tool of the Russians, while another, urged on by +the agents employed by that government, declared that he was gradually +drifting the country into a hopeless contest with that Power. Widespread +throughout the state there was dissatisfaction at his rule, and the +occasion afforded by a commotion among the Kirghiz was eagerly seized by +his subjects to rise for the purpose of subverting his power. At first +this movement seemed to possess no importance for the Russians, and was +regarded as one of those dynastic squabbles that had become too ordinary +an occurrence to occasion any surprise. The insurrectionary party, too, +had put on the throne Nasruddin, the eldest son of the Khan, a youth who +was supposed to be friendly to Russia, and who was not likely to prove +in any way formidable, having become passionately addicted to _vodka_ +drinking. But behind this ostensible ruler there were others who aspired +to greater eminence than the king-makers of a petty state like Khokand. +Chief among these was Khudayar's brother-in-law, Abderrahman Aftobatcha, +who was entrusted with the chief control of the military arrangements. +This chief was the son of Mussulman Kuli, the Kipchak minister of +Khudayar's earlier days. Either incredulous of the maintenance of a +neutral attitude by Russia, or urged on by a patriotic impulse to free +the enslaved portion of Khokand, these confederates issued a +proclamation of war against General Kaufmann. The border districts rose +in response to the proclamation, the communications between Tashkent and +Hodjent were severed, and confusion for a time reigned supreme within +the Russian possessions. The Khokandian forces hesitated to make any +serious attack and wasted their time in useless depredations in the +mountains. Had a prompt move been made on Tashkent, or even on Hodjent, +the insurrection might have been successful. Bokhara might have struck +in at the critical moment, and Yakoob Beg awoke from the lethargy into +which his warlike spirit was sinking. Such was not to be, however; and +gradually the Russian scare wore off. Colonel Scobelef scoured the +country with his Cossacks; telegraphic communication was restored +between Hodjent and Tashkent; and the country was rapidly cleared of the +rebels. The fugitives who had accompanied Khudayar in his flight were +sent to the rear, and reinforcements were hastily summoned to take part +in the necessary offensive measures against Khokand. It will be +sufficient here to say that, having been defeated in the fight at +Makhram and several other small engagements, the party of Nasruddin and +Aftobatcha sued for peace. This was granted, but Khokand became the +Russian province of Ferghana, Colonel Scobelef was raised to a +major-general, and obtained his Cross of St. George by the battle of +Makhram. This event, generally known as the revolt of the Khokandians +against Russia of 1875, marks an important era, for it convinced the +Khokandians and other Asiatics that any attempt to obtain their liberty, +short of a concerted and organized movement, would be fruitless. There +has been no renewal of the attempt that then failed, but which ought to +have achieved more success. + +To the discord unhappily existent among its victims has Russia been +chiefly indebted for the facility with which her Asiatic conquests have +been acquired, and to the same ally it seems probable that she will be +chiefly indebted for their preservation. There is no clearer evidence of +this than the history of this last war with Khokand. But when we +endeavour to divide the share of culpability for this dissension, we are +on this occasion bound to admit that the chief blame attaches to Yakoob +Beg. More than any other Asiatic ruler had he assumed to himself the +title of general protector of his religion and his order, against the +conquering strides of Russia; more than any other had he fostered, by +his bold and defiant attitude towards that state, the belief that there +still remained some hope of coping with the danger by a united league of +Central Asian states; more than any other had he seemed to justify this +aspiration; and more than any other must he be held culpable when he +permitted the moment that seemed most auspicious to slip by unutilized. +Moreover, when this insurrection broke out in Khokand, he had made every +preparation to defend himself against a Russian invasion. He saw the +Russians compelled, by the very necessities of their position, to call +off their forces to other quarters, and yet he abstained from striking a +blow in defence of those interests which he had ever declared were most +sacred to him. It is impossible to explain such apathy on so important +an occasion as this was; and his refusal to strike in on the side of +Aftobatcha must remain the greatest blot on an otherwise brilliant +reputation. With the collapse of that effort, and the subsequent +occupation of Ferghana, Russian attention seemed to become more occupied +with the state of affairs on the Oxus and in Cabul, than with the +fortunes or misfortunes of Kashgar. During the few months that +intervened between the annexation of Khokand and the appearance of the +Chinese north of the Tian Shan, Yakoob Beg adopted a more conciliatory +policy towards Russia, and might in a short time have sunk into the +position of a somewhat more important Khudayar or Mozaffur Eddin. Other +events intervened, however, and gave a complete change to the question, +as will be considered in a later chapter. We take our leave of this +narrative of his dealings with Russia with an admiration that would be +perfect but for the weakness he exhibited in 1875. Even that vacillation +will scarcely destroy all the claim that his bold defiance and +consistent opposition to all Russian pretensions to supremacy over +Eastern Turkestan gives him to our respectful and admiring +consideration. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +YAKOOB BEG'S RELATIONS WITH ENGLAND. + + +In describing the relations that subsisted between England and Kashgar, +while under the rule of Yakoob Beg, there will be no necessity for us to +enter so deeply into the under-currents that guided those relations, as +was necessary in the preceding chapter, where we detailed the rivalry of +Russia and Kashgar. While England could hold out a hand of friendship to +the Athalik Ghazi, because he sought to please us by making commercial +concessions, Russia felt doubly piqued with the man who for long refused +her a similar foothold, and who, for a brief space, went still farther +in his defiance, secure--as he thought--under British protection. Our +government could not fail to see, in the bold conduct of this ruler, the +result of a mistaken notion of what it would do in the event of a war in +Central Asia, and it strove to bring home to the mind of Yakoob Beg and +his emissaries a sense of our determination not to interfere beyond the +Karakoram. Looking back now on the old legends that successive +travellers brought us from Eastern Turkestan, where such strange things +had been wrought, where the Chinese had been expelled, and a new king +from Khokand enthroned, and regarding them in the light of our greatly +extended information, even since Mr. Shaw penned his interesting volume +on High Tartary, it will not be without some interest to trace back the +story of how Yakoob Beg's name first became known to us, and how, for +eight or nine years, a large section of Englishmen wove a romance round +his name, and converted "the land of the six cities" into a fertile and +populous region, which might serve as a barrier to Russian progress, and +which, like Cabul elsewhere, should extend as another "cushion" from the +mountains of Hindostan to the Celestial range of the Chinese. Those +dreams have vanished now, and in their place has risen up the very +unromantic and matter-of-fact spectacle of a Chinese triumph. + +Whoever has chanced to reside in the valleys of the Himalaya--Mr. Shaw +is the authority--must experience a desire to know of the countries +beyond that range. The desire is natural, but the obstacles of nature +are stupendous. To enter Tibet has been the object of numerous +Englishmen, from the time of Warren Hastings, yet that object has been +only attained by three of our countrymen, the latest sixty-six years +ago. There are forty or fifty passes of various degrees of +practicability leading into Tibet from Nepaul, Sikhim, and Bhutan; and +to act as a spur to the explorer there is a highly civilized and +peaceable race just beyond our border of whom we know scarcely anything. +Yet the vision of Warren Hastings and of Thomas Manning remains +unfulfilled. + +North of the Karakoram there were no similar incentives. Mr. Moorcroft +who, fifty years ago, resided in Ladakh, does not appear to have +manifested any desire to pierce the iron barrier to the north, although +towards Ruduk and Tibet he turned as if irresistibly fascinated. The +character which the brothers Michell gave Little Bokhara, or Eastern +Turkestan, expressed a fact, which long deterred any traveller from +attempting to explore it. "Little Bokhara," they said, "was a country +where every man carried his life in his hand, and there were indubitable +excuses for each successive traveller who recoiled before the hardships +and dangers of a journey through that country." But although no +Englishman traversed the dizzy passes of the Karakoram and the Kuen Lun, +now and then the people from Sanju, Khoten, and the neighbourhood came +to Ladakh, where they brought intelligence of the political events that +were taking place further north. Their intelligence was often completely +false, it was always vague and exaggerated, but it, at all events, told +us whether peace or war, satisfaction or dissatisfaction, was the +existing circumstance in Eastern Turkestan. It was known in a general +sense that China was the nominal ruler of this vast region; but the +exact relations China held there, how she conquered the country and +when, and by what means she retained her conquest, all these were +unascertained. There had, indeed, been one break in this state of +darkness when the learned traveller, Adolph Schlagintweit, in 1857, +penetrated, with a few native followers, into Kashgar. The initial +difficulties were successfully overcome, and fortune seemed at first +disposed to smile upon his enterprise. Herr Schlagintweit had come, +however, at a singularly inopportune moment. The Khoja Wali Khan had +just invaded Kashgar, and his forces had spread as far south as Yarkand, +when the traveller approached that city. He appears to have been able to +report himself to the Aksakal, representing Cashmere at Yarkand, who, in +turn, communicated with the Chinese Amban, for permission for him to +enter the city; but while detained outside the walls he was captured by +a roving party of Wali Khan's army. He was at once hurried off to Wali +Khan's head-quarters at Kashgar, where that despot, in a fit of fury, +brought about by excess in "bang," ordered him to be executed. His +followers escaped, and brought back the tale of his death to Ladakh. + +Such was the untoward fate of the first explorer of Kashgar. In the +course of the early summer of 1868, it became generally known that the +Chinese had been driven out of Kashgar, and that Yakoob Beg was ruling +the country, under the title, conferred upon him by the Ameer of +Bokhara, of Athalik Ghazi. He had sent a sort of semi-official +messenger, Mahomed Nazzar, in that year into the Punjab, to take notes, +as it were, of our dominions. Mr. Shaw, in Ladakh, had heard of the +recent changes in Eastern Turkestan, and mentioned to this envoy on his +return the desire he had to visit Kashgar, and see the widely famed +Athalik Ghazi. The envoy received the proposition with enthusiastic +approval, but it was considered more prudent to await the formal assent +of the ruler himself. After overcoming the difficulties that beset his +task, with prompt resolution Mr. Shaw entered the dominions of the +Athalik Ghazi in December, 1868, being the first Englishman who had ever +entered Little Bokhara. His reception was singularly cordial, and +everything that the officials could do to make his sojourn in the +country pleasant to him was done. One and all of the Khokandian +dignitaries received him as a friend and a brother; and even Mahomed +Yunus, Dadkwah of Yarkand, the second man in the kingdom, treated him in +a spirit of marked cordiality. It should be remembered that Mr. Shaw +went there without any official _status_ whatever, and simply as an +English traveller. Of course, it was the best policy for the Kashgarian +rulers to greet him hospitably, and prove that they had completely +pacified Eastern Turkestan; but in pointing out the hospitable reception +that was given to Mr. Shaw, it is impossible to detract from its merit +by referring to such latent political motives as these. Yakoob Beg +received the English traveller in special audience at Kashgar, and +treated him in the most cordial manner. On Mr. Shaw offering him a few +presents that he had brought from India, such as rifles, &c., the ruler +laughed, and said, "What need is there of presents between you and me? +We are already friends, and your safe arrival has been sufficient +satisfaction to me." During Mr. Shaw's residence in Kashgar, which +extended over a period of three months, he had three interviews with the +Athalik Ghazi, who on each occasion became, if possible, more friendly +than on the previous one. Mr. Shaw was fairly treated on the whole, and +has of all writers on Kashgar given us the most graphic description of +the people and the country. Mr. Shaw's position was to a certain extent +compromised by the arrival of another Englishman, the lamented Mr. +Hayward, who was murdered in a somewhat mysterious manner, three or four +years afterwards, in the neighbourhood of the Cashmerian fortress of +Gilgit. Both travellers were for a time detained in a sort of honourable +confinement in Kashgar, but all ended happily, and the first two English +explorers of Eastern Turkestan returned in perfect safety to Ladakh. The +result of Mr. Shaw's interesting journey was not made known in England +until 1871, after he had set out and returned from Kashgar a second +time, in the first embassy of Mr., now Sir, Douglas Forsyth. The result +of this visit to Yarkand and Kashgar was almost magnetic. Not only did +the Indian Government promptly take into its consideration the question +of what our political relations were to be with the Athalik Ghazi, but +the whole Anglo-Indian community turned an attentive ear to the stories +told of the new country. A new avenue for commerce had been opened up, +and Eastern Turkestan might, after all, prove the true gateway to the +marts of Bokhara and Kuldja. In our more immediate vicinity there was +the jade trade of Khoten to be revived, and the wool of Tartary, of +ancient fame, should alone form a staple article of commerce. For +Manchester goods and Indian wares there was also a very inviting +prospect in the thickly populated districts of Yarkand and Kashgar, +which were at first supposed to contain a much larger population than as +a matter of fact they did. At first it is probable that the main +sentiment was one of satisfaction on commercial grounds alone; later on, +the progress of events in Khokand and Kuldja made the political motives +appear more prominently before English minds. A trading company was +formed in conception, but it did not begin operations until several +years later on, after the signature of the Forsyth treaty, for which, +and the official regulations concerning the working of that company, +the reader may be referred to the Appendix of this volume. + +Mr. Shaw himself formed a very roseate estimate of the future of the +trade between India and Kashgar, and participated with all his wonted +activity in promoting the fortunes of the Yarkand Trading Company from +his advantageous post at Leh. Although the more sanguine expectations +were never realized, the company itself was successful, and performed a +very useful work under no easy circumstances. Its functions are +suspended during the uncertainty that always follows a change in the +ruling power of a state, until it is seen what steps are taken by the +Chinese, or this country, to perpetuate, under the Chinese sway, those +good feelings which first arose under Yakoob Beg. Many are sceptical of +the possibility of living on terms of good neighbourship with the +Chinese, and of carrying on an intercourse, which certainly does not +exist anywhere along the whole extent of the Anglo-Chinese frontier. But +these persons will scarcely admit that the Chinese are to blame in this +respect if we neglect the subject, for Russia by right of several +treaties, and by right also of diplomatic tact, has a commercial +_status_ in every northern mart of the Chinese Empire, from Ourga to +Urumtsi, Manas, Chuguchak, Kuldja and Kashgar. If the Chinese were +reinstalled in every one of their old possessions, yet Russia would have +a legal foothold in all those outlying dependencies. English commerce +must not by any means despair of success in opening up the interior of +China from the direction of India and Cashmere. In most cases, political +action generally follows upon commercial enterprise; but in our dealings +with the Chinese the order is reversed, and political overtures and +diplomatic arrangements must clear the way for the commerce that must +infallibly spring up between Hindostan and not only Tartary and Tibet, +but also the home provinces of Yunnan and Szchuen. The root of the +difficulty is no doubt to be found in the fact that the Mantchoo caste +is in many respects as much a race apart from the mass of Chinamen as +the Norman was in England during the twelfth century. The Mantchoo +mandarin believes that in some undefined manner the introduction of +European science and civilization into China would tend to lower his +influence and political power. But if we are wise, we shall ignore this +sentiment, and endeavour to reach the people through their legitimate +authorities, the Tartar conquering race of two centuries and a half ago, +and not by attempting to influence the rulers by a propagandist crusade +among the people, as some advise. + +Some months after the return of Mr. Shaw to Leh, the Athalik Ghazi, who +had doubtless considered very attentively that gentleman's suggestion to +maintain a representative at Lahore, despatched an envoy to India for +the purpose of expressing his desire for the establishment of friendly +relations with the British Government, for the development of trade +between the countries, and for the visit of a British officer to his +capital. He had fully realized by this time what Mr. Shaw meant by +saying that he came in no official capacity. If he intended, therefore, +to reap any reward for the manifestation of his friendship towards +England, or to be able to play England's alliance off against Russia's +hostility, he discovered that he must take the initiative. In +consequence of that discovery, Ihrar Khan came to India, and was +entertained by our Government in a very friendly manner. It was in +response to Ihrar Khan's visit that Mr. Forsyth was sent as our first +envoy to Kashgar, in the following year. + +Mr. Forsyth was accompanied by Mr. Shaw, who had volunteered for the +service, and by Dr. Henderson. He reached Yarkand, by the same route as +that followed by Mr. Shaw, in safety, and without suffering any great +amount of inconvenience. But the mission had reached the scene of its +labours at a very inopportune moment. The Athalik Ghazi had just been +summoned away to the far eastern frontier to repress hostile movements +on the part of the Tungan cities of Turfan and Urumtsi, and it was very +uncertain for how long a time he might be detained there. Mr. Forsyth +accordingly left Yarkand in the month of September on his return +journey, without having had an opportunity of settling the future of the +relations between India and Kashgar. Dr. Henderson, in his "Lahore to +Yarkand," chronicled the events of this journey to the region north of +the Himalaya. + +The very next year, 1871, Yakoob Beg sent Ihrar Khan once more to India +to renew his protestations of friendship, entrusting him with letters, +not only for the Viceroy but also for Her Majesty the Queen. But there +was no immediate result from this later overture. + +In the meanwhile Russia had broken ground more firmly in Eastern +Turkestan. The treaty of commerce between Russia and her neighbour, +which had been for several years on the carpet, had at last been signed +at Kashgar on the 8th of June, 1872. That treaty conceded no +inconsiderable trade privileges to Russia, for, as will be seen from a +perusal of its clauses, Russian goods entering the country could not be +subjected to a higher tax than 2-1/2 per cent. _ad valorem_. In fact, +but for Yakoob Beg's prudence in restricting the appointment of Russian +commercial agents in the cities to the inferior _caravan-bashi_, a far +different personage to the Aksakal, that treaty would have placed +Kashgar virtually in the possession of General Kaufmann. Even as it was, +Russia, regarded as a foe, had out-distanced England, who was held to be +a friend; and for a considerable time afterwards, English commerce, +which had no status there, hesitated to seek admission into the +dominions of the Athalik Ghazi. + +But the treaty of Baron Kaulbars was in its essence a sham, for no good +feeling sprang up between the countries; and where there was distrust on +either side, trade languished, as was to be expected. Two months after +this treaty, Yakoob Beg sent his nephew, the Seyyid Yakoob Khan, on a +special embassy to Russia, whence he went on to Constantinople, and +returned _via_ India. He then had several long discussions with our +authorities relative to the measures that should be adopted to place +everything on a friendly footing between Kashgar and ourselves. The +Sultan had conferred upon the ruler of Kashgar the high title of Emir ul +Moomineen, and shortly afterwards Yakoob Beg proclaimed himself in +consequence of that decree Emir or Ameer of Kashgar, under the title of +Yakoob Khan. It is appropriate here to say something of these two +titles, Khan and Beg. In this work the ruler of Kashgar has been +consistently called Beg or prince, and not Khan or lord; and for the +following reasons. The title of Khan is much higher than that of Beg; it +is, moreover, hereditary. Gibbon, whose authority in these Central Asian +matters stands higher than many modern scholars will admit, defines it +as the distinguishing mark of the descendants of Genghis Khan. His heirs +and their children became the Khans of Western Asia. The Mongol who +grafted himself on the Turk and the Usbeg, brought with him the unique +authority that was vested by public voice in the house of Genghis, the +Khan of Khans. Now, although in his later days Yakoob Beg, or his +admirers, invented a lineage for himself back to Timour, consequently +making him of Mongol descent, it is highly improbable that this mythical +descent was based on any reliable _data_, nor can we admit any other +claim to according Yakoob Beg that higher title than one that will stand +the criticism of history. Yakoob Beg was not free from some of that +craving that haunts the minds of rulers "born out of the purple" to +claim cousinship with the select caste of former sovereigns; and the +visible embodiment of temporal sovereignty in Turkestan was this very +title of Khan, which has been so much abused in its application. + +It is wrong, in a strict sense, to apply the title of Khan to Yakoob +Beg, although he undoubtedly made use of it during the last three years +of his reign; but as a matter of mere convenience, it is also +misleading. On the stage of Asiatic politics there is another Yakoob +Khan, who is, by descent, a Khan, and possesses qualities not less +eminent than did his namesake in Eastern Turkestan. Confusion was often +caused by the confounding of one of these personages with the other, +whereas if each had been defined by his legitimate title, there would +have been no misunderstanding. Towards the close of the year 1873, the +Seyyid Yakoob Khan, who, by descent, could claim the title which was not +his uncle's, returned to India, where he found that the English mission +was a few days ahead of him on its journey to Kashgar. + +The Indian government had, in the meanwhile, appointed Mr. T. Douglas +Forsyth as their envoy to Kashgar once more, and, during the summer of +1873, preparations were busily in progress for the important embassy +that was to counteract the adverse effects of Baron Kaulbars' treaty. As +this is the turning-point in Anglo-Kashgarian relations, it is necessary +to follow it in considerable detail. Upon Mr. Forsyth's embassy depends +the whole fabric of our policy in, and intercourse with, Eastern +Turkestan during the past four years. In fact, but for Sir Douglas +Forsyth's Report and Treaty, even Mr. Shaw's interesting volume and +intrepid journey would have failed to have preserved the vitality of our +interest in Kashgar and its ruler. + +By the month of July, everything was in readiness for a forward +movement, but owing to the delay in the arrival of Seyyid Yakoob Khan, +or Hadji Torah as he was more usually termed, Mr. Forsyth still lingered +at Murree. Captains Biddulph and Trotter, and Dr. Stoliczka, in the +meanwhile set out for Leh to explore the routes between that town and +Shahidoola. These three gentlemen explored the country beyond Ladakh +very carefully, although it had already been described by Messrs. Shaw +and Hayward, and Dr. Cayley. Mr. Forsyth and the headquarters, after a +short stay at Srinagar in Cashmere, arrived at Leh on the 20th of +September. It may be useful to give here the names of those who +comprised this important embassy. In the first place there was the envoy +himself, Mr., now Sir, T. Douglas Forsyth, C.B., and now K.C.S.I. His +second in command was Lieut.-Colonel T. E. Gordon, C.S.I., who, after +the prime object of the mission had been accomplished, explored a very +considerable portion of the Pamir, the result of whose investigations is +to be found in his work "The Roof of the World." Then came Dr. Bellew, +C.S.I., Surgeon-Major, entrusted with the medical control of the +expedition. The three military men--Captains Chapman, Trotter, and +Biddulph--held various functions; the first as secretary, the latter two +in scientific capacities. In addition to these there were the learned +Dr. Stoliczka, who died from the effects of the rarefaction of the +atmosphere; an English corporal of a Highland regiment, and six native +officers and skilled assistants. There was also an escort of ten sowars, +one naick, and ten sepoys furnished by the Corps of Guides. + +The appointments of the embassy were also most carefully selected, and +with special regard to the difficulties that lay before it in the +obstacles of nature, and the inconveniences attending complete +dependence on natives for the means of transporting the large quantity +of _impedimenta_. One hundred mules "of a fair stamp" were accordingly +purchased in India by Tara Sing, a merchant, and the treasurer to the +embassy. And these were equipped with saddles and trunks of a special +pattern, made in the government workshops at Cawnpoor. Altogether, then, +this English embassy to Kashgar was a very formidable undertaking, and +in its proportions assumed something of the appearance of a small army; +in camp there were "300 souls and 400 animals." The day had gone by when +English travellers entertained doubts of entering Kashgar in company at +the same time, lest they should arouse the apprehensions of the people. +Mr. Forsyth came vested with all the authority of his Sovereign and the +Viceroy, to negotiate a treaty of amity with the ruler of Kashgar, and +the people generally saw in that fact a guarantee of the preservation of +their liberties and independence. + +So far as Shahidoola, the journey was in a well known region, and +outside the frontier of Yakoob Beg. At that place the first sign of that +ruler's power was encountered in the same way as Mr. Shaw, five years +before, had witnessed the advanced limit of the power of the Athalik +Ghazi in a southerly direction. A captain of the Kashgarian army, +Yuzbashi Mahomed Zareef Khan, had been deputed to receive our envoy at +the frontier, and to give him a hearty welcome. After a rest of four +days, the whole expedition, advancing in two bodies over the Grim Pass, +Sanju Devan, entered the inhabited territory of Sanju. Here Hadji Torah, +who had been travelling "post" after them from India, caught them up, +and by his tact and real friendship for this country, contributed +greatly to the complete success of the mission. The passage of the Grim +Pass, although accomplished with success, was no easy task. Dr. Bellew, +in his book "Kashmir and Kashgar," gives the following graphic +description of it, which may be quoted with advantage as showing some of +the "obstacles of nature" to the advance either of an army or a caravan +in this quarter:-- + +"The scene which now burst upon our view is one not easy to describe, +still less to forget. Immediately on either hand, like the portals of a +gate, stood bare banks of silver grey slate, which gently spread away on +each side into the slopes that, inclining together, formed the theatre +of the spectacle they limited. And immediately in front commenced that +gentle rise over slabs of slate _debris_--the natural dark hue of which +was lost in the bright sparkle of its abundant mica--which led at once +on to the field of our vision. Here, at the foot of the ascent, one +step took us from the tiresome monotony of the bare rocks behind, with +all their dulness of hue, on to the snow, which overspread all before +with a white sheet of the most dazzling brilliance. On the left and on +the right it spread with uniform regularity to the crests of the +bounding ridges in those directions; whilst in front, it rose up as a +vast wall, whose top cut the sky in a succession of sharp peaks with a +clearness of outline rarely witnessed. And above all, stretched the wide +expanse of heaven, with a depth unsearchable, in the speckless purity of +its azure, and with a calm such as often precedes the storm. Wonderful +was the scene!" + +Such is the description of an eye-witness of this striking scene, which +in its solemnity approached the sublime, in its grandeur the terrible. +The last hundred feet of the ascent was a sheer wall of ice, like the +Matterhorn, and up this the troopers' horses, and the baggage mules and +ponies, had to be lifted by human force. More than a whole day was +occupied in surmounting this obstacle alone, but it was surmounted with +the small loss of eight mules and three ponies. With the crossing of the +Grim Pass, the difficulties of nature disappeared, and henceforth the +course of the mission lay in the more sheltered plains of Kashgaria. + +After leaving Sanju, the country had, for some days' journey, an +appearance of barrenness, that was only relieved by the avidity with +which patches of more promising soil had been cultivated, a fact which +testified alike to the beneficence of the ruler and to the assiduity of +his people. There is good reason for believing that in the Yarkand and +Khoten districts, Yakoob Beg's administration was most successful. This +may have been caused by the superior qualities of the people over the +Tungani, and mixed populations farther east; but it must also be +attributed to the absence of those desolating wars which went on without +any long intervals down to the year 1874, in the country held by the +Tungani. The treachery of Yakoob Beg in murdering the Khan Habitulla of +Khoten had aroused suspicions as to his good faith that only lay dormant +during the days of his power; but the people of Khoten, Sanju, +Karghalik, and Kilia were far too thrifty and too prudent to sit down +supinely and dwell upon their wrongs. They neither forgot nor forgave, +but they suppressed all trace of seditious opinions against the new +ruler. + +The next city which Mr. Forsyth reached, Karghalik, showed still further +signs of prosperity and civilization. "An eating-house, with its clean +table, and forms, and piles of china plates and bowls, at once took us +back across the seas to the recollection of many a country restaurant in +France." Special preparations had in every way been made for the +reception of the representatives of England, and Mr. Forsyth expressed +his surprise at finding fire-places, like our own, ventilators, and rich +carpets from Khoten, famous in days of yore for its manufacture of those +articles, in the quarters that had been set apart as his residence. +Similar preparations had been made at every stopping place, and the +people not less than the sovereign did their best, and spared no +exertion, to make the stay of the Feringhees as pleasant as possible for +them. More than that, even at the resting places during the daily march, +the headman or local magnate, without exception, always entertained them +at a "dastarkhwan," that is to say, at a course of refreshments. The +"dastarkhwan" literally means table-cloth, and consists of any number of +distinct dishes, sometimes as many as a hundred, held by as many +attendants. This is a national custom, from which there is never any +deviation. It is incumbent upon the guest to break bread first, and then +present it to his host. One of their customs is refreshing to any one +who has come fresh from India, with all its troublesome caste +distinctions. "Be the host Turk or British, he and his guests eat alike +from the same dish, and hand food to the surrounding attendants, who are +troubled with no scruples of caste to interfere with their hearty +appetite." + +The mission was now drawing close to Yarkand, politically and +commercially the most important city in the state, and accordingly +preparations were made for a formal entry. At a village called Zilchak a +chamberlain, or Yasawal-Bashi, came out with a party of the royal +body-guard, Yakoob Beg's favourite _jigits_, in their buff leather +uniform, to act as an escort, and the party was swollen _en route_ by +numerous influential citizens and merchants, who advanced to give an +early welcome to the new arrivals. By these additions quite an imposing +cavalcade drew nigh to the walls of Yarkand. The quarters set apart for +the Englishmen were in the fort, which lies to the north of the city, so +that Yarkand had to be ridden through before their halting place was +reached. The people who thronged to witness the sight seemed very well +disposed, and altogether there was every reason to feel well satisfied +with these mutual first impressions, which, some had asserted, would be +far from pleasant. + +The following day there was an interview of ceremony with the Dadkhwah +of Yarkand, Mahomed Yunus Jan, for whose history the reader is referred +to Chapter IX., and then the visitors were permitted to go wherever they +liked. On Mr. Forsyth's former visit a similar freedom had not been +accorded him. Their first appearance in the streets was the occasion for +a great deal of bustling on the part of the curious, but of friendly +goodwill also. All the principal streets and bazaars were visited in +turn, such as the butchers' street, or market, where the varieties of +meat were clearly to be seen, and their quality tested by their tails or +heads being left untouched. It appears to be the fashion in Yarkand to +purchase the necessaries of life during the morning, and the luxuries in +the evening. There is a special evening bazaar, called Sham, where hats +and other clothes, in addition to various other articles, are put up for +sale in the afternoon. This, when lit up with Chinese lamps, must have +presented a stirring sight, very similar to a country fair in our +country. Sir Douglas Forsyth does not tell us whether under Yakoob Beg +it was customary to illuminate this bazaar with the gaudy lamps of the +Chinese, or whether our imagination of such a scene must be referred +back to the days of the old domination. + +Nor were these harmonious relations confined to the lower people and +ourselves alone. Their rulers set an example that all strove to imitate. +Between the officers of the mission and the Dadkhwah something more +cordial than a chivalrous sentiment of guest towards host sprang up, and +was heartily reciprocated; while Hadji Torah smoothed down all +difficulties by his ready tact and never-failing resource. The latter +did not remain the whole time of the three weeks that the mission +remained at Yarkand, but set out for the capital, in order to put the +Ameer _au courant_ with English affairs, and the exact objects our +authorities had before them with regard to his country. + +Mahomed Yunus had placed at the disposal of the mission a considerable +number of the carts of the country, which proved very serviceable. These +carts are strongly built, with two wheels, six feet in diameter, and are +drawn by four or six ponies, as the case may be. They are not permitted +to carry a greater weight than ten hundredweight, but with that load it +is quite customary for them to perform journeys of twenty and +twenty-five miles a day. In carts of this kind the heavier baggage was +carried from Yarkand to Kashgar, while the members of the mission with a +lighter camp followed on some days afterwards. While mentioning these +carts, so superior to the Indian modes of conveyance, we will remark +that they also are used as omnibuses and stage coaches. They ply +frequently between the fort and city of Kashgar, a distance of five +miles, and they are also used as a stage coach doing the whole distance +from Yarkand to Kashgar in five stages. But no company, with its +regulations and bye-laws has a monopoly of this branch of locomotion, +and there is a tariff fixed by law which cannot be departed from. + +On the 28th of November the mission set out from Yarkand, and for a +certain distance high officials, by order of the Dadkwah, bore it +company to speed it on its journey. From Yarkand to Yangy Hissar the +country was equally prosperous-looking, but there was much desert land +as well. The villages of Kok Robat and Ak Robat (names meaning Blue and +White Post-house respectively) wore a flourishing look, and the +appearance of Yakoob Beg's soldiery, still _jigits_, who looked prim on +parade, and yet could play the part of waiter, carpenter, or what not, +with equal facility, added a sense of order and cohesion to the whole +display. The appearance of Yangy Hissar was made more imposing to the +view by the proximity of the formidable fort Yakoob Beg had erected +there; but in itself, owing to the houses being surrounded by mud walls, +with crenellated tops, it closely resembled a fortification. There was +only a brief stay here, and the mission then commenced its last stage of +all. The 4th of December, 1873, was the eventful day which first saw an +English envoy enter that capital, which Mr. Shaw had visited four years +before in a non-official capacity. Special quarters had been prepared, +at a short distance from the fort, where is also the royal palace, for +the envoy, and these Elchi Khana had been fitted up in a very +comfortable, if not luxurious style. Ihrar Khan Torah, who had visited +India as envoy twice before, was the first to pay a visit to the new +arrivals, and to request that they would come at once to see the Athalik +Ghazi. The following description is Sir Douglas Forsyth's own account of +his first interview with the Ameer:-- + +"According to etiquette we dismounted at about forty paces from the +gateway, and walked slowly along with Ihrar Khan, the Yasawal-Bashi, or +head chamberlain, with white wand in hand going ahead. In the outer +gateway soldiers were seated on a dais with their firearms laid on the +ground before them, their arms folded, and their eyes on the ground. We +then crossed obliquely an empty court-yard, and passing through a second +gateway filled with soldiers, crossed another court, on all sides of +which soldiers in gay costumes were ranged seated. From this court we +passed into the penetralia, a small court, in which not a soul was +visible, and everywhere a deathlike stillness prevailed. At the further +end of this court was a long hall, with several window doors. Ihrar Khan +then led us in single file, with measured tread, to some steps at the +side of the hall, and, entering almost on tiptoe, looked in, and, +returning, beckoned with his hand to me to advance alone. As I +approached the door he made a sign for me to enter, and immediately +withdrew. I found myself standing at the threshold of a very +common-looking room, perfectly bare of all ornament, and with a not very +good carpet on the floor: looking about I saw enter at a doorway on the +opposite side a tall stout man, plainly dressed. He beckoned with his +hand, and I advanced, thinking that it must be a chamberlain who was to +conduct me to 'the presence.' Instinctively, however, I made a bow as I +advanced, and soon found myself taken by both hands, and saluted with +the usual form of politeness, and I knew that I was standing before the +far-famed ruler of Eastern Turkestan. After a few words of welcome the +Athalik led me across the room and seated me near him, by the side of a +window. At this moment a salute of fifteen guns was fired. His Highness +asked in an eager tone after the health of Her Majesty, and of the +Viceroy, and soon afterwards called, in a low voice, to Ihrar Khan to +bring in the other officers. They came in one by one, and each was +shaken by the hand, and made to sit down by my side. Then there was a +long and somewhat trying pause, during which the Athalik eyed each one +of us with intent scrutiny. I had been told that etiquette forbade the +guest to speak much on the first interview, and that it was a point of +good manners to sit perfectly still with downcast eyes.... After this +silent ordeal had been undergone for some time, at a sign from the +Athalik, sixteen soldiers came in with the dastarkhwan, and the Athalik +breaking a loaf of bread shared it with us. After the cloth was removed, +we, remembering our lesson in manners, rose up, and stroking our beards, +said, 'Allah o Akbar;' soon after which the Athalik said, 'Khush, +amadeed' ('You are welcome')." + +Thus ended this imposing interview, imposing not for any magnificence or +barbaric splendour that appertained either to the court or person of the +ruler, but by reason of the mysterious character of the Ameer himself, +of his vague power and influence, and of the hold he had acquired over +such of his subjects as comprised his court and his body guard. All his +Khokandian friends and relations, whose fortunes, indeed, depended on +his power, were stanchly attached to his person. It could not be given +to envoys to possess such complete prescience as to foresee that the +jarring elements, that still existed beneath the surface would suffice +to overthrow his rule still more irretrievably when it received its +first shock from external foes. To the observer, the appearance of +Yakoob Beg and his military following was the highest evidence of latent +power. Order was supreme, and discipline was as apparent in the palace +of the Ameer as in the barrack yards of his fortresses. + +The formal interview took place on the 11th of December, when the +presents from our government to the Ameer, carried by over 100 men, were +delivered to His Highness. There were guns of all kinds, including two +small cannon, vases, &c., &c.; but the token of friendship at which the +ruler showed most symptoms of pleasure was the autograph letter of Her +Majesty. This letter was enclosed in a "magnificent casket of pale +yellow quartz, clamped with gilt bands and handles, and bossed with onyx +stones." The Ameer received this with unconcealed satisfaction, several +times repeating, "God be praised." And then he made those declarations +of friendship which, taken in conjunction with our admiration for the +man, were the means of riveting England and Kashgar into a closer +alliance than any that has as yet subsisted between ourselves and any +other Central Asian ruler. "Your Queen is a great sovereign. Her +government is a powerful and a beneficent one. Her friendship is to be +desired, as it always proves a source of advantage to those who possess +it. The Queen is as the sun, in whose genial rays such poor people as I +flourish. I particularly desire the friendship of the English. It is +essential to me. Your rule is just. The road is open to every one, and +from here to London any one can come and go with perfect freedom." + +On the 13th of December our representatives paid their first visit to +the city of Kashgar. The country round Kashgar is very fertile, highly +cultivated, and thickly populated, and the mission was not less struck +by the air of prosperity prevalent here than it had been at Yarkand. In +addition, the people had a healthier appearance, mainly through the +absence of goitre. The Dadkhwah of Kashgar, Alish Beg, who was a +Kashgari and not a Khokandian, was not less friendly than the Governor +of Yarkand had been, and a very pleasant day was passed in his company. +On the 18th a grand review was held, but for some reason, far from +clear, only of the old Chinese troops who had taken service under the +new ruler when Kashgar citadel fell. The description of the manoeuvres +which this force performed reads more like the display of an itinerant +circus than of a disciplined army, but, nevertheless, these Khitay +troops were excellent material for an army. Their practice with the +_tyfu_, an awkward weapon, being a sort of gun-cannon, carried by two +men and served by three, was pronounced very good up to 250 yards. + +It is proper to state here, very clearly, that while the English mission +was on Kashgarian soil it lived and travelled free of all expense, and +as the Ameer paid his subjects in hard cash for whatever service they +rendered, it is obvious that for a small state such as his was this was +no trivial expense. It is only fair that this fact should be as widely +known as possible, for some discontent was aroused by a similar +hospitality being extended to the Seyyid Yakoob Khan last year. That +discontent arose from ignorance; for it is hardly to be imagined that +any Englishman would grumble at reciprocating the courteousness of a +Central Asian potentate. The mission remained at the capital almost four +months, and altogether the time passed very pleasantly. The weather was +certainly rigorous; but then there was much to be done in the way of +business, sight-seeing and amusement. + +On the 2nd of February Yakoob Beg placed his seal to the treaty of +commerce, and this act concluded the business portion of the English +mission. On the 16th of March formal leave was taken of the Athalik +Ghazi, and the mission returned to India. It had accomplished its task +with pre-eminent success, and the Forsyth Embassy deserves long to be +remembered as the most ably conducted and practically useful embassy +that ever set out from India. + +Since the signature of that treaty the Turkestan Trading Company has +been very actively engaged in despatching several caravans annually into +Kashgaria; but now, whether temporarily or permanently remains to be +seen, its operations have come to a standstill. In these later years, +Mr. Shaw, in his old post as Commissioner in Ladakh, had been as quietly +performing his useful work as ever before; and there were rumours that +he was to receive his reward in being sent as another envoy, or rather +as a resident agent, into Kashgaria, last year. If the appointment were +made, it has at this date (October 1st) been for the time suspended; and +such entirely new considerations have come into play that it may be +postponed for an indefinite period. Hadji Torah's visit to this country, +in June and July, 1877, when the Turko-Russian war had rendered the +Eastern Question once more acute, revived our interest, which had been +flagging, in Eastern Turkestan. But he came at an unfortunate moment, +for June brought us tidings of reverses round Turfan, and July did not +pass away without the intelligence of the death of the Athalik Ghazi +himself. + +There had, before the receipt of this definite intelligence, been absurd +rumours of the part Yakoob Beg was resolved to play in Central Asia as +the ally of the Porte, while he, poor man, was opposing with despair, +and at the cost of his life, a relentless and irresistible foe. Such is +the irony of circumstance! The vanquished in Asia was by some freak of +imagination converted in Europe into the arbiter of a great question, +and the guide of all those peoples of either Turkestan who chafe at the +bit because of Russian rule. But in reality, with the return of Sir +Douglas Forsyth, our relations with Kashgar, which at one time promised +to have been most cordial, languished for want of a motive. No amount of +admiration would suffice to make us permanently guarantee Kashgar +against Russia, for the bare facts concerning the intervening country at +once chilled the sympathy at our hearts. The Grim Pass, and the road +lined with desiccated travellers and animals, effaced the bright picture +of the orchards of Kashgar and the busy streets of Yarkand. There was a +sigh of profound relief, that would not be suppressed, when Sir Douglas +Forsyth's report made the fact clear, that wherever else India might be +menaced she was safe, at least, from attack north of Cashmere. It is +true that there is a feasible route from Khoten to Ruduk, and thence to +India; but Yakoob Beg did not hold it, and its consideration was +considered to be beside the question. In fact, after 1874, we +entertained much the same opinion towards Kashgar and Yakoob Beg that we +did towards Poland and Kosciusko; and we were beginning to reconcile +ourselves to a Russian installation in that state, when the returning +Chinese made us reflect more deeply on Central Asian matters, and +discover that after all has been said against the assertion there exists +a third, and hitherto neglected, great Power in Central Asia. There was +never anything save a kindly feeling between the two countries, and all +who could admire bravery and justice and hospitality and frank courtesy +were attached to the individual who had proved that he possessed all +these attributes in no mean degree. But there was no deeper sympathy +than this, or rather there was no stronger connecting link. The Indian +government felt that it would be championing an unrecognized cause in +supporting Yakoob Beg against all comers, and in the press of more +urgent matters our relations with the Athalik Ghazi became lost sight +of. + +The effect of this treatment upon the Ameer was not unapparent, and +during the last twelve months of his rule he had become more Russian and +less English in his policy. But we preserved "the even-tenor of our +way." Yakoob Beg had no hold over us such as must always be possessed by +the ruler of Afghanistan. Practically speaking, his state was more +inaccessible to us than Tibet, and the Russians at Yarkand would be a +source of far less danger to us than warlike and hostile Chinese might +become at Lhasa. To sum up, England and Kashgar were friends because +they had no reason to be foes; but they were indifferent friends. The +tear might be shed for mutual misfortunes, and condolences might be +uttered when cause for grief arose; but that was all. There was no +alliance in the true sense, nor was there firm and unswerving +friendship. There was a brief space occupied by sympathy and goodwill; +then ensued an unbroken period of unvarying indifference. Before 1877, +the spark that had been kindled by Mr. Shaw, and fanned to the +dimensions of a flame by Sir Douglas Forsyth, had gone out, and with its +extinction passed away the solid fabric that many had hoped to rear upon +the base which the enterprise of a few intrepid men had diligently +prepared. Whether we were prudent or imprudent, true or false, kind or +unkind, Yakoob Beg leaned on a broken reed when he bade defiance to +Russia, trusting on our support. This chapter of our policy in Central +Asia may be closed as speedily as possible; if we do not come out of it +with much glory, it is to be hoped that a lenient posterity may judge +our demerits with a merciful consideration for the preservation of a +strict and irresponsible neutrality. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +YAKOOB BEG'S LAST WAR WITH CHINA, AND DEATH. + + +Until the close of the autumn of 1876 Yakoob Beg had not devoted much +personal attention to his eastern frontier. After the first Tungan war +and the capture of Kucha he had confided to his son and his lieutenants, +the charge of maintaining order in the annexed districts, and of +protecting his dominions against any hostile attempt on the part of the +Chinese. About the month of September in that year couriers arrived with +strange tidings in Kashgar. The message, we can well imagine, was +terrible in its brevity. The Chinese had appeared north of the Tian +Shan. They had sacked Urumtsi, and were laving close siege to Manas. +Their numbers rumour had magnified to almost a hundred thousand +combatants, and they came armed with all the auxiliaries Western science +could supply. + +Before following the movements of the ruler of Kashgar upon the receipt +of this intelligence, it will be necessary to consider what had been the +history of this Chinese army which had so suddenly appeared in Jungaria. +When in the natural course of events the Chinese government, having +solved the Taeping and Panthay difficulties, having restored order where +disorder had been supreme, and having created an army where there had +been only a disorganized rabble, turned its attention to the question, +which it had never lost sight of, of chastising the Tungan rebels beyond +Kansuh, the victorious soldiers of Yunnan, instead of being disbanded, +were invited to participate in a fresh campaign in the regions beyond +Gobi. It requires no great stretch of imagination to realize the scene +when the imperial edict came before these veterans, calling on all true +soldiers to vindicate their country's honour and their outraged religion +against the Tungan outcasts; how the generals, such as Chang Yao, set an +example of enthusiasm which the main body of their soldiers speedily +followed. In the presence of such military enthusiasm we are transported +back to the days of imperial Rome, when the subjection of one province +was only the prelude to some fresh triumph, and when every campaign +found in the ranks of the army the veterans of the last. So it was that +the victors of Talifoo, by long marches through Szchuen and Shensi, +reached Lanchefoo, the capital of Kansuh, where the viceroy of that +province was gathering together the munitions of war, and the recruits +who were to swell the nucleus of trained soldiers to the proportions +suitable to an invading army. Some have considered, and we are far from +denying that there is much to support such a view, that there was a +political motive at the root of this enterprise, the motive being a +desire on the part of the ruling family to give employment to a large +disciplined body of men, who if retained in China proper would be at the +service of any powerful conspirator or presumptuous aspirant to imperial +honours. Whether there is any foundation or not for this supposition, it +is certain that those troops who were not required for garrison work in +Yunnan were taken by a round-about route at a great distance from the +capital to the north-west frontier town of Lanchefoo, there to prepare +for the most arduous military enterprise China had undertaken since her +conquest of Eastern Turkestan in the last century. + +It is not certain when these movements began to be carried out, but +there appears to be no reason to doubt that the advanced portion of the +Chinese army had commenced its march westward before the end of the +year 1874. In the barren region between Lanchefoo and Hamil, a tract of +country some 900 miles as the crow flies, but probably nearer 1,200 by +the road followed by the Chinese, such difficulties were encountered +that one if not two winters were occupied in overcoming these +preliminary obstacles to the advance of the main force. The interval was +not passed in complete idleness at headquarters, where magazines of arms +and stores were being collected, recruits enlisted and drilled, and the +plan of campaign that was to astonish Asia, if not Europe also, was +being drawn up by the Viceroy of Kansuh in person and his able +lieutenants. At last, with the break of spring upon the desert plains of +Gobi, the Chinese army, which numbered in its entirety some 50,000 men, +set out on the long road across the desert to the more fertile regions +lying north and south of the Celestial Mountains. Of the details of this +portion of the enterprise the _Pekin Gazette_ is strangely reticent. The +most profound secrecy was observed, and, although it was known that +military events were in progress in the north-west, their object and +their extent were mysteries. After the delay experienced by the advanced +guard, which had to form fixed encampments, or rather settlements, in +the desert, and plant the corn that was to enable it to advance in the +following spring, no serious check was experienced by the Chinese until +they appeared before the walls of Urumtsi, which the Tungan leaders had +resolved to defend. + +Although several officers in the service of Yakoob Beg happened to be in +the city, and several of the leading Tungani resided there, the defence +was not prolonged, and after a few days Urumtsi surrendered to the +Chinese. Many of the inhabitants had fled to the neighbouring city of +Manas, but the garrison was massacred by order of the Chinese generals. +There is no mention in this case of what fate befell those of the +inhabitants who remained. + +Urumtsi surrendered towards the close of August, 1876, and on the 2nd +of September the Chinese sat down before the fortifications of Manas, a +much more strongly situated city, and defended with the whole force of +the Tungan people. The first panic at the appearance of the Chinese had +passed off, and the defenders of Manas recognized that they were not +only fighting for their cause and independence, but also for their lives +and the honour of their families. The terrible lesson of Urumtsi was not +without its effect upon the resolute but despairing garrison of Manas. +The capture of Urumtsi was a creditable performance in a military sense, +but the campaign had to be decided before the ramparts of Manas. On the +2nd of September the Chinese batteries commenced to play on the +north-east portion of the wall, and for two months the bombardment was +carried on on all sides with more or less vigour. Several assaults were +repulsed, and the Tungani, in face of superior odds and weapons, had +behaved like brave men. But the Chinese were as persistent in their +attack after an eight weeks' siege as they had been on the first day of +their arrival, and the provisions of the Tungani were almost exhausted. +With their supplies ebbed also their courage, and, after an unsuccessful +sortie, the Tungan general, Hai-Yen, presented himself to the Chinese +outposts begging to be accorded an honourable capitulation. Ostensibly, +terms were granted--or, rather, to put the matter as it is expressed in +the official Chinese report, everything was left vague--and on the 6th +of November Hai-Yen and the main body of his fighting men came forth +from the city towards the Chinese camp. The subsequent events are not +clear, but it seems that the attitude of this body was suspicious. The +men were armed, they were in a well-ordered phalanx, and to the Chinese +on the hills around it looked as if they were about to attempt to cut +their way through. Once the Chinese generals entertained the suspicion, +they proceeded to act promptly upon it, as if it were an incontestable +fact, and the Tungani, attacked from all sides, by artillery, horse, +and foot, were in a short time annihilated. Such of their chiefs as were +not slain were brought before the Chinese generals, and forthwith +executed "with the extreme of torture." Every able-bodied man found in +the city or its vicinity was massacred; but the report distinctly states +that the women, children, and old men were spared, and there is no +reason to doubt the veracity of the Chinese. There would, in their eyes, +be no need to palliate such strictly just acts of retribution as these. + +Not content with having chastised the living Tungani, by annihilating +them, as a race capable of self-defence for a generation to come, the +bodies of some of the prime movers in the Tungan movement in its +infancy, such as To-teh-lin, Heh-tsun, and Han-Hing-Nung, were exhumed +and quartered, as an example to all traitors to the Chinese Empire. The +fall of Manas struck a blow that resounded throughout Central Asia, and +at the intelligence a panic spread among all the peoples of Chinese +Turkestan and Jungaria. The enterprise had been conducted with such +astonishing secrecy, and the blow had been struck with such rapidity and +skill, that the effect was enhanced by these causes, new alike in the +annals of China and Central Asia. Not only had the Khitay returned for +revenge, but they had brought with them all the auxiliaries that make +England and Russia the dominant powers in that continent. The Khitay no +longer advanced in the clumsy formation of a long-forgotten age, but in +obedience to orders based on the models of France and Germany. Their +artillery was not a source of danger to the artillerists alone, but as +effective as the workshops of Herr Krupp can supply. But, above all, +their generals had made still more astonishing progress. In the sieges +of Urumtsi and Manas they had proved themselves to be no mean +tacticians; in their next and more extended enterprise they were to show +that they must be ranked still higher as strategists. + +Before the end of 1870 the Tungani had ceased to be an independent +people. The great majority of them had fallen either in the field or by +the hand of the executioner; and with their disappearance the first +portion of the task of the Chinese army was completed. The blood of the +Khitay massacred in 1862 and 1863 was atoned for, and Chinese prestige +restored to as great a height as at any time it had been in the present +century. More remained to be accomplished, in its danger as in its +result more important, which we have now to consider, before their full +task should be consummated; but the Chinese army and its generals had +done, even up to this point, a feat of which any country might be proud. + +These events appear sudden and strange to us who are far removed from +their influence, and who only entertain a languid kind of supercilious +interest in matters in which the Chinese are the guiding spirit. But +what must they have appeared to Yakoob Beg in his palace at Kashgar, +although that palace was 1,000 miles removed from the spot where his +victorious enemies lay encamped? It is impossible for us to gauge the +feeling of apprehension with which these first triumphs of the Chinese +were viewed throughout Eastern Turkestan; and if the bold heart of the +Athalik Ghazi did not misgive him, it was not through any light spirit +as to the gravity of the danger. + +Intelligence of the fall of Manas reached Yakoob Beg, probably, before +the end of November, and in consequence of the lateness of the season he +had the whole of the winter before him to make his preparations for +defence. The surrender of these cities was not generally known in this +country until April, 1877, when we also heard of Yakoob Beg's march +eastward to protect his menaced frontier. There is very little to be +learnt of the internal affairs of Kashgar between March, 1876, and +March, 1877; that is to say, between the close of the revolt in Khokand, +with the surrender of Abderrahman Aftobatcha, and the mustering of +Yakoob Beg's army round the city of Turfan, or Tarfur. There can be no +doubt that in that period some important changes had taken place in the +sentiment of the Kashgarian people; these changes may not have been very +perceptible to a casual observer, yet in their consequences they were as +important as manifest sedition. It is not difficult to suggest what some +of these modifications may have been; of what they resulted in there can +be no doubt--the weakening of the power of the Athalik Ghazi. + +Yakoob Beg's over-caution in November, 1875, when the last rising broke +out in Khokand, damaged his prestige more than a lost battle. It damped +the ardour of the Khokandian element among his followers, and when we +remember that these were his ablest and most devoted partisans, this +alone was a serious blow. But there are many tokens that the +disaffection was not confined to any special party among his people, but +was spread amongst them all. The Tungan wars had never been popular, and +had been costly and sanguinary operations. The old trade with Russian +territory, that once had been so lucrative, languished for want of a +fostering hand, and the difficulties of that northern range of +mountains, which the patience and care of the Chinese had for a time +pierced through, were made the most of to prevent intercourse with +Kuldja and Vernoe. More than all, too, all Yakoob Beg's skill as a +"manipulator of phrases" could not conceal the fact that his treaty with +England was a failure. It did not give him that British protection which +alone he cared for, and it did not provide, through the greater +obstacles of nature, his people with that new trade outlet which was the +sole object worth securing in their eyes. The Forsyth treaty seemed to +bring the relations of England and Kashgar to a sudden termination; and +the Kashgari were quite shrewd enough to perceive that the Athalik Ghazi +would not be buttressed by English bayonets against Russian aggression, +if that instrument was to be held, as in their eyes it could not be +otherwise than held, the only connecting link between the countries. The +consequence of this belief was a resignation to a Russian subjection at +no distant date. + +Yakoob Beg's tenure of power would be morally weakened by the existence +of these causes for discontent among his people, and it was at such a +moment, when they had perhaps only slightly become clear to his eyes, +that the return of the Chinese was heralded. In the face of a great and +common danger a well-affected people would have rallied round their +head, and in the crisis have found a joint necessity to produce a better +understanding than existed before among their component parts. The +country east of Kucha, where it was inhabited at all, was inhabited by +the few survivors of the massacres ordered by Yakoob Beg's +representatives. Amongst these there could be no great amount of +affection towards his cause. The garrison of the city of Kashgar +consisted in the main of the pardoned Khitay soldiers--Yangy Mussulmans, +as they were called--and from them no stanch support could be expected +against their Buddhist countrymen (see Appendix). The Tungani of Kucha +and Aksu and the neighbourhood were the most numerous recruits in the +army, and from them at least it might have been supposed that the +Athalik Ghazi would obtain faithful service. Even among them, however, +there was discontent. They had everything to dread at the hands of the +Chinese. It was they who had massacred the helpless Khitay, a deed from +the stain of which Yakoob Beg at least was free; and it was they against +whom the wrath of China would in the first place be directed. But they +had also their grudges against the ruler. He had beaten them in the +field of battle, and had compelled more than he had induced them to join +his army. They hated the Mahomedan Andijani only one degree less than +the Buddhist Chinaman, and their ambitious game had been foiled by the +military talents of their present ruler. They had run, in the years +1862-65, all the risk attaching to a revolt against China, and when they +had accomplished their task they found themselves defrauded of their +reward. Therefore, in the face of a Chinese invasion there was disunion +in the ranks of the very Mahomedan rebels who had originated all these +troubles. The nucleus of Yakoob Beg's army, when these have been struck +out as non-efficient, was small indeed; but it was only on that nucleus +he could depend in fighting for his crown and his religion. + +During the winter of 1876, when he was busy in collecting arms, +ammunition, and stores at Yarkand and Kashgar, he must have discovered +many of these discordant elements; yet he pushed his preparations +resolutely on. He conceived that under the circumstances the boldest +policy would be the most prudent, and that if he could but beat the +Chinese in the field by superior tactics he might ride triumphant over +all his difficulties and dangers. With these views uppermost in his mind +he concentrated all his forces, Tungan included, along the southern +slopes of the Tian Shan, with his headquarters at Turfan. The Russian +officer, Captain Kuropatkine, who had been sent to Kashgar on a mission, +and who had journeyed through the whole extent of Kashgaria to meet the +Ameer at Turfan, computed Yakoob Beg's army at the following strength, +and supplied the accompanying information concerning its disposition +along the frontier. + +The fort of Devanchi, guarding the principal defile through the mountain +range, was garrisoned by 900 _jigits_, armed with muskets and two +guns--one a breech-loader. At Turfan there were with the Ameer 3,500 +_jigits_ and 5,000 _sarbazes_, with 20 guns, mostly of ancient make. +Toksoun, a fortified place, some miles nearer Korla, on the main road, +was occupied by 4,000 _jigits_ and 2,000 _sarbazes_ with five guns. +Hacc Kuli Beg had command here. At Korla there were also about 1,500 +men, who were brought up to the front shortly after Captain +Kuropatkine's departure. With these 17,000 men, scattered over a widely +extended area, Yakoob Beg had to defend himself against an enemy +superior in numbers, and, as the result showed, in generalship as well. + +The Russian officer gave, on his return, a very gloomy account of Yakoob +Beg's affairs, predicting the speedy disintegration of his state. He +also asserted that the Tungani were deserting in great numbers, and that +everywhere east of Kucha there was discontent and distrust of the +Kashgarian rulers. This disparaging account was confirmed by Colonel +Prjevalsky, some months afterwards, upon his return from his adventurous +journey to Lob Nor. In a letter, dated from Little Yuldus, May 28, 1877, +he said he had been very kindly received, but also suspiciously watched +by Yakoob Beg. "All the way from Hoidu Got to Lob Nor he was escorted by +a guard of honour, who officiously endeavoured to satisfy his smallest +wishes, but would not allow him, or any of his people, to come in +contact with the inhabitants. Yakoob Beg somewhat peremptorily asked +Colonel Prjevalsky to explain why the Russians had provisioned the +Chinese forces arrayed against him; but, in an interview at Korla, he +again and again assured the Russian traveller that he was a friend and +well-wisher to Russia. Notwithstanding these precautions, Colonel +Prjevalsky and the other members of the expedition succeeded in making +the natives tell them that they were disgusted with the military +despotism of Yakoob Beg, and that they hoped the Russians would soon be +coming." + +The information contained in this letter refers to the end of April, +1877, or to a time after the first defeat of Yakoob Beg by the Chinese, +and his withdrawal to Korla; but it is _a propos_ in this place as +confirming Captain Kuropatkine's remarks. + +In addition to the 17,000, more or less, disciplined soldiers whom +Yakoob Beg had mustered at the frontier, Captain Kuropatkine mentioned +10,000 Doungans--that is, the Tungani inhabitants of this eastern +region. Not only were these notoriously untrustworthy, but they were +also badly armed, and were, on the whole, a source of weakness rather +than of strength. Before the close of the month of February the Athalik +Ghazi was at Turfan, constructing forts at Toksoun and towards the Tian +Shan, and endeavouring to inspire his followers with his own indomitable +spirit. + +In the meanwhile the Chinese had not been idle. They had, after their +triumph over the Tungani, established their headquarters at Guchen, near +Urumtsi, and had so far secured their communications with Kansuh that a +regular service of couriers was organized, and a continual supply of +arms, military stores, and men flowed across Gobi to the invading army. +For instance, a large arsenal for the storage of arms was erected at +Lanchefoo, and on one occasion as many as 10,000 rifles of the Berdan +pattern were sent in a single convoy. While Tso Tsung Tang, the Viceroy +of Kansuh and Commander-in-Chief, was making these preparations north of +the Tian Shan, for forcing the range with the melting of the snow, +another Chinese general, Chang Yao, was stationed at Hamil for the +purpose of seconding the main attack by a diversion south of the range. +In estimating the total number of the Chinese army at 60,000 men--that +is, 50,000 round Guchen and 10,000 at Hamil--we would express only what +is probable. The total number may have been more or less, but in +estimating it at 60,000 men we believe we are as close to exactitude as +is possible under the circumstances. In the month of March the Chinese +generals had made all their preparations for attacking Yakoob Beg. So +far as our geographical information goes there is no direct road from +Guchen to Turfan, and consequently the chief Chinese attack was made +from Urumtsi against Devanchi, where Yakoob Beg had constructed a fort. +But, although the larger army was manoeuvring north of the Tian Shan, +the decisive blow was in reality struck by the smaller force advancing +from Hamil. If we are to judge from the disposition of the Kashgarian +army, the movements of this brigade had not obtained that attention from +the Athalik Ghazi which they merited. + +General Chang Yao captured the small towns of Chightam and Pidjam in the +middle of April without encountering any serious opposition. And from +the latter of these places, some fifty miles east of Turfan, commenced +that concerted movement with his superior, Tso Tsung Tang, which was to +overcome all Kashgarian resistance. A glance at the map will show that +Yakoob Beg at Turfan was caught fairly between two fires by armies +advancing from Urumtsi and Pidjam, and if defeated his line of retreat +was greatly exposed to an enterprising enemy. Upon the Chinese becoming +aware of the success of their preliminary movements a general advance +was ordered in all directions. It is evident that the Chinese were met +at first with a strenuous resistance at Devanchi, and that the forcing +of the Tian Shan defiles had not been accomplished when news reached the +garrison that their ruler had been expelled from Turfan by a fresh +Chinese army. It was then that confusion spread fast through all ranks +of the followers of Yakoob Beg; in that hour of doubt and unreasoning +panic the majority of his soldiers either went over to the enemy or fled +in headlong flight to Karashar. In this moment of desperation the +Athalik Ghazi still bore himself like a good soldier. Outside Turfan he +gave battle to the invader, and though driven from the field by +overwhelming odds he yet once more made a stand at Toksoun, forty miles +west of Turfan, and when a second time defeated withdrew to Karashar to +make fresh efforts to withstand the invading army. Yakoob Beg probably +lost in these engagements not less than 20,000 men, including Tungani, +by desertion and at the hands of the enemy. He consequently conceived +that it would be prudent to withdraw still farther into his territory, +and accordingly left Karashar, after a few days' residence, for Korla. + +Some weeks before the occurrence of these striking events Yakoob Beg had +sent an envoy to Tashkent to solicit the aid of the Russians against the +advancing Chinese. But the Russians only gave his messenger fair words, +and did not interfere with Mr. Kamensky's commercial transactions with +the Chinese army. At the moment, too, Russia was so busily occupied in +Europe that she had no leisure to devote to the Kashgarian question. + +The Chinese had for many years been good friends with Russia, and Yakoob +Beg had all his life been a scarcely concealed enemy. Between two such +combatants the sympathies of the Russian government must at first have +certainly gone with the former; nor had Yakoob Beg's attitude towards +Russia of late been as discreet as it might have been. His nephew, the +Seyyid Yakoob Khan, was notoriously an agent for some indefinite purpose +at Constantinople. His protection of the Bokharan prince, Abdul Melik, +or Katti Torah, the most bitter enemy of Russia in Central Asia, was +also ill calculated to attract Russian sympathy to his side. + +Moreover there was little or nothing to arouse Russian susceptibilities +in Chinese victories so far distant as Urumtsi or Turfan. In many +respects, too, this Chinese invasion was a relief for Russia. It freed +her hands in Central Asia in a manner that perhaps will never be +sufficiently appreciated. Buddhist victories in Eastern Turkestan struck +a severe blow at Mahomedan vigour throughout the Khanates, and the +waning prestige of the Badaulet, or the "fortunate one," acted as a +warning of strange significance to all the neighbouring princes. + +It is not difficult, therefore, to discover valid reasons why the +Russians declined to negotiate between the combatants, and although +Yakoob Beg endeavoured to come to terms with the Chinese, on the +understanding that his personal safety should be guaranteed, all his +diplomatic overtures were met by categorical refusals. + +The Chinese after entering Toksoun came to a sudden halt, for which the +causes are not evident. But the terror of their name had gone before +them, and the country east of Karashar was hurriedly abandoned by its +inhabitants. The Chinese delay may have been caused by the necessity for +collecting provisions to enable them to advance further, or perhaps it +may have arisen from the outbreak of some epidemic, as asserted by one +of the Indian journals. On this point the _Pekin Gazette_ is profoundly +silent. The number for the 23rd of June contained a narrative of the +operations round Turfan, and also a list of the honours and rewards +given to the successful generals; but it and its subsequent issues are +silent as to the causes for the Chinese inactivity that then for many +months ensued. The most striking sentence in this report is that which +says that "the Mahomedans who submitted themselves were permitted to +revert to their peaceful avocations;" and if this be true, this is one +instance, at all events, of the Chinese exercising moderation. Strange +as it may seem, with this preliminary success the vigour of the Chinese +invasion appeared to die away, and for five months nothing more was +heard of the whereabouts of the Chinese army. In that interval the most +important events occurred in Kashgaria, but with these, the Chinese, +although the originators of them, had nothing to do. In the closing +scene of all of the eventful life we have been in these pages +considering the invading Khitay had no part. They were probably not +aware of what was taking place some 300 miles from their camp until many +weeks after it had happened; and then conceived that their best policy +would be to give time for the disintegrating causes at work within the +state to have their full effect before they advanced westward. When +Colonel Prjevalsky saw Yakoob Beg it must have been within a very short +period of his death. The shadow of approaching events may have been upon +the defeated conqueror, who from recent disaster could only presage +worse yet to come. + +Of the exact manner of Yakoob Beg's death there are various accounts. +The most probable is that he was murdered by a party of conspirators, +who were led by Hakim Khan Torah. The date given is the 1st of May. That +Yakoob Beg should meet with a violent death, considering that he was +surrounded by such doubtful followers as the Tungan chiefs, is not to be +marvelled at, and that the first reverse in his career should be the +signal for fresh disturbances is only what we should expect from a +consideration of his country and its peoples in the light of past +history. So far, then, as the assertion goes, that Yakoob Beg was +murdered, there is nothing improbable about it. But there are many +discrepancies in the accompanying narrative. The first intelligence of +the death of the Ameer of Kashgar was contained in a telegram published +in the _Times_ of July 16 last year. It stated that his death occurred +at Korla, after a short illness, and that he had nominated as his +successor Hakim Khan Torah, to the express disregard of his own sons. +The telegram went on to say that Hakim Khan had declined to accept the +gift, and that the Ameer's eldest son, Beg Kuli Beg, had succeeded to +the throne. A few days after this telegram Hakim Khan Torah was +identified with the ancient dynasty of Kashgar, which Yakoob Beg had +first seated on the throne, and then displaced in the person of Buzurg +Khan. All this intelligence came from Tashkent. On the 23rd of July we +learnt in this country, from the same source, that Beg Kuli Beg had +notified his father's death and his own accession to the throne to +General Kaufmann. There no longer remained any doubt that Yakoob Beg was +really dead. + +For some reason or other Beg Kuli Beg does not appear to have been a +favourite with the Russians; but this aversion to him was based on some +mistake, for Beg Kuli Beg was certainly unfriendly to England, and was +scarcely civil to our envoy, Sir Douglas Forsyth. Moreover, he at once +placed himself in communication with the Russian government, asking for +advice as to the course he should pursue with regard to the Chinese +invasion, and renewing his father's request that Russia should stop the +supplies sent to Urumtsi and Turfan from Kuldja. It was reported, but +not confirmed, that his latter demand was complied with. + +Nothing more was heard of the history of these events until the end of +August, when news reached India through Ladakh and Cashmere that Yakoob +Beg "had been assassinated by Hakim Khan Torah, the son of Buzurg Khan." +This was the first hint that Yakoob Beg had fallen by the hands of +discontented partisans. In itself so natural, it threw fresh light on +the strange deed he was reported to have done of disinheriting his own +family, and it speedily became the accepted version. The question then +was, who was Hakim Khan Torah? Two versions were put forward; one was +that he was the son of Buzurg Khan, the other that he was a Khoja chief +of Kucha. The former was the more plausible, but as his name does not +occur in Sir Douglas Forsyth's exhaustive report, it is open to some +objection, more particularly when we are told that he bore a principal +part in the conquest of Kashgar by Yakoob Beg. The latter suggestion was +much more difficult to prove, but was not open to the same objection. +Grant that Hakim, or Aali, Khan Torah was a pardoned Kucha chief when +that city fell into the hands of the Athalik Ghazi, and there was +nothing extraordinary in his having proved a traitor. Assume that he +still conceived he had claims upon the governorship of that city, of +which the _Turkestan Gazette_ asserts he had been Dadkwah, and there is +nothing inconsistent in his having sought to realize his own ambitious +schemes the moment fortune frowned upon his conqueror. That Hakim Khan, +if son to Buzurg Khan, should seek to revenge his father's deposition +and life of exile is not in itself strange we admit; but if he were a +subjected ruler, who regarded Yakoob Beg as an adventurer from Khokand +with no claims to his fealty, his plot against and murder of the +Kashgarian prince at once appears not only possible, but the true story. +As a leading Khoja of Kucha he would also have claims to represent one +branch of the old reigning family of Kashgar. In the face, too, of a +great and pressing danger from the Chinese, his hereditary enemies, a +son of Buzurg Khan would scarcely make confusion worse confounded by +murdering the _de facto_ sovereign; whereas a Kucha leader might aspire +to play in such a crisis the same part that Amursana did in the last +century. It was said that Hakim Khan entered into some negotiations with +the Chinese, who gave him little encouragement. + +The _Turkestan Gazette_ still adhered to its original statement that +Yakoob Beg had died of fever on the 1st of May, after an illness of +seven days' duration, and that on the 13th of May the body was brought +in state from Korla to Kashgar for the purpose of being deposited in the +mausoleum of Appak Khoja. Then, according to the _Turkestan Gazette_, +there ensued one of those atrocious deeds which have so often marked the +history of Central Asian states. The second son of the dead Ameer, Hacc +Kuli Beg, who had been with him during his last moments, escorted the +funeral cortege, and was met at a short distance from the city by his +elder brother, Kuli Beg. The elder son at once knelt before his father's +coffin, and then rising, without a moment's delay fired a pistol at his +brother, who dropped down dead. Not content with this fratricide, Kuli +Beg had the whole of the escort put to the sword, and returned to +Kashgar with his own followers escorting the coffin. We know nothing +whatever of the reasons for this atrocious act, but the fact of Kuli Beg +being in Kashgar, and not in the east, shows how Hakim Khan was able to +establish his authority in Kucha and Korla. It will be more convenient +to consider in another chapter the further course of these internal +troubles, and also the final triumph of the Chinese. + +There are, therefore, two versions of how Yakoob Beg met his death, and +in support of each view there is a certain amount of evidence. All the +information on the subject has been recorded, and it is conflicting. The +Chinese reports in the _Pekin Gazette_ ignore the subject altogether. +Their personal hatred was directed more against Bayen Hu, a Tungan +leader who had fled from Hamil some years before, than against the +Athalik Ghazi. Of the main fact that Yakoob Beg died at Korla in May, +1877, there is no doubt, and that the most eventful career that has +marked its track in the history of Central Asia for several generations +was then brought to a close. + +Whatever opinion may be formed of the man from his varied fortunes, +there will be few who will deny that he possessed great mental +qualities; some will be found, no doubt, to question his action in +deposing Buzurg Khan, and with more justice may his earlier life be +blamed for his repeated desertion of his friend and patron Khudayar. +Others will call to mind his vacillating conduct in 1875, and deny that +he possessed that decision of character which is the salient feature in +all truly great men. His unnecessary wars with the Tungani, and the +short-sighted policy he pursued of extending his empire up to the +vicinity of China, were also calculated to lower his claims to be +considered a general or a statesman. In extenuation of these acts, which +decidedly undermined the fabric of his rule, it may be mentioned that +there is one side of Yakoob Beg's character that has never received +sufficient attention. It is what was the secret to his foreign policy. +He certainly did not aspire, as many thought, to contest unaided the +palm of superiority with Russia in Central Asia. He was far too well +informed to dream of that. Nor could he expect to be able to extend his +power to the south, where both Afghanistan and Cashmere would resent his +presence. The only option left to him as a conqueror was to continue +aggrandizing himself at the expense of China. We know not what dreams +may have entered the mind of the stanch Mussulman in his palace at +Kashgar of uniting in one crusade against China all the followers of the +Prophet in Central Asia and of emulating the deeds of some of his +predecessors who had carried fire and sword into the border provinces of +China, and whom even the Great Wall could not withstand. Over these +bright imaginings, arising from tales told of the decadence of China, we +know not how much Yakoob Beg may have brooded as he saw his power spread +eastward through fifteen degrees of longitude, through Aksu to Kucha, +Kucha to Korla, Korla to Karashar, and Karashar to Turfan, until from +his far outpost at Chightam he could almost see the rich cities of Hamil +and Barkul, cities which are the key to Western China and Northern +Tibet, and imagine them to be within his grasp. But the policy of Yakoob +Beg will not be clearly appreciated, unless we bear in mind that these +ambitious longings were held in check by fear of Russia, and by the +hostility of the Tungani, who continued to plot even when subdued. His +keen spirit must have chafed greatly under the inability to accomplish +that which he conceived to be possible, and despite his numerous +triumphs he was at heart a disappointed man. + +Moreover, during these later years, when the task he had set before him +had been nearly accomplished, and he had leisure to look around, he was +no longer young or as energetic as he had been. He was entering, for an +Asiatic, upon the evening of life, and had no longer the physical power +to essay any protracted and desperate enterprise. For a "forlorn hope" +he was as eager and as effective as ever, but for those undertakings +which require not only desperate courage but also forethought and +patience he was no longer fit. But the Chinese invasion dispelled all +these, and many other illusions. In their eyes and before their power, +he was only another Sultan of Talifoo. His great qualities, which +attracted sympathy and a certain amount of respect, in India and England +were vain in the eyes of a people whose "empire has," in their own +tongue, "been planted by heaven." Before Chinese viceroys and Mantchoo +chivalry Khokandian soldiers and Mussulman pride must be held vain. So +thought the Chinese, if they thought upon the subject at all. And so +must we think who view past history by the aid of Yakoob Beg's +overthrow. Yakoob Beg's rule in Kashgar was for twelve years a visible +fact; it was recognized by England and by Russia. The Central Asian +Khans gladly acknowledged the admission of another to their fast +dwindling ranks. Even Shere Ali, an ostensibly powerful ruler, honoured +Yakoob Beg not so much with his friendship as with his jealousy. Yet it +was all fleeting fast away. + +In comparison with Chinese power his was as nothing; in comparison with +Chinese perseverance his was weakness; in comparison with Chinese +tactics, his tactics were those of a school-boy; and even in comparison +with Chinese courage his courage had to confess an equal. There was not +only the dead weight of numbers against him, but there was also the +quick weight of superior intellect. There were superior strategy and +superior weapons; greater force and greater determination; no hesitation +in action, and perfect unanimity in council; all combined to crush one +poor forlorn man, fighting with all the desperation of despair for life, +if not for liberty. Worthier of a better fate, and meeting destiny with +the calm that is natural to brave men, Yakoob Beg's defeat and death may +serve to "point a moral and adorn a tale." The tale has been told in +these pages with as close a regard for fact as the meagre records will +supply, and for the personage whose name is the pivot round which the +main facts concentrate, it may be claimed that he deserved attention +even from Englishmen. It may well be that some future generation may +recur to this career with interest as marking the only real break in the +Chinese domination in Eastern Turkestan. When the massacres and other +atrocities that marked the Khoja invasions and the Tungan outbreak on +both sides shall have been forgotten or condoned, then it will be +admitted that, despite the great benefits conferred by China on the +people in the way of trade-fostering and good government, there was some +merit in the administration which a Khokandian soldier had unaided +created in this region. High credit, then, let us, who view the subject +from an impartial stand-point, pay this departed warrior, who as a +soldier met few equals, as a governor none in his long career. Much as +we may marvel at, and perhaps impugn, Chinese strength, let us not judge +Yakoob Beg harshly, because Chinamen out-manoeuvred him, and overthrew +him in fair fight. It is an easy gauge to apply, and one which would +dispel all the reputation the Athalik Ghazi had secured, if we deny the +Chinese the great qualities those who know them best will accord them +without hesitation. But in applying so shallow a test to the case before +us, we should be wronging our own understanding quite as much as its +victim. However much we may blame Yakoob Beg for going out to encounter +an enemy whom he ought to have awaited either at Kucha or Aksu, his +valour, and also his mistaken contempt for the Chinese, are made all the +more clear. We may fairly claim for him that he was the most remarkable +man Central Asia in its fullest extent has produced since Nadir Shah; +and that he accomplished with insignificant means a task which ordinary +men, though born in the purple and ruling a prosperous and thickly +populated state, might have failed to do. What better epitaph could be +placed over a courageous and just ruler? + +The moral of his career is a short one, but for us full of significance. +Those independent rulers who establish themselves for a space on the +confines of China are mere ephemeral excrescences; birds of passage who +must betake themselves away, if they can, when their little hour has +struck. English governments have never understood the vitality of +Chinese institutions. They should appreciate it better in the future. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +THE CHINESE RECONQUEST OF KASHGAR. + + +When Yakoob Beg died at Korla the task of reconquering Kashgar had +barely commenced. The Chinese army, victorious at Turfan, was lingering +in idleness round that city, exhausted, as some believed, by the +greatness of the effort. It was not clear even that the Chinese aspired +to achieve any greater triumph than that they had already won, viz., the +subjection of the Tungani, a subjection which could not be considered +accomplished so long as Yakoob Beg remained in the neighbourhood at the +head of a large army; and that with the withdrawal of the Kashgarian +army to Karashar the Chinese generals might call a halt of an indefinite +duration. Nor did it follow as a matter of necessity that because the +Chinese had taken Turfan they could capture Kashgar or Yarkand. Distance +alone was no slight obstacle, and when added to the barrenness of the +country, which would be made more desolate by the retreating army of the +Mussulmans, an impartial observer might have hesitated to predict any +very speedy triumph for the Chinese. But besides these, there were other +impediments, of which a prudent general had to take careful cognizance. +To seize Karashar or Korla only needed a bold attack; but to subject +Kucha might have been a more arduous undertaking than was even the siege +of Manas. A delay of two months in the heart of Eastern Turkestan must +have strained the resources of the Chinese very much, and might have +ruined their whole enterprise. And even if Kucha fell there still +remained Aksu, and afterwards Ush Turfan in the north, and Maralbashi +in the south, barring the way to the vital portion of the state round +Kashgar and Yarkand. Now the death of Yakoob Beg did not remove any one +of these defences, and for a time it was believed that his son, who had +always the repute of being a good soldier, would make the best of the +very strong line of defence that he undoubtedly possessed. As a matter +of fact, the death of Yakoob Beg was an irretrievable disaster, for it +destroyed whatever cohesion and unity there were in the country. He +himself might have been unable to avert a final overthrow, but the +contest would have been made more protracted. Therefore in the months of +May and June, 1877, immediately after the death of the Athalik Ghazi, it +is strictly true to say that the Chinese reconquest of the country had +barely commenced. + +The hesitation shown by the invading generals after the victory of +Turfan was at first caused by a belief in the formidableness of their +antagonist, and, when that antagonist died, by a prudent resolve to +permit the disintegrating causes that speedily manifested themselves in +Kashgaria to have full time to work in their favour. Meanwhile they +formed their plans in secret, laid in large stores of supplies from +Russian territory, and explored the little-known passes of Tekes and +Yuldus. A large number of fresh troops was received from the Calmucks +north of Chuguchak, who during the worst period of the Tungan revolt had +preserved that city for the Chinese. + +But before following the forward movement of the Chinese it is necessary +to say something of the internal disturbances in Eastern Turkestan, more +especially of the rivalry of Beg Bacha and Hakim Khan for supremacy. In +the first place, it is necessary that it should be distinctly understood +that of the events that occurred in Kashgaria between the death of the +Athalik Ghazi and the final advance of the Chinese army we are really +without any definite intelligence at all, and it is not probable that +we shall ever be accurately informed of the course of events during +those five months. In the absence of exact _data_, we must assume the +events to have taken place which are most in accordance with +probability. On Yakoob Beg's death, his eldest son, Beg Kuli Beg, was +either in the city of Kashgar or somewhere on the road thither. It is +probable that he had been despatched to the rear, to bring up +reinforcements after the defeat at Turfan, and in his absence Hacc Kuli +Beg, the Ameer's second son, assumed the command of the army when his +father died. It is certain that he accompanied the funeral cortege of +Yakoob Beg back to Kashgar, and that he was murdered outside the walls +by his brother. It was during this time that Hakim Khan Torah appeared +upon the scene. It should be remembered that tidings of the death of +Yakoob Beg travelled very slowly to this country, and that almost +immediately after it arrived we received intelligence of events that had +occurred many weeks after the death of the Ameer. We were therefore +hearing at the same time the particulars of the circumstances of Yakoob +Beg's death, and of those commotions which broke out some weeks after +that event. + +When Hacc Kuli Beg left Korla no personal representative remained there +of the dynasty of the Athalik Ghazi, and during that interval the +occasion arose for the intriguing elements that a mixed court, such as +that of Yakoob Beg, could never be free from. Hakim Khan seized that +opportunity, and established his authority in Karashar, Korla, and, +probably, Kucha also; and during a short time Kashgaria was accordingly +divided into three hostile camps. It appears that Beg Bacha, lulled into +a false sense of security by the inactivity of the Chinese, resolved to +chastise the insolence of his rebellious governor, a task which he +should have left for the Chinese. A war then broke out between Beg Bacha +and Hakim Khan, which exhausted the few resources that still remained to +a ruler of Kashgar. The contest appears to have been of a desultory +nature, and although the final result was in favour of Beg Bacha, he +never appears to have recovered possession of Karashar and Korla. In the +neighbourhood of Aksu the battle of this war took place, and Hakim Khan +was defeated, "by the overwhelming numbers of his enemy." Beg Bacha's +chief loss was the death of Mahomed Yunus, the Dadkhwah of Yarkand, his +ablest and most faithful adviser. Hakim then fled to Russian territory, +with 1,000 _sarbazes_, who were promptly interned by order of General +Kolpakovsky, and there he sought to restore his shattered fortunes by +carrying on intrigues with the Russian government. It is scarcely +necessary to say that these came to nothing, and that Hakim Khan has +sunk into that insignificance which, to judge from his acts when called +into public life, is his most befitting atmosphere. + +While engaged on this successful campaign east of Aksu, an event +occurred of singular significance, as illustrating the condition of +Kashgar under Beg Bacha. The Kirghiz chief Sadic Beg, who had +disappeared from the scene since his old rivalry with Yakoob Beg +thirteen years before, seized the opportunity afforded by Beg Bacha's +embarrassment to attack the city of Kashgar, denuded of the greater +portion of its garrison. He plundered the suburbs, and only withdrew +when the young Ameer hastened back from Aksu to defend his capital. The +Kirghiz, true to their nature, at once sought the desolate regions of +Kizil Yart. They had, however, made the confusion arising from the death +of the Ameer and the disaffection of Hakim Khan worse confounded, and +completed those elements of weakness and discord which had always proved +an invaluable ally to the Chinese. By themselves both Hakim Khan and the +Kirghiz depredator were beneath contempt; but with an enemy established +on the soil of the country, they assumed a too clear and mischievous +importance. The minor seditions that manifested themselves in Sirikul +and at Khoten completed the round of dissension that, combined with +external force, shattered the fair show of Yakoob Beg's empire. We are +completely ignorant of the details of the disturbances that were +reported to have taken place round Tashkurgan or Sirikul; but it is +plausible to suppose that these were caused either by inroads on the +part of the Wakhis or Badakshis, or by some fresh Kirghiz attack. The +inhabitants of Tashkurgan being Yarkandi settlers, it is not probable +that the rising, or whatever form the commotion assumed, originated with +them; at Khoten the rising was more tangible, and more easily +understood. The people of that city never forgave Yakoob Beg his +treachery towards their ruler, and the instant he disappeared they +hastened to take their revenge. When the Kashgarian garrison was +withdrawn the towns-people simply deposed their _dadkwah_, and nominated +a ruler of their own, who retained authority until the triumph of the +Chinese made it politic for them and him to bow to the rising sun. The +example of Khoten had been followed by Sanju and the vicinity; and thus +the whole southern portion of the state acquiesced in the Chinese +conquest, after the fall of Kashgar, without the necessity for a single +Chinese soldier to be advanced south of Yarkand. It seems probable that +at this very moment the Chinese troops have remained content with the +submission of these districts, and have not garrisoned those important +towns which skirt the Kuen Lun range with their own soldiers. + +When Beg Bacha returned post haste to Kashgar, to encounter the Kirghiz, +we said that Sadic Beg fled to the Kizil Yart; but he did not remain +there long, for soon we find him back again at the capital in high +favour with the Ameer, with whom he had come to terms. His Kirghiz +followers were taken into the pay of the state, and just as this +alliance had been struck up, tidings came of events that made that +alliance, however futile and insignificant, a matter of the first +necessity, both to Kirghiz and Kashgar. The Chinese army was at last +advancing. The danger that had for five months been hanging in suspense +over the devoted heads of a Mussulman people was close upon them. The +long-feared and long-expected Khitay were drawing nigh to the capital, +in irresistible strength; and the apprehensions of a cowed people made +them know, too surely, that their end was at hand. The dissensions among +the people themselves, the discord in the ruling house, and the +dissentient elements in every effort towards unity, had all operated in +favour of the invader. While the Chinese had plotted and prepared in the +deliberate manner of a great nation, the people of Kashgar had entered +into cabals and schemes of party tactics that were well nigh ludicrous. +And all the time that the sap of their vigour was being expended, the +Chinese generals were drawing the noose more closely together that was +to strangle the newly erected state beyond all chance of recovery. It +would almost seem as if the Kashgari and their rulers had recovered from +their first shock at the Chinese invasion, and were becoming reconciled +to their presence east of Korla, when they experienced a second, more +severe, and more lasting shock, in the announcement that the Chinese +were again advancing. Their brief contentment passed away, and all their +old terror revived in tenfold force. Hope died within their bosoms, and +the resignation of despair only nerved them to bear a fate which their +own valour should have striven to avert. It is time for us now to return +to the Chinese army, and to follow its decisive operations. + +North of the Tian Shan the supreme command was vested in the hands of +Tso Tsung Tang, generalissimo of the army operating against Kashgar, and +Viceroy of the province of Kansuh. South of it the commanders were +Generals Kin Shun and Chang Yao, the former the hero of the siege of +Manas, the latter of the diversion against Turfan from Hamil. The base +of the former was Manas, of the latter Turfan. Their sources of supply +were Hamil, Barkul, and Chuguchak, within the Chinese frontier, and +Kuldja, Semiretchinsk, and Semipalatinsk, without. Their weapons and +ammunition were transported across the desert from Lanchefoo, and their +ranks were swollen by recruits from the Calmuck and other tribes. It +does not appear that the Chinese were very eager to enlarge their army +in size; they rather aimed at increasing its efficiency by the +distribution of Berdan rifles and Krupp's cannon; and during the heat of +the summer months they remained at rest in their recently acquired +possessions. Nor is it probable that those epidemics broke out in their +ranks which it was asserted had appeared amongst them. A sensational +paragraph was published in the _Tashkent Gazette_, which was copied by +some of the London newspapers, asserting that a species of cholera, +known in Kashgar by the name of _vuoba_, had decimated the Chinese army, +and that in consequence of that calamity its advance was permanently +checked. Certainly, this was a piece of gross exaggeration, even if +there were a substratum of fact for the assertion. Then, again, we were +apprised, on high authority, that the Russian government had put a stop +to the despatch of provisions to the country occupied by the Chinese +army, at the request of its new-found friend, Beg Bacha. Yet there is no +question that the caravans of Mr. Kamensky continued to pass between +Kuldja and Manas, and that the chief caterers for the Chinese army were +the Russian merchants of Central Asia. In the course of their +intercourse the best feelings do not appear to have prevailed between +the Russians and Chinese. The latter, flushed with their triumph, had +become arrogant, and were too fond of referring to the question of +Kuldja to be agreeable to the actual possessors of that province. On one +or two occasions these verbal disputes assumed a more dangerous aspect, +and from words the disputants proceeded to blows. Whether this collision +was magnified or not, the Russian government took no diplomatic steps +to secure reparation for injury to their subjects, and continued to wink +at, if they did not actually approve of, their merchants supplying the +Chinese. The clearest proof of this is that the moment Aksu fell a large +caravan was despatched there by Mr. Kamensky. Still there was no little +bad blood between the two people, and for a long time it was doubtful +whether Russia would preserve her attitude of neutrality until Kashgar +had been finally subdued. Beneath all this doubt, and the uncertainty of +the strength and of the ultimate intentions of China, there existed a +sentiment of dissatisfaction in the minds of the Russians at the renown +China was acquiring, as well as at the prospect of having to restore a +rich and paying province. + +In short, beneath the Tungan and the Kashgarian questions there +smouldered the Kuldja question. Having now shown how well prepared the +Chinese were at every point, how well armed, and how well fed was the +tactical unit, and how Russia, although far from indifferent as to the +results, was really abetting the side of China, we may pass on to those +more active movements which proved that the Chinese generals possessed +the ability and military knowledge necessary to make full use of the +very powerful weapon which they had created, and which was capable of +accomplishing the most arduous of enterprises. + +The first move was made south of the Tian Shan. So far as we know, Tso +Tsung Tang did not break up from Manas until many weeks afterwards. A +brigadier-general, by name Tang Jen-Ho, left Toksoun on the 25th of +August, 1877, with the advanced guard, to occupy the outlying villages +of Subashi and Agha Bula. He does not appear to have had under him more +than a few hundred men. A fortnight later, on the 7th of September, +Generals Tung Fuh-siang and Chang Tsun followed after him with 1,500 +troops, all infantry. They advanced through Agha Bula, Kumush, and Usha +Tal to Kuhwei. At this place the troops were concentrated. + +The chief duty of these detachments was to prepare the road for the +advance of the main body, to lay in at stated places stores of fuel and +water, and to erect temporary fortifications. So thoroughly was this +portion of the task performed, that General Kin Shun, now known as Liu +Kin-Tang, gave the order for a general forward movement on the 27th of +September. + +The infantry followed the main road, while the cavalry, under the +immediate orders of the general, proceeded by by-paths in the same +direction. On the 2nd of October the Chinese army south of the Tian Shan +was assembled at Kuhwei. Its numbers were probably about fifteen +thousand men all told. On the 24th of September a small force of +Kashgarian troops threatened General Tang Jen-Ho's communications, but +on the appearance of the Chinese they "turned tail and dashed away." The +very next day after his arrival at Kuhwei General Kin Shun continued his +forward movement. Two brigadier-generals, whose names it is not +necessary to mention, were entrusted with one division, 6,000 strong, +with which to perform a flanking movement against Korla. The commander +in person led his main body against Korla, arriving at the River Kaidu, +which flows into Lake Bostang, half-way between Karashar and Korla. But +his advance was here checked, as Bayen Hu, the rebel leader, had flooded +the country by damming up the course of the river. The depth of the +inundation was said to be in the deepest parts over a man's head, and in +the shallowest it came up to the horses' cruppers. The Chinese march was +then changed to a northerly direction, in order to strike the river +higher up, where the obstruction raised by the enemy would be more +easily overcome. A cart-road was carefully constructed along these +alkaline plains, and the Kaidu was dammed to stop the flow from the +upper course, and a bridge was erected over it. This detour had caused +some delay, yet Karashar was reached on the 7th of October, four days +after Kin Shun had set out in person from Kuhwei. The inundation from +the Kaidu had spread as far as here, and the town was several feet under +water. All the official and private residences had been destroyed alike, +and the Turki-Mussulman, as the _Pekin Gazette_ styles them, population +had been compelled by Bayen Hu to follow him in his retreat. It would be +interesting to know whom the Chinese meant by Bayen Hu, but it is almost +impossible to say. As it was not Hakim Khan, the most probable personage +would be one of the Tungan leaders, either of Urumtsi or Hamil, who had +been mediatized by Yakoob Beg and placed in command of the Turfan +region. He appears to have been the commander of that portion of the +Kashgarian army which was left round Korla. + +Not only was Karashar deserted by its inhabitants, but so was the whole +country round about. Some, indeed, had fled to the mountains, but these +were afraid to return when they saw the Chinese established in their +homes. And then the conquerors followed out their usual plan by settling +fresh colonists in the town. The Mongol noble, Cha-hi-telkh, was +directed to move up some hundreds of the members of his tribe to occupy +this important post, to restore the homes and to retill the fields; and +while this work of restoration was proceeding on territory conquered by +the Chinese, that through which they passed in hostile guise was +subjected to far other treatment. On the 9th of October the Chinese +marched against Korla from two sides, and on that day a cavalry skirmish +took place, in which fifteen of Bayen Hu's horsemen were slain, and two +taken prisoners. From the evidence of these, who were dressed in the +Khokandian garb, but were Mussulman subjects of China, being natives of +Shensi, it was learnt that Bayen Hu had withdrawn with all his forces to +Kucha, taking with him the produce of the country and the majority of +the people. They affirmed that the small detachment to which they +belonged was only a scouting party, sent out to learn what the Chinese +army was doing. When the Chinese had exhausted their stock of +information they beheaded them. The same day they entered Korla, which +they found to be completely deserted, although not flooded. The walls +remained, but many of the houses had been thrown down. Here the general +was nearly reduced to a desperate plight, as the provision train, which +was transported by cart and camel, did not come up, and there was the +prospect of starvation compelling the victorious army to retreat. But +happily the thought struck the able general, or perhaps some one gave +him a hint, that there might be some stores concealed in the city which +the Kashgari had been unable to carry away with them. Accordingly the +whole army set to work to search the houses, and to dig into the ground +in all likely places for hidden stores. Their toil was soon rewarded, +and "several tens of thousand catties' weight of food" were discovered. +As a catty weighs 1-3/4 lb., this was no slight supply for an army of +men which was probably under 10,000 strong. These concerted movements of +the army south of the Tian Shan placed the country as far west as +Karashar in the possession of the invader. Their next advance, which +they could not expect to be as unopposed as their late one, would bring +them into the plain of Kashgar. No sooner had Karashar and Korla fallen +into their possession than an edict was issued inviting the Mahomedan +population to return to their homes, and many of them accepted the +invitation. In this quarter the arms of China were not disgraced by any +excesses, and moderation towards the unarmed population extenuated their +severity towards armed foes. + +While halting some days at Korla, Kin Shun heard that Bayen Hu was +coercing the people east of Kucha at Tsedayar and other places, and +compelling them to withdraw to Kucha and to destroy their crops. He at +once resolved to frustrate the plan, and set out in person at the head +of 1,500 light infantry and 1,000 cavalry to protect the inhabitants. By +forced marches, sometimes carried on through the better part of the +night, he reached Tsedayar on the 17th of October, when he learnt that +Bayen Hu had driven off the whole of the population, and was already at +Bugur, on the road to Kucha. At the next village to Tsedayar, a +fortified post known as Yangy Shahr, he found that Bayen Hu was still +ahead of him, and that he was setting fire to the villages on his line +of march. Kin Shun left a portion of his infantry behind to put out the +conflagration, and resolutely pressed on with the remainder of his force +to Bugur. This small town had also been set on fire, but here the +rapidity of the Chinese general's advance was rewarded with the news +that the enemy's army, with a large number of the inhabitants, was only +a short distance ahead. The rear-guard, composed of 1,000 cavalry, was +soon touched, and the Kashgari, emboldened by the small numbers of the +Chinese, came on to the attack in gallant fashion. Their charge was +broken, however, by the steadiness of the Chinese infantry, armed with +excellent rifles, and the cavalry performed the rest. The Kashgari left +100 slain on the field of battle and twelve prisoners. From these latter +it was discovered that the main body of 2,000 soldiers was some distance +on the road to Kucha, with the family of Bayen Hu and the villagers +under its charge. It was too late to advance further that day, but on +the next the forward movement was resumed. A large multitude--"some tens +of thousands of people"--was speedily sighted by the advanced guard, but +on examining these through glasses it was discovered that scarcely more +than a thousand carried arms. All the troops were then brought to the +front, and Kin Shun issued instructions that all those found with arms +in their hands should be slain, but the others spared. + +The armed portion of the Kashgarian army drew off from the unarmed, +leaving in the midst the large assemblage of Mussulman villagers who +were being carried off to Kucha. These were sent to the rear by order of +Kin Shun, and distributed in such of the villages as were most +convenient. In the meanwhile a sharp fight took place a few miles in the +rear of the old position, near a village called Arpa Tai. The action +appears to have been well contested, but the superior tactics and +weapons of Kin Shun's small army prevailed; and the Mussulman army +retreated with considerable loss and in great disorder. Kin Shun +followed up his success with marvellous rapidity and restless energy, +while the Kashgarian troops fled incontinently to Kucha, abandoning the +people and the country to the invader. The unfortunate inhabitants +implored with piteous entreaties the mercy of the conqueror, and it is +with genuine satisfaction we record the fact that Kin Shun informed them +of their safety, and bade them have no further alarm. + +By this time it is probable that the Chinese army had been largely +reinforced from the rear, for we have now come to a more arduous portion +of the enterprise, the attack against Kucha. When the Chinese appeared +before its walls they found that a battle was proceeding there between +the Kashgarian soldiers and the townspeople, who refused to accompany +them in a further retreat westward. On the appearance of the Chinese +army, the Kashgarian force evacuated the city, and joined battle with it +on the western side of Kucha. The Chinese at once attacked them, at +first with little success; and a charge of the cavalry, numbering some +four or five thousand men, was only repulsed with some difficulty. But +the cannon of the Chinese were playing with remarkable effect upon the +Mahomedans, and the Chinese reserves were every moment coming upon the +ground. The infantry were at last ordered to advance, under cover of a +heavy artillery fire, and the cavalry made a charge at a most opportune +moment. The whole army then broke and fled in irretrievable confusion, +leaving more than a thousand of their number on the ground. Their +general, Ma-yeo-pu the Chinese called him, was wounded early in the day, +but, although stated to be a noted man, it is impossible to recognize +his identity under the Chinese appellation. This was certainly the most +sanguinary and the best-contested action of the whole war. The numbers +on each side were probably about 10,000 men, and it was won as much by +superior tactics and skill as by brute force and courage. All the +movements of the Chinese were characterized by remarkable forethought, +and evinced the greatest ability on the part of the general and his +lieutenants, as well as obedience, valour, and patience on the part of +his soldiers. The rapid advance from Kuhwei to Karashar, the forced +march thence to Bugur, the capture of Kucha, the forbearance of the +conqueror towards the inhabitants, all combine to make this portion of +the war most creditable to China and her generals, to Kin Shun in +particular. The reason given in the Official Report for the Kashgarian +authorities attempting to carry off the population was that the rebels +wished in the first place to deprive the invading force of all +assistance, thus making further pursuit a work of difficulty, and in the +second place, to ingratiate themselves with the new Pahia (probably +Bacha) of Kashgar, Kuli Beg, by delivering this large mass of +Turki-Mussulmans into his hands. Bayen Hu was, therefore, certainly not +Hakim Khan. It is tolerably clear that he must have been either a Tungan +refugee or a subordinate of Beg Bacha's. + +A depot was formed at Kucha, and a large body of troops remained there +as a garrison; but the principal administrative measures were directed +to the task of improving the position of the Turki-Mussulman population. +A board of administration was instituted for the purpose of providing +means of subsistence for the destitute, and for the distribution of +seed-corn for the benefit of the whole community. It had also to +supervise the construction of roads, and the establishment of ferry +boats, and of post-houses, in order to facilitate the movements of trade +and travel, and to expedite the transmission of mails. Magistrates and +prefects were appointed to all the cities, and special precautions were +taken against the outbreak of epidemic or of famine. All these wise +provisions were carried out promptly, and in the most matter-of-fact +manner, just as if the legislation and administration of alien states +were the daily avocations of Chinamen. There is no reason to believe +that in the vast region from Turfan to Kucha the Chinese have departed +from the statesmanlike and beneficent schemes which marked their +re-installation as rulers; and whatever harshness or cruelty they +manifested towards the Tungani rebels and the Kashgarian soldiers was +more than atoned for by the mildness of their treatment of the people. + +On the 19th, or more probably the 22nd of October, Kin Shun resumed his +forward movement, encountering no serious opposition. His first halt was +at a village called Hoser, where he halted for one night, which he +employed in inditing the report to Pekin, which described the successes +and movements of the previous three weeks. At the next town, known as +Bai, Kin Shun halted to await the arrival of the rear-guard, under +General Chang Yao. This force came up before the close of October, and +the advance against Aksu was resumed. Up to this point the chief +interest centred in the army south of the Tian Shan, and in the +achievements of Kin Shun. Our principal, in fact our only, authority for +this portion of the campaign is the _Pekin Gazette_. + +We have now to describe the movements of the Northern Army, which was +under the immediate command of Tso Tsung Tang, and which was operating +in the north of the state, in complete secrecy. That general had under +him, at the most moderate computation, an army of 28,000 men. By some it +was placed at a higher figure; but a St. Petersburg paper, on the +authority of a Russian merchant, who had been to Manas, computed it to +be of that strength. It was concentrated in the neighbourhood of Manas, +and along the northern skirts of the Tian Shan; and also on the +frontier of the Russian dominions in Kuldja. To all appearance this army +was consigned to a part of enforced inactivity, since it was impossible +to enter Kuldja, and thus proceed by their old routes through the passes +of Bedal or Muzart. But it was not so; the travels of Colonel Prjevalsky +in the commencement of 1877 had not been unobserved by the Chinese, and +it was assumed that where a Russian officer with his Cossack following +could go, there also could go a Chinese army. By those little-known +passes, which are made by the Tekes and Great Yuldus rivers, the Chinese +army, under Tso Tsung Tang, crossed over into Kashgaria; and it is +probable that the two armies joined in the neighbourhood of Bai. It was +by this stroke of strategy on the part of Tso Tsung Tang that the +Chinese found themselves before the walls of Aksu, with an overwhelming +army, at the very sight of which all thought of resistance died away +from the hearts of the Mussulman peoples and garrisons. Tso Tsung Tang +appeared before the walls of Aksu, the bulwark of Kashgar on the east, +and its commandant, panic stricken, abandoned his post at the first +onset. He was subsequently taken prisoner by an officer of Kuli Beg, and +executed. The Chinese then advanced on Ush Turfan, which also +surrendered without a blow. As we said, the Chinese have not published +any detailed description of this portion of the war, and we are +consequently unable to say what their version is of those reported +atrocities at Aksu and Ush Turfan, of which the Russian papers have made +so much. There is no doubt that a very large number of refugees fled to +Russian territory, perhaps 10,000 in all, and these brought with them +the tales of fear and exaggerated alarm. We may feel little hesitation +in accepting the assertion as true, that the armed garrisons were +slaughtered without exception; but that the unarmed population and the +women and children shared the same fate we distinctly refuse to credit. +There is every precedent in favour of the assumption that a more +moderate policy was pursued, and there is no valid reason why the +Chinese should have dealt with Aksu and Ush Turfan differently to Kucha +or Turfan. The case of Manas has been greatly insisted upon by the +agitators on this "atrocity" question; but there is the highest +authority for asserting that only armed men were massacred there. This +the Chinese have always done; it is a national custom, and they +certainly did not depart from it in the case of the Tungani and Kashgar. +But there is no solid ground for convicting them of any more heinous +crime, even in the instances of Manas and Aksu, which are put so +prominently forward. + +Early in December the last move of all began against the capital, and on +the 17th of that month the Chinese took it by a _coup de main_. Beg Kuli +Beg, according to one account, fought a battle outside the town, in +which he was defeated; according to another report, he had withdrawn to +Yarkand, whence he fled to Russian territory, when he heard of the fall +of Kashgar. It is more probable that he resisted the Chinese attack on +Kashgar, for he certainly reached Tashkent, in company with the Kirghiz +Chief, Sadic Beg, who was wounded in that battle. With the fall of +Kashgar the Chinese reconquest of Eastern Turkestan was completed, and +the other cities, Yangy Hissar and Yarkand, speedily shared the same +fate. Khoten and Sirikul also sent in formal promises of subjection. But +the capture of Kashgar virtually closed the campaign. No further +resistance was encountered, and the new rulers had only to begin the +task of reorganization. When Kashgar fell the greater portion of the +army, knowing that they could expect no mercy at the hands of the +Chinese, fled to Russian territory, and then spread reports of fresh +Chinese massacres, which probably only existed in their own imagination. +There can be no doubt that the Chinese triumph has been thorough, and +that it will be many years before the people of Eastern Turkestan will +have again the heart to rebel against their authority. The strength of +China has been thoroughly demonstrated, and the vindication of her +prestige is complete. Whatever danger there may be to the permanence of +China's triumph lies rather from Russia than from the conquered peoples +of Tian Shan Nan Lu; nor is there much danger that the Chinese laurels +will become faded even before an European foe. Tso Tsung Tang and his +lieutenants, Kin Shun, who has since fallen into disgrace,--perhaps he +had excited the envy of his superior--and Chang Yao, accomplished a task +which would reflect credit on any army and any country. They have given +a lustre to the present Chinese administration which must stand it in +good stead, and they have acquired a personal renown that will not +easily depart. The Chinese reconquest of Eastern Turkestan is beyond +doubt the most remarkable event that has occurred in Asia during the +last fifty years, and it is quite the most brilliant achievement of a +Chinese army, led by Chinamen, that has taken place since Keen-Lung +subdued the country more than a century ago. It also proves, in a manner +that is more than unpalatable to us, that the Chinese possess an +adaptive faculty that must be held to be a very important fact in +every-day politics in Central Asia. They conquered Kashgar with European +weapons, and by careful study of Western science and skill. Their +soldiers marched in obedience to instructors trained on the Prussian +principle; and their generals manoeuvred their troops in accordance +with the teachings of Moltke and Manteuffel. Even in such minor matters +as the use of telescopes and field glasses we find this Chinese army +well supplied. Nothing was more absurd than the picture drawn by some +over-wise observer of this army, as consisting of soldiers fantastically +garbed in the guise of dragons and other hideous appearances. All that +belonged to an old-world theory. The army of Eastern Turkestan was as +widely different from all previous Chinese armies in Central Asia as it +well could be; and in all essentials closely resembled that of an +European power. Its remarkable triumphs were chiefly attributable to +the thoroughness with which China had in this instance adapted herself +to Western notions. + +With the flight of Beg Kuli Beg to Tashkent closed the career of the +house of the Athalik Ghazi in Kashgar. Whatever turn events may take in +this portion of Central Asia, whatever schemes there may be formed in +Khokand, or elsewhere, of challenging anew the Chinese domination, it +will not be round the banner of Kuli Beg that the ousted Khokandian +officials will rally. By his flight in the hour of danger, by the +hesitation which marked all his movements, and by the murder of his +brother in cold blood, this prince, of whom much at one time was +expected, has irretrievably ruined both his career and his reputation. +If on any future occasion Russia should seek to play the part played of +old by Khans of Khokand in the internal history of Kashgar, it will not +be Kuli Beg whom they will put forward as their puppet. His old rival, +Hakim Khan, stands a much better chance than he, more especially if it +be true that he is the representative of the Khojas, being the son of +Buzurg Khan, as many have asserted. But the fact remains clear, that all +the dreams of Yakoob Beg of founding a personal dynasty in Eastern +Turkestan are now dispelled beyond all prospect of realization. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +THE CHINESE FACTOR IN THE CENTRAL ASIAN QUESTION. + + +The overthrow of the Tungani, and the reconquest of Kashgaria, have not +completed the task that lay before Chinese generals and soldiers in +Central Asia. Great and remarkable as those triumphs were, the Chinese +are not satisfied with them, because there yet remains more work to be +done. They have restored to the Emperor Tian Shan Nan Lu, but so long as +the Russians hold Kuldja, Tian Shan Pe Lu is only half won back. +Moreover, so long as a great military power is domiciled in Kuldja, +China's hold on the country west of Aksu must be only on sufferance. As +of old, the Chinese so often reconquered Kashgar, when it had shaken off +the Chinese rule, from Ili, so might the Russians at their good pleasure +play the same part against the Chinese. In short, the Russians remaining +in Ili would neutralize all the advantages that China had secured by her +recent military success. But, although there is a foundation of well +grounded apprehension at the strategical advantages of Russia, at the +root of China's demand for the surrender of Kuldja, that is not the only +cause, or even the principal one, for the Chinese making it. Of all +their Central Asian possessions, Ili was the most cherished, and it was +to recover that region more especially that Tso Tsung Tang undertook +those arduous campaigns which have so far ended in triumph, and which +were designed for, among other purposes, the purpose of giving that +Viceroy a prestige and influence that would enable him to play the +rival to Li Hung Chang. Ili was their metropolis in Central Asia, and +its fall marked the wide difference that there was between the +Tungan-Khoja rising of 1862-63 and all its predecessors. The fall of Ili +meant the fall of Chinese power, and Chinese power cannot be held to be +completely restored so long as Ili remains in alien hands. On this point +the Chinese are very keen. + +Russia, on the other hand, hesitates to hand over Ili for various +reasons. In the first place, it is not certain that China has +_permanently_ reconquered Eastern Turkestan, nor is it clear that the +Imperial exchequer will be able to bear a continual strain upon it for +Central Asian expenditure. Moreover there is the unknown quantity of the +rivalry of Li Hung Chang and Tso Tsung Tang, and whatever influence the +latter may have with the army and the ruling caste on account of his +Mantchoo blood, the former holds the purse in his hands, and can at any +moment paralyse Chinese activity and strength in Central Asia. The +Russians also, whatever rash promises they may have given at Pekin--and +they certainly did promise to retrocede Kuldja to China, whenever the +Chinese should be strong enough to return to Central Asia--formally +(_teste_ General Kolpakovsky's proclamation) annexed Kuldja "in +perpetuity." In the eyes of the people of Central Asia, that +proclamation defines Russia's tenure of Kuldja, and not the vague +promise that was uttered in the ears of the authorities at Pekin. Now +Russia knows this as well as we do; and she is aware that no strict +adherence to her word of honour will induce the people of Western, as +well as of Eastern, Turkestan to believe that she retrocedes Kuldja for +any other cause than fear of the Chinese. The Khokandians, the +Bokhariots, as well as the Kirghiz, the Calmucks, and the Kashgari, will +all argue that Russia restores Kuldja not through any desire to fulfil +her engagements, but simply because she cannot decline to fulfil them +without engaging in a war with China, and her compliance with the +demand would then be construed as an admission of her disinclination to +encounter China in the field. In fact, even if Russia had promptly +restored Kuldja, she would not have secured the credit she might have +claimed for her good faith, and she would have had no guarantee that the +Chinese would have rested content with the cession of Ili proper and not +gone on to claim, in a moment of military arrogance, the restoration of +the Naryn district, which China at a period of weakness had herself +ceded to Russia more than twenty years ago. Then, besides these +objections to the surrender of Kuldja on political grounds, there are +commercial and fiscal reasons why Russia should be loth to restore this +province. Not only has it become highly prosperous and thickly populated +under Russian rule, but it has also been raised into one of the most +fiscally remunerative portions of the Russian possessions in Central +Asia, and then there is its admirable frontier in the Tian Shan, which +places the future trade with the western parts of China more at its +disposal, than it is through the Semipalatinsk and Chuguchak route, and, +above all, it effectually dispels all sense of real danger from attack. +The Chinese would find that to force the Tian Shan range into Kuldja +would be a task almost impossible for them, and they would be compelled +to enter the province from the north by Karkaru. By so doing, they would +leave the whole of their flank and line of communication exposed to an +attack with telling effect both at Manas and in Kashgar, and with a +scientific foe such as Russia, no sane Chinaman could dream of attacking +Kuldja except in the most overwhelming force. It may be as well to +sketch here the history of Russia's rule in Kuldja from 1871 to the +present time, before proceeding with the consideration of the questions +aroused by the difficulty between Russia and China. + +When an independent government had been founded in Kuldja in 1866, a +ruler of the name of Abul Oghlan was placed upon the throne. He appears +to have been a Tungan, and he certainly was a truculent and +self-confident potentate. He refused to abide by the stipulations of the +Treaties of Kuldja and Pekin, and in petty matters as in great, set +himself in direct opposition to Russia. For five years he pursued his +career undisturbed by exterior influences, and during that period he +tolerated the inroads of his subjects into Russian territory, urged the +Kirghiz tribes beyond his frontier to revolt, and forbade Russian +merchants to enter his dominions. On a small scale, he aped the manners +subsequently adopted by Yakoob Beg. But he was only a minor and +insignificant despot. His people groaned under his tyranny, and the +75,000 slaves within his dominions were only too anxious to be relieved +from their bondage by any deliverer whatsoever. The state of Kuldja, as +administered by Abul Oghlan, was pre-eminently one that would fall to +pieces at the first rude shock from outside. For five years, or +thereabouts, the Russian authorities at Vernoe, Naryn, and in +Semiretchinsk put up with his veiled hostility; but when it became +evident that his state was on the eve of falling into divers fragments, +of which Yakoob Beg would, probably, come in for the lion's share, the +Russians, whose patience had become well-nigh exhausted, resolved not to +be forestalled in Kuldja, either by the Athalik Ghazi, or the Tungani +Confederation. A kind of _ultimatum_ was presented to Kuldja, in which +Abul Oghlan was given a last chance of retaining power, if he consented +to ratify the terms of the past treaties with China. He does not appear +to have distinctly refused to do so, when he was required to enter into +this agreement with Russia. But he prevaricated and delayed, until at +last the patience of the Muscovite authorities was quite exhausted. They +resolved to destroy the government of Abul Oghlan, to annex Kuldja, and +to bring their frontier down to the Tian Shan. + +In May, 1871, Major Balitsky crossed the river Borodshudsir, which +formed the boundary between the two countries, and, at the head of a +small detachment, advanced some distance into the dominions of Abul +Oghlan. His force, however, was small, and, after a brief +reconnaissance, he retired within Russian territory. Six weeks +afterwards the main body under General Kolpakovsky crossed the frontier +into Kuldja and marched on the capital. That invading army consisted of +only 1,785 men and sixty-five officers. At first the forces of Abul +Oghlan offered a brave resistance, but the Russian cannon and rifles +carried everything before them; and on the 4th of July the ruler +presented himself at the Russian outposts. When taken before General +Kolpakovsky, he said, "I trusted to the righteousness of my cause, and +to the help of God. Conquered, I submit to the will of the Almighty. If +any crime has been committed, punish the sovereign, but spare his +innocent subjects." The next day the Russian general entered the capital +after a campaign that had only lasted eight or nine days. Protection was +promised to all who would lay down their arms, and the army of Abul +Oghlan was disbanded. Abul Oghlan was pensioned, and Orel was appointed +as his place of residence. Kuldja or "Dzungaria," as it is called in the +proclamation, was annexed "in perpetuity," and became the Russian +sub-governorship of Priilinsk. There can be no doubt but that the +Russian occupation of Kuldja was an unqualified benefit to the +inhabitants of that region. The declaration of the abolition of slavery +alone released seventy-five thousand human beings from a life of +hardship and hopelessness. The return of trade, which had become +stagnant, ensured the prosperity and advancement of the active portion +of the community, and during the seven years Russia has ruled in Kuldja, +the people have steadily progressed in moral and material welfare. The +population has during the same period remarkably increased, and the +valleys of the Ili teem with a population at once contented and +prosperous. The rule of Russia in Kuldja is the brightest spot in her +Central Asian administration. The Chinese in demanding the retrocession +of Kuldja labour under the one disadvantage that they come to oust a +beneficent rule. This disadvantage is made the greater by the bad name +the Chinese have earned in Kashgar and the Tungan country, by the +atrocities they are said to have committed. Those who will take the +trouble to scan the matter carefully, and to consult the _Pekin +Gazette_, as much as they do the _Tashkent_, will find that these +atrocities are for the most part the creation of panic, and of malicious +observers, and in the few cases where Chinese vindictiveness overcame +military discipline, as at Manas and Aksu, we have clear evidence that +women and children were spared. The _Tashkent Gazette_ has laboured +strenuously, and not in vain, to disseminate the report of Chinese +atrocities; and one London paper has so far assisted the object of the +Russian press in raising a feeling of indignation against China, on +account of these reported massacres in Eastern Turkestan, that it has +placed translations of these charges before the English reader, and, on +the authority of the _Tashkent Gazette_, has indicted and summarily +convicted the Chinese of the grossest acts of inhumanity. We would +venture to suggest, that in common fairness to the Chinese this journal +should place before its readers the temperately worded and dignified +reports that have appeared in the _Pekin Gazette_ of those events upon +which the _Tashkent Gazette_ has commented so indignantly. + +As we said, the Chinese are fully resolved to regain Ili. They may not +be able to induce Russia easily to surrender it, yet they will not +despair. In all probability they will fail altogether to re-acquire it +by diplomatic means, yet they will not omit to employ all the artifices +that are sanctioned by modern diplomacy. There have been rumours that +China intended handing over to Russia a strip of territory in +Manchuria, which would give to the Russian harbour of Vladivostock a +land communication with the forts on the Amoor. But this rumour had no +solid foundation, and the latest intelligence goes to show that China's +successes beyond Gobi, instead of making her moderate in the north, have +given her confidence sufficient to arouse her into a state of opposition +to further encroachments on the part of Russia in that direction. It is +now said that Russia demands pecuniary indemnification for the money she +has expended in raising Kuldja to its present highly prosperous +condition; and at a first glance nothing could seem fairer, nor do we +think that the Chinese would have raised objections to the payment of a +moderate sum. But the sum demanded by the Russians is far from moderate. +The exact amount has not been mentioned, but the Chinese declare that it +exceeds the total cost of the campaign in the north-west, and that +certainly was not less than two millions sterling. This is, of course, +too exorbitant, and is only put forward as a reason for declining to +abide by her former agreement, and to give her diplomatists a _locus +standi_ in their discussions with the Chinese representatives. A Chinese +Embassy has been authorized to proceed to St. Petersburg, and to +endeavour to effect an understanding with Russia upon the Kuldja +question; but it does not appear to have started, and the real +settlement lies in the hands of Tso Tsung Tang and General Kaufmann. The +latest report is that the former has demanded afresh the restoration of +Kuldja; the Russian reply is awaited with eagerness and some anxiety. In +the meanwhile the Chinese have suffered a local reverse of no +significance at the hands of a chief of Khoten, and their power does not +seem to extend south of Yarkand. But they are hurrying up +reinforcements, and 20,000 fresh troops had reached Manas some weeks +ago. They have also an extensive recruiting ground amongst the Calmucks, +and their position of Chuguchak might be of great strategical +importance. If the Kuldja question give rise to a Russo-Chinese war, the +Chinese are sufficiently numerous and sufficiently prepared to task the +capacity of an army of 20,000 Russians; and it is quite certain there +are not 5,000 in Kuldja at present. But the Kuldja question, despite the +prominence it has attained, is only one, if the most important and +pressing, of those questions that are raised and suggested by the +appearance of the Chinese in Central Asia. More especially is this the +case if, as can scarcely be doubted, the Russians refuse to restore +Kuldja; yet the Chinese, knowing the strength of their adversary, shall +hesitate to attack where they cannot but recognize that the penalties of +failure must be immense. In that event the Kuldja question will long +remain unsolved, and for a time perhaps it will be forgotten. But the +Chinese will not forget, nor will they condone the offence. But whatever +may be the interval, and however great the delay, the Kuldja question +will continue to remain a most important portion of Central Asian +politics, and must, so long as it is unsettled, operate in a manner +adverse to the interests of Russia. The Chinese need only maintain their +camps at Chuguchak, Karakaru, Manas, Aksu, Ush Turfan and Kashgar, and +slowly bring up reinforcements from Kansuh and from the Calmuck country, +to render Russia's hold on Kuldja dangerously insecure. In fact, in this +matter the Chinese have the game in their own hands, and can play a +waiting game; whereas Russia can only hope to profit by precipitation on +the part of Tso Tsung Tang. If the Chinese refuse to hold any +intercourse with the faithless Russians, and simply content themselves +with the declaration that they cannot re-enter into political or +commercial relations with them until Kuldja is retroceded, Russia can +never rest tranquil either in Kuldja, Naryn, or Khokand. Above all, so +long as she is occupied in Western Asia as she is at present, she could +never dare to cross the path of China, and enter upon a war which would +rage from Vladivostock and the Amoor to Kuldja and Kashgar. Therefore +the settlement of the Kuldja question is not such an easy matter as +might be supposed; nor does it find Russia so strong or China so weak as +might have been expected. But after all, as we have just said, the +Kuldja question is not the only one suggested by the appearance of the +Chinese in Eastern Turkestan. There is the far wider one raised by the +appearance of the Chinese as a factor in the great Central Asian +question. The three great Asiatic Powers have now converged upon a +point; what is to be the result? + +The only way to be in a position to venture upon a surmise as to the +future, is to realize in its full significance the lessons of the past. +What have been the mutual relations between England, Russia, and China? +We have assumed throughout this volume, and we shall assume here, the +irreconcilable hostility of England and Russia, in Asia at all events, +veneered over as it is by a lacquer of politeness and civilization. We +have only to consider the relations between England and China, and +between Russia and China. To take the latter first, they have always +been united by ties of friendship and reciprocity in commercial and +political rights. Their intercourse has been on the whole singularly +harmonious, and while we have been compelled to wage three wars to +obtain a standing for our merchants in the seaports, Russia, without +being compelled to resort to anything like the same extreme measures, +has been able to secure all she, or her merchants, wanted in Middle and +Western China. She has made the Amoor a Russian river; she dominates the +Yellow and Japanese seas from Vladivostock; and she has acquired in her +position among the Khalkas, and in Kuldja, two portals to various weak +points in the Chinese Empire. Yet all the time she has been on terms of +the closest amity with China. She has several commercial treaties of the +most favourable character, and she has always been on the footing of +"the most favoured nation." But she has been more than that; she has +been the most favoured nation. But the Chinese have not failed to +observe that this good understanding with Russia has, so far as +advantages arising from it go, been a very one-sided affair. For all +Russia's protestations of friendship and good-will, what advantages has +China reaped from those high-flown promises? Whereas, the patriotic +Chinaman has but to look to the Amoor, and to the attenuated province of +Manchuria, to see what Russian friendship means. He can go farther +still. He has only to enquire into the relations Russia has managed to +conclude with the Taranath Lama; he has only to hear what the people of +Ourga think of Russia's position in the vicinity of that important city; +and he cannot fail to form a very clear and decided opinion as to what +Russia's friendship signifies. The Chinese have, in the full extent of +their northern frontier, a great question in discussion with Russia. So +long as China was weak, and consequently unable to resent the patronage +of her friend, so long was Russia able to play "my lady bountiful" with +a good grace and perfect success. But the moment China became strong, +and in a position to resent the condescension of her whilome ally, the +Chinese took a different tone, and already we hear of the Chinese +assuming a semi-hostile attitude in the Amoor region. But whereas +China's apprehension--for it is apprehension that is at the root of her +hostility to Russia, at Russia's designs in Manchuria and among the +Khalkas is vague at present--her indignation is clear and easily defined +at Russia retaining possession of Kuldja after she has demanded its +restoration. In short, all her apprehension along the northern frontier, +which has slumbered, but never died out, since the Russians seized the +Amoor posts during the Crimean War, is reduced to a focus in Central +Asia, where Russia appears inclined to throw herself in the path of, or +at least to retard, their victorious career. It is not so much the +Kuldja question, which is of local importance, that is of pressing +moment, as the rupture between Russia and China, that a crisis in the +Issik Kul region will make complete. That rupture has already taken +place, and no concession on the part of Russia will restore her good +name with the Chinese. She may hand Kuldja over now, or she may keep it +by the strong arm if she can; but she has forfeited all claim to +consideration by the Chinese, through delaying to accede to that which +those people consider in every sense their right and due. Had Russia at +once said to China, "We will abandon Kuldja, and only require you to +guarantee the safety of the population," there would have been not only +the preservation of the good understanding between the countries, but +there might have been, for fresh purposes, a Russo-Chinese alliance in +Central Asia. That alliance must have been fraught with danger to this +country, and for reasons that will best be described under the head of +Anglo-Chinese relations. + +But the Russian authorities failed to grasp the situation in its full +extent. They treated the Kuldja question as a mere local affair, and +they trifled with the Chinese as if the latter had no very strong +interest in the matter. They altogether ignored the terrible earnestness +of the Chinese character, and they treated the demands of Tso Tsung Tang +in a spirit of levity that must have roused the ire of that general. +Their policy, regarded from any point of view, was shallow and unwise, +but, bearing in mind the past tact and diplomatic skill shown by Russia +in her dealings with China, it must appear more shallow and foolish. Of +course this Kuldja question differs from all previous questions in the +essential point of all, that here for the first time Russia had to go +back instead of advancing, as always had been the case heretofore. The +Russian authorities simply regarded the matter from the point of view +of what effect it would have upon the peoples of Central Asia. They +persuaded themselves that to hand over Kuldja would be to give an +impetus to every hostile element in Western Turkestan, as well as to +lower their prestige generally throughout Asia. As a leading Russian +paper expressed it, "the retrocession of Kuldja would be an act of +political suicide, for not only would it raise the prestige of China to +a higher point than ever before, but it would also undermine our +position in Eastern Asia, by giving the Chinese a strong military +position within our natural frontier. For these reasons Kuldja cannot be +restored." That paragraph sums up the arguments the Russians will employ +in defence of their continuing to retain possession of Kuldja. They add +something to their effect in the popular mind by diatribes against the +Chinese for rumoured barbarities, by drawing comparisons, flattering to +themselves and to their administrative capacity, between the present +condition of Kuldja, and what it would become under a restored Chinese +rule. In depicting what this would be, they entirely ignore the +prosperous condition of Kuldja before the Tungan revolt, and they appear +to assume that the anarchy existing there, when they entered it in 1871, +was due to the Chinese, instead of being caused by the ingratitude and +fickleness of its own people. And they shut their eyes to the great +benefits China conferred upon Central Asia during the century that she +was paramount therein. They would like us, and every other observer of +the crisis, to do the same. That is impossible, for the teaching of +history is clear, and points to a diametrically opposite conclusion. We +do not dispute the beneficence of Russia's government of Kuldja. We +freely admit it. That is no reason for maligning the Chinese, and +asserting that they are utter barbarians; nor is it a reason, in the +eyes of Chinamen, for a refusal to restore Kuldja. By refusing to +entertain the overtures of Tso Tsung Tang, which were made, there is +reason to believe, before the attack on Yakoob Beg, the Russians huffed +the Chinese; and by procrastinating ever since, when questioned upon the +subject, they have still further displeased them. The Russians are aware +of this, and feel convinced that, no matter how obliging they might be +disposed to be, the Chinese will now no longer appreciate their +moderation. If we admit this, as can scarcely be gainsaid, what becomes +of the Kuldja question, and of its peaceful solution that many claim to +see? How can it be peacefully solved, if Russia will not accede to the +terms from which China is resolved not to budge? Surely not by a fresh +commotion on the part of the Mussulman population, which some persons +have pretended to forecast by magnifying a petty success that has been +obtained by the insignificant ruler of Khoten over a Chinese detachment. +Surely not by such trivial circumstances as the hostility of an outlying +dependency, will China be either expelled from Kashgar, or induced to +forego her claims on Kuldja. The success of the Khoten chief is but a +minor incident in the campaign, and for that district and its people it +must be pronounced a great misfortune. The Chinese will exact a terrible +revenge. The Kuldja question will not be solved by such means, English +readers can feel assured; and the hostility of Russia and China towards +each other will become more pronounced every day. Already petty +disturbances are reported to have taken place along the border. Russian +merchants have been molested by parties of brigands, among whom the +assailed assert there were Chinese soldiers; and no satisfaction could +be obtained from their generals. Representations have been made to Tso +Tsung Tang upon the subject, and his reply has not been very amicable. +Russian caravans, which were always welcome during the progress of the +war at Manas, Karakaru, and Urumtsi, are now no longer greeted with the +same cordiality, and the Chinese are evincing an intention to close +their frontier to Russians. Few caravans, the _Tashkent Gazette_ informs +us, now care to leave Kuldja for the territory occupied by the Chinese +army; and slowly, but none the less surely, is the old alliance between +Russia and China departing to join the things that were, but are not. +But, although so much is clear, it is almost impossible to predicate the +future course of the Kuldja question. It is not probable that Tso Tsung +Tang will openly attack the Russians, yet his hand may be forced by the +home authorities, and he may be left no alternative between that and the +abandonment of his enterprise. It must be always remembered that +Russia's best weapon is intrigue at Pekin, and a skilful envoy might so +far manipulate the rivalry between Tso and Li Hung Chang as to induce +the latter to paralyze the ambition of the former by withholding +supplies and reinforcements from the army of Central Asia. So +unpatriotic a course would, we believe, be hateful to Li Hung Chang, and +it, certainly, would be attended with great danger, sure to recoil upon +his guilty head, if for a personal rivalry he debased himself so far as +to become the tool of his country's foe. But yet it is in vain to deny +that there is danger to the preservation of China's most cherished +interests in the rivalry of some of her chief statesmen. The Kuldja +question, which scarcely admits of peaceful solution in Central Asia, +might be solved in the palace at Pekin more easily and more effectually +than by a campaign on a large scale in Jungaria and Turkestan; and there +is a possibility that Russia may by this means seek to nullify the +danger from Tso Tsung Tang, and to stultify the recent Chinese +successes. It is very doubtful whether they would succeed, for Chinese +opinion runs high upon the topic, and the Mantchoo caste is united in +its support of its member Tso Tsung Tang. Even if they did, it would +only be shelving the Kuldja question, for so long as the Chinese remain +in Kashgaria, and at Manas and Karakaru, they must regard the presence +of Russia in Kuldja as a slight to themselves, as well as a menace to +their line of communications. + +But every probability is against their succeeding. Li Hung Chang's +position is not so secure that he can dare to put himself in face of +those who champion a national cause, as is the re-absorption of Chinese +Turkestan. The return of Tso Tsung Tang with his veterans would be the +least danger that the adoption of an unpatriotic policy would entail. If +this home danger, then, does not arise, the Kuldja question will be +settled between Tso and the Russian authorities in Khokand and Kuldja. +The result of that discussion cannot be doubtful. The advocates on +either side are soldiers, each equally confident in their own abilities +and power, and each flushed by a long tide of success. They will come to +the discussion of the question with heated blood and excited nerves; +reason will not be the presiding goddess at the council board. There +will be accusations and recriminations bandied from one side to the +other. If such be the case, the Kuldja question will not be long in +discussion, and before the close of the present year perhaps, but more +probably early next spring, there will be war between Russia and China +along the Tian Shan range. Even if Tso is content to permit his +arguments to be clothed in diplomatic language, there will be no +solution of the difficulty, so long as Russia remains where she is; and +consequently the difference will be as great between Russia and China as +if there were open hostilities between the countries. And this, after +all, is the main point, for the destruction of all friendly sentiment +between Russia and China means the addition of another element to "the +great game in Central Asia," and that element, as an adverse one to +Russia, is a beneficial circumstance for this country. The difference +over the Kuldja question magnifies the previously existing discordant +points between the countries, and irretrievably wrecks whatever prospect +there once was of Russia and China pursuing an identical policy towards +Baroghil and Cashmere. We have now to consider the past relations +between England and China, in order that we may be in a position to +appreciate the full significance of China's reappearance in Central +Asia, and also what is to be the probable outcome of the gradual +approximation of the three Great Powers, and the slow extinction of the +once innumerable petty states of Asia. + +What, then, have been the mutual relations between England and China in +the past? There is no necessity to enter into the question of the +footing we are on along the sea-coast, for that is really beside the +question; nor need we recapitulate the wars which we have at various +times been compelled to wage in Eastern China. The result of those wars, +those treaties, and that constant inter-communication has been, that +Englishmen have secured a foothold in many of the principal cities, and +that English trade is supreme there. But the relations along the land +frontier are quite the opposite of those obtained on the sea-board, and +they are influenced by entirely different considerations. During the +last century, and for a considerable portion of the present, we were +not, strictly speaking, neighbours of the Chinese; for between the two +empires there intervened a belt of semi-independent states, who +nominally owned allegiance to China. Some of these were Nepaul, Sikhim, +Bhutan and Birma, with its dependency of Assam. It was in the days of +Lord Cornwallis that we first realized the significance of the fact that +Chinese prestige had penetrated south of the Himalaya. The Ghoorka +rulers of Nepaul had, on several occasions, molested the peaceable +Tibetans, and at last had grown so bold, that on one expedition they +advanced as far as Lhasa, which they plundered. At that moment the aged +Keen-Lung was meditating the retirement from public life, which a few +years afterwards, like the Asiatic Charles the Fifth that he was, he +adopted; but, on the news of this insult to his authority, his warlike +spirit fired up, and he vowed that the marauders of Khatmandoo should +dearly pay for their audacity. A large army, of the reputed strength of +70,000 men, was collected, and the Chinese generals advanced by the +Kirong Pass upon the Nepaulese capital. A desperate battle was fought +along this elevated road, resulting in victory to the Chinese. Several +other encounters took place with the same result, and the Ghoorkas were +compelled to sue for terms. The Chinese showed no disposition to stay +their advance, until Lord Cornwallis mediated between the foes, and +peace ensued. Nepaul acknowledged its suzerainty to China, and agreed to +send tribute every five years to Pekin. For more than half a century +this was regularly sent, but during the last thirty years it has been +either discontinued, or has grown irregular. But for us the main point +is, after all, that the Chinese, although yielding to the remonstrance +of Lord Cornwallis, really did so with a bad grace. We had stood between +them and their prey. + +But this was not the full extent of the mistake we had actually +committed. We had annoyed the Chinese; but we had absolutely offended +the people and the ruling Lamas of Tibet. Warren Hastings had sent two +missions--one under Mr. George Bogle, the other under Captain Turner--to +the Teshu Lama, and by means of these embassies had broken ground very +happily in Tibet. He had also conferred an obligation upon him by +dealing leniently with the intractable Bhutanese or Bhuteas; and he had +followed up that sense of obligation by the despatch of two successful +missions. When Lord Cornwallis threw the _aegis_ of British protection +over Nepaul, it is true that we had no diplomatic relationship with +Tibet, but we were on a good footing with the people generally, having a +native representative at Lhasa named Purungir Gosain, and being in high +repute at Shigatze, the chief city of the southern portion of Tibet. The +Tibetans, the instant the Ghoorkas raided their country, notified the +same to our government, and requested its good offices to prevent the +Ghoorkas invading their country. The Chinese, their lawful protectors, +were so far away that much damage could be inflicted upon them before +the Chinese could have time to despatch a vindicating army; therefore +they appealed to their friends the English, whom they had always found +so just, for assistance in their extremity. Their appeal was evidently +made with the impression that it would be granted. Therefore it was with +double regret they saw the English remain indifferent while the Ghoorkas +were pressing on against Lhasa, and ravaging the fertile districts +watered by the Sanpu. But their regret and surprise at our government +remaining indifferent were as nothing compared with their indignation +when they learnt that we were actually interfering on behalf of the +marauding Ghoorkas. We saved the Ghoorkas from condign chastisement, and +we of course prevented the establishment of a Chinese garrison at +Khatmandoo, which we could whenever we chose have easily expelled; but +we offended the Tibetans and the Chinese, and induced them to unite in a +policy of hostility against ourselves. After that war (1792) the +Himalayan passes were closed against us, and the Chinese block-houses +have effectually barred the way to Tibet and Northern Asia ever since. +Mr. Thomas Manning, one of the most intrepid and highly gifted of +English travellers, penetrated into Tibet in 1812, and resided there +some time. But that is the only instance in which an English traveller +overcame Bhutea and Ghoorka indifference and Chinese hostility. Tibet +remains a sealed book, and, despite treaty rights to enter it, no +Englishman goes thither, although the attraction is great, and the prize +to be secured far from vague or trivial. The assumed reason is the +covert hostility of the Chinese. + +If we turn farther to the east, to Assam--which we have absorbed--to +Birma, and even to Siam, we find the same causes in operation. We +recognized in Yunnan the Panthay Sultan of Talifoo; we have always +striven to treat the kings of Birma and Siam as independent princes, +whereas they are only Chinese vassals; and we are believed to have +carried on intrigues with the Shans and other tribes beyond the Assamese +frontier. These steps may be prudent or they may not for other reasons; +but they certainly are imprudent for the reason that they offend the +Chinese. As a policy intended to conciliate the Chinese, our frontier +policy on the north and the east has been the worst possible, and a +tissue of blunders from beginning to end; and the result is that for the +last half-century we have lived on the very worst terms with the +Chinese. We should have conciliated them, but we aroused instead all +their latent suspicion and dislike. We should have become friendly +neighbours, and, on the contrary, we are neighbours who, if not +decidedly hostile to each other, shun each other's presence. And the +real base of our sentiment towards the Chinese is to be seen in the fact +that one of the first articles in the creed of Indian state policy is +"to keep China as far off as possible." That precept, which may have +been very useful, has served its turn, and it is time that our +Indo-Chinese policy should be set upon a new basis. With China once more +supreme upon our whole northern frontier, and with her presenting +ultimatums at Bangkok, and coercing the ruler of Mandalay as she esteems +fit, it is high time for us, apart from the Central Asian question +altogether, to set our house in order with the Chinese. The mistakes we +made in championing the Ghoorkas, in acknowledging the Panthays, and in +a general policy of indifference to Chinese opinion, have all tended to +bring about the present deadlock in our relations with China. Our +acknowledgment of the Athalik Ghazi cannot have conduced to the creation +of any very friendly sentiment among the Chinese towards us, and, +therefore, at the present moment we must assume that the state of +feeling existing among the Chinese in Tibet and Yunnan towards us exists +in Kashgaria also; and that feeling is a veiled hostility. Therefore, +while the Chinese are beginning to regard Russia with the hostile +feelings that once were reserved for England, they have by no means +altered their old sentiments towards us. We have done nothing whatever +to induce them to do so. We have not helped them in any way to regain +Kashgar, and on the whole English opinion may be said to have been more +adverse to, than in favour of, their claims. They have found in the +arsenals of Kashgar and Yarkand many proofs of England's alliance with, +and friendship for, Yakoob Beg; and, on the other hand, they certainly +owe much to the assistance of Russian merchants, and the forbearance of +the Russian government. Nor should we for an instant delude ourselves +with the fallacy that the Chinese will look to us for aid against +Russia, as Yakoob Beg did. They have conquered Eastern Turkestan without +us--in fact, despite of our moral opposition; and they will retain it if +they can by their own right arms. It will not enter their head for an +instant to play the old game of Yakoob Beg, of setting England off +against Russia. But, although they will play a perfectly independent +game, it by no means follows that they will be hostile to this country, +if by some fortunate stroke of diplomacy we could bring home to their +minds the fact that England is glad at the result of the war in Central +Asia, however much she may have failed during its progress to recognize +which was the rightful cause. But what is that fortunate stroke of +diplomacy to be? and how is it to be brought to pass? To each of these +questions it would be rash to give any confident reply. In dealing with +the Chinese we are not only treating with a people whom we very +imperfectly understand, but also with a government the secret springs of +whose policy we neither know nor appreciate. The action we might +therefore adopt, founded though it should be on the experience of some +Englishman versed in the mysteries of China, might fail to accomplish +what it seemed calculated to secure. It might be crowned with success, +it might be condemned with failure. Of course the first thing to decide +is, how are we to take official cognizance of China's reconquest of +Kashgaria, and how are we to bring home to the minds of Tso Tsung Tang +and his lieutenants the knowledge that we have repented of our +shortsighted policy towards Yakoob Beg, and are willing to atone for it +in so far as we are able by an ample recognition of the change in +affairs north of the Karakoram? + +The Che-foo Convention gave us the right to send an embassy to Tibet, on +the condition that it should be acted upon within a given space. We did +not avail ourselves of that concession, and the Chinese, we are +informed, consider that the right has lapsed. We may have been wise or +we may have been foolish--in my opinion we have been foolish--in +declining to enforce the only real concession China made, in reparation +for the murder of Mr. Margary. Does this concession, which we never made +use of, entitle us to send a mission to the Chinese in Kashgar? Acting +upon this precedent, are we justified in supposing that the Chinese +would hold out a hand of friendship to an English envoy coming from Leh +to Yarkand? It is much to be feared that it would not. At the present +moment, too, the country must be in such a disturbed state, that the +Chinese would have a ready excuse if any accident befel our envoy. +Moreover, at the present moment an envoy would have no definite object +before him. A few years hence, when the Chinese rule shall be completely +restored throughout Eastern Turkestan, it may be reasonable to expect a +revival of trade in this direction; but at present it would be premature +to agitate for it. Nor would a simple embassy of congratulation look +well. We have too recently befriended the Athalik Ghazi to make our +congratulations to his conqueror anything but a mockery. The Chinese +would be puffed up with vanity, and think that we were only worshipping +their rising sun. Whatever action we do take in Central Asia, to effect +an understanding with the Chinese, we must be very careful that it has +been well considered, and that it is as cautious as it must be clearly +defined. Any mistake would be simply fatal to the preservation of good +relations with China. Therefore, we must do nothing. _Quieta non movere_ +must be our motto, and we must only look forward to some auspicious +occasion when it may be possible to enter into cordial relations with +China. + +But, although our hands are tied in Central Asia, they are not fettered +at Pekin, and we certainly should congratulate, if we have not done so +already, the Chinese on their remarkable successes in the Tian Shan +regions. That step might be pregnant with beneficent results, and our +desire to be on good terms with our new, yet our old, neighbour might be +met in a cordial manner by the Chinese. The Chinese will not stoop to +propitiate us in order to preserve their rule in Eastern Turkestan; but +it is against common sense to suppose that they will be eager to embroil +themselves with us at the same moment that they are quarrelling with the +Russians. The Kuldja question must throw China into our alliance, if we +are not precipitate, and do not offer her any slight by meddling with +this semi-independent chief of Khoten, who is said to have overthrown a +Chinese detachment. And, in negotiating with the rulers of Kashgaria, we +must remember that commercial advantages are all very well, but that +political are infinitely more important. It has been tersely said that +we patronized Yakoob Beg in order to make a market for Kangra tea; but +the very trivial advantages we secured in a commercial sense were far +more than counterbalanced by the political disadvantages we derived from +a recognition of the Athalik Ghazi. In dealing with the Chinese we must +not set before us, as our guiding star, the privilege of supplying the +good people of Kashgar and Yarkand with tea and other necessaries. What +we aspire to is to be on terms of amity with China, as a power in +Central Asia, which will possess everything it desires when Ili has +been restored, and which most accordingly be inclined to resent with us +the undue aggrandizement of Russia. These are the future advantages that +may accrue from an understanding between England and China. But at the +present juncture there are others similar in kind, but immediate in +effect. The Afghan question, which now clamours for solution, and which +will scarcely pass through this crisis without finding our hold on Cabul +made more assured, is in many respects connected with the Kuldja. + +In each case the ambition of Russia is the motive power, and in each she +seeks to play her game with as little risk, and as much gain, as +possible. In neither will she fight, if she can avoid the necessity, yet +in each there is a point beyond which her honour and her interests alike +refuse to permit her to remain concealed and neutral. The solution of +the two questions is being worked out simultaneously, and the progress +of the Afghan question will at least very seriously affect the later +stages of the Kuldja. If Russia has to fight to defend Shere Ali, then +we may be sure that Tso Tsung Tang's legions will not remain inactive, +and that General Kolpakovsky will either have to beat a retreat to +Vernoe, or engage in a war out of which, on his own resources alone, it +will be impossible for him to issue victorious. If Russia interfere +openly in defence of Shere Ali, Kuldja must be restored to the Chinese, +otherwise Russia's flank would be exposed to a crushing blow, which the +Chinese would not be slow to take advantage of. Present events on the +Ili and on the Cabul have, therefore, this much in common, that they +both aim, directly or indirectly, at the fabric of Russian supremacy in +Central Asia. The occupation of Afghanistan by England, or even a +partial occupation of it as is very probable, would seriously weaken +Russian prestige in Western Turkestan. A Chinese occupation of Kuldja +would undermine her position in Vernoe and Naryn and among the Kirghiz. +Admitting these, is it not natural to suppose that in each case Russia +will fight, or that, even if she does not fight in each case, she will +fight in the one that she may deem of the most importance? But we need +not pursue the subject farther. The Chinese are face to face with Russia +in the heart of Central Asia, just as a few short months ago they were +opposed to Yakoob Beg and the power of the Tungani. + +Their army is drawn up in hostile array; it is each day becoming more +numerous and more perfectly prepared. Its generals are the same who have +led it to constant victory; its main body is the veterans of three +campaigns. The Chinese are persuaded, and it is impossible to say not +justly persuaded, of the righteousness of their cause. The Russians can +have no equal confidence either in their strength, or in their moral +position. They are not exactly championing a bad cause, or a lost one, +but, in comparison to the Chinese, they have no legal position. It +remains to be seen whether by force of arms, or by diplomatic +superiority, they can make up for the flaw in their tenure of Kuldja. +Farther on, in the vista of the events yet to come, there looms the +prospect of an Anglo-Chinese alliance, that must be most beneficial to +the peoples of Asia generally. But, before it will be possible for +Englishmen to count upon the presence of the Chinese as a favourable +"factor in the Central Asian question," our relations with China must be +placed upon a firmer and a more friendly basis than any which has yet +existed. We have it in our power to do this, and the ever-widening +breach between Russia and China simplifies our task in no slight degree. +The day will come when Russia will discover that the Kuldja question was +no trivial matter at all, and that to it can be traced many important +events in Central Asia. England may also recognize in it one of the most +useful circumstances that have ever operated in her favour in her long +rivalry with Russia. At the very crisis of our border history, when we +are on the eve of dealing out well merited chastisement to an Ameer of +Cabul, Russia finds herself weakened by being compelled to discuss a +question with China, when her attention is required elsewhere. She will +not yield what the Chinese demand, yet she dare not refuse; and the +latter will simply bide their time until she is hampered elsewhere. It +is no rash prophecy to say that China will be reinstalled, either by +peaceful means or by force, in Kuldja before the close of next year, +probably long before. An alliance between any two of the three great +Asiatic Powers must then be conclusive in all Central Asian matters, +and, before that alliance, the third will have the prudence to submit. +It behoves us to learn our lesson, when that day comes, thoroughly and +in good time. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +THE POSITION OF LOB-NOR. + +Lake Lob-Nor is placed in the map accompanying this volume in accordance +with the explorations of Colonel Prjevalsky in 1876-77; the result of +which was published in Dr. Petermann's _Mittheilungen_ as an extra +number during the spring of the present year. The accuracy of the +gallant explorer in identifying Lob-Nor with his lake of Kara Koshun had +not been challenged when this map was drawn, and when the following good +reasons for doubting its accuracy were published on the 14th of +September, it was too late to make the necessary alteration. + +The quotation of Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen's strictures on Colonel +Prjevalsky's lakes is taken from the _Athenaeum_ of the 14th of +September, 1878:-- + +"It would appear that the Russian traveller Prejevalsky, in his last +remarkable journey in the heart of Central Asia, did not explore Lob-Nor +at all, as he claims to have done. Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen, one +of the first comparative geographers of the day, has examined the +account of the journey, more especially by the light of Chinese +literature, and proves, almost incontestably to our thinking, that the +true Lob-Nor must lie somewhere north-east of the so-called Kara Kotchun +Lake discovered by Prejevalsky, and that, in all probability, it is fed +by an eastern arm of the Tarim river. This, at all events, would account +for the remarkable diminution in bulk undergone by the waters of that +stream as they proceed southward, which could not but strike an +attentive reader of the Russian explorer's narrative. We have not space +to reproduce all the arguments which Von Richthofen adduces, but the +more important are these:--Prejevalsky's lake was fresh, whereas Lob-Nor +has been called _The_ Salt Lake, _par excellence_, in all ages; Shaw, +Forsyth, and other authorities, report that the name Lob-Nor was known +in those regions, whereas Prejevalsky found no such name applied to his +lake; the Chinese maps, of the accuracy of which Von Richthofen has had +repeated proofs, represent Lob-Nor as lying more to the north-east, and +call two lakes lying nearly in the position of those discovered by +Prejevalsky, Khasomo, Khas being the Mongolian for jade, a famous +product of Khotan of which mediaeval traders from China went in quest, +passing by these very lakes _en route_. Another important argument is, +as we have mentioned, based on the bulk of water discharged by the Tarim +at its mouth. Von Richthofen's theory presupposes that the Tarim River +has altered its course, and that the main rush of water is now +south-east instead of due east as formerly. The whole question is well +worthy of further investigation, and it is possible that Prejevalsky, +whom a recent telegram from St. Petersburg reports about to return to +Central Asia, may be enabled to elucidate it. He will return to Zaissan, +the Russian frontier post, and thence endeavour to make his way into +Tibet by way of Barkul and Hami. + +"It is, however, certain that he will encounter great, if not +insuperable, obstruction, for we learn from private advices from India, +that the ill-advised publication in the Chefoo Convention of the then +proposed mission to Tibet has resulted in the issue of the most +stringent orders to the Tibetan officials at all the various routes and +passes to allow no European traveller to enter into the country on any +pretext whatever." + +Having stated the view of Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen, which is +endorsed by the high authority of the _Athenaeeum_, and which bears, +moreover, conviction upon its face, it is but fair to give the vital +portion of Colonel Prjevalsky's own description. The _Geographical +Magazine_, for May, 1878 Contains _in extenso_ the report, and the +sentences here quoted are from that translation. + +"At a distance of fifteen versts from the smaller lake, Kara Buran, the +party diverged southward to the village of Charchalyk, built about +thirty years ago by outlaws from Khotan, of which there are at present +114 engaged in tilling fields for the state.... Where Charchalyk now +stands, and also at the distance of two days' journey from it, are the +ruins of two towns, called Ottogush-Shari (from Ottogush, a former +ruler) and Gas-Shari respectively. Close to Lob-Nor (Kara Koshun) are +the ruins of a third and pretty extensive town called Kune-Shari. From +inquires, Prejevalsky ascertained that about 1861 or 1862 a colony of +Russians numbering about 160 or 170 people, including women and +children, with their pack-horses and armed with flint-lock muskets, +settled on the Lower Tarim and at Charchalyk, but that they made no long +stay, and soon returned to Urumchi, via Turfan.... Turning to the +Lob-Nor Lake (Kara Koshun), which the travellers reached in the early +days of February, it should be observed that the Tarim discharges itself +first into a smaller lake (from thirty to thirty-five versts in length, +and between ten and twelve versts in breadth) called Kara Buran (_i.e._ +black storms) into which the Cherchendaria flows as well. A great part +of the Kara Buran, as of Lob-Nor, is overgrow with reeds, the river +flowing in its bed in the centre. The name Lob-Nor is applied by the +natives to the whole lower course of the Tarim, the larger lake being +called Chok-kul or Kara Koshun. This lake, or rather morass, is in the +shape of an irregular ellipse running south-west and north-east. + +"Its major axis is about 90 or 100 versts in length, its minor axis not +more than twenty versts. This information is derived from the natives, +as Prejevalsky himself explored only the southern and western end, and +proceeded by boat down the river for about half the length of the lake, +further progress being rendered impossible by the increasing shallowness +of the water and the masses of reeds in every direction. The water +itself is clear and sweet, though there are salt marshes all round the +lake, and beyond them a strip of ground parallel with the present +borders of the lake and overgrown with tamarisks. It is probable that +this strip was formerly the periphery of the lake, and this conclusion +is corroborated by the natives, who say that thirty years ago the lake +was deeper." + +It is clear that the true position of Lob-Nor has yet to be defined by +modern exploration, but we may safely assume with the _Athenaeum_ that +Colonel Prjevalsky's Kara Koshun is _not_ Lob-Nor. The accompanying map +then, in this particular, is unfortunately erroneous. + +There is every reason for believing that Lob-Nor will be found in the +position assigned to it on the Chinese chart, the accuracy of which has +been so strikingly proved by the correct position given to the two lakes +Khas-omo, which are identical with the Kara Koshun and Kara Bunar of +Prjevalsky. + +It would be most interesting to obtain a diary or other account of those +Russian settlers mentioned by Prjevalsky, who entered the _terra +incognita_ of Central Asia during the halcyon days after the signature +of the Treaty of Kuldja, and just before the outbreak of the Tungan +revolt. It is possible that they may have solved during their return +journey to Urumtsi the enigma of Lob-Nor without knowing what they had +achieved. The reader will, therefore, have the kindness to bear in mind +that Lob-Nor is really (probably about three-quarters of a degree) +north-east of where it is placed on the map, and that the lake +represented there is only the Kara Koshun, or Chok Kul of Colonel +Prjevalsky. + +The most recent information is, that Colonel Prjevalsky adheres to his +view as to the position of Lob-Nor, and is preparing a reply which will +be published in a few weeks from this date (October 1st). + + +TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA. + +TREATY OF COMMERCE CONCLUDED BETWEEN RUSSIA AND CHINA, AT KULDJA, ON THE +25TH DAY OF JULY, 1851, AND RATIFIED ON THE 13TH DAY OF NOVEMBER, 1851. + +The plenipotentiary of His Majesty the Emperor of All the Russias, and +the plenipotentiaries of His Majesty the Bogdokhan of Tatsing, hereby +declare; the Governor General of Ili, and its dependent provinces, as +well as his deputy, have, after consulting together, concluded in the +city of Ili (Kuldja), in favour of the subjects of both empires, a +Treaty of Commerce, which establishes a traffic in the cities of Ili +(Kuldja), and of Tarbagatai (Chuguchak). This treaty is composed of the +following articles:-- + +ARTICLE I. + +The present Treaty of Commerce, concluded in the interests of both +powers, by demonstrating their mutual solicitude for the maintenance of +peace between, as well as for the well-being of, their respective +subjects, ought to draw still closer together those links of friendship +which at the present moment unite the two Powers. + +ARTICLE II. + +The merchants of the two Empires will regulate between themselves the +interchange of commerce, and arrange the various charges at their own +will, and without any extraneous pressure. On the part of Russia a +consul will be appointed to superintend the affairs of all Russian +subjects; and on the part of China, a functionary of the superior +administration of Ili. In the event of any collision between the +subjects of either Power, each of these agents will decide, in +accordance with justice, the affairs of his own countrymen. + +ARTICLE III. + +This commerce being opened in consideration of the mutual friendship of +the two Powers, it will not be in contravention of existing rights on +either side. + +ARTICLE IV. + +Russian merchants going either to Ili (Kuldja) or to Tarbagatai +(Chuguchak) will be accompanied by a syndic (caravanbashi). When a +caravan going to Ili (Kuldja) shall arrive at the Chinese picket of +Borokhondjir, and when that destined for Tarbagatai (Chuguchak) shall +reach the first Chinese picket, the syndic shall present to the officer +of the guard the certificate of his government. The said officer, after +having noted the number of men, of beasts, and of loads of merchandise, +shall permit the caravan to pass, and shall furthermore cause it to be +escorted from picket to picket by an officer and soldiers. During the +march, all disturbance, or cause for such, shall be interdicted to +soldiers and merchants alike. + +ARTICLE V. + +In order to facilitate the task of officers and soldiers, Russian +merchants shall be obliged, in virtue of the present treaty, to follow +the route chosen by their body guard, both going and returning. + +ARTICLE VI. + +If, whilst Russian caravans follow their route outside the limit of the +guard of Chinese soldiers, bands of brigands from the outer clans +(Kirghiz) shall commit acts of pillage, of assault, or other crimes, the +Chinese government shall not be required to interfere in the matter. +When the caravan shall have arrived on Chinese territory, similarly also +during its residence in the factories where merchandise is stored, +Russian merchants must themselves guard and defend their property. They +will be expected still more carefully to look after their animals when +out at pasturage. If, despite all precaution, something should happen to +go astray, notice of such loss must be promptly given to the Chinese +official; who conjointly with the Russian consul shall trace out with +all possible diligence the lost article. If traces of it are discovered, +and those in a village held by Chinese subjects, and the thief be +captured, the punishment shall be prompt and severe. If the thing lost +be recovered, or any portion of it, it shall be restored to the person +to whom it belonged. + +ARTICLE VII. + +In the event of disputes, litigations, or other trivial incidents, +between the respective subjects, the Russian consul and the Chinese +official, of whom mention has previously been made, shall use all their +efforts to settle the affair satisfactorily. But if, despite every +effort to avoid such, a criminal case or one of general importance +should arise, it shall be decided conformably with the regulations +actually in force on the Kiachta frontier. + +ARTICLE VIII. + +Russian merchants shall arrive each year with their merchandise between +the 25th day of March and the 10th day of December (of our style, or +according to the Chinese calendar between the day Tchin-ming and the day +Tong-tchi); after the latter of these dates, the arrival of caravans +shall cease. If the merchandise imported during that period (8-1/2 +months) should not be sold, it shall be permissible to the merchants to +remain a longer space in China, in order to complete their sale; after +which the consul shall take charge of their departure. It is moreover +understood that Russian merchants shall not obtain an escort of officers +and soldiers, neither for going nor for returning, if they have not at +the least twenty camels laden with merchandise. If a merchant or the +Russian consul has need for some special matter to send an express +message, every facility shall be accorded him for doing so. But in order +that the service of officers and soldiers should not become too onerous, +there shall only be twice in the same month these extraordinary +expeditions outside the line of the advanced guards. + +ARTICLE IX. + +Russian and Chinese merchants can see each other without restriction +about matters of business; but Russian subjects, finding themselves in +the factory under the care of the Russian consul, may not walk about in +the suburbs and the streets, unless provided with a "permit" from the +consul; without such permit, they must not go out of their enclosure. +Whoever shall go out without permission shall be led back to the +consul, who will proceed against him according to law. + +ARTICLE X. + +If a criminal belonging to either of the two Empires should flee to the +other, he shall not be afforded sanctuary; but, on the part of each +Power, the local authorities shall take the most severe measures, and +make the most searching enquiries to arrest him. There shall be +reciprocal extradition of fugitives of this class. + +ARTICLE XI. + +As it is to be foreseen that the Russian merchants, who shall come to +China on commercial matters, will have with them carriages and beasts of +burden, there shall be assigned for their use, near the city of Ili, +certain places on the banks of the river Ili, and also near the city of +Tarbagatai other places where there is both water and pasturage. In +these encampments the Russian merchants shall confide their animals to +the charge of their own people, who shall take care that neither +cultivated lands nor cemeteries shall be in any case injured or +desecrated. Those who may contravene this enactment shall be brought +before the consul to be punished. + +ARTICLE XII. + +In the exchange of articles of merchandise between the merchants of the +two Empires, nothing shall be left on credit on either side. If, +notwithstanding this clause, some one should purchase his merchandise on +credit, the Russian and Chinese officials shall on no account interfere, +and shall admit of no complaint, even if cause for such might exist. + +ARTICLE XIII. + +As Russian merchants arriving in China for commercial reasons should +necessarily have special places for their warehouses, the Chinese +government shall assign them, in the two commercial cities of Ili and +Tarbagatai, plots of land near the bazaar, so that the Russian subjects +may be able to construct there, at their own expense, dwelling-houses +and factories for their wares. + +ARTICLE XIV. + +The Chinese government shall not interpose obstacles in any case where +Russian subjects celebrate, within their own buildings, divine service +according to the rite of their religion. In case a Russian subject in +China should happen to die either at Ili or at Tarbagatai, the Chinese +government shall set apart an empty space outside the walls of those +cities, to serve as a cemetery. + +ARTICLE XV. + +If Russian merchants should take to Ili or Tarbagatai sheep for the +purpose of exchanging them, the local authorities shall take, on account +of the government, two sheep out of every ten, and shall give in +exchange for each sheep a piece of linen cloth (_da-ba_, of the legal +measure); the remainder of the animals and every other kind of +merchandise shall be exchanged between the merchants of the two Empires +at a price mutually agreed upon, and the Chinese government shall not +intermeddle in any manner whatsoever. + +ARTICLE XVI. + +The ordinary official correspondence between the two Empires shall be +made, on the part of the Russian government, through the medium of the +superior administration of Western Siberia, and under the seal of that +administration; and on the part of the Chinese government through the +medium, and under the seal, of the superior administration of Ili. + +ARTICLE XVII. + +The present Treaty shall be authenticated by the signatures and seals of +the respective plenipotentiaries. On the part of Russia there will be +prepared four copies in the Russian language, signed by the +plenipotentiary of Russia; on the part of China, four copies in the +Mantchoo language, signed by the Chinese plenipotentiary and his +adjunct. The respective plenipotentiaries will each keep a copy in the +Russian language, and a copy in the Mantchoo, for the purpose of putting +the treaty into execution, and to serve for constant reference. A +Russian copy and a Mantchoo copy shall be sent to the directing Senate +of Russia; and a copy in each language to the Chinese Tribunal for +Foreign Affairs, to be there sealed and preserved after the ratification +of the Treaty. + +All the above articles of the present Treaty concluded by the respective +plenipotentiaries of Russia and China are hereby signed and sealed. The +twenty-fifth day of July, in the year 1851, in the 26th year of the +reign of His Imperial Majesty the Emperor and Autocrat of All the +Russias. + + (Signed) Colonel in the corps of Engineers. + + KOVALEVSKI. + I Chan, + Bovyantai. + + +TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND CASHMERE. + +TREATY BETWEEN THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT AND HIS HIGHNESS MAHARAJA RUNBEER +SINGH, G.C.S.I., MAHARAJA OF JUMMOO AND CASHMERE, HIS HEIRS AND +SUCCESSORS, EXECUTED ON THE ONE PART BY THOMAS DOUGLAS FORSYTH, C.B., IN +VIRTUE OF THE FULL POWERS VESTED IN HIM BY HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT +HONOURABLE RICHARD SOUTHWELL BOURKE, EARL OF MAYO, VISCOUNT MAYO OF +MONYCROWER, BARON NAAS OF NAAS, K.P., G.M.S.I., P.C., &c., &c., &c., +VICEROY AND GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA, AND ON THE OTHER PART BY HIS +HIGHNESS MAHARAJA RUNBEER SINGH AFORESAID, IN PERSON. + +Whereas in the interest of the high contracting parties and their +respective subjects it is deemed desirable to afford greater facilities +than at present exist for the development and security of trade with +Eastern Turkestan, the following Articles have with this object been +agreed upon:-- + +ARTICLE I. + +With the consent of the Maharaja, officers of the British Government +will be appointed to survey the trade routes through the Maharaja's +territories from the British frontier of Lahoul to the territories of +the Ruler of Yarkand, including the route _via_ the Chang Chemoo Valley. +The Maharaja will depute an officer of his Government to accompany the +surveyors, and will render them all the assistance in his power. A map +of the routes surveyed will be made, an attested copy of which will be +given to the Maharaja. + +ARTICLE II. + +Whichever route towards the Chang Chemoo Valley shall, after examination +and survey as above, be declared by the British Government to be the +best suited for the development of trade with Eastern Turkestan shall be +declared by the Maharaja to be a free highway in perpetuity, and at all +times for all travellers and traders. + +ARTICLE III. + +For the supervision and maintenance of the road in its entire length +through the Maharaja's territories, the regulation of traffic on the +free highway described in Article II., the enforcement of regulations +that may be hereafter agreed upon, and the settlement of disputes +between carriers, traders, travellers, or others using that road, in +which either of the parties or both of them are subjects of the British +Government or of any foreign State, two Commissioners shall be annually +appointed, one by the British Government, and the other by the Maharaja. +In the discharge of their duties, and as regards the period of their +residence, the Commissioners shall be guided by such rules as are now +separately framed, and may, from time to time, hereafter be laid down by +the joint authority of the British Government and the Maharaja. + +ARTICLE IV. + +The jurisdiction of the Commissioners shall be defined by a line on each +side of the road, at a maximum width of two statute _koss_, except where +it may be deemed by the Commissioners necessary to include a wider +extent for grazing grounds. Within this maximum width the surveyors +appointed under Article I. shall demarcate and map the limits of +jurisdiction which may be decided on by the Commissioners as most +suitable, including grazing grounds; and the jurisdiction of the +Commissioners shall not extend beyond the limits so demarcated. The land +included within these limits shall remain in the Maharaja's independent +possession, and, subject to the stipulations contained in this Treaty, +the Maharaja shall continue to possess the same rights of full +sovereignty therein as in any other part of his territories, which +rights shall not be interfered with in any way by the Joint +Commissioners. + +ARTICLE V. + +The Maharaja agrees to give all possible assistance in enforcing the +decisions of the Commissioners, and in preventing the breach or evasion +of the regulations established under Article III. + +ARTICLE VI. + +The Maharaja agrees that any person, whether a subject of the British +Government, or of the Maharaja, or of the Ruler of Yarkand, or of any +foreign State, may settle at any place within the jurisdiction of the +Commissioners, and may provide, keep, maintain, and let for hire at +different stages the means of carriage and transport for the purposes of +trade. + +ARTICLE VII. + +The two Commissioners shall be empowered to establish supply depots, and +to authorize other persons to establish supply depots, at such places on +the road as may appear to them suitable; to fix the rates at which +provisions shall be sold to traders, carriers, settlers, and others, and +to fix the rent to be charged for the use of any rest-houses or serais +that may be established on the road. The officers of the British +Government in Kullu, &c., and the officers of the Maharaja in Ladakh +shall be instructed to use their best endeavours to supply provisions on +the indent of the Commissioners at market rates. + +ARTICLE VIII. + +The Maharaja agrees to levy no transit duty whatever on the aforesaid +free highway, and the Maharaja further agrees to abolish all transit +duties levied within his territories on goods transmitted in bond +through His Highness's territories from Eastern Turkestan to India and +_vice versa_, on which bulk may not be broken within the territories of +His Highness. On goods imported into or exported from His Highness's +territory, whether by the aforesaid free highway or any other route, the +Maharaja may levy such import or export duties as he may think fit. + +ARTICLE IX. + +The British Government agree to levy no duty on goods transmitted in +bond through British India to Eastern Turkestan or to the territories of +His Highness the Maharaja. The British Government further agree to +abolish the export duties now levied on shawls and other textile fabrics +manufactured in the territories of the Maharaja, and exported to +countries beyond the limits of British India. + +ARTICLE X. + +This Treaty, consisting of ten Articles, has this day been concluded by +Thomas Douglas Forsyth, C.B., in virtue of the full powers vested in him +by His Excellency the Right Honourable Richard Southwell Bourke, Earl of +Mayo, Viscount Mayo, of Monycrower, Baron Naas of Naas, K.P., G.M.S.I., +P.C., &c., &c., Viceroy and Governor-General of India, on the part of +the British Government, and by the Maharaja Runbeer Singh aforesaid; and +it is agreed that a copy of this Treaty, duly ratified by His Excellency +the Viceroy and Governor-General of India, shall be delivered to the +Maharaja on or before the 7th of September, 1870. Signed, sealed, and +exchanged at Sealkote on the second day of April, in the year of our +Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy, corresponding with the 22nd +day of Bysack Sumbut, 1927. + + Signature of the Maharaja of Cashmere. + + (Signed) T. D. FORSYTH, + MAYO. + +This Treaty was ratified by His Excellency the Viceroy and +Governor-General of India at Sealkote on the 2nd day of May, 1870. + + (Signed) C. U. AITCHISON, + Officiating Secretary to the Government + of India, Foreign Department. + + +TREATY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND KASHGAR. + +THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS OF FREE TRADE WERE PROPOSED AND AGREED UPON +BETWEEN GENERAL AIDE-DE-CAMP VON KAUFMANN AND YAKOOB BEG, CHIEF OF +DJETY-SHAHR. + +ARTICLE I. + +All Russian subjects, of whatsoever religion, shall have the right to +proceed for purposes of trade to Djety-Shahr, and to all the localities +and towns subjected to the Chief of Djety-Shahr, which they may desire +to visit in the same way as the inhabitants of Djety-Shahr have hitherto +been, and shall be in the future, entitled to prosecute trade throughout +the entire extent of the Russian Empire. The honourable chief of +Djety-Shahr undertakes to keep a vigilant guard over the complete safety +of Russian subjects, within the limits of his territorial possessions, +and also over that of their caravans, and in general over everything +that may belong to them. + +ARTICLE II. + +Russian merchants shall be entitled to have caravanserais, in which they +alone shall be able to store their merchandise, in all the towns of +Djety-Shahr in which they may desire to have them. The merchants of +Djety-Shahr shall enjoy the same privilege in the Russian villages. + +ARTICLE III. + +Russian merchants shall, if they desire it, have the right to have +commercial agents (caravanbashis) in all the towns of Djety-Shahr, whose +business it is to watch over the regular courts of trade, and over the +legal imposition of customs dues. The merchants of Djety-Shahr shall +enjoy the same privilege in the towns of Turkestan. + +ARTICLE IV. + +All merchandise transported from Russia to Djety-Shahr, or from that +province into Russia, shall be liable to a tax of 2-1/2 per cent. _ad +valorem_. In every case this tax shall not exceed the rate of the tax +taken from Mussulmans being subject to Djety-Shahr. + +ARTICLE V. + +Russian merchants and their caravans shall be at liberty, with all +freedom and security, to traverse the territories of Djety-Shahr in +proceeding to countries conterminous with that province. Caravans from +Djety-Shahr shall enjoy the same advantages for passing through +territories belonging to Russia. + + * * * * * + +These conditions were sent from Tashkent on the 9th of April, 1872. + +General Von Kaufmann I., Governor-General of Turkestan, signed the +treaty and attached his seal to it. + +In proof of his assent to these conditions, Mahomed Yakoob, Chief of +Djety-Shahr, attached his seal to them at Yangy-Shahr, on the 8th of +June, 1872. + + * * * * * + +This treaty was negotiated by Baron Kaulbars. + + +TREATY BETWEEN ENGLAND AND KASHGAR. + +TREATY BETWEEN THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT AND HIS HIGHNESS THE AMEER MAHOMED +YAKOOB KHAN, RULER OF THE TERRITORY OF KASHGAR AND YARKAND, HIS HEIRS +AND SUCCESSORS, EXECUTED ON THE ONE PART BY THOMAS DOUGLAS FORSYTH, +C.B., IN VIRTUE OF FULL POWERS CONFERRED ON HIM IN THAT BEHALF BY HIS +EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HON. THOMAS GEORGE BARING, BARON NORTHBROOK OF +STRATTON, AND A BARONET, MEMBER OF THE PRIVY COUNCIL OF HER MOST +GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, GRAND MASTER OF +THE MOST EXALTED ORDER OF THE STAR OF INDIA, VICEROY AND +GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF INDIA, IN COUNCIL, AND ON THE OTHER PART BY SYUD +MAHOMED KHAN TOORAH, MEMBER OF THE 1ST CLASS OF THE ORDER OF MEDJIDIE, +&C., IN VIRTUE OF FULL POWERS CONFERRED ON HIM BY HIS HIGHNESS. + +Whereas it is deemed desirable to confirm and strengthen the good +understanding which now subsists between the high contracting parties, +and to promote commercial intercourse between their respective subjects, +the following Articles have been agreed upon:-- + +ARTICLE I. + +The high contracting parties engage that the subjects of each shall be +at liberty to enter, reside in, trade with, and pass with their +merchandise and property into and through all parts of the dominions of +the other; and shall enjoy in such dominions all the privileges and +advantages with respect to commerce, protection or otherwise, which are, +or may be, accorded to the subjects of such dominions, or to the +subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation. + +ARTICLE II. + +Merchants of whatever nationality shall be at liberty to pass from the +territories of the one contracting party to the territories of the +other, with their merchandise and property at all times, and by any +route they please; no restriction shall be placed by either contracting +party upon such freedom of transit, unless for urgent political reasons +to be previously communicated to the other; and such restriction shall +be withdrawn as soon as the necessity for it is over. + +ARTICLE III. + +European British subjects entering the dominions of His Highness the +Ameer, for purposes of trade, or otherwise, must be provided with +passports certifying to their nationality. Unless provided with such +passports they shall not be deemed entitled to the benefit of this +treaty. + +ARTICLE IV. + +On goods imported into British India from territories of His Highness +the Ameer, by any route over the Himalayan passes, which lie to the +south of His Highness's dominions, the British Government engages to +levy no import duties. On goods imported from India into the territories +of His Highness the Ameer, no import duty exceeding 2-1/2 per cent., _ad +valorem_, shall be levied. Goods imported, as above, into the dominions +of the contracting parties may, subject only to such excise regulations +and duties, and to such municipal or town regulations and duties, as may +be applicable to such classes of goods generally, be freely sold by +wholesale or retail, and transported from one place to another within +British India, and within the dominions of His Highness the Ameer +respectively. + +ARTICLE V. + +Merchandise imported from India into the territories of His Highness the +Ameer will not be opened for examination, till arrival at the place of +consignment. If any disputes should arise as to the value of such goods, +the customs officer, or other officer acting on the part of His Highness +the Ameer, shall be entitled to demand part of the goods, at the rate of +one in forty, in lieu of the payment of duty. If the aforesaid officer +should object to levy the duty by taking a portion of the goods, or if +the goods should not admit of being so divided, then the point in +dispute shall be referred to two competent persons, one chosen by the +aforesaid officer, and the other by the importer, and a valuation of the +goods shall be made, and if the referees shall differ in opinion, they +shall appoint an arbitrator whose decision shall be final, and the duty +shall be levied according to the value thus established. + +ARTICLE VI. + +The British Government shall be at liberty to appoint a Representative +at the Court of His Highness the Ameer, and to appoint a Commercial +Agent, subordinate to him in any town or place considered suitable +within His Highness's territories. His Highness the Ameer shall be at +liberty to appoint a Representative with the Viceroy and +Governor-General of India, and to station Commercial Agents at any +places in British India considered suitable. Such Representatives shall +be entitled to the rank and privileges accorded to ambassadors by the +law of nations, and the Agents shall be entitled to the privileges of +Consuls of the most favoured nation. + +ARTICLE VII. + +British subjects shall be at liberty to purchase, sell, or hire land, or +houses, or depots for merchandise, in the dominions of His Highness the +Ameer, and the houses, depots, or other premises of British subjects, +shall not be forcibly entered or searched without the consent of the +occupier, unless with the cognizance of the British Representative or +Agent, and in presence of a person deputed by him. + +ARTICLE VIII. + +The following arrangements are agreed to for the decision of Civil Suits +and Criminal Cases within the territories of His Highness the Ameer, in +which British subjects are concerned:-- + + (_a._) Civil suits in which both plaintiff and defendant are + British subjects, and Criminal Cases in which both + prosecutor and accused are British subjects, or in which the + accused is a European British subject, mentioned in the + Third Article of this Treaty, shall be tried by the British + Representative or one of his Agents, in the presence of an + Agent appointed by His Highness the Ameer; + + (_b._) Civil suits in which one party is a subject of His Highness + the Ameer, and the other party a British subject, shall be + tried by the Courts of His Highness, in the presence of the + British Representative or one of his Agents, or of a person + appointed in that behalf by such Representative or Agent; + + (_c._) Criminal cases in which either prosecutor or accused is a + subject of His Highness the Ameer shall, except as above + otherwise provided, be tried by the Courts of His Highness + in presence of the British Representative, or of one of his + Agents, or of a person deputed by the British + Representative, or by one of his Agents; + + (_d._) Except as above otherwise provided, Civil and Criminal Cases + in which one party is a British subject, and the other the + subject of a foreign power, shall, if either of the parties + be a Mahomedan, be tried in the Courts of His Highness; if + neither party is a Mahomedan, the case may, with consent of + the parties, be tried by the British Representative or one + of his Agents; in the absence of such consent, by the Courts + of His Highness; + + (_e._) In any case disposed of by the Courts of His Highness the + Ameer to which a British subject is party, it shall be + competent to the British Representative, if he considers + that justice has not been done, to represent the matter to + His Highness the Ameer, who may cause the case to be + re-tried in some other Court, in the presence of the British + Representative, or of one of his Agents, or of a person + appointed in that behalf by such Representative or Agent. + +ARTICLE IX. + +The rights and privileges enjoyed within the dominions of His Highness +the Ameer by British subjects under the Treaty, shall extend to the +subjects of all Princes and States in India in alliance with Her Majesty +the Queen; and if, with respect to any such Prince or State, any other +provisions relating to this Treaty or to other matters should be +considered desirable, they shall be negotiated through the British +Government. + +ARTICLE X. + +Every affidavit and other legal document filed or deposited in any Court +established in the respective dominions of the high contracting parties, +or in the Court of the Joint Commissioners in Ladakh, may be proved by +an authenticated copy, purporting either to be sealed with the seal of +the Court to which the original document belongs, or, in the event of +such Court having no seal, to be signed by the Judge, or by one of the +Judges of the said Court. + +ARTICLE XI. + +When a British subject dies in the territory of His Highness the Ameer +his movable and immovable property situate therein shall be vested in +his heir, executor, administrator, or other representative on interest +or (in the absence of such representative) in the Representative of the +British Government in the aforesaid territory. The person in whom such +charge shall be so vested shall satisfy the claims outstanding against +the deceased, and shall hold the surplus (if any) for distribution among +those interested. The above provisions, _mutatis mutandis_, shall apply +to the subjects of His Highness the Ameer, who may die in British India. + +ARTICLE XII. + +If a British subject residing in the territories of His Highness the +Ameer becomes unable to pay his debts or fails to pay any debt within a +reasonable time after being ordered to do so by any Court of Justice, +the creditors of such insolvent shall be paid out of his goods and +effects; but the British Representative shall not refuse his good +offices, if needs be, to ascertain if the insolvent has not left in +India disposable property which might serve to satisfy the said +creditors. The friendly stipulations in the present Article shall be +reciprocally observed with regard to His Highness's subjects who trade +in India under the protection of the laws. + +This treaty having this day been executed in duplicate and confirmed by +His Highness the Ameer, one copy shall, for the present, be left in the +possession of His Highness, and the other, after confirmation by the +Viceroy and Governor-General of India, shall be delivered to His +Highness within twelve months in exchange for the copy now retained by +His Highness. + +Signed and sealed at Kashgar on the second day of February, in the year +of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventy-four, corresponding +with the fifteenth day of Zilhijj, one thousand two hundred and ninety +Hijree. + + (Signed) T. DOUGLAS FORSYTH, + Envoy and Plenipotentiary. + +Whereas a Treaty for strengthening the good understanding that now +exists between the British Government and the Ruler of the territory of +Kashgar and Yarkand, and for promoting commercial intercourse between +the two countries, was agreed to and concluded at Kashgar, on the second +day of February, in the year of our Lord eighteen hundred and +seventy-four, corresponding with the fifteenth day of Zilhijj, twelve +hundred and ninety Hijree, by the respective Plenipotentiaries of the +Government of India and of His Highness the Ameer of Kashgar and +Yarkand, duly accredited and empowered for that purpose: I, the Right +Hon. Thomas George Baring, Baron Northbrook of Stratton, &c., &c., +Viceroy and Governor-General of India, do hereby ratify and confirm the +Treaty aforesaid. + +Given under my hand and seal at Government House, in Calcutta, this +thirteenth day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight +hundred and seventy-four. + + (Signed) NORTHBROOK. + + +-------+ + | | + | Seal. | + | | + +-------+ + + +RULES FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE JOINT COMMISSIONERS APPOINTED FOR THE NEW +ROUTE TO EASTERN TURKESTAN. + +1. As it is impossible, owing to the character of the climate, to retain +the Commissioners throughout the year, the period during which they +shall exercise their authority shall be taken to commence on 15th May, +and to end on 1st December. + +2. During the absence of either Commissioner, cases may be heard and +decided by the other Commissioner, subject to appeal to the Joint +Commissioners. + +3. In the months when the Joint Commissioners are absent, _i.e._ between +1st December and 15th May, all cases which may arise shall be decided by +the Wuzeer of Ladakh, subject to appeal to the Joint Commissioners. + +4. The Joint Commissioners shall not interfere in cases other than those +which affect the development, freedom, and safety of the trade, and the +objects for which the Treaty is concluded, and in which one of the +parties, or both, are either British subjects, or subjects of a foreign +state. + +5. In civil disputes the Commissioners shall have power to dispose of +all cases, whatever be the value of the property in litigation. + +6. When the Commissioners agree, their decision shall be final in all +cases. When they are unable to agree, the parties shall have the right +of nominating a single arbitrator, and shall bind themselves in writing +to abide by his award. Should the parties not be able to agree upon a +single arbitrator, each party shall name one, and the two Commissioners +shall name a third, and the decision of the majority of the arbitrators +shall be final. + +7. In criminal cases the powers of the Commissioners shall be limited to +offences such as in British territory would be tried by a subordinate +Magistrate of the First Class, and as far as possible the procedure of +the Criminal Procedure Code shall be followed. Cases of a more heinous +kind should be made over to the Maharaja for trial, if the accused be +not a European British subject; in the latter case he should be +forwarded to the nearest British Court of competent jurisdiction for +trial. + +8. All fines levied in criminal cases, and all stamp receipts levied +according to the rates in force for civil suits in the Maharaja's +dominions, shall be credited to the Cashmere Treasury. Persons sentenced +to imprisonment shall, if British subjects, be sent to the nearest +British jail. If not British subjects, offenders shall be made over for +imprisonment in the Maharaja's jails. + +9. The practice of cow-killing is strictly prohibited throughout the +jurisdiction of the Maharaja. + +10. If any places come within the line of road from which the towns of +Leh, &c., are supplied with fuel or wood for building purpose, the Joint +Commissioners shall so arrange with the Wuzeer of Ladakh that those +supplies are not interfered with. + +11. Whatever transactions take place within the limits of the road shall +be considered to refer to goods in bond. If a trader opens his load, and +disposes of a portion, he shall not be subject to any duty so long as +the goods are not taken for consumption into the Maharaja's territory +across the line of road. And goods left for any length of time in the +line of road subject to the jurisdiction of the Commissioners shall be +free. + +12. Where a village lies within the jurisdiction of the Joint +Commissioners, then, as regards the collection of revenue, or in any +case where there is necessity for the interference of the usual Revenue +authorities on matters having no connection with the trade, the Joint +Commissioners have no power whatever to interfere; but, to prevent +misunderstanding, it is advisable that the Revenue officials should +first communicate with the Joint Commissioners before proceeding to take +action against any person within their jurisdiction. The Joint +Commissioners can then exercise their discretion to deliver up the +person sought, or to make a summary inquiry to ascertain whether their +interference is necessary or not. + +13. The Maharaja agrees to give rupees 5,000 this year for the +construction of the road and bridges, and in future years His Highness +agrees to give rupees 2,000 per annum for the maintenance of the road +and bridges. Similarly for the repairs of serais a sum of rupees 100 per +annum for each serai will be given. Should further expenditure be +necessary, the Joint Commissioners will submit a special report to the +Maharaja, and ask for a special grant. This money will be expended by +the Joint Commissioners, who will employ free labour at market rates for +this purpose. The officers in Ladakh and in British territory shall be +instructed to use their best endeavours to supply labourers on the +indent of the Commissioners at market rates. No tolls shall be levied on +the bridges on this line of road. + +14. As a temporary arrangement, and until the line of road has been +demarcated, or till the end of this year, the Joint Commissioners shall +exercise the powers described in these rules over the several roads +taken by the traders through Ladakh from Lahoul and Spiti. + + (Signed) MAHARAJA RUNBEER SINGH. + + " T. D. FORSYTH. + +(These rules were agreed upon in 1872, between the Indian Government and +Cashmere, for the purpose of promoting trade with Eastern Turkestan and +Central Asia, which had been sanctioned by the Treaty of Commerce of +1870.) + + +A STORY FROM KASHGAR. + +Mirza Mulla Rahmat, of Kashgar, who arrived at Peshawur lately, on his +way to Mecca, has told what he knows about events in Kashgar. The +following is his story:--In the month of Jamadi-us-sani 1294 (June-July, +1877), that Mahomed Yakoob Khan, the Badshah of Kashgar, collected a +large army to fight the Chinese. He died near the town of Balisan (? +Bai), and his army then recognized Hakim Khan Torah as his successor. +The mullahs in Kashgar in the meantime appointed Beg Kuli Beg, Yakoob's +eldest son, as their Badshah, according to Yakoob's will. Hakim Khan and +the army which joined him then came to Aksu, where Beg Kuli Beg also +arrived, meaning to capture the place and the person of the usurper. A +battle was fought between Kuli Beg and Hakim Khan on the 26th and 27th +of Rajah (27th and 28th July, 1877), and Hakim Khan was defeated. Many +of the soldiers belonging to Hakim Khan's force fell in the battle, and +many others were starved, and some were drowned crossing a river. Hakim +Khan then went into Russian territory with 1,000 chosen soldiers. Beg +Kuli Beg now seized several towns and returned to Kashgar. In the +meantime Naiz Hakim Beg, the Governor of Khoten, rebelled, and Kuli Beg +met him in the field, and captured Khoten. The Beg was scarcely a week +at that place when he heard that the Chinese had arrived at Aksu and had +taken it. An officer (Kho Dalay?) of the Chinese army who had turned +Mahomedan (but subsequently recanted) attacked Yangy Shahr, the +capital, and, capturing it, shut himself up there. The town was then +besieged by the Governor of Kashgar, and the siege continued for fifty +days. Then Kuli Beg came up, and, forcing his entry into the town, took +possession of it, and destroyed the fort. But on the 10th of Zillhij +(16th of December) a strong Chinese force entered the country, and +rapidly reconquered the possessions of the late Yakoob Khan. Beg Kuli +Beg then fled with his men to Tashkent, which he reached by Mingyol Osh +and Marghilan, and put himself under the protection of the Russian +Governor there. Mulla Yunus Jan, the Governor of Yarkand, and his son +and brother fell into the hands of Hasan Jan Bai, Ikskal (? Aksakal). + +The above is taken from the columns of an Indian journal, and is +inserted here for the purpose of showing that the converted Chinese, or +Yangy Mussulmans, did revolt from their allegiance to Yakoob Beg the +instant a Khitay force appeared in Altyshahr. + + + + +INDEX OF SUBJECTS. + + + Aali, _see_ Hakim Khan. + + Ababakar, 34-36. + + Abderrahman Aftobatcha, 18, 209-210, 211. + + Abderrahman Khoja (King of Yarkand), 102. + + Abdul Aziz, 170, 196. + + Abdul Melik, 248. + + Abdullah (Yusuf's son), 46, 47. + + Abdullah Pansad, 102, 104, 107, 114-116, 117, 137, 158, 171. + + Abdullah Zizad, 23. + + Ablai (Kirghiz chief), 50. + + Acbash, 44. + + AEgis of British protection, 204. + + Afak, 44. + + Afghan Ameer sends embassy to Pekin, 51. + + Afghanistan, 8, 49. + + Afghan settlers, 16, _passim_. + + Afridun Wang, 98-99. + + Agha Bula, 265. + + Ahmad, 35, 46. + + Ak Musjid, siege of, 79-81. + + Ak Robat, 228. + + Aksai Plateau, 3. + + Aksakal, 57-58, 64, 69, _passim_. + + Aksakals (risings under), 66, _passim_. + + Aksu, 2, 3, 37, 46, 66, 272, 273. + coal at, 163. + description of, 7. + siege of, 127, 273. + + Aktaghluc, 37, 44-46, 47, 49. + description of, 52-53. + + Alaja "the slayer," 35; _see_ Ahmad. + + Alim, 146. + + Alim Kuli, 83-85, 86, 87, _passim_. + + Alish Beg, 172, 231. + + Almatie, _see_ Vernoe. + + Alty Shahr, 8, 16, 44, _passim_. + + Amban, 54, 63, _passim_. + of Yarkand, or Khan Amban, 54. + + Ameer, or Emir, 196, 220, _passim_. + + Ameers of Central Asia, 39. + + Amoor, 25, 42. + + Amursana, 45-48, 49, 252. + + Andijani, 4, 12, 158, 160. + + Andijani Serai, 153. + + Appak Khoja, 252. + + Arabdan Khan, 45. + + Arabs, 23. + + Arpa Tai, battle of, 270. + + Artosh, 12, 22, 181. + + Aryan family, 14, 17. + + Athalik Ghazi, 1, 118, 186, _passim_. + + Azmill Khoja, 31. + + + Babur, 36. + + Badakshan, 8, 33, 36, 48, 49, 106, 107, 118. + + Badakshi settlers, 16. + + Badaulet, 200, 248. + + Bahanuddin (son of Sarimsak), 64. + + Bai, 272. + + Barhanuddin, 46, 47, 48, 49. + + Baroghil, 8, 29. + + Bartchuk, 3; _see_ also Maralbashi. + + Bayen Hu, 253, 266, 267, 271. + + Bazandai, 125. + + Bedal Pass, 273. + + Beg, 220-221. + + Beg Bacha, _see_ Kuli Beg. + + Bellew, Dr., 22, 171, 222. + + Benefits conferred by China on Kashgar, 58, _passim_. + + Berdan rifles, 246. + + Bhots, 9. + + Biddulph, Capt., 222. + + Birlas, 32. + + Birma, 42. + + Black Sea, 14. + + Bokhara, 18, 23, 25, 30, 69, 83, 178, 209, _passim_. + Russian treaty with, 179. + sack of, 30. + + Bolor, 37, 65. + + Bostang Lake, 266. + + Buddhism, 25, _passim_. + + Buddhists, 16, 31, _passim_. + + Bugur, fight at, 269. + + Burac, 30. + + Buzurg Khan, 2, 71, 87, 91, 103, 107, 108, 110. + intrigues against Yakoob Beg, 111, 117. + deposed by Yakoob Beg, 117. + + + Cabul, 28, 211. + + Calmucks, 19, 44, _passim_. + + Calmuck settlements, 19, 44. + + Canals, 59. + + Candahar, 28. + + Caravanbashi, 204. + + Carts used in Kashgar, 227-228. + + Cashmere, 1, 37, 60. + + Caspian, 14. + + Cay Yoli, 67. + + Chaghtai Khan, 29. + + Cha-hi-telkh, 267. + + Champion Father, 118. + + Chang Lung, 67. + + Chang Tay, 112. + + Chang Yao, 237, 246, 247, 263, 272. + + Chapman, Capt., 222. + + Charjui, 179. + + Chightam, 10, 134, _passim_. + + China, 41-43, _passim_. + + Chinaz, 85. + + Chinese and Khokand, 49. + + Chinese army, character of, 275. + + Chinese at Lhasa, 234. + + Chinese Empire in Central Asia, 22, 39, 43. + + Chinese, first reverse of, 65. + + Chinese in Kashgar, 49, 54-75. + + Chinese merchants, 5. + + Chinese moderation, 249, 270. + + Chinese north of Tian Shan, 236. + + Chinese overthrow Tungani, 236-237, 238. + + Chinese pay Khokand annual sum, 64. + + Chinese principle in ruling Kashgar, 156. + + Chinese reconquer Kashgar, 258-276. + + Chinese revindicating army, strength of, 246. + + Chinese rule, benefits and disadvantages of, 74-75. + + Chinese, strategical advantages of, 66. + + Chinese Turkestan, _see_ Eastern Turkestan. + + Chitral, 29. + + Christians, 25. + + Chuguchak, 10, _passim_. + + Chuntche, 42. + + Coal mines, 60. + + Cochin China, 42. + + Comparison between rule of Chinese and Yakoob Beg, 168-169, 255-257. + + Constantinople, 196, _passim_. + + Corbashi, 149. + + Corps of artillerymen, 142. + + Crusade, propagandist, against Khitay, 47. + + Czar, the, 185. + + + Dadkwah, _passim_, functions of, 144-145. + + Danyal, 44, 45. + + Darius, 36. + + Darwas, 72. + + Dastarkhwan, 225. + + Dava Khan, 30. + + Davatsi, 45-46. + + Delhi, 28. + + Destruction caused by Genghis Khan, 28. + + Devanchi, 244, 247. + + Devan defile, 244, _passim_. + + Difference between Eastern and Western Turkestan, 15. + + Dihbid, 76. + + Disunion in Central Asia, 120-121, 210-211. + in China, 92. + in Kashgar, 259-263. + + Djinghite, _see_ Jigit. + + Dolans, 9, 143. + + Dungani, _see_ Tungani. + + Dungans, _see_ Tungani. + + Durani, 51. + + Dylon Yulduc, 26. + + + Eastern Turkestan, 1, 15, 17, 38-42, 59, _passim_. + + Edinburgh, Duke of, 205. + + Effects of Khoja risings on China's prestige, 70. + + Effects of past misrule in Kashgar, 39. + + Elchi Khana, 228. + + Eleuthian, or Eleuth princes, 42, 46. + + Emir, or Ameer, 198, 220, _passim_. + + England's policy towards China, 257; _see_ chapter 14 also. + towards Kashgar, 212-235. + trade with Kashgar, 153, 202. + trans-Himalayan policy, 204; _see_ chapter 14 also. + + English mission guests of Yakoob Beg, 232. + + Eshan Khan, 71. + + + Ferghana, 25, 32, 181, 187, 210. + + First outbreak against China in Eastern Turkestan, 64. + + Forsyth, Sir T. D., 6, 22, 194, 196, 204, 216, 218-219, 233, 234. + + Forsyth's report, 221, 233. + interview with Yakoob Beg, 228-230. + second mission to Kashgar, 221-232. + + + Galdan, 44, 45. + + "Garden of Asia," 2, 59. + + Genghis Khan, 25-20, 220, _passim_. + code of, 20. + + Ghizni, 28. + + Gibbon, 220. + + Glacier, _see_ Muzart Pass. + + Gobi, 1, 2, 19, 156, 246, _passim_. + + Goes Benedict, 37. + + Goitre, 12, _passim_. + + Gordon, Col., 92, 222. + + Gorkhan, 25. + + Granville-Gortschakoff negotiations, 207. + + Great road from Kashgar to Hamil and Kansuh, 12. + + Great Yuldus, 273. + + Gregorieff, Professor, 138. + + Grim Pass, 223-224. + + Guchen, 10, 246. + + Gulbagh, 55, 66. + + Guoharbrum, 11. + + + Hacc Kuli Beg (Khokandian general), 69. + + Hacc Kuli Beg (Yakoob Beg's son), 79, 133, 244, 252-253, 260. + + Hadayatulla, 37, 38. + + Hadji Torah, 140, 141, 169-171, 196, 220, 221, 223, 232, 233, 248. + + Haft Khojagan, 71. + + Hai Yen, 239. + + Hakim Beg, 55. + + Hakim Khan, 250-253, 259-261. + + Hamil, 10, 59, 130, 246, 247. + + Han Hing Nung, 240. + + Hastings, Warren, 213. + + Hayward, Mr., 216. + + Hazrat Afak, 37, 38, 74. + + Heh Tsun, 240. + + Henderson, Dr., 218, 219. + + Her Majesty, autograph letter of, 230. + + "High Tartary," 212. + + Himalaya, 213. + + Himalayan passes, 213. + + Hindoo Koosh, 14, 17, 28. + + Hodjent, 37, 44, 84, 208, 209, _passim_. + + Hordes, Kirghiz, 50. + + Hoser, 272. + + Houchow, 95. + + Houtan, 7. + + Husen, 32. + + Hwang Tsang, 4. + + Hydar Kuli, Hudaychi, 84. + + Hydar, 35. + + + Ihrar Khan Torah, 172, 218, 219, 228. + + Ilchi, 7. + + Ili, 1, 2, 7, 22, 25, 44, 45, 48, 176; _see_ chapter 14, _passim_. + + Ili, Viceroy of, 56, _passim_. + + Irjar, 85. + + Isa Dadkwah, 65-66. + + Ishac Wang, 68. + + Islamism, 20. + + Ismail Shah, 72. + + Issik Kul, 17, 33, 174. + + + Jade, 60, 163-164, _passim_. + + Jallab, 6. + + Jattah Ulus, or Jattahs, 29, 33, 35. + + Jehangir (Ababakar's son), 36. + + Jehangir (Sarimsak's son), 64, 65-68. + + Jehangir (Timour's son), 34. + + Jigit, 143, _passim_. + + Jungaria, 1, 2, 15, 17, 25, 33, 34, 47, 134, 175, 236, _passim_. + + + Kabil Shah, 32. + + Kafiristan, 37. + + Kafirs, 37. + + Kaidu River, 30, 266. + + Khalkhalu, 24. + + Kamaruddin, 33. + + Kamensky, Mr., 248, 264, 265. + + Kamschatka, 41. + + Kanaat Shah, 82-83. + + Kanghi, 42. + + Kansuh, 20, 24, 43, 92, _passim_. + + Kara Khitay, 24, 25. + + Kara Kirghiz, 17. + + Karakoram, 2, 37, 48, 213. + + Karakoram (city), 29. + + Karanghotagh, 36. + + Karashar, 2, 9, 20, 130, 247, 266. + + Karataghluc, 37, 44, 46, 49. + description of, 52-53. + + Karatakka mountains, 68. + + Karategin, 68, 77. + + Karghalik, 225. + + Karshi, 179. + + Kashgar River, _see_ Kizil Su. + + Kashgari resigned to Chinese conquest, 52. + + Kashgar, 12, 25, 35, 45, 178, _passim_. + history of, 22-40. + + Kashgaria, 1, 2, 13, _passim_. + + Kashgarian valley, description of, 10. + + Kashgarian scenery, 11. + + Kashgari not fanatics, 140. + dress of, 140. + + "Kashmir and Kashgar," 223. + + Katti Torah, Khoja, 71. + + Kaufmann, General, 185, 195, 197, 206, 207, 209, 250. + + Kaulbars, Baron, 192-195, 197. + + Kaulbars Treaty, 219. + + Kazalinsk, 79. + + Kazan Ameer, 31, 32. + + Kazi, 145, 146. + + Kazi Rais, 6, 146. + + Keen-Lung, 43-45, 63, 93, 156, _passim_. + + Kermina, 179. + + Khalkas, 19. + + Khan, 220-221. + + Khan Amban, _see_ Amban of Yarkand. + + Khan Khoja, 38, 48. + + Khans of Central Asia, 39. + + Khaton, 23. + + Khitay, 5, 21, 46, 93, 143, 240, _passim_. + + Khitay merchants, 58. + + Khiva, 25, 27, 178, 181, 197, 206. + + Khivan desert, 32. + + Khize Khoja, 33. + + Kho Dalay, 111. + + Khoja Ahmad, 44. + + Khoja family, 37, 48, 64. + + Khoja invasion, 73. + + Khoja Ishac, 52. + + Khoja Kalan, 52. + + Khoja Kalar, 37. + + Khoja Kings, 31. + + Khoja Kulan, 102. + + Khoja Padshah, _see_ Abdullah. + + Khojam Beg, 45. + + Khokand, 3, 17, 36, 48, 49, 187, _passim_. + + Khokand pays tribute to China, 50, 63-64. + + Khokand, rising in, 209-210. + + Khokandian intrigues, 57. + + Khokandian tax-gatherers, 97. + + Khoten, 17, 24, 25, 50, 118, 121-123, 224-225. + description of, 6. + rising at, 262. + + Khoten gold mines, 163. + + Khoten jade, 163, _passim_. + + Khudadar, 34. + + Khudayar Khan, 71, 81-86, 120, 187-189, 208-209, _passim_. + + Khwaresm, _see_ Khiva. + + Kiachta, 48. + + Kichik Khan, 72. + + Kin Shun, 136, 263, 266-272. + + Kipchak, 14, 25, _passim_. + description of, 18. + + Kirghiz, 14, 16, 17, 104, 143, 184, 209, _passim_. + description of, 17. + nomads submit to China, 50. + + Kish, 32. + + Kizil Su, 3. + + Kizil Yart, 17, _passim_. + + Kludof, 182-185. + + Kohistan, 2. + + Kok Robat, battle of, 72, 228. + + Kolpakovsky, General, 182, 184, 281. + + Kooda Kuli Beg, 79, 130. + + Koosh Bege, 79, _passim_. + + Korla, description of, 9, 245, 248, 267, 268, _passim_. + + Koshluk, 25. + + Kouralia, _see_ Korla. + + Kouroungli, _see_ Korla. + + Kucha, 2, 8, 127-130, 268, 269, 270, _passim_. + battle at, 270-271. + description of, 9. + + Kucha coal mines, 163. + + Kucha Khojas, 127, _passim_. + + Kuen Lun, 7. + + Kuhna Turfan, 7; _see_ Turfan. + + Kuhwei, 265, 266. + + Kuldja, 2, 94. + + Kuldja question, 265. + + Kuli Beg. 79, 133, 137, 141, 171, 250, 251, 252-253, 260-263, 274, 276. + + Kumush, 265. + + Kunar, 29. + + Kurama, 76, 82, _passim_. + + Kuropatkine, Capt., 204, 244-245. + + Kurtka Fort, 65. + + Kutaiba, 24. + + + Ladakh, 213. + + Lahore, 31. + + "Lahore to Yarkand," 219. + + Lake Lob, 134, 245. + + Lanchefoo, 45, 59, 246, _passim_. + + Laws in Kashgar, 145-146. + + Leaoutung, 41. + + Leh, 153. + + Lhasa, 60. + + Little Bokhara, 1, 213. + + Liu Kin Tang, _see_ Kin Shun. + + Lob Nor, _see_ Lake Lob. + + + Mah Dalay, 100. + + Mahomedanism in Kashgar, 24. + + Mahomedanism, _passim_. + + Mahomed Ali Khan (ruler of Khokand), 37, 66, 68, _passim_. + + Mahomed Arif, 77. + + Mahomed Beg of Artosh, 172. + + Mahomed Khan, 170. + + Mahomed Khoja, 171; _see_ also Sheikh-ul-Islam. + + Mahomed Kuli, 102. + + Mahomed Latif, _see_ Pur Mahomed. + + Mahomed Nazzar. 214, 215. + + Mahomed Seyyid Wang, of Kashgar, 66. + + Mahomed Yunus Jan, 140, 171-172, 215, 226, 227, 261. + + Makhram, battle of, 210. + + Manas, 133, 236, 263. + siege of, 239-240. + + Manchuria, 19. + + Manning, Thomas, 213, 294. + + Mansur, 35. + + Mantchoo, 41, 42. + + Maralbashi, 8, 31, 66, 110, 121; _see also_ Bartchuk. + + Marco Polo, 14, 30. + + Maulana Khoja Kasani, 52. + + Ma-yeo-pu, 270. + + Mecca, 37. + + Merv, 179. + + Meshed, 179. + + Michell, Messrs, opinion on Kashgar, 213. + + Military settlers, 50. + + Mines in Kashgar, 8. + + Ming dynasty, 41. + + Mingyol, battle at, 69. + + Mir, 82. + + Mirza, 204. + + Mirza Jan Effendi, 170. + + Mollah Khan, 82, 170. + + Mongols, 25, 41. + + Mongols, murder of, 27. + + Moorcroft, Mr., 213. + + Moral of Yakoob Beg's career, 257. + + Morozof, Mr., 202. + + Moscow gewgaws, 182. + + "Moses in the land," 39. + + Mourad Beg, 69. + + Mozaffur Eddin, 83, 179, 186, _passim_. + + Mufti, 146. + + Mufti Habitulla, 122-123. + murder of, 123. + + Mughol _see_ Mongol. + + Mugholistan. 1, 29. + + Muhtasib, 6. + + Mussulman Kuli, 18, 81-82, _passim_. + + Muzart Pass, 61, 78, 273. + + Mysoka Bahadur, 26. + + + Nadir Shah, 51, _passim_. + + Naiman tribe, 25. + + Nankin, 92. + + Nar Mahomed Khan, 77, 169. + + Naryn, 8, 61, 177, 178, 180, 183, _passim_. + + Nasruddin, 209-210. + + Nestorian Christians, 30. + + New Turfan, 7. + + Nur Ali (Kirghiz), 50. + + + Ogdai Khan, 29, 34. + + Oigur princes, 23. + + Oigurs, 16. + + Old saying in Kashgar, 39. + + Olja Turkan Khaton, 32. + + Opinion of Chinese rule, 152. + + Orda, or palace, at Kashgar, 3, 142. + + Orda, _passim_. + + Oxus, 23, 211. + + + Pamere, _see_ Pamir. + + Pamir, 1, 2, 8, 25, 36, 48. + + Panjkora, 28. + + Panthays, 92, 175, _passim_. + + Pekin, 29, 47, _passim_. + + _Pekin Gazette_, 238, 249, 253, 267, 272. + + Perovsky, General, 79-81. + + Perovsky Fort, 81. + + Persia, 14, 23. + + Piskent, 76, 77. + + Population of Kashgaria, 2, 59, 157. + of city of Kashgar, 3. + of city of Kucha, 9. + of city of Yarkand, 5. + + Powers interested in Kashgar, 196. + + Presents to Yakoob Beg, 230-231. + + Prester John, 25. + + Prince of Kashgar, _see_ Ishac Wang. + + Prjevalsky, Col., 20, 245, 250, 273. + + Pupyshef, Mr., 199-200. + + Pur Mahomed Mirza, 76. + + + Rashid, 37, 52. + + Reinthal's, Capt., mission to Kashgar, 184-185, 202-204. + + Rising against Russia, folly of, if not combined, 180. + + Risings in Khokand, _see_ Khokand. + + Road between Ili and Kashgar, 61. + + "Road Board," 62. + + Romanoffski, General, 85. + + "Roof of the World," 222. + + Royal Body Guard, 226. + + Ruduk, 233. + + Russia at Vernoe, 130. + + Russia demands Consuls in Kashgar, 203, 205. + + Russia in Central Asia, 47, 173. + + Russia in Kuldja or Ili, 133, 174-177, 279-282. + + Russia invades Kuldja, 206. + + Russia promises to restore Ili, 175. + + Russian attitude towards Chinese, 248. + + Russian merchants, 164, 182, 193, 197, 199, 202. + + Russian policy towards Kashgar, 177-209. + + Russian trade with Kashgar, 153. + + + Sadic Beg, 86, 87, 102, 103, 104, 107, 116, 117, 261, 263, 275. + embassy to Tashkent, 87. + truce with, 107. + + Sahib Khan, 81. + + Said, 35, 36, 37, 52. + + Salara, 95. + + Samarcand, 25, 33, 52, 179. + + Saniz, 34. + + Sanju, 7, 36, 224, _passim_. + + Sanju Devan, 11, 223. + + Sarbaz, 143, _passim_. + + Sarimsak Khoja, 48, 51, 64, 65. + + Satuk Bughra Khan, 24. + + Schlagintweit, Messrs., 16, 214 _passim_. + + Schuyler, Eugene, 195. + + Scobelef, Gen., 207. + + Scobelef, Col., 207, 210. + + Scourges of God, 28, 33. + + Seistan, 32. + + Seven Khoja princes, 71. + + Seyyid Ali, 34. + + Seyyid Yakoob Khan, _see_ Hadji Torah. + + Shadi Mirza, 184-185. + + Shahidoolah, 223. + + Shahrisebz, 32. + + Sham, 226. + + Shariat, 90, 145. + + Shaw, Robt., 16, 194, 212, 213, 215, 218, 221, 232, 234. + + Sheikh-ul-Islam, 116-117, 151, 158. + + Sheikh Nizamuddin, 77. + + Shensi, 20, 92, 237. + + Shere Ali (Cabul), 8, 118, 179. + + Shere Ali Khan (Khokand), 83. + + Siberia, 1, 47. + + Sirikul, 8, 106, 118, 132. + + Six Cities, _see_ Altyshahr. + + Sobo tribes, 94. + + Somof, Mr., 109-200. + + St. George and St. Anne Cross Fever, 206. + + St. Petersburg, 185, 196. + + Stoliczka, Dr., 222. + + Story of St Constantine's day, 194. + + Subashi, 265. + + "Sublimely Pure," 42. + + Sule, 1. + + Sultan Mourad, 83. + + Sultan Seyyid, 83, 86. + + Suranchi Beg, 65, 104. + + Syr Darya, 18, 79, 192. + + Swat, 28. + + Szchuen, 58, 237. + + + Taepings, 92. + + Tagharchi, 106. + + Tajik, 14, 78. + + Talifoo, 92, 175, 237. + + Tamerlane, _see_ Timour. + + Tanab, 162. + + Tanabi, 162. + + Tang dynasty, 22. + + Tang Jen Ho, 265. + + Tangut, 27. + + Tarantchis. 12, 68, 124-125. + + Tarfur, _see_ Turfan. + + Tartar, 15 _passim_. + + Tarzagchi, 149. + + Tash Balik, 65. + + Tashkent, 25, 32, 49, 84, 208. + battle of, 85, 209, _passim_. + etiquette at, 206. + + _Tashkent Gazette_, _see_ Turkestan. + + Tashkurgan, 8. + + Tatsing, 42. + + Tawats, _see_ Davatsi. + + Taxes in Kashgar, 56, 62, 63, 151-160. + + Tay Dalay, 55. + + Tchernaief, 84-85. + + Tchimkent, 84. + + Tekes, river and pass, 133, 273. + + Tenure of land in Kashgar, 161. + + Terek Pass, 61, 103. + + Tian Shan, 2, 20, 33, 59, 247, _passim_. + + Tian Shan Nan Lu, 61. + + Tian Shan Pe Lu, 61. + + Tibet, 7, 37, 42, 50, 56, 60, 213, 217. + Cashmerian, 2. + + Tibetan table-land, 36. + + Timour, 32-34, 91. + + Timour Khan (Chinese Emperor), 31. + + Timour, Yakoob Beg's descent from, 77. + + Tobolsk, 48. + + Toghluc Timour, 31, 33. + + Toksoun, 242, 244, 264. + battle at, 247. + + To Teh Lin, 240. + + Trade, 153. + + Trade privileges, 57. + + Trade with China, 217-218; _see_ chapter 14. + + Trade with Kashgar, 106, 216-217. + + Treaty between England and Kashgar, 232. + + Treaty between Russia and Kashgar, 194. + + Treaty with Khokand, 69. + + Trotter, Captain, 222. + + Tsedayar, 268. + + Tso Tsung Tang, 246, 247, 263, 265, 272, 275, _passim_. + army of, 272. + + Tungani, 2, 19, 20, 21, 93, 130, 144, 239, 241, 243, _passim_. + description of, 19, 93-94. + + Tungan rising proper, 95, 96, 123-124. + in Kashgar, 96, 102. + in Kuldja, 124-125. + + Tungani desert Yakoob Beg, 249. + + Tungani unorthodox, 127. + defend Kucha, 127-130. + + Turanian family, 14, 15. + + Turcomans, 32. + + Turfan, 21, 130, 242, 244, 264. + battle at, 247. + + Turfan Ush, _see_ Ush Turfan. + + Turghay, 32. + + Turkestan, Eastern, _see_ Eastern Turkestan. + Western, _see_ Western Turkestan. + + _Turkestan Gazette_, 251, 252, 264, _passim_. + + Turkestan Trading Company, 232. + + Tyfu, 231. + + + Uigurs, _see_ Oigurs. + + Uman Sheikh, 36. + + Urumtsi, 10, 130, 131, 134, 236. + siege of, 238-239. + + Usbeg, 14. + + Usha Tal, 265. + + "Ushr" tax, 62, 160. + + Ush Turfan, 7, 45, 46, 47, 130, 183, 273. + rising at, 51. + + + Vagrants, laws against, 150. + + Value of land in Kashgar, 160-161. + + Vernoe, 8, 130, 174, 176, 182. + + Viceroy of Ili, 55, _passim_. + + Viceroy of Kansuh, 237-238; _see also_ Tso Tsung Tung. + + "Vodka," 209. + + "Vuoba," 264. + + + Wakhan, 8, 64. + + Wali Khan, 71, 72, 214. + character of, 72-73. + + Wangs, 56, 63, _passim_. + + Wanleh, 41. + + Wealth of Kashgar merchants, 165. + + Western Turkestan, 14, 15, _passim_. + + + Yahya, 38. + + Yakoob Beg, birth of, 76; + early career, 78-91; + character of, 88, 91; + charges against, 89; + sets out against Kashgar, 91; + expedition against Kashgar, 103-118; + fails to take Yarkand, 106; + defeats Tungan army near Yangy Hissar, 109; + marries Kho Dalay's daughter, 112; + attacks Yarkand again, 113-116; + reverse at Yarkand, 114; + takes Yarkand, 116; + reasons for wars with Tungani, 120; + wars with Tungani, 126-127, 127-130, 132-136; + retrospect of his invasion of Kashgar, 119; + his army, 134-135, 142-144; + policy towards Tungani, 135-136; + internal policy, 137-139; + foreign policy, _see_ chapters 10 and 11; + court of, 138-139; + police system of, 146-152; + principles of finance of, 154-167; + expenses of, 157; + revenue of, 167; + reply to Russian threats, 186, 191-192; + reply to Khudayar Khan's overtures, 190; + sends envoy to Tashkent, 195; + arrangement with Sultan, 196; + his opinion of trade, 198; + out-manoeuvres Russia, 199-201; + congratulates Czar on marriage of his daughter, 205; + prepares to defend himself against Russia, 208; + weakness of his foreign policy, 210-211; + policy towards England, 218-233; + decline of friendship towards England, 231; + prepares to defend himself against China, 244-246; + comparison with China, 241-249; + death of, 250-253; + resume of career, 253-257, _passim_. + + Yakoob Khan, 220; _see_ Yakoob Beg. + + Yakoob Khan, of Cabul, 221. + + Yangabad, battle of, 67. + + Yangy Hissar, 4, 24, 35, 36, 44, 105, 228. + fort surrenders to Yakoob Beg, 106. + + Yangy Mussulmans, 112, 243, _passim_. + + Yangy Shahr, 34, 68, _passim_. + at Yarkand, gallant defence of, 101. + at Kashgar, 102, 107, 111-112. + + Yarkand, 3, 5, 44, 226. + embassy to, 22. + river, 5, 59. + Tungan rising in, 99-102, 105-106. + + Yuldus, 133; _see also_ Great Yuldus. + + Yung Ching, 43. + + Yunus, 34, 35, 40. + + Yusuf (son of Galdan), 46. + + Yusuf (son of Sarimsak), 64, 69. + + Yuzbashi Mahomed Zareef Khan, 223. + + + "Zakat" tax, 62, 160, 164-167. + + Zilchak, 226. + + Zuelik, 79. + + Zuhuruddin, 70-72. + + +Woodfall & Kinder, Printers, Milford Lane, Strand, London, W.C. + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +The following modifications have been made to the text. + +Page 205: detracted replaced with detraction. + + There is no difficulty in arriving at the conclusion that such + exhibitions as this is an instance of detracted from the + otherwise great and striking characteristics of the ruler of + Kashgar. + +Page 250: Missing period added at the end of sentence. + + They were probably not aware of what was taking place some 300 + miles from their camp until many weeks after it had happened; + and then conceived that their best policy would be to give time + for the disintegrating causes at work within the state to have + their full effect before they advanced westward. + +Page 255: unaminity replaced with unanimity. + + There were superior strategy and superior weapons; greater force + and greater determination; no hesitation in action, and perfect + unaminity in council; all combined to crush one poor forlorn + man, fighting with all the desperation of despair for life, if + not for liberty. + +Page 258: Missing t added, aken replaced with taken. + + Nor did it follow as a matter of necessity that because the + Chinese had aken Turfan they could capture Kashgar or Yarkand. + +Page 278: momet replaced with moment. + + Moreover there is the unknown quantity of the rivalry of Li Hung + Chang and Tso Tsung Tang, and whatever influence the latter may + have with the army and the ruling caste on account of his + Mantchoo blood, the former holds the purse in his hands, and can + at any momet paralyse Chinese activity and strength in Central + Asia. + +Page 306: accurracy replaced with accuracy. + + the accurracy of which has been so strikingly proved by the + correct position given to the two lakes Khas-omo, + +Page 337: Period replaced with comma after 209-210. + + Abderrahman Aftobatcha, 18, 209-210. 211. + +Page 339: Hyder replaced with Hydar. + + Hyder, 35. + +Page 340: Kalkhalu replaced with Khalkhalu. + + Kalkhalu, 24. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Life of Yakoob Beg, by Demetrius Boulger + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF YAKOOB BEG *** + +***** This file should be named 33712.txt or 33712.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/7/1/33712/ + +Produced by The Bookworm, [bookworm.librivox AT gmail.com], +Asad Razzaki and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from scanned +images of public domain material from the Google Print +project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/33712.zip b/33712.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0e464d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/33712.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5325282 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #33712 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33712) |