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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Future of Road-making in America, by 
+Archer Butler Hulbert
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Future of Road-making in America
+
+Author: Archer Butler Hulbert
+
+Release Date: September 12, 2010 [EBook #33706]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING IN AMERICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by V. L. Simpson, Barbara Kosker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+HISTORIC HIGHWAYS OF AMERICA
+
+VOLUME 15
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: General Roy Stone
+
+(_Father of the good-roads movement in the United States_)]
+
+
+
+
+ HISTORIC HIGHWAYS OF AMERICA
+
+ VOLUME 15
+
+
+
+
+ The Future of Road-making in America
+
+ A Symposium
+
+ BY
+
+ ARCHER BUTLER HULBERT
+
+ and others
+
+
+
+
+ _With Illustrations_
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+ THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY
+ CLEVELAND, OHIO
+ 1905
+
+
+
+
+ COPYRIGHT, 1905
+ BY
+ THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY
+
+ ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+ PREFACE                                                            11
+
+   I. THE FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING IN AMERICA                          15
+
+  II. GOVERNMENT COÖPERATION IN OBJECT-LESSON ROAD WORK             67
+
+ III. GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS                                        81
+
+  IV. THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS                 170
+
+   V. STONE ROADS IN NEW JERSEY                                    190
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    I. PORTRAIT OF GENERAL ROY STONE
+       (father of the good-roads movement
+       in the United States)                            _Frontispiece_
+
+   II. A GOOD-ROADS TRAIN                                           59
+
+  III. SAMPLE STEEL TRACK FOR COMMON ROADS
+       (showing portrait of Hon. Martin Dodge)                      66
+
+   IV. TYPICAL MACADAM ROAD NEAR BRYN MAWR, PENNSYLVANIA            83
+
+    V. A STUDY IN GRADING                                           89
+
+   VI. SAND CLAY ROAD IN RICHLAND COUNTY, SOUTH CAROLINA           115
+
+  VII. GRAVEL ROAD NEAR SOLDIERS' HOME, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA       127
+
+ VIII. OYSTER-SHELL OBJECT-LESSON ROAD                             137
+
+   IX. EARTH AND MACADAM ROADS                                     168
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The present volume on the Future of Road-making in America presents
+representative opinions, from laymen and specialists, on the subject of
+the road question as it stands today.
+
+After the author's sketch of the question as a whole in its sociological
+as well as financial aspects, there follows the Hon. Martin Dodge's
+paper on "Government Coöperation in Object-lesson Road Work." The third
+chapter comprises a reprint of Hon. Maurice O. Eldridge's careful
+article, "Good Roads for Farmers," revised by the author for this
+volume. Professor Logan Waller Page's paper on "The Selection of
+Materials for Macadam Roads" composes chapter four, and E. G. Harrison's
+article on "Stone Roads in New Jersey" concludes the book, being
+specially valuable because of the advanced position New Jersey has taken
+in the matter of road-building.
+
+For illustrations to this volume the author is indebted to the Office of
+Public Road Inquiries, Hon. Martin Dodge, Director.
+
+ A. B. H.
+ MARIETTA, OHIO, May 31, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+The Future of Road-making in America
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING IN AMERICA
+
+
+In introducing the subject of the future of road-making in America, it
+may first be observed that there is to be a future in road-building on
+this continent. We have today probably the poorest roads of any
+civilized nation; although, considering the extent of our roads, which
+cover perhaps a million and a half miles, we of course have the best
+roads of any nation of similar age. As we have elsewhere shown, the era
+of railway building eclipsed the great era of road and canal building in
+the third and fourth decades of the old century, and it is interesting
+to note that freight rates on American railways today are cheaper than
+on any railways in any other country of the world. To move a ton of
+freight in England one hundred miles today, you pay two dollars and
+thirty cents; in Germany, two dollars; in France, one dollar and
+seventy-five cents; in "poor downtrodden" Russia, one dollar and thirty
+cents. But in America it costs on the average only seventy-two cents.
+This is good, but it does not by any means answer all the conditions;
+the average American farm is located today--even with our vast network
+of railways--at least ten miles from a railroad station. Now railway
+building has about reached its limit so far as mileage is concerned in
+this country; in the words of Stuyvesant Fish, president of the Illinois
+Central Railroad Company, we have "in the United States generally, a
+sufficiency of railroads." Thus the average farm is left a dozen miles
+from a railway, and in all probability will be that far away a century
+from now. And note: seventy-five per cent of the commerce of the world
+starts for its destination on wagon roads, and we pay annually in the
+United States six hundred million dollars freightage to get our produce
+over our highways from the farms to the railways.
+
+Let me restate these important facts: the average American farm is ten
+miles from a railway; the railways have about reached their limit of
+growth territorially; and we pay six hundred million dollars every year
+to get the seventy-five per cent of our raw material and produce from
+our farms to our railways.
+
+This is the main proposition of the good roads problem, and the reason
+why the road question is to be one of the great questions of the next
+half century. The question is, How much can we save of this half a
+billion dollars, at the least expenditure of money and in the most
+beneficial way?
+
+In this problem, as in many, the most important phase is the one most
+difficult to study and most difficult to solve. It is as complex as
+human life itself. It is the question of good roads as they affect the
+social and moral life of our rural communities. It is easy to talk of
+bad roads costing a half billion dollars a year--the answer should be
+that of Hood's--"O God! that bread should be so dear, and flesh and
+blood so cheap." You cannot count in terms of the stock exchange the
+cost to this land of poor roads; for poor roads mean the decay of
+country living, the abandonment of farms and farm-life, poor schools,
+poor churches, and homes stricken with a social poverty that drives the
+young men and girls into the cities. You cannot estimate the cost to
+this country, in blood, brain, and muscle, of the hideous system of
+public roads we have possessed in the decade passed. Look at any of our
+cities to the men who guide the swift rush of commercial, social, and
+religious affairs and you will find men whose birthplaces are not
+preparing another such generation of men for the work of the future.
+
+For instance, bad roads and good schools are incompatible. The coming
+generation of strong men and strong women is crying out now for good
+roads. "There is a close and permanent relation," said Alabama's
+superintendent of education, "existing between good public roads and
+good public schools. There can be no good country schools in the absence
+of good country roads. Let us be encouraged by this movement looking
+toward an improvement in road-building and road-working. I see in it a
+better day for the boys and girls who must look to the country schools
+for citizenship." "I have been longing for years," said President Jesse
+of the University of Missouri, "to stump the capital state, if
+necessary, in favor of the large consolidated schoolhouse rather than
+the single schoolhouses sitting at the crossroads. But the wagons could
+not get two hundred yards in most of our counties. Therefore I have had
+to smother my zeal, hold my tongue, and wait for the consolidated
+schoolhouse until Missouri wakes to the necessity of good roads. Then
+not only shall we have consolidated schoolhouses, but also the principal
+of the school and his wife will live in the school building, or in one
+close by. The library and reading-room of the school will be the library
+and reading-room of the neighborhood.... The main assembly room of the
+consolidated schoolhouse will be an assembly place for public
+lectures.... I am in favor of free text-books, but I tell you here and
+now that free text-books are a trifle compared with good roads and the
+consolidated schoolhouse." It is found that school attendance in states
+where good roads abound is from twenty-five to fifty per cent greater
+than in states which have not good roads. How long will it take for the
+consolidated schoolhouse and increased and regular attendance to be
+worth half a billion dollars to American men and women of the next
+generation?
+
+This applies with equal pertinency to what I might call the consolidated
+church; good roads make it possible for a larger proportion of country
+residents to enjoy the superior advantages of the splendid city
+churches; in fact good roads have in certain instances been held guilty
+of destroying the little country church. This could be true within only
+a small radius of the cities, and the advantages to be gained outweigh,
+I am sure, the loss occasioned by the closing of small churches within a
+dozen miles of our large towns and cities--churches which, in many
+cases, have only occasional services and are a constant financial drain
+on the city churches. Farther out in the country, good roads will make
+possible one strong, healthy church where perhaps half a dozen weak
+organizations are made to lead a precarious existence because bad roads
+make large congregations impossible throughout the larger part of the
+year. This also applies to city schools, libraries, hospitals, museums,
+and lyceums. Good roads will place these advantages within reach of
+millions of country people who now know little or nothing of them. Once
+beyond driving distance of the cities, good roads will make it possible
+for thousands to reach the suburban railways and trolley lines. Who can
+estimate in mere dollars these advantages to the quality of American
+citizenship a century hence? American farms are taxed by the government
+and pay one-half of the seven hundred million dollars it takes yearly to
+operate this government. After receiving one-half, what per cent does
+the government return to them? Only ten per cent. Ninety per cent goes
+to the direct or indirect benefit of those living in our cities. Where
+does the government build its fine buildings, where does it spend its
+millions on rivers and harbors? How much does it expend to ease this
+burden of six hundred millions which lies so largely on the farmers of
+America? A few years ago a law was passed granting $50,000 to
+investigate a plan to deliver mail on rural delivery routes to our
+farmers and country residents. The law was treated about as respectfully
+as the long-headed Jesse Hawley who wrote a series of articles
+advocating the building of the Erie Canal; a certain paper printed a few
+of them, but the editor sent the remainder back saying he could not use
+them--they were making his sheet an object of ridicule. Eighteen years
+later the canal was built and in the first year brought in a revenue of
+$492,664. So with the first Rural Free Delivery appropriation--the
+postmaster general to whose hands that first $50,000 was entrusted for
+experimental purposes, refused to try it and sent the money back to the
+treasury. Today the Rural Free Delivery is an established fact, of
+immeasurable benefit; and if any of the appropriations for it are not
+expended it is not because they are being sent back to the treasury by
+scrupulous officials. Rural delivery routes diverge from our towns and
+cities and give the country people the advantages of a splendid post
+office system. Good roads to these cities would give them a score of
+advantages where now they have but this one. Like rural delivery it may
+seem impracticable, but in a short space of time America will leap
+forward in the front rank of the nations in point of good highways.
+
+An execrable road system, besides bringing poor schools and poor
+churches, has rendered impossible any genuine community of social
+interests among country people. At the very season when the farm work is
+light and social intercourse feasible, at that season the highways have
+been impassable. To this and the poor schools and churches may be
+attributed the saddest and really most costly social revolution in
+America in the past quarter of a century. The decline of country living
+must in the nature of things prove disastrously costly to any nation.
+"The roar of the cannon and the gleam of swords," wrote that brilliant
+apostle of outdoor life, Dr. W. H. H. Murray, "is less significant than
+the destruction of New England homesteads, the bricking up of New
+England fireplaces and the doing away with the New England well-sweep;
+for these show a change in the nature of the circulation itself, and
+prove that the action of the popular heart has been interrupted,
+modified and become altogether different from what it was." In the
+popular mind the benefits of country living are common only as a fad;
+the boy who goes to college and returns to the farm again is one of a
+thousand. Who wants to be landlocked five months of the year, without
+social advantages? Good roads, in one generation, would accomplish a
+social revolution throughout the United States that would greatly tend
+to better our condition and brighten the prospect of future strength.
+President Winston of the North Carolina State College of Agriculture
+said: "It might be demonstrated beyond a reasonable doubt that bad roads
+are unfavorable to matrimony and increase of population." Seven of the
+most stalwart lads and beautiful lasses of Greece were sent each year to
+Crete to be sacrificed to the Minotaur; bad roads in America send
+thousands of boys and girls into our cities to the Minotaurs of evil
+because conditions in the country do not make for the social happiness
+for which they naturally yearn.
+
+Thus we may hint at the greater, more serious, phase of the road
+problem. Beside it, the financial feature of the problem can have no
+place; the farm has been too much to the American nation, its product of
+boys and girls has been too eternally precious to the cause of liberty
+for which our nation stands, to permit a system of highways on this
+continent which will make it a place where now in the twentieth century
+foreigners, only, can be happy. The sociological side of the road
+question is of more moment today in this country, so far as the health
+of our body politic in the future is concerned, than nine-tenths of the
+questions most prominent in the two political platforms that come
+annually before the people.
+
+William Jennings Bryan, when addressing the Good Roads Convention at St.
+Louis in 1903, said:
+
+"It is a well-known fact, or a fact easily ascertained, that the people
+in the country, while paying their full share of county, state, and
+federal taxes, receive as a rule only the general benefits of
+government, while the people in the cities have, in addition to the
+protection afforded by the Government, the advantage arising from the
+expenditure of public moneys in their midst. The county seat of a
+county, as a rule, enjoys the refreshing influence of an expenditure of
+county money out of proportion to its population. The capital of a state
+and the city where the state institutions are located, likewise receive
+the benefit of an expenditure of public money out of proportion to their
+population. When we come to consider the distribution of the moneys
+collected by the Federal Government, we find that the cities, even in a
+larger measure, monopolize the incidental benefits that arise from the
+expenditure of public moneys.
+
+"The appropriations of the last session of Congress amounted to
+$753,484,018, divided as follows:
+
+ Agriculture                                        $ 5,978,160
+ Army                                                78,138,752
+ Diplomatic and consular service                      1,968,250
+ District of Columbia                                 8,647,497
+ Fortifications                                       7,188,416
+ Indians                                              8,512,950
+ Legislative, executive, and judicial departments    27,595,958
+ Military Academy                                       563,248
+ Navy                                                81,877,291
+ Pensions                                         $ 139,847,600
+ Post Office Department                             153,401,409
+ Sundry Civil                                        82,722,955
+ Deficiencies                                        21,561,572
+ Permanent annual                                   132,589,820
+ Miscellaneous                                        3,250,000
+
+"It will be seen that the appropriation for the Department of
+Agriculture was insignificant when compared with the total
+appropriations--less than one per cent. The appropriations for the Army
+and Navy alone amounted to twenty-five times the sum appropriated for
+the Department of Agriculture. An analysis of the expenditures of the
+Federal Government will show that an exceedingly small proportion of the
+money raised from all the people gets back to the farmers directly; how
+much returns indirectly it is impossible to say, but certain it is that
+the people who live in the cities receive by far the major part of the
+special benefits that come from the showering of public money upon the
+community. The advantage obtained locally from government expenditures
+is so great that the contests for county seats and state capitals
+usually exceed in interest, if not in bitterness, the contests over
+political principles and policies. So great is the desire to secure an
+appropriation of money for local purposes that many will excuse a
+Congressman's vote on either side of any question if he can but secure
+the expenditure of a large amount of public money in his district.
+
+"I emphasize this because it is a fact to which no reference has been
+made. The point is that the farmer not only pays his share of the taxes,
+but more than his share, yet very little of what he pays gets back to
+him.
+
+"People in the city pay not only less than their share, as a rule, but
+get back practically all of the benefits that come from the expenditure
+of the people's money. Let me show you what I mean when I say that the
+farmer pays more than his share. The farmer has visible property, and
+under any form of direct taxation visible property pays more than its
+share. Why? Because the man with visible property always pays. If he has
+an acre of land the assessor can find it. He can count the horses and
+cattle.... The farmer has nothing that escapes taxation; and, in all
+direct taxation, he not only pays on all he has, but the farmer who has
+visible property has to pay a large part of the taxes that ought to be
+paid by the owners of invisible property, who escape taxation. I repeat,
+therefore, that the farmer not only pays more than his share of all
+direct taxation, but that when you come to expend public moneys you do
+not spend them on the farms, as a rule. You spend them in the cities,
+and give the incidental benefits to the people who live in the cities.
+
+"When indirect taxation is considered, the farmer's share is even more,
+because when you come to collect taxes through indirection and on
+consumption, you make people pay not in proportion to what they have but
+in proportion to what they need, and God has so made us that the farmer
+needs as much as anybody else, even though he may not have as much with
+which to supply his needs as other people. In our indirect taxation,
+therefore, for the support of the Federal Government, the farmers pay
+even more out of proportion to their wealth and numbers. We should
+remember also that when we collect taxes through consumption we make
+the farmer pay not only on that which is imported, but upon much of that
+which is produced at home. Thus the farmer's burden is not measured by
+what the treasury receives, but is frequently many times what the
+treasury receives. Thus under indirect taxation the burden upon the
+farmer is greater than it ought to be; yet when you trace the
+expenditure of public moneys distributed by the Federal Government you
+find that even in a larger measure special benefits go to the great
+cities and not to the rural communities.
+
+"The improvement of the country roads can be justified also on the
+ground that the farmer, the first and most important of the producers of
+wealth, ought to be in position to hold his crop and market it at the
+most favorable opportunity, whereas at present he is virtually under
+compulsion to sell it as soon as it is matured, because the roads may
+become impassable at any time during the fall, winter, or spring.
+Instead of being his own warehouseman, the farmer is compelled to employ
+middlemen, and share with them the profits upon his labor. I believe,
+as a matter of justice to the farmer, he ought to have roads that will
+enable him to keep his crop and take it to the market at the best time,
+and not place him in a position where they can run down the price of
+what he has to sell during the months he must sell, and then, when he
+has disposed of it, run the price up and give the speculator what the
+farmer ought to have. The farmer has a right to insist upon roads that
+will enable him to go to town, to church, to the schoolhouse, and to the
+homes of his neighbors, as occasion may require; and, with the extension
+of rural mail delivery, he has additional need for good roads in order
+that he may be kept in communication with the outside world, for the
+mail routes follow the good roads.
+
+"A great deal has been said, and properly so, in regard to the influence
+of good roads upon education. In the convention held at Raleigh, North
+Carolina, the account of which I had the pleasure of reading, great
+emphasis was placed upon the fact that you can not have a school system
+such as you ought to have unless the roads are in condition for the
+children to go to school. While we are building great libraries in the
+great cities we do not have libraries in the country; and there ought to
+be a library in every community. Instead of laying upon the farmer the
+burden of buying his own books, we ought to make it possible for the
+farmers to have the same opportunity as the people in the city to use
+books in common, and thus economize on the expense of a library. I agree
+with Professor Jesse in regard to the consolidation of schoolhouses in
+such a way as to give the child in the country the same advantages which
+the child in the city has. We have our country schools, but it is
+impossible in any community to have a well-graded school with only a few
+pupils, unless you go to great expense. In cities, when a child gets
+through the graded school he can remain at home, and, without expense to
+himself or his parents, go on through the high school. But if the
+country boy or girl desires to go from the graded school to the high
+school, as a rule it is necessary to go to the county seat and there
+board with some one; so the expense to the country child is much
+greater than to the child in the city. I was glad, therefore, to hear
+Professor Jesse speak of such a consolidation of schools as will give to
+the children in the country advantages equal to those enjoyed by the
+children of the city.
+
+"And as you study this subject, you find it reaches out in every
+direction; it touches us at every vital point. What can be of more
+interest to us than the schooling of our children? What can be of more
+interest to every parent than bringing the opportunity of educational
+instruction within the reach of every child? It does not matter whether
+a man has children himself or not.... Every citizen of a community is
+interested in the intellectual life of that community. Sometimes I have
+heard people complain that they were overburdened with taxes for the
+education of other people's children. My friends, the man who has no
+children can not afford to live in a community where there are children
+growing up in ignorance; the man with none has the same duty as the man
+with many, barring the personal pride of the parent. I say, therefore,
+that anything that contributes to the general diffusion of knowledge,
+anything that makes more educated boys and girls throughout our country,
+is a matter of intense interest to every citizen, whether he be the
+father of a family or not; whether he lives in the country or in the
+town.
+
+"And ought not the people have the opportunity to attend church? I am
+coming to believe that what we need in this country, even more than
+education of the intellect, is the education of the moral side of our
+nature. I believe, with Jefferson, that the church and the state should
+be separate. I believe in religious freedom, and I would not have any
+man's conscience fettered by act of law; but I do believe that the
+welfare of this nation demands that man's moral nature shall be educated
+in keeping with his brain and with his body. In fact, I have come to
+define civilization as the harmonious development of the body, the mind,
+and the heart. We make a mistake if we believe that this nation can
+fulfil its high destiny and mission either with mere athletes or mere
+scholars. We need the education of the moral sense; and if these good
+roads will enable men, women, and children to go more frequently to
+church, and there hear expounded the gospel and receive inspiration
+therefrom, that alone is reason enough for good roads.
+
+"There is a broader view of this question, however, that deserves
+consideration. The farm is, and always has been, conspicuous because of
+the physical development it produces, the intellectual strength it
+furnishes, and the morality it encourages. The young people in the
+country find health and vigor in the open air and in the exercise which
+farm life gives; they acquire habits of industry and economy; their work
+gives them opportunity for thought and reflection; their contact with
+nature teaches them reverence, and their environment promotes good
+habits. The farms supply our colleges with their best students and they
+also supply our cities with leaders in business and professional life.
+In the country there is neither great wealth nor great poverty--'the
+rich and the poor meet together' and recognize that 'the Lord is the
+father of them all.' There is a fellowship, and, to use the word in its
+broadest sense, a democracy in the country that is much needed today to
+temper public opinion and protect the foundations of free government. A
+larger percentage of the people in the country than in the city study
+public questions, and a smaller percentage are either corrupt or are
+corrupted. It is important, therefore, for the welfare of our government
+and for the advancement of our civilization that we make life upon the
+farm as attractive as possible. Statistics have shown the constant
+increase in the urban population and the constant decrease in the rural
+population from decade to decade. Without treading upon controversial
+ground or considering whether this trend has been increased by
+legislation hostile to the farm, it will be admitted that the government
+is in duty bound to guard jealously the interests of the rural
+population, and, as far as it can, make farm life inviting. In the
+employment of modern conveniences the city has considerably outstripped
+the country, and naturally so, for in a densely populated community the
+people can by coöperation supply themselves with water, light, and rapid
+transit at much smaller cost than they can in a sparsely settled
+country. But it is evident that during the last few years much has been
+done to increase the comforts of the farm. In the first place, the rural
+mail delivery has placed millions of farmers in daily communication with
+the world. It has brought not only the letter but the newspaper to the
+door. Its promised enlargement and extension will make it possible for
+the wife to order from the village store and have her purchases
+delivered by the mail-carrier. The telephone has also been a great boon
+to the farmer. It lessens by one-half the time required to secure a
+physician in case of accident or illness--an invention which every
+mother can appreciate. The extension of the electric-car line also
+deserves notice. It is destined to extend the borders of the city and to
+increase the number of small farms at the expense of flats and tenement
+houses. The suburban home will bring light and hope to millions of
+children.
+
+"But after all this, there still remains a pressing need for better
+country roads. As long as mud placed an embargo upon city traffic, the
+farmer could bear his mud-made isolation with less complaint, but with
+the improvement of city streets and with the establishment of parks and
+boulevards, the farmer's just demands for better roads find increasing
+expression."
+
+The late brilliant congressman, Hon. Thomas H. Tongue of Oregon, left on
+record a few paragraphs on the sociological effect of good roads that
+ought to be preserved:
+
+"Good roads do not concern our pockets only. They may become the
+instrumentalities for improved health, increased happiness and pleasure,
+for refining tastes, strengthening, broadening, and elevating the
+character. The toiler in the great city must have rest and recreation.
+Old and young, and especially the young, with character unformed, must
+and will sweeten the daily labor with some pleasure. It is not the hours
+of industry, but the hours devoted to pleasure, that furnish the devil
+his opportunity. It is not while we are at work but while we are at
+play that temptations steal over the senses, put conscience to sleep,
+despoil manhood, and destroy character. Healthful and innocent
+recreations and pleasure are national needs and national blessings. They
+are among the most important instrumentalities of moral reform. They are
+as essential to purity of mind and soul as to healthfulness of body. Out
+beyond the confines of the city, with its dust and dirt and filth,
+morally and physically, these are to be found, and good roads help to
+find them. What peace and inspiration may come from flowers and music,
+brooks and waterfalls! How the mountains pointing heavenward, yesterday
+battling with storms, today bathed with sunshine, bid you stand firm,
+walk erect, look upward, cherish hope, and for light and guidance to
+call upon the Creator of all light and of all wisdom! How such scenes as
+these kindle the imagination of the poet, quicken and enlarge the
+conception of the artist, fire the soul of the orator, purify and
+elevate us all! But if love of action rather than contemplation and
+reflection tempts you, how the blood thrills and the spirits rise as
+one springs lightly into the saddle, caresses the slender neck of an
+equine beauty, grasps firmly the reins, bids farewell to the impurities
+of the city, and dashes into the hills and the valleys and the mountains
+to commune with nature and nature's God. Or what joy more exquisite than
+with pleasant companionship to dash along the smooth highway, drawn by a
+noble American trotter? What poor city scenes can so inspire poetic
+feeling, can so increase the love of the beautiful, can so elevate and
+broaden and strengthen the character, and so inspire us with reverence
+for the great Father of us all? But for the full enjoyment of such
+pleasures good roads are indispensable.
+
+"Another blessing to come with good roads will be the stimulus and
+encouragements to rural life, farm life. The present tendency of
+population to rush into the great cities makes neither for the health
+nor the character, the intelligence nor the morals of the nation. It has
+been said that no living man can trace his ancestry on both sides to
+four generations of city residents. The brain and the brawn and the
+morals of the city are constantly replenished from the country. The best
+home life is upon the farm, and the most sacred thing in America is the
+American home. It lies at the foundation of our institutions, of our
+health, of our character, our prosperity, our happiness, here and
+hereafter. The snares and pitfalls set for our feet are not near the
+home. The pathways upon which stones are hardest and thorns sharpest are
+not those that lead to the sacred spot hallowed by a father's love and a
+mother's prayers. The bravest and best of men, the purest and holiest
+women, are those who best love, cherish, and protect the home. God guard
+well the American home, and this done, come all the powers of darkness
+and they shall not prevail against us. Fatherhood and motherhood are
+nowhere more sacred, more holy, or better beloved than upon the farm.
+The ties of brotherhood and sisterhood are nowhere more sweet or tender.
+The fair flower of patriotism there reaches its greatest perfection.
+Every battlefield that marks the world's progress, the victory of
+liberty over tyranny or right over wrong, has been deluged with the
+blood of farmers. He evades neither the taxgatherer nor the recruiting
+officer. He shirks the performance of no public duty. In the hour of its
+greatest needs our country never called for help upon its stalwart
+yeomen when the cry was unheeded. The sons and daughters of American
+farmers are filling the seminaries and colleges and universities of the
+land. From the American farm home have gone in the past, as they are
+going now, leaders in literature, the arts and sciences, presidents of
+great universities, the heads of great industrial enterprises, governors
+of states, and members of Congress. They have filled the benches of the
+supreme court, the chairs of the cabinet, and the greatest executive
+office in the civilized world. Our greatest jurist, our greatest
+soldier, our greatest orators, Webster and Clay, our three greatest
+presidents, Washington, Lincoln, and McKinley, were the product of rural
+homes. The great presidents which Virginia has given to the nation,
+whose monuments are all around us, whose remains rest in your midst,
+whose fame is immortal, drew life and inspiration from rural homes. The
+typical American today is the American farmer. The city life, with its
+bustle and stir, its hurry and rush, its feverish anxiety for wealth,
+position, and rank in society, its fretting over ceremonies and
+precedents, is breaking down the health and intellect and the morals of
+its inhabitants. These must be replenished from the rural home. Whatever
+shall tend to create a love for country life, to decrease the rush for
+the city, instil a desire to dwell in the society of nature, will make
+for the health, the happiness, the refinement, the moral and
+intellectual improvement of the people. Nothing will contribute more to
+this than the improvement of our common roads, to facilitate the means
+of communication between one section of the country and the other, and
+between all and the city."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Turning now from the high plane of the social and moral effect of good
+roads, let us look at the financial side of the question.
+
+Good roads pay well. In urging good roads in Virginia, an official of
+the Southern Railway said that if good roads improved the value of
+lands only one dollar per acre, the gain to the state by the improvement
+of all the roads would be twenty-five million dollars. Yet this is an
+inconceivably low estimate; lands upon improved roads advance in value
+from four to twenty dollars per acre. Virginia could therefore expect a
+benefit from improved highways of at least one hundred million
+dollars--more than enough to improve her roads many times over. Indeed
+this matter of the increase in value of land occasioned by good roads
+can hardly be overestimated. Near all of our large towns and cities the
+land will advance until it is worth per foot what it was formerly worth
+per acre. Take Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. Beginning in 1880 to
+macadamize three or four miles of road a year with an annual fund of
+$10,000, the county now has over a hundred miles of splendid roads; the
+county seat has increased in population from 5,000 to 30,000. "I know of
+a thirty-acre farm," said President Barringer of the University of
+Virginia, a native of that county, "that cost ten dollars an acre, and
+forty-six dollars an acre has been refused for it, and yet not a dollar
+has been put on it, not even to fertilize it. Some of the farms five and
+six miles from town have quadrupled in value." In Alabama the same thing
+has been found true. "The result of building these roads," said Mayor
+Drennen of Birmingham, "is that the property adjoining them has more
+than doubled in value." That wise financier, D. F. Francis, President of
+the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, when suggesting that Missouri would
+do well to bond herself for one hundred million to build good roads,
+said: "The average increase in the value of the lands in Missouri would
+be at least five dollars per acre." Taking President Francis at his
+word, the difference between the value of Missouri before and after the
+era of good roads would buy up the four hundred and eighty-four state
+banks in Missouri eleven times over. What President Francis estimates
+Missouri would be worth with good roads over and above what her farms
+are now worth would buy all the goods that the city of St. Louis
+produces in a year. In other words, the estimated gain to Missouri would
+be more than two hundred and twenty million dollars.
+
+Passing the increased value of lands, look at the equally vital question
+of increased values of crops. Take first the crops that would be raised
+on lands not cultivated today but which would be cultivated in a day of
+good roads. Look at Virginia, where only one-third of the land is being
+cultivated; the value of crops which it is certain would ultimately be
+raised on land that is now unproductive would amount to at least sixty
+million dollars. The general passenger agent of the Oregon Railway and
+Navigation Company said recently that his lines were crying out for
+wheat to ship to China; "we have about reached the limit of our
+facilities; twelve or fifteen miles is the only distance farmers can
+afford to haul their wheat to us. Make it possible for them to haul it
+double that distance and you will double the business of our railway."
+And the business of local nature done by a railroad is a good criterion
+of the prosperity of the country in which it operates.
+
+Crops now raised on lands within reach of railways would of course be
+enhanced in value by good roads; more loads could be taken at less cost;
+weather interferences would not enter into the question. But of more
+moment perhaps than anything else, a vast amount of land thus placed
+within quick reach of our towns and cities would be given over to
+gardening for city markets, a line of agriculture immensely profitable,
+as city people well know. "The citizens of Birmingham," said the mayor
+of that city, "enjoy the benefits of fresh products raised on the farms
+along these [improved] roads. The dairymen, the truck farmers, and
+others ... are put in touch with our markets daily, thereby receiving
+the benefits of any advance in farm products."
+
+Poor roads are like the interest on a debt, and they are working against
+one all the time. It is noticeable that when good roads are built,
+farmers, who are always conservative, adjust themselves more readily to
+conditions. They are in touch with the world and they feel more keenly
+its pulse, much to their advantage. Too many farmers, damned by bad
+roads, are guilty of the faults of which Birmingham's mayor accused
+Alabama planters: "The farmers in this section," he said, "are selling
+cotton today for less than seven cents per pound, while they could have
+sold Irish potatoes within the past few months at two dollars per
+bushel." Farmers over the entire country are held to be slow in taking
+advantage of their whole opportunities; bad roads take the life out of
+them and out of their horses; they think somewhat as they
+ride--desperately slow; and they will not think faster until they ride
+faster. It is said that a man riding on a heavy southern road saw a hat
+in the mud; stopping to pick it up he was surprised to find a head of
+hair beneath it: then a voice came out of the ground: "Hold on, boss,
+don't take my hat; I've got a powerful fine mule down here somewhere if
+I can ever get him out." You can write and speak to farmers until
+doomsday about taking quick advantage of the exigencies of the markets
+that are dependent on them, but if they have to hunt for their horses in
+a hog-wallow road all your talk will be in vain.
+
+When we seriously face the question of how a fine system of highways is
+to be built in this country, it is found to be a complex problem. For
+about ten years now it has been seriously debated, and these years have
+seen a large advance; until now the problem has become almost national.
+
+One great fundamental idea has been proposed and is now generally
+accepted by all who have paid the matter any attention, and that is that
+those who live along our present roads cannot be expected to bear the
+entire cost of building good roads. This may be said to be settled and
+need no debate. Practically all men are agreed that the rural population
+should not bear the entire expense of an improvement of which they,
+however, are to be the chief beneficiaries; the state itself, in all its
+parts, benefits from the improved conditions which follow improved
+roads, and should bear a portion of the expense. Do not think that city
+people escape the tax of bad roads. In St. Louis four hundred thousand
+people consume five hundred tons of produce every day. The cost of
+hauling this produce over bad roads averages twenty-five cents per mile
+and over good roads about ten cents per mile, making a difference of
+fifteen cents per mile per ton. For five hundred tons, hauled from farms
+averaging ten miles distance, this would be seven hundred and fifty
+dollars per day, or a quarter of a million dollars a year--enough to
+build fifty miles of macadamized road a year. The farmers shift as much
+as they can of their heavy tax on the city people--the consumer pays the
+freight. Everybody is concerned in the "mud-tax" of bad roads.
+
+And so what is known as the "state aid" plan has become popular. By this
+plan the state pays a fixed part of the cost of building roads out of
+the general fund raised by taxation of all the people and all the
+property in the state. Under these circumstances corporations,
+railroads, and the various representatives of the concentrated wealth of
+the cities all contribute to this fund. The funds are expended in rural
+districts and are supplemented by money raised by local taxation.
+
+The state of New York, which has a good system, pays one-half of the
+good roads fund; each county pays thirty-five per cent, and the
+township fifteen per cent. Pennsylvania has appropriated at one time six
+and a half millions as a good roads fund. The new Ohio law apportions
+the cost of new roads as follows: The state pays twenty-five per cent,
+the townships twenty-five per cent, and the county fifty per cent. Of
+the twenty-five per cent paid by the townships fifteen per cent is to be
+paid by owners of abutting property and ten per cent by the township as
+a whole. In New Jersey, which has a model system of road-building and
+many model roads, the state pays a third, the county a third, and the
+property owners a third.
+
+A more recent theory in American road-building which has been advanced
+is a plan of national aid.[1] This is no new thing in America, though it
+has been many years since the government has paid attention to roadways.
+In the early days the wisest of our statesmen advocated large plans of
+internal improvement; one great national road, as we have seen, was
+built by the War Department from the Potomac almost to the Mississippi,
+through Wheeling, Columbus, Indianapolis and Vandalia, at a cost of over
+six million dollars. And this famous national road was built, in part,
+upon an earlier pathway, cut through Ohio by Ebenezer Zane in 1796, also
+at the order of Congress, and for which he received grants of land which
+formed the nucleus of the three thriving Ohio cities, Zanesville,
+Lancaster, and Chillicothe. The constitutionality of road-building by
+the government was questioned by some, but that clause granting it the
+right to establish post-offices and post roads "must, in every view, be
+a harmless power," said James Madison, "and may perhaps, by judicious
+management, become productive of great public conveniency. Nothing which
+tends to facilitate the intercourse between the states can be deemed
+unworthy of the public care."[2] But the government was interested not
+only in building roads but in many other phases of public improvement;
+it took stock in the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal; Congress voted $30,000
+to survey the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal route, and the work was done by
+government engineers. When railways superseded highways, the government
+was almost persuaded to complete the old National Road with rails and
+ties instead of broken stone. When the Erie Canal was proposed, a vast
+scheme of government aid was favored by leading statesmen;[3] the
+government has greatly assisted the western railways by gigantic grants
+of land worth one hundred and thirty-eight million dollars. The vast
+funds of private capital that have been seeking investment in this
+country, at first in turnpike, plank, and macadamized roads, then in
+canals, and later in railways, has rendered government aid comparatively
+unnecessary. In the last few years the only work of internal improvement
+aided by the government is the improvement of the rivers and harbors,
+which for 1904 takes over fifty millions of revenue a year. The sum of
+$130,565,485 has been well spent on river and harbor improvement in the
+past seven years. Not only are the great rivers, such as the Ohio and
+Mississippi, improved, but lesser streams. A short time ago I made a
+journey of one hundred miles down the Elk River in West Virginia in a
+boat eleven inches deep and twelve feet long; a channel all the way down
+had been made about two feet wide by picking out the stones; the United
+States did this at an expense of fifteen hundred dollars. The groceries
+and dry goods for thousands were poled up that river in dug-outs through
+that two-foot channel. I doubt if a two-wheel vehicle could traverse the
+road which runs throughout that valley, but I know a four-wheel vehicle
+could not.
+
+The advocates of national aid urge the right to establish post roads; "I
+had an ancestor in the United States Senate," said ex-Senator Butler of
+South Carolina, "who refused to vote a dollar for the improvement of
+Charleston Harbor; but almost the first act of my official life was to
+get an appropriation of two hundred and fifty thousand for that purpose.
+There is as ample constitutional warrant for the improvement of public
+roads out of the United States Treasury--as large as there is for the
+improvement of rivers and harbors, or for the support of the
+agricultural colleges."
+
+"But few judicial opinions have been rendered on this subject. In the
+case of Dickey against the Turnpike Company, the Kentucky court of
+appeals decided that the power given to Congress by the constitution to
+establish post roads enabled them to make, repair, keep open, and
+improve post roads when they shall deem the exercise of the power
+expedient. But in the exercise of the right of eminent domain on this
+subject the United States has no right to adopt and use roads, bridges,
+or ferries constructed and owned by states, corporations, and
+individuals without their consent or without making to the parties
+concerned just compensation. If the United States elects to use such
+accommodations, it stands upon the same footing and is subject to the
+same tolls and regulations as a private individual. It has been asserted
+that Jefferson was opposed to the appropriation of money for internal
+improvements, but, in 1808, in writing to Mr. Lieper, he said, 'Give us
+peace until our revenues are liberated from debt, ... and then during
+peace we may chequer our whole country with canals, roads, etc.' Writing
+to J. W. Eppes in 1813 he says, 'The fondest wish of my heart ever was
+that the surplus portion of these taxes destined for the payment of the
+Revolutionary debt should, when that object is accomplished, be
+continued by annual or biennial reënactments and applied in times of
+peace to the improvement of our country by canals, roads, and useful
+institutions.' Congress has always claimed the power to lay out,
+construct, and improve post roads with the assent of the states through
+which they pass; also, to open, construct, and improve military roads on
+like terms; and the right to cut canals through the several states with
+their consent for the purpose of promoting and securing internal
+commerce and for the safe and economical transportation of military
+stores in times of war. The president has sometimes objected to the
+exercise of this constitutional right, but Congress has never denied it.
+Cooley, the highest authority on constitutional law, says:
+
+"'Every road within a State, including railroads, canals, turnpikes, and
+navigable streams, existing or created within a State, becomes a
+post-road, whenever by law or by the action of the Post-Office
+Department provision is made for the transportation of the mail upon or
+over it. Many statesmen and jurists have contended that the power
+comprehends the laying out and construction of any roads which Congress
+may deem proper and needful for the conveyance of the mails, and keeping
+them repaired for the purpose.'"[4]
+
+It has been many years since the United States government was interested
+considerably in mail routes on the roadways of this country; in the past
+half century the government has spent but one hundred thousand dollars
+for the improvement of mail roads. The new era of rural delivery brings
+a return, in one sense, of the old stagecoach days. A thousand country
+roads are now used daily by government mail-carriers, but the government
+demands that the roads used be kept in good condition by the local
+authorities. Thus the situation is reversed; instead of holding it to be
+the duty of the government to deliver mail in rural districts, Congress
+holds that the debt is on the other side and that, in return for the
+boon of rural delivery, the rural population must make good roads.
+Madison well saw that government improvement of roads as mail routes
+would be of great general benefit; for in _The Federalist_ he adds that
+the power "may perhaps by judicious management become productive of
+great public conveniency."
+
+[Illustration: A GOOD-ROADS TRAIN
+
+[_The Southern Roadway's good-roads train, October 29, 1901, consisting
+of two coaches for officials and road experts and ten cars of road
+machinery; for itinerary through Virginia, North Carolina. Tennessee,
+Alabama, and Georgia_]]
+
+One great work the government has done and is doing. It has founded an
+Office of Public Road Inquiries (described elsewhere) at Washington, and
+under the efficient management of Hon. Martin Dodge and Maurice O.
+Eldridge a great work of education has been carried on--samples of good
+roads have been built, good road trains have been sent out by the
+Southern Railway and the Illinois Central into the South, a laboratory
+has been established at Washington, under the efficient charge of
+Professor L. W. Page, for the testing of materials free of charge,
+and a great deal of road information has been published and sent out.
+
+The Brownlow Bill, introduced into Congress at the last session, is the
+latest plan of national aid, and is thus described by Hon. Martin Dodge
+of the Office of Public Road Inquiries:
+
+"The bill provides for an appropriation of twenty million dollars. This
+is to be used only in connection and coöperation with the various states
+or civil subdivisions of states that may make application to the General
+Government for the purpose of securing its aid to build certain roads.
+The application must be made for a specific road to be built, and the
+state or county making the application must be ready to pay half of the
+cost, according to the plans and specifications made by the General
+Government. In no case can any state or any number of counties within
+the state receive any greater proportion of the twenty million dollars
+than the population of the state bears to the population of the United
+States.
+
+"In other words, all of the plans must originate in the community. The
+bill does not provide that the United States shall go forward and say a
+road shall be built here or a road shall be built there. The United
+States shall hold itself in readiness, when requested to do so, to
+coöperate with those who have selected a road they desire to build,
+provided they are ready and willing to pay one-half the cost. Then, if
+the road is a suitable one and is approved by the government
+authorities, they go forward and build that road, each contributing
+one-half of the expense. In order to prevent the state losing
+jurisdiction of the road, it is provided that it may go forward and
+build the road if it will accept the government engineer's estimate. For
+instance, if a state or county asks for ten miles of road, the estimated
+cost of which is thirty thousand dollars, and the state or county
+officials say they are willing to undertake the work for thirty thousand
+dollars, the government authorizes them to go ahead and build that road
+according to specifications, and when it is finished the government will
+pay the fifteen thousand dollars. If the state or county does not wish
+to take the contract, the General Government will advertise and give it
+to the lowest bidder, and will pay its contributory share and the other
+party will pay its contributory share.
+
+"It is no part of the essential principle involved in this national aid
+plan that the exact proportion should be fifty per cent on each side.
+Any other figure can be adopted. Some think ten per cent is sufficient;
+some think thirty-three and one-third is the proper percentage; others
+think twenty-five per cent only should be paid by the government,
+twenty-five per cent by the state, twenty-five per cent by the county,
+and twenty-five per cent by the township. The one idea that seems to be
+generally accepted is that the government should do something."
+
+Thus the interest in the great question is beginning to forge to the
+front; through the Office of Public Road Inquiries a great deal of
+information is being circulated touching all phases of the question.
+There is a fine spirit of independence displayed by the leaders of the
+movement; no one plan is over-urged; the situation is such that the
+final concerted popular action will come from the real governing
+power--the people. When they demand that the United States shall not
+have the poorest rural roads of any civilized and some uncivilized
+nations, we as a nation will hasten into the fore front and finally lead
+the world in this vital department of civic life, as we are leading it
+in so many other departments today.
+
+[Illustration: SAMPLE STEEL TRACK FOR COMMON ROADS
+
+[_On the driver's right is seated Hon. Martin Dodge, since 1898 Director
+of the Office of Public Road Inquiries_]]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See _post_, pp. 68-80.
+
+[2] _The Federalist_, p. 198.
+
+[3] _Historic Highways of America_, vol. xiv, p. 57.
+
+[4] Thomas M. Cooley, _Constitutional Law_ (Boston, 1891), pp. 85-86.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GOVERNMENT COÖPERATION IN OBJECT-LESSON ROAD WORK[5]
+
+
+In a government having a composite nature like that of the United States
+it is not always easy to determine just what share the General
+Government, the state government, and the local government should
+respectively take in carrying out highway work, though it is generally
+admitted that there should be coöperation among them all.
+
+In the early history of the Republic the National Government itself laid
+out and partially completed a great national system of highways
+connecting the East with the West, and the capital of the nation with
+its then most distant possessions. Fourteen million dollars in all was
+appropriated by acts of Congress to be devoted to this purpose, an
+amount almost equal to that paid for the Louisiana Purchase. In other
+words, it cost the government substantially as much to make that
+territory accessible as to purchase it; and what is true of that
+territory in its larger sense is also true in a small way of nearly
+every tract of land that is opened up and used for the purposes of
+civilization; that is to say, it will cost as much to build up, improve,
+and maintain the roads of any given section of the country as the land
+in its primitive condition is worth; and the same rule will apply in
+most cases after the land value has advanced considerably beyond that of
+its primitive condition. It is a general rule that the suitable
+improvement of a highway within reasonable limitations will double the
+value of the land adjacent to it. Seven million dollars, half of the
+total sum appropriated by acts of Congress for the national road system,
+was devoted to building the Cumberland Road from Cumberland, Maryland,
+to St. Louis, Missouri, the most central point in the great Louisiana
+Purchase, and seven hundred miles west of Cumberland. The total cost of
+this great road was wholly paid out of the United States Treasury, and
+though never fully completed on the western end, it is the longest
+straight road ever built by any government. It passes through the
+capitals of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and the cost per mile was,
+approximately, ten thousand dollars. It furnishes the only important
+instance the country has ever had of the General Government providing a
+highway at its own expense. The plan, however, was never carried to
+completion, and since its abandonment two generations ago, the people of
+the different states have provided their own highways. For the most part
+they have delegated their powers either to individuals, companies, or
+corporations to build toll roads, or to the minor political subdivisions
+and municipalities to build free roads.
+
+With the passing of the toll-road system, the withdrawal of the General
+Government from the field of actual road construction, and the various
+state governments doing little or nothing, the only remaining active
+agent occupying the entire great field is the local government in each
+community; and while these various local governments have done and are
+still doing the best they can under the circumstances, there is great
+need that their efforts should be supplemented, their revenues enlarged,
+and their skill in the art of road construction increased.
+
+The skill of the local supervisor was sufficient in primitive times, so
+long as his principal duties consisted in clearing the way of trees,
+logs, stumps, and other obstructions, and shaping the earth of which the
+roadbed was composed into a little better form than nature had left it;
+and the resources at his command were sufficient so long as he was
+authorized to call on every able-bodied male citizen between twenty-one
+and forty-five years of age to do ten days' labor annually on the road,
+especially when the only labor expected was that of dealing with the
+material found on the spot. But with the changed conditions brought
+about by the more advanced state of civilization, after the rights of
+way have been cleared of their obstructions and the earth roads graded
+into the form of turnpikes, it became necessary to harden their
+surfaces with material which often must be brought from distant places.
+In order to accomplish this, expert skill is required in the selection
+of materials, money instead of labor is required to pay for the cost of
+transportation, and machinery must be substituted for the hand processes
+and primitive methods heretofore employed in order to crush the rock and
+distribute it in the most economical manner on the roadbed. Skill and
+machinery are also required to roll and consolidate the material so as
+to form a smooth, hard surface and a homogeneous mass impervious to
+water.
+
+The local road officer now not only finds himself deficient in skill and
+the proper kind of resources, but he discovers in many cases that the
+number of persons subject to his call for road work has greatly
+diminished. The great cities of the North have absorbed half of the
+population in all the states north of the Ohio and east of the
+Mississippi, and those living in these great cities are not subject to
+the former duties of working the roads, nor do they pay any compensation
+in money in lieu thereof. So the statute labor has not only become
+unsuitable for the service to be performed, but it is, as stated,
+greatly diminished. In the former generations substantially all the
+people contributed to the construction of the highways under the statute
+labor system, but at the present time not more than half the population
+is subject to this service, and this, too, at a time when the need for
+highway improvement is greatest.
+
+While the former ways and means are inadequate or inapplicable to
+present needs and conditions, there are other means more suitable for
+the service, and existing in ample proportion for every need. The
+tollgate-keeper cannot be called upon to restore the ancient system of
+turnpikes and plank roads to be maintained by a tax upon vehicles
+passing over them, but there can be provided a general fund in each
+county sufficient to build up free roads better than the toll roads and
+with a smaller burden of cost upon the people. The statute labor in the
+rural districts cannot be depended upon, because it is unsuitable to the
+service now required and spasmodic in its application, when it should be
+perennial; but this statute labor can be commuted to a money tax, with
+no hardships upon the citizens and with great benefit to the highway
+system.
+
+Former inhabitants of the abandoned farms or the deserted villages
+cannot be followed to the great cities and the road tax which they
+formerly paid be collected from them again to improve the country roads;
+but it can be provided that all the property owners in every city, as
+well as in every county, shall pay a money tax into a general fund,
+which shall be devoted exclusively to the improvement of highways in the
+rural districts. The state itself can maintain a general fund out of
+which a portion of the cost of every principal highway in the state
+shall be paid, and by so doing all the people of the state will
+contribute to improving the highways, as they once did in the early
+history of the nation, when substantially all the wealth and population
+was distributed almost equally throughout the settled portions of the
+country.
+
+Having a general fund of money instead of statute labor, it would be
+possible to introduce more scientific and more economical methods of
+construction with coöperation. This coöperation, formerly applied with
+good results to the primitive conditions, but which has been partially
+lost by the diminution in the number and skill of the co-workers, would
+be restored again in a great measure by drawing the money with which to
+improve the roads out of a general fund to which all had contributed.
+
+In many countries the army has been used to advantage in time of peace
+in building up and maintaining the highways. There is no army in this
+country for such a purpose, but there is an army of prisoners in every
+state, whose labor is so directed, and has been so directed for
+generations past, that it adds little or nothing to the common wealth.
+The labor of these prisoners, properly applied and directed, would be of
+great benefit and improvement to the highways, and would add greatly to
+the national wealth, while at the same time it would lighten the
+pressure of competition with free labor by withdrawing the prison labor
+from the manufacture of commercial articles and applying it to work not
+now performed, that is, the building of highways or preparing material
+to be used therefor.
+
+The General Government, having withdrawn from the field of road
+construction in 1832, has since done little in that line until very
+recently. Eight years ago Congress appropriated a small sum of money for
+the purpose of instituting a sort of inquiry into the prevailing
+condition of things pertaining to road matters. This appropriation has
+been continued from year to year and increased during the last two years
+with a view of coöperating to a limited extent with other efforts in
+road construction.
+
+The General Government can perform certain duties pertaining to
+scientific road improvement better than any other agency. Scientific
+facts ascertained at one time by the General Government will serve for
+the enlightenment of the people of all the states, and with no more cost
+than would be required for each single state to make the investigation
+and ascertain the facts for itself.
+
+With a view to securing scientific facts in reference to the value of
+road-building materials, the Secretary of Agriculture has established at
+Washington, D. C., a mechanical and chemical laboratory for testing such
+material from all parts of the country. Professor L. W. Page, late of
+Harvard University, is in charge of this laboratory, and has tested many
+samples of rock without charge to those having the test made. There is,
+however, no test equal to the actual application of the material to the
+road itself.
+
+With a view to making more extensive tests than could be done by
+laboratory work alone, the Director of the Office of Public Road
+Inquiries has, during the past two years, coöperated with the local
+authorities in many different states in building short sections of
+object-lesson roads. In this work it is intended not only to contribute
+something by way of coöperation on the part of the General Government,
+but also to secure coöperation on the part of as many different
+interests connected with the road question as possible. The local
+community having the road built is most largely interested, and is
+expected to furnish the common labor and domestic material. The
+railroad companies generally coöperate, because they are interested in
+having better roads to and from their railroad stations. They therefore
+contribute by transporting free or at very low rates the machinery and
+such foreign material as is needed in the construction of the road. The
+manufacturers of earth-handling and road-building machinery coöperate by
+furnishing all needed machinery for the most economical construction of
+the road, and in many cases prison labor is used in preparing material
+which finally goes into the completed roadbed. The contribution which
+the General Government makes in this scheme of coöperation is both
+actually and relatively small, but it is by means of this limited
+coöperation that it has been possible to produce a large number of
+object-lesson roads in different states. These have proved very
+beneficial, not only in showing the scientific side of the question, but
+the economical side as well.
+
+In the year 1900 object-lesson roads were built under the direction of
+the Office of Public Road Inquiries near Port Huron, Saginaw, and
+Traverse City, Michigan; Springfield, Illinois; and Topeka, Kansas.
+Since that time the object-lesson roads so built have been extended and
+duplicated by the local authorities without further aid from the
+government. The people are so well pleased with the results of these
+experiments that they are making preparations for additional extensions,
+aggregating many miles.
+
+During the year 1901 sample object-lesson roads were built on a larger
+scale in coöperation with the Illinois Central, Lake Shore, and Southern
+railroad companies, and the National Association for Good Roads in the
+states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, New
+York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, and Georgia. In all of
+these cases the coöperation has been very hearty on the part of the
+state, the county, and the municipality in which the work has been done,
+and the results have been very satisfactory and beneficial.
+
+Hon. A. H. Longino, governor of Mississippi, in his speech made at the
+International Good Roads Congress at Buffalo, September 17, 1901, said:
+
+      "My friends, the importance of good roads seems to me to be
+      so apparent, so self-evident, that the discussion thereof is
+      but a discussion of truisms. Much as we appreciate
+      railroads, rivers, and canals as means for transportation of
+      the commerce of the country, they are, in my judgment, of
+      less importance to mankind, to the masses of the people, and
+      to all classes of people, than are good country roads.
+
+      "I live in a section of the country where that important
+      subject has found at the hands of the people apparently less
+      appreciation and less effort toward improvement than in many
+      others. In behalf of the Good Roads Association, headed by
+      Colonel Moore and Mr. Richardson, which recently met in the
+      state of Mississippi, I want to say that more interest has
+      been aroused by their efforts concerning this important
+      subject among the people there than perhaps ever existed
+      before in the history of the state. By their work,
+      demonstrating what could be done by the methods which they
+      employed, and by their agitation of the question, the
+      people have become aroused as they never were before; and
+      since their departure from the state a large number of
+      counties which were not already working under the contract
+      system have provided for public highways, worked by
+      contract, requiring the contractor to give a good and
+      sufficient bond, a bond broad enough in its provisions and
+      large enough in amount to compel faithful service; and
+      Mississippi is today starting out on a higher plane than
+      ever before."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] By Hon. Martin Dodge, Director of the Office of Public Road
+Inquiries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS[6]
+
+
+Poor roads constitute the greatest drawback to rural life, and for the
+lack of good roads the farmers suffer more than any other class. It is
+obviously unnecessary, therefore, to discuss here the benefits to be
+derived by them from improved roads. Suffice it to say, that those
+localities where good roads have been built are becoming richer, more
+prosperous, and more thickly settled, while those which do not possess
+these advantages in transportation are either at a standstill or are
+becoming poorer and more sparsely settled. If these conditions continue,
+fruitful farms may be abandoned and rich lands go to waste. Life on a
+farm often becomes, as a result of "bottomless roads," isolated and
+barren of social enjoyments and pleasures, and country people in some
+communities suffer such great disadvantage that ambition is checked,
+energy weakened, and industry paralyzed.
+
+Good roads, like good streets, make habitation along them most
+desirable; they economize time and force in transportation of products,
+reduce wear and tear on horses, harness and vehicles, and enhance the
+market value of real estate. They raise the value of farm lands and farm
+products, and tend to beautify the country through which they pass; they
+facilitate rural mail delivery and are a potent aid to education,
+religion, and sociability. Charles Sumner once said: "The road and the
+schoolmaster are the two most important agents in advancing
+civilization."
+
+[Illustration: TYPICAL MACADAM ROAD NEAR BRYN MAWR, PENNSYLVANIA]
+
+The difference between good and bad roads is often equivalent to the
+difference between profit and loss. Good roads have a money value to
+farmers as well as a political and social value, and leaving out
+convenience, comfort, social and refined influences which good roads
+always enhance, and looking at them only from the "almighty dollar"
+side, they are found to pay handsome dividends each year.
+
+People generally are beginning to realize that road-building is a public
+matter, and that the best interests of American agriculture and the
+American people as a whole demand the construction of good roads, and
+that money wisely expended for this purpose is sure to return.
+
+Road-making is perfected by practice, experience, and labor. Soils and
+clays, sand and ores, gravels and rocks, are transformed into beautiful
+roads, streets, and boulevards, by methods which conform with their
+great varieties of characters and with nature's laws. The art of
+road-building depends largely for its success upon being carried on in
+conformity with certain general principles.
+
+It is necessary that roads should be hard, smooth, comparatively level,
+and fit for use at all seasons of the year; that they should be properly
+located, or laid out on the ground, so that their grades may be such
+that animate or inanimate power may be applied upon them to the best
+advantage and without great loss of energy; that they should be properly
+constructed, the ground well drained, the roadbed graded, shaped, and
+rolled, and that they should be surfaced with the best material
+procurable; that they should be properly maintained or kept constantly
+in good repair.
+
+All the important roads in the United States can be and doubtless will
+be macadamized or otherwise improved in the not distant future. This
+expectation should govern their present location and treatment
+everywhere. Unless changes are made in the location of the roads in many
+parts of this country it would be worse than folly to macadamize them.
+"Any costly resurfacing of the existing roads will fasten them where
+they are for generations," says General Stone. The chief difficulty in
+this country is not with the surface, but with the steep grades, many of
+which are too long to be reduced by cutting and filling on the present
+lines, and if this could be done it would cost more in many cases than
+relocating them.
+
+Many of our roads were originally laid out without any attention to
+general topography, and in most cases followed the settler's path from
+cabin to cabin, the pig trail, or ran along the boundary lines of the
+farms regardless of grades or direction. Most of them remain today where
+they were located years ago, and where untold labor, expense, and energy
+have been wasted in trying to haul over them and in endeavors to improve
+their deplorable condition.
+
+The great error is made of continuing to follow these primitive paths
+with our public highways. The right course is to call in an engineer and
+throw the road around the end or along the side of steep hills instead
+of continuing to go over them, or to pull the road up on dry solid
+ground instead of splashing through the mud and water of the creek or
+swamp. Far more time and money have been wasted in trying to keep up a
+single mile of one of these "pig-track" surveys than it would take to
+build and keep in repair two miles of good road.
+
+Another and perhaps greater error is made by some persons in the West
+who continue to lay out their roads on "section lines." These sections
+are all square, with sides running north, south, east, and west. A
+person wishing to cross the country in any other than these directions
+must necessarily do so in rectangular zigzags. It also necessitates very
+often the crossing and recrossing of hills and valleys, which might be
+avoided if the roads had been constructed on scientific principles.
+
+[Illustration: A STUDY IN GRADING
+
+[_The old road had a grade of eight per cent; by the improved route the
+grade is four per cent_]]
+
+In the prairie state of Iowa, for example, where roads are no worse than
+in many other states, there is a greater number of roads having much
+steeper grades than are found in the mountainous republic of
+Switzerland. In Maryland the old stagecoach road or turnpike running
+from Washington to Baltimore makes almost a "bee line," regardless of
+hills or valleys, and the grades at places are as steep as ten or twelve
+per cent, where by making little detours the road might have been made
+perfectly level, or by running it up the hills less abruptly the grade
+might have been reduced to three or four per cent, as is done in the
+hilly regions of many parts of this and other countries. Straight roads
+are the proper kind to have, but in hilly countries their straightness
+should always be sacrificed to obtain a level surface so as to better
+accommodate the people who use them.
+
+Graceful and natural curves conforming to the lay of the land add beauty
+to the landscape, besides enhancing the value of property. Not only do
+level, curved roads add beauty to the landscape and make lands along
+them more valuable, but the horse is able to utilize his full strength
+over them; furthermore, a horse can pull only four-fifths as much on a
+grade of two feet in one hundred feet, and this gradually lessens until
+with a grade of ten feet in one hundred feet he can draw but one-fourth
+as much as he can on a level road.
+
+All roads should therefore wind around hills or be cut through instead
+of running over them, and in many cases the former can be done without
+greatly increasing the distance. To illustrate, if an apple or pear be
+cut in half and one of the halves placed on a flat surface, it will be
+seen that the horizontal distance around from stem to blossom is no
+greater than the distance over between the same points.
+
+The wilfulness of one or two private individuals sometimes becomes a
+barrier to traffic and commerce. The great drawback to the laying out of
+roads on the principle referred to is that of the necessity, in some
+cases, of building them through the best lands, the choicest pastures
+and orchards, instead, as they do now, of cutting around the farm line
+or passing through old worn-out fields or over rocky knolls. But if
+farmers wish people to know that they have good farms, good cattle,
+sheep, or horses, good grain, fruit, or vegetables, they should let the
+roads go through the best parts of the farms.
+
+The difference in length between a straight road and one which is
+slightly curved is less than one would imagine. Says Sganzin: "If a road
+between two places ten miles apart were made to curve so that the eye
+could see no farther than a quarter of a mile of it at once, its length
+would exceed that of a perfectly straight road between the same points
+by only about one hundred and fifty yards." Even if the distance around
+a hill be much greater, it is often more economical to construct it that
+way than to go over and necessitate the expenditure of large amounts of
+money in reducing the grade, or a waste of much valuable time and energy
+in transporting goods that way. Gillespie says "that, as a general rule,
+the horizontal length of a road may be advantageously increased to avoid
+an ascent by at least twenty times the perpendicular height which is
+thus to be avoided--that is, to escape a hill one hundred feet high it
+would be proper for the road to make such a circuit as would increase
+its length two thousand feet." The mathematical axiom that "a straight
+line is the shortest distance between two points" is not, therefore, the
+best rule to follow in laying out a road; better is the proverb that
+"the longest way round is the shortest way home."
+
+The grade is the most important factor to be considered in the location
+of roads. The smoother the road surface, the less the grade should be.
+
+Whether the road be constructed of earth, stone, or gravel, steep grades
+should always be avoided if possible. They become covered at times with
+coatings of ice or slippery soil, making them very difficult to ascend
+with loaded vehicles, as well as dangerous to descend. They allow water
+to rush down at such a rate as to wash great gaps alongside or to carry
+the surfacing material away. As the grade increases in steepness either
+the load has to be diminished in proportion or more horses or power
+attached. From Gillespie we find that if a horse can draw on a level one
+thousand pounds, on a rise of--
+
+ 1 foot in--                      Pounds
+
+ 100 feet he draws                  900
+ 50 feet                            810
+ 44 feet                            750
+ 40 feet                            720
+ 30 feet                            640
+ 25 feet                            540
+ 24 feet                            500
+ 20 feet                            400
+ 10 feet                            250
+
+It is therefore seen that when the grades are 1 foot in 44 feet, or 120
+feet to the mile, a horse can draw only three-fourths as much as he can
+on a level; where the grade is 1 foot in 24 feet, or 220 feet to the
+mile, he can draw only one-half as much, and on a ten per cent grade, or
+520 feet to the mile, he is able to draw only one-fourth as much as on a
+level road.
+
+As a chain is no stronger than its weakest link, just so the greatest
+load which can be hauled over a road is the load which can be hauled
+through the deepest mud hole or up the steepest hill on that road. The
+cost of haulage is, therefore, necessarily increased in proportion to
+the roughness of the surface or steepness of the grade. It costs one and
+one-half times as much to haul over a road having a five per cent grade
+and three times as much over one having a ten per cent grade as on a
+level road. As a perfectly level road can seldom be had, it is well to
+know the steepest allowable grade. If the hill be one of great length,
+it is sometimes best to have the lowest part steepest, upon which the
+horse is capable of exerting his full strength, and to make the slope
+more gentle toward the summit, to correspond with the continually
+decreasing strength of the fatigued animal.
+
+So far as descent is concerned, a road should not be so steep that the
+wagons and carriages cannot be drawn down it with perfect ease and
+safety. Sir Henry Parnell considered that when the grade was no greater
+than one foot in thirty-five feet, vehicles could be drawn down it at a
+speed of twelve miles an hour with perfect safety. Gillespie says:
+
+"It has been ascertained that a horse can for a short time double his
+usual exertion; also, that on the best roads he exerts a pressure
+against his collar of about one thirty-fifth of the load. If he can
+double his exertion for a time, he can pull one thirty-fifth more, and
+the slope which would force him to lift that proportion would be, as
+seen from the above table, one of one in thirty-five, or about a three
+per cent grade. On this slope, however, he would be compelled to double
+his ordinary exertion to draw a full load, and it would therefore be the
+maximum grade." Mr. Isaac B. Potter, an eminent authority upon roads,
+says:
+
+"Dirty water and watery dirt make bad going, and mud is the greatest
+obstacle to the travel and traffic of the farmer. Mud is a mixture of
+dirt and water. The dirt is always to be found in the roadway, and the
+water, which comes in rain, snow, and frost, softens it; horses and
+wagons and narrow wheel tires knead it and mix it, and it soon gets into
+so bad a condition that a fairly loaded wagon cannot be hauled through
+it.
+
+"We cannot prevent the coming of this water, and it only remains for us
+to get rid of it, which can be speedily done if we go about it in the
+right way. Very few people know how great an amount of water falls upon
+the country road, and it may surprise some of us to be told that on each
+mile of an ordinary country highway three rods wide within the United
+States there falls each year an average of twenty-seven thousand tons of
+water. In the ordinary country dirt road the water seems to stick and
+stay as if there was no other place for it, and this is only because we
+have never given it a fair opportunity to run out of the dirt and find
+its level in other places. We cannot make a hard road out of soft mud,
+and no amount of labor and machinery will make a good dirt road that
+will stay good unless some plan is adopted to get rid of the surplus
+water. Water is a heavy, limpid fluid, hard to confine and easy to let
+loose. It is always seeking for a chance to run down a hill; always
+trying to find its lowest level."
+
+An essential feature of a good road is good drainage, and the principles
+of good drainage remain substantially the same whether the road be
+constructed of earth, gravel, shells, stones, or asphalt. The first
+demand of good drainage is to attend to the shape of road surface. This
+must be "crowned," or rounded up toward the center, so that there may be
+a fall from the center to the sides, thus compelling the water to flow
+rapidly from the surface into the gutters which should be constructed on
+one or both sides, and from there in turn be discharged into larger and
+more open channels. Furthermore, it is necessary that no water be
+allowed to flow across a roadway; culverts, tile, stone, or box drains
+should be provided for that purpose.
+
+In addition to being well covered and drained, the surface should be
+kept as smooth as possible; that is, free from ruts, wheel tracks,
+holes, or hollows. If any of these exist, instead of being thrown to
+the side the water is held back and is either evaporated by the sun or
+absorbed by the material of which the road is constructed. In the latter
+case the material loses its solidity, softens and yields to the impact
+of the horses' feet and the wheels of vehicles, and, like the water
+poured upon a grindstone, so the water poured on a road surface which is
+not properly drained assists the grinding action of the wheels in
+rutting or completely destroying the surface. When water is allowed to
+stand on a road the holes and ruts rapidly increase in number and size;
+wagon after wagon sinks deeper and deeper, until the road finally
+becomes utterly bad, and sometimes impassable, as frequently found in
+many parts of the country during the winter season.
+
+Road drainage is just as essential to a good road as farm drainage is to
+a good farm. In fact, the two go hand in hand, and the better the one
+the better the other, and vice versa. There are thousands of miles of
+public roads in the United States which are practically impassable
+during some portion of the year on account of bad drainage, while for
+the same reason thousands of acres of the richest meadow and swamp lands
+lie idle from year in to year out.
+
+The wearing surface of a road must be in effect a roof; that is, the
+section in the middle should be the highest part and the traveled
+roadway should be made as impervious to water as possible, so that it
+will flow freely and quickly into the gutters or ditches alongside. The
+best shape for the cross section of a road has been found to be either a
+flat ellipse or one made up of two plane surfaces sloping uniformly from
+the middle to the sides and joined in the center by a small, circular
+curve. Either of these sections may be used, provided it is not too flat
+in the middle for good drainage or too steep at the gutters for safety.
+The steepness of the slope from the center to the sides should depend
+upon the nature of the surface, being greater or less according to its
+roughness or smoothness. This slope ought to be greatest on earth roads,
+perhaps as much in some cases as one foot in twenty feet after the
+surface has been thoroughly rolled or compacted by traffic. This varies
+from about one in twenty to one in thirty on a macadam road, to one in
+forty or one in sixty on the various classes of pavements, and for
+asphalt sometimes as low as one in eighty.
+
+Where the road is constructed on a grade or hill the slope from the
+center to the sides should be slightly steeper than that on the level
+road. The best cross section for roads on grades is the one made up from
+two plane surfaces sloping uniformly from the center to the sides. This
+is done so as to avoid the danger of overturning near the side ditches,
+which would necessarily be increased if the elliptical form were used.
+The slope from the center to the sides must be steep enough to lead the
+water into the side ditches instead of allowing it to run down the
+middle of the road. Every wheel track on an inclined roadway becomes a
+channel for carrying down the water, and unless the curvature is
+sufficient these tracks are quickly deepened into water courses which
+cut into and sometimes destroy the best improved road.
+
+In order to prevent the washing out of earth roads on hills it
+sometimes becomes necessary to construct water breaks; that is, broad
+shallow ditches arranged so as to catch the surface water and carry it
+each way into the side ditches. Such ditches retard traffic to a certain
+extent, and often result in overturning vehicles; consequently they
+should never be used until all other means have failed to cause the
+water to flow into the side channels; neither should they be allowed to
+cross the entire width of the road diagonally, but should be constructed
+in the shape of the letter V. This arrangement permits teams following
+the middle of the road to cross the ditch squarely and thus avoid the
+danger of overturning. These ditches should not be deeper than is
+absolutely necessary to throw the water off the surface, and the part in
+the center should be the shallowest.
+
+Unfortunately farmers and road masters have a fixed idea that one way to
+prevent hills, long and short, from washing is to heap upon them
+quantities of those original tumular obstructions known indifferently as
+"thank-you-ma'ams," "breaks," or "hummocks," and the number they can
+squeeze in upon a single hill is positively astonishing. Quoting Mr.
+Isaac B. Potter:
+
+      "Side ditches are necessary because the thousands of tons of
+      water which fall upon every mile of country road each year,
+      in the form of rain or snow, should be carried away to some
+      neighboring creek or other water channel as fast as the rain
+      falls and the snow melts, so as to prevent its forming mud
+      and destroying the surface of the road. When the ground is
+      frozen and a heavy rain or sudden thaw occurs, the side
+      ditch is the only means of getting rid of the surface water;
+      for no matter how sandy or porous the soil may be, when
+      filled with frost it is practically water-tight, and the
+      water which falls or forms on the surface must either remain
+      there or be carried away by surface ditches at the sides of
+      the road.
+
+      "A side ditch should have a gradually falling and even grade
+      at the bottom, and broad, flaring sides to prevent the
+      caving in of its banks. It can be easily cleared of snow,
+      weeds, and rubbish; the water will run into it easily from
+      each side, and it is not dangerous to wagons and foot
+      travelers. It is therefore a much better ditch than the
+      kind of ditch very often dug by erosion along the country
+      roadside."
+
+Where the road is built on a grade some provision should be made to
+prevent the wash of the gutters into great, deep gullies. This can be
+done by paving the bottom and sides of the gutters with brick, river
+rocks, or field stone. In order to make the flow in such side ditches as
+small as possible it is advisable to construct outlets into the adjacent
+fields or to lay underground pipes or tile drains with openings into the
+ditches at frequent intervals.
+
+The size of side ditches should depend upon the character of the soil
+and the amount of water they are expected to carry. If possible they
+should be located three feet from the edge of the traveled roadway, so
+that if the latter is fourteen feet wide there will be twenty feet of
+clear space between ditches.
+
+The bottom of the ditch may vary in width from three to twelve inches,
+or even more, as may be found necessary in order to carry the largest
+amount of water which is expected to flow through it at any one time.
+Sometimes the only ditches necessary to carry off the surface water are
+those made by the use of the road machines or road graders. The blade of
+the machine may be set at any desired angle, and when drawn along by
+horses, cuts into the surface and moves the earth from the sides toward
+the center, forming gutters alongside and distributing the earth
+uniformly over the traveled way. Such gutters are liable to become
+clogged by brush, weeds, and other débris, or destroyed by passing
+wagons, and it is therefore better, when the space permits, to have the
+side ditches above referred to, even if the road be built with a road
+machine.
+
+In order to have a good road it is just as necessary that water should
+not be allowed to attack the substructure from below as that it should
+not be permitted to percolate through it from above. Especially is the
+former provision essential in cold climates, where, if water is allowed
+to remain in the substructure, the whole roadway is liable to become
+broken up and destroyed by frost and the wheels of vehicles. Therefore,
+where the road runs through low wet lands or over certain kinds of
+clayey soils, surface drainage is not all that is necessary. Common side
+drains catch surface water and surface water only. Isaac Potter says:
+
+      "Many miles of road are on low, flat lands and on springy
+      soils, and thousands of miles of prairie roads are, for many
+      weeks in the year, laid on a wet subsoil. In all such cases,
+      and, indeed, in every case where the nature of the ground is
+      not such as to insure quick drainage, the road may be vastly
+      benefited by under drainage. An under drain clears the soil
+      of surplus water, dries it, warms it, and makes impossible
+      the formation of deep, heavy, frozen crusts, which are found
+      in every undrained road when the severe winter weather
+      follows the heavy fall rains. This crust causes nine-tenths
+      of the difficulties of travel in the time of sudden or
+      long-continued thaws.
+
+      "Roads constructed over wet undrained lands are always
+      difficult to manage and expensive to maintain, and they are
+      liable to be broken up in wet weather or after frosts. It
+      will be much cheaper in the long run to go to the expense
+      of making the drainage of the subjacent soil and
+      substructure as perfect as possible. There is scarcely an
+      earth road in the United States which cannot be so improved
+      by surface or subdrainage as to yield benefits to the
+      farmers a hundred times greater in value than the cost of
+      the drains themselves.
+
+      "Under drains are not expensive. On the contrary, they are
+      cheap and easily made, and if made in a substantial way and
+      according to the rules of common sense a good under drain
+      will last for ages. Use the best tools and materials you can
+      get; employ them as well as you know how, and wait results
+      with a clear conscience. Slim fagots of wood bound together
+      and laid lengthwise at the bottom of a carefully graded
+      drain ditch will answer fairly well if stone or drain tile
+      cannot be had, and will be of infinite benefit to a dirt
+      road laid on springy soils."
+
+Subdrains should be carefully graded with a level at the bottom to a
+depth of about four feet, and should have a continuous fall throughout
+their entire length of at least six inches for each one hundred feet in
+length. If tile drains cannot be had, large, flat stones may be
+carefully placed so as to form a clear, open passage at the bottom for
+the flow of the water. The ditch should then be half filled with rough
+field stones, and on these a layer of smaller stones or gravel and a
+layer of sod, hay, gravel, cinders, or straw, or, if none of these can
+be had, of soil. If field stones or drain tile cannot be procured,
+satisfactory results may be attained by the use of logs and brush.
+
+If there be springs in the soil which might destroy the stability of the
+road, they should, if possible, be tapped and the water carried under or
+along the side until it can be turned away into some side channel. Such
+drains may be made of bundles of brush, field stones, brick, or drain
+tiles. They should be so protected by straw, sod, or brush as to prevent
+the soil from washing in and clogging them.
+
+Most of the roads in this country are of necessity constructed of earth,
+while in a few of the richer and more enterprising communities the most
+important thoroughfares are surfaced with gravel, shell, stones, or
+other materials. Unless some new system for the improvement of public
+roads is adopted, the inability of rural communities to raise funds for
+this purpose will necessarily cause the construction of hard roads to be
+very gradual for some time to come. Until this new system is adopted the
+most important problem will be that of making the most of the roads
+which exist, rather than building new ones of specially prepared
+materials. The natural materials and the funds already available must be
+used with skill and judgment in order to secure the best results. The
+location, grades, and drainage having been treated in the preceding
+pages, the next and most important consideration is that of constructing
+and improving the various kinds of roads.
+
+Of earth roads, as commonly built, it suffices to say that their present
+conditions should not be tolerated in communities where there are any
+other materials with which to improve them. Earth is the poorest of all
+road materials, aside from sand, and earth roads require more attention
+than any other kind of roads, and as a rule get less. At best, they
+possess so many defects that they should have all the attention and care
+of which their condition is susceptible. With earth alone, however, a
+very passable road can be made, provided the principles of location,
+drainage, and shape of surface, together with that of keeping the
+surface as smooth and firm as possible by rolling, be strictly adhered
+to. In fact a good earth road is second to none for summer travel and
+superior to many of the so-called macadam or stone roads.
+
+"Water is the great road destroyer," and too much attention cannot be
+given to the surface and subdrainage of earth roads. The material of
+which their surfaces are composed is more susceptible to the action of
+water and more easily destroyed by it than any other highway material.
+Drainage alone will often change a bad road into a good one, while on
+the other hand the best road may be destroyed by the absence of good
+drains.
+
+The same can be said of rolling, which is a very important matter in
+attempting to build or maintain a satisfactory earth road. If loose
+earth is dumped into the middle of the road and consolidated by
+traffic, the action of the narrow-tired wheels cuts it or rolls it into
+uneven ruts and ridges, which hold water, and ultimately results, if in
+the winter season, in a sticky, muddy surface, or if it be in dry
+weather, in covering the surface with several inches of dust. If,
+however, the surface be prepared with a road machine and properly rolled
+with a heavy roller, it can usually be made sufficiently firm and smooth
+to sustain the traffic without rutting, and resist the penetrating
+action of the water. Every road is made smoother, harder, and better by
+rolling. Such rolling should be done in damp weather, or if that is not
+possible, the surface should be sprinkled if the character of the soil
+requires such aid for its proper consolidation.
+
+In constructing new earth roads all stumps, brush, vegetable matter,
+rocks, and bowlders should be removed from the surface and the resulting
+holes filled in with suitable material, carefully and thoroughly tamped
+or rolled, before the road embankment is commenced. No perishable
+material should be used in forming the permanent embankments. Where
+possible the longitudinal grade should be kept down to one foot in
+thirty feet, and should under no circumstances exceed one in twenty,
+while that from center to sides should be maintained at one foot in
+twenty feet.
+
+Wherever the subgrade soil is found unsuitable it should be removed and
+replaced with good material rolled to a bearing, _i.e._, so as to be
+smooth and compact. The roadbed, having been brought to the required
+grade and crown, should be rolled several times to compact the surface.
+All inequalities discovered during the rolling should be leveled up and
+rerolled. On the prepared subgrade, the earth should be spread, harrowed
+if necessary, and then rolled to a bearing by passing the unballasted
+road roller a number of times over every portion of the surface of the
+section.
+
+In level countries and with narrow roads, enough material may be
+excavated to raise the roadway above the subgrade in forming the side
+ditches by means of road machines. If not, the required earth should be
+obtained by widening the side excavations, or from cuttings on the line
+of the new roadway, or from pits close by, elevating graders and modern
+dumping or spreading wagons being preferably used for this purpose. When
+the earth is brought up to the final height, it is again harrowed, then
+trimmed by means of road levelers or road machines and ultimately rolled
+to a solid and smooth surface with road rollers gradually increased in
+weight by the addition of ballast.
+
+No filling should be brought up in layers exceeding nine inches in
+depth. During the rolling, sprinkling should be attended to wherever the
+character of the soil requires such aid. The cross section of the
+roadway must be maintained during the last rolling stage by the addition
+of earth as needed. On clay soils a layer of sand, gravel, or ashes
+spread on the roadway will prevent the sticking of the clay to the
+roller. As previously explained, the finishing touches to the road
+surface should be given by a heavy roller.
+
+Before the earth road is opened to traffic, deep and wide side ditches
+should be constructed, with a fall throughout their entire length of at
+least one in one hundred and twenty. They should be cleaned and left
+with the drain tiling connections, if any, in good working order.
+
+Clay soils, as a rule, absorb water quite freely and soften when
+saturated, but water does not readily pass through them; hence they are
+not easily subdrained. When used alone, clay is the least desirable of
+all road materials, but roads constructed over clay soils may be treated
+with sand or small gravel, from which a comparatively hard and compact
+mass is formed which is nearly impervious to water. Material of this
+character found in the natural state, commonly known as hardpan, makes,
+when properly applied, a very solid and durable surface. In soil
+composed of a mixture of sand, gravel, and clay, all that is necessary
+to make a good road of its kind is to "crown" the surface, keep the ruts
+and hollows filled, and the ditches open and free.
+
+[Illustration: Sand Clay Road in Richland County, South Carolina
+
+[_Sand soil with nine inches of clay and two inches cover of sand_]]
+
+Roads are prone to wear in ruts, and when hollows and ruts begin to make
+their appearance on the surface of an earth road great care should be
+used in selecting new material, with which they should be immediately
+filled, because a hole which could have been filled at first with a
+shovel full of material would soon need a cart full. It should, if
+possible, be of a gravelly nature, entirely free from vegetable earth,
+muck, or mold. Sod or turf should not be placed on the surface, neither
+should the surface be renewed by throwing upon it the worn-out material
+from the gutters alongside. The last injunction, if rightly observed and
+the proper remedy applied, would doubtless put an end to the deplorable
+condition of thousands of miles of earth roads in the United States.
+
+A road-maker should not go to the other extreme and fill up ruts and
+holes with stone or large gravel. In many cases it would be wiser to
+dump such material in the river. These stones do not wear uniformly with
+the rest of the material, but produce bumps and ridges, and in nearly
+every case result in making two holes instead of one. Every hole or rut
+in a roadway, if not tamped full of some good material like that of
+which the road is constructed, will become filled with water, and
+finally with mud and water, and will be dug deeper and wider by each
+passing vehicle.
+
+The work of maintaining earth roads will be much increased by lack of
+care in properly finishing the work. The labor and money spent in
+rolling a newly-made road may save many times that amount of labor and
+money in making future repairs. After the material has been placed it
+should not be left for the traffic to consolidate, or for the rains to
+wash off into the ditches, but should be carefully formed and surfaced,
+and then, if possible, rolled. The rolling not only consolidates the
+material, but puts the roadbed in proper shape for travel immediately.
+If there is anything more trying on man or beast than to travel over an
+unimproved road, it must be to travel over one which has just been
+"worked" by the antiquated methods now in vogue in many of the states.
+
+The traveled way should never be repaired by the use of plows or scoops.
+The plow breaks up the compact surface which age and traffic have made
+tolerable. Earth roads can be rapidly repaired by a judicious use of
+road machines and road rollers. The road machine places the material
+where it is most needed, and the roller compacts and keeps it there.
+The labor-saving machinery now manufactured for road-building is just as
+effectual and necessary as the modern mower, self-binder, and thrasher.
+Road graders and rollers are the modern inventions necessary to
+permanent and economical construction. Two men with two teams can build
+more road in one day with a grader and roller than fifty men can with
+picks and shovels, and do it more uniformly and more thoroughly.
+
+Doubtless the best way to keep an earth road, or any road, for that
+matter, in repair is by the use of wide tires on all wagons carrying
+heavy burdens. Water and narrow tires aid each other in destroying
+streets, macadam, gravel, and earth roads. Narrow tires are also among
+the most destructive agents to the fields, pastures, and meadows of
+farms, while on the other hand wide tires are road-makers; they roll and
+harden the surface, and every loaded wagon becomes in effect a road
+roller. Nothing so much tends to the improving of a road as the
+continued rolling of its surface.
+
+Tests recently made at the experiment stations in Utah and Missouri show
+that wide tires not only improve the surface of roads, but that under
+ordinary circumstances less power is required to pull a wagon on which
+wide tires are used. The introduction in recent years of a wide metallic
+tire which can be placed on any narrow-tired wheel at the cost of two
+dollars each, has removed one very serious objection to the proposed
+substitution of broad tires for the narrow ones now in use.
+
+Repairs on earth roads should be attended to particularly in the spring
+of the year, but the great mistake of letting all the repairs go until
+that time should rot be made. The great want of the country road is
+daily care, and the sooner we do away with the system of "working out"
+our road taxes, and pay such taxes in money, the sooner will it be
+possible to build improved roads and to hire experts to keep them
+constantly in good repair. Roads could then secure attention when such
+attention is most needed. If they are repaired only annually or
+semiannually they are seldom in good condition but when they are given
+daily or weekly care they are almost always in good condition, and,
+moreover, the second method costs far less than the first. A portion of
+all levy tax money raised for road purposes should be used in buying
+improved road machinery, and in constructing each year a few miles of
+improved stone or gravel roads.
+
+The only exceptions to the instructions given on road drainage are found
+in the attempt to improve a sand road. The more one improves the
+drainage of a sand road the more deplorable becomes its condition.
+Nothing will ruin one quicker than to dig a ditch on each side and drain
+all the water away. The best way to make such a road firm is to keep it
+constantly damp. Very bushy or shady trees alongside such roads prevent
+the evaporation of water.
+
+The usual way of mending roads which run over loose sandy soils is to
+cover the surface with tough clay or mix the clay and sand together.
+This is quite an expensive treatment if the clay has to be transported a
+great distance, but the expense may be reduced by improving only eight
+or ten feet or half of the roadway.
+
+Any strong, fibrous substance, and especially one which holds moisture,
+such as the refuse of sugar cane or sorghum, and even common straw,
+flax, or swamp grass, will be useful. Spent tan is of some service, and
+wood fiber in any form is excellent. The best is the fibrous sawdust
+made in sawing shingles by those machines which cut lengthwise of the
+fiber into the side of the block. Sawdust is first spread on the road
+from eight to ten inches deep, and this is covered with sand to protect
+the road against fire lighted from pipes or cigars carelessly thrown or
+emptied on the roadbed. The sand also keeps the sawdust damp. The dust
+and sand soon become hard and packed, and the wheels of the heaviest
+wagons make but little impression upon the surface. The roadbed appears
+to be almost as solid as a plank road, but is much easier for the teams.
+The road prepared in this manner will remain good for four or five years
+and will then require renewing in some parts. The ordinary lumber
+sawdust would not be so good, of course, but if mixed with planer
+shavings might serve fairly well.
+
+Roads built of poles or logs laid across the roadway are called corduroy
+roads, because of their corrugated or ribbed appearance. Like earth
+roads, they should never be built where it is possible to secure any
+other good material; but, as is frequently the case in swampy, timbered
+regions, other material is unavailable, and as the road would be
+absolutely impassable without them at certain seasons of the year, it is
+well to know how to make them. Roads of this character should be fifteen
+or sixteen feet wide, so as to enable wagons to pass each other. Logs
+are superior to poles for this purpose and should be used if possible.
+The following in regard to the construction of corduroy roads is from
+Gilmore's _Roads, Streets, and Pavements_:
+
+"The logs are all cut the same length, which should be that of the
+required width of the road, and in laying them down such care in
+selection should be exercised as will give the smallest joints or
+openings between them. In order to reduce as much as possible the
+resistance to draft and the violence of the repeated shocks to which
+vehicles are subjected upon these roads, and also to render its surface
+practicable for draft animals, it is customary to level up between the
+logs with smaller pieces of the same length but split to a triangular
+cross section. These are inserted with edges downward in the open
+joints, so as to bring their surface even with the upper sides of the
+large logs, or as nearly so as practicable.
+
+"Upon the bed thus prepared a layer of brushwood is put, with a few
+inches in thickness, with soil or turf on top to keep it in place. This
+completes the road. The logs are laid directly upon the natural surface
+of the soil, those of the same or nearly of the same diameter being kept
+together, and the top covering of soil is excavated from side ditches.
+
+"Cross drains may usually be omitted in roads of this kind, as the
+openings between the logs, even when laid with utmost care, will furnish
+more than ample water way for drainage from the ditch on the upper to
+that on the lower side of the road. When the passage of a creek of
+considerable volume is to be provided for, and in localities subject to
+freshets, cross drains or culverts are made wherever necessary by the
+omission of two or more logs, the openings being bridged with planks,
+split rails, or poles laid transversely to the axis of the road and
+resting on cross beams notched into the logs on either side."
+
+The essential requirement of a good road is that it should be firm and
+unyielding at all times and in all kinds of weather, so that its surface
+may be smooth and impervious to water. Earth roads at best fulfil none
+of these requirements, unless they be covered with some artificial
+material. On a well-made gravel road one horse can draw twice as large a
+load as he can on a well-made earth road. On a hard smooth stone road
+one horse can pull as much as four horses will on a good earth road. If
+larger loads can be hauled and better time made on good hard roads than
+on good earth ones, the area and the number of people benefited are
+increased in direct proportion to the improvement of their surface.
+Moreover, it is evident that a farm four or five miles from the market
+or shipping point located on or near a hard road is virtually nearer the
+market than one situated only two or three miles away, but located on a
+soft and yielding road. Hard roads are divided here into three
+classes--gravel, shell, and stone.
+
+Although it is impracticable, and in many cases impossible, for
+communities to build good stone roads, a surface of gravel may
+frequently be used to advantage, giving far better results than could be
+attained by the use of earth alone. Where beds of good gravel are
+available this is the simplest, cheapest, and most effective method of
+improving country roads.
+
+[Illustration: GRAVEL ROAD NEAR SOLDIERS' HOME, DISTRICT OF
+COLUMBIA]
+
+In connection with the building and maintenance of gravel roads the most
+important matter to consider is that of selecting the proper material. A
+small proportion of argillaceous sand, clayey, or earthy matter
+contained in some gravel enables it to pack readily and consolidate
+under traffic or the road roller. Seaside and river gravel, which is
+composed usually of rounded, waterworn pebbles, is unfit for surfacing
+roads. The small stones of which they are composed, having no angular
+projections or sharp edges, easily move or slide against each other, and
+will not bind together, and even when mixed with clay may turn
+freely, causing the whole surface to be loose, like materials in a
+shaken sieve.
+
+Inferior qualities of gravel can sometimes be used for foundations; but
+where it becomes necessary to employ such material even for that purpose
+it is well to mix just enough sandy or clayey loam to bind it firmly
+together. For the wearing surface or the top layer the pebbles should,
+if possible, be comparatively clean, hard, angular, and tough, so that
+they will readily consolidate and will not be easily pulverized by the
+impact of traffic, into dust and mud. They should be coarse, varying in
+size from half an inch to an inch and one-half.
+
+Where blue gravel or hardpan and clean bank gravel are procurable, a
+good road may be made by mixing the two together. Pit gravel or gravel
+dug from the earth as a rule contains too much earthy matter. This may,
+however, be removed by sifting. For this purpose two sieves are
+necessary, through which the gravel should be thrown. The meshes of one
+sieve should be one and one-half or two inches in diameter, while the
+meshes of the other should be three-fourths of an inch. All pebbles
+which will not go through the one and one-half inch meshes should be
+rejected or broken so that they will go through. All material which
+sifts through the three-fourths inch meshes should be rejected for the
+road, but may be used in making side paths. The excellent road which can
+be built from materials prepared in this way is so far superior to the
+one made of the natural clayey material that the expense and trouble of
+sifting is many times repaid.
+
+The best gravel for road-building stands perpendicular in the bank; that
+is, when the pit has been opened up the remainder stands compact and
+firm and cannot be dislodged except by use of the pick, and when it
+gives way falls in great chunks or solid masses. Such material usually
+contains tough angular gravel with just enough cementing properties to
+enable it to readily pack and consolidate, and requires no further
+treatment than to place it properly on the prepared roadbed.
+
+Some earth roads may be greatly improved by covering the surface with a
+layer of three or four inches of gravel, and sometimes even a thinner
+layer may prove of very great benefit if kept in proper repair. The
+subsoil of such roadway ought, however, to be well drained, or of a
+light and porous nature. Roads constructed over clay soils require a
+layer of at least six inches of gravel. The gravel must be deep enough
+to prevent the weight of traffic forcing the surface material into weak
+places in the clay beneath, and also to prevent the surface water from
+percolating through and softening the clay and causing the whole roadway
+to be torn up.
+
+Owing to a lack of knowledge regarding construction, indifference, or
+carelessness in building or improving, roads made of gravel are often
+very much worse than they ought to be. Some of them are made by simply
+dumping the material into ruts, mud holes, or gutter-like depressions,
+or on unimproved foundation, and are left thus for traffic to
+consolidate, while others are made by covering the surface with inferior
+material without any attention being paid to the fundamental principles
+of drainage. As a result of such thoughtless and haphazard methods the
+road usually becomes rougher and more completely covered with holes than
+before.
+
+In constructing a gravel road the roadbed should first be brought to the
+proper grade. Ordinarily an excavation is then made to the depth of
+eight to ten inches, varying in width with the requirements of traffic.
+For a farm or farming community the width need not be greater than ten
+or twelve feet. A roadway which is too wide is not only useless, but the
+extra width is a positive damage. Any width beyond that needed for the
+traffic is not only a waste of money in constructing the road, but is
+the cause of a never-ending expense in maintaining it. The surface of
+the roadbed should preferably have a fall from the center to the sides
+the same as that to be given the finished road, and should, if possible,
+be thoroughly rolled and consolidated until perfectly smooth and firm.
+
+A layer, not thicker than four inches, of good gravel, such as that
+recommended above, should then be spread evenly over the prepared
+roadbed. Such material is usually carried upon a road in wheelbarrows or
+dump carts, and then spread in even layers with rakes, but the latest
+and best device for this purpose is a spreading cart.
+
+If a roller cannot be had, the road is thrown open to traffic until it
+becomes fairly well consolidated; but it is impossible properly to
+consolidate materials by the movement of vehicles over the road, and if
+this means is pursued constant watchfulness is necessary to prevent
+unequal wear and to keep the surface smooth and free from ruts. The work
+may be hastened and facilitated by the use of a horse roller or light
+steam roller; and of course far better results can be accomplished by
+this means. If the gravel be too dry to consolidate easily it should be
+kept moist by sprinkling. It should not, however, be made too wet, as
+any earthy or clayey matter in the gravel is liable to be dissolved.
+
+As soon as the first layer has been properly consolidated, a second,
+third, and, if necessary, fourth layer, each three or four inches in
+thickness, is spread on and treated in the same manner, until the road
+is built up to the required thickness and cross section. The thickness
+in most cases need not be greater than ten or twelve inches, and the
+fall from the center to the sides ought not to be greater than one foot
+in twenty feet, or less than one in twenty-five.
+
+The last or surface layer should be rolled until the wheels of heavily
+loaded vehicles passing over it make no visible impression. If the top
+layer is deficient in binding material and will not properly
+consolidate, a thin layer, not exceeding one inch in thickness, of sand
+or gravelly loam or clay, should be evenly spread on and slightly
+sprinkled if in dry weather, before the rolling is begun. Hardpan or
+stone screenings are much preferred for this purpose if they can be had.
+
+The tendency of material to spread under the roller and work toward the
+sides can be resisted by rolling that portion nearest the gutters first.
+To give the surface the required form and to secure uniform density, it
+is necessary at times to employ men with rakes to fill any depressions
+which may form.
+
+In order to maintain a gravel road in good condition, it is well to keep
+piles of gravel alongside at frequent intervals, so that the person who
+repairs the road can get the material without going too far for it. As
+soon as ruts or holes appear on the surface some of this good fresh
+material should be added and tamped into position or kept raked smooth
+until properly consolidated.
+
+If the surface needs replenishing or rounding up, as is frequently the
+case with new roads after considerable wear, the material should be
+applied in sections or patches, raked and rolled until hard and smooth.
+
+Care must be taken that the water from higher places does not drain upon
+or run across the road. The side ditches, culverts, and drains should be
+kept open and free from débris.
+
+In many of the Eastern and Southern States road stones do not exist;
+neither is it possible to secure good coarse gravel. No such material
+can be secured except at such an expense for freight as to practically
+preclude its use for road-building. Oyster shells can be secured
+cheaply in most of these states, and when applied directly upon sand or
+sandy soil, eight or ten inches in thickness, they form excellent roads
+for pleasure driving and light traffic. Shells wear much more rapidly
+than broken stone or gravel of good quality, and consequently roads made
+of them require more constant attention to keep them in good order. In
+most cases they should have an entirely new surface every three or four
+years. When properly maintained they possess many of the qualities found
+in good stone or gravel roads, and so far as beauty is concerned they
+cannot be surpassed.
+
+The greatest obstacles to good stone road construction in most places in
+the United States are the existing methods of building and systems of
+management, whereby millions of dollars are annually wasted in improper
+construction or in making trifling repairs on temporary structures.
+
+[Illustration: OYSTER-SHELL OBJECT-LESSON ROAD
+
+[_In course of construction, near Mobile, Alabama_]]
+
+The practice of using too soft, too brittle, or rotten material on roads
+cannot be too severely condemned. Some people seem to think that if a
+stone quarries easily, breaks easily, and packs readily, it is the
+very best stone for road-building. This practice, together with that of
+placing the material on unimproved foundations and leaving it thus for
+traffic to consolidate, has done a great deal to destroy the confidence
+of many people in stone roads. There is no reason in the world why a
+road should not last for ages if it is built of good material and kept
+in proper repair. If this is not done, the money spent is more than
+wasted. It is more economical, as a rule, to bring good materials a long
+distance by rail or water than to employ inferior ones procured close at
+hand.
+
+The durability of roads depends largely upon the power of the materials
+of which they are composed to resist those natural and artificial forces
+which are constantly acting to destroy them. The fragments of which they
+are constructed are liable to be attacked in cold climates by frost, and
+in all climates by water and wind. If composed of stone or gravel, the
+particles are constantly grinding against each other and being exposed
+to the impact of the tires of vehicles and the feet of animals.
+Atmospheric agencies are also at work decomposing and disintegrating
+the material. It is obviously necessary, therefore, that great care be
+exercised in selecting for the surfacing of roads those stones which are
+less liable to be destroyed or decomposed by these physical, dynamical,
+and chemical forces.
+
+Siliceous materials, those composed of flint or quartz, although hard,
+are brittle and deficient in toughness. Granite is not desirable because
+it is composed of three materials of different natures, viz., quartz,
+feldspar, and mica, the first of which is brittle, the second liable to
+decompose rapidly, and the third laminable or of a scaly or layerlike
+nature. Some granites which contain hornblende instead of feldspar are
+desirable. The darker the variety the better. Gneiss, which is composed
+of quartz, feldspar, and mica, more or less distinctly slaty, is
+inferior to granite. Mica-slate stones are altogether useless. The
+argillaceous slates or clayey slates make a smooth surface, but one
+which is easily destroyed when wet. The sandstones are utterly useless
+for road-building. The tougher limestones are very good, but the softer
+ones, though they bind and make a smooth surface very quickly, are too
+weak for heavy loads; they wear, wash, and blow away very rapidly.
+
+The materials employed for surfacing roads should be both hard and
+tough, and should possess by all means cementing and recementing
+qualities. For the Southern States, where there are no frosts to contend
+with, the best qualities of limestone are considered quite satisfactory
+so far as the cementing and recementing qualities are concerned; but in
+most cases roads of this class of material do not stand the wear and
+tear of traffic like those built of trap rock, and when exposed to the
+severe northern winters such material disintegrates very rapidly. In
+fact, trap rock, "nigger heads," technically known as diabase, and
+diorites, are considered by most road engineers of long experience to be
+the very best stones for road-building. Trap rocks as a rule possess all
+the qualities most desired for road stones. They are hard and tough, and
+when properly broken to small sizes and rolled thoroughly, cement and
+consolidate into a smooth, hard crust which is impervious to water, and
+the broken particles are so heavy that they are not readily broken or
+washed away.
+
+Unfortunately the most useful stones for road-building are the most
+difficult to prepare, and as trap rocks are harder to break than any
+other stones they usually cost more. The foundation or lower courses may
+be formed of some of the softer stones like gneiss or limestone, but
+trap rock should be used for the wearing surface, if possible, even if
+it has to be brought from a distance.
+
+As to the construction of macadam roads, Mr. Potter says:
+
+"In the construction of a macadam road in any given locality, the
+question of economy generally compels us to use a material found near at
+hand, and where a local quarry does not exist field stone and stone
+gathered from the beds of rivers and small streams may often be made to
+serve every purpose. Many of the stones and boulders thus obtained are
+of trap rock, and in general it may be said that all hard field and
+river stones, if broken to a proper size, will make fairly good and
+sometimes very excellent road metal. No elaborate test is required to
+determine the hardness of any given specimen. A steel hammer in the
+hands of an intelligent workman will reveal in a general way the
+relative degree of toughness of two or more pieces of rock. Field and
+river stone offer an additional advantage in that they are quickly
+handled, are generally of convenient size, and are more readily broken
+either by hand or by machine than most varieties of rock which are
+quarried in the usual way.
+
+"It is a simple task to break stone for macadam roadways, and by the aid
+of modern inventions it can be done cheaply and quickly. Hand-broken
+stone is fairly out of date and is rarely used in America where any
+considerable amount of work is to be undertaken. Stone may be broken by
+hand at different points along the roadside where repairs are needed
+from time to time, but the extra cost of production by this method
+forbids its being carried on where extended work is undertaken.
+Hand-broken stone is generally more uniform in size, more nearly cubical
+in shape, and has sharper angles than that broken by machinery, but the
+latter, when properly assorted or screened, has been found to meet every
+requirement.
+
+"A good crusher driven by eight horsepower will turn out from forty to
+eighty cubic yards of two-inch stone per day of ten hours, and will cost
+from four hundred dollars upward, according to quality.
+
+"Some crushers are made either stationary, semistationary, or portable,
+according to the needs of the purchaser, and for country-road work it is
+sometimes very desirable to have a portable crusher to facilitate its
+easy transfer from one part of the township to another. The same
+portable engine that is used in thrashing, sawing wood, and other
+operations requiring the use of steam power may be used in running a
+stone crusher, but it is best to remember that a crusher will do its
+best and most economical work when run by a machine having a horsepower
+somewhat in excess of the power actually required.
+
+"As the stone comes from the breaker the pieces will be found to show a
+considerable variety in size, and by many practical road-makers it is
+regarded as best that these sizes should be assorted and separated,
+since each has its particular use. To do this work by hand would be
+troublesome and expensive, and screens are generally employed for that
+purpose. Screens are not absolutely necessary, and many road-makers do
+not use them; but they insure uniformity in size of pieces, and
+uniformity means in many cases superior wear, smoothness, and economy.
+Most of the screens in common use today are of the rotary kind. In
+operating they are generally so arranged that the product of the crusher
+falls directly into the rotary screen, which revolves on an inclined
+axis and empties the separate pieces into small bins below the crusher.
+A better form for many purposes includes a larger and more elaborate
+outfit, in which the stone is carried by an elevator to the screen and
+by the screen emptied into separate bins according to the respective
+sizes. From the bins it is easily loaded into wagons or spreading carts
+and hauled to any desired point along the line of the road.
+
+"The size to which stone should be broken depends upon the quality of
+the stone, the amount of traffic to which the road will be subjected,
+and to some extent upon the manner in which the stone is put in place.
+If a hard, tough stone is employed it may be broken into rough cubes or
+pieces of about one and a half inches in largest face dimensions, and
+when broken to such a size the product of the crusher may generally be
+used to good advantage without the trouble of screening, since dust
+'tailings' and fine stuff do not accumulate in large quantities in the
+breaking of the tougher stone.
+
+"If only moderate traffic is to be provided for, the harder limestones
+may be broken so the pieces will pass through a two-inch ring, though
+sizes running from two and a quarter to two and a half inches will
+insure a more durable roadway, and if a steam roller is used in
+compacting the metal it will be brought to a smooth surface without much
+trouble. As a rule, it may be said that to adhere closely to a size
+running from two and a quarter to two and a half inches in largest face
+dimensions, and to use care in excluding too large a proportion of
+small stuff as well as all pieces of excessive size, will insure a
+satisfactory and durable macadam road."
+
+Macadam insisted that no large stone should ever be employed in
+road-making, and, indeed, most modern road builders practice his
+principle that "small angular fragments are the cardinal requirements."
+As a general rule it has been stated that no stone larger than a walnut
+should be used for the surfacing of roads.
+
+Stone roads are built in most cases according to the principles laid
+down by John L. Macadam, while some are built by the methods advocated
+by Telford. The most important difference between these two principles
+of construction relates to the propriety or necessity of a paved
+foundation beneath the crust of broken stone. Telford advocated this
+principle, while Macadam strongly denied its advantages.
+
+In building roads very few iron-clad rules can be laid down for
+universal application; skill and judgment must be exercised in designing
+and building each road so that it will best meet the requirements of the
+place it is to occupy. The relative value of the telford and macadam
+systems can most always be determined by the local circumstances,
+conditions, and necessities under which the road is to be built. The
+former system seems to have the advantage in swampy, wet places, or
+where the soil is in strata varying in hardness, or where the foundation
+is liable to get soft in spots. Under most other circumstances
+experienced road builders prefer the macadam construction, not only
+because it is considered best, but also because it is much cheaper.
+
+The macadam road consists of a mass of angular fragments of rock
+deposited usually in layers upon the roadbed or prepared foundation and
+consolidated to a smooth, hard surface produced by the passage of
+vehicles or by use of a road roller. The thickness of this crust varies
+with the soil, the nature of the stone used, and the amount of traffic
+which the road is expected to have. It should be so thick that the
+greatest load will not affect the foundation. The weight usually comes
+upon a very small part of the surface, but is spread over a large area
+of the foundation, and the thicker the crust the more uniformly will
+the load be distributed over the foundation.
+
+Macadam earnestly advocated the principle that all artificial
+road-building depended wholly for its success upon the making and
+maintaining of a solid dry foundation and the covering of this
+foundation with a durable waterproof coating or roof of broken stone.
+The foundation must be solid and firm; if it be otherwise the crust is
+useless. A road builder should always remember that without a durable
+foundation there is no durable road. Hundreds of miles of macadam roads
+are built in the United States each year on unimproved or unstable
+foundations and almost as many miles go to pieces for this same reason.
+Says Macadam:
+
+"The stone is employed to form a secure, smooth, water-tight flooring,
+over which vehicles may pass with safety and expedition at all seasons
+of the year. Its thickness should be regulated only by the quality of
+the material necessary to form such a flooring and not at all by any
+consideration as to its own independent power of bearing weight.... The
+erroneous idea that the evils of an underdrained, wet, clayey soil can
+be remedied by a large quantity of materials has caused a large part of
+the costly and unsuccessful expenditures in making stone roads."
+
+The evils from improper construction of stone roads are even greater
+than those resulting from the use of improper material. Macadam never
+intended that a heterogeneous conglomeration of stones and mud should be
+called a macadam road. The mistake is often made of depositing broken
+stone on an old road without first preparing a suitable foundation. The
+result, in most cases, is that the dirt and mud prevent the stone from
+packing and by the action of traffic ooze to the surface, while the
+stones sink deeper and deeper, leaving the road as bad as before.
+
+Another great mistake is often made of spreading large and small stones
+over a well-graded and well-drained foundation and leaving them thus for
+traffic to consolidate. The surface of a road left in this manner is
+often kept in constant turmoil by the larger stones, which work
+themselves to the surface and are knocked hither and thither by the
+wheels of vehicles and the feet of animals. These plans of construction
+cannot be too severely condemned.
+
+The roadbed should be first graded, then carefully surface-drained. The
+earth should then be excavated to the depth to which material is to be
+spread on and the foundation properly shaped and sloped each way from
+the center so as to discharge any water which may percolate through.
+This curvature should conform to the curvature of the finished road. A
+shouldering of firm earth or gravel should be left or made on each side
+to hold the material in place, and should extend to the gutters at the
+same curvature as the finished road. The foundation should then be
+rolled until hard and smooth.
+
+Upon this bed spread a layer of five or six inches of broken stone,
+which stone should be free from any earthy mixture. This layer should be
+thoroughly rolled until compact and firm. Stone may be hauled from the
+stone-crusher bins or from the stone piles in ordinary wheelbarrows or
+from wagons, and should be distributed broadcast over the surface with
+shovels, and all inequalities leveled up by the use of rakes. If this
+method of spreading is employed, grade stakes should be used so as to
+insure a uniformity of thickness. After the stakes are driven the height
+of the layer is marked on their sides, and if thought necessary a piece
+of stout cord is stretched from stake to stake, showing the exact height
+to which the layer should be spread. Spreading carts have been recently
+invented which not only place the stone where it is needed without the
+use of shovels, but spread it on in layers of any desired thickness and
+at the same time several inches wider than the carts themselves.
+
+If the stones have been separated into two or three different sizes, the
+largest size should compose the bottom layer, the next size the second
+layer, etc. The surface of each course or layer should be thoroughly and
+repeatedly rolled and sprinkled until it becomes firm, compact, and
+smooth. The first layer, however, should not be sprinkled, as the water
+is liable to soften the foundation. The rolling ought to be done along
+the side lines first, gradually working toward the center as the job is
+being completed. In rolling the last course it is well to begin by
+rolling first the shoulderings or the side roads if such exist.
+
+A coat of three-quarter inch stone and screenings, of sufficient
+thickness to make a smooth and uniform surface, should compose the last
+course, and, like the other layers, should be rolled until perfectly
+firm and smooth. As a final test of perfection, a small stone placed on
+the surface will be crushed before being driven into the material.
+
+If none of the stones used be larger than will pass through a two-inch
+ring, they can be spread on in layers as above described without
+separating them by screens. Water and binding material--stone screenings
+or good packing gravel--can be added if found necessary for proper
+consolidation. Earth or clay should never be used for a binding
+material. Enough water should be sprinkled on to wash in and fill all
+voids between the broken stones with binding material and to leave such
+material damp enough to insure a set.
+
+If a road is built of tough, hard stone, and if the binding material has
+the same characteristics, a steam roller is essential for speedy
+results. A horse roller may be used to good advantage if the softer
+varieties of stone are employed. For general purposes a roller weighing
+from eight to twelve tons is all that is necessary. Heavier weights are
+difficult to handle upon unimproved surfaces unless they be constructed
+like the Addison roller, the weight of which can be increased or
+lightened at will by filling the drum with water or drawing the water
+out. This roller can be made to weigh as much as eight tons and, like
+several other very excellent ones now on the market, is provided with
+anti-friction roller bearings, which lighten the draft considerably.
+
+Every stone road, unless properly built with small stones and just
+enough binding material to fill the voids, presents a honeycombed
+appearance. In fact, a measure containing two cubic feet of broken stone
+will hold in addition one cubic foot of water, and a cubic yard of
+broken macadam will weigh just about one-half as much as a solid cubic
+yard of the same kind of stone. Isaac Potter says:
+
+"To insure a solid roadway and to fill the large proportion of voids or
+interstices between the different pieces of broken stone, some finer
+material must be introduced into the structure of the roadway, and this
+material is usually called a binder, or by some road-makers a 'filler.'
+
+"There used to be much contention regarding the use of binding material
+in the making of a macadam road, but it is now conceded by nearly all
+practical and experienced road-makers, both in Europe and America, that
+the use of a binding material is essential to the proper construction of
+a good macadam road. It adds to its solidity, insures tightness by
+closing all of the spaces between the loose, irregular stones, and binds
+together the macadam crust in a way that gives it firmness, elasticity,
+and durability."
+
+Binding material to produce the best results should be equal in hardness
+and toughness with the road stone; the best results are therefore
+obtained by using screenings or spalls from the broken stone used.
+Coarse sand and gravel can sometimes be used with impunity as a binder,
+but the wisdom of using loam or clay is very much questioned. When the
+latter material is used for a binder the road is apt to become very
+dusty in dry weather, and sticky, muddy, and rutty in wet weather.
+
+The character of the foundation should never take the place of proper
+drainage. The advisability of underground or subdrainage should always
+be carefully considered where the road is liable to be attacked from
+beneath by water. In most cases good subdrains will so dry the
+foundation out that the macadam construction can be resorted to.
+Sometimes, however, thorough drainage is difficult or doubtful, and in
+such cases it is desirable to adopt some heavy construction like the
+telford; and, furthermore, the difficulty of procuring perfectly solid
+and reliable roadbeds in many places is often overcome by the use of
+this system.
+
+In making a telford road the surface for the foundation is prepared in
+the same manner as for a macadam road. A layer of broken stone is then
+placed on the roadbed from five to eight inches in depth, depending upon
+the thickness to be given the finished road. As a rule this foundation
+should form about two-thirds of the total thickness of the material. The
+stone used for the first layer may vary in thickness from two to four
+inches and in length from eight to twelve inches. The thickness of the
+upper edges of the stones should not exceed four inches. They are set by
+hand on their broadest edges lengthwise across the road, breaking joints
+as much as possible. All projecting points are then broken off and the
+interstices or cracks filled with stone chips, and the whole structure
+wedged and consolidated into a solid and complete pavement. Upon this
+pavement layers of broken stones are spread and treated in the same way
+as for a macadam road.
+
+Stone roads should be frequently scraped, so as to remove all dust and
+mud. Nothing destroys a stone road quicker than dust or mud. The hand
+method of scraping with a hoe is considered best. No matter how
+carefully adjusted the machinery built for this purpose may be, it is
+liable to ravel a road by loosening some of the stones. The gutters and
+surface drains should be kept open, so that all water falling upon the
+road or on the adjacent ground may promptly flow away. Says Spalding, a
+road authority:
+
+"If the road metal be of soft material which wears easily, it will
+require constant supervision and small repairs whenever a rut or
+depression may appear. Material of this kind binds readily with new
+material that may be added, and may in this manner frequently be kept in
+good condition without great difficulty, while if not attended to at
+once when wear begins to show it will very rapidly increase, to the
+great detriment of the road. In making repairs by this method the
+material is commonly placed a little at a time and compacted by passing
+vehicles. The material used for this purpose should be the same as that
+of the road surface and not fine material, which would soon reduce to
+powder under the loads which come upon it. By careful attention to
+minute repairs in this manner a surface may be kept in good condition
+until it wears so thin as to require renewal.
+
+"In case the road be of harder material, that will not so readily
+combine when a thin coating is added, repairs may not be frequent, as
+the surface will not wear so rapidly, and immediate attention is not so
+important. It is usually more satisfactory in this case to make more
+extensive repairs at one time, as a larger quantity of material added at
+once may be more readily compacted to a uniform surface, the repairs
+taking the form of an additional layer upon the road.
+
+"Where the material of the road surface is very hard and durable, a
+well-constructed road may wear quite evenly and require hardly any
+attention, beyond ordinary small repairs, until worn out. It is now
+usually considered the best practice to leave such a road to itself
+until it wears very thin, and then renew it by an entirely new layer of
+broken stone placed on the worn surface and without in any way
+disturbing that surface.
+
+"If a thin layer only of material is to be added at one time, in order
+that it may unite firmly with the upper layer of the road, it is usually
+necessary to break the bond of the surface material before placing the
+new layer, either by picking it up by hand or by a steam roller with
+short spikes in its surface, if such a machine is at hand. Care should
+be taken in doing this, however, that only the surface layer be loosened
+and that the solidity of the body of the road be not disturbed, as might
+be the case if the spikes are too long."
+
+In repairing roads the time-honored custom of waiting until the road has
+lost its shape or until the surface has become filled with holes or ruts
+should never be tolerated. Much good material is wasted by spreading a
+thick coat over such a road and leaving it thus for passing vehicles to
+consolidate. The material necessary to replace defects in a road should
+be added when the necessities arise and should be of the best quality
+and the smallest possible quantity. If properly laid in small patches
+the inconvenience to traffic will be scarcely perceptible. If such
+repairs are made in damp weather, as they ought to be, little or no
+difficulty is experienced in getting a layer of stone to consolidate
+properly. If mud fills the rut or hole to be repaired, it should be
+carefully removed before the material is placed.
+
+Wide tires should be used on all heavy vehicles which traverse stone
+roads. A four or five inch stone or gravel road will last longer without
+repair when wide tires are used than an eight or ten inch road of the
+same material on which narrow tires are used.
+
+Not only should brush and weeds be removed from the roadside, but grass
+should be sown, trees planted, and a side path or walk be prepared for
+the use of pedestrians, especially women and children, going to and
+coming from church, school, and places of business and amusement.
+Country roads can be made far more useful and attractive than they
+usually are, and this may be secured by the expenditure of only a small
+amount of labor and money. Although such improvements are not necessary,
+they make the surroundings attractive and inviting and add to the value
+of property and the pleasure of the traveler.
+
+If trees are planted alongside the road they should be far enough back
+to admit the wind and sun. Most strong growing trees are apt to extend
+their roots under the gutters and even beneath the roadway if they are
+planted too close to the roadside. Even if they be planted at a safe
+distance those varieties should be selected which send their roots
+downward rather than horizontally. The most useful and beautiful tree
+corresponding with these requirements is the chestnut, while certain
+varieties of the pear, cherry, and mulberry answer the same purpose.
+Where there is no danger of roots damaging the subdrainage or the
+substructure of the road, some other favorite varieties would be elms,
+rock maples, horse-chestnuts, beeches, pines, and cedars. Climate,
+variety of species selected, and good judgment will determine the
+distance between such trees. Elms should be thirty feet apart, while the
+less spreading varieties need not be so far. The trunks should be
+trimmed to a considerable height, so as to admit the sun and air. Fruit
+trees are planted along the roadsides in Germany and Switzerland, while
+mulberry trees may be seen along the roads in France, serving the
+twofold purpose of food for silkworms and shade. If some of our many
+varieties of useful, fruitful, and beautiful trees were planted along
+the roads in this country, and if some means could be devised for
+protecting the product, enough revenue could be derived therefrom to pay
+for the maintenance of the road along which they throw their grateful
+shade.
+
+The improvement of country roads is chiefly an economical question,
+relating principally to the waste of effort in hauling over bad roads,
+the saving in money, time, and energy in hauling over good ones, the
+initial cost of improving roads, and the difference in the cost of
+maintaining good and bad ones. It is not necessary to enlarge on this
+subject in order to convince the average reader that good roads reduce
+the resistance to traffic, and consequently the cost of transportation
+of products and goods to and from farms and markets is reduced to a
+minimum.
+
+The initial cost of a road depends upon the cost of materials, labor,
+machinery, the width and depth to which the material is to be spread
+on, and the method of construction. All these things vary so much in the
+different states that it is impossible to name the exact amount for
+which a mile of a certain kind of road can be built.
+
+The introduction in recent years of improved road-building machinery has
+enabled the authorities in some of the states to build improved stone
+and gravel roads quite cheaply. First-class single-track stone roads,
+nine feet wide, have been built near Canandaigua, New York, for $900 to
+$1,000 per mile. Many excellent gravel roads have been built in New
+Jersey for $1,000 to $1,300 per mile. The material of which they were
+constructed was placed on in two layers, each being raked and thoroughly
+rolled, and the whole mass consolidated to a thickness of eight inches.
+In the same state macadam roads have been built, for $2,000 to $5,000
+per mile, varying in width from nine to twenty feet and in thickness of
+material from four to twelve inches. Telford roads fourteen feet wide
+and ten to twelve inches thick have been built in New Jersey for $4,000
+to $6,000 per mile. Macadam roads have been built at Bridgeport and
+Fairfield, Connecticut, eighteen to twenty feet wide, for $3,000 to
+$5,000 per mile. A telford road sixteen feet wide and twelve inches
+thick was built at Fanwood, New Jersey, for $9,500 per mile. Macadam
+roads have been built in Rhode Island, sixteen to twenty feet wide, for
+$4,000 to $5,000 per mile.
+
+Massachusetts roads are costing all the way from $6,000 to $25,000 per
+mile. A mile of broken stone road, fifteen feet wide, costs in the state
+of Massachusetts about $5,700 per mile, while a mile of the same width
+and kind of road costs in the state of New Jersey only $4,700. This is
+due partly to the fact that the topography of Massachusetts is somewhat
+rougher than that of New Jersey, necessitating the reduction of many
+steep grades and the building of expensive retaining walls and bridges,
+and partly to the difference in methods of construction and the
+difference in prices of materials, labor, etc.
+
+Doubtless the state of New Jersey is building more roads and better
+roads for less money per mile than any other state in the Union. Its
+roads are now costing from twenty to seventy cents per square yard.
+Where the telford construction is used they sometimes cost as much as
+seventy-three cents per square yard. The average cost of all classes of
+the roads of that state during the last season was about fifty cents per
+square yard. The stone was, as a rule, spread on to a depth of nine
+inches, which, after rolling, gave a depth of about eight inches. At
+this rate a single-track road eight feet wide costs about $2,346 per
+mile, while a double-track road fourteen feet wide costs about $4,106
+per mile, and one eighteen feet wide costs about $5,280 per mile. Where
+the material is spread on so as to consolidate to a four-inch layer the
+eight-foot road will cost about $1,173 per mile, the fourteen-foot road
+about $2,053 per mile, while the one eighteen feet wide will cost about
+$2,640 per mile.
+
+[Illustration: EARTH AND MACADAM ROADS
+
+[_Built by convict labor in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina_]]
+
+The total cost of maintaining roads in good order ranges, on account of
+varying conditions, between as wide limits almost as the initial cost of
+construction. Suffice it to say that all money spent on repairing earth
+roads becomes each year a total loss without materially improving
+their condition. They are, as a rule, the most expensive roads that can
+be used, while on the other hand stone roads, if properly constructed of
+good material and kept in perfect condition, are the most satisfactory,
+the cheapest, and most economical roads that can be constructed.
+
+The road that will best suit the needs of the farmer, in the first
+place, must not be too costly; and, in the second place, must be of the
+very best kind, for farmers should be able to do their heavy hauling
+over them when their fields are too wet to work and their teams would
+otherwise be idle.
+
+The best road for the farmer, all things being considered, is a solid,
+well-built stone road, so narrow as to be only a single track, but
+having a firm earth road on one or both sides. Where the traffic is not
+very extensive the purposes of good roads are better served by narrow
+tracks than by wide ones, while many of the objectionable features of
+wide tracks are removed, the initial cost of construction is cut down
+one-half or more, and the charges for repair reduced in proportion.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] By Hon. Maurice O. Eldridge, Assistant Director Office of Public
+Road Inquiries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS[7]
+
+
+No one rock can be said to be a universally excellent road material. The
+climatic conditions vary so much in different localities, and the volume
+and character of traffic vary so much on different roads, that the
+properties necessary to meet all the requirements can be found in no one
+rock. If the best macadam road be desired, that material should be
+selected which best meets the conditions of the particular road for
+which it is intended.
+
+The movement for better country roads which has received such an impetus
+from the bicycle organizations is still felt, and is gaining force from
+the rapid introduction of horseless vehicles. To this demand, which
+comes in a large measure from the urban population, is to be added that
+of the farmer, who is wakening to the fact that good roads greatly
+increase the profits from his farm produce, and thus materially better
+his condition; and to the farmer, indeed, we must look for any real
+improvement in our country roads.
+
+In considering the comparative values of different rocks for
+road-building, it must be taken for granted in all cases that the road
+is properly laid out, constructed, and maintained. For if this is not
+the case, only inferior results can be expected, no matter how good the
+material may be.
+
+In most cases the selection of a material for road-making is determined
+more by its cheapness and convenience of location than by any properties
+it may possess. But when we consider the number of roads all over our
+country which are bad from neglect and from obsolete methods of
+maintenance that would be much improved by the use of any rock, this
+regard for economy is not to be entirely deprecated. At the same time,
+as a careless selection leads to costly and inferior results, too much
+care cannot be used in selecting the proper material when good roads
+are desired at the lowest cost. When macadam roads are first introduced
+into a district they are at worst so far superior to the old earth roads
+that the question is rarely asked, whether, if another material had been
+used, better roads would not have been obtained, and this at a smaller
+cost. When mistakes are made they are not generally discovered until
+much time and money have been expended on inferior roads. Such errors
+can in a great measure be avoided if reasonable care is taken in the
+selection of a suitable material. To select a material in a haphazard
+way, without considering the needs of the particular road on which it is
+to be used, is not unlike an ill person taking the nearest medicine at
+hand, without reference to the nature of the malady or the properties of
+the drug. If a road is bad, the exact trouble must first be ascertained
+before the proper remedy can be applied. If the surface of a macadam
+road continues to be too muddy or dusty after the necessary drainage
+precautions have been followed, then the rock of which it is constructed
+lacks sufficient hardness or toughness to meet the traffic to which it
+is subjected. If, on the contrary, the fine binding material of the
+surface is carried off by wind and rain and is not replaced by the wear
+of the coarser fragments, the surface stones will soon loosen and allow
+water to make its way freely to the foundation and bring about the
+destruction of the road. Such conditions are brought about by an excess
+of hardness or toughness of the rock for the traffic. Under all
+conditions a rock of high cementing value is desirable; for, other
+things being equal, such a rock better resists the wear of traffic and
+the action of wind and rain. This subject, however, will be referred to
+again.
+
+Until comparatively recent years but little was known of the relative
+values of the different varieties of rock as road material, and good
+results were obtained more by chance and general observation than
+through any special knowledge of the subject. These conditions, however,
+do not obtain at present, for the subject has received a great deal of
+careful study, and a fairly accurate estimate can be made of the
+fitness of a rock for any conditions of climate and traffic.
+
+In road-building the attempt should be made to get a perfectly smooth
+surface, not too hard, too slippery, or too noisy, and as free as
+possible from mud and dust, and these results are to be attained and
+maintained as cheaply as possible. Such results, however, can only be
+had by selecting the material and methods of construction best suited to
+the conditions.
+
+In selecting a road material it is well to consider the agencies of
+destruction to roads that have to be met. Among the most important are
+the wearing action of wheels and horses' feet, frost, rain, and wind. To
+find materials that can best withstand these agencies under all
+conditions is the great problem that confronts the road-builder.
+
+Before going further, it will be well to consider some of the physical
+properties of rock which are important in road-building, for the value
+of a road material is dependent in a large measure on the degree to
+which it possesses these properties. There are many such properties that
+affect road-building, but only three need be mentioned here. They are
+hardness, toughness, and cementing or binding power.
+
+By hardness is meant the power possessed by a rock to resist the wearing
+action caused by the abrasion of wheels and horses' feet. Toughness, as
+understood by road-builders, is the adhesion between the crystal and
+fine particles of a rock, which gives it power to resist fracture when
+subjected to the blows of traffic. This important property, while
+distinct from hardness, is yet intimately associated with it, and can in
+a measure make up for a deficiency in hardness. Hardness, for instance,
+would be the resistance offered by a rock to the grinding of an emery
+wheel; toughness, the resistance to fracture when struck with a hammer.
+Cementing or binding power is the property possessed by the dust of a
+rock to act, after wetting, as a cement to the coarser fragments
+composing the road, binding them together and forming a smooth,
+impervious shell over the surface. Such a shell, formed by a rock of
+high cementing value, protects the underlying material from wear and
+acts as a cushion to the blows from horses' feet, and at the same time
+resists the waste of material caused by wind and rain, and preserves the
+foundation by shedding the surface water. Binding power is thus,
+probably, the most important property to be sought for in a
+road-building rock, as its presence is always necessary for the best
+results. The hardness and toughness of the binder surface more than of
+the rock itself represents the hardness and toughness of the road, for
+if the weight of traffic is sufficient to destroy the bond of
+cementation of the surface, the stones below are soon loosened and
+forced out of place. When there is an absence of binding material, which
+often occurs when the rock is too hard for the traffic to which it is
+subjected, the road soon loosens or ravels.
+
+Experience shows that a rock possessing all three of the properties
+mentioned in a high degree does not under all conditions make a good
+road material; on the contrary, under certain conditions it may be
+altogether unsuitable. As an illustration of this, if a country road or
+city park way, where only a light traffic prevails, were built of a
+very hard and tough rock with a high cementing value, neither the best,
+nor, if a softer rock were available, would the cheapest results be
+obtained. Such a rock would so effectively resist the wear of a light
+traffic that the amount of fine dust worn off would be carried away by
+wind and rain faster than it would be supplied by wear. Consequently the
+binder supplied by wear would be insufficient, and if not supplied from
+some other source the road would soon go to pieces. The first cost of
+such a rock would in most instances be greater than that of a softer one
+and the necessary repairs resulting from its use would also be very
+expensive.
+
+A very good illustration of this point is the first road built by the
+Massachusetts Highway Commission. This road is on the island of
+Nantucket and was subjected to a very light traffic. The commission
+desired to build the best possible road, and consequently ordered a very
+hard and tough trap rock from Salem, considered then to be the best
+macadam rock in the state. Delivered on the road this rock cost $3.50
+per ton, the excessive price being due to the cost of transportation.
+The road was in every way properly constructed, and thoroughly rolled
+with a steam roller; but in spite of every precaution it soon began to
+ravel, and repeated rolling was only of temporary benefit, for the rock
+was too hard and tough for the traffic. Subsequently, when the road was
+resurfaced with limestone, which was much softer than the trap, it
+became excellent. Since then all roads built on the island have been
+constructed of native granite bowlders with good results, and at a much
+lower cost.
+
+If, however, this hard and tough rock, which gave such poor results at
+Nantucket, were used on a road where the traffic was sufficient to wear
+off an ample supply of binder, very much better results would be
+obtained than if a rock lacking both hardness and toughness were used;
+for, in the latter case, the wear would be so great that ruts would be
+formed which would prevent rain water draining from the surface. The
+water thus collecting on the surface would soon make its way to the
+foundation and destroy the road. The dust in dry weather would also be
+excessive.
+
+Only two examples of the misuse of a road material have been given, but,
+as they represent extreme conditions, it is easy to see the large number
+of intermediate mistakes that can be made, for there are few rocks even
+of the same variety that possess the same physical properties in a like
+degree. The climatic and physical conditions to which roads are
+subjected are equally varied. The excellence of a road material may,
+therefore, be said to depend entirely on the conditions which it is
+intended to meet.
+
+It may be well to mention a few other properties of rock that bear on
+road-building, though they will not be discussed here. There are some
+rocks, such as limestones, that are hygroscopic, or possess the power of
+absorbing moisture from the air, and in dry climates such rocks are
+distinctly valuable, as the cementation of rock dust is in a large
+measure dependent for its full development on the presence of water. The
+degree to which a rock absorbs water may also be important, for in cold
+climates this to some extent determines the liability of a rock to
+fracture by freezing. It is not so important, however, as the
+absorptive power of the road itself, for if a road holds much water the
+destruction wrought by frost is very great. This trouble is generally
+due to faulty construction rather than to the material. The density or
+weight of a rock is also considered of importance, as the heavier the
+rock the better it stays in place and the better it resists the action
+of wind and rain.
+
+Only a few of the properties of rock important to road builders have
+been considered, but if these are borne in mind when a material is to be
+selected better results are sure to be obtained. In selecting a road
+material the conditions to which it is to be subjected should first be
+considered. These are principally the annual rainfall, the average
+winter temperature, the character of prevailing winds, the grades, and
+the volume and character of the traffic that is to pass over the road.
+The climatic conditions are readily obtained from the Weather Bureau,
+and a satisfactory record of the volume and character of the traffic can
+be made by any competent person living in view of the road.
+
+In France the measuring of traffic has received a great deal of
+attention, and a census is kept for all the national highways. The
+traffic there is rated and reduced to units in the following manner: A
+horse hauling a public vehicle or cart loaded with produce or
+merchandise is considered as the unit of traffic. Each horse hauling an
+empty cart or private carriage counts as one-half unit; each horse, cow,
+or ox, unharnessed, and each saddle horse, one-fifth unit; each small
+animal (sheep, goat, or hog), one-thirtieth unit.
+
+A record is made of the traffic every thirteenth day throughout the
+year, and an average taken to determine its mean amount. Some such
+general method of classifying traffic in units is desirable, as it
+permits the traffic of a road to be expressed in one number.
+
+Before this French method can be applied to the traffic of our country
+it will be necessary to modify considerably the mode of rating. This,
+however, is a matter which can be studied and properly adjusted by the
+Office of Public Road Inquiries. It is most important to obtain a record
+of the average number of horses and vehicles and kind of vehicles that
+pass over an earth road in a day before the macadam road is built. The
+small cost of such a record is trifling when compared with the cost of a
+macadam road (from $4,000 to $10,000 per mile for a fifteen-foot road),
+in view of the fact that an error in the selection of material may cost
+a much larger sum of money. After a record of the traffic is obtained,
+if the road is to be built of crushed rock for the first time, an
+allowance for an immediate increase in traffic amounting at least to ten
+or fifteen per cent had best be made, for the improved road generally
+brings traffic from adjoining roads.
+
+To simplify the matter somewhat, the different classes of traffic to
+which roads are subjected may be divided into five groups, which may be
+called city, urban, suburban, highway, and country road traffic,
+respectively. City traffic is a traffic so great that no macadam road
+can withstand it, and is such as exists on the business streets of large
+cities. For such a traffic stone and wood blocks, asphalt, brick, or
+some such materials are necessary. Urban traffic is such as exists on
+city streets which are not subjected to continuous heavy teaming, but
+which have to withstand very heavy wear, and need the hardest and
+toughest macadam rock. Suburban traffic is such as is common in the
+suburbs of a city and the main streets of country towns. Highway traffic
+is a traffic equal to that of the main country roads. Country road
+traffic is a traffic equal to that of the less frequented country roads.
+
+The city traffic will not be considered here. For an urban traffic, the
+hardest and toughest rock, or in other words, a rock of the highest
+wearing quality that can be found, is best. For a suburban traffic the
+best rock would be one of high toughness but of less hardness than one
+for urban traffic. For highway traffic a rock of medium hardness and
+toughness is best. For country road traffic it is best to use a
+comparatively soft rock of medium toughness. In all cases high cementing
+value should be sought, and especially if the locality is very wet or
+windy.
+
+Rocks belonging to the same species and having the same name, such as
+traps, granites, quartzites, etc., vary almost as much in different
+localities in their physical road-building properties as they do from
+rocks of distinct species. This variation is also true of the mineral
+composition of rocks of the same species, as well as in the size and
+arrangement of their crystals. It is impossible, therefore, to classify
+rocks for road-building by simply giving their specific names. It can be
+said, however, that certain species of rock possess in common some
+road-building properties. For instance, the trap[8] rocks as a class are
+hard and tough and usually have binding power, and consequently stand
+heavy traffic well; and for this reason they are frequently spoken of as
+the best rocks for road-building. This, however, is not always true, for
+numerous examples can be shown where trap rock having the above
+properties in the highest degree has failed to give good results on
+light traffic roads. The reason trap rock has gained so much favor with
+road-builders is because a large majority of macadam roads in our
+country are built to stand an urban traffic, and the traps stand such a
+traffic better than any other single class of rocks. There are, however,
+other rocks that will stand an urban traffic perfectly well, and there
+are traps that are not sufficiently hard and tough for a suburban or
+highway traffic. The granites are generally brittle, and many of them do
+not bind well, but there are a great many which when used under proper
+conditions make excellent roads. The felsites are usually very hard and
+brittle, and many have excellent binding power, some varieties being
+suitable for the heaviest macadam traffic. Limestones generally bind
+well, are soft, and frequently hygroscopic. Quartzites are almost always
+very hard, brittle, and have very low binding power. The slates are
+usually soft, brittle, and lack binding power.
+
+The above generalizations are of necessity vague, and for practical
+purposes are of little value, since rocks of the same variety occurring
+in different localities have very wide ranges of character. It
+consequently happens in many cases, particularly where there are a
+number of rocks to choose from, that the difficulty of making the best
+selection is great, and this difficulty is constantly increasing with
+the rapidly growing facilities of transportation and the increased range
+of choice which this permits. On account of their desirable road
+properties some rocks are now shipped several hundred miles for use.
+
+There are but two ways in which the value of a rock as a road material
+can be accurately determined. One way, and beyond all doubt the surest,
+is to build sample roads of all the rocks available in a locality, to
+measure the traffic and wear to which they are subjected, and keep an
+accurate account of the cost both of construction and annual repairs for
+each. By this method actual results are obtained, but it has grave and
+obvious disadvantages. It is very costly (especially so when the results
+are negative), and it requires so great a lapse of time before results
+are obtained that it cannot be considered a practical method when
+macadam roads are first being built in a locality. Further than this,
+results thus obtained are not applicable to other roads and materials.
+Such a method, while excellent in its results, can only be adopted by
+communities which can afford the necessary time and money, and is
+entirely inadequate for general use.
+
+The other method is to make laboratory tests of the physical properties
+of available rocks in a locality, study the conditions obtaining on the
+particular road that is to be built, and then select the material that
+best suits the conditions. This method has the advantages of giving
+speedy results and of being inexpensive, and as far as the results of
+laboratory tests have been compared with the results of actual practice
+they have been found to agree.
+
+Laboratory tests on road materials were first adopted in France about
+thirty years ago, and their usefulness has been thoroughly established.
+The tests for rock there are to determine its degree of hardness,
+resistance to abrasion, and resistance to compression. In 1893 the
+Massachusetts Highway Commission established a laboratory at Harvard
+University for testing road materials. The French abrasion test was
+adopted, and tests for determining the cementing power and toughness of
+rock were added. Since then similar laboratories have been established
+at Johns Hopkins University, Columbia University, Wisconsin Geological
+Survey, Cornell University, and the University of California.
+
+The Department of Agriculture has now established a road-material
+laboratory in the Division of Chemistry, where any person residing in
+the United States may have road materials tested free by applying for
+instructions to the Office of Public Road Inquiries. The laboratory is
+equipped with the apparatus necessary for carrying on such work, and the
+Department intends to carry on general investigations on roads. Part of
+the general plan will be to make tests on actual roads for the purpose
+of comparing the results with those obtained in the laboratory.
+
+Besides testing road materials for the public, blank forms for recording
+traffic will be supplied by the department to any one intending to
+build a road. When these forms are filled and returned to the
+laboratory, together with the samples of materials available for
+building the road, the traffic of the road will be rated in its proper
+group, as described above; each property of the materials will be tested
+and similarly rated according to its degree, the climatic conditions
+will be considered, and expert advice given as to the proper choice to
+be made.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[7] By Logan Waller Page, expert in charge of Road Material Laboratory,
+Division of Chemistry.
+
+[8] This term is derived from the Swedish word _trappa_, meaning steps,
+and was originally applied to the crystallized basalts of the coast of
+Sweden, which much resemble steps in appearance. As now used by road
+builders, it embraces a large variety of igneous rocks, chiefly those of
+fine crystalline structure and of dark-blue, gray, and green colors.
+They are generally diabases, diorites, trachytes, and basalts.--PAGE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+STONE ROADS IN NEW JERSEY[9]
+
+
+As New Jersey contains a great variety of soils, there are many
+conditions to be met with in road construction. The northern part of the
+state is hilly, where we have clay, soft stone, hard stones, loose
+stones, quicksand, and marshes. In the eastern part of the state,
+particularly in the seashore sections, the roads are at their worst in
+summer in consequence of loose, dry sand, which sometimes drifts like
+snow. In west New Jersey, which comprises the southern end of the state,
+there is much loose, soft sand, considerable clay, marshes, and low
+lands not easily drained.
+
+In addition to the condition of the soil, there is the economic
+condition to be considered. In the vicinity of large towns or cities,
+where there is heavy carting by reason of manufactories and produce
+marketing, it is necessary to have heavy, thick, substantial roads,
+while in more rural districts and along the seashore, where the travel
+is principally by light carriages, a lighter roadbed construction is
+preferred. In rural districts, where the roads are used for immediate
+neighborhood purposes, an inexpensive road is desirable. The main
+thoroughfares have to be constructed with a view to considerable
+increase of travel, as farmers in the outlying districts who formerly
+devoted their time to grazing of stock, raising of grain, etc., find it
+more profitable to change the mode of farming to that of truck raising,
+fruit growing, etc.
+
+The road engineers of New Jersey find that they cannot follow old paths
+and make their roads after one style or pattern. Technical engineering
+in road construction must yield to the practical, common-sense plan of
+action. An engineer with plenty of money and material at hand can
+construct a good road almost anywhere and meet any condition, but with
+limited resources and a variety of physical conditions he has to "cut
+the garment to suit the cloth." We start out with this dilemma. We must
+have better roads, and our means for getting them being very limited, if
+we cannot get them as good as we would like, let us get them as good as
+we can.
+
+Let me give a practical illustration. Stone-road construction outside of
+turnpike corporations in West Jersey was begun in the spring of 1891. I
+was called on by the township committee of Chester Township, Burlington
+County, to construct some roads. Moorestown is a thriving town of about
+three thousand inhabitants in the center of the township. The roads to
+be constructed, with one exception, ran out of the town to the township
+limits, being from one-half to three miles in length. The roads were
+generally for local purposes. There were ten roads, aggregating about
+eleven miles. The bonding of the township was voted upon, and it was
+necessary, in order to carry the bonding project of $40,000, to have all
+these roads constructed of stone macadam. The roads to be improved were
+determined on at a town meeting without consulting an engineer as to the
+cost, etc., so that the plain question submitted to me was, Can you
+construct eleven miles of stone road nine feet wide for $40,000? The
+conditions to be met were these: There was no stone suitable for
+road-building nearer than from sixty to eighty miles; cost of freight,
+about seventy-five cents per ton; the hauls from the railroad siding
+averaged about one and three-quarter miles; price of teams in summer,
+when farmers were busy, about $3.50 per day. In preparation for road
+construction there were several hills to be cut from one to three feet;
+causeways and embankments to be made over wet and swampy ground. For
+this latter work the property holders and others interested along the
+road agreed to furnish teams, the township paying for laborers. The next
+difficulty was the kind of a road to build. As the width was fixed at
+nine feet as a part of the conditions for bonding, there seemed only one
+way left to apply the economics--that was, in the depth of the roads.
+
+On the dry, sandy soils I put the macadam six inches deep; this depth
+was applied to about six miles of road. On roads where the heaviest
+travel would come the roadbed was made eight inches deep. On soils
+having springs and on embankments over causeways the depth was ten
+inches with stone foundation, known as telford. Where springs existed,
+they were cut off by underdrains.
+
+It had been the practice of engineers in their specifications to call
+for the best trap rock for all the stone construction. As this rock is
+hard to crush and difficult to be transported some seventy or eighty
+miles to this part of New Jersey, I found that in order to construct all
+of the road from this best material it would take more money than the
+bonds would provide; so I had half of the depth which forms the
+foundation made of good dry sedimentary rock. Of course, in this there
+is considerable slate, but the breaking is not nearly so costly as the
+breaking of syenite or Jersey trap rock, and there was a saving of
+thirty per cent. As the surface of the road had to take all the wear, I
+required the best trap rock for this purpose.
+
+Since the construction of these roads in Chester Township, roads are now
+built under the state-aid act by county officials and paid for as
+follows: One-third by the state, ten per cent by the adjoining property
+holders, and the balance (56-2/3 per cent) by the county. The roads
+constructed under this act are generally leading roads and those mostly
+traversed by heavy teams. They are constructed similarly to those in
+Chester Township, excepting that they are generally twelve feet wide and
+from ten to twelve inches deep. Many of them have a telford foundation,
+which is now put down at about the same price as macadam, and meets most
+of the conditions better than macadam. The less expensive stone is used
+for foundations, and the best and more costly for surface only. In this
+way the cost of construction has been greatly reduced.
+
+In regard to the width, a road nine or ten feet wide has been found to
+be quite as serviceable as one of greater width, unless it is made
+fourteen feet and over. It is not claimed that a narrow road is just as
+good as a wide road, but it has been found better to have the cost in
+length than in width in rural districts. In and near towns, where there
+is almost constant passing, the road should not be less than from
+fourteen to twenty feet in width. The difficulty in getting on and off
+the stone road where teams are passing is not so great as is supposed.
+To meet this difficulty in the past, on each side of the road the
+specifications require the contractor to make a shoulder of clay,
+gravel, or other hard earth; this is never less than three feet and
+sometimes six to eight feet in width, according to the kinds of soil the
+road is composed of and the liability of frequent meeting and passing.
+In rural districts the top-dressing of these shoulders is taken from the
+side ditches; grass sods are mixed in when found, and in some cases
+grass seed is sown. As the stone roadbed takes the travel the grass soon
+begins to grow, receiving considerable fertilizing material from the
+washing of the road; and when the sod is once formed the waste material
+from the wear of the road is lodged in the grass sod and the shoulder
+becomes hard and firm, except when the frost is coming out.
+
+Another mode of building a rural road cheaply and still have room for
+passing without getting off the stone construction is to make the
+roadbed proper about ten feet wide, ten or twelve inches deep; then have
+wings of macadam on each side three feet wide and five or six inches
+deep. In case ten feet is used the two wings would make the stone
+construction six feet wide. If the road is made considerably higher in
+the center than the sides, as it should be, the travel, particularly the
+loaded teams, will keep in the center, and the wings will only be used
+in passing and should last as long as the thicker part of the road.
+
+The preparation of the road and making it suitable for the stone bed is
+one of the most important parts of road construction. This, once done
+properly, is permanent. Wherever it is possible the hills should be cut
+and low places filled, so that the maximum grade will not exceed five or
+six feet rise in one hundred feet; where hills cannot be reduced to this
+grade without incurring too much expense, the hill, if possible, should
+be avoided by relaying the road in another place.
+
+Wherever stone roads have been constructed it has been found that those
+using them for drawing heavy loads will increase the capacity of their
+wagons so as to carry three or four times the load formerly carried.
+This can easily be done where the road has a maximum grade of not
+greater than five or six per cent, as before stated; but when the grade
+is greater than this the power to be expended on such loads upon such
+grades will exhaust and wear out the horses; thus a supposed saving in
+heavy loading may prove to be a loss.
+
+In the preparation of the road it is necessary to have the ditches wide
+and deep enough to carry all the water to the nearest natural water way.
+These ditches should at all times be kept clear of weeds and trash, so
+that the water will not be retained in pools. Bad roads often occur
+because this important matter is overlooked.
+
+On hills the slope or side grade in construction from center of road to
+side ditches should be increased so as to exceed that of the
+longitudinal grade; that is, if the latter is, say, five per cent, the
+slope to side should be at least six per cent and over.
+
+Where the road in rural districts is on rolling ground and hills do not
+exceed three or four per cent, it is an unnecessary expense to cut the
+small ones, but all short rises should be cut and small depressions
+filled. A rolling road is not objectionable, and besides there is no
+better roadbed for laying on metal than the hard crust formed by
+ordinary travel. In putting on the metal, particularly on narrow roads,
+the roadbed should be "set high;" it will soon get "flat enough." It is
+better to put the shouldering up to the stone than to dig a trench to
+put the stone in. If the road after preparation is about level from side
+to side and the stone or metal construction is to be, say, ten inches
+deep, the sides of the roadbed to receive the metal should be cut about
+three inches and placed on the side to help form the shoulder; the rest
+of the shoulder, when suitable, being taken from the ditches and sides
+in forming the proper slope. The foundation to receive the metal, if the
+natural roadbed is not used and the bed is of soft earth, should be
+rolled until it is hard and compact. It should also conform to the same
+slope as the road when finished from center to sides. If the bed or
+foundation is of soft sand rolling will be of little use. In this case
+care must be taken to keep the bed as uniform as possible while the
+stone is being placed on the foundation.
+
+When the road passes through villages and towns the grading should
+reduce the roadbed to a grade as nearly level as possible. It must be
+borne in mind that the side ditches need not necessarily always conform
+to the center grade of the road. When the center grade is level the side
+ditches should be graded to carry off the water. In some cases I have
+found it necessary to run the grade for the side ditches in an opposite
+direction from the grade of the road. This, however, does not often
+occur. The main thing is to get the water off the road as soon as
+possible after it falls, and then not allow it to remain in the ditches.
+And just here the engineer will meet with many difficulties. The
+landowners in rural districts are opposed to having the water from the
+roads let onto their lands, and disputes often arise as to where the
+natural water way is located. This should be determined by the people
+in the neighborhood, or by the local authorities. I have found in
+several cases, where the water from side ditches was allowed to run on
+the land, that the land was generally benefited by having the soil
+enriched by the fertilizing matter from the road.
+
+After the roadbed has been thoroughly prepared, if made of loam or clay,
+it should be rolled and made as hard and compact as possible. Wherever a
+depression appears it should be filled up and made uniformly hard. Place
+upon it a light coat of loam or fine clay, which will act as a binder.
+If the roller used is not too heavy it may be rolled to advantage, but
+the rolling of this course depends upon the character of the stones. If
+the stones are cubical in form rolling is beneficial, but if they are of
+shale and many of them thin and flat, rolling has a tendency to bring
+the flat sides to the surface. When this is the case the next course of
+fine stone for the surface will not firmly compact and unite with them.
+
+When the foundation is of telford it is important that stones not too
+large should be used. They should not exceed ten inches in length, six
+inches on one side, which is laid next to the earth, and four inches on
+top, the depth depending on the thickness of the road. If the thickness
+of the finished road is eight inches, the telford pavement should not
+exceed five inches; if it is ten or more inches deep, then the telford
+could be six inches. It need in no case be greater than this, as this is
+sufficient to form the base or foundation of the metal construction. The
+surface of the telford pavement should be as uniform as possible, all
+projecting points broken off, and interstices filled in with small
+stone. Care should be taken to keep the stone set up perpendicular with
+the roadbed and set lengthwise across the road with joints broken. This
+foundation should be well hammered down with sledge hammers and made
+hard and compact. Upon this feature greatly depends the smoothness of
+the surface of the road and uniform wear. If put down compactly rolling
+is not necessary, and if not put down solid rolling might do it damage
+in causing the large stones to lean and set on their edges instead of on
+the flat sides. I refer to instances where the road is to be ten inches
+and over. Then put on a light coat or course of one and one-half inch
+stone, with a light coat of binding, and then put on the roller, thus
+setting the finer stone well with the foundation and compacting the
+whole mass together.
+
+After the macadam or telford foundation is well laid and compacted, the
+surface or wearing stone is put on. If the thickness of the road is
+great enough, say twelve or fourteen inches, this surface stone should
+be put on in courses, say of three and four inches, as may be required
+for the determined thickness of the road. On each course there should be
+applied a binding, but only sufficient to bind the metal together or
+fill up the small interstices. It must be remembered that broken stone
+is used in order to form a compact mass. The sides of the stone should
+come together and not be kept apart by what we call binding material;
+therefore only such quantity should be used as will fill up the small
+interstices made by reason of the irregularity of the stone. Each course
+should be thoroughly rolled to get the metal as compact as possible.
+When the stone construction is made to the required depth or thickness,
+the whole surface should be subjected to a coat of screenings about one
+inch thick. This must be kept damp by sprinkling, and thoroughly rolled
+until the whole mass becomes consolidated and the surface smooth and
+uniform. Before the rolling is finished the shoulders should be made up
+and covered with gravel or other hard earth and dressed off to the side
+ditches. When practicable these should have the same grade or slope as
+the stone construction. This finish should also be rolled and made
+uniform, so that, in order that the water may pass off freely, there
+will be no obstruction between the stone roadbed and side ditches. To
+prevent washes and insure as much hardness as possible on roads in rural
+districts, grass should be encouraged to grow so as to make a stiff sod.
+
+For shouldering, when the natural soil is of soft sand, a stiff clay is
+desirable. When the natural soil is of clay, then gravel or coarse sand
+can be used, covering the whole with the ditch scrapings or other
+fertilizing material, where grass sod is desirable. Of course this is
+not desirable in villages and towns.
+
+For binding, what is called garden loam is the best. When this cannot be
+found use any soft clay or earth free from clods or round stones. It
+must be spread on very lightly and uniformly.
+
+Any good dry stone not liable to disintegrate can be used as metal for
+foundation for either telford or macadam construction. For the surface
+it is necessary to have the best stone obtainable. Like the edge of a
+tool, it does the service and must take the wear. As in the tool it pays
+to have the best of steel, so on the road, which is subject to the wear
+and tear of steel horseshoes and heavy iron tires, it is found the
+cheapest to have the best of stone.
+
+It is difficult to describe the kind of stone that is best. The best is
+generally syenite trap rock, but this term does not give any definite
+idea. The kind used in New Jersey is called the general name of Jersey
+trap rock. It is a gray syenite, and is found in great quantities in a
+range running from Jersey City, on the Hudson River, to a point on the
+Delaware between Trenton and Lambertville. There are quantities of good
+stone lying north of this ledge, but none south of it.
+
+The best is at or near Jersey City. The same kind of stone is found in
+the same ranges of hills in Pennsylvania, but in the general run it is
+not so good. The liability to softness and disintegration increases
+after leaving the eastern part of New Jersey, and while good stone may
+be found, the veins of poorer stone increase as we go south and west.
+
+It is generally believed that the hardest stones are best for road
+purposes, but this is not the case. The hard quartz will crush under the
+wheels of a heavy load. It is toughness in the stone that is necessary;
+therefore a mixed stone, like syenite, is the best. This wears smooth,
+as the rough edges of the stone come in contact with the wheels. It
+requires good judgment based on experience to determine the right kind
+of stone to take the constant wear of horseshoes and wagon tires.
+
+If good roads are desired, the work is not done when the road is
+completed and ready for travel. There are many causes which make
+repairing necessary. I will refer to only a few of them. Stone roads are
+liable to get out of order because of too much water or want of water;
+also, when the natural roadbed is soft and springy and has not been
+sufficiently drained; when water is allowed to stand in ditches and form
+pools along the road, and when the "open winters" give us a
+superabundance of wet. Before the road becomes thoroughly consolidated
+by travel it is liable to become soft and stones get loose and move
+under the wheels of the heavily loaded wagons. In the earth foundation
+on which the stone bed rests the water finds the soft spots. The wheels
+of the loaded teams form ruts, and particularly where narrow tires are
+used.
+
+The work of repair should begin as soon as defects appear, for, if
+neglected, after every rain the depressions make little pools of water
+and hold it like a basin. In every case this water softens the material,
+and the wagon tires and horseshoes churn up the bottoms of the basins.
+This is the beginning of the work of destruction. If allowed to go on,
+the road becomes rough, and the wear and tear of the horses and wagons
+are increased. Stone roads out of repair, like any common road in
+similar condition, will be found expensive to those who use and maintain
+them. The way to do is to look over a road after a rain, when the
+depressions and basins will show themselves. Whenever one is large
+enough to receive a shovelful of broken stone, scrape out the soft dirt
+and let it form a ring around the depression. Fill with broken stone to
+about an inch or two above the surface of the road. The ring of dirt
+around will keep the stone above the surface in place, and the passing
+wheels will work it on the broken stone and also act as a binder. The
+whole will work down and become compact and even with the road surface.
+The ruts are treated in the same way. Use one and one-half inch stone
+for this; smaller stones will soon grind up and the hole appear again.
+
+The second cause of the necessity for road repairs is want of water.
+This occurs in summer during hot, dry spells. The surface stone
+"unravels;" that is, becomes loose where the horses travel. This
+condition is more liable to be found on dry, sandy soils, and where the
+roadbed is subject to the direct rays of the sun, and where the winds
+sweep off all the binding material from the surface. In clay soil there
+is little or no trouble from "unraveling." The cause being found, the
+remedy is applied in this way: Put on water with the sprinkler before
+all the binding material is blown off. If the hot, dry weather
+continues, sprinkling should continue. Do this in the evening or late in
+the afternoon.
+
+The next mode is to repair the road by placing the material back as it
+was originally. The loose stones are placed in the depressions and good
+binding material--garden loam or fine clay--is put on, then roll the
+whole repeatedly and dampen by sprinkling as needed until the whole
+surface becomes smooth and hard. Care must be taken that too much
+binding material is not used. If too much is used it will injure the
+road in winter when there is an excess of water.
+
+When a road has been neglected and allowed to become uneven and rough,
+or is by constant use worn down to the foundation stones, there should
+be a general repairing. In the first place, if it is the roughness and
+unevenness that is the only defect, this may be remedied by the use of a
+large, heavy roller with steel spikes in its rolling wheels. This will
+puncture the surface so that an ordinary harrow will tear up the surface
+stones. Then take the spikes out of the roller wheels, and, with
+sprinkling and rolling, the roadbed can be repaired and made like a new
+road. But if the cause of the roughness is from wearing away of the
+stone, so that the surface of the road is brought down to or near the
+foundation, then the road needs resurfacing. The mode of treatment is
+the same as in the other case.
+
+In districts where there is stone suitable for road construction the
+county, town, township, or other municipality, proposing to construct
+stone roads, should own a stone quarry and a stone crusher. For grading
+and preparing the road for construction, dressing up sides, clearing out
+side ditches, etc., a good road machine is necessary. For constructing
+roads and repairing them a roller is necessary, the weight depending
+upon the kind of road constructed. If the road is not wide a roller of
+from four to six tons is all the weight necessary. The rolling should be
+continued until compactness is obtained. For wide, heavy roads a steam
+roller of fifteen tons can be used to advantage. A sprinkling wagon
+completes the list that is necessary for the county or town or other
+municipality constructing its own roads.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[9] By E. G. Harrison, C. E., Secretary New Jersey Road Improvement
+Association.
+
+
+
+
+Important
+
+Historical Publications
+
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+1493-1898=
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+nineteenth century.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
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+_Translated, and edited and annotated by_ E. H. BLAIR, _and_
+J. A. ROBERTSON, _with introduction and additional notes by_
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+A SERIES OF ANNOTATED REPRINTS of some of the best and rarest
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+
+
+
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Note:                           |
+  |                                               |
+  | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the  |
+  | original document have been preserved.        |
+  |                                               |
+  | Typographical errors corrected in the text:   |
+  |                                               |
+  | Page 42 ben changed to been                   |
+  | Page 94 surfaceing changed to surfacing       |
+  +-----------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Future of Road-making in America, by 
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Future of Road-making in America, by Archer Butler Hulbert.
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Future of Road-making in America, by 
+Archer Butler Hulbert
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Future of Road-making in America
+
+Author: Archer Butler Hulbert
+
+Release Date: September 12, 2010 [EBook #33706]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING IN AMERICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by V. L. Simpson, Barbara Kosker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h3>HISTORIC HIGHWAYS OF AMERICA<br />
+
+VOLUME 15 </h3>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="img"><a name="frontis" id="frontis"></a>
+<a href="images/frontis.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/frontis.jpg" width="55%" alt="General Roy Ston" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">General Roy Stone<br />
+(<i>Father of the good-roads movement in the United States</i>)</p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h3> HISTORIC HIGHWAYS OF AMERICA<br />
+
+VOLUME 15</h3>
+
+<hr style="width: 52%;" />
+<br />
+
+<h1> The Future of Road-making in America</h1>
+
+<h3> A Symposium</h3>
+
+<h4> BY</h4>
+
+<h2> <span class="smcap">Archer Butler Hulbert</span></h2>
+
+<h4> and others</h4>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h5> <i>With Illustrations</i></h5>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="img">
+<img border="0" src="images/deco.jpg" width="10%" alt="Publisher's Mark" />
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4> THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY<br />
+ CLEVELAND, OHIO<br />
+ 1905</h4>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>COPYRIGHT, 1905<br />
+BY<br />
+<span class="smcap">The Arthur H. Clark Company</span></h4>
+<hr style="width: 10%;" />
+<h4>ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</h4>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrp">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="font-size: 80%;">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap" colspan="2">Preface</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrp" width="10%">I.</td>
+  <td class="tdl smcap" width="80%">The Future of Road-making in America</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrp">II.</td>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Government Coöperation in Object-Lesson Road Work</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrp">III.</td>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Good Roads for Farmers</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrp">IV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Selection of Materials for Macadam Roads</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrp">V.</td>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Stone Roads in New Jersey</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrtp">I.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Portrait of General Roy Stone</span><br /> (father of the
+    good-roads movement in the United States)</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrtp">II.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Good-Roads Train</span></td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep059">59</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrtp">III.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Sample Steel Track for Common Roads</span><br />(showing
+    portrait of Hon. Martin Dodge)</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep066">66</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrtp">IV.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Typical Macadam Road Near Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania</span></td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep083">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrtp">V.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A Study in Grading</span></td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep089">89</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrtp">VI.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Sand Clay Road in Richland County, South Carolina</span></td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep115">115</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrtp">VII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Gravel Road Near Soldiers' Home, District of Columbia</span></td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep127">127</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrtp">VIII.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Oyster-shell Object-lesson Road</span></td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep137">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdrtp">IX.</td>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Earth and Macadam Roads</span></td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep168">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>The present volume on the Future of Road-making in America presents
+representative opinions, from laymen and specialists, on the subject of
+the road question as it stands today.</p>
+
+<p>After the author's sketch of the question as a whole in its sociological
+as well as financial aspects, there follows the Hon. Martin Dodge's
+paper on "Government Co&ouml;peration in Object-lesson Road Work." The third
+chapter comprises a reprint of Hon. Maurice O. Eldridge's careful
+article, "Good Roads for Farmers," revised by the author for this
+volume. Professor Logan Waller Page's paper on "The Selection of
+Materials for Macadam Roads" composes chapter four, and E. G. Harrison's
+article on "Stone Roads in New Jersey" concludes the book, being
+specially valuable because of the advanced position New Jersey has taken
+in the matter of road-building.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>For illustrations to this volume the author is indebted to the Office of
+Public Road Inquiries, Hon. Martin Dodge, Director.</p>
+
+<p class="right">A. B. H.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Marietta, Ohio</span>, May 31, 1904.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>The Future of Road-making in America</h2>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h2>THE FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING IN AMERICA</h2>
+
+
+<p>In introducing the subject of the future of road-making in America, it
+may first be observed that there is to be a future in road-building on
+this continent. We have today probably the poorest roads of any
+civilized nation; although, considering the extent of our roads, which
+cover perhaps a million and a half miles, we of course have the best
+roads of any nation of similar age. As we have elsewhere shown, the era
+of railway building eclipsed the great era of road and canal building in
+the third and fourth decades of the old century, and it is interesting
+to note that freight rates on American railways today are cheaper than
+on any railways in any other country of the world. To move a ton of
+freight in England one hundred miles today, you pay two dollars and
+thirty cents; in Germany, two dollars; in France, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>one dollar and
+seventy-five cents; in "poor downtrodden" Russia, one dollar and thirty
+cents. But in America it costs on the average only seventy-two cents.
+This is good, but it does not by any means answer all the conditions;
+the average American farm is located today&mdash;even with our vast network
+of railways&mdash;at least ten miles from a railroad station. Now railway
+building has about reached its limit so far as mileage is concerned in
+this country; in the words of Stuyvesant Fish, president of the Illinois
+Central Railroad Company, we have "in the United States generally, a
+sufficiency of railroads." Thus the average farm is left a dozen miles
+from a railway, and in all probability will be that far away a century
+from now. And note: seventy-five per cent of the commerce of the world
+starts for its destination on wagon roads, and we pay annually in the
+United States six hundred million dollars freightage to get our produce
+over our highways from the farms to the railways.</p>
+
+<p>Let me restate these important facts: the average American farm is ten
+miles from a railway; the railways have about reached <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>their limit of
+growth territorially; and we pay six hundred million dollars every year
+to get the seventy-five per cent of our raw material and produce from
+our farms to our railways.</p>
+
+<p>This is the main proposition of the good roads problem, and the reason
+why the road question is to be one of the great questions of the next
+half century. The question is, How much can we save of this half a
+billion dollars, at the least expenditure of money and in the most
+beneficial way?</p>
+
+<p>In this problem, as in many, the most important phase is the one most
+difficult to study and most difficult to solve. It is as complex as
+human life itself. It is the question of good roads as they affect the
+social and moral life of our rural communities. It is easy to talk of
+bad roads costing a half billion dollars a year&mdash;the answer should be
+that of Hood's&mdash;"O God! that bread should be so dear, and flesh and
+blood so cheap." You cannot count in terms of the stock exchange the
+cost to this land of poor roads; for poor roads mean the decay of
+country living, the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>abandonment of farms and farm-life, poor schools,
+poor churches, and homes stricken with a social poverty that drives the
+young men and girls into the cities. You cannot estimate the cost to
+this country, in blood, brain, and muscle, of the hideous system of
+public roads we have possessed in the decade passed. Look at any of our
+cities to the men who guide the swift rush of commercial, social, and
+religious affairs and you will find men whose birthplaces are not
+preparing another such generation of men for the work of the future.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, bad roads and good schools are incompatible. The coming
+generation of strong men and strong women is crying out now for good
+roads. "There is a close and permanent relation," said Alabama's
+superintendent of education, "existing between good public roads and
+good public schools. There can be no good country schools in the absence
+of good country roads. Let us be encouraged by this movement looking
+toward an improvement in road-building and road-working. I see in it a
+better day for the boys and girls who must look to the country schools
+for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>citizenship." "I have been longing for years," said President Jesse
+of the University of Missouri, "to stump the capital state, if
+necessary, in favor of the large consolidated schoolhouse rather than
+the single schoolhouses sitting at the crossroads. But the wagons could
+not get two hundred yards in most of our counties. Therefore I have had
+to smother my zeal, hold my tongue, and wait for the consolidated
+schoolhouse until Missouri wakes to the necessity of good roads. Then
+not only shall we have consolidated schoolhouses, but also the principal
+of the school and his wife will live in the school building, or in one
+close by. The library and reading-room of the school will be the library
+and reading-room of the neighborhood.... The main assembly room of the
+consolidated schoolhouse will be an assembly place for public
+lectures.... I am in favor of free text-books, but I tell you here and
+now that free text-books are a trifle compared with good roads and the
+consolidated schoolhouse." It is found that school attendance in states
+where good roads abound is from twenty-five to fifty <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>per cent greater
+than in states which have not good roads. How long will it take for the
+consolidated schoolhouse and increased and regular attendance to be
+worth half a billion dollars to American men and women of the next
+generation?</p>
+
+<p>This applies with equal pertinency to what I might call the consolidated
+church; good roads make it possible for a larger proportion of country
+residents to enjoy the superior advantages of the splendid city
+churches; in fact good roads have in certain instances been held guilty
+of destroying the little country church. This could be true within only
+a small radius of the cities, and the advantages to be gained outweigh,
+I am sure, the loss occasioned by the closing of small churches within a
+dozen miles of our large towns and cities&mdash;churches which, in many
+cases, have only occasional services and are a constant financial drain
+on the city churches. Farther out in the country, good roads will make
+possible one strong, healthy church where perhaps half a dozen weak
+organizations are made to lead a precarious existence because bad roads
+make large <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>congregations impossible throughout the larger part of the
+year. This also applies to city schools, libraries, hospitals, museums,
+and lyceums. Good roads will place these advantages within reach of
+millions of country people who now know little or nothing of them. Once
+beyond driving distance of the cities, good roads will make it possible
+for thousands to reach the suburban railways and trolley lines. Who can
+estimate in mere dollars these advantages to the quality of American
+citizenship a century hence? American farms are taxed by the government
+and pay one-half of the seven hundred million dollars it takes yearly to
+operate this government. After receiving one-half, what per cent does
+the government return to them? Only ten per cent. Ninety per cent goes
+to the direct or indirect benefit of those living in our cities. Where
+does the government build its fine buildings, where does it spend its
+millions on rivers and harbors? How much does it expend to ease this
+burden of six hundred millions which lies so largely on the farmers of
+America? A few years ago a law was passed granting $50,000 to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>investigate a plan to deliver mail on rural delivery routes to our
+farmers and country residents. The law was treated about as respectfully
+as the long-headed Jesse Hawley who wrote a series of articles
+advocating the building of the Erie Canal; a certain paper printed a few
+of them, but the editor sent the remainder back saying he could not use
+them&mdash;they were making his sheet an object of ridicule. Eighteen years
+later the canal was built and in the first year brought in a revenue of
+$492,664. So with the first Rural Free Delivery appropriation&mdash;the
+postmaster general to whose hands that first $50,000 was entrusted for
+experimental purposes, refused to try it and sent the money back to the
+treasury. Today the Rural Free Delivery is an established fact, of
+immeasurable benefit; and if any of the appropriations for it are not
+expended it is not because they are being sent back to the treasury by
+scrupulous officials. Rural delivery routes diverge from our towns and
+cities and give the country people the advantages of a splendid post
+office system. Good roads to these cities would give them a score of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>advantages where now they have but this one. Like rural delivery it may
+seem impracticable, but in a short space of time America will leap
+forward in the front rank of the nations in point of good highways.</p>
+
+<p>An execrable road system, besides bringing poor schools and poor
+churches, has rendered impossible any genuine community of social
+interests among country people. At the very season when the farm work is
+light and social intercourse feasible, at that season the highways have
+been impassable. To this and the poor schools and churches may be
+attributed the saddest and really most costly social revolution in
+America in the past quarter of a century. The decline of country living
+must in the nature of things prove disastrously costly to any nation.
+"The roar of the cannon and the gleam of swords," wrote that brilliant
+apostle of outdoor life, Dr. W. H. H. Murray, "is less significant than
+the destruction of New England homesteads, the bricking up of New
+England fireplaces and the doing away with the New England well-sweep;
+for these show a change in the nature of the circulation itself, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>prove that the action of the popular heart has been interrupted,
+modified and become altogether different from what it was." In the
+popular mind the benefits of country living are common only as a fad;
+the boy who goes to college and returns to the farm again is one of a
+thousand. Who wants to be landlocked five months of the year, without
+social advantages? Good roads, in one generation, would accomplish a
+social revolution throughout the United States that would greatly tend
+to better our condition and brighten the prospect of future strength.
+President Winston of the North Carolina State College of Agriculture
+said: "It might be demonstrated beyond a reasonable doubt that bad roads
+are unfavorable to matrimony and increase of population." Seven of the
+most stalwart lads and beautiful lasses of Greece were sent each year to
+Crete to be sacrificed to the Minotaur; bad roads in America send
+thousands of boys and girls into our cities to the Minotaurs of evil
+because conditions in the country do not make for the social happiness
+for which they naturally yearn.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we may hint at the greater, more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>serious, phase of the road
+problem. Beside it, the financial feature of the problem can have no
+place; the farm has been too much to the American nation, its product of
+boys and girls has been too eternally precious to the cause of liberty
+for which our nation stands, to permit a system of highways on this
+continent which will make it a place where now in the twentieth century
+foreigners, only, can be happy. The sociological side of the road
+question is of more moment today in this country, so far as the health
+of our body politic in the future is concerned, than nine-tenths of the
+questions most prominent in the two political platforms that come
+annually before the people.</p>
+
+<p>William Jennings Bryan, when addressing the Good Roads Convention at St.
+Louis in 1903, said:</p>
+
+<p>"It is a well-known fact, or a fact easily ascertained, that the people
+in the country, while paying their full share of county, state, and
+federal taxes, receive as a rule only the general benefits of
+government, while the people in the cities have, in addition to the
+protection afforded by the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>Government, the advantage arising from the
+expenditure of public moneys in their midst. The county seat of a
+county, as a rule, enjoys the refreshing influence of an expenditure of
+county money out of proportion to its population. The capital of a state
+and the city where the state institutions are located, likewise receive
+the benefit of an expenditure of public money out of proportion to their
+population. When we come to consider the distribution of the moneys
+collected by the Federal Government, we find that the cities, even in a
+larger measure, monopolize the incidental benefits that arise from the
+expenditure of public moneys.</p>
+
+<p>"The appropriations of the last session of Congress amounted to
+$753,484,018, divided as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="65%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Appropriations">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="80%">Agriculture</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="20%">$ 5,978,160</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Army</td>
+  <td class="tdr">78,138,752</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Diplomatic and consular service</td>
+  <td class="tdr">1,968,250</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">District of Columbia</td>
+  <td class="tdr">8,647,497</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Fortifications</td>
+  <td class="tdr">7,188,416</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Indians</td>
+  <td class="tdr">8,512,950</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Legislative, executive, and judicial departments</td>
+  <td class="tdr">27,595,958</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Military Academy</td>
+  <td class="tdr">563,248</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Navy</td>
+  <td class="tdr">81,877,291</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> Pensions</td>
+  <td class="tdr">139,847,600</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Post Office Department</td>
+  <td class="tdr">153,401,409</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Sundry Civil</td>
+  <td class="tdr">82,722,955</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Deficiencies</td>
+  <td class="tdr">21,561,572</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Permanent annual</td>
+  <td class="tdr">132,589,820</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">Miscellaneous</td>
+  <td class="tdr">3,250,000</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>"It will be seen that the appropriation for the Department of
+Agriculture was insignificant when compared with the total
+appropriations&mdash;less than one per cent. The appropriations for the Army
+and Navy alone amounted to twenty-five times the sum appropriated for
+the Department of Agriculture. An analysis of the expenditures of the
+Federal Government will show that an exceedingly small proportion of the
+money raised from all the people gets back to the farmers directly; how
+much returns indirectly it is impossible to say, but certain it is that
+the people who live in the cities receive by far the major part of the
+special benefits that come from the showering of public money upon the
+community. The advantage obtained locally from government expenditures
+is so great that the contests for county seats and state capitals
+usually exceed in interest, if not in bitterness, the contests over
+political <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>principles and policies. So great is the desire to secure an
+appropriation of money for local purposes that many will excuse a
+Congressman's vote on either side of any question if he can but secure
+the expenditure of a large amount of public money in his district.</p>
+
+<p>"I emphasize this because it is a fact to which no reference has been
+made. The point is that the farmer not only pays his share of the taxes,
+but more than his share, yet very little of what he pays gets back to
+him.</p>
+
+<p>"People in the city pay not only less than their share, as a rule, but
+get back practically all of the benefits that come from the expenditure
+of the people's money. Let me show you what I mean when I say that the
+farmer pays more than his share. The farmer has visible property, and
+under any form of direct taxation visible property pays more than its
+share. Why? Because the man with visible property always pays. If he has
+an acre of land the assessor can find it. He can count the horses and
+cattle.... The farmer has nothing that escapes taxation; and, in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>all
+direct taxation, he not only pays on all he has, but the farmer who has
+visible property has to pay a large part of the taxes that ought to be
+paid by the owners of invisible property, who escape taxation. I repeat,
+therefore, that the farmer not only pays more than his share of all
+direct taxation, but that when you come to expend public moneys you do
+not spend them on the farms, as a rule. You spend them in the cities,
+and give the incidental benefits to the people who live in the cities.</p>
+
+<p>"When indirect taxation is considered, the farmer's share is even more,
+because when you come to collect taxes through indirection and on
+consumption, you make people pay not in proportion to what they have but
+in proportion to what they need, and God has so made us that the farmer
+needs as much as anybody else, even though he may not have as much with
+which to supply his needs as other people. In our indirect taxation,
+therefore, for the support of the Federal Government, the farmers pay
+even more out of proportion to their wealth and numbers. We should
+remember also that when we collect taxes <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>through consumption we make
+the farmer pay not only on that which is imported, but upon much of that
+which is produced at home. Thus the farmer's burden is not measured by
+what the treasury receives, but is frequently many times what the
+treasury receives. Thus under indirect taxation the burden upon the
+farmer is greater than it ought to be; yet when you trace the
+expenditure of public moneys distributed by the Federal Government you
+find that even in a larger measure special benefits go to the great
+cities and not to the rural communities.</p>
+
+<p>"The improvement of the country roads can be justified also on the
+ground that the farmer, the first and most important of the producers of
+wealth, ought to be in position to hold his crop and market it at the
+most favorable opportunity, whereas at present he is virtually under
+compulsion to sell it as soon as it is matured, because the roads may
+become impassable at any time during the fall, winter, or spring.
+Instead of being his own warehouseman, the farmer is compelled to employ
+middlemen, and share with them the profits upon <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>his labor. I believe,
+as a matter of justice to the farmer, he ought to have roads that will
+enable him to keep his crop and take it to the market at the best time,
+and not place him in a position where they can run down the price of
+what he has to sell during the months he must sell, and then, when he
+has disposed of it, run the price up and give the speculator what the
+farmer ought to have. The farmer has a right to insist upon roads that
+will enable him to go to town, to church, to the schoolhouse, and to the
+homes of his neighbors, as occasion may require; and, with the extension
+of rural mail delivery, he has additional need for good roads in order
+that he may be kept in communication with the outside world, for the
+mail routes follow the good roads.</p>
+
+<p>"A great deal has been said, and properly so, in regard to the influence
+of good roads upon education. In the convention held at Raleigh, North
+Carolina, the account of which I had the pleasure of reading, great
+emphasis was placed upon the fact that you can not have a school system
+such as you ought to have unless the roads are in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>condition for the
+children to go to school. While we are building great libraries in the
+great cities we do not have libraries in the country; and there ought to
+be a library in every community. Instead of laying upon the farmer the
+burden of buying his own books, we ought to make it possible for the
+farmers to have the same opportunity as the people in the city to use
+books in common, and thus economize on the expense of a library. I agree
+with Professor Jesse in regard to the consolidation of schoolhouses in
+such a way as to give the child in the country the same advantages which
+the child in the city has. We have our country schools, but it is
+impossible in any community to have a well-graded school with only a few
+pupils, unless you go to great expense. In cities, when a child gets
+through the graded school he can remain at home, and, without expense to
+himself or his parents, go on through the high school. But if the
+country boy or girl desires to go from the graded school to the high
+school, as a rule it is necessary to go to the county seat and there
+board with some one; so the expense to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>country child is much
+greater than to the child in the city. I was glad, therefore, to hear
+Professor Jesse speak of such a consolidation of schools as will give to
+the children in the country advantages equal to those enjoyed by the
+children of the city.</p>
+
+<p>"And as you study this subject, you find it reaches out in every
+direction; it touches us at every vital point. What can be of more
+interest to us than the schooling of our children? What can be of more
+interest to every parent than bringing the opportunity of educational
+instruction within the reach of every child? It does not matter whether
+a man has children himself or not.... Every citizen of a community is
+interested in the intellectual life of that community. Sometimes I have
+heard people complain that they were overburdened with taxes for the
+education of other people's children. My friends, the man who has no
+children can not afford to live in a community where there are children
+growing up in ignorance; the man with none has the same duty as the man
+with many, barring the personal pride of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>the parent. I say, therefore,
+that anything that contributes to the general diffusion of knowledge,
+anything that makes more educated boys and girls throughout our country,
+is a matter of intense interest to every citizen, whether he be the
+father of a family or not; whether he lives in the country or in the
+town.</p>
+
+<p>"And ought not the people have the opportunity to attend church? I am
+coming to believe that what we need in this country, even more than
+education of the intellect, is the education of the moral side of our
+nature. I believe, with Jefferson, that the church and the state should
+be separate. I believe in religious freedom, and I would not have any
+man's conscience fettered by act of law; but I do believe that the
+welfare of this nation demands that man's moral nature shall be educated
+in keeping with his brain and with his body. In fact, I have come to
+define civilization as the harmonious development of the body, the mind,
+and the heart. We make a mistake if we believe that this nation can
+fulfil its high destiny and mission either with mere athletes or mere
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>scholars. We need the education of the moral sense; and if these good
+roads will enable men, women, and children to go more frequently to
+church, and there hear expounded the gospel and receive inspiration
+therefrom, that alone is reason enough for good roads.</p>
+
+<p>"There is a broader view of this question, however, that deserves
+consideration. The farm is, and always has been, conspicuous because of
+the physical development it produces, the intellectual strength it
+furnishes, and the morality it encourages. The young people in the
+country find health and vigor in the open air and in the exercise which
+farm life gives; they acquire habits of industry and economy; their work
+gives them opportunity for thought and reflection; their contact with
+nature teaches them reverence, and their environment promotes good
+habits. The farms supply our colleges with their best students and they
+also supply our cities with leaders in business and professional life.
+In the country there is neither great wealth nor great poverty&mdash;'the
+rich and the poor meet together' and recognize <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>that 'the Lord is the
+father of them all.' There is a fellowship, and, to use the word in its
+broadest sense, a democracy in the country that is much needed today to
+temper public opinion and protect the foundations of free government. A
+larger percentage of the people in the country than in the city study
+public questions, and a smaller percentage are either corrupt or are
+corrupted. It is important, therefore, for the welfare of our government
+and for the advancement of our civilization that we make life upon the
+farm as attractive as possible. Statistics have shown the constant
+increase in the urban population and the constant decrease in the rural
+population from decade to decade. Without treading upon controversial
+ground or considering whether this trend has been increased by
+legislation hostile to the farm, it will be admitted that the government
+is in duty bound to guard jealously the interests of the rural
+population, and, as far as it can, make farm life inviting. In the
+employment of modern conveniences the city has considerably outstripped
+the country, and naturally so, for in a densely populated <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>community the
+people can by co&ouml;peration supply themselves with water, light, and rapid
+transit at much smaller cost than they can in a sparsely settled
+country. But it is evident that during the last few years much has been
+done to increase the comforts of the farm. In the first place, the rural
+mail delivery has placed millions of farmers in daily communication with
+the world. It has brought not only the letter but the newspaper to the
+door. Its promised enlargement and extension will make it possible for
+the wife to order from the village store and have her purchases
+delivered by the mail-carrier. The telephone has also been a great boon
+to the farmer. It lessens by one-half the time required to secure a
+physician in case of accident or illness&mdash;an invention which every
+mother can appreciate. The extension of the electric-car line also
+deserves notice. It is destined to extend the borders of the city and to
+increase the number of small farms at the expense of flats and tenement
+houses. The suburban home will bring light and hope to millions of
+children.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>"But after all this, there still remains a pressing need for better
+country roads. As long as mud placed an embargo upon city traffic, the
+farmer could bear his mud-made isolation with less complaint, but with
+the improvement of city streets and with the establishment of parks and
+boulevards, the farmer's just demands for better roads find increasing
+expression."</p>
+
+<p>The late brilliant congressman, Hon. Thomas H. Tongue of Oregon, left on
+record a few paragraphs on the sociological effect of good roads that
+ought to be preserved:</p>
+
+<p>"Good roads do not concern our pockets only. They may become the
+instrumentalities for improved health, increased happiness and pleasure,
+for refining tastes, strengthening, broadening, and elevating the
+character. The toiler in the great city must have rest and recreation.
+Old and young, and especially the young, with character unformed, must
+and will sweeten the daily labor with some pleasure. It is not the hours
+of industry, but the hours devoted to pleasure, that furnish the devil
+his opportunity. It is not while we are at <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>work but while we are at
+play that temptations steal over the senses, put conscience to sleep,
+despoil manhood, and destroy character. Healthful and innocent
+recreations and pleasure are national needs and national blessings. They
+are among the most important instrumentalities of moral reform. They are
+as essential to purity of mind and soul as to healthfulness of body. Out
+beyond the confines of the city, with its dust and dirt and filth,
+morally and physically, these are to be found, and good roads help to
+find them. What peace and inspiration may come from flowers and music,
+brooks and waterfalls! How the mountains pointing heavenward, yesterday
+battling with storms, today bathed with sunshine, bid you stand firm,
+walk erect, look upward, cherish hope, and for light and guidance to
+call upon the Creator of all light and of all wisdom! How such scenes as
+these kindle the imagination of the poet, quicken and enlarge the
+conception of the artist, fire the soul of the orator, purify and
+elevate us all! But if love of action rather than contemplation and
+reflection tempts you, how the blood thrills and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>the spirits rise as
+one springs lightly into the saddle, caresses the slender neck of an
+equine beauty, grasps firmly the reins, bids farewell to the impurities
+of the city, and dashes into the hills and the valleys and the mountains
+to commune with nature and nature's God. Or what joy more exquisite than
+with pleasant companionship to dash along the smooth highway, drawn by a
+noble American trotter? What poor city scenes can so inspire poetic
+feeling, can so increase the love of the beautiful, can so elevate and
+broaden and strengthen the character, and so inspire us with reverence
+for the great Father of us all? But for the full enjoyment of such
+pleasures good roads are indispensable.</p>
+
+<p>"Another blessing to come with good roads will be the stimulus and
+encouragements to rural life, farm life. The present tendency of
+population to rush into the great cities makes neither for the health
+nor the character, the intelligence nor the morals of the nation. It has
+been said that no living man can trace his ancestry on both sides to
+four generations of city residents. The brain and the brawn and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>the
+morals of the city are constantly replenished from the country. The best
+home life is upon the farm, and the most sacred thing in America is the
+American home. It lies at the foundation of our institutions, of our
+health, of our character, our prosperity, our happiness, here and
+hereafter. The snares and pitfalls set for our feet are not near the
+home. The pathways upon which stones are hardest and thorns sharpest are
+not those that lead to the sacred spot hallowed by a father's love and a
+mother's prayers. The bravest and best of men, the purest and holiest
+women, are those who best love, cherish, and protect the home. God guard
+well the American home, and this done, come all the powers of darkness
+and they shall not prevail against us. Fatherhood and motherhood are
+nowhere more sacred, more holy, or better beloved than upon the farm.
+The ties of brotherhood and sisterhood are nowhere more sweet or tender.
+The fair flower of patriotism there reaches its greatest perfection.
+Every battlefield that marks the world's progress, the victory of
+liberty over tyranny or right over wrong, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>has been deluged with the
+blood of farmers. He evades neither the taxgatherer nor the recruiting
+officer. He shirks the performance of no public duty. In the hour of its
+greatest needs our country never called for help upon its stalwart
+yeomen when the cry was unheeded. The sons and daughters of American
+farmers are filling the seminaries and colleges and universities of the
+land. From the American farm home have gone in the past, as they are
+going now, leaders in literature, the arts and sciences, presidents of
+great universities, the heads of great industrial enterprises, governors
+of states, and members of Congress. They have filled the benches of the
+supreme court, the chairs of the cabinet, and the greatest executive
+office in the civilized world. Our greatest jurist, our greatest
+soldier, our greatest orators, Webster and Clay, our three greatest
+presidents, Washington, Lincoln, and McKinley, were the product of rural
+homes. The great presidents which Virginia has given to the nation,
+whose monuments are all around us, whose remains rest in your midst,
+whose fame is immortal, drew life and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>inspiration from rural homes. The
+typical American today is the American farmer. The city life, with its
+bustle and stir, its hurry and rush, its feverish anxiety for wealth,
+position, and rank in society, its fretting over ceremonies and
+precedents, is breaking down the health and intellect and the morals of
+its inhabitants. These must be replenished from the rural home. Whatever
+shall tend to create a love for country life, to decrease the rush for
+the city, instil a desire to dwell in the society of nature, will make
+for the health, the happiness, the refinement, the moral and
+intellectual improvement of the people. Nothing will contribute more to
+this than the improvement of our common roads, to facilitate the means
+of communication between one section of the country and the other, and
+between all and the city."</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Turning now from the high plane of the social and moral effect of good
+roads, let us look at the financial side of the question.</p>
+
+<p>Good roads pay well. In urging good roads in Virginia, an official of
+the Southern Railway said that if good roads improved <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>the value of
+lands only one dollar per acre, the gain to the state by the improvement
+of all the roads would be twenty-five million dollars. Yet this is an
+inconceivably low estimate; lands upon improved roads advance in value
+from four to twenty dollars per acre. Virginia could therefore expect a
+benefit from improved highways of at least one hundred million
+dollars&mdash;more than enough to improve her roads many times over. Indeed
+this matter of the increase in value of land occasioned by good roads
+can hardly be overestimated. Near all of our large towns and cities the
+land will advance until it is worth per foot what it was formerly worth
+per acre. Take Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. Beginning in 1880 to
+macadamize three or four miles of road a year with an annual fund of
+$10,000, the county now has over a hundred miles of splendid roads; the
+county seat has increased in population from 5,000 to 30,000. "I know of
+a thirty-acre farm," said President Barringer of the University of
+Virginia, a native of that county, "that cost ten dollars an acre, and
+forty-six dollars an acre has been refused <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>for it, and yet not a dollar
+has been put on it, not even to fertilize it. Some of the farms five and
+six miles from town have quadrupled in value." In Alabama the same thing
+has been found true. "The result of building these roads," said Mayor
+Drennen of Birmingham, "is that the property adjoining them has more
+than doubled in value." That wise financier, D. F. Francis, President of
+the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, when suggesting that Missouri would
+do well to bond herself for one hundred million to build good roads,
+said: "The average increase in the value of the lands in Missouri would
+be at least five dollars per acre." Taking President Francis at his
+word, the difference between the value of Missouri before and after the
+era of good roads would buy up the four hundred and eighty-four state
+banks in Missouri eleven times over. What President Francis estimates
+Missouri would be worth with good roads over and above what her farms
+are now worth would buy all the goods that the city of St. Louis
+produces in a year. In other words, the estimated gain to Missouri would
+be more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>than two hundred and twenty million dollars.</p>
+
+<p>Passing the increased value of lands, look at the equally vital question
+of increased values of crops. Take first the crops that would be raised
+on lands not cultivated today but which would be cultivated in a day of
+good roads. Look at Virginia, where only one-third of the land is being
+cultivated; the value of crops which it is certain would ultimately be
+raised on land that is now unproductive would amount to at least sixty
+million dollars. The general passenger agent of the Oregon Railway and
+Navigation Company said recently that his lines were crying out for
+wheat to ship to China; "we have about reached the limit of our
+facilities; twelve or fifteen miles is the only distance farmers can
+afford to haul their wheat to us. Make it possible for them to haul it
+double that distance and you will double the business of our railway."
+And the business of local nature done by a railroad is a good criterion
+of the prosperity of the country in which it operates.</p>
+
+<p>Crops now raised on lands within reach <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>of railways would of course be
+enhanced in value by good roads; more loads could be taken at less cost;
+weather interferences would not enter into the question. But of more
+moment perhaps than anything else, a vast amount of land thus placed
+within quick reach of our towns and cities would be given over to
+gardening for city markets, a line of agriculture immensely profitable,
+as city people well know. "The citizens of Birmingham," said the mayor
+of that city, "enjoy the benefits of fresh products raised on the farms
+along these [improved] roads. The dairymen, the truck farmers, and
+others ... are put in touch with our markets daily, thereby receiving
+the benefits of any advance in farm products."</p>
+
+<p>Poor roads are like the interest on a debt, and they are working against
+one all the time. It is noticeable that when good roads are built,
+farmers, who are always conservative, adjust themselves more readily to
+conditions. They are in touch with the world and they feel more keenly
+its pulse, much to their advantage. Too many farmers, damned by bad
+roads, are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>guilty of the faults of which Birmingham's mayor accused
+Alabama planters: "The farmers in this section," he said, "are selling
+cotton today for less than seven cents per pound, while they could have
+sold Irish potatoes within the past few months at two dollars per
+bushel." Farmers over the entire country are held to be slow in taking
+advantage of their whole opportunities; bad roads take the life out of
+them and out of their horses; they think somewhat as they
+ride&mdash;desperately slow; and they will not think faster until they ride
+faster. It is said that a man riding on a heavy southern road saw a hat
+in the mud; stopping to pick it up he was surprised to find a head of
+hair beneath it: then a voice came out of the ground: "Hold on, boss,
+don't take my hat; I've got a powerful fine mule down here somewhere if
+I can ever get him out." You can write and speak to farmers until
+doomsday about taking quick advantage of the exigencies of the markets
+that are dependent on them, but if they have to hunt for their horses in
+a hog-wallow road all your talk will be in vain.</p>
+
+<p>When we seriously face the question of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>how a fine system of highways is
+to be built in this country, it is found to be a complex problem. For
+about ten years now it has been seriously debated, and these years have
+seen a large advance; until now the problem has become almost national.</p>
+
+<p>One great fundamental idea has been proposed and is now generally
+accepted by all who have paid the matter any attention, and that is that
+those who live along our present roads cannot be expected to bear the
+entire cost of building good roads. This may be said to be settled and
+need no debate. Practically all men are agreed that the rural population
+should not bear the entire expense of an improvement of which they,
+however, are to be the chief beneficiaries; the state itself, in all its
+parts, benefits from the improved conditions which follow improved
+roads, and should bear a portion of the expense. Do not think that city
+people escape the tax of bad roads. In St. Louis four hundred thousand
+people consume five hundred tons of produce every day. The cost of
+hauling this produce over bad roads averages <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>twenty-five cents per mile
+and over good roads about ten cents per mile, making a difference of
+fifteen cents per mile per ton. For five hundred tons, hauled from farms
+averaging ten miles distance, this would be seven hundred and fifty
+dollars per day, or a quarter of a million dollars a year&mdash;enough to
+build fifty miles of macadamized road a year. The farmers shift as much
+as they can of their heavy tax on the city people&mdash;the consumer pays the
+freight. Everybody is concerned in the "mud-tax" of bad roads.</p>
+
+<p>And so what is known as the "state aid" plan has become popular. By this
+plan the state pays a fixed part of the cost of building roads out of
+the general fund raised by taxation of all the people and all the
+property in the state. Under these circumstances corporations,
+railroads, and the various representatives of the concentrated wealth of
+the cities all contribute to this fund. The funds are expended in rural
+districts and are supplemented by money raised by local taxation.</p>
+
+<p>The state of New York, which has a good system, pays one-half of the
+good <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>roads fund; each county pays thirty-five per cent, and the
+township fifteen per cent. Pennsylvania has appropriated at one time six
+and a half millions as a good roads fund. The new Ohio law apportions
+the cost of new roads as follows: The state pays twenty-five per cent,
+the townships twenty-five per cent, and the county fifty per cent. Of
+the twenty-five per cent paid by the townships fifteen per cent is to be
+paid by owners of abutting property and ten per cent by the township as
+a whole. In New Jersey, which has a model system of road-building and
+many model roads, the state pays a third, the county a third, and the
+property owners a third.</p>
+
+<p>A more recent theory in American road-building which has been advanced
+is a plan of national aid.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> This is no new thing in America, though it
+has been many years since the government has paid attention to roadways.
+In the early days the wisest of our statesmen advocated large plans of
+internal improvement; one great national road, as we have seen, was
+built by the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>War Department from the Potomac almost to the Mississippi,
+through Wheeling, Columbus, Indianapolis and Vandalia, at a cost of over
+six million dollars. And this famous national road was built, in part,
+upon an earlier pathway, cut through Ohio by Ebenezer Zane in 1796, also
+at the order of Congress, and for which he received grants of land which
+formed the nucleus of the three thriving Ohio cities, Zanesville,
+Lancaster, and Chillicothe. The constitutionality of road-building by
+the government was questioned by some, but that clause granting it the
+right to establish post-offices and post roads "must, in every view, be
+a harmless power," said James Madison, "and may perhaps, by judicious
+management, become productive of great public conveniency. Nothing which
+tends to facilitate the intercourse between the states can be deemed
+unworthy of the public care."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> But the government was interested not
+only in building roads but in many other phases of public improvement;
+it took stock in the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal; Congress voted $30,000
+to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>survey the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal route, and the work was done by
+government engineers. When railways superseded highways, the government
+was almost persuaded to complete the old National Road with rails and
+ties instead of broken stone. When the Erie Canal was proposed, a vast
+scheme of government aid was favored by leading statesmen;<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> the
+government has greatly assisted the western railways by gigantic grants
+of land worth one hundred and thirty-eight million dollars. The vast
+funds of private capital that have been seeking investment in this
+country, at first in turnpike, plank, and macadamized roads, then in
+canals, and later in railways, has rendered government aid comparatively
+unnecessary. In the last few years the only work of internal improvement
+aided by the government is the improvement of the rivers and harbors,
+which for 1904 takes over fifty millions of revenue a year. The sum of
+$130,565,485 has been well spent on river and harbor improvement in the
+past seven years. Not only are the great rivers, such as the Ohio <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>and
+Mississippi, improved, but lesser streams. A short time ago I made a
+journey of one hundred miles down the Elk River in West Virginia in a
+boat eleven inches deep and twelve feet long; a channel all the way down
+had been made about two feet wide by picking out the stones; the United
+States did this at an expense of fifteen hundred dollars. The groceries
+and dry goods for thousands were poled up that river in dug-outs through
+that two-foot channel. I doubt if a two-wheel vehicle could traverse the
+road which runs throughout that valley, but I know a four-wheel vehicle
+could not.</p>
+
+<p>The advocates of national aid urge the right to establish post roads; "I
+had an ancestor in the United States Senate," said ex-Senator Butler of
+South Carolina, "who refused to vote a dollar for the improvement of
+Charleston Harbor; but almost the first act of my official life was to
+get an appropriation of two hundred and fifty thousand for that purpose.
+There is as ample constitutional warrant for the improvement of public
+roads out of the United States Treasury&mdash;as large as there <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>is for the
+improvement of rivers and harbors, or for the support of the
+agricultural colleges."</p>
+
+<p>"But few judicial opinions have been rendered on this subject. In the
+case of Dickey against the Turnpike Company, the Kentucky court of
+appeals decided that the power given to Congress by the constitution to
+establish post roads enabled them to make, repair, keep open, and
+improve post roads when they shall deem the exercise of the power
+expedient. But in the exercise of the right of eminent domain on this
+subject the United States has no right to adopt and use roads, bridges,
+or ferries constructed and owned by states, corporations, and
+individuals without their consent or without making to the parties
+concerned just compensation. If the United States elects to use such
+accommodations, it stands upon the same footing and is subject to the
+same tolls and regulations as a private individual. It has been asserted
+that Jefferson was opposed to the appropriation of money for internal
+improvements, but, in 1808, in writing to Mr. Lieper, he said, 'Give us
+peace until <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>our revenues are liberated from debt, ... and then during
+peace we may chequer our whole country with canals, roads, etc.' Writing
+to J. W. Eppes in 1813 he says, 'The fondest wish of my heart ever was
+that the surplus portion of these taxes destined for the payment of the
+Revolutionary debt should, when that object is accomplished, be
+continued by annual or biennial re&euml;nactments and applied in times of
+peace to the improvement of our country by canals, roads, and useful
+institutions.' Congress has always claimed the power to lay out,
+construct, and improve post roads with the assent of the states through
+which they pass; also, to open, construct, and improve military roads on
+like terms; and the right to cut canals through the several states with
+their consent for the purpose of promoting and securing internal
+commerce and for the safe and economical transportation of military
+stores in times of war. The president has sometimes objected to the
+exercise of this constitutional right, but Congress has never denied it.
+Cooley, the highest authority on constitutional law, says:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>"'Every road within a State, including railroads, canals, turnpikes, and
+navigable streams, existing or created within a State, becomes a
+post-road, whenever by law or by the action of the Post-Office
+Department provision is made for the transportation of the mail upon or
+over it. Many statesmen and jurists have contended that the power
+comprehends the laying out and construction of any roads which Congress
+may deem proper and needful for the conveyance of the mails, and keeping
+them repaired for the purpose.'"<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>It has been many years since the United States government was interested
+considerably in mail routes on the roadways of this country; in the past
+half century the government has spent but one hundred thousand dollars
+for the improvement of mail roads. The new era of rural delivery brings
+a return, in one sense, of the old stagecoach days. A thousand country
+roads are now used daily by government mail-carriers, but the government
+demands that the roads used be kept in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>good condition by the local
+authorities. Thus the situation is reversed; instead of holding it to be
+the duty of the government to deliver mail in rural districts, Congress
+holds that the debt is on the other side and that, in return for the
+boon of rural delivery, the rural population must make good roads.
+Madison well saw that government improvement of roads as mail routes
+would be of great general benefit; for in <i>The Federalist</i> he adds that
+the power "may perhaps by judicious management become productive of
+great public conveniency."</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep059" id="imagep059"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep059.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep059.jpg" width="75%" alt="A Good-roads Train" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen smcap" style="margin-top: .2em;">A Good-roads Train</p>
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;">[<i>The Southern Roadway's good-roads train, October 29, 1901, consisting
+of two coaches for officials and road experts and ten cars of road
+machinery; for itinerary through Virginia, North Carolina. Tennessee,
+Alabama, and Georgia</i>]</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+<p>One great work the government has done and is doing. It has founded an
+Office of Public Road Inquiries (described elsewhere) at Washington, and
+under the efficient management of Hon. Martin Dodge and Maurice O.
+Eldridge a great work of education has been carried on&mdash;samples of good
+roads have been built, good road trains have been sent out by the
+Southern Railway and the Illinois Central into the South, a laboratory
+has been established at Washington, under the efficient charge of
+Professor L. W. Page, for the testing of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>materials free of charge,
+and a great deal of road information has been published and sent out.</p>
+
+<p>The Brownlow Bill, introduced into Congress at the last session, is the
+latest plan of national aid, and is thus described by Hon. Martin Dodge
+of the Office of Public Road Inquiries:</p>
+
+<p>"The bill provides for an appropriation of twenty million dollars. This
+is to be used only in connection and co&ouml;peration with the various states
+or civil subdivisions of states that may make application to the General
+Government for the purpose of securing its aid to build certain roads.
+The application must be made for a specific road to be built, and the
+state or county making the application must be ready to pay half of the
+cost, according to the plans and specifications made by the General
+Government. In no case can any state or any number of counties within
+the state receive any greater proportion of the twenty million dollars
+than the population of the state bears to the population of the United
+States.</p>
+
+<p>"In other words, all of the plans must <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>originate in the community. The
+bill does not provide that the United States shall go forward and say a
+road shall be built here or a road shall be built there. The United
+States shall hold itself in readiness, when requested to do so, to
+co&ouml;perate with those who have selected a road they desire to build,
+provided they are ready and willing to pay one-half the cost. Then, if
+the road is a suitable one and is approved by the government
+authorities, they go forward and build that road, each contributing
+one-half of the expense. In order to prevent the state losing
+jurisdiction of the road, it is provided that it may go forward and
+build the road if it will accept the government engineer's estimate. For
+instance, if a state or county asks for ten miles of road, the estimated
+cost of which is thirty thousand dollars, and the state or county
+officials say they are willing to undertake the work for thirty thousand
+dollars, the government authorizes them to go ahead and build that road
+according to specifications, and when it is finished the government will
+pay the fifteen thousand dollars. If the state or county does not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>wish
+to take the contract, the General Government will advertise and give it
+to the lowest bidder, and will pay its contributory share and the other
+party will pay its contributory share.</p>
+
+<p>"It is no part of the essential principle involved in this national aid
+plan that the exact proportion should be fifty per cent on each side.
+Any other figure can be adopted. Some think ten per cent is sufficient;
+some think thirty-three and one-third is the proper percentage; others
+think twenty-five per cent only should be paid by the government,
+twenty-five per cent by the state, twenty-five per cent by the county,
+and twenty-five per cent by the township. The one idea that seems to be
+generally accepted is that the government should do something."</p>
+
+<p>Thus the interest in the great question is beginning to forge to the
+front; through the Office of Public Road Inquiries a great deal of
+information is being circulated touching all phases of the question.
+There is a fine spirit of independence displayed by the leaders of the
+movement; no one plan is over-urged; the situation is such <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>that the
+final concerted popular action will come from the real governing
+power&mdash;the people. When they demand that the United States shall not
+have the poorest rural roads of any civilized and some uncivilized
+nations, we as a nation will hasten into the fore front and finally lead
+the world in this vital department of civic life, as we are leading it
+in so many other departments today.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep066" id="imagep066"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep066.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep066.jpg" width="65%" alt="Sample Steel Track for Common Roads" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen smcap" style="margin-top: .2em;">Sample Steel Track for Common Roads</p>
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;">[<i>On the driver's right is seated Hon. Martin Dodge, since 1898 Director
+of the Office of Public Road Inquiries</i>]</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See <i>post</i>, pp. 68-80.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>The Federalist</i>, p. 198.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Historic Highways of America</i>, vol. xiv, p. 57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Thomas M. Cooley, <i>Constitutional Law</i> (Boston, 1891), pp.
+85-86.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h2>GOVERNMENT CO&Ouml;PERATION IN<br /> OBJECT-LESSON ROAD WORK<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>In a government having a composite nature like that of the United States
+it is not always easy to determine just what share the General
+Government, the state government, and the local government should
+respectively take in carrying out highway work, though it is generally
+admitted that there should be co&ouml;peration among them all.</p>
+
+<p>In the early history of the Republic the National Government itself laid
+out and partially completed a great national system of highways
+connecting the East with the West, and the capital of the nation with
+its then most distant possessions. Fourteen million dollars in all was
+appropriated by acts of Congress to be devoted to this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>purpose, an
+amount almost equal to that paid for the Louisiana Purchase. In other
+words, it cost the government substantially as much to make that
+territory accessible as to purchase it; and what is true of that
+territory in its larger sense is also true in a small way of nearly
+every tract of land that is opened up and used for the purposes of
+civilization; that is to say, it will cost as much to build up, improve,
+and maintain the roads of any given section of the country as the land
+in its primitive condition is worth; and the same rule will apply in
+most cases after the land value has advanced considerably beyond that of
+its primitive condition. It is a general rule that the suitable
+improvement of a highway within reasonable limitations will double the
+value of the land adjacent to it. Seven million dollars, half of the
+total sum appropriated by acts of Congress for the national road system,
+was devoted to building the Cumberland Road from Cumberland, Maryland,
+to St. Louis, Missouri, the most central point in the great Louisiana
+Purchase, and seven hundred miles west of Cumberland. The total cost <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>of
+this great road was wholly paid out of the United States Treasury, and
+though never fully completed on the western end, it is the longest
+straight road ever built by any government. It passes through the
+capitals of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and the cost per mile was,
+approximately, ten thousand dollars. It furnishes the only important
+instance the country has ever had of the General Government providing a
+highway at its own expense. The plan, however, was never carried to
+completion, and since its abandonment two generations ago, the people of
+the different states have provided their own highways. For the most part
+they have delegated their powers either to individuals, companies, or
+corporations to build toll roads, or to the minor political subdivisions
+and municipalities to build free roads.</p>
+
+<p>With the passing of the toll-road system, the withdrawal of the General
+Government from the field of actual road construction, and the various
+state governments doing little or nothing, the only remaining active
+agent occupying the entire great field is the local government <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>in each
+community; and while these various local governments have done and are
+still doing the best they can under the circumstances, there is great
+need that their efforts should be supplemented, their revenues enlarged,
+and their skill in the art of road construction increased.</p>
+
+<p>The skill of the local supervisor was sufficient in primitive times, so
+long as his principal duties consisted in clearing the way of trees,
+logs, stumps, and other obstructions, and shaping the earth of which the
+roadbed was composed into a little better form than nature had left it;
+and the resources at his command were sufficient so long as he was
+authorized to call on every able-bodied male citizen between twenty-one
+and forty-five years of age to do ten days' labor annually on the road,
+especially when the only labor expected was that of dealing with the
+material found on the spot. But with the changed conditions brought
+about by the more advanced state of civilization, after the rights of
+way have been cleared of their obstructions and the earth roads graded
+into the form of turnpikes, it became necessary to harden <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>their
+surfaces with material which often must be brought from distant places.
+In order to accomplish this, expert skill is required in the selection
+of materials, money instead of labor is required to pay for the cost of
+transportation, and machinery must be substituted for the hand processes
+and primitive methods heretofore employed in order to crush the rock and
+distribute it in the most economical manner on the roadbed. Skill and
+machinery are also required to roll and consolidate the material so as
+to form a smooth, hard surface and a homogeneous mass impervious to
+water.</p>
+
+<p>The local road officer now not only finds himself deficient in skill and
+the proper kind of resources, but he discovers in many cases that the
+number of persons subject to his call for road work has greatly
+diminished. The great cities of the North have absorbed half of the
+population in all the states north of the Ohio and east of the
+Mississippi, and those living in these great cities are not subject to
+the former duties of working the roads, nor do they pay any compensation
+in money in lieu thereof. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>So the statute labor has not only become
+unsuitable for the service to be performed, but it is, as stated,
+greatly diminished. In the former generations substantially all the
+people contributed to the construction of the highways under the statute
+labor system, but at the present time not more than half the population
+is subject to this service, and this, too, at a time when the need for
+highway improvement is greatest.</p>
+
+<p>While the former ways and means are inadequate or inapplicable to
+present needs and conditions, there are other means more suitable for
+the service, and existing in ample proportion for every need. The
+tollgate-keeper cannot be called upon to restore the ancient system of
+turnpikes and plank roads to be maintained by a tax upon vehicles
+passing over them, but there can be provided a general fund in each
+county sufficient to build up free roads better than the toll roads and
+with a smaller burden of cost upon the people. The statute labor in the
+rural districts cannot be depended upon, because it is unsuitable to the
+service now required and spasmodic in its application, when it should be
+perennial; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>but this statute labor can be commuted to a money tax, with
+no hardships upon the citizens and with great benefit to the highway
+system.</p>
+
+<p>Former inhabitants of the abandoned farms or the deserted villages
+cannot be followed to the great cities and the road tax which they
+formerly paid be collected from them again to improve the country roads;
+but it can be provided that all the property owners in every city, as
+well as in every county, shall pay a money tax into a general fund,
+which shall be devoted exclusively to the improvement of highways in the
+rural districts. The state itself can maintain a general fund out of
+which a portion of the cost of every principal highway in the state
+shall be paid, and by so doing all the people of the state will
+contribute to improving the highways, as they once did in the early
+history of the nation, when substantially all the wealth and population
+was distributed almost equally throughout the settled portions of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Having a general fund of money instead of statute labor, it would be
+possible to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>introduce more scientific and more economical methods of
+construction with co&ouml;peration. This co&ouml;peration, formerly applied with
+good results to the primitive conditions, but which has been partially
+lost by the diminution in the number and skill of the co-workers, would
+be restored again in a great measure by drawing the money with which to
+improve the roads out of a general fund to which all had contributed.</p>
+
+<p>In many countries the army has been used to advantage in time of peace
+in building up and maintaining the highways. There is no army in this
+country for such a purpose, but there is an army of prisoners in every
+state, whose labor is so directed, and has been so directed for
+generations past, that it adds little or nothing to the common wealth.
+The labor of these prisoners, properly applied and directed, would be of
+great benefit and improvement to the highways, and would add greatly to
+the national wealth, while at the same time it would lighten the
+pressure of competition with free labor by withdrawing the prison labor
+from the manufacture of commercial articles and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>applying it to work not
+now performed, that is, the building of highways or preparing material
+to be used therefor.</p>
+
+<p>The General Government, having withdrawn from the field of road
+construction in 1832, has since done little in that line until very
+recently. Eight years ago Congress appropriated a small sum of money for
+the purpose of instituting a sort of inquiry into the prevailing
+condition of things pertaining to road matters. This appropriation has
+been continued from year to year and increased during the last two years
+with a view of co&ouml;perating to a limited extent with other efforts in
+road construction.</p>
+
+<p>The General Government can perform certain duties pertaining to
+scientific road improvement better than any other agency. Scientific
+facts ascertained at one time by the General Government will serve for
+the enlightenment of the people of all the states, and with no more cost
+than would be required for each single state to make the investigation
+and ascertain the facts for itself.</p>
+
+<p>With a view to securing scientific facts in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>reference to the value of
+road-building materials, the Secretary of Agriculture has established at
+Washington, D. C., a mechanical and chemical laboratory for testing such
+material from all parts of the country. Professor L. W. Page, late of
+Harvard University, is in charge of this laboratory, and has tested many
+samples of rock without charge to those having the test made. There is,
+however, no test equal to the actual application of the material to the
+road itself.</p>
+
+<p>With a view to making more extensive tests than could be done by
+laboratory work alone, the Director of the Office of Public Road
+Inquiries has, during the past two years, co&ouml;perated with the local
+authorities in many different states in building short sections of
+object-lesson roads. In this work it is intended not only to contribute
+something by way of co&ouml;peration on the part of the General Government,
+but also to secure co&ouml;peration on the part of as many different
+interests connected with the road question as possible. The local
+community having the road built is most largely interested, and is
+expected <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>to furnish the common labor and domestic material. The
+railroad companies generally co&ouml;perate, because they are interested in
+having better roads to and from their railroad stations. They therefore
+contribute by transporting free or at very low rates the machinery and
+such foreign material as is needed in the construction of the road. The
+manufacturers of earth-handling and road-building machinery co&ouml;perate by
+furnishing all needed machinery for the most economical construction of
+the road, and in many cases prison labor is used in preparing material
+which finally goes into the completed roadbed. The contribution which
+the General Government makes in this scheme of co&ouml;peration is both
+actually and relatively small, but it is by means of this limited
+co&ouml;peration that it has been possible to produce a large number of
+object-lesson roads in different states. These have proved very
+beneficial, not only in showing the scientific side of the question, but
+the economical side as well.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1900 object-lesson roads were built under the direction of
+the Office of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>Public Road Inquiries near Port Huron, Saginaw, and
+Traverse City, Michigan; Springfield, Illinois; and Topeka, Kansas.
+Since that time the object-lesson roads so built have been extended and
+duplicated by the local authorities without further aid from the
+government. The people are so well pleased with the results of these
+experiments that they are making preparations for additional extensions,
+aggregating many miles.</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1901 sample object-lesson roads were built on a larger
+scale in co&ouml;peration with the Illinois Central, Lake Shore, and Southern
+railroad companies, and the National Association for Good Roads in the
+states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, New
+York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, and Georgia. In all of
+these cases the co&ouml;peration has been very hearty on the part of the
+state, the county, and the municipality in which the work has been done,
+and the results have been very satisfactory and beneficial.</p>
+
+<p>Hon. A. H. Longino, governor of Mississippi, in his speech made at the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>International Good Roads Congress at Buffalo, September 17, 1901, said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"My friends, the importance of good roads seems to me to be
+so apparent, so self-evident, that the discussion thereof is
+but a discussion of truisms. Much as we appreciate
+railroads, rivers, and canals as means for transportation of
+the commerce of the country, they are, in my judgment, of
+less importance to mankind, to the masses of the people, and
+to all classes of people, than are good country roads.</p>
+
+<p>"I live in a section of the country where that important
+subject has found at the hands of the people apparently less
+appreciation and less effort toward improvement than in many
+others. In behalf of the Good Roads Association, headed by
+Colonel Moore and Mr. Richardson, which recently met in the
+state of Mississippi, I want to say that more interest has
+been aroused by their efforts concerning this important
+subject among the people there than perhaps ever existed
+before in the history of the state. By their work,
+demonstrating what could be done by the methods which they
+employed, and by their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>agitation of the question, the
+people have become aroused as they never were before; and
+since their departure from the state a large number of
+counties which were not already working under the contract
+system have provided for public highways, worked by
+contract, requiring the contractor to give a good and
+sufficient bond, a bond broad enough in its provisions and
+large enough in amount to compel faithful service; and
+Mississippi is today starting out on a higher plane than
+ever before."</p></div>
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTE:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> By Hon. Martin Dodge, Director of the Office of Public Road
+Inquiries.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h2>GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>Poor roads constitute the greatest drawback to rural life, and for the
+lack of good roads the farmers suffer more than any other class. It is
+obviously unnecessary, therefore, to discuss here the benefits to be
+derived by them from improved roads. Suffice it to say, that those
+localities where good roads have been built are becoming richer, more
+prosperous, and more thickly settled, while those which do not possess
+these advantages in transportation are either at a standstill or are
+becoming poorer and more sparsely settled. If these conditions continue,
+fruitful farms may be abandoned and rich lands go to waste. Life on a
+farm often becomes, as a result of "bottomless roads," isolated and
+barren of social enjoyments and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>pleasures, and country people in some
+communities suffer such great disadvantage that ambition is checked,
+energy weakened, and industry paralyzed.</p>
+
+<p>Good roads, like good streets, make habitation along them most
+desirable; they economize time and force in transportation of products,
+reduce wear and tear on horses, harness and vehicles, and enhance the
+market value of real estate. They raise the value of farm lands and farm
+products, and tend to beautify the country through which they pass; they
+facilitate rural mail delivery and are a potent aid to education,
+religion, and sociability. Charles Sumner once said: "The road and the
+schoolmaster are the two most important agents in advancing
+civilization."</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep083" id="imagep083"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep083.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep083.jpg" width="75%" alt="Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">TYPICAL MACADAM ROAD NEAR BRYN MAWR, PENNSYLVANIA</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The difference between good and bad roads is often equivalent to the
+difference between profit and loss. Good roads have a money value to
+farmers as well as a political and social value, and leaving out
+convenience, comfort, social and refined influences which good roads
+always enhance, and looking at them only from the "almighty dollar"
+side, they are found <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>to pay handsome dividends each year.</p>
+
+<p>People generally are beginning to realize that road-building is a public
+matter, and that the best interests of American agriculture and the
+American people as a whole demand the construction of good roads, and
+that money wisely expended for this purpose is sure to return.</p>
+
+<p>Road-making is perfected by practice, experience, and labor. Soils and
+clays, sand and ores, gravels and rocks, are transformed into beautiful
+roads, streets, and boulevards, by methods which conform with their
+great varieties of characters and with nature's laws. The art of
+road-building depends largely for its success upon being carried on in
+conformity with certain general principles.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary that roads should be hard, smooth, comparatively level,
+and fit for use at all seasons of the year; that they should be properly
+located, or laid out on the ground, so that their grades may be such
+that animate or inanimate power may be applied upon them to the best
+advantage and without great loss of energy; that they should be properly
+constructed, the ground <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>well drained, the roadbed graded, shaped, and
+rolled, and that they should be surfaced with the best material
+procurable; that they should be properly maintained or kept constantly
+in good repair.</p>
+
+<p>All the important roads in the United States can be and doubtless will
+be macadamized or otherwise improved in the not distant future. This
+expectation should govern their present location and treatment
+everywhere. Unless changes are made in the location of the roads in many
+parts of this country it would be worse than folly to macadamize them.
+"Any costly resurfacing of the existing roads will fasten them where
+they are for generations," says General Stone. The chief difficulty in
+this country is not with the surface, but with the steep grades, many of
+which are too long to be reduced by cutting and filling on the present
+lines, and if this could be done it would cost more in many cases than
+relocating them.</p>
+
+<p>Many of our roads were originally laid out without any attention to
+general topography, and in most cases followed the settler's path from
+cabin to cabin, the pig <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>trail, or ran along the boundary lines of the
+farms regardless of grades or direction. Most of them remain today where
+they were located years ago, and where untold labor, expense, and energy
+have been wasted in trying to haul over them and in endeavors to improve
+their deplorable condition.</p>
+
+<p>The great error is made of continuing to follow these primitive paths
+with our public highways. The right course is to call in an engineer and
+throw the road around the end or along the side of steep hills instead
+of continuing to go over them, or to pull the road up on dry solid
+ground instead of splashing through the mud and water of the creek or
+swamp. Far more time and money have been wasted in trying to keep up a
+single mile of one of these "pig-track" surveys than it would take to
+build and keep in repair two miles of good road.</p>
+
+<p>Another and perhaps greater error is made by some persons in the West
+who continue to lay out their roads on "section lines." These sections
+are all square, with sides running north, south, east, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>west. A
+person wishing to cross the country in any other than these directions
+must necessarily do so in rectangular zigzags. It also necessitates very
+often the crossing and recrossing of hills and valleys, which might be
+avoided if the roads had been constructed on scientific principles.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep089" id="imagep089"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep089.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep089.jpg" width="75%" alt="A STUDY IN GRADING" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">A STUDY IN GRADING</p>
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;">[<i>The old road had a grade of eight per cent; by the improved route the
+grade is four per cent</i>]</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the prairie state of Iowa, for example, where roads are no worse than
+in many other states, there is a greater number of roads having much
+steeper grades than are found in the mountainous republic of
+Switzerland. In Maryland the old stagecoach road or turnpike running
+from Washington to Baltimore makes almost a "bee line," regardless of
+hills or valleys, and the grades at places are as steep as ten or twelve
+per cent, where by making little detours the road might have been made
+perfectly level, or by running it up the hills less abruptly the grade
+might have been reduced to three or four per cent, as is done in the
+hilly regions of many parts of this and other countries. Straight roads
+are the proper kind to have, but in hilly countries their straightness
+should <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>always be sacrificed to obtain a level surface so as to better
+accommodate the people who use them.</p>
+
+<p>Graceful and natural curves conforming to the lay of the land add beauty
+to the landscape, besides enhancing the value of property. Not only do
+level, curved roads add beauty to the landscape and make lands along
+them more valuable, but the horse is able to utilize his full strength
+over them; furthermore, a horse can pull only four-fifths as much on a
+grade of two feet in one hundred feet, and this gradually lessens until
+with a grade of ten feet in one hundred feet he can draw but one-fourth
+as much as he can on a level road.</p>
+
+<p>All roads should therefore wind around hills or be cut through instead
+of running over them, and in many cases the former can be done without
+greatly increasing the distance. To illustrate, if an apple or pear be
+cut in half and one of the halves placed on a flat surface, it will be
+seen that the horizontal distance around from stem to blossom is no
+greater than the distance over between the same points.</p>
+
+<p>The wilfulness of one or two private <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>individuals sometimes becomes a
+barrier to traffic and commerce. The great drawback to the laying out of
+roads on the principle referred to is that of the necessity, in some
+cases, of building them through the best lands, the choicest pastures
+and orchards, instead, as they do now, of cutting around the farm line
+or passing through old worn-out fields or over rocky knolls. But if
+farmers wish people to know that they have good farms, good cattle,
+sheep, or horses, good grain, fruit, or vegetables, they should let the
+roads go through the best parts of the farms.</p>
+
+<p>The difference in length between a straight road and one which is
+slightly curved is less than one would imagine. Says Sganzin: "If a road
+between two places ten miles apart were made to curve so that the eye
+could see no farther than a quarter of a mile of it at once, its length
+would exceed that of a perfectly straight road between the same points
+by only about one hundred and fifty yards." Even if the distance around
+a hill be much greater, it is often more economical to construct it that
+way than to go over and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>necessitate the expenditure of large amounts of
+money in reducing the grade, or a waste of much valuable time and energy
+in transporting goods that way. Gillespie says "that, as a general rule,
+the horizontal length of a road may be advantageously increased to avoid
+an ascent by at least twenty times the perpendicular height which is
+thus to be avoided&mdash;that is, to escape a hill one hundred feet high it
+would be proper for the road to make such a circuit as would increase
+its length two thousand feet." The mathematical axiom that "a straight
+line is the shortest distance between two points" is not, therefore, the
+best rule to follow in laying out a road; better is the proverb that
+"the longest way round is the shortest way home."</p>
+
+<p>The grade is the most important factor to be considered in the location
+of roads. The smoother the road surface, the less the grade should be.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the road be constructed of earth, stone, or gravel, steep grades
+should always be avoided if possible. They become covered at times with
+coatings of ice or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>slippery soil, making them very difficult to ascend
+with loaded vehicles, as well as dangerous to descend. They allow water
+to rush down at such a rate as to wash great gaps alongside or to carry
+the surfacing material away. As the grade increases in steepness either
+the load has to be diminished in proportion or more horses or power
+attached. From Gillespie we find that if a horse can draw on a level one
+thousand pounds, on a rise of&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="50%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Grades">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="85%">1 foot in&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="15%">Pounds</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">100 feet he draws</td>
+  <td class="tdr">900&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;50 feet</td>
+  <td class="tdr">810&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;44 feet</td>
+  <td class="tdr">750&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;40 feet</td>
+  <td class="tdr">720&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;30 feet</td>
+  <td class="tdr">640&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;25 feet</td>
+  <td class="tdr">540&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;24feet</td>
+  <td class="tdr">500&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;20 feet</td>
+  <td class="tdr">400&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&nbsp;10 feet</td>
+  <td class="tdr">250&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is therefore seen that when the grades are 1 foot in 44 feet, or 120
+feet to the mile, a horse can draw only three-fourths as much as he can
+on a level; where the grade is 1 foot in 24 feet, or 220 feet to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>the
+mile, he can draw only one-half as much, and on a ten per cent grade, or
+520 feet to the mile, he is able to draw only one-fourth as much as on a
+level road.</p>
+
+<p>As a chain is no stronger than its weakest link, just so the greatest
+load which can be hauled over a road is the load which can be hauled
+through the deepest mud hole or up the steepest hill on that road. The
+cost of haulage is, therefore, necessarily increased in proportion to
+the roughness of the surface or steepness of the grade. It costs one and
+one-half times as much to haul over a road having a five per cent grade
+and three times as much over one having a ten per cent grade as on a
+level road. As a perfectly level road can seldom be had, it is well to
+know the steepest allowable grade. If the hill be one of great length,
+it is sometimes best to have the lowest part steepest, upon which the
+horse is capable of exerting his full strength, and to make the slope
+more gentle toward the summit, to correspond with the continually
+decreasing strength of the fatigued animal.</p>
+
+<p>So far as descent is concerned, a road should not be so steep that the
+wagons <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>and carriages cannot be drawn down it with perfect ease and
+safety. Sir Henry Parnell considered that when the grade was no greater
+than one foot in thirty-five feet, vehicles could be drawn down it at a
+speed of twelve miles an hour with perfect safety. Gillespie says:</p>
+
+<p>"It has been ascertained that a horse can for a short time double his
+usual exertion; also, that on the best roads he exerts a pressure
+against his collar of about one thirty-fifth of the load. If he can
+double his exertion for a time, he can pull one thirty-fifth more, and
+the slope which would force him to lift that proportion would be, as
+seen from the above table, one of one in thirty-five, or about a three
+per cent grade. On this slope, however, he would be compelled to double
+his ordinary exertion to draw a full load, and it would therefore be the
+maximum grade." Mr. Isaac B. Potter, an eminent authority upon roads,
+says:</p>
+
+<p>"Dirty water and watery dirt make bad going, and mud is the greatest
+obstacle to the travel and traffic of the farmer. Mud is a mixture of
+dirt and water. The dirt is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>always to be found in the roadway, and the
+water, which comes in rain, snow, and frost, softens it; horses and
+wagons and narrow wheel tires knead it and mix it, and it soon gets into
+so bad a condition that a fairly loaded wagon cannot be hauled through
+it.</p>
+
+<p>"We cannot prevent the coming of this water, and it only remains for us
+to get rid of it, which can be speedily done if we go about it in the
+right way. Very few people know how great an amount of water falls upon
+the country road, and it may surprise some of us to be told that on each
+mile of an ordinary country highway three rods wide within the United
+States there falls each year an average of twenty-seven thousand tons of
+water. In the ordinary country dirt road the water seems to stick and
+stay as if there was no other place for it, and this is only because we
+have never given it a fair opportunity to run out of the dirt and find
+its level in other places. We cannot make a hard road out of soft mud,
+and no amount of labor and machinery will make a good dirt road that
+will stay good unless some plan is adopted <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>to get rid of the surplus
+water. Water is a heavy, limpid fluid, hard to confine and easy to let
+loose. It is always seeking for a chance to run down a hill; always
+trying to find its lowest level."</p>
+
+<p>An essential feature of a good road is good drainage, and the principles
+of good drainage remain substantially the same whether the road be
+constructed of earth, gravel, shells, stones, or asphalt. The first
+demand of good drainage is to attend to the shape of road surface. This
+must be "crowned," or rounded up toward the center, so that there may be
+a fall from the center to the sides, thus compelling the water to flow
+rapidly from the surface into the gutters which should be constructed on
+one or both sides, and from there in turn be discharged into larger and
+more open channels. Furthermore, it is necessary that no water be
+allowed to flow across a roadway; culverts, tile, stone, or box drains
+should be provided for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to being well covered and drained, the surface should be
+kept as smooth as possible; that is, free from ruts, wheel tracks,
+holes, or hollows. If any of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>these exist, instead of being thrown to
+the side the water is held back and is either evaporated by the sun or
+absorbed by the material of which the road is constructed. In the latter
+case the material loses its solidity, softens and yields to the impact
+of the horses' feet and the wheels of vehicles, and, like the water
+poured upon a grindstone, so the water poured on a road surface which is
+not properly drained assists the grinding action of the wheels in
+rutting or completely destroying the surface. When water is allowed to
+stand on a road the holes and ruts rapidly increase in number and size;
+wagon after wagon sinks deeper and deeper, until the road finally
+becomes utterly bad, and sometimes impassable, as frequently found in
+many parts of the country during the winter season.</p>
+
+<p>Road drainage is just as essential to a good road as farm drainage is to
+a good farm. In fact, the two go hand in hand, and the better the one
+the better the other, and vice versa. There are thousands of miles of
+public roads in the United States which are practically impassable
+during some portion of the year on account of bad <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>drainage, while for
+the same reason thousands of acres of the richest meadow and swamp lands
+lie idle from year in to year out.</p>
+
+<p>The wearing surface of a road must be in effect a roof; that is, the
+section in the middle should be the highest part and the traveled
+roadway should be made as impervious to water as possible, so that it
+will flow freely and quickly into the gutters or ditches alongside. The
+best shape for the cross section of a road has been found to be either a
+flat ellipse or one made up of two plane surfaces sloping uniformly from
+the middle to the sides and joined in the center by a small, circular
+curve. Either of these sections may be used, provided it is not too flat
+in the middle for good drainage or too steep at the gutters for safety.
+The steepness of the slope from the center to the sides should depend
+upon the nature of the surface, being greater or less according to its
+roughness or smoothness. This slope ought to be greatest on earth roads,
+perhaps as much in some cases as one foot in twenty feet after the
+surface has been thoroughly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>rolled or compacted by traffic. This varies
+from about one in twenty to one in thirty on a macadam road, to one in
+forty or one in sixty on the various classes of pavements, and for
+asphalt sometimes as low as one in eighty.</p>
+
+<p>Where the road is constructed on a grade or hill the slope from the
+center to the sides should be slightly steeper than that on the level
+road. The best cross section for roads on grades is the one made up from
+two plane surfaces sloping uniformly from the center to the sides. This
+is done so as to avoid the danger of overturning near the side ditches,
+which would necessarily be increased if the elliptical form were used.
+The slope from the center to the sides must be steep enough to lead the
+water into the side ditches instead of allowing it to run down the
+middle of the road. Every wheel track on an inclined roadway becomes a
+channel for carrying down the water, and unless the curvature is
+sufficient these tracks are quickly deepened into water courses which
+cut into and sometimes destroy the best improved road.</p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent the washing out of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>earth roads on hills it
+sometimes becomes necessary to construct water breaks; that is, broad
+shallow ditches arranged so as to catch the surface water and carry it
+each way into the side ditches. Such ditches retard traffic to a certain
+extent, and often result in overturning vehicles; consequently they
+should never be used until all other means have failed to cause the
+water to flow into the side channels; neither should they be allowed to
+cross the entire width of the road diagonally, but should be constructed
+in the shape of the letter V. This arrangement permits teams following
+the middle of the road to cross the ditch squarely and thus avoid the
+danger of overturning. These ditches should not be deeper than is
+absolutely necessary to throw the water off the surface, and the part in
+the center should be the shallowest.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately farmers and road masters have a fixed idea that one way to
+prevent hills, long and short, from washing is to heap upon them
+quantities of those original tumular obstructions known indifferently as
+"thank-you-ma'ams," "breaks," or "hummocks," and the number they can
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>squeeze in upon a single hill is positively astonishing. Quoting Mr.
+Isaac B. Potter:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Side ditches are necessary because the thousands of tons of
+water which fall upon every mile of country road each year,
+in the form of rain or snow, should be carried away to some
+neighboring creek or other water channel as fast as the rain
+falls and the snow melts, so as to prevent its forming mud
+and destroying the surface of the road. When the ground is
+frozen and a heavy rain or sudden thaw occurs, the side
+ditch is the only means of getting rid of the surface water;
+for no matter how sandy or porous the soil may be, when
+filled with frost it is practically water-tight, and the
+water which falls or forms on the surface must either remain
+there or be carried away by surface ditches at the sides of
+the road.</p>
+
+<p>"A side ditch should have a gradually falling and even grade
+at the bottom, and broad, flaring sides to prevent the
+caving in of its banks. It can be easily cleared of snow,
+weeds, and rubbish; the water will run into it easily from
+each side, and it is not dangerous to wagons and foot
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>travelers. It is therefore a much better ditch than the
+kind of ditch very often dug by erosion along the country
+roadside."</p></div>
+
+<p>Where the road is built on a grade some provision should be made to
+prevent the wash of the gutters into great, deep gullies. This can be
+done by paving the bottom and sides of the gutters with brick, river
+rocks, or field stone. In order to make the flow in such side ditches as
+small as possible it is advisable to construct outlets into the adjacent
+fields or to lay underground pipes or tile drains with openings into the
+ditches at frequent intervals.</p>
+
+<p>The size of side ditches should depend upon the character of the soil
+and the amount of water they are expected to carry. If possible they
+should be located three feet from the edge of the traveled roadway, so
+that if the latter is fourteen feet wide there will be twenty feet of
+clear space between ditches.</p>
+
+<p>The bottom of the ditch may vary in width from three to twelve inches,
+or even more, as may be found necessary in order to carry the largest
+amount of water which is expected to flow through it at any one <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>time.
+Sometimes the only ditches necessary to carry off the surface water are
+those made by the use of the road machines or road graders. The blade of
+the machine may be set at any desired angle, and when drawn along by
+horses, cuts into the surface and moves the earth from the sides toward
+the center, forming gutters alongside and distributing the earth
+uniformly over the traveled way. Such gutters are liable to become
+clogged by brush, weeds, and other d&eacute;bris, or destroyed by passing
+wagons, and it is therefore better, when the space permits, to have the
+side ditches above referred to, even if the road be built with a road
+machine.</p>
+
+<p>In order to have a good road it is just as necessary that water should
+not be allowed to attack the substructure from below as that it should
+not be permitted to percolate through it from above. Especially is the
+former provision essential in cold climates, where, if water is allowed
+to remain in the substructure, the whole roadway is liable to become
+broken up and destroyed by frost and the wheels of vehicles. Therefore,
+where the road runs <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>through low wet lands or over certain kinds of
+clayey soils, surface drainage is not all that is necessary. Common side
+drains catch surface water and surface water only. Isaac Potter says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Many miles of road are on low, flat lands and on springy
+soils, and thousands of miles of prairie roads are, for many
+weeks in the year, laid on a wet subsoil. In all such cases,
+and, indeed, in every case where the nature of the ground is
+not such as to insure quick drainage, the road may be vastly
+benefited by under drainage. An under drain clears the soil
+of surplus water, dries it, warms it, and makes impossible
+the formation of deep, heavy, frozen crusts, which are found
+in every undrained road when the severe winter weather
+follows the heavy fall rains. This crust causes nine-tenths
+of the difficulties of travel in the time of sudden or
+long-continued thaws.</p>
+
+<p>"Roads constructed over wet undrained lands are always
+difficult to manage and expensive to maintain, and they are
+liable to be broken up in wet weather or after frosts. It
+will be much cheaper in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>long run to go to the expense
+of making the drainage of the subjacent soil and
+substructure as perfect as possible. There is scarcely an
+earth road in the United States which cannot be so improved
+by surface or subdrainage as to yield benefits to the
+farmers a hundred times greater in value than the cost of
+the drains themselves.</p>
+
+<p>"Under drains are not expensive. On the contrary, they are
+cheap and easily made, and if made in a substantial way and
+according to the rules of common sense a good under drain
+will last for ages. Use the best tools and materials you can
+get; employ them as well as you know how, and wait results
+with a clear conscience. Slim fagots of wood bound together
+and laid lengthwise at the bottom of a carefully graded
+drain ditch will answer fairly well if stone or drain tile
+cannot be had, and will be of infinite benefit to a dirt
+road laid on springy soils."</p></div>
+
+<p>Subdrains should be carefully graded with a level at the bottom to a
+depth of about four feet, and should have a continuous fall throughout
+their entire length of at least six inches for each one hundred <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>feet in
+length. If tile drains cannot be had, large, flat stones may be
+carefully placed so as to form a clear, open passage at the bottom for
+the flow of the water. The ditch should then be half filled with rough
+field stones, and on these a layer of smaller stones or gravel and a
+layer of sod, hay, gravel, cinders, or straw, or, if none of these can
+be had, of soil. If field stones or drain tile cannot be procured,
+satisfactory results may be attained by the use of logs and brush.</p>
+
+<p>If there be springs in the soil which might destroy the stability of the
+road, they should, if possible, be tapped and the water carried under or
+along the side until it can be turned away into some side channel. Such
+drains may be made of bundles of brush, field stones, brick, or drain
+tiles. They should be so protected by straw, sod, or brush as to prevent
+the soil from washing in and clogging them.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the roads in this country are of necessity constructed of earth,
+while in a few of the richer and more enterprising communities the most
+important thoroughfares are surfaced with gravel, shell, stones, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>or
+other materials. Unless some new system for the improvement of public
+roads is adopted, the inability of rural communities to raise funds for
+this purpose will necessarily cause the construction of hard roads to be
+very gradual for some time to come. Until this new system is adopted the
+most important problem will be that of making the most of the roads
+which exist, rather than building new ones of specially prepared
+materials. The natural materials and the funds already available must be
+used with skill and judgment in order to secure the best results. The
+location, grades, and drainage having been treated in the preceding
+pages, the next and most important consideration is that of constructing
+and improving the various kinds of roads.</p>
+
+<p>Of earth roads, as commonly built, it suffices to say that their present
+conditions should not be tolerated in communities where there are any
+other materials with which to improve them. Earth is the poorest of all
+road materials, aside from sand, and earth roads require more attention
+than any other kind of roads, and as a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>rule get less. At best, they
+possess so many defects that they should have all the attention and care
+of which their condition is susceptible. With earth alone, however, a
+very passable road can be made, provided the principles of location,
+drainage, and shape of surface, together with that of keeping the
+surface as smooth and firm as possible by rolling, be strictly adhered
+to. In fact a good earth road is second to none for summer travel and
+superior to many of the so-called macadam or stone roads.</p>
+
+<p>"Water is the great road destroyer," and too much attention cannot be
+given to the surface and subdrainage of earth roads. The material of
+which their surfaces are composed is more susceptible to the action of
+water and more easily destroyed by it than any other highway material.
+Drainage alone will often change a bad road into a good one, while on
+the other hand the best road may be destroyed by the absence of good
+drains.</p>
+
+<p>The same can be said of rolling, which is a very important matter in
+attempting to build or maintain a satisfactory earth road. If loose
+earth is dumped into the middle of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>the road and consolidated by
+traffic, the action of the narrow-tired wheels cuts it or rolls it into
+uneven ruts and ridges, which hold water, and ultimately results, if in
+the winter season, in a sticky, muddy surface, or if it be in dry
+weather, in covering the surface with several inches of dust. If,
+however, the surface be prepared with a road machine and properly rolled
+with a heavy roller, it can usually be made sufficiently firm and smooth
+to sustain the traffic without rutting, and resist the penetrating
+action of the water. Every road is made smoother, harder, and better by
+rolling. Such rolling should be done in damp weather, or if that is not
+possible, the surface should be sprinkled if the character of the soil
+requires such aid for its proper consolidation.</p>
+
+<p>In constructing new earth roads all stumps, brush, vegetable matter,
+rocks, and bowlders should be removed from the surface and the resulting
+holes filled in with suitable material, carefully and thoroughly tamped
+or rolled, before the road embankment is commenced. No perishable
+material should be used in forming the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>permanent embankments. Where
+possible the longitudinal grade should be kept down to one foot in
+thirty feet, and should under no circumstances exceed one in twenty,
+while that from center to sides should be maintained at one foot in
+twenty feet.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever the subgrade soil is found unsuitable it should be removed and
+replaced with good material rolled to a bearing, <i>i.e.</i>, so as to be
+smooth and compact. The roadbed, having been brought to the required
+grade and crown, should be rolled several times to compact the surface.
+All inequalities discovered during the rolling should be leveled up and
+rerolled. On the prepared subgrade, the earth should be spread, harrowed
+if necessary, and then rolled to a bearing by passing the unballasted
+road roller a number of times over every portion of the surface of the
+section.</p>
+
+<p>In level countries and with narrow roads, enough material may be
+excavated to raise the roadway above the subgrade in forming the side
+ditches by means of road machines. If not, the required earth should be
+obtained by widening the side excavations, or from cuttings on the line
+of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>new roadway, or from pits close by, elevating graders and modern
+dumping or spreading wagons being preferably used for this purpose. When
+the earth is brought up to the final height, it is again harrowed, then
+trimmed by means of road levelers or road machines and ultimately rolled
+to a solid and smooth surface with road rollers gradually increased in
+weight by the addition of ballast.</p>
+
+<p>No filling should be brought up in layers exceeding nine inches in
+depth. During the rolling, sprinkling should be attended to wherever the
+character of the soil requires such aid. The cross section of the
+roadway must be maintained during the last rolling stage by the addition
+of earth as needed. On clay soils a layer of sand, gravel, or ashes
+spread on the roadway will prevent the sticking of the clay to the
+roller. As previously explained, the finishing touches to the road
+surface should be given by a heavy roller.</p>
+
+<p>Before the earth road is opened to traffic, deep and wide side ditches
+should be constructed, with a fall throughout their entire length of at
+least one in one hundred and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>twenty. They should be cleaned and left
+with the drain tiling connections, if any, in good working order.</p>
+
+<p>Clay soils, as a rule, absorb water quite freely and soften when
+saturated, but water does not readily pass through them; hence they are
+not easily subdrained. When used alone, clay is the least desirable of
+all road materials, but roads constructed over clay soils may be treated
+with sand or small gravel, from which a comparatively hard and compact
+mass is formed which is nearly impervious to water. Material of this
+character found in the natural state, commonly known as hardpan, makes,
+when properly applied, a very solid and durable surface. In soil
+composed of a mixture of sand, gravel, and clay, all that is necessary
+to make a good road of its kind is to "crown" the surface, keep the ruts
+and hollows filled, and the ditches open and free.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep115" id="imagep115"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep115.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep115.jpg" width="75%" alt="Sand Clay Road in Richland County, South Carolina" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">Sand Clay Road in Richland County, South Carolina</p>
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;">[<i>Sand soil with nine inches of clay and two inches cover of sand</i>]</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Roads are prone to wear in ruts, and when hollows and ruts begin to make
+their appearance on the surface of an earth road great care should be
+used in selecting new material, with which they should be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>immediately
+filled, because a hole which could have been filled at first with a
+shovel full of material would soon need a cart full. It should, if
+possible, be of a gravelly nature, entirely free from vegetable earth,
+muck, or mold. Sod or turf should not be placed on the surface, neither
+should the surface be renewed by throwing upon it the worn-out material
+from the gutters alongside. The last injunction, if rightly observed and
+the proper remedy applied, would doubtless put an end to the deplorable
+condition of thousands of miles of earth roads in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>A road-maker should not go to the other extreme and fill up ruts and
+holes with stone or large gravel. In many cases it would be wiser to
+dump such material in the river. These stones do not wear uniformly with
+the rest of the material, but produce bumps and ridges, and in nearly
+every case result in making two holes instead of one. Every hole or rut
+in a roadway, if not tamped full of some good material like that of
+which the road is constructed, will become filled with water, and
+finally with mud and water, and will be dug <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>deeper and wider by each
+passing vehicle.</p>
+
+<p>The work of maintaining earth roads will be much increased by lack of
+care in properly finishing the work. The labor and money spent in
+rolling a newly-made road may save many times that amount of labor and
+money in making future repairs. After the material has been placed it
+should not be left for the traffic to consolidate, or for the rains to
+wash off into the ditches, but should be carefully formed and surfaced,
+and then, if possible, rolled. The rolling not only consolidates the
+material, but puts the roadbed in proper shape for travel immediately.
+If there is anything more trying on man or beast than to travel over an
+unimproved road, it must be to travel over one which has just been
+"worked" by the antiquated methods now in vogue in many of the states.</p>
+
+<p>The traveled way should never be repaired by the use of plows or scoops.
+The plow breaks up the compact surface which age and traffic have made
+tolerable. Earth roads can be rapidly repaired by a judicious use of
+road machines and road rollers. The road machine places the material
+where it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>is most needed, and the roller compacts and keeps it there.
+The labor-saving machinery now manufactured for road-building is just as
+effectual and necessary as the modern mower, self-binder, and thrasher.
+Road graders and rollers are the modern inventions necessary to
+permanent and economical construction. Two men with two teams can build
+more road in one day with a grader and roller than fifty men can with
+picks and shovels, and do it more uniformly and more thoroughly.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless the best way to keep an earth road, or any road, for that
+matter, in repair is by the use of wide tires on all wagons carrying
+heavy burdens. Water and narrow tires aid each other in destroying
+streets, macadam, gravel, and earth roads. Narrow tires are also among
+the most destructive agents to the fields, pastures, and meadows of
+farms, while on the other hand wide tires are road-makers; they roll and
+harden the surface, and every loaded wagon becomes in effect a road
+roller. Nothing so much tends to the improving of a road as the
+continued rolling of its surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>Tests recently made at the experiment stations in Utah and Missouri show
+that wide tires not only improve the surface of roads, but that under
+ordinary circumstances less power is required to pull a wagon on which
+wide tires are used. The introduction in recent years of a wide metallic
+tire which can be placed on any narrow-tired wheel at the cost of two
+dollars each, has removed one very serious objection to the proposed
+substitution of broad tires for the narrow ones now in use.</p>
+
+<p>Repairs on earth roads should be attended to particularly in the spring
+of the year, but the great mistake of letting all the repairs go until
+that time should rot be made. The great want of the country road is
+daily care, and the sooner we do away with the system of "working out"
+our road taxes, and pay such taxes in money, the sooner will it be
+possible to build improved roads and to hire experts to keep them
+constantly in good repair. Roads could then secure attention when such
+attention is most needed. If they are repaired only annually or
+semiannually they are seldom in good condition but <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>when they are given
+daily or weekly care they are almost always in good condition, and,
+moreover, the second method costs far less than the first. A portion of
+all levy tax money raised for road purposes should be used in buying
+improved road machinery, and in constructing each year a few miles of
+improved stone or gravel roads.</p>
+
+<p>The only exceptions to the instructions given on road drainage are found
+in the attempt to improve a sand road. The more one improves the
+drainage of a sand road the more deplorable becomes its condition.
+Nothing will ruin one quicker than to dig a ditch on each side and drain
+all the water away. The best way to make such a road firm is to keep it
+constantly damp. Very bushy or shady trees alongside such roads prevent
+the evaporation of water.</p>
+
+<p>The usual way of mending roads which run over loose sandy soils is to
+cover the surface with tough clay or mix the clay and sand together.
+This is quite an expensive treatment if the clay has to be transported a
+great distance, but the expense may be reduced by improving only eight
+or ten feet or half of the roadway.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>Any strong, fibrous substance, and especially one which holds moisture,
+such as the refuse of sugar cane or sorghum, and even common straw,
+flax, or swamp grass, will be useful. Spent tan is of some service, and
+wood fiber in any form is excellent. The best is the fibrous sawdust
+made in sawing shingles by those machines which cut lengthwise of the
+fiber into the side of the block. Sawdust is first spread on the road
+from eight to ten inches deep, and this is covered with sand to protect
+the road against fire lighted from pipes or cigars carelessly thrown or
+emptied on the roadbed. The sand also keeps the sawdust damp. The dust
+and sand soon become hard and packed, and the wheels of the heaviest
+wagons make but little impression upon the surface. The roadbed appears
+to be almost as solid as a plank road, but is much easier for the teams.
+The road prepared in this manner will remain good for four or five years
+and will then require renewing in some parts. The ordinary lumber
+sawdust would not be so good, of course, but if mixed with planer
+shavings might serve fairly well.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>Roads built of poles or logs laid across the roadway are called corduroy
+roads, because of their corrugated or ribbed appearance. Like earth
+roads, they should never be built where it is possible to secure any
+other good material; but, as is frequently the case in swampy, timbered
+regions, other material is unavailable, and as the road would be
+absolutely impassable without them at certain seasons of the year, it is
+well to know how to make them. Roads of this character should be fifteen
+or sixteen feet wide, so as to enable wagons to pass each other. Logs
+are superior to poles for this purpose and should be used if possible.
+The following in regard to the construction of corduroy roads is from
+Gilmore's <i>Roads, Streets, and Pavements</i>:</p>
+
+<p>"The logs are all cut the same length, which should be that of the
+required width of the road, and in laying them down such care in
+selection should be exercised as will give the smallest joints or
+openings between them. In order to reduce as much as possible the
+resistance to draft and the violence of the repeated shocks to which
+vehicles are subjected upon these <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>roads, and also to render its surface
+practicable for draft animals, it is customary to level up between the
+logs with smaller pieces of the same length but split to a triangular
+cross section. These are inserted with edges downward in the open
+joints, so as to bring their surface even with the upper sides of the
+large logs, or as nearly so as practicable.</p>
+
+<p>"Upon the bed thus prepared a layer of brushwood is put, with a few
+inches in thickness, with soil or turf on top to keep it in place. This
+completes the road. The logs are laid directly upon the natural surface
+of the soil, those of the same or nearly of the same diameter being kept
+together, and the top covering of soil is excavated from side ditches.</p>
+
+<p>"Cross drains may usually be omitted in roads of this kind, as the
+openings between the logs, even when laid with utmost care, will furnish
+more than ample water way for drainage from the ditch on the upper to
+that on the lower side of the road. When the passage of a creek of
+considerable volume is to be provided for, and in localities subject to
+freshets, cross drains or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>culverts are made wherever necessary by the
+omission of two or more logs, the openings being bridged with planks,
+split rails, or poles laid transversely to the axis of the road and
+resting on cross beams notched into the logs on either side."</p>
+
+<p>The essential requirement of a good road is that it should be firm and
+unyielding at all times and in all kinds of weather, so that its surface
+may be smooth and impervious to water. Earth roads at best fulfil none
+of these requirements, unless they be covered with some artificial
+material. On a well-made gravel road one horse can draw twice as large a
+load as he can on a well-made earth road. On a hard smooth stone road
+one horse can pull as much as four horses will on a good earth road. If
+larger loads can be hauled and better time made on good hard roads than
+on good earth ones, the area and the number of people benefited are
+increased in direct proportion to the improvement of their surface.
+Moreover, it is evident that a farm four or five miles from the market
+or shipping point located on or near a hard road is virtually nearer the
+market than <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>one situated only two or three miles away, but located on a
+soft and yielding road. Hard roads are divided here into three
+classes&mdash;gravel, shell, and stone.</p>
+
+<p>Although it is impracticable, and in many cases impossible, for
+communities to build good stone roads, a surface of gravel may
+frequently be used to advantage, giving far better results than could be
+attained by the use of earth alone. Where beds of good gravel are
+available this is the simplest, cheapest, and most effective method of
+improving country roads.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep127" id="imagep127"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep127.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep127.jpg" width="75%" alt="Gravel Road near Soldiers' Home, D.C." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="smcap">Gravel Road near Soldiers' Home, District of Columbia</span></p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In connection with the building and maintenance of gravel roads the most
+important matter to consider is that of selecting the proper material. A
+small proportion of argillaceous sand, clayey, or earthy matter
+contained in some gravel enables it to pack readily and consolidate
+under traffic or the road roller. Seaside and river gravel, which is
+composed usually of rounded, waterworn pebbles, is unfit for surfacing
+roads. The small stones of which they are composed, having no angular
+projections or sharp edges, easily move or slide against each other, and
+will not <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>bind together, and even when mixed with clay may turn
+freely, causing the whole surface to be loose, like materials in a
+shaken sieve.</p>
+
+<p>Inferior qualities of gravel can sometimes be used for foundations; but
+where it becomes necessary to employ such material even for that purpose
+it is well to mix just enough sandy or clayey loam to bind it firmly
+together. For the wearing surface or the top layer the pebbles should,
+if possible, be comparatively clean, hard, angular, and tough, so that
+they will readily consolidate and will not be easily pulverized by the
+impact of traffic, into dust and mud. They should be coarse, varying in
+size from half an inch to an inch and one-half.</p>
+
+<p>Where blue gravel or hardpan and clean bank gravel are procurable, a
+good road may be made by mixing the two together. Pit gravel or gravel
+dug from the earth as a rule contains too much earthy matter. This may,
+however, be removed by sifting. For this purpose two sieves are
+necessary, through which the gravel should be thrown. The meshes of one
+sieve should <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>be one and one-half or two inches in diameter, while the
+meshes of the other should be three-fourths of an inch. All pebbles
+which will not go through the one and one-half inch meshes should be
+rejected or broken so that they will go through. All material which
+sifts through the three-fourths inch meshes should be rejected for the
+road, but may be used in making side paths. The excellent road which can
+be built from materials prepared in this way is so far superior to the
+one made of the natural clayey material that the expense and trouble of
+sifting is many times repaid.</p>
+
+<p>The best gravel for road-building stands perpendicular in the bank; that
+is, when the pit has been opened up the remainder stands compact and
+firm and cannot be dislodged except by use of the pick, and when it
+gives way falls in great chunks or solid masses. Such material usually
+contains tough angular gravel with just enough cementing properties to
+enable it to readily pack and consolidate, and requires no further
+treatment than to place it properly on the prepared roadbed.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>Some earth roads may be greatly improved by covering the surface with a
+layer of three or four inches of gravel, and sometimes even a thinner
+layer may prove of very great benefit if kept in proper repair. The
+subsoil of such roadway ought, however, to be well drained, or of a
+light and porous nature. Roads constructed over clay soils require a
+layer of at least six inches of gravel. The gravel must be deep enough
+to prevent the weight of traffic forcing the surface material into weak
+places in the clay beneath, and also to prevent the surface water from
+percolating through and softening the clay and causing the whole roadway
+to be torn up.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to a lack of knowledge regarding construction, indifference, or
+carelessness in building or improving, roads made of gravel are often
+very much worse than they ought to be. Some of them are made by simply
+dumping the material into ruts, mud holes, or gutter-like depressions,
+or on unimproved foundation, and are left thus for traffic to
+consolidate, while others are made by covering the surface with inferior
+material without any attention being paid <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>to the fundamental principles
+of drainage. As a result of such thoughtless and haphazard methods the
+road usually becomes rougher and more completely covered with holes than
+before.</p>
+
+<p>In constructing a gravel road the roadbed should first be brought to the
+proper grade. Ordinarily an excavation is then made to the depth of
+eight to ten inches, varying in width with the requirements of traffic.
+For a farm or farming community the width need not be greater than ten
+or twelve feet. A roadway which is too wide is not only useless, but the
+extra width is a positive damage. Any width beyond that needed for the
+traffic is not only a waste of money in constructing the road, but is
+the cause of a never-ending expense in maintaining it. The surface of
+the roadbed should preferably have a fall from the center to the sides
+the same as that to be given the finished road, and should, if possible,
+be thoroughly rolled and consolidated until perfectly smooth and firm.</p>
+
+<p>A layer, not thicker than four inches, of good gravel, such as that
+recommended above, should then be spread evenly over <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>the prepared
+roadbed. Such material is usually carried upon a road in wheelbarrows or
+dump carts, and then spread in even layers with rakes, but the latest
+and best device for this purpose is a spreading cart.</p>
+
+<p>If a roller cannot be had, the road is thrown open to traffic until it
+becomes fairly well consolidated; but it is impossible properly to
+consolidate materials by the movement of vehicles over the road, and if
+this means is pursued constant watchfulness is necessary to prevent
+unequal wear and to keep the surface smooth and free from ruts. The work
+may be hastened and facilitated by the use of a horse roller or light
+steam roller; and of course far better results can be accomplished by
+this means. If the gravel be too dry to consolidate easily it should be
+kept moist by sprinkling. It should not, however, be made too wet, as
+any earthy or clayey matter in the gravel is liable to be dissolved.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the first layer has been properly consolidated, a second,
+third, and, if necessary, fourth layer, each three or four inches in
+thickness, is spread on and treated <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>in the same manner, until the road
+is built up to the required thickness and cross section. The thickness
+in most cases need not be greater than ten or twelve inches, and the
+fall from the center to the sides ought not to be greater than one foot
+in twenty feet, or less than one in twenty-five.</p>
+
+<p>The last or surface layer should be rolled until the wheels of heavily
+loaded vehicles passing over it make no visible impression. If the top
+layer is deficient in binding material and will not properly
+consolidate, a thin layer, not exceeding one inch in thickness, of sand
+or gravelly loam or clay, should be evenly spread on and slightly
+sprinkled if in dry weather, before the rolling is begun. Hardpan or
+stone screenings are much preferred for this purpose if they can be had.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of material to spread under the roller and work toward the
+sides can be resisted by rolling that portion nearest the gutters first.
+To give the surface the required form and to secure uniform density, it
+is necessary at times to employ men with rakes to fill any depressions
+which may form.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>In order to maintain a gravel road in good condition, it is well to keep
+piles of gravel alongside at frequent intervals, so that the person who
+repairs the road can get the material without going too far for it. As
+soon as ruts or holes appear on the surface some of this good fresh
+material should be added and tamped into position or kept raked smooth
+until properly consolidated.</p>
+
+<p>If the surface needs replenishing or rounding up, as is frequently the
+case with new roads after considerable wear, the material should be
+applied in sections or patches, raked and rolled until hard and smooth.</p>
+
+<p>Care must be taken that the water from higher places does not drain upon
+or run across the road. The side ditches, culverts, and drains should be
+kept open and free from d&eacute;bris.</p>
+
+<p>In many of the Eastern and Southern States road stones do not exist;
+neither is it possible to secure good coarse gravel. No such material
+can be secured except at such an expense for freight as to practically
+preclude its use for road-building. Oyster <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>shells can be secured
+cheaply in most of these states, and when applied directly upon sand or
+sandy soil, eight or ten inches in thickness, they form excellent roads
+for pleasure driving and light traffic. Shells wear much more rapidly
+than broken stone or gravel of good quality, and consequently roads made
+of them require more constant attention to keep them in good order. In
+most cases they should have an entirely new surface every three or four
+years. When properly maintained they possess many of the qualities found
+in good stone or gravel roads, and so far as beauty is concerned they
+cannot be surpassed.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest obstacles to good stone road construction in most places in
+the United States are the existing methods of building and systems of
+management, whereby millions of dollars are annually wasted in improper
+construction or in making trifling repairs on temporary structures.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep137" id="imagep137"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep137.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep137.jpg" width="75%" alt="Oyster-shell Object-lesson Road" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="smcap">Oyster-shell Object-lesson Road</span></p>
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%">[<i>In course of construction, near Mobile, Alabama</i>]</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The practice of using too soft, too brittle, or rotten material on roads
+cannot be too severely condemned. Some people seem to think that if a
+stone quarries easily, breaks easily, and packs readily, it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>is the
+very best stone for road-building. This practice, together with that of
+placing the material on unimproved foundations and leaving it thus for
+traffic to consolidate, has done a great deal to destroy the confidence
+of many people in stone roads. There is no reason in the world why a
+road should not last for ages if it is built of good material and kept
+in proper repair. If this is not done, the money spent is more than
+wasted. It is more economical, as a rule, to bring good materials a long
+distance by rail or water than to employ inferior ones procured close at
+hand.</p>
+
+<p>The durability of roads depends largely upon the power of the materials
+of which they are composed to resist those natural and artificial forces
+which are constantly acting to destroy them. The fragments of which they
+are constructed are liable to be attacked in cold climates by frost, and
+in all climates by water and wind. If composed of stone or gravel, the
+particles are constantly grinding against each other and being exposed
+to the impact of the tires of vehicles and the feet of animals.
+Atmospheric agencies are also at work <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>decomposing and disintegrating
+the material. It is obviously necessary, therefore, that great care be
+exercised in selecting for the surfacing of roads those stones which are
+less liable to be destroyed or decomposed by these physical, dynamical,
+and chemical forces.</p>
+
+<p>Siliceous materials, those composed of flint or quartz, although hard,
+are brittle and deficient in toughness. Granite is not desirable because
+it is composed of three materials of different natures, viz., quartz,
+feldspar, and mica, the first of which is brittle, the second liable to
+decompose rapidly, and the third laminable or of a scaly or layerlike
+nature. Some granites which contain hornblende instead of feldspar are
+desirable. The darker the variety the better. Gneiss, which is composed
+of quartz, feldspar, and mica, more or less distinctly slaty, is
+inferior to granite. Mica-slate stones are altogether useless. The
+argillaceous slates or clayey slates make a smooth surface, but one
+which is easily destroyed when wet. The sandstones are utterly useless
+for road-building. The tougher limestones are very good, but <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>the softer
+ones, though they bind and make a smooth surface very quickly, are too
+weak for heavy loads; they wear, wash, and blow away very rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>The materials employed for surfacing roads should be both hard and
+tough, and should possess by all means cementing and recementing
+qualities. For the Southern States, where there are no frosts to contend
+with, the best qualities of limestone are considered quite satisfactory
+so far as the cementing and recementing qualities are concerned; but in
+most cases roads of this class of material do not stand the wear and
+tear of traffic like those built of trap rock, and when exposed to the
+severe northern winters such material disintegrates very rapidly. In
+fact, trap rock, "nigger heads," technically known as diabase, and
+diorites, are considered by most road engineers of long experience to be
+the very best stones for road-building. Trap rocks as a rule possess all
+the qualities most desired for road stones. They are hard and tough, and
+when properly broken to small sizes and rolled thoroughly, cement and
+consolidate into a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>smooth, hard crust which is impervious to water, and
+the broken particles are so heavy that they are not readily broken or
+washed away.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the most useful stones for road-building are the most
+difficult to prepare, and as trap rocks are harder to break than any
+other stones they usually cost more. The foundation or lower courses may
+be formed of some of the softer stones like gneiss or limestone, but
+trap rock should be used for the wearing surface, if possible, even if
+it has to be brought from a distance.</p>
+
+<p>As to the construction of macadam roads, Mr. Potter says:</p>
+
+<p>"In the construction of a macadam road in any given locality, the
+question of economy generally compels us to use a material found near at
+hand, and where a local quarry does not exist field stone and stone
+gathered from the beds of rivers and small streams may often be made to
+serve every purpose. Many of the stones and boulders thus obtained are
+of trap rock, and in general it may be said that all hard field and
+river stones, if broken to a proper <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>size, will make fairly good and
+sometimes very excellent road metal. No elaborate test is required to
+determine the hardness of any given specimen. A steel hammer in the
+hands of an intelligent workman will reveal in a general way the
+relative degree of toughness of two or more pieces of rock. Field and
+river stone offer an additional advantage in that they are quickly
+handled, are generally of convenient size, and are more readily broken
+either by hand or by machine than most varieties of rock which are
+quarried in the usual way.</p>
+
+<p>"It is a simple task to break stone for macadam roadways, and by the aid
+of modern inventions it can be done cheaply and quickly. Hand-broken
+stone is fairly out of date and is rarely used in America where any
+considerable amount of work is to be undertaken. Stone may be broken by
+hand at different points along the roadside where repairs are needed
+from time to time, but the extra cost of production by this method
+forbids its being carried on where extended work is undertaken.
+Hand-broken stone is generally more uniform in size, more nearly cubical
+in shape, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>and has sharper angles than that broken by machinery, but the
+latter, when properly assorted or screened, has been found to meet every
+requirement.</p>
+
+<p>"A good crusher driven by eight horsepower will turn out from forty to
+eighty cubic yards of two-inch stone per day of ten hours, and will cost
+from four hundred dollars upward, according to quality.</p>
+
+<p>"Some crushers are made either stationary, semistationary, or portable,
+according to the needs of the purchaser, and for country-road work it is
+sometimes very desirable to have a portable crusher to facilitate its
+easy transfer from one part of the township to another. The same
+portable engine that is used in thrashing, sawing wood, and other
+operations requiring the use of steam power may be used in running a
+stone crusher, but it is best to remember that a crusher will do its
+best and most economical work when run by a machine having a horsepower
+somewhat in excess of the power actually required.</p>
+
+<p>"As the stone comes from the breaker the pieces will be found to show a
+considerable variety in size, and by many <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>practical road-makers it is
+regarded as best that these sizes should be assorted and separated,
+since each has its particular use. To do this work by hand would be
+troublesome and expensive, and screens are generally employed for that
+purpose. Screens are not absolutely necessary, and many road-makers do
+not use them; but they insure uniformity in size of pieces, and
+uniformity means in many cases superior wear, smoothness, and economy.
+Most of the screens in common use today are of the rotary kind. In
+operating they are generally so arranged that the product of the crusher
+falls directly into the rotary screen, which revolves on an inclined
+axis and empties the separate pieces into small bins below the crusher.
+A better form for many purposes includes a larger and more elaborate
+outfit, in which the stone is carried by an elevator to the screen and
+by the screen emptied into separate bins according to the respective
+sizes. From the bins it is easily loaded into wagons or spreading carts
+and hauled to any desired point along the line of the road.</p>
+
+<p>"The size to which stone should be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>broken depends upon the quality of
+the stone, the amount of traffic to which the road will be subjected,
+and to some extent upon the manner in which the stone is put in place.
+If a hard, tough stone is employed it may be broken into rough cubes or
+pieces of about one and a half inches in largest face dimensions, and
+when broken to such a size the product of the crusher may generally be
+used to good advantage without the trouble of screening, since dust
+'tailings' and fine stuff do not accumulate in large quantities in the
+breaking of the tougher stone.</p>
+
+<p>"If only moderate traffic is to be provided for, the harder limestones
+may be broken so the pieces will pass through a two-inch ring, though
+sizes running from two and a quarter to two and a half inches will
+insure a more durable roadway, and if a steam roller is used in
+compacting the metal it will be brought to a smooth surface without much
+trouble. As a rule, it may be said that to adhere closely to a size
+running from two and a quarter to two and a half inches in largest face
+dimensions, and to use care in excluding too large a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>proportion of
+small stuff as well as all pieces of excessive size, will insure a
+satisfactory and durable macadam road."</p>
+
+<p>Macadam insisted that no large stone should ever be employed in
+road-making, and, indeed, most modern road builders practice his
+principle that "small angular fragments are the cardinal requirements."
+As a general rule it has been stated that no stone larger than a walnut
+should be used for the surfacing of roads.</p>
+
+<p>Stone roads are built in most cases according to the principles laid
+down by John L. Macadam, while some are built by the methods advocated
+by Telford. The most important difference between these two principles
+of construction relates to the propriety or necessity of a paved
+foundation beneath the crust of broken stone. Telford advocated this
+principle, while Macadam strongly denied its advantages.</p>
+
+<p>In building roads very few iron-clad rules can be laid down for
+universal application; skill and judgment must be exercised in designing
+and building each road so that it will best meet the requirements of the
+place it is to occupy. The relative <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>value of the telford and macadam
+systems can most always be determined by the local circumstances,
+conditions, and necessities under which the road is to be built. The
+former system seems to have the advantage in swampy, wet places, or
+where the soil is in strata varying in hardness, or where the foundation
+is liable to get soft in spots. Under most other circumstances
+experienced road builders prefer the macadam construction, not only
+because it is considered best, but also because it is much cheaper.</p>
+
+<p>The macadam road consists of a mass of angular fragments of rock
+deposited usually in layers upon the roadbed or prepared foundation and
+consolidated to a smooth, hard surface produced by the passage of
+vehicles or by use of a road roller. The thickness of this crust varies
+with the soil, the nature of the stone used, and the amount of traffic
+which the road is expected to have. It should be so thick that the
+greatest load will not affect the foundation. The weight usually comes
+upon a very small part of the surface, but is spread over a large area
+of the foundation, and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>thicker the crust the more uniformly will
+the load be distributed over the foundation.</p>
+
+<p>Macadam earnestly advocated the principle that all artificial
+road-building depended wholly for its success upon the making and
+maintaining of a solid dry foundation and the covering of this
+foundation with a durable waterproof coating or roof of broken stone.
+The foundation must be solid and firm; if it be otherwise the crust is
+useless. A road builder should always remember that without a durable
+foundation there is no durable road. Hundreds of miles of macadam roads
+are built in the United States each year on unimproved or unstable
+foundations and almost as many miles go to pieces for this same reason.
+Says Macadam:</p>
+
+<p>"The stone is employed to form a secure, smooth, water-tight flooring,
+over which vehicles may pass with safety and expedition at all seasons
+of the year. Its thickness should be regulated only by the quality of
+the material necessary to form such a flooring and not at all by any
+consideration as to its own independent power <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>of bearing weight.... The
+erroneous idea that the evils of an underdrained, wet, clayey soil can
+be remedied by a large quantity of materials has caused a large part of
+the costly and unsuccessful expenditures in making stone roads."</p>
+
+<p>The evils from improper construction of stone roads are even greater
+than those resulting from the use of improper material. Macadam never
+intended that a heterogeneous conglomeration of stones and mud should be
+called a macadam road. The mistake is often made of depositing broken
+stone on an old road without first preparing a suitable foundation. The
+result, in most cases, is that the dirt and mud prevent the stone from
+packing and by the action of traffic ooze to the surface, while the
+stones sink deeper and deeper, leaving the road as bad as before.</p>
+
+<p>Another great mistake is often made of spreading large and small stones
+over a well-graded and well-drained foundation and leaving them thus for
+traffic to consolidate. The surface of a road left in this manner is
+often kept in constant turmoil by the larger stones, which work
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>themselves to the surface and are knocked hither and thither by the
+wheels of vehicles and the feet of animals. These plans of construction
+cannot be too severely condemned.</p>
+
+<p>The roadbed should be first graded, then carefully surface-drained. The
+earth should then be excavated to the depth to which material is to be
+spread on and the foundation properly shaped and sloped each way from
+the center so as to discharge any water which may percolate through.
+This curvature should conform to the curvature of the finished road. A
+shouldering of firm earth or gravel should be left or made on each side
+to hold the material in place, and should extend to the gutters at the
+same curvature as the finished road. The foundation should then be
+rolled until hard and smooth.</p>
+
+<p>Upon this bed spread a layer of five or six inches of broken stone,
+which stone should be free from any earthy mixture. This layer should be
+thoroughly rolled until compact and firm. Stone may be hauled from the
+stone-crusher bins or from the stone piles in ordinary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>wheelbarrows or
+from wagons, and should be distributed broadcast over the surface with
+shovels, and all inequalities leveled up by the use of rakes. If this
+method of spreading is employed, grade stakes should be used so as to
+insure a uniformity of thickness. After the stakes are driven the height
+of the layer is marked on their sides, and if thought necessary a piece
+of stout cord is stretched from stake to stake, showing the exact height
+to which the layer should be spread. Spreading carts have been recently
+invented which not only place the stone where it is needed without the
+use of shovels, but spread it on in layers of any desired thickness and
+at the same time several inches wider than the carts themselves.</p>
+
+<p>If the stones have been separated into two or three different sizes, the
+largest size should compose the bottom layer, the next size the second
+layer, etc. The surface of each course or layer should be thoroughly and
+repeatedly rolled and sprinkled until it becomes firm, compact, and
+smooth. The first layer, however, should not be sprinkled, as the water
+is liable to soften <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>the foundation. The rolling ought to be done along
+the side lines first, gradually working toward the center as the job is
+being completed. In rolling the last course it is well to begin by
+rolling first the shoulderings or the side roads if such exist.</p>
+
+<p>A coat of three-quarter inch stone and screenings, of sufficient
+thickness to make a smooth and uniform surface, should compose the last
+course, and, like the other layers, should be rolled until perfectly
+firm and smooth. As a final test of perfection, a small stone placed on
+the surface will be crushed before being driven into the material.</p>
+
+<p>If none of the stones used be larger than will pass through a two-inch
+ring, they can be spread on in layers as above described without
+separating them by screens. Water and binding material&mdash;stone screenings
+or good packing gravel&mdash;can be added if found necessary for proper
+consolidation. Earth or clay should never be used for a binding
+material. Enough water should be sprinkled on to wash in and fill all
+voids between the broken stones <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>with binding material and to leave such
+material damp enough to insure a set.</p>
+
+<p>If a road is built of tough, hard stone, and if the binding material has
+the same characteristics, a steam roller is essential for speedy
+results. A horse roller may be used to good advantage if the softer
+varieties of stone are employed. For general purposes a roller weighing
+from eight to twelve tons is all that is necessary. Heavier weights are
+difficult to handle upon unimproved surfaces unless they be constructed
+like the Addison roller, the weight of which can be increased or
+lightened at will by filling the drum with water or drawing the water
+out. This roller can be made to weigh as much as eight tons and, like
+several other very excellent ones now on the market, is provided with
+anti-friction roller bearings, which lighten the draft considerably.</p>
+
+<p>Every stone road, unless properly built with small stones and just
+enough binding material to fill the voids, presents a honeycombed
+appearance. In fact, a measure containing two cubic feet of broken stone
+will hold in addition one cubic foot of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>water, and a cubic yard of
+broken macadam will weigh just about one-half as much as a solid cubic
+yard of the same kind of stone. Isaac Potter says:</p>
+
+<p>"To insure a solid roadway and to fill the large proportion of voids or
+interstices between the different pieces of broken stone, some finer
+material must be introduced into the structure of the roadway, and this
+material is usually called a binder, or by some road-makers a 'filler.'</p>
+
+<p>"There used to be much contention regarding the use of binding material
+in the making of a macadam road, but it is now conceded by nearly all
+practical and experienced road-makers, both in Europe and America, that
+the use of a binding material is essential to the proper construction of
+a good macadam road. It adds to its solidity, insures tightness by
+closing all of the spaces between the loose, irregular stones, and binds
+together the macadam crust in a way that gives it firmness, elasticity,
+and durability."</p>
+
+<p>Binding material to produce the best results should be equal in hardness
+and toughness with the road stone; the best <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>results are therefore
+obtained by using screenings or spalls from the broken stone used.
+Coarse sand and gravel can sometimes be used with impunity as a binder,
+but the wisdom of using loam or clay is very much questioned. When the
+latter material is used for a binder the road is apt to become very
+dusty in dry weather, and sticky, muddy, and rutty in wet weather.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the foundation should never take the place of proper
+drainage. The advisability of underground or subdrainage should always
+be carefully considered where the road is liable to be attacked from
+beneath by water. In most cases good subdrains will so dry the
+foundation out that the macadam construction can be resorted to.
+Sometimes, however, thorough drainage is difficult or doubtful, and in
+such cases it is desirable to adopt some heavy construction like the
+telford; and, furthermore, the difficulty of procuring perfectly solid
+and reliable roadbeds in many places is often overcome by the use of
+this system.</p>
+
+<p>In making a telford road the surface for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>the foundation is prepared in
+the same manner as for a macadam road. A layer of broken stone is then
+placed on the roadbed from five to eight inches in depth, depending upon
+the thickness to be given the finished road. As a rule this foundation
+should form about two-thirds of the total thickness of the material. The
+stone used for the first layer may vary in thickness from two to four
+inches and in length from eight to twelve inches. The thickness of the
+upper edges of the stones should not exceed four inches. They are set by
+hand on their broadest edges lengthwise across the road, breaking joints
+as much as possible. All projecting points are then broken off and the
+interstices or cracks filled with stone chips, and the whole structure
+wedged and consolidated into a solid and complete pavement. Upon this
+pavement layers of broken stones are spread and treated in the same way
+as for a macadam road.</p>
+
+<p>Stone roads should be frequently scraped, so as to remove all dust and
+mud. Nothing destroys a stone road quicker than dust or mud. The hand
+method of scraping <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>with a hoe is considered best. No matter how
+carefully adjusted the machinery built for this purpose may be, it is
+liable to ravel a road by loosening some of the stones. The gutters and
+surface drains should be kept open, so that all water falling upon the
+road or on the adjacent ground may promptly flow away. Says Spalding, a
+road authority:</p>
+
+<p>"If the road metal be of soft material which wears easily, it will
+require constant supervision and small repairs whenever a rut or
+depression may appear. Material of this kind binds readily with new
+material that may be added, and may in this manner frequently be kept in
+good condition without great difficulty, while if not attended to at
+once when wear begins to show it will very rapidly increase, to the
+great detriment of the road. In making repairs by this method the
+material is commonly placed a little at a time and compacted by passing
+vehicles. The material used for this purpose should be the same as that
+of the road surface and not fine material, which would soon reduce to
+powder under the loads which come upon it. By careful <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>attention to
+minute repairs in this manner a surface may be kept in good condition
+until it wears so thin as to require renewal.</p>
+
+<p>"In case the road be of harder material, that will not so readily
+combine when a thin coating is added, repairs may not be frequent, as
+the surface will not wear so rapidly, and immediate attention is not so
+important. It is usually more satisfactory in this case to make more
+extensive repairs at one time, as a larger quantity of material added at
+once may be more readily compacted to a uniform surface, the repairs
+taking the form of an additional layer upon the road.</p>
+
+<p>"Where the material of the road surface is very hard and durable, a
+well-constructed road may wear quite evenly and require hardly any
+attention, beyond ordinary small repairs, until worn out. It is now
+usually considered the best practice to leave such a road to itself
+until it wears very thin, and then renew it by an entirely new layer of
+broken stone placed on the worn surface and without in any way
+disturbing that surface.</p>
+
+<p>"If a thin layer only of material is to be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>added at one time, in order
+that it may unite firmly with the upper layer of the road, it is usually
+necessary to break the bond of the surface material before placing the
+new layer, either by picking it up by hand or by a steam roller with
+short spikes in its surface, if such a machine is at hand. Care should
+be taken in doing this, however, that only the surface layer be loosened
+and that the solidity of the body of the road be not disturbed, as might
+be the case if the spikes are too long."</p>
+
+<p>In repairing roads the time-honored custom of waiting until the road has
+lost its shape or until the surface has become filled with holes or ruts
+should never be tolerated. Much good material is wasted by spreading a
+thick coat over such a road and leaving it thus for passing vehicles to
+consolidate. The material necessary to replace defects in a road should
+be added when the necessities arise and should be of the best quality
+and the smallest possible quantity. If properly laid in small patches
+the inconvenience to traffic will be scarcely perceptible. If such
+repairs are made in damp weather, as they ought <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>to be, little or no
+difficulty is experienced in getting a layer of stone to consolidate
+properly. If mud fills the rut or hole to be repaired, it should be
+carefully removed before the material is placed.</p>
+
+<p>Wide tires should be used on all heavy vehicles which traverse stone
+roads. A four or five inch stone or gravel road will last longer without
+repair when wide tires are used than an eight or ten inch road of the
+same material on which narrow tires are used.</p>
+
+<p>Not only should brush and weeds be removed from the roadside, but grass
+should be sown, trees planted, and a side path or walk be prepared for
+the use of pedestrians, especially women and children, going to and
+coming from church, school, and places of business and amusement.
+Country roads can be made far more useful and attractive than they
+usually are, and this may be secured by the expenditure of only a small
+amount of labor and money. Although such improvements are not necessary,
+they make the surroundings attractive and inviting and add to the value
+of property and the pleasure of the traveler.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>If trees are planted alongside the road they should be far enough back
+to admit the wind and sun. Most strong growing trees are apt to extend
+their roots under the gutters and even beneath the roadway if they are
+planted too close to the roadside. Even if they be planted at a safe
+distance those varieties should be selected which send their roots
+downward rather than horizontally. The most useful and beautiful tree
+corresponding with these requirements is the chestnut, while certain
+varieties of the pear, cherry, and mulberry answer the same purpose.
+Where there is no danger of roots damaging the subdrainage or the
+substructure of the road, some other favorite varieties would be elms,
+rock maples, horse-chestnuts, beeches, pines, and cedars. Climate,
+variety of species selected, and good judgment will determine the
+distance between such trees. Elms should be thirty feet apart, while the
+less spreading varieties need not be so far. The trunks should be
+trimmed to a considerable height, so as to admit the sun and air. Fruit
+trees are planted along the roadsides in Germany and Switzerland, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>while
+mulberry trees may be seen along the roads in France, serving the
+twofold purpose of food for silkworms and shade. If some of our many
+varieties of useful, fruitful, and beautiful trees were planted along
+the roads in this country, and if some means could be devised for
+protecting the product, enough revenue could be derived therefrom to pay
+for the maintenance of the road along which they throw their grateful
+shade.</p>
+
+<p>The improvement of country roads is chiefly an economical question,
+relating principally to the waste of effort in hauling over bad roads,
+the saving in money, time, and energy in hauling over good ones, the
+initial cost of improving roads, and the difference in the cost of
+maintaining good and bad ones. It is not necessary to enlarge on this
+subject in order to convince the average reader that good roads reduce
+the resistance to traffic, and consequently the cost of transportation
+of products and goods to and from farms and markets is reduced to a
+minimum.</p>
+
+<p>The initial cost of a road depends upon the cost of materials, labor,
+machinery, the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>width and depth to which the material is to be spread
+on, and the method of construction. All these things vary so much in the
+different states that it is impossible to name the exact amount for
+which a mile of a certain kind of road can be built.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction in recent years of improved road-building machinery has
+enabled the authorities in some of the states to build improved stone
+and gravel roads quite cheaply. First-class single-track stone roads,
+nine feet wide, have been built near Canandaigua, New York, for $900 to
+$1,000 per mile. Many excellent gravel roads have been built in New
+Jersey for $1,000 to $1,300 per mile. The material of which they were
+constructed was placed on in two layers, each being raked and thoroughly
+rolled, and the whole mass consolidated to a thickness of eight inches.
+In the same state macadam roads have been built, for $2,000 to $5,000
+per mile, varying in width from nine to twenty feet and in thickness of
+material from four to twelve inches. Telford roads fourteen feet wide
+and ten to twelve inches thick have been built in New Jersey for $4,000
+to $6,000 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>per mile. Macadam roads have been built at Bridgeport and
+Fairfield, Connecticut, eighteen to twenty feet wide, for $3,000 to
+$5,000 per mile. A telford road sixteen feet wide and twelve inches
+thick was built at Fanwood, New Jersey, for $9,500 per mile. Macadam
+roads have been built in Rhode Island, sixteen to twenty feet wide, for
+$4,000 to $5,000 per mile.</p>
+
+<p>Massachusetts roads are costing all the way from $6,000 to $25,000 per
+mile. A mile of broken stone road, fifteen feet wide, costs in the state
+of Massachusetts about $5,700 per mile, while a mile of the same width
+and kind of road costs in the state of New Jersey only $4,700. This is
+due partly to the fact that the topography of Massachusetts is somewhat
+rougher than that of New Jersey, necessitating the reduction of many
+steep grades and the building of expensive retaining walls and bridges,
+and partly to the difference in methods of construction and the
+difference in prices of materials, labor, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless the state of New Jersey is building more roads and better
+roads for less money per mile than any other state <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>in the Union. Its
+roads are now costing from twenty to seventy cents per square yard.
+Where the telford construction is used they sometimes cost as much as
+seventy-three cents per square yard. The average cost of all classes of
+the roads of that state during the last season was about fifty cents per
+square yard. The stone was, as a rule, spread on to a depth of nine
+inches, which, after rolling, gave a depth of about eight inches. At
+this rate a single-track road eight feet wide costs about $2,346 per
+mile, while a double-track road fourteen feet wide costs about $4,106
+per mile, and one eighteen feet wide costs about $5,280 per mile. Where
+the material is spread on so as to consolidate to a four-inch layer the
+eight-foot road will cost about $1,173 per mile, the fourteen-foot road
+about $2,053 per mile, while the one eighteen feet wide will cost about
+$2,640 per mile.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep168" id="imagep168"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+<a href="images/imagep168.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep168.jpg" width="75%" alt="Earth and Macadam Roads" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="smcap">Earth and Macadam Roads</span></p>
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;">[<i>Built by convict labor in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina</i>]</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The total cost of maintaining roads in good order ranges, on account of
+varying conditions, between as wide limits almost as the initial cost of
+construction. Suffice it to say that all money spent on repairing earth
+roads becomes each year a total loss <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>without materially improving
+their condition. They are, as a rule, the most expensive roads that can
+be used, while on the other hand stone roads, if properly constructed of
+good material and kept in perfect condition, are the most satisfactory,
+the cheapest, and most economical roads that can be constructed.</p>
+
+<p>The road that will best suit the needs of the farmer, in the first
+place, must not be too costly; and, in the second place, must be of the
+very best kind, for farmers should be able to do their heavy hauling
+over them when their fields are too wet to work and their teams would
+otherwise be idle.</p>
+
+<p>The best road for the farmer, all things being considered, is a solid,
+well-built stone road, so narrow as to be only a single track, but
+having a firm earth road on one or both sides. Where the traffic is not
+very extensive the purposes of good roads are better served by narrow
+tracks than by wide ones, while many of the objectionable features of
+wide tracks are removed, the initial cost of construction is cut down
+one-half or more, and the charges for repair reduced in proportion.</p>
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTE:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> By Hon. Maurice O. Eldridge, Assistant Director Office of
+Public Road Inquiries.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h2>THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>No one rock can be said to be a universally excellent road material. The
+climatic conditions vary so much in different localities, and the volume
+and character of traffic vary so much on different roads, that the
+properties necessary to meet all the requirements can be found in no one
+rock. If the best macadam road be desired, that material should be
+selected which best meets the conditions of the particular road for
+which it is intended.</p>
+
+<p>The movement for better country roads which has received such an impetus
+from the bicycle organizations is still felt, and is gaining force from
+the rapid introduction of horseless vehicles. To this demand, which
+comes in a large measure <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>from the urban population, is to be added that
+of the farmer, who is wakening to the fact that good roads greatly
+increase the profits from his farm produce, and thus materially better
+his condition; and to the farmer, indeed, we must look for any real
+improvement in our country roads.</p>
+
+<p>In considering the comparative values of different rocks for
+road-building, it must be taken for granted in all cases that the road
+is properly laid out, constructed, and maintained. For if this is not
+the case, only inferior results can be expected, no matter how good the
+material may be.</p>
+
+<p>In most cases the selection of a material for road-making is determined
+more by its cheapness and convenience of location than by any properties
+it may possess. But when we consider the number of roads all over our
+country which are bad from neglect and from obsolete methods of
+maintenance that would be much improved by the use of any rock, this
+regard for economy is not to be entirely deprecated. At the same time,
+as a careless selection leads to costly and inferior results, too much
+care cannot be used in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>selecting the proper material when good roads
+are desired at the lowest cost. When macadam roads are first introduced
+into a district they are at worst so far superior to the old earth roads
+that the question is rarely asked, whether, if another material had been
+used, better roads would not have been obtained, and this at a smaller
+cost. When mistakes are made they are not generally discovered until
+much time and money have been expended on inferior roads. Such errors
+can in a great measure be avoided if reasonable care is taken in the
+selection of a suitable material. To select a material in a haphazard
+way, without considering the needs of the particular road on which it is
+to be used, is not unlike an ill person taking the nearest medicine at
+hand, without reference to the nature of the malady or the properties of
+the drug. If a road is bad, the exact trouble must first be ascertained
+before the proper remedy can be applied. If the surface of a macadam
+road continues to be too muddy or dusty after the necessary drainage
+precautions have been followed, then the rock of which it is constructed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>lacks sufficient hardness or toughness to meet the traffic to which it
+is subjected. If, on the contrary, the fine binding material of the
+surface is carried off by wind and rain and is not replaced by the wear
+of the coarser fragments, the surface stones will soon loosen and allow
+water to make its way freely to the foundation and bring about the
+destruction of the road. Such conditions are brought about by an excess
+of hardness or toughness of the rock for the traffic. Under all
+conditions a rock of high cementing value is desirable; for, other
+things being equal, such a rock better resists the wear of traffic and
+the action of wind and rain. This subject, however, will be referred to
+again.</p>
+
+<p>Until comparatively recent years but little was known of the relative
+values of the different varieties of rock as road material, and good
+results were obtained more by chance and general observation than
+through any special knowledge of the subject. These conditions, however,
+do not obtain at present, for the subject has received a great deal of
+careful study, and a fairly accurate estimate can be made of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>the
+fitness of a rock for any conditions of climate and traffic.</p>
+
+<p>In road-building the attempt should be made to get a perfectly smooth
+surface, not too hard, too slippery, or too noisy, and as free as
+possible from mud and dust, and these results are to be attained and
+maintained as cheaply as possible. Such results, however, can only be
+had by selecting the material and methods of construction best suited to
+the conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In selecting a road material it is well to consider the agencies of
+destruction to roads that have to be met. Among the most important are
+the wearing action of wheels and horses' feet, frost, rain, and wind. To
+find materials that can best withstand these agencies under all
+conditions is the great problem that confronts the road-builder.</p>
+
+<p>Before going further, it will be well to consider some of the physical
+properties of rock which are important in road-building, for the value
+of a road material is dependent in a large measure on the degree to
+which it possesses these properties. There are many such properties that
+affect <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>road-building, but only three need be mentioned here. They are
+hardness, toughness, and cementing or binding power.</p>
+
+<p>By hardness is meant the power possessed by a rock to resist the wearing
+action caused by the abrasion of wheels and horses' feet. Toughness, as
+understood by road-builders, is the adhesion between the crystal and
+fine particles of a rock, which gives it power to resist fracture when
+subjected to the blows of traffic. This important property, while
+distinct from hardness, is yet intimately associated with it, and can in
+a measure make up for a deficiency in hardness. Hardness, for instance,
+would be the resistance offered by a rock to the grinding of an emery
+wheel; toughness, the resistance to fracture when struck with a hammer.
+Cementing or binding power is the property possessed by the dust of a
+rock to act, after wetting, as a cement to the coarser fragments
+composing the road, binding them together and forming a smooth,
+impervious shell over the surface. Such a shell, formed by a rock of
+high cementing value, protects the underlying material from wear <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>and
+acts as a cushion to the blows from horses' feet, and at the same time
+resists the waste of material caused by wind and rain, and preserves the
+foundation by shedding the surface water. Binding power is thus,
+probably, the most important property to be sought for in a
+road-building rock, as its presence is always necessary for the best
+results. The hardness and toughness of the binder surface more than of
+the rock itself represents the hardness and toughness of the road, for
+if the weight of traffic is sufficient to destroy the bond of
+cementation of the surface, the stones below are soon loosened and
+forced out of place. When there is an absence of binding material, which
+often occurs when the rock is too hard for the traffic to which it is
+subjected, the road soon loosens or ravels.</p>
+
+<p>Experience shows that a rock possessing all three of the properties
+mentioned in a high degree does not under all conditions make a good
+road material; on the contrary, under certain conditions it may be
+altogether unsuitable. As an illustration of this, if a country road or
+city park way, where only a light traffic prevails, were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>built of a
+very hard and tough rock with a high cementing value, neither the best,
+nor, if a softer rock were available, would the cheapest results be
+obtained. Such a rock would so effectively resist the wear of a light
+traffic that the amount of fine dust worn off would be carried away by
+wind and rain faster than it would be supplied by wear. Consequently the
+binder supplied by wear would be insufficient, and if not supplied from
+some other source the road would soon go to pieces. The first cost of
+such a rock would in most instances be greater than that of a softer one
+and the necessary repairs resulting from its use would also be very
+expensive.</p>
+
+<p>A very good illustration of this point is the first road built by the
+Massachusetts Highway Commission. This road is on the island of
+Nantucket and was subjected to a very light traffic. The commission
+desired to build the best possible road, and consequently ordered a very
+hard and tough trap rock from Salem, considered then to be the best
+macadam rock in the state. Delivered on the road this rock cost $3.50
+per ton, the excessive price being due to the cost of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>transportation.
+The road was in every way properly constructed, and thoroughly rolled
+with a steam roller; but in spite of every precaution it soon began to
+ravel, and repeated rolling was only of temporary benefit, for the rock
+was too hard and tough for the traffic. Subsequently, when the road was
+resurfaced with limestone, which was much softer than the trap, it
+became excellent. Since then all roads built on the island have been
+constructed of native granite bowlders with good results, and at a much
+lower cost.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, this hard and tough rock, which gave such poor results at
+Nantucket, were used on a road where the traffic was sufficient to wear
+off an ample supply of binder, very much better results would be
+obtained than if a rock lacking both hardness and toughness were used;
+for, in the latter case, the wear would be so great that ruts would be
+formed which would prevent rain water draining from the surface. The
+water thus collecting on the surface would soon make its way to the
+foundation and destroy the road. The dust in dry weather would also be
+excessive.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>Only two examples of the misuse of a road material have been given, but,
+as they represent extreme conditions, it is easy to see the large number
+of intermediate mistakes that can be made, for there are few rocks even
+of the same variety that possess the same physical properties in a like
+degree. The climatic and physical conditions to which roads are
+subjected are equally varied. The excellence of a road material may,
+therefore, be said to depend entirely on the conditions which it is
+intended to meet.</p>
+
+<p>It may be well to mention a few other properties of rock that bear on
+road-building, though they will not be discussed here. There are some
+rocks, such as limestones, that are hygroscopic, or possess the power of
+absorbing moisture from the air, and in dry climates such rocks are
+distinctly valuable, as the cementation of rock dust is in a large
+measure dependent for its full development on the presence of water. The
+degree to which a rock absorbs water may also be important, for in cold
+climates this to some extent determines the liability of a rock to
+fracture by freezing. It is not so <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>important, however, as the
+absorptive power of the road itself, for if a road holds much water the
+destruction wrought by frost is very great. This trouble is generally
+due to faulty construction rather than to the material. The density or
+weight of a rock is also considered of importance, as the heavier the
+rock the better it stays in place and the better it resists the action
+of wind and rain.</p>
+
+<p>Only a few of the properties of rock important to road builders have
+been considered, but if these are borne in mind when a material is to be
+selected better results are sure to be obtained. In selecting a road
+material the conditions to which it is to be subjected should first be
+considered. These are principally the annual rainfall, the average
+winter temperature, the character of prevailing winds, the grades, and
+the volume and character of the traffic that is to pass over the road.
+The climatic conditions are readily obtained from the Weather Bureau,
+and a satisfactory record of the volume and character of the traffic can
+be made by any competent person living in view of the road.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>In France the measuring of traffic has received a great deal of
+attention, and a census is kept for all the national highways. The
+traffic there is rated and reduced to units in the following manner: A
+horse hauling a public vehicle or cart loaded with produce or
+merchandise is considered as the unit of traffic. Each horse hauling an
+empty cart or private carriage counts as one-half unit; each horse, cow,
+or ox, unharnessed, and each saddle horse, one-fifth unit; each small
+animal (sheep, goat, or hog), one-thirtieth unit.</p>
+
+<p>A record is made of the traffic every thirteenth day throughout the
+year, and an average taken to determine its mean amount. Some such
+general method of classifying traffic in units is desirable, as it
+permits the traffic of a road to be expressed in one number.</p>
+
+<p>Before this French method can be applied to the traffic of our country
+it will be necessary to modify considerably the mode of rating. This,
+however, is a matter which can be studied and properly adjusted by the
+Office of Public Road Inquiries. It is most important to obtain a record
+of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>average number of horses and vehicles and kind of vehicles that
+pass over an earth road in a day before the macadam road is built. The
+small cost of such a record is trifling when compared with the cost of a
+macadam road (from $4,000 to $10,000 per mile for a fifteen-foot road),
+in view of the fact that an error in the selection of material may cost
+a much larger sum of money. After a record of the traffic is obtained,
+if the road is to be built of crushed rock for the first time, an
+allowance for an immediate increase in traffic amounting at least to ten
+or fifteen per cent had best be made, for the improved road generally
+brings traffic from adjoining roads.</p>
+
+<p>To simplify the matter somewhat, the different classes of traffic to
+which roads are subjected may be divided into five groups, which may be
+called city, urban, suburban, highway, and country road traffic,
+respectively. City traffic is a traffic so great that no macadam road
+can withstand it, and is such as exists on the business streets of large
+cities. For such a traffic stone and wood blocks, asphalt, brick, or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>some such materials are necessary. Urban traffic is such as exists on
+city streets which are not subjected to continuous heavy teaming, but
+which have to withstand very heavy wear, and need the hardest and
+toughest macadam rock. Suburban traffic is such as is common in the
+suburbs of a city and the main streets of country towns. Highway traffic
+is a traffic equal to that of the main country roads. Country road
+traffic is a traffic equal to that of the less frequented country roads.</p>
+
+<p>The city traffic will not be considered here. For an urban traffic, the
+hardest and toughest rock, or in other words, a rock of the highest
+wearing quality that can be found, is best. For a suburban traffic the
+best rock would be one of high toughness but of less hardness than one
+for urban traffic. For highway traffic a rock of medium hardness and
+toughness is best. For country road traffic it is best to use a
+comparatively soft rock of medium toughness. In all cases high cementing
+value should be sought, and especially if the locality is very wet or
+windy.</p>
+
+<p>Rocks belonging to the same species and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>having the same name, such as
+traps, granites, quartzites, etc., vary almost as much in different
+localities in their physical road-building properties as they do from
+rocks of distinct species. This variation is also true of the mineral
+composition of rocks of the same species, as well as in the size and
+arrangement of their crystals. It is impossible, therefore, to classify
+rocks for road-building by simply giving their specific names. It can be
+said, however, that certain species of rock possess in common some
+road-building properties. For instance, the trap<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> rocks as a class are
+hard and tough and usually have binding power, and consequently stand
+heavy traffic well; and for this reason they are frequently spoken of as
+the best rocks for road-building. This, however, is not always true, for
+numerous examples can be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>shown where trap rock having the above
+properties in the highest degree has failed to give good results on
+light traffic roads. The reason trap rock has gained so much favor with
+road-builders is because a large majority of macadam roads in our
+country are built to stand an urban traffic, and the traps stand such a
+traffic better than any other single class of rocks. There are, however,
+other rocks that will stand an urban traffic perfectly well, and there
+are traps that are not sufficiently hard and tough for a suburban or
+highway traffic. The granites are generally brittle, and many of them do
+not bind well, but there are a great many which when used under proper
+conditions make excellent roads. The felsites are usually very hard and
+brittle, and many have excellent binding power, some varieties being
+suitable for the heaviest macadam traffic. Limestones generally bind
+well, are soft, and frequently hygroscopic. Quartzites are almost always
+very hard, brittle, and have very low binding power. The slates are
+usually soft, brittle, and lack binding power.</p>
+
+<p>The above generalizations are of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>necessity vague, and for practical
+purposes are of little value, since rocks of the same variety occurring
+in different localities have very wide ranges of character. It
+consequently happens in many cases, particularly where there are a
+number of rocks to choose from, that the difficulty of making the best
+selection is great, and this difficulty is constantly increasing with
+the rapidly growing facilities of transportation and the increased range
+of choice which this permits. On account of their desirable road
+properties some rocks are now shipped several hundred miles for use.</p>
+
+<p>There are but two ways in which the value of a rock as a road material
+can be accurately determined. One way, and beyond all doubt the surest,
+is to build sample roads of all the rocks available in a locality, to
+measure the traffic and wear to which they are subjected, and keep an
+accurate account of the cost both of construction and annual repairs for
+each. By this method actual results are obtained, but it has grave and
+obvious disadvantages. It is very costly (especially so when the results
+are negative), and it requires so great <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>a lapse of time before results
+are obtained that it cannot be considered a practical method when
+macadam roads are first being built in a locality. Further than this,
+results thus obtained are not applicable to other roads and materials.
+Such a method, while excellent in its results, can only be adopted by
+communities which can afford the necessary time and money, and is
+entirely inadequate for general use.</p>
+
+<p>The other method is to make laboratory tests of the physical properties
+of available rocks in a locality, study the conditions obtaining on the
+particular road that is to be built, and then select the material that
+best suits the conditions. This method has the advantages of giving
+speedy results and of being inexpensive, and as far as the results of
+laboratory tests have been compared with the results of actual practice
+they have been found to agree.</p>
+
+<p>Laboratory tests on road materials were first adopted in France about
+thirty years ago, and their usefulness has been thoroughly established.
+The tests for rock there are to determine its degree of hardness,
+resistance to abrasion, and resistance <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>to compression. In 1893 the
+Massachusetts Highway Commission established a laboratory at Harvard
+University for testing road materials. The French abrasion test was
+adopted, and tests for determining the cementing power and toughness of
+rock were added. Since then similar laboratories have been established
+at Johns Hopkins University, Columbia University, Wisconsin Geological
+Survey, Cornell University, and the University of California.</p>
+
+<p>The Department of Agriculture has now established a road-material
+laboratory in the Division of Chemistry, where any person residing in
+the United States may have road materials tested free by applying for
+instructions to the Office of Public Road Inquiries. The laboratory is
+equipped with the apparatus necessary for carrying on such work, and the
+Department intends to carry on general investigations on roads. Part of
+the general plan will be to make tests on actual roads for the purpose
+of comparing the results with those obtained in the laboratory.</p>
+
+<p>Besides testing road materials for the public, blank forms for recording
+traffic <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>will be supplied by the department to any one intending to
+build a road. When these forms are filled and returned to the
+laboratory, together with the samples of materials available for
+building the road, the traffic of the road will be rated in its proper
+group, as described above; each property of the materials will be tested
+and similarly rated according to its degree, the climatic conditions
+will be considered, and expert advice given as to the proper choice to
+be made.</p>
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> By Logan Waller Page, expert in charge of Road Material
+Laboratory, Division of Chemistry.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> This term is derived from the Swedish word <i>trappa</i>,
+meaning steps, and was originally applied to the crystallized basalts of
+the coast of Sweden, which much resemble steps in appearance. As now
+used by road builders, it embraces a large variety of igneous rocks,
+chiefly those of fine crystalline structure and of dark-blue, gray, and
+green colors. They are generally diabases, diorites, trachytes, and
+basalts.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Page.</span></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h2>STONE ROADS IN NEW JERSEY<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></h2>
+
+
+<p>As New Jersey contains a great variety of soils, there are many
+conditions to be met with in road construction. The northern part of the
+state is hilly, where we have clay, soft stone, hard stones, loose
+stones, quicksand, and marshes. In the eastern part of the state,
+particularly in the seashore sections, the roads are at their worst in
+summer in consequence of loose, dry sand, which sometimes drifts like
+snow. In west New Jersey, which comprises the southern end of the state,
+there is much loose, soft sand, considerable clay, marshes, and low
+lands not easily drained.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the condition of the soil, there is the economic
+condition to be considered. In the vicinity of large towns or <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>cities,
+where there is heavy carting by reason of manufactories and produce
+marketing, it is necessary to have heavy, thick, substantial roads,
+while in more rural districts and along the seashore, where the travel
+is principally by light carriages, a lighter roadbed construction is
+preferred. In rural districts, where the roads are used for immediate
+neighborhood purposes, an inexpensive road is desirable. The main
+thoroughfares have to be constructed with a view to considerable
+increase of travel, as farmers in the outlying districts who formerly
+devoted their time to grazing of stock, raising of grain, etc., find it
+more profitable to change the mode of farming to that of truck raising,
+fruit growing, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The road engineers of New Jersey find that they cannot follow old paths
+and make their roads after one style or pattern. Technical engineering
+in road construction must yield to the practical, common-sense plan of
+action. An engineer with plenty of money and material at hand can
+construct a good road almost anywhere and meet any condition, but with
+limited resources and a variety of physical conditions <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>he has to "cut
+the garment to suit the cloth." We start out with this dilemma. We must
+have better roads, and our means for getting them being very limited, if
+we cannot get them as good as we would like, let us get them as good as
+we can.</p>
+
+<p>Let me give a practical illustration. Stone-road construction outside of
+turnpike corporations in West Jersey was begun in the spring of 1891. I
+was called on by the township committee of Chester Township, Burlington
+County, to construct some roads. Moorestown is a thriving town of about
+three thousand inhabitants in the center of the township. The roads to
+be constructed, with one exception, ran out of the town to the township
+limits, being from one-half to three miles in length. The roads were
+generally for local purposes. There were ten roads, aggregating about
+eleven miles. The bonding of the township was voted upon, and it was
+necessary, in order to carry the bonding project of $40,000, to have all
+these roads constructed of stone macadam. The roads to be improved were
+determined on at a town meeting without consulting an engineer as to the
+cost, etc., <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>so that the plain question submitted to me was, Can you
+construct eleven miles of stone road nine feet wide for $40,000? The
+conditions to be met were these: There was no stone suitable for
+road-building nearer than from sixty to eighty miles; cost of freight,
+about seventy-five cents per ton; the hauls from the railroad siding
+averaged about one and three-quarter miles; price of teams in summer,
+when farmers were busy, about $3.50 per day. In preparation for road
+construction there were several hills to be cut from one to three feet;
+causeways and embankments to be made over wet and swampy ground. For
+this latter work the property holders and others interested along the
+road agreed to furnish teams, the township paying for laborers. The next
+difficulty was the kind of a road to build. As the width was fixed at
+nine feet as a part of the conditions for bonding, there seemed only one
+way left to apply the economics&mdash;that was, in the depth of the roads.</p>
+
+<p>On the dry, sandy soils I put the macadam six inches deep; this depth
+was applied to about six miles of road. On roads <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>where the heaviest
+travel would come the roadbed was made eight inches deep. On soils
+having springs and on embankments over causeways the depth was ten
+inches with stone foundation, known as telford. Where springs existed,
+they were cut off by underdrains.</p>
+
+<p>It had been the practice of engineers in their specifications to call
+for the best trap rock for all the stone construction. As this rock is
+hard to crush and difficult to be transported some seventy or eighty
+miles to this part of New Jersey, I found that in order to construct all
+of the road from this best material it would take more money than the
+bonds would provide; so I had half of the depth which forms the
+foundation made of good dry sedimentary rock. Of course, in this there
+is considerable slate, but the breaking is not nearly so costly as the
+breaking of syenite or Jersey trap rock, and there was a saving of
+thirty per cent. As the surface of the road had to take all the wear, I
+required the best trap rock for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Since the construction of these roads in Chester Township, roads are now
+built <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>under the state-aid act by county officials and paid for as
+follows: One-third by the state, ten per cent by the adjoining property
+holders, and the balance (56-2/3 per cent) by the county. The roads
+constructed under this act are generally leading roads and those mostly
+traversed by heavy teams. They are constructed similarly to those in
+Chester Township, excepting that they are generally twelve feet wide and
+from ten to twelve inches deep. Many of them have a telford foundation,
+which is now put down at about the same price as macadam, and meets most
+of the conditions better than macadam. The less expensive stone is used
+for foundations, and the best and more costly for surface only. In this
+way the cost of construction has been greatly reduced.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the width, a road nine or ten feet wide has been found to
+be quite as serviceable as one of greater width, unless it is made
+fourteen feet and over. It is not claimed that a narrow road is just as
+good as a wide road, but it has been found better to have the cost in
+length than in width in rural districts. In and near towns, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>where there
+is almost constant passing, the road should not be less than from
+fourteen to twenty feet in width. The difficulty in getting on and off
+the stone road where teams are passing is not so great as is supposed.
+To meet this difficulty in the past, on each side of the road the
+specifications require the contractor to make a shoulder of clay,
+gravel, or other hard earth; this is never less than three feet and
+sometimes six to eight feet in width, according to the kinds of soil the
+road is composed of and the liability of frequent meeting and passing.
+In rural districts the top-dressing of these shoulders is taken from the
+side ditches; grass sods are mixed in when found, and in some cases
+grass seed is sown. As the stone roadbed takes the travel the grass soon
+begins to grow, receiving considerable fertilizing material from the
+washing of the road; and when the sod is once formed the waste material
+from the wear of the road is lodged in the grass sod and the shoulder
+becomes hard and firm, except when the frost is coming out.</p>
+
+<p>Another mode of building a rural road cheaply and still have room for
+passing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>without getting off the stone construction is to make the
+roadbed proper about ten feet wide, ten or twelve inches deep; then have
+wings of macadam on each side three feet wide and five or six inches
+deep. In case ten feet is used the two wings would make the stone
+construction six feet wide. If the road is made considerably higher in
+the center than the sides, as it should be, the travel, particularly the
+loaded teams, will keep in the center, and the wings will only be used
+in passing and should last as long as the thicker part of the road.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation of the road and making it suitable for the stone bed is
+one of the most important parts of road construction. This, once done
+properly, is permanent. Wherever it is possible the hills should be cut
+and low places filled, so that the maximum grade will not exceed five or
+six feet rise in one hundred feet; where hills cannot be reduced to this
+grade without incurring too much expense, the hill, if possible, should
+be avoided by relaying the road in another place.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever stone roads have been constructed it has been found that those
+using <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>them for drawing heavy loads will increase the capacity of their
+wagons so as to carry three or four times the load formerly carried.
+This can easily be done where the road has a maximum grade of not
+greater than five or six per cent, as before stated; but when the grade
+is greater than this the power to be expended on such loads upon such
+grades will exhaust and wear out the horses; thus a supposed saving in
+heavy loading may prove to be a loss.</p>
+
+<p>In the preparation of the road it is necessary to have the ditches wide
+and deep enough to carry all the water to the nearest natural water way.
+These ditches should at all times be kept clear of weeds and trash, so
+that the water will not be retained in pools. Bad roads often occur
+because this important matter is overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>On hills the slope or side grade in construction from center of road to
+side ditches should be increased so as to exceed that of the
+longitudinal grade; that is, if the latter is, say, five per cent, the
+slope to side should be at least six per cent and over.</p>
+
+<p>Where the road in rural districts is on <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>rolling ground and hills do not
+exceed three or four per cent, it is an unnecessary expense to cut the
+small ones, but all short rises should be cut and small depressions
+filled. A rolling road is not objectionable, and besides there is no
+better roadbed for laying on metal than the hard crust formed by
+ordinary travel. In putting on the metal, particularly on narrow roads,
+the roadbed should be "set high;" it will soon get "flat enough." It is
+better to put the shouldering up to the stone than to dig a trench to
+put the stone in. If the road after preparation is about level from side
+to side and the stone or metal construction is to be, say, ten inches
+deep, the sides of the roadbed to receive the metal should be cut about
+three inches and placed on the side to help form the shoulder; the rest
+of the shoulder, when suitable, being taken from the ditches and sides
+in forming the proper slope. The foundation to receive the metal, if the
+natural roadbed is not used and the bed is of soft earth, should be
+rolled until it is hard and compact. It should also conform to the same
+slope as the road when finished from center to sides. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>If the bed or
+foundation is of soft sand rolling will be of little use. In this case
+care must be taken to keep the bed as uniform as possible while the
+stone is being placed on the foundation.</p>
+
+<p>When the road passes through villages and towns the grading should
+reduce the roadbed to a grade as nearly level as possible. It must be
+borne in mind that the side ditches need not necessarily always conform
+to the center grade of the road. When the center grade is level the side
+ditches should be graded to carry off the water. In some cases I have
+found it necessary to run the grade for the side ditches in an opposite
+direction from the grade of the road. This, however, does not often
+occur. The main thing is to get the water off the road as soon as
+possible after it falls, and then not allow it to remain in the ditches.
+And just here the engineer will meet with many difficulties. The
+landowners in rural districts are opposed to having the water from the
+roads let onto their lands, and disputes often arise as to where the
+natural water way is located. This should be determined by the people
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>in the neighborhood, or by the local authorities. I have found in
+several cases, where the water from side ditches was allowed to run on
+the land, that the land was generally benefited by having the soil
+enriched by the fertilizing matter from the road.</p>
+
+<p>After the roadbed has been thoroughly prepared, if made of loam or clay,
+it should be rolled and made as hard and compact as possible. Wherever a
+depression appears it should be filled up and made uniformly hard. Place
+upon it a light coat of loam or fine clay, which will act as a binder.
+If the roller used is not too heavy it may be rolled to advantage, but
+the rolling of this course depends upon the character of the stones. If
+the stones are cubical in form rolling is beneficial, but if they are of
+shale and many of them thin and flat, rolling has a tendency to bring
+the flat sides to the surface. When this is the case the next course of
+fine stone for the surface will not firmly compact and unite with them.</p>
+
+<p>When the foundation is of telford it is important that stones not too
+large should be used. They should not exceed ten inches in length, six
+inches on one side, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>which is laid next to the earth, and four inches on
+top, the depth depending on the thickness of the road. If the thickness
+of the finished road is eight inches, the telford pavement should not
+exceed five inches; if it is ten or more inches deep, then the telford
+could be six inches. It need in no case be greater than this, as this is
+sufficient to form the base or foundation of the metal construction. The
+surface of the telford pavement should be as uniform as possible, all
+projecting points broken off, and interstices filled in with small
+stone. Care should be taken to keep the stone set up perpendicular with
+the roadbed and set lengthwise across the road with joints broken. This
+foundation should be well hammered down with sledge hammers and made
+hard and compact. Upon this feature greatly depends the smoothness of
+the surface of the road and uniform wear. If put down compactly rolling
+is not necessary, and if not put down solid rolling might do it damage
+in causing the large stones to lean and set on their edges instead of on
+the flat sides. I refer to instances where the road is to be ten inches
+and over. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>Then put on a light coat or course of one and one-half inch
+stone, with a light coat of binding, and then put on the roller, thus
+setting the finer stone well with the foundation and compacting the
+whole mass together.</p>
+
+<p>After the macadam or telford foundation is well laid and compacted, the
+surface or wearing stone is put on. If the thickness of the road is
+great enough, say twelve or fourteen inches, this surface stone should
+be put on in courses, say of three and four inches, as may be required
+for the determined thickness of the road. On each course there should be
+applied a binding, but only sufficient to bind the metal together or
+fill up the small interstices. It must be remembered that broken stone
+is used in order to form a compact mass. The sides of the stone should
+come together and not be kept apart by what we call binding material;
+therefore only such quantity should be used as will fill up the small
+interstices made by reason of the irregularity of the stone. Each course
+should be thoroughly rolled to get the metal as compact as possible.
+When the stone construction is made <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>to the required depth or thickness,
+the whole surface should be subjected to a coat of screenings about one
+inch thick. This must be kept damp by sprinkling, and thoroughly rolled
+until the whole mass becomes consolidated and the surface smooth and
+uniform. Before the rolling is finished the shoulders should be made up
+and covered with gravel or other hard earth and dressed off to the side
+ditches. When practicable these should have the same grade or slope as
+the stone construction. This finish should also be rolled and made
+uniform, so that, in order that the water may pass off freely, there
+will be no obstruction between the stone roadbed and side ditches. To
+prevent washes and insure as much hardness as possible on roads in rural
+districts, grass should be encouraged to grow so as to make a stiff sod.</p>
+
+<p>For shouldering, when the natural soil is of soft sand, a stiff clay is
+desirable. When the natural soil is of clay, then gravel or coarse sand
+can be used, covering the whole with the ditch scrapings or other
+fertilizing material, where grass sod is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>desirable. Of course this is
+not desirable in villages and towns.</p>
+
+<p>For binding, what is called garden loam is the best. When this cannot be
+found use any soft clay or earth free from clods or round stones. It
+must be spread on very lightly and uniformly.</p>
+
+<p>Any good dry stone not liable to disintegrate can be used as metal for
+foundation for either telford or macadam construction. For the surface
+it is necessary to have the best stone obtainable. Like the edge of a
+tool, it does the service and must take the wear. As in the tool it pays
+to have the best of steel, so on the road, which is subject to the wear
+and tear of steel horseshoes and heavy iron tires, it is found the
+cheapest to have the best of stone.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to describe the kind of stone that is best. The best is
+generally syenite trap rock, but this term does not give any definite
+idea. The kind used in New Jersey is called the general name of Jersey
+trap rock. It is a gray syenite, and is found in great quantities in a
+range running from Jersey City, on the Hudson River, to a point on the
+Delaware between <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>Trenton and Lambertville. There are quantities of good
+stone lying north of this ledge, but none south of it.</p>
+
+<p>The best is at or near Jersey City. The same kind of stone is found in
+the same ranges of hills in Pennsylvania, but in the general run it is
+not so good. The liability to softness and disintegration increases
+after leaving the eastern part of New Jersey, and while good stone may
+be found, the veins of poorer stone increase as we go south and west.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally believed that the hardest stones are best for road
+purposes, but this is not the case. The hard quartz will crush under the
+wheels of a heavy load. It is toughness in the stone that is necessary;
+therefore a mixed stone, like syenite, is the best. This wears smooth,
+as the rough edges of the stone come in contact with the wheels. It
+requires good judgment based on experience to determine the right kind
+of stone to take the constant wear of horseshoes and wagon tires.</p>
+
+<p>If good roads are desired, the work is not done when the road is
+completed and ready for travel. There are many causes <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>which make
+repairing necessary. I will refer to only a few of them. Stone roads are
+liable to get out of order because of too much water or want of water;
+also, when the natural roadbed is soft and springy and has not been
+sufficiently drained; when water is allowed to stand in ditches and form
+pools along the road, and when the "open winters" give us a
+superabundance of wet. Before the road becomes thoroughly consolidated
+by travel it is liable to become soft and stones get loose and move
+under the wheels of the heavily loaded wagons. In the earth foundation
+on which the stone bed rests the water finds the soft spots. The wheels
+of the loaded teams form ruts, and particularly where narrow tires are
+used.</p>
+
+<p>The work of repair should begin as soon as defects appear, for, if
+neglected, after every rain the depressions make little pools of water
+and hold it like a basin. In every case this water softens the material,
+and the wagon tires and horseshoes churn up the bottoms of the basins.
+This is the beginning of the work of destruction. If allowed to go on,
+the road becomes rough, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>and the wear and tear of the horses and wagons
+are increased. Stone roads out of repair, like any common road in
+similar condition, will be found expensive to those who use and maintain
+them. The way to do is to look over a road after a rain, when the
+depressions and basins will show themselves. Whenever one is large
+enough to receive a shovelful of broken stone, scrape out the soft dirt
+and let it form a ring around the depression. Fill with broken stone to
+about an inch or two above the surface of the road. The ring of dirt
+around will keep the stone above the surface in place, and the passing
+wheels will work it on the broken stone and also act as a binder. The
+whole will work down and become compact and even with the road surface.
+The ruts are treated in the same way. Use one and one-half inch stone
+for this; smaller stones will soon grind up and the hole appear again.</p>
+
+<p>The second cause of the necessity for road repairs is want of water.
+This occurs in summer during hot, dry spells. The surface stone
+"unravels;" that is, becomes loose where the horses travel. This
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>condition is more liable to be found on dry, sandy soils, and where the
+roadbed is subject to the direct rays of the sun, and where the winds
+sweep off all the binding material from the surface. In clay soil there
+is little or no trouble from "unraveling." The cause being found, the
+remedy is applied in this way: Put on water with the sprinkler before
+all the binding material is blown off. If the hot, dry weather
+continues, sprinkling should continue. Do this in the evening or late in
+the afternoon.</p>
+
+<p>The next mode is to repair the road by placing the material back as it
+was originally. The loose stones are placed in the depressions and good
+binding material&mdash;garden loam or fine clay&mdash;is put on, then roll the
+whole repeatedly and dampen by sprinkling as needed until the whole
+surface becomes smooth and hard. Care must be taken that too much
+binding material is not used. If too much is used it will injure the
+road in winter when there is an excess of water.</p>
+
+<p>When a road has been neglected and allowed to become uneven and rough,
+or is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>by constant use worn down to the foundation stones, there should
+be a general repairing. In the first place, if it is the roughness and
+unevenness that is the only defect, this may be remedied by the use of a
+large, heavy roller with steel spikes in its rolling wheels. This will
+puncture the surface so that an ordinary harrow will tear up the surface
+stones. Then take the spikes out of the roller wheels, and, with
+sprinkling and rolling, the roadbed can be repaired and made like a new
+road. But if the cause of the roughness is from wearing away of the
+stone, so that the surface of the road is brought down to or near the
+foundation, then the road needs resurfacing. The mode of treatment is
+the same as in the other case.</p>
+
+<p>In districts where there is stone suitable for road construction the
+county, town, township, or other municipality, proposing to construct
+stone roads, should own a stone quarry and a stone crusher. For grading
+and preparing the road for construction, dressing up sides, clearing out
+side ditches, etc., a good road machine is necessary. For constructing
+roads and repairing them <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>a roller is necessary, the weight depending
+upon the kind of road constructed. If the road is not wide a roller of
+from four to six tons is all the weight necessary. The rolling should be
+continued until compactness is obtained. For wide, heavy roads a steam
+roller of fifteen tons can be used to advantage. A sprinkling wagon
+completes the list that is necessary for the county or town or other
+municipality constructing its own roads.</p>
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTE:</h4>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> By E. G. Harrison, C. E., Secretary New Jersey Road
+Improvement Association.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<h2>Important<br />
+
+Historical Publications<br />
+
+of<br />
+
+The Arthur H. Clark Company</h2>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p class="cen">Full descriptive circulars will be mailed on application</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The most important project ever undertaken in the line of
+Philippine history in any language, above all the English."&mdash;<i>New
+York Evening Post.</i></p></div>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h2><i>The</i> Philippine Islands<br />
+
+1493-1898</h2>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p class="cen">Being the history of the Philippines from their discovery to the present
+time</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>EXPLORATIONS by early Navigators, descriptions of the Islands and their
+Peoples, their History, and records of the Catholic Missions, as related
+in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political,
+economic, commercial, and religious conditions of those Islands from
+their earliest relations with European Nations to the end of the
+nineteenth century.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p><i>Translated, and edited and annotated by</i> <span class="smcap">E. H. Blair</span>, <i>and</i>
+<span class="smcap">J. A. Robertson</span>, <i>with introduction and additional notes by</i>
+<span class="smcap">E. G. Bourne</span>.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>With Analytical Index and Illustrations. Limited edition, fifty-five
+volumes, large 8vo, cloth, uncut, gilt top. Price, $4.00 net per volume.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The almost total lack of acceptable material on Philippine
+history in English gives this undertaking an immediate
+value."</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;<span class="smcap">James A. Le Roy</span> in <i>American Historical Review</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"With our freshened interest in the Far East, American
+readers ought not to neglect the new possessions in that
+region which now fly the Stars and Stripes."</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;<i>Chicago Evening Post.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Now at least there should be no difficulty for the American
+student to gain a clear view of the difficulties which both
+the Spaniards and their successors have had to contend with
+in these islands, when they have this work before them, and
+have not, as formerly, to obtain information from obscure
+Spanish sources, in a language hitherto comparatively little
+studied in the United States, ... welcome to all students of
+the Far East."&mdash;<i>English Historical Review.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="Early_Western_Travels" id="Early_Western_Travels"></a><b>Early Western Travels<br />
+
+1748-1846</b></h2>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>A SERIES OF ANNOTATED REPRINTS of some of the best and rarest
+contemporary volumes of travel, descriptive of the Aborigines and Social
+and Economic Conditions in the Middle and Far West, during the Period of
+Early American Settlement.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Edited, with Historical, Geographical, Ethnological, and
+Bibliographical Notes, and Introductions and Index, by</p></div>
+
+<p class="cen">Reuben Gold Thwaites</p>
+
+<p class="cen">Editor of "The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents,"
+"Wisconsin Historical Collections,"<br />"Chronicles of Border
+Warfare," "Hennepin's New Discovery," etc.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>With facsimiles of the original title-pages, maps, portraits, views,
+etc. 31 volumes, large 8vo, cloth, uncut, gilt tops. Price $4.00 net per
+volume (except the Maximilien Atlas, which is $15.00 net). Limited
+edition; each set numbered and signed.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p class="cen"><i>An Elaborate Analytical Index to the Whole</i></p>
+
+<p>Almost all of the rare originals are without indexes. In the present
+reprint series, this immense mass of historical data will be made
+accessible through one exhaustive analytical index, to occupy the
+concluding volume.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In many cases the records reproduced are so rare that this
+collection will be practically the only resource of the
+student of the original sources of our early history. The
+printing and binding of the edition are handsome and at the
+same time so substantial that the documents reproduced may
+be said to have been rescued once for all time.&mdash;<i>Public
+Opinion.</i></p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="tr">
+<p class="cen"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>Transcriber's Note</p>
+<br />
+
+Some inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in
+the original document has been preserved.<br />
+<br />
+Typographical errors corrected in the text:<br />
+<br />
+
+Page&nbsp;&nbsp; 42&nbsp;&nbsp;ben changed to been<br />
+Page&nbsp;&nbsp; 94&nbsp;&nbsp;surfaceing changed to surfacing<br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Future of Road-making in America, by 
+Archer Butler Hulbert
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+</body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Future of Road-making in America, by
+Archer Butler Hulbert
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Future of Road-making in America
+
+Author: Archer Butler Hulbert
+
+Release Date: September 12, 2010 [EBook #33706]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING IN AMERICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by V. L. Simpson, Barbara Kosker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+HISTORIC HIGHWAYS OF AMERICA
+
+VOLUME 15
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: General Roy Stone
+
+(_Father of the good-roads movement in the United States_)]
+
+
+
+
+ HISTORIC HIGHWAYS OF AMERICA
+
+ VOLUME 15
+
+
+
+
+ The Future of Road-making in America
+
+ A Symposium
+
+ BY
+
+ ARCHER BUTLER HULBERT
+
+ and others
+
+
+
+
+ _With Illustrations_
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+ THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY
+ CLEVELAND, OHIO
+ 1905
+
+
+
+
+ COPYRIGHT, 1905
+ BY
+ THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY
+
+ ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+ PREFACE                                                            11
+
+   I. THE FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING IN AMERICA                          15
+
+  II. GOVERNMENT COOPERATION IN OBJECT-LESSON ROAD WORK             67
+
+ III. GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS                                        81
+
+  IV. THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS                 170
+
+   V. STONE ROADS IN NEW JERSEY                                    190
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    I. PORTRAIT OF GENERAL ROY STONE
+       (father of the good-roads movement
+       in the United States)                            _Frontispiece_
+
+   II. A GOOD-ROADS TRAIN                                           59
+
+  III. SAMPLE STEEL TRACK FOR COMMON ROADS
+       (showing portrait of Hon. Martin Dodge)                      66
+
+   IV. TYPICAL MACADAM ROAD NEAR BRYN MAWR, PENNSYLVANIA            83
+
+    V. A STUDY IN GRADING                                           89
+
+   VI. SAND CLAY ROAD IN RICHLAND COUNTY, SOUTH CAROLINA           115
+
+  VII. GRAVEL ROAD NEAR SOLDIERS' HOME, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA       127
+
+ VIII. OYSTER-SHELL OBJECT-LESSON ROAD                             137
+
+   IX. EARTH AND MACADAM ROADS                                     168
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The present volume on the Future of Road-making in America presents
+representative opinions, from laymen and specialists, on the subject of
+the road question as it stands today.
+
+After the author's sketch of the question as a whole in its sociological
+as well as financial aspects, there follows the Hon. Martin Dodge's
+paper on "Government Cooperation in Object-lesson Road Work." The third
+chapter comprises a reprint of Hon. Maurice O. Eldridge's careful
+article, "Good Roads for Farmers," revised by the author for this
+volume. Professor Logan Waller Page's paper on "The Selection of
+Materials for Macadam Roads" composes chapter four, and E. G. Harrison's
+article on "Stone Roads in New Jersey" concludes the book, being
+specially valuable because of the advanced position New Jersey has taken
+in the matter of road-building.
+
+For illustrations to this volume the author is indebted to the Office of
+Public Road Inquiries, Hon. Martin Dodge, Director.
+
+ A. B. H.
+ MARIETTA, OHIO, May 31, 1904.
+
+
+
+
+The Future of Road-making in America
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE FUTURE OF ROAD-MAKING IN AMERICA
+
+
+In introducing the subject of the future of road-making in America, it
+may first be observed that there is to be a future in road-building on
+this continent. We have today probably the poorest roads of any
+civilized nation; although, considering the extent of our roads, which
+cover perhaps a million and a half miles, we of course have the best
+roads of any nation of similar age. As we have elsewhere shown, the era
+of railway building eclipsed the great era of road and canal building in
+the third and fourth decades of the old century, and it is interesting
+to note that freight rates on American railways today are cheaper than
+on any railways in any other country of the world. To move a ton of
+freight in England one hundred miles today, you pay two dollars and
+thirty cents; in Germany, two dollars; in France, one dollar and
+seventy-five cents; in "poor downtrodden" Russia, one dollar and thirty
+cents. But in America it costs on the average only seventy-two cents.
+This is good, but it does not by any means answer all the conditions;
+the average American farm is located today--even with our vast network
+of railways--at least ten miles from a railroad station. Now railway
+building has about reached its limit so far as mileage is concerned in
+this country; in the words of Stuyvesant Fish, president of the Illinois
+Central Railroad Company, we have "in the United States generally, a
+sufficiency of railroads." Thus the average farm is left a dozen miles
+from a railway, and in all probability will be that far away a century
+from now. And note: seventy-five per cent of the commerce of the world
+starts for its destination on wagon roads, and we pay annually in the
+United States six hundred million dollars freightage to get our produce
+over our highways from the farms to the railways.
+
+Let me restate these important facts: the average American farm is ten
+miles from a railway; the railways have about reached their limit of
+growth territorially; and we pay six hundred million dollars every year
+to get the seventy-five per cent of our raw material and produce from
+our farms to our railways.
+
+This is the main proposition of the good roads problem, and the reason
+why the road question is to be one of the great questions of the next
+half century. The question is, How much can we save of this half a
+billion dollars, at the least expenditure of money and in the most
+beneficial way?
+
+In this problem, as in many, the most important phase is the one most
+difficult to study and most difficult to solve. It is as complex as
+human life itself. It is the question of good roads as they affect the
+social and moral life of our rural communities. It is easy to talk of
+bad roads costing a half billion dollars a year--the answer should be
+that of Hood's--"O God! that bread should be so dear, and flesh and
+blood so cheap." You cannot count in terms of the stock exchange the
+cost to this land of poor roads; for poor roads mean the decay of
+country living, the abandonment of farms and farm-life, poor schools,
+poor churches, and homes stricken with a social poverty that drives the
+young men and girls into the cities. You cannot estimate the cost to
+this country, in blood, brain, and muscle, of the hideous system of
+public roads we have possessed in the decade passed. Look at any of our
+cities to the men who guide the swift rush of commercial, social, and
+religious affairs and you will find men whose birthplaces are not
+preparing another such generation of men for the work of the future.
+
+For instance, bad roads and good schools are incompatible. The coming
+generation of strong men and strong women is crying out now for good
+roads. "There is a close and permanent relation," said Alabama's
+superintendent of education, "existing between good public roads and
+good public schools. There can be no good country schools in the absence
+of good country roads. Let us be encouraged by this movement looking
+toward an improvement in road-building and road-working. I see in it a
+better day for the boys and girls who must look to the country schools
+for citizenship." "I have been longing for years," said President Jesse
+of the University of Missouri, "to stump the capital state, if
+necessary, in favor of the large consolidated schoolhouse rather than
+the single schoolhouses sitting at the crossroads. But the wagons could
+not get two hundred yards in most of our counties. Therefore I have had
+to smother my zeal, hold my tongue, and wait for the consolidated
+schoolhouse until Missouri wakes to the necessity of good roads. Then
+not only shall we have consolidated schoolhouses, but also the principal
+of the school and his wife will live in the school building, or in one
+close by. The library and reading-room of the school will be the library
+and reading-room of the neighborhood.... The main assembly room of the
+consolidated schoolhouse will be an assembly place for public
+lectures.... I am in favor of free text-books, but I tell you here and
+now that free text-books are a trifle compared with good roads and the
+consolidated schoolhouse." It is found that school attendance in states
+where good roads abound is from twenty-five to fifty per cent greater
+than in states which have not good roads. How long will it take for the
+consolidated schoolhouse and increased and regular attendance to be
+worth half a billion dollars to American men and women of the next
+generation?
+
+This applies with equal pertinency to what I might call the consolidated
+church; good roads make it possible for a larger proportion of country
+residents to enjoy the superior advantages of the splendid city
+churches; in fact good roads have in certain instances been held guilty
+of destroying the little country church. This could be true within only
+a small radius of the cities, and the advantages to be gained outweigh,
+I am sure, the loss occasioned by the closing of small churches within a
+dozen miles of our large towns and cities--churches which, in many
+cases, have only occasional services and are a constant financial drain
+on the city churches. Farther out in the country, good roads will make
+possible one strong, healthy church where perhaps half a dozen weak
+organizations are made to lead a precarious existence because bad roads
+make large congregations impossible throughout the larger part of the
+year. This also applies to city schools, libraries, hospitals, museums,
+and lyceums. Good roads will place these advantages within reach of
+millions of country people who now know little or nothing of them. Once
+beyond driving distance of the cities, good roads will make it possible
+for thousands to reach the suburban railways and trolley lines. Who can
+estimate in mere dollars these advantages to the quality of American
+citizenship a century hence? American farms are taxed by the government
+and pay one-half of the seven hundred million dollars it takes yearly to
+operate this government. After receiving one-half, what per cent does
+the government return to them? Only ten per cent. Ninety per cent goes
+to the direct or indirect benefit of those living in our cities. Where
+does the government build its fine buildings, where does it spend its
+millions on rivers and harbors? How much does it expend to ease this
+burden of six hundred millions which lies so largely on the farmers of
+America? A few years ago a law was passed granting $50,000 to
+investigate a plan to deliver mail on rural delivery routes to our
+farmers and country residents. The law was treated about as respectfully
+as the long-headed Jesse Hawley who wrote a series of articles
+advocating the building of the Erie Canal; a certain paper printed a few
+of them, but the editor sent the remainder back saying he could not use
+them--they were making his sheet an object of ridicule. Eighteen years
+later the canal was built and in the first year brought in a revenue of
+$492,664. So with the first Rural Free Delivery appropriation--the
+postmaster general to whose hands that first $50,000 was entrusted for
+experimental purposes, refused to try it and sent the money back to the
+treasury. Today the Rural Free Delivery is an established fact, of
+immeasurable benefit; and if any of the appropriations for it are not
+expended it is not because they are being sent back to the treasury by
+scrupulous officials. Rural delivery routes diverge from our towns and
+cities and give the country people the advantages of a splendid post
+office system. Good roads to these cities would give them a score of
+advantages where now they have but this one. Like rural delivery it may
+seem impracticable, but in a short space of time America will leap
+forward in the front rank of the nations in point of good highways.
+
+An execrable road system, besides bringing poor schools and poor
+churches, has rendered impossible any genuine community of social
+interests among country people. At the very season when the farm work is
+light and social intercourse feasible, at that season the highways have
+been impassable. To this and the poor schools and churches may be
+attributed the saddest and really most costly social revolution in
+America in the past quarter of a century. The decline of country living
+must in the nature of things prove disastrously costly to any nation.
+"The roar of the cannon and the gleam of swords," wrote that brilliant
+apostle of outdoor life, Dr. W. H. H. Murray, "is less significant than
+the destruction of New England homesteads, the bricking up of New
+England fireplaces and the doing away with the New England well-sweep;
+for these show a change in the nature of the circulation itself, and
+prove that the action of the popular heart has been interrupted,
+modified and become altogether different from what it was." In the
+popular mind the benefits of country living are common only as a fad;
+the boy who goes to college and returns to the farm again is one of a
+thousand. Who wants to be landlocked five months of the year, without
+social advantages? Good roads, in one generation, would accomplish a
+social revolution throughout the United States that would greatly tend
+to better our condition and brighten the prospect of future strength.
+President Winston of the North Carolina State College of Agriculture
+said: "It might be demonstrated beyond a reasonable doubt that bad roads
+are unfavorable to matrimony and increase of population." Seven of the
+most stalwart lads and beautiful lasses of Greece were sent each year to
+Crete to be sacrificed to the Minotaur; bad roads in America send
+thousands of boys and girls into our cities to the Minotaurs of evil
+because conditions in the country do not make for the social happiness
+for which they naturally yearn.
+
+Thus we may hint at the greater, more serious, phase of the road
+problem. Beside it, the financial feature of the problem can have no
+place; the farm has been too much to the American nation, its product of
+boys and girls has been too eternally precious to the cause of liberty
+for which our nation stands, to permit a system of highways on this
+continent which will make it a place where now in the twentieth century
+foreigners, only, can be happy. The sociological side of the road
+question is of more moment today in this country, so far as the health
+of our body politic in the future is concerned, than nine-tenths of the
+questions most prominent in the two political platforms that come
+annually before the people.
+
+William Jennings Bryan, when addressing the Good Roads Convention at St.
+Louis in 1903, said:
+
+"It is a well-known fact, or a fact easily ascertained, that the people
+in the country, while paying their full share of county, state, and
+federal taxes, receive as a rule only the general benefits of
+government, while the people in the cities have, in addition to the
+protection afforded by the Government, the advantage arising from the
+expenditure of public moneys in their midst. The county seat of a
+county, as a rule, enjoys the refreshing influence of an expenditure of
+county money out of proportion to its population. The capital of a state
+and the city where the state institutions are located, likewise receive
+the benefit of an expenditure of public money out of proportion to their
+population. When we come to consider the distribution of the moneys
+collected by the Federal Government, we find that the cities, even in a
+larger measure, monopolize the incidental benefits that arise from the
+expenditure of public moneys.
+
+"The appropriations of the last session of Congress amounted to
+$753,484,018, divided as follows:
+
+ Agriculture                                        $ 5,978,160
+ Army                                                78,138,752
+ Diplomatic and consular service                      1,968,250
+ District of Columbia                                 8,647,497
+ Fortifications                                       7,188,416
+ Indians                                              8,512,950
+ Legislative, executive, and judicial departments    27,595,958
+ Military Academy                                       563,248
+ Navy                                                81,877,291
+ Pensions                                         $ 139,847,600
+ Post Office Department                             153,401,409
+ Sundry Civil                                        82,722,955
+ Deficiencies                                        21,561,572
+ Permanent annual                                   132,589,820
+ Miscellaneous                                        3,250,000
+
+"It will be seen that the appropriation for the Department of
+Agriculture was insignificant when compared with the total
+appropriations--less than one per cent. The appropriations for the Army
+and Navy alone amounted to twenty-five times the sum appropriated for
+the Department of Agriculture. An analysis of the expenditures of the
+Federal Government will show that an exceedingly small proportion of the
+money raised from all the people gets back to the farmers directly; how
+much returns indirectly it is impossible to say, but certain it is that
+the people who live in the cities receive by far the major part of the
+special benefits that come from the showering of public money upon the
+community. The advantage obtained locally from government expenditures
+is so great that the contests for county seats and state capitals
+usually exceed in interest, if not in bitterness, the contests over
+political principles and policies. So great is the desire to secure an
+appropriation of money for local purposes that many will excuse a
+Congressman's vote on either side of any question if he can but secure
+the expenditure of a large amount of public money in his district.
+
+"I emphasize this because it is a fact to which no reference has been
+made. The point is that the farmer not only pays his share of the taxes,
+but more than his share, yet very little of what he pays gets back to
+him.
+
+"People in the city pay not only less than their share, as a rule, but
+get back practically all of the benefits that come from the expenditure
+of the people's money. Let me show you what I mean when I say that the
+farmer pays more than his share. The farmer has visible property, and
+under any form of direct taxation visible property pays more than its
+share. Why? Because the man with visible property always pays. If he has
+an acre of land the assessor can find it. He can count the horses and
+cattle.... The farmer has nothing that escapes taxation; and, in all
+direct taxation, he not only pays on all he has, but the farmer who has
+visible property has to pay a large part of the taxes that ought to be
+paid by the owners of invisible property, who escape taxation. I repeat,
+therefore, that the farmer not only pays more than his share of all
+direct taxation, but that when you come to expend public moneys you do
+not spend them on the farms, as a rule. You spend them in the cities,
+and give the incidental benefits to the people who live in the cities.
+
+"When indirect taxation is considered, the farmer's share is even more,
+because when you come to collect taxes through indirection and on
+consumption, you make people pay not in proportion to what they have but
+in proportion to what they need, and God has so made us that the farmer
+needs as much as anybody else, even though he may not have as much with
+which to supply his needs as other people. In our indirect taxation,
+therefore, for the support of the Federal Government, the farmers pay
+even more out of proportion to their wealth and numbers. We should
+remember also that when we collect taxes through consumption we make
+the farmer pay not only on that which is imported, but upon much of that
+which is produced at home. Thus the farmer's burden is not measured by
+what the treasury receives, but is frequently many times what the
+treasury receives. Thus under indirect taxation the burden upon the
+farmer is greater than it ought to be; yet when you trace the
+expenditure of public moneys distributed by the Federal Government you
+find that even in a larger measure special benefits go to the great
+cities and not to the rural communities.
+
+"The improvement of the country roads can be justified also on the
+ground that the farmer, the first and most important of the producers of
+wealth, ought to be in position to hold his crop and market it at the
+most favorable opportunity, whereas at present he is virtually under
+compulsion to sell it as soon as it is matured, because the roads may
+become impassable at any time during the fall, winter, or spring.
+Instead of being his own warehouseman, the farmer is compelled to employ
+middlemen, and share with them the profits upon his labor. I believe,
+as a matter of justice to the farmer, he ought to have roads that will
+enable him to keep his crop and take it to the market at the best time,
+and not place him in a position where they can run down the price of
+what he has to sell during the months he must sell, and then, when he
+has disposed of it, run the price up and give the speculator what the
+farmer ought to have. The farmer has a right to insist upon roads that
+will enable him to go to town, to church, to the schoolhouse, and to the
+homes of his neighbors, as occasion may require; and, with the extension
+of rural mail delivery, he has additional need for good roads in order
+that he may be kept in communication with the outside world, for the
+mail routes follow the good roads.
+
+"A great deal has been said, and properly so, in regard to the influence
+of good roads upon education. In the convention held at Raleigh, North
+Carolina, the account of which I had the pleasure of reading, great
+emphasis was placed upon the fact that you can not have a school system
+such as you ought to have unless the roads are in condition for the
+children to go to school. While we are building great libraries in the
+great cities we do not have libraries in the country; and there ought to
+be a library in every community. Instead of laying upon the farmer the
+burden of buying his own books, we ought to make it possible for the
+farmers to have the same opportunity as the people in the city to use
+books in common, and thus economize on the expense of a library. I agree
+with Professor Jesse in regard to the consolidation of schoolhouses in
+such a way as to give the child in the country the same advantages which
+the child in the city has. We have our country schools, but it is
+impossible in any community to have a well-graded school with only a few
+pupils, unless you go to great expense. In cities, when a child gets
+through the graded school he can remain at home, and, without expense to
+himself or his parents, go on through the high school. But if the
+country boy or girl desires to go from the graded school to the high
+school, as a rule it is necessary to go to the county seat and there
+board with some one; so the expense to the country child is much
+greater than to the child in the city. I was glad, therefore, to hear
+Professor Jesse speak of such a consolidation of schools as will give to
+the children in the country advantages equal to those enjoyed by the
+children of the city.
+
+"And as you study this subject, you find it reaches out in every
+direction; it touches us at every vital point. What can be of more
+interest to us than the schooling of our children? What can be of more
+interest to every parent than bringing the opportunity of educational
+instruction within the reach of every child? It does not matter whether
+a man has children himself or not.... Every citizen of a community is
+interested in the intellectual life of that community. Sometimes I have
+heard people complain that they were overburdened with taxes for the
+education of other people's children. My friends, the man who has no
+children can not afford to live in a community where there are children
+growing up in ignorance; the man with none has the same duty as the man
+with many, barring the personal pride of the parent. I say, therefore,
+that anything that contributes to the general diffusion of knowledge,
+anything that makes more educated boys and girls throughout our country,
+is a matter of intense interest to every citizen, whether he be the
+father of a family or not; whether he lives in the country or in the
+town.
+
+"And ought not the people have the opportunity to attend church? I am
+coming to believe that what we need in this country, even more than
+education of the intellect, is the education of the moral side of our
+nature. I believe, with Jefferson, that the church and the state should
+be separate. I believe in religious freedom, and I would not have any
+man's conscience fettered by act of law; but I do believe that the
+welfare of this nation demands that man's moral nature shall be educated
+in keeping with his brain and with his body. In fact, I have come to
+define civilization as the harmonious development of the body, the mind,
+and the heart. We make a mistake if we believe that this nation can
+fulfil its high destiny and mission either with mere athletes or mere
+scholars. We need the education of the moral sense; and if these good
+roads will enable men, women, and children to go more frequently to
+church, and there hear expounded the gospel and receive inspiration
+therefrom, that alone is reason enough for good roads.
+
+"There is a broader view of this question, however, that deserves
+consideration. The farm is, and always has been, conspicuous because of
+the physical development it produces, the intellectual strength it
+furnishes, and the morality it encourages. The young people in the
+country find health and vigor in the open air and in the exercise which
+farm life gives; they acquire habits of industry and economy; their work
+gives them opportunity for thought and reflection; their contact with
+nature teaches them reverence, and their environment promotes good
+habits. The farms supply our colleges with their best students and they
+also supply our cities with leaders in business and professional life.
+In the country there is neither great wealth nor great poverty--'the
+rich and the poor meet together' and recognize that 'the Lord is the
+father of them all.' There is a fellowship, and, to use the word in its
+broadest sense, a democracy in the country that is much needed today to
+temper public opinion and protect the foundations of free government. A
+larger percentage of the people in the country than in the city study
+public questions, and a smaller percentage are either corrupt or are
+corrupted. It is important, therefore, for the welfare of our government
+and for the advancement of our civilization that we make life upon the
+farm as attractive as possible. Statistics have shown the constant
+increase in the urban population and the constant decrease in the rural
+population from decade to decade. Without treading upon controversial
+ground or considering whether this trend has been increased by
+legislation hostile to the farm, it will be admitted that the government
+is in duty bound to guard jealously the interests of the rural
+population, and, as far as it can, make farm life inviting. In the
+employment of modern conveniences the city has considerably outstripped
+the country, and naturally so, for in a densely populated community the
+people can by cooperation supply themselves with water, light, and rapid
+transit at much smaller cost than they can in a sparsely settled
+country. But it is evident that during the last few years much has been
+done to increase the comforts of the farm. In the first place, the rural
+mail delivery has placed millions of farmers in daily communication with
+the world. It has brought not only the letter but the newspaper to the
+door. Its promised enlargement and extension will make it possible for
+the wife to order from the village store and have her purchases
+delivered by the mail-carrier. The telephone has also been a great boon
+to the farmer. It lessens by one-half the time required to secure a
+physician in case of accident or illness--an invention which every
+mother can appreciate. The extension of the electric-car line also
+deserves notice. It is destined to extend the borders of the city and to
+increase the number of small farms at the expense of flats and tenement
+houses. The suburban home will bring light and hope to millions of
+children.
+
+"But after all this, there still remains a pressing need for better
+country roads. As long as mud placed an embargo upon city traffic, the
+farmer could bear his mud-made isolation with less complaint, but with
+the improvement of city streets and with the establishment of parks and
+boulevards, the farmer's just demands for better roads find increasing
+expression."
+
+The late brilliant congressman, Hon. Thomas H. Tongue of Oregon, left on
+record a few paragraphs on the sociological effect of good roads that
+ought to be preserved:
+
+"Good roads do not concern our pockets only. They may become the
+instrumentalities for improved health, increased happiness and pleasure,
+for refining tastes, strengthening, broadening, and elevating the
+character. The toiler in the great city must have rest and recreation.
+Old and young, and especially the young, with character unformed, must
+and will sweeten the daily labor with some pleasure. It is not the hours
+of industry, but the hours devoted to pleasure, that furnish the devil
+his opportunity. It is not while we are at work but while we are at
+play that temptations steal over the senses, put conscience to sleep,
+despoil manhood, and destroy character. Healthful and innocent
+recreations and pleasure are national needs and national blessings. They
+are among the most important instrumentalities of moral reform. They are
+as essential to purity of mind and soul as to healthfulness of body. Out
+beyond the confines of the city, with its dust and dirt and filth,
+morally and physically, these are to be found, and good roads help to
+find them. What peace and inspiration may come from flowers and music,
+brooks and waterfalls! How the mountains pointing heavenward, yesterday
+battling with storms, today bathed with sunshine, bid you stand firm,
+walk erect, look upward, cherish hope, and for light and guidance to
+call upon the Creator of all light and of all wisdom! How such scenes as
+these kindle the imagination of the poet, quicken and enlarge the
+conception of the artist, fire the soul of the orator, purify and
+elevate us all! But if love of action rather than contemplation and
+reflection tempts you, how the blood thrills and the spirits rise as
+one springs lightly into the saddle, caresses the slender neck of an
+equine beauty, grasps firmly the reins, bids farewell to the impurities
+of the city, and dashes into the hills and the valleys and the mountains
+to commune with nature and nature's God. Or what joy more exquisite than
+with pleasant companionship to dash along the smooth highway, drawn by a
+noble American trotter? What poor city scenes can so inspire poetic
+feeling, can so increase the love of the beautiful, can so elevate and
+broaden and strengthen the character, and so inspire us with reverence
+for the great Father of us all? But for the full enjoyment of such
+pleasures good roads are indispensable.
+
+"Another blessing to come with good roads will be the stimulus and
+encouragements to rural life, farm life. The present tendency of
+population to rush into the great cities makes neither for the health
+nor the character, the intelligence nor the morals of the nation. It has
+been said that no living man can trace his ancestry on both sides to
+four generations of city residents. The brain and the brawn and the
+morals of the city are constantly replenished from the country. The best
+home life is upon the farm, and the most sacred thing in America is the
+American home. It lies at the foundation of our institutions, of our
+health, of our character, our prosperity, our happiness, here and
+hereafter. The snares and pitfalls set for our feet are not near the
+home. The pathways upon which stones are hardest and thorns sharpest are
+not those that lead to the sacred spot hallowed by a father's love and a
+mother's prayers. The bravest and best of men, the purest and holiest
+women, are those who best love, cherish, and protect the home. God guard
+well the American home, and this done, come all the powers of darkness
+and they shall not prevail against us. Fatherhood and motherhood are
+nowhere more sacred, more holy, or better beloved than upon the farm.
+The ties of brotherhood and sisterhood are nowhere more sweet or tender.
+The fair flower of patriotism there reaches its greatest perfection.
+Every battlefield that marks the world's progress, the victory of
+liberty over tyranny or right over wrong, has been deluged with the
+blood of farmers. He evades neither the taxgatherer nor the recruiting
+officer. He shirks the performance of no public duty. In the hour of its
+greatest needs our country never called for help upon its stalwart
+yeomen when the cry was unheeded. The sons and daughters of American
+farmers are filling the seminaries and colleges and universities of the
+land. From the American farm home have gone in the past, as they are
+going now, leaders in literature, the arts and sciences, presidents of
+great universities, the heads of great industrial enterprises, governors
+of states, and members of Congress. They have filled the benches of the
+supreme court, the chairs of the cabinet, and the greatest executive
+office in the civilized world. Our greatest jurist, our greatest
+soldier, our greatest orators, Webster and Clay, our three greatest
+presidents, Washington, Lincoln, and McKinley, were the product of rural
+homes. The great presidents which Virginia has given to the nation,
+whose monuments are all around us, whose remains rest in your midst,
+whose fame is immortal, drew life and inspiration from rural homes. The
+typical American today is the American farmer. The city life, with its
+bustle and stir, its hurry and rush, its feverish anxiety for wealth,
+position, and rank in society, its fretting over ceremonies and
+precedents, is breaking down the health and intellect and the morals of
+its inhabitants. These must be replenished from the rural home. Whatever
+shall tend to create a love for country life, to decrease the rush for
+the city, instil a desire to dwell in the society of nature, will make
+for the health, the happiness, the refinement, the moral and
+intellectual improvement of the people. Nothing will contribute more to
+this than the improvement of our common roads, to facilitate the means
+of communication between one section of the country and the other, and
+between all and the city."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Turning now from the high plane of the social and moral effect of good
+roads, let us look at the financial side of the question.
+
+Good roads pay well. In urging good roads in Virginia, an official of
+the Southern Railway said that if good roads improved the value of
+lands only one dollar per acre, the gain to the state by the improvement
+of all the roads would be twenty-five million dollars. Yet this is an
+inconceivably low estimate; lands upon improved roads advance in value
+from four to twenty dollars per acre. Virginia could therefore expect a
+benefit from improved highways of at least one hundred million
+dollars--more than enough to improve her roads many times over. Indeed
+this matter of the increase in value of land occasioned by good roads
+can hardly be overestimated. Near all of our large towns and cities the
+land will advance until it is worth per foot what it was formerly worth
+per acre. Take Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. Beginning in 1880 to
+macadamize three or four miles of road a year with an annual fund of
+$10,000, the county now has over a hundred miles of splendid roads; the
+county seat has increased in population from 5,000 to 30,000. "I know of
+a thirty-acre farm," said President Barringer of the University of
+Virginia, a native of that county, "that cost ten dollars an acre, and
+forty-six dollars an acre has been refused for it, and yet not a dollar
+has been put on it, not even to fertilize it. Some of the farms five and
+six miles from town have quadrupled in value." In Alabama the same thing
+has been found true. "The result of building these roads," said Mayor
+Drennen of Birmingham, "is that the property adjoining them has more
+than doubled in value." That wise financier, D. F. Francis, President of
+the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, when suggesting that Missouri would
+do well to bond herself for one hundred million to build good roads,
+said: "The average increase in the value of the lands in Missouri would
+be at least five dollars per acre." Taking President Francis at his
+word, the difference between the value of Missouri before and after the
+era of good roads would buy up the four hundred and eighty-four state
+banks in Missouri eleven times over. What President Francis estimates
+Missouri would be worth with good roads over and above what her farms
+are now worth would buy all the goods that the city of St. Louis
+produces in a year. In other words, the estimated gain to Missouri would
+be more than two hundred and twenty million dollars.
+
+Passing the increased value of lands, look at the equally vital question
+of increased values of crops. Take first the crops that would be raised
+on lands not cultivated today but which would be cultivated in a day of
+good roads. Look at Virginia, where only one-third of the land is being
+cultivated; the value of crops which it is certain would ultimately be
+raised on land that is now unproductive would amount to at least sixty
+million dollars. The general passenger agent of the Oregon Railway and
+Navigation Company said recently that his lines were crying out for
+wheat to ship to China; "we have about reached the limit of our
+facilities; twelve or fifteen miles is the only distance farmers can
+afford to haul their wheat to us. Make it possible for them to haul it
+double that distance and you will double the business of our railway."
+And the business of local nature done by a railroad is a good criterion
+of the prosperity of the country in which it operates.
+
+Crops now raised on lands within reach of railways would of course be
+enhanced in value by good roads; more loads could be taken at less cost;
+weather interferences would not enter into the question. But of more
+moment perhaps than anything else, a vast amount of land thus placed
+within quick reach of our towns and cities would be given over to
+gardening for city markets, a line of agriculture immensely profitable,
+as city people well know. "The citizens of Birmingham," said the mayor
+of that city, "enjoy the benefits of fresh products raised on the farms
+along these [improved] roads. The dairymen, the truck farmers, and
+others ... are put in touch with our markets daily, thereby receiving
+the benefits of any advance in farm products."
+
+Poor roads are like the interest on a debt, and they are working against
+one all the time. It is noticeable that when good roads are built,
+farmers, who are always conservative, adjust themselves more readily to
+conditions. They are in touch with the world and they feel more keenly
+its pulse, much to their advantage. Too many farmers, damned by bad
+roads, are guilty of the faults of which Birmingham's mayor accused
+Alabama planters: "The farmers in this section," he said, "are selling
+cotton today for less than seven cents per pound, while they could have
+sold Irish potatoes within the past few months at two dollars per
+bushel." Farmers over the entire country are held to be slow in taking
+advantage of their whole opportunities; bad roads take the life out of
+them and out of their horses; they think somewhat as they
+ride--desperately slow; and they will not think faster until they ride
+faster. It is said that a man riding on a heavy southern road saw a hat
+in the mud; stopping to pick it up he was surprised to find a head of
+hair beneath it: then a voice came out of the ground: "Hold on, boss,
+don't take my hat; I've got a powerful fine mule down here somewhere if
+I can ever get him out." You can write and speak to farmers until
+doomsday about taking quick advantage of the exigencies of the markets
+that are dependent on them, but if they have to hunt for their horses in
+a hog-wallow road all your talk will be in vain.
+
+When we seriously face the question of how a fine system of highways is
+to be built in this country, it is found to be a complex problem. For
+about ten years now it has been seriously debated, and these years have
+seen a large advance; until now the problem has become almost national.
+
+One great fundamental idea has been proposed and is now generally
+accepted by all who have paid the matter any attention, and that is that
+those who live along our present roads cannot be expected to bear the
+entire cost of building good roads. This may be said to be settled and
+need no debate. Practically all men are agreed that the rural population
+should not bear the entire expense of an improvement of which they,
+however, are to be the chief beneficiaries; the state itself, in all its
+parts, benefits from the improved conditions which follow improved
+roads, and should bear a portion of the expense. Do not think that city
+people escape the tax of bad roads. In St. Louis four hundred thousand
+people consume five hundred tons of produce every day. The cost of
+hauling this produce over bad roads averages twenty-five cents per mile
+and over good roads about ten cents per mile, making a difference of
+fifteen cents per mile per ton. For five hundred tons, hauled from farms
+averaging ten miles distance, this would be seven hundred and fifty
+dollars per day, or a quarter of a million dollars a year--enough to
+build fifty miles of macadamized road a year. The farmers shift as much
+as they can of their heavy tax on the city people--the consumer pays the
+freight. Everybody is concerned in the "mud-tax" of bad roads.
+
+And so what is known as the "state aid" plan has become popular. By this
+plan the state pays a fixed part of the cost of building roads out of
+the general fund raised by taxation of all the people and all the
+property in the state. Under these circumstances corporations,
+railroads, and the various representatives of the concentrated wealth of
+the cities all contribute to this fund. The funds are expended in rural
+districts and are supplemented by money raised by local taxation.
+
+The state of New York, which has a good system, pays one-half of the
+good roads fund; each county pays thirty-five per cent, and the
+township fifteen per cent. Pennsylvania has appropriated at one time six
+and a half millions as a good roads fund. The new Ohio law apportions
+the cost of new roads as follows: The state pays twenty-five per cent,
+the townships twenty-five per cent, and the county fifty per cent. Of
+the twenty-five per cent paid by the townships fifteen per cent is to be
+paid by owners of abutting property and ten per cent by the township as
+a whole. In New Jersey, which has a model system of road-building and
+many model roads, the state pays a third, the county a third, and the
+property owners a third.
+
+A more recent theory in American road-building which has been advanced
+is a plan of national aid.[1] This is no new thing in America, though it
+has been many years since the government has paid attention to roadways.
+In the early days the wisest of our statesmen advocated large plans of
+internal improvement; one great national road, as we have seen, was
+built by the War Department from the Potomac almost to the Mississippi,
+through Wheeling, Columbus, Indianapolis and Vandalia, at a cost of over
+six million dollars. And this famous national road was built, in part,
+upon an earlier pathway, cut through Ohio by Ebenezer Zane in 1796, also
+at the order of Congress, and for which he received grants of land which
+formed the nucleus of the three thriving Ohio cities, Zanesville,
+Lancaster, and Chillicothe. The constitutionality of road-building by
+the government was questioned by some, but that clause granting it the
+right to establish post-offices and post roads "must, in every view, be
+a harmless power," said James Madison, "and may perhaps, by judicious
+management, become productive of great public conveniency. Nothing which
+tends to facilitate the intercourse between the states can be deemed
+unworthy of the public care."[2] But the government was interested not
+only in building roads but in many other phases of public improvement;
+it took stock in the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal; Congress voted $30,000
+to survey the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal route, and the work was done by
+government engineers. When railways superseded highways, the government
+was almost persuaded to complete the old National Road with rails and
+ties instead of broken stone. When the Erie Canal was proposed, a vast
+scheme of government aid was favored by leading statesmen;[3] the
+government has greatly assisted the western railways by gigantic grants
+of land worth one hundred and thirty-eight million dollars. The vast
+funds of private capital that have been seeking investment in this
+country, at first in turnpike, plank, and macadamized roads, then in
+canals, and later in railways, has rendered government aid comparatively
+unnecessary. In the last few years the only work of internal improvement
+aided by the government is the improvement of the rivers and harbors,
+which for 1904 takes over fifty millions of revenue a year. The sum of
+$130,565,485 has been well spent on river and harbor improvement in the
+past seven years. Not only are the great rivers, such as the Ohio and
+Mississippi, improved, but lesser streams. A short time ago I made a
+journey of one hundred miles down the Elk River in West Virginia in a
+boat eleven inches deep and twelve feet long; a channel all the way down
+had been made about two feet wide by picking out the stones; the United
+States did this at an expense of fifteen hundred dollars. The groceries
+and dry goods for thousands were poled up that river in dug-outs through
+that two-foot channel. I doubt if a two-wheel vehicle could traverse the
+road which runs throughout that valley, but I know a four-wheel vehicle
+could not.
+
+The advocates of national aid urge the right to establish post roads; "I
+had an ancestor in the United States Senate," said ex-Senator Butler of
+South Carolina, "who refused to vote a dollar for the improvement of
+Charleston Harbor; but almost the first act of my official life was to
+get an appropriation of two hundred and fifty thousand for that purpose.
+There is as ample constitutional warrant for the improvement of public
+roads out of the United States Treasury--as large as there is for the
+improvement of rivers and harbors, or for the support of the
+agricultural colleges."
+
+"But few judicial opinions have been rendered on this subject. In the
+case of Dickey against the Turnpike Company, the Kentucky court of
+appeals decided that the power given to Congress by the constitution to
+establish post roads enabled them to make, repair, keep open, and
+improve post roads when they shall deem the exercise of the power
+expedient. But in the exercise of the right of eminent domain on this
+subject the United States has no right to adopt and use roads, bridges,
+or ferries constructed and owned by states, corporations, and
+individuals without their consent or without making to the parties
+concerned just compensation. If the United States elects to use such
+accommodations, it stands upon the same footing and is subject to the
+same tolls and regulations as a private individual. It has been asserted
+that Jefferson was opposed to the appropriation of money for internal
+improvements, but, in 1808, in writing to Mr. Lieper, he said, 'Give us
+peace until our revenues are liberated from debt, ... and then during
+peace we may chequer our whole country with canals, roads, etc.' Writing
+to J. W. Eppes in 1813 he says, 'The fondest wish of my heart ever was
+that the surplus portion of these taxes destined for the payment of the
+Revolutionary debt should, when that object is accomplished, be
+continued by annual or biennial reenactments and applied in times of
+peace to the improvement of our country by canals, roads, and useful
+institutions.' Congress has always claimed the power to lay out,
+construct, and improve post roads with the assent of the states through
+which they pass; also, to open, construct, and improve military roads on
+like terms; and the right to cut canals through the several states with
+their consent for the purpose of promoting and securing internal
+commerce and for the safe and economical transportation of military
+stores in times of war. The president has sometimes objected to the
+exercise of this constitutional right, but Congress has never denied it.
+Cooley, the highest authority on constitutional law, says:
+
+"'Every road within a State, including railroads, canals, turnpikes, and
+navigable streams, existing or created within a State, becomes a
+post-road, whenever by law or by the action of the Post-Office
+Department provision is made for the transportation of the mail upon or
+over it. Many statesmen and jurists have contended that the power
+comprehends the laying out and construction of any roads which Congress
+may deem proper and needful for the conveyance of the mails, and keeping
+them repaired for the purpose.'"[4]
+
+It has been many years since the United States government was interested
+considerably in mail routes on the roadways of this country; in the past
+half century the government has spent but one hundred thousand dollars
+for the improvement of mail roads. The new era of rural delivery brings
+a return, in one sense, of the old stagecoach days. A thousand country
+roads are now used daily by government mail-carriers, but the government
+demands that the roads used be kept in good condition by the local
+authorities. Thus the situation is reversed; instead of holding it to be
+the duty of the government to deliver mail in rural districts, Congress
+holds that the debt is on the other side and that, in return for the
+boon of rural delivery, the rural population must make good roads.
+Madison well saw that government improvement of roads as mail routes
+would be of great general benefit; for in _The Federalist_ he adds that
+the power "may perhaps by judicious management become productive of
+great public conveniency."
+
+[Illustration: A GOOD-ROADS TRAIN
+
+[_The Southern Roadway's good-roads train, October 29, 1901, consisting
+of two coaches for officials and road experts and ten cars of road
+machinery; for itinerary through Virginia, North Carolina. Tennessee,
+Alabama, and Georgia_]]
+
+One great work the government has done and is doing. It has founded an
+Office of Public Road Inquiries (described elsewhere) at Washington, and
+under the efficient management of Hon. Martin Dodge and Maurice O.
+Eldridge a great work of education has been carried on--samples of good
+roads have been built, good road trains have been sent out by the
+Southern Railway and the Illinois Central into the South, a laboratory
+has been established at Washington, under the efficient charge of
+Professor L. W. Page, for the testing of materials free of charge,
+and a great deal of road information has been published and sent out.
+
+The Brownlow Bill, introduced into Congress at the last session, is the
+latest plan of national aid, and is thus described by Hon. Martin Dodge
+of the Office of Public Road Inquiries:
+
+"The bill provides for an appropriation of twenty million dollars. This
+is to be used only in connection and cooperation with the various states
+or civil subdivisions of states that may make application to the General
+Government for the purpose of securing its aid to build certain roads.
+The application must be made for a specific road to be built, and the
+state or county making the application must be ready to pay half of the
+cost, according to the plans and specifications made by the General
+Government. In no case can any state or any number of counties within
+the state receive any greater proportion of the twenty million dollars
+than the population of the state bears to the population of the United
+States.
+
+"In other words, all of the plans must originate in the community. The
+bill does not provide that the United States shall go forward and say a
+road shall be built here or a road shall be built there. The United
+States shall hold itself in readiness, when requested to do so, to
+cooperate with those who have selected a road they desire to build,
+provided they are ready and willing to pay one-half the cost. Then, if
+the road is a suitable one and is approved by the government
+authorities, they go forward and build that road, each contributing
+one-half of the expense. In order to prevent the state losing
+jurisdiction of the road, it is provided that it may go forward and
+build the road if it will accept the government engineer's estimate. For
+instance, if a state or county asks for ten miles of road, the estimated
+cost of which is thirty thousand dollars, and the state or county
+officials say they are willing to undertake the work for thirty thousand
+dollars, the government authorizes them to go ahead and build that road
+according to specifications, and when it is finished the government will
+pay the fifteen thousand dollars. If the state or county does not wish
+to take the contract, the General Government will advertise and give it
+to the lowest bidder, and will pay its contributory share and the other
+party will pay its contributory share.
+
+"It is no part of the essential principle involved in this national aid
+plan that the exact proportion should be fifty per cent on each side.
+Any other figure can be adopted. Some think ten per cent is sufficient;
+some think thirty-three and one-third is the proper percentage; others
+think twenty-five per cent only should be paid by the government,
+twenty-five per cent by the state, twenty-five per cent by the county,
+and twenty-five per cent by the township. The one idea that seems to be
+generally accepted is that the government should do something."
+
+Thus the interest in the great question is beginning to forge to the
+front; through the Office of Public Road Inquiries a great deal of
+information is being circulated touching all phases of the question.
+There is a fine spirit of independence displayed by the leaders of the
+movement; no one plan is over-urged; the situation is such that the
+final concerted popular action will come from the real governing
+power--the people. When they demand that the United States shall not
+have the poorest rural roads of any civilized and some uncivilized
+nations, we as a nation will hasten into the fore front and finally lead
+the world in this vital department of civic life, as we are leading it
+in so many other departments today.
+
+[Illustration: SAMPLE STEEL TRACK FOR COMMON ROADS
+
+[_On the driver's right is seated Hon. Martin Dodge, since 1898 Director
+of the Office of Public Road Inquiries_]]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] See _post_, pp. 68-80.
+
+[2] _The Federalist_, p. 198.
+
+[3] _Historic Highways of America_, vol. xiv, p. 57.
+
+[4] Thomas M. Cooley, _Constitutional Law_ (Boston, 1891), pp. 85-86.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GOVERNMENT COOPERATION IN OBJECT-LESSON ROAD WORK[5]
+
+
+In a government having a composite nature like that of the United States
+it is not always easy to determine just what share the General
+Government, the state government, and the local government should
+respectively take in carrying out highway work, though it is generally
+admitted that there should be cooperation among them all.
+
+In the early history of the Republic the National Government itself laid
+out and partially completed a great national system of highways
+connecting the East with the West, and the capital of the nation with
+its then most distant possessions. Fourteen million dollars in all was
+appropriated by acts of Congress to be devoted to this purpose, an
+amount almost equal to that paid for the Louisiana Purchase. In other
+words, it cost the government substantially as much to make that
+territory accessible as to purchase it; and what is true of that
+territory in its larger sense is also true in a small way of nearly
+every tract of land that is opened up and used for the purposes of
+civilization; that is to say, it will cost as much to build up, improve,
+and maintain the roads of any given section of the country as the land
+in its primitive condition is worth; and the same rule will apply in
+most cases after the land value has advanced considerably beyond that of
+its primitive condition. It is a general rule that the suitable
+improvement of a highway within reasonable limitations will double the
+value of the land adjacent to it. Seven million dollars, half of the
+total sum appropriated by acts of Congress for the national road system,
+was devoted to building the Cumberland Road from Cumberland, Maryland,
+to St. Louis, Missouri, the most central point in the great Louisiana
+Purchase, and seven hundred miles west of Cumberland. The total cost of
+this great road was wholly paid out of the United States Treasury, and
+though never fully completed on the western end, it is the longest
+straight road ever built by any government. It passes through the
+capitals of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and the cost per mile was,
+approximately, ten thousand dollars. It furnishes the only important
+instance the country has ever had of the General Government providing a
+highway at its own expense. The plan, however, was never carried to
+completion, and since its abandonment two generations ago, the people of
+the different states have provided their own highways. For the most part
+they have delegated their powers either to individuals, companies, or
+corporations to build toll roads, or to the minor political subdivisions
+and municipalities to build free roads.
+
+With the passing of the toll-road system, the withdrawal of the General
+Government from the field of actual road construction, and the various
+state governments doing little or nothing, the only remaining active
+agent occupying the entire great field is the local government in each
+community; and while these various local governments have done and are
+still doing the best they can under the circumstances, there is great
+need that their efforts should be supplemented, their revenues enlarged,
+and their skill in the art of road construction increased.
+
+The skill of the local supervisor was sufficient in primitive times, so
+long as his principal duties consisted in clearing the way of trees,
+logs, stumps, and other obstructions, and shaping the earth of which the
+roadbed was composed into a little better form than nature had left it;
+and the resources at his command were sufficient so long as he was
+authorized to call on every able-bodied male citizen between twenty-one
+and forty-five years of age to do ten days' labor annually on the road,
+especially when the only labor expected was that of dealing with the
+material found on the spot. But with the changed conditions brought
+about by the more advanced state of civilization, after the rights of
+way have been cleared of their obstructions and the earth roads graded
+into the form of turnpikes, it became necessary to harden their
+surfaces with material which often must be brought from distant places.
+In order to accomplish this, expert skill is required in the selection
+of materials, money instead of labor is required to pay for the cost of
+transportation, and machinery must be substituted for the hand processes
+and primitive methods heretofore employed in order to crush the rock and
+distribute it in the most economical manner on the roadbed. Skill and
+machinery are also required to roll and consolidate the material so as
+to form a smooth, hard surface and a homogeneous mass impervious to
+water.
+
+The local road officer now not only finds himself deficient in skill and
+the proper kind of resources, but he discovers in many cases that the
+number of persons subject to his call for road work has greatly
+diminished. The great cities of the North have absorbed half of the
+population in all the states north of the Ohio and east of the
+Mississippi, and those living in these great cities are not subject to
+the former duties of working the roads, nor do they pay any compensation
+in money in lieu thereof. So the statute labor has not only become
+unsuitable for the service to be performed, but it is, as stated,
+greatly diminished. In the former generations substantially all the
+people contributed to the construction of the highways under the statute
+labor system, but at the present time not more than half the population
+is subject to this service, and this, too, at a time when the need for
+highway improvement is greatest.
+
+While the former ways and means are inadequate or inapplicable to
+present needs and conditions, there are other means more suitable for
+the service, and existing in ample proportion for every need. The
+tollgate-keeper cannot be called upon to restore the ancient system of
+turnpikes and plank roads to be maintained by a tax upon vehicles
+passing over them, but there can be provided a general fund in each
+county sufficient to build up free roads better than the toll roads and
+with a smaller burden of cost upon the people. The statute labor in the
+rural districts cannot be depended upon, because it is unsuitable to the
+service now required and spasmodic in its application, when it should be
+perennial; but this statute labor can be commuted to a money tax, with
+no hardships upon the citizens and with great benefit to the highway
+system.
+
+Former inhabitants of the abandoned farms or the deserted villages
+cannot be followed to the great cities and the road tax which they
+formerly paid be collected from them again to improve the country roads;
+but it can be provided that all the property owners in every city, as
+well as in every county, shall pay a money tax into a general fund,
+which shall be devoted exclusively to the improvement of highways in the
+rural districts. The state itself can maintain a general fund out of
+which a portion of the cost of every principal highway in the state
+shall be paid, and by so doing all the people of the state will
+contribute to improving the highways, as they once did in the early
+history of the nation, when substantially all the wealth and population
+was distributed almost equally throughout the settled portions of the
+country.
+
+Having a general fund of money instead of statute labor, it would be
+possible to introduce more scientific and more economical methods of
+construction with cooperation. This cooperation, formerly applied with
+good results to the primitive conditions, but which has been partially
+lost by the diminution in the number and skill of the co-workers, would
+be restored again in a great measure by drawing the money with which to
+improve the roads out of a general fund to which all had contributed.
+
+In many countries the army has been used to advantage in time of peace
+in building up and maintaining the highways. There is no army in this
+country for such a purpose, but there is an army of prisoners in every
+state, whose labor is so directed, and has been so directed for
+generations past, that it adds little or nothing to the common wealth.
+The labor of these prisoners, properly applied and directed, would be of
+great benefit and improvement to the highways, and would add greatly to
+the national wealth, while at the same time it would lighten the
+pressure of competition with free labor by withdrawing the prison labor
+from the manufacture of commercial articles and applying it to work not
+now performed, that is, the building of highways or preparing material
+to be used therefor.
+
+The General Government, having withdrawn from the field of road
+construction in 1832, has since done little in that line until very
+recently. Eight years ago Congress appropriated a small sum of money for
+the purpose of instituting a sort of inquiry into the prevailing
+condition of things pertaining to road matters. This appropriation has
+been continued from year to year and increased during the last two years
+with a view of cooperating to a limited extent with other efforts in
+road construction.
+
+The General Government can perform certain duties pertaining to
+scientific road improvement better than any other agency. Scientific
+facts ascertained at one time by the General Government will serve for
+the enlightenment of the people of all the states, and with no more cost
+than would be required for each single state to make the investigation
+and ascertain the facts for itself.
+
+With a view to securing scientific facts in reference to the value of
+road-building materials, the Secretary of Agriculture has established at
+Washington, D. C., a mechanical and chemical laboratory for testing such
+material from all parts of the country. Professor L. W. Page, late of
+Harvard University, is in charge of this laboratory, and has tested many
+samples of rock without charge to those having the test made. There is,
+however, no test equal to the actual application of the material to the
+road itself.
+
+With a view to making more extensive tests than could be done by
+laboratory work alone, the Director of the Office of Public Road
+Inquiries has, during the past two years, cooperated with the local
+authorities in many different states in building short sections of
+object-lesson roads. In this work it is intended not only to contribute
+something by way of cooperation on the part of the General Government,
+but also to secure cooperation on the part of as many different
+interests connected with the road question as possible. The local
+community having the road built is most largely interested, and is
+expected to furnish the common labor and domestic material. The
+railroad companies generally cooperate, because they are interested in
+having better roads to and from their railroad stations. They therefore
+contribute by transporting free or at very low rates the machinery and
+such foreign material as is needed in the construction of the road. The
+manufacturers of earth-handling and road-building machinery cooperate by
+furnishing all needed machinery for the most economical construction of
+the road, and in many cases prison labor is used in preparing material
+which finally goes into the completed roadbed. The contribution which
+the General Government makes in this scheme of cooperation is both
+actually and relatively small, but it is by means of this limited
+cooperation that it has been possible to produce a large number of
+object-lesson roads in different states. These have proved very
+beneficial, not only in showing the scientific side of the question, but
+the economical side as well.
+
+In the year 1900 object-lesson roads were built under the direction of
+the Office of Public Road Inquiries near Port Huron, Saginaw, and
+Traverse City, Michigan; Springfield, Illinois; and Topeka, Kansas.
+Since that time the object-lesson roads so built have been extended and
+duplicated by the local authorities without further aid from the
+government. The people are so well pleased with the results of these
+experiments that they are making preparations for additional extensions,
+aggregating many miles.
+
+During the year 1901 sample object-lesson roads were built on a larger
+scale in cooperation with the Illinois Central, Lake Shore, and Southern
+railroad companies, and the National Association for Good Roads in the
+states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, New
+York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, and Georgia. In all of
+these cases the cooperation has been very hearty on the part of the
+state, the county, and the municipality in which the work has been done,
+and the results have been very satisfactory and beneficial.
+
+Hon. A. H. Longino, governor of Mississippi, in his speech made at the
+International Good Roads Congress at Buffalo, September 17, 1901, said:
+
+      "My friends, the importance of good roads seems to me to be
+      so apparent, so self-evident, that the discussion thereof is
+      but a discussion of truisms. Much as we appreciate
+      railroads, rivers, and canals as means for transportation of
+      the commerce of the country, they are, in my judgment, of
+      less importance to mankind, to the masses of the people, and
+      to all classes of people, than are good country roads.
+
+      "I live in a section of the country where that important
+      subject has found at the hands of the people apparently less
+      appreciation and less effort toward improvement than in many
+      others. In behalf of the Good Roads Association, headed by
+      Colonel Moore and Mr. Richardson, which recently met in the
+      state of Mississippi, I want to say that more interest has
+      been aroused by their efforts concerning this important
+      subject among the people there than perhaps ever existed
+      before in the history of the state. By their work,
+      demonstrating what could be done by the methods which they
+      employed, and by their agitation of the question, the
+      people have become aroused as they never were before; and
+      since their departure from the state a large number of
+      counties which were not already working under the contract
+      system have provided for public highways, worked by
+      contract, requiring the contractor to give a good and
+      sufficient bond, a bond broad enough in its provisions and
+      large enough in amount to compel faithful service; and
+      Mississippi is today starting out on a higher plane than
+      ever before."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[5] By Hon. Martin Dodge, Director of the Office of Public Road
+Inquiries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GOOD ROADS FOR FARMERS[6]
+
+
+Poor roads constitute the greatest drawback to rural life, and for the
+lack of good roads the farmers suffer more than any other class. It is
+obviously unnecessary, therefore, to discuss here the benefits to be
+derived by them from improved roads. Suffice it to say, that those
+localities where good roads have been built are becoming richer, more
+prosperous, and more thickly settled, while those which do not possess
+these advantages in transportation are either at a standstill or are
+becoming poorer and more sparsely settled. If these conditions continue,
+fruitful farms may be abandoned and rich lands go to waste. Life on a
+farm often becomes, as a result of "bottomless roads," isolated and
+barren of social enjoyments and pleasures, and country people in some
+communities suffer such great disadvantage that ambition is checked,
+energy weakened, and industry paralyzed.
+
+Good roads, like good streets, make habitation along them most
+desirable; they economize time and force in transportation of products,
+reduce wear and tear on horses, harness and vehicles, and enhance the
+market value of real estate. They raise the value of farm lands and farm
+products, and tend to beautify the country through which they pass; they
+facilitate rural mail delivery and are a potent aid to education,
+religion, and sociability. Charles Sumner once said: "The road and the
+schoolmaster are the two most important agents in advancing
+civilization."
+
+[Illustration: TYPICAL MACADAM ROAD NEAR BRYN MAWR, PENNSYLVANIA]
+
+The difference between good and bad roads is often equivalent to the
+difference between profit and loss. Good roads have a money value to
+farmers as well as a political and social value, and leaving out
+convenience, comfort, social and refined influences which good roads
+always enhance, and looking at them only from the "almighty dollar"
+side, they are found to pay handsome dividends each year.
+
+People generally are beginning to realize that road-building is a public
+matter, and that the best interests of American agriculture and the
+American people as a whole demand the construction of good roads, and
+that money wisely expended for this purpose is sure to return.
+
+Road-making is perfected by practice, experience, and labor. Soils and
+clays, sand and ores, gravels and rocks, are transformed into beautiful
+roads, streets, and boulevards, by methods which conform with their
+great varieties of characters and with nature's laws. The art of
+road-building depends largely for its success upon being carried on in
+conformity with certain general principles.
+
+It is necessary that roads should be hard, smooth, comparatively level,
+and fit for use at all seasons of the year; that they should be properly
+located, or laid out on the ground, so that their grades may be such
+that animate or inanimate power may be applied upon them to the best
+advantage and without great loss of energy; that they should be properly
+constructed, the ground well drained, the roadbed graded, shaped, and
+rolled, and that they should be surfaced with the best material
+procurable; that they should be properly maintained or kept constantly
+in good repair.
+
+All the important roads in the United States can be and doubtless will
+be macadamized or otherwise improved in the not distant future. This
+expectation should govern their present location and treatment
+everywhere. Unless changes are made in the location of the roads in many
+parts of this country it would be worse than folly to macadamize them.
+"Any costly resurfacing of the existing roads will fasten them where
+they are for generations," says General Stone. The chief difficulty in
+this country is not with the surface, but with the steep grades, many of
+which are too long to be reduced by cutting and filling on the present
+lines, and if this could be done it would cost more in many cases than
+relocating them.
+
+Many of our roads were originally laid out without any attention to
+general topography, and in most cases followed the settler's path from
+cabin to cabin, the pig trail, or ran along the boundary lines of the
+farms regardless of grades or direction. Most of them remain today where
+they were located years ago, and where untold labor, expense, and energy
+have been wasted in trying to haul over them and in endeavors to improve
+their deplorable condition.
+
+The great error is made of continuing to follow these primitive paths
+with our public highways. The right course is to call in an engineer and
+throw the road around the end or along the side of steep hills instead
+of continuing to go over them, or to pull the road up on dry solid
+ground instead of splashing through the mud and water of the creek or
+swamp. Far more time and money have been wasted in trying to keep up a
+single mile of one of these "pig-track" surveys than it would take to
+build and keep in repair two miles of good road.
+
+Another and perhaps greater error is made by some persons in the West
+who continue to lay out their roads on "section lines." These sections
+are all square, with sides running north, south, east, and west. A
+person wishing to cross the country in any other than these directions
+must necessarily do so in rectangular zigzags. It also necessitates very
+often the crossing and recrossing of hills and valleys, which might be
+avoided if the roads had been constructed on scientific principles.
+
+[Illustration: A STUDY IN GRADING
+
+[_The old road had a grade of eight per cent; by the improved route the
+grade is four per cent_]]
+
+In the prairie state of Iowa, for example, where roads are no worse than
+in many other states, there is a greater number of roads having much
+steeper grades than are found in the mountainous republic of
+Switzerland. In Maryland the old stagecoach road or turnpike running
+from Washington to Baltimore makes almost a "bee line," regardless of
+hills or valleys, and the grades at places are as steep as ten or twelve
+per cent, where by making little detours the road might have been made
+perfectly level, or by running it up the hills less abruptly the grade
+might have been reduced to three or four per cent, as is done in the
+hilly regions of many parts of this and other countries. Straight roads
+are the proper kind to have, but in hilly countries their straightness
+should always be sacrificed to obtain a level surface so as to better
+accommodate the people who use them.
+
+Graceful and natural curves conforming to the lay of the land add beauty
+to the landscape, besides enhancing the value of property. Not only do
+level, curved roads add beauty to the landscape and make lands along
+them more valuable, but the horse is able to utilize his full strength
+over them; furthermore, a horse can pull only four-fifths as much on a
+grade of two feet in one hundred feet, and this gradually lessens until
+with a grade of ten feet in one hundred feet he can draw but one-fourth
+as much as he can on a level road.
+
+All roads should therefore wind around hills or be cut through instead
+of running over them, and in many cases the former can be done without
+greatly increasing the distance. To illustrate, if an apple or pear be
+cut in half and one of the halves placed on a flat surface, it will be
+seen that the horizontal distance around from stem to blossom is no
+greater than the distance over between the same points.
+
+The wilfulness of one or two private individuals sometimes becomes a
+barrier to traffic and commerce. The great drawback to the laying out of
+roads on the principle referred to is that of the necessity, in some
+cases, of building them through the best lands, the choicest pastures
+and orchards, instead, as they do now, of cutting around the farm line
+or passing through old worn-out fields or over rocky knolls. But if
+farmers wish people to know that they have good farms, good cattle,
+sheep, or horses, good grain, fruit, or vegetables, they should let the
+roads go through the best parts of the farms.
+
+The difference in length between a straight road and one which is
+slightly curved is less than one would imagine. Says Sganzin: "If a road
+between two places ten miles apart were made to curve so that the eye
+could see no farther than a quarter of a mile of it at once, its length
+would exceed that of a perfectly straight road between the same points
+by only about one hundred and fifty yards." Even if the distance around
+a hill be much greater, it is often more economical to construct it that
+way than to go over and necessitate the expenditure of large amounts of
+money in reducing the grade, or a waste of much valuable time and energy
+in transporting goods that way. Gillespie says "that, as a general rule,
+the horizontal length of a road may be advantageously increased to avoid
+an ascent by at least twenty times the perpendicular height which is
+thus to be avoided--that is, to escape a hill one hundred feet high it
+would be proper for the road to make such a circuit as would increase
+its length two thousand feet." The mathematical axiom that "a straight
+line is the shortest distance between two points" is not, therefore, the
+best rule to follow in laying out a road; better is the proverb that
+"the longest way round is the shortest way home."
+
+The grade is the most important factor to be considered in the location
+of roads. The smoother the road surface, the less the grade should be.
+
+Whether the road be constructed of earth, stone, or gravel, steep grades
+should always be avoided if possible. They become covered at times with
+coatings of ice or slippery soil, making them very difficult to ascend
+with loaded vehicles, as well as dangerous to descend. They allow water
+to rush down at such a rate as to wash great gaps alongside or to carry
+the surfacing material away. As the grade increases in steepness either
+the load has to be diminished in proportion or more horses or power
+attached. From Gillespie we find that if a horse can draw on a level one
+thousand pounds, on a rise of--
+
+ 1 foot in--                      Pounds
+
+ 100 feet he draws                  900
+ 50 feet                            810
+ 44 feet                            750
+ 40 feet                            720
+ 30 feet                            640
+ 25 feet                            540
+ 24 feet                            500
+ 20 feet                            400
+ 10 feet                            250
+
+It is therefore seen that when the grades are 1 foot in 44 feet, or 120
+feet to the mile, a horse can draw only three-fourths as much as he can
+on a level; where the grade is 1 foot in 24 feet, or 220 feet to the
+mile, he can draw only one-half as much, and on a ten per cent grade, or
+520 feet to the mile, he is able to draw only one-fourth as much as on a
+level road.
+
+As a chain is no stronger than its weakest link, just so the greatest
+load which can be hauled over a road is the load which can be hauled
+through the deepest mud hole or up the steepest hill on that road. The
+cost of haulage is, therefore, necessarily increased in proportion to
+the roughness of the surface or steepness of the grade. It costs one and
+one-half times as much to haul over a road having a five per cent grade
+and three times as much over one having a ten per cent grade as on a
+level road. As a perfectly level road can seldom be had, it is well to
+know the steepest allowable grade. If the hill be one of great length,
+it is sometimes best to have the lowest part steepest, upon which the
+horse is capable of exerting his full strength, and to make the slope
+more gentle toward the summit, to correspond with the continually
+decreasing strength of the fatigued animal.
+
+So far as descent is concerned, a road should not be so steep that the
+wagons and carriages cannot be drawn down it with perfect ease and
+safety. Sir Henry Parnell considered that when the grade was no greater
+than one foot in thirty-five feet, vehicles could be drawn down it at a
+speed of twelve miles an hour with perfect safety. Gillespie says:
+
+"It has been ascertained that a horse can for a short time double his
+usual exertion; also, that on the best roads he exerts a pressure
+against his collar of about one thirty-fifth of the load. If he can
+double his exertion for a time, he can pull one thirty-fifth more, and
+the slope which would force him to lift that proportion would be, as
+seen from the above table, one of one in thirty-five, or about a three
+per cent grade. On this slope, however, he would be compelled to double
+his ordinary exertion to draw a full load, and it would therefore be the
+maximum grade." Mr. Isaac B. Potter, an eminent authority upon roads,
+says:
+
+"Dirty water and watery dirt make bad going, and mud is the greatest
+obstacle to the travel and traffic of the farmer. Mud is a mixture of
+dirt and water. The dirt is always to be found in the roadway, and the
+water, which comes in rain, snow, and frost, softens it; horses and
+wagons and narrow wheel tires knead it and mix it, and it soon gets into
+so bad a condition that a fairly loaded wagon cannot be hauled through
+it.
+
+"We cannot prevent the coming of this water, and it only remains for us
+to get rid of it, which can be speedily done if we go about it in the
+right way. Very few people know how great an amount of water falls upon
+the country road, and it may surprise some of us to be told that on each
+mile of an ordinary country highway three rods wide within the United
+States there falls each year an average of twenty-seven thousand tons of
+water. In the ordinary country dirt road the water seems to stick and
+stay as if there was no other place for it, and this is only because we
+have never given it a fair opportunity to run out of the dirt and find
+its level in other places. We cannot make a hard road out of soft mud,
+and no amount of labor and machinery will make a good dirt road that
+will stay good unless some plan is adopted to get rid of the surplus
+water. Water is a heavy, limpid fluid, hard to confine and easy to let
+loose. It is always seeking for a chance to run down a hill; always
+trying to find its lowest level."
+
+An essential feature of a good road is good drainage, and the principles
+of good drainage remain substantially the same whether the road be
+constructed of earth, gravel, shells, stones, or asphalt. The first
+demand of good drainage is to attend to the shape of road surface. This
+must be "crowned," or rounded up toward the center, so that there may be
+a fall from the center to the sides, thus compelling the water to flow
+rapidly from the surface into the gutters which should be constructed on
+one or both sides, and from there in turn be discharged into larger and
+more open channels. Furthermore, it is necessary that no water be
+allowed to flow across a roadway; culverts, tile, stone, or box drains
+should be provided for that purpose.
+
+In addition to being well covered and drained, the surface should be
+kept as smooth as possible; that is, free from ruts, wheel tracks,
+holes, or hollows. If any of these exist, instead of being thrown to
+the side the water is held back and is either evaporated by the sun or
+absorbed by the material of which the road is constructed. In the latter
+case the material loses its solidity, softens and yields to the impact
+of the horses' feet and the wheels of vehicles, and, like the water
+poured upon a grindstone, so the water poured on a road surface which is
+not properly drained assists the grinding action of the wheels in
+rutting or completely destroying the surface. When water is allowed to
+stand on a road the holes and ruts rapidly increase in number and size;
+wagon after wagon sinks deeper and deeper, until the road finally
+becomes utterly bad, and sometimes impassable, as frequently found in
+many parts of the country during the winter season.
+
+Road drainage is just as essential to a good road as farm drainage is to
+a good farm. In fact, the two go hand in hand, and the better the one
+the better the other, and vice versa. There are thousands of miles of
+public roads in the United States which are practically impassable
+during some portion of the year on account of bad drainage, while for
+the same reason thousands of acres of the richest meadow and swamp lands
+lie idle from year in to year out.
+
+The wearing surface of a road must be in effect a roof; that is, the
+section in the middle should be the highest part and the traveled
+roadway should be made as impervious to water as possible, so that it
+will flow freely and quickly into the gutters or ditches alongside. The
+best shape for the cross section of a road has been found to be either a
+flat ellipse or one made up of two plane surfaces sloping uniformly from
+the middle to the sides and joined in the center by a small, circular
+curve. Either of these sections may be used, provided it is not too flat
+in the middle for good drainage or too steep at the gutters for safety.
+The steepness of the slope from the center to the sides should depend
+upon the nature of the surface, being greater or less according to its
+roughness or smoothness. This slope ought to be greatest on earth roads,
+perhaps as much in some cases as one foot in twenty feet after the
+surface has been thoroughly rolled or compacted by traffic. This varies
+from about one in twenty to one in thirty on a macadam road, to one in
+forty or one in sixty on the various classes of pavements, and for
+asphalt sometimes as low as one in eighty.
+
+Where the road is constructed on a grade or hill the slope from the
+center to the sides should be slightly steeper than that on the level
+road. The best cross section for roads on grades is the one made up from
+two plane surfaces sloping uniformly from the center to the sides. This
+is done so as to avoid the danger of overturning near the side ditches,
+which would necessarily be increased if the elliptical form were used.
+The slope from the center to the sides must be steep enough to lead the
+water into the side ditches instead of allowing it to run down the
+middle of the road. Every wheel track on an inclined roadway becomes a
+channel for carrying down the water, and unless the curvature is
+sufficient these tracks are quickly deepened into water courses which
+cut into and sometimes destroy the best improved road.
+
+In order to prevent the washing out of earth roads on hills it
+sometimes becomes necessary to construct water breaks; that is, broad
+shallow ditches arranged so as to catch the surface water and carry it
+each way into the side ditches. Such ditches retard traffic to a certain
+extent, and often result in overturning vehicles; consequently they
+should never be used until all other means have failed to cause the
+water to flow into the side channels; neither should they be allowed to
+cross the entire width of the road diagonally, but should be constructed
+in the shape of the letter V. This arrangement permits teams following
+the middle of the road to cross the ditch squarely and thus avoid the
+danger of overturning. These ditches should not be deeper than is
+absolutely necessary to throw the water off the surface, and the part in
+the center should be the shallowest.
+
+Unfortunately farmers and road masters have a fixed idea that one way to
+prevent hills, long and short, from washing is to heap upon them
+quantities of those original tumular obstructions known indifferently as
+"thank-you-ma'ams," "breaks," or "hummocks," and the number they can
+squeeze in upon a single hill is positively astonishing. Quoting Mr.
+Isaac B. Potter:
+
+      "Side ditches are necessary because the thousands of tons of
+      water which fall upon every mile of country road each year,
+      in the form of rain or snow, should be carried away to some
+      neighboring creek or other water channel as fast as the rain
+      falls and the snow melts, so as to prevent its forming mud
+      and destroying the surface of the road. When the ground is
+      frozen and a heavy rain or sudden thaw occurs, the side
+      ditch is the only means of getting rid of the surface water;
+      for no matter how sandy or porous the soil may be, when
+      filled with frost it is practically water-tight, and the
+      water which falls or forms on the surface must either remain
+      there or be carried away by surface ditches at the sides of
+      the road.
+
+      "A side ditch should have a gradually falling and even grade
+      at the bottom, and broad, flaring sides to prevent the
+      caving in of its banks. It can be easily cleared of snow,
+      weeds, and rubbish; the water will run into it easily from
+      each side, and it is not dangerous to wagons and foot
+      travelers. It is therefore a much better ditch than the
+      kind of ditch very often dug by erosion along the country
+      roadside."
+
+Where the road is built on a grade some provision should be made to
+prevent the wash of the gutters into great, deep gullies. This can be
+done by paving the bottom and sides of the gutters with brick, river
+rocks, or field stone. In order to make the flow in such side ditches as
+small as possible it is advisable to construct outlets into the adjacent
+fields or to lay underground pipes or tile drains with openings into the
+ditches at frequent intervals.
+
+The size of side ditches should depend upon the character of the soil
+and the amount of water they are expected to carry. If possible they
+should be located three feet from the edge of the traveled roadway, so
+that if the latter is fourteen feet wide there will be twenty feet of
+clear space between ditches.
+
+The bottom of the ditch may vary in width from three to twelve inches,
+or even more, as may be found necessary in order to carry the largest
+amount of water which is expected to flow through it at any one time.
+Sometimes the only ditches necessary to carry off the surface water are
+those made by the use of the road machines or road graders. The blade of
+the machine may be set at any desired angle, and when drawn along by
+horses, cuts into the surface and moves the earth from the sides toward
+the center, forming gutters alongside and distributing the earth
+uniformly over the traveled way. Such gutters are liable to become
+clogged by brush, weeds, and other debris, or destroyed by passing
+wagons, and it is therefore better, when the space permits, to have the
+side ditches above referred to, even if the road be built with a road
+machine.
+
+In order to have a good road it is just as necessary that water should
+not be allowed to attack the substructure from below as that it should
+not be permitted to percolate through it from above. Especially is the
+former provision essential in cold climates, where, if water is allowed
+to remain in the substructure, the whole roadway is liable to become
+broken up and destroyed by frost and the wheels of vehicles. Therefore,
+where the road runs through low wet lands or over certain kinds of
+clayey soils, surface drainage is not all that is necessary. Common side
+drains catch surface water and surface water only. Isaac Potter says:
+
+      "Many miles of road are on low, flat lands and on springy
+      soils, and thousands of miles of prairie roads are, for many
+      weeks in the year, laid on a wet subsoil. In all such cases,
+      and, indeed, in every case where the nature of the ground is
+      not such as to insure quick drainage, the road may be vastly
+      benefited by under drainage. An under drain clears the soil
+      of surplus water, dries it, warms it, and makes impossible
+      the formation of deep, heavy, frozen crusts, which are found
+      in every undrained road when the severe winter weather
+      follows the heavy fall rains. This crust causes nine-tenths
+      of the difficulties of travel in the time of sudden or
+      long-continued thaws.
+
+      "Roads constructed over wet undrained lands are always
+      difficult to manage and expensive to maintain, and they are
+      liable to be broken up in wet weather or after frosts. It
+      will be much cheaper in the long run to go to the expense
+      of making the drainage of the subjacent soil and
+      substructure as perfect as possible. There is scarcely an
+      earth road in the United States which cannot be so improved
+      by surface or subdrainage as to yield benefits to the
+      farmers a hundred times greater in value than the cost of
+      the drains themselves.
+
+      "Under drains are not expensive. On the contrary, they are
+      cheap and easily made, and if made in a substantial way and
+      according to the rules of common sense a good under drain
+      will last for ages. Use the best tools and materials you can
+      get; employ them as well as you know how, and wait results
+      with a clear conscience. Slim fagots of wood bound together
+      and laid lengthwise at the bottom of a carefully graded
+      drain ditch will answer fairly well if stone or drain tile
+      cannot be had, and will be of infinite benefit to a dirt
+      road laid on springy soils."
+
+Subdrains should be carefully graded with a level at the bottom to a
+depth of about four feet, and should have a continuous fall throughout
+their entire length of at least six inches for each one hundred feet in
+length. If tile drains cannot be had, large, flat stones may be
+carefully placed so as to form a clear, open passage at the bottom for
+the flow of the water. The ditch should then be half filled with rough
+field stones, and on these a layer of smaller stones or gravel and a
+layer of sod, hay, gravel, cinders, or straw, or, if none of these can
+be had, of soil. If field stones or drain tile cannot be procured,
+satisfactory results may be attained by the use of logs and brush.
+
+If there be springs in the soil which might destroy the stability of the
+road, they should, if possible, be tapped and the water carried under or
+along the side until it can be turned away into some side channel. Such
+drains may be made of bundles of brush, field stones, brick, or drain
+tiles. They should be so protected by straw, sod, or brush as to prevent
+the soil from washing in and clogging them.
+
+Most of the roads in this country are of necessity constructed of earth,
+while in a few of the richer and more enterprising communities the most
+important thoroughfares are surfaced with gravel, shell, stones, or
+other materials. Unless some new system for the improvement of public
+roads is adopted, the inability of rural communities to raise funds for
+this purpose will necessarily cause the construction of hard roads to be
+very gradual for some time to come. Until this new system is adopted the
+most important problem will be that of making the most of the roads
+which exist, rather than building new ones of specially prepared
+materials. The natural materials and the funds already available must be
+used with skill and judgment in order to secure the best results. The
+location, grades, and drainage having been treated in the preceding
+pages, the next and most important consideration is that of constructing
+and improving the various kinds of roads.
+
+Of earth roads, as commonly built, it suffices to say that their present
+conditions should not be tolerated in communities where there are any
+other materials with which to improve them. Earth is the poorest of all
+road materials, aside from sand, and earth roads require more attention
+than any other kind of roads, and as a rule get less. At best, they
+possess so many defects that they should have all the attention and care
+of which their condition is susceptible. With earth alone, however, a
+very passable road can be made, provided the principles of location,
+drainage, and shape of surface, together with that of keeping the
+surface as smooth and firm as possible by rolling, be strictly adhered
+to. In fact a good earth road is second to none for summer travel and
+superior to many of the so-called macadam or stone roads.
+
+"Water is the great road destroyer," and too much attention cannot be
+given to the surface and subdrainage of earth roads. The material of
+which their surfaces are composed is more susceptible to the action of
+water and more easily destroyed by it than any other highway material.
+Drainage alone will often change a bad road into a good one, while on
+the other hand the best road may be destroyed by the absence of good
+drains.
+
+The same can be said of rolling, which is a very important matter in
+attempting to build or maintain a satisfactory earth road. If loose
+earth is dumped into the middle of the road and consolidated by
+traffic, the action of the narrow-tired wheels cuts it or rolls it into
+uneven ruts and ridges, which hold water, and ultimately results, if in
+the winter season, in a sticky, muddy surface, or if it be in dry
+weather, in covering the surface with several inches of dust. If,
+however, the surface be prepared with a road machine and properly rolled
+with a heavy roller, it can usually be made sufficiently firm and smooth
+to sustain the traffic without rutting, and resist the penetrating
+action of the water. Every road is made smoother, harder, and better by
+rolling. Such rolling should be done in damp weather, or if that is not
+possible, the surface should be sprinkled if the character of the soil
+requires such aid for its proper consolidation.
+
+In constructing new earth roads all stumps, brush, vegetable matter,
+rocks, and bowlders should be removed from the surface and the resulting
+holes filled in with suitable material, carefully and thoroughly tamped
+or rolled, before the road embankment is commenced. No perishable
+material should be used in forming the permanent embankments. Where
+possible the longitudinal grade should be kept down to one foot in
+thirty feet, and should under no circumstances exceed one in twenty,
+while that from center to sides should be maintained at one foot in
+twenty feet.
+
+Wherever the subgrade soil is found unsuitable it should be removed and
+replaced with good material rolled to a bearing, _i.e._, so as to be
+smooth and compact. The roadbed, having been brought to the required
+grade and crown, should be rolled several times to compact the surface.
+All inequalities discovered during the rolling should be leveled up and
+rerolled. On the prepared subgrade, the earth should be spread, harrowed
+if necessary, and then rolled to a bearing by passing the unballasted
+road roller a number of times over every portion of the surface of the
+section.
+
+In level countries and with narrow roads, enough material may be
+excavated to raise the roadway above the subgrade in forming the side
+ditches by means of road machines. If not, the required earth should be
+obtained by widening the side excavations, or from cuttings on the line
+of the new roadway, or from pits close by, elevating graders and modern
+dumping or spreading wagons being preferably used for this purpose. When
+the earth is brought up to the final height, it is again harrowed, then
+trimmed by means of road levelers or road machines and ultimately rolled
+to a solid and smooth surface with road rollers gradually increased in
+weight by the addition of ballast.
+
+No filling should be brought up in layers exceeding nine inches in
+depth. During the rolling, sprinkling should be attended to wherever the
+character of the soil requires such aid. The cross section of the
+roadway must be maintained during the last rolling stage by the addition
+of earth as needed. On clay soils a layer of sand, gravel, or ashes
+spread on the roadway will prevent the sticking of the clay to the
+roller. As previously explained, the finishing touches to the road
+surface should be given by a heavy roller.
+
+Before the earth road is opened to traffic, deep and wide side ditches
+should be constructed, with a fall throughout their entire length of at
+least one in one hundred and twenty. They should be cleaned and left
+with the drain tiling connections, if any, in good working order.
+
+Clay soils, as a rule, absorb water quite freely and soften when
+saturated, but water does not readily pass through them; hence they are
+not easily subdrained. When used alone, clay is the least desirable of
+all road materials, but roads constructed over clay soils may be treated
+with sand or small gravel, from which a comparatively hard and compact
+mass is formed which is nearly impervious to water. Material of this
+character found in the natural state, commonly known as hardpan, makes,
+when properly applied, a very solid and durable surface. In soil
+composed of a mixture of sand, gravel, and clay, all that is necessary
+to make a good road of its kind is to "crown" the surface, keep the ruts
+and hollows filled, and the ditches open and free.
+
+[Illustration: Sand Clay Road in Richland County, South Carolina
+
+[_Sand soil with nine inches of clay and two inches cover of sand_]]
+
+Roads are prone to wear in ruts, and when hollows and ruts begin to make
+their appearance on the surface of an earth road great care should be
+used in selecting new material, with which they should be immediately
+filled, because a hole which could have been filled at first with a
+shovel full of material would soon need a cart full. It should, if
+possible, be of a gravelly nature, entirely free from vegetable earth,
+muck, or mold. Sod or turf should not be placed on the surface, neither
+should the surface be renewed by throwing upon it the worn-out material
+from the gutters alongside. The last injunction, if rightly observed and
+the proper remedy applied, would doubtless put an end to the deplorable
+condition of thousands of miles of earth roads in the United States.
+
+A road-maker should not go to the other extreme and fill up ruts and
+holes with stone or large gravel. In many cases it would be wiser to
+dump such material in the river. These stones do not wear uniformly with
+the rest of the material, but produce bumps and ridges, and in nearly
+every case result in making two holes instead of one. Every hole or rut
+in a roadway, if not tamped full of some good material like that of
+which the road is constructed, will become filled with water, and
+finally with mud and water, and will be dug deeper and wider by each
+passing vehicle.
+
+The work of maintaining earth roads will be much increased by lack of
+care in properly finishing the work. The labor and money spent in
+rolling a newly-made road may save many times that amount of labor and
+money in making future repairs. After the material has been placed it
+should not be left for the traffic to consolidate, or for the rains to
+wash off into the ditches, but should be carefully formed and surfaced,
+and then, if possible, rolled. The rolling not only consolidates the
+material, but puts the roadbed in proper shape for travel immediately.
+If there is anything more trying on man or beast than to travel over an
+unimproved road, it must be to travel over one which has just been
+"worked" by the antiquated methods now in vogue in many of the states.
+
+The traveled way should never be repaired by the use of plows or scoops.
+The plow breaks up the compact surface which age and traffic have made
+tolerable. Earth roads can be rapidly repaired by a judicious use of
+road machines and road rollers. The road machine places the material
+where it is most needed, and the roller compacts and keeps it there.
+The labor-saving machinery now manufactured for road-building is just as
+effectual and necessary as the modern mower, self-binder, and thrasher.
+Road graders and rollers are the modern inventions necessary to
+permanent and economical construction. Two men with two teams can build
+more road in one day with a grader and roller than fifty men can with
+picks and shovels, and do it more uniformly and more thoroughly.
+
+Doubtless the best way to keep an earth road, or any road, for that
+matter, in repair is by the use of wide tires on all wagons carrying
+heavy burdens. Water and narrow tires aid each other in destroying
+streets, macadam, gravel, and earth roads. Narrow tires are also among
+the most destructive agents to the fields, pastures, and meadows of
+farms, while on the other hand wide tires are road-makers; they roll and
+harden the surface, and every loaded wagon becomes in effect a road
+roller. Nothing so much tends to the improving of a road as the
+continued rolling of its surface.
+
+Tests recently made at the experiment stations in Utah and Missouri show
+that wide tires not only improve the surface of roads, but that under
+ordinary circumstances less power is required to pull a wagon on which
+wide tires are used. The introduction in recent years of a wide metallic
+tire which can be placed on any narrow-tired wheel at the cost of two
+dollars each, has removed one very serious objection to the proposed
+substitution of broad tires for the narrow ones now in use.
+
+Repairs on earth roads should be attended to particularly in the spring
+of the year, but the great mistake of letting all the repairs go until
+that time should rot be made. The great want of the country road is
+daily care, and the sooner we do away with the system of "working out"
+our road taxes, and pay such taxes in money, the sooner will it be
+possible to build improved roads and to hire experts to keep them
+constantly in good repair. Roads could then secure attention when such
+attention is most needed. If they are repaired only annually or
+semiannually they are seldom in good condition but when they are given
+daily or weekly care they are almost always in good condition, and,
+moreover, the second method costs far less than the first. A portion of
+all levy tax money raised for road purposes should be used in buying
+improved road machinery, and in constructing each year a few miles of
+improved stone or gravel roads.
+
+The only exceptions to the instructions given on road drainage are found
+in the attempt to improve a sand road. The more one improves the
+drainage of a sand road the more deplorable becomes its condition.
+Nothing will ruin one quicker than to dig a ditch on each side and drain
+all the water away. The best way to make such a road firm is to keep it
+constantly damp. Very bushy or shady trees alongside such roads prevent
+the evaporation of water.
+
+The usual way of mending roads which run over loose sandy soils is to
+cover the surface with tough clay or mix the clay and sand together.
+This is quite an expensive treatment if the clay has to be transported a
+great distance, but the expense may be reduced by improving only eight
+or ten feet or half of the roadway.
+
+Any strong, fibrous substance, and especially one which holds moisture,
+such as the refuse of sugar cane or sorghum, and even common straw,
+flax, or swamp grass, will be useful. Spent tan is of some service, and
+wood fiber in any form is excellent. The best is the fibrous sawdust
+made in sawing shingles by those machines which cut lengthwise of the
+fiber into the side of the block. Sawdust is first spread on the road
+from eight to ten inches deep, and this is covered with sand to protect
+the road against fire lighted from pipes or cigars carelessly thrown or
+emptied on the roadbed. The sand also keeps the sawdust damp. The dust
+and sand soon become hard and packed, and the wheels of the heaviest
+wagons make but little impression upon the surface. The roadbed appears
+to be almost as solid as a plank road, but is much easier for the teams.
+The road prepared in this manner will remain good for four or five years
+and will then require renewing in some parts. The ordinary lumber
+sawdust would not be so good, of course, but if mixed with planer
+shavings might serve fairly well.
+
+Roads built of poles or logs laid across the roadway are called corduroy
+roads, because of their corrugated or ribbed appearance. Like earth
+roads, they should never be built where it is possible to secure any
+other good material; but, as is frequently the case in swampy, timbered
+regions, other material is unavailable, and as the road would be
+absolutely impassable without them at certain seasons of the year, it is
+well to know how to make them. Roads of this character should be fifteen
+or sixteen feet wide, so as to enable wagons to pass each other. Logs
+are superior to poles for this purpose and should be used if possible.
+The following in regard to the construction of corduroy roads is from
+Gilmore's _Roads, Streets, and Pavements_:
+
+"The logs are all cut the same length, which should be that of the
+required width of the road, and in laying them down such care in
+selection should be exercised as will give the smallest joints or
+openings between them. In order to reduce as much as possible the
+resistance to draft and the violence of the repeated shocks to which
+vehicles are subjected upon these roads, and also to render its surface
+practicable for draft animals, it is customary to level up between the
+logs with smaller pieces of the same length but split to a triangular
+cross section. These are inserted with edges downward in the open
+joints, so as to bring their surface even with the upper sides of the
+large logs, or as nearly so as practicable.
+
+"Upon the bed thus prepared a layer of brushwood is put, with a few
+inches in thickness, with soil or turf on top to keep it in place. This
+completes the road. The logs are laid directly upon the natural surface
+of the soil, those of the same or nearly of the same diameter being kept
+together, and the top covering of soil is excavated from side ditches.
+
+"Cross drains may usually be omitted in roads of this kind, as the
+openings between the logs, even when laid with utmost care, will furnish
+more than ample water way for drainage from the ditch on the upper to
+that on the lower side of the road. When the passage of a creek of
+considerable volume is to be provided for, and in localities subject to
+freshets, cross drains or culverts are made wherever necessary by the
+omission of two or more logs, the openings being bridged with planks,
+split rails, or poles laid transversely to the axis of the road and
+resting on cross beams notched into the logs on either side."
+
+The essential requirement of a good road is that it should be firm and
+unyielding at all times and in all kinds of weather, so that its surface
+may be smooth and impervious to water. Earth roads at best fulfil none
+of these requirements, unless they be covered with some artificial
+material. On a well-made gravel road one horse can draw twice as large a
+load as he can on a well-made earth road. On a hard smooth stone road
+one horse can pull as much as four horses will on a good earth road. If
+larger loads can be hauled and better time made on good hard roads than
+on good earth ones, the area and the number of people benefited are
+increased in direct proportion to the improvement of their surface.
+Moreover, it is evident that a farm four or five miles from the market
+or shipping point located on or near a hard road is virtually nearer the
+market than one situated only two or three miles away, but located on a
+soft and yielding road. Hard roads are divided here into three
+classes--gravel, shell, and stone.
+
+Although it is impracticable, and in many cases impossible, for
+communities to build good stone roads, a surface of gravel may
+frequently be used to advantage, giving far better results than could be
+attained by the use of earth alone. Where beds of good gravel are
+available this is the simplest, cheapest, and most effective method of
+improving country roads.
+
+[Illustration: GRAVEL ROAD NEAR SOLDIERS' HOME, DISTRICT OF
+COLUMBIA]
+
+In connection with the building and maintenance of gravel roads the most
+important matter to consider is that of selecting the proper material. A
+small proportion of argillaceous sand, clayey, or earthy matter
+contained in some gravel enables it to pack readily and consolidate
+under traffic or the road roller. Seaside and river gravel, which is
+composed usually of rounded, waterworn pebbles, is unfit for surfacing
+roads. The small stones of which they are composed, having no angular
+projections or sharp edges, easily move or slide against each other, and
+will not bind together, and even when mixed with clay may turn
+freely, causing the whole surface to be loose, like materials in a
+shaken sieve.
+
+Inferior qualities of gravel can sometimes be used for foundations; but
+where it becomes necessary to employ such material even for that purpose
+it is well to mix just enough sandy or clayey loam to bind it firmly
+together. For the wearing surface or the top layer the pebbles should,
+if possible, be comparatively clean, hard, angular, and tough, so that
+they will readily consolidate and will not be easily pulverized by the
+impact of traffic, into dust and mud. They should be coarse, varying in
+size from half an inch to an inch and one-half.
+
+Where blue gravel or hardpan and clean bank gravel are procurable, a
+good road may be made by mixing the two together. Pit gravel or gravel
+dug from the earth as a rule contains too much earthy matter. This may,
+however, be removed by sifting. For this purpose two sieves are
+necessary, through which the gravel should be thrown. The meshes of one
+sieve should be one and one-half or two inches in diameter, while the
+meshes of the other should be three-fourths of an inch. All pebbles
+which will not go through the one and one-half inch meshes should be
+rejected or broken so that they will go through. All material which
+sifts through the three-fourths inch meshes should be rejected for the
+road, but may be used in making side paths. The excellent road which can
+be built from materials prepared in this way is so far superior to the
+one made of the natural clayey material that the expense and trouble of
+sifting is many times repaid.
+
+The best gravel for road-building stands perpendicular in the bank; that
+is, when the pit has been opened up the remainder stands compact and
+firm and cannot be dislodged except by use of the pick, and when it
+gives way falls in great chunks or solid masses. Such material usually
+contains tough angular gravel with just enough cementing properties to
+enable it to readily pack and consolidate, and requires no further
+treatment than to place it properly on the prepared roadbed.
+
+Some earth roads may be greatly improved by covering the surface with a
+layer of three or four inches of gravel, and sometimes even a thinner
+layer may prove of very great benefit if kept in proper repair. The
+subsoil of such roadway ought, however, to be well drained, or of a
+light and porous nature. Roads constructed over clay soils require a
+layer of at least six inches of gravel. The gravel must be deep enough
+to prevent the weight of traffic forcing the surface material into weak
+places in the clay beneath, and also to prevent the surface water from
+percolating through and softening the clay and causing the whole roadway
+to be torn up.
+
+Owing to a lack of knowledge regarding construction, indifference, or
+carelessness in building or improving, roads made of gravel are often
+very much worse than they ought to be. Some of them are made by simply
+dumping the material into ruts, mud holes, or gutter-like depressions,
+or on unimproved foundation, and are left thus for traffic to
+consolidate, while others are made by covering the surface with inferior
+material without any attention being paid to the fundamental principles
+of drainage. As a result of such thoughtless and haphazard methods the
+road usually becomes rougher and more completely covered with holes than
+before.
+
+In constructing a gravel road the roadbed should first be brought to the
+proper grade. Ordinarily an excavation is then made to the depth of
+eight to ten inches, varying in width with the requirements of traffic.
+For a farm or farming community the width need not be greater than ten
+or twelve feet. A roadway which is too wide is not only useless, but the
+extra width is a positive damage. Any width beyond that needed for the
+traffic is not only a waste of money in constructing the road, but is
+the cause of a never-ending expense in maintaining it. The surface of
+the roadbed should preferably have a fall from the center to the sides
+the same as that to be given the finished road, and should, if possible,
+be thoroughly rolled and consolidated until perfectly smooth and firm.
+
+A layer, not thicker than four inches, of good gravel, such as that
+recommended above, should then be spread evenly over the prepared
+roadbed. Such material is usually carried upon a road in wheelbarrows or
+dump carts, and then spread in even layers with rakes, but the latest
+and best device for this purpose is a spreading cart.
+
+If a roller cannot be had, the road is thrown open to traffic until it
+becomes fairly well consolidated; but it is impossible properly to
+consolidate materials by the movement of vehicles over the road, and if
+this means is pursued constant watchfulness is necessary to prevent
+unequal wear and to keep the surface smooth and free from ruts. The work
+may be hastened and facilitated by the use of a horse roller or light
+steam roller; and of course far better results can be accomplished by
+this means. If the gravel be too dry to consolidate easily it should be
+kept moist by sprinkling. It should not, however, be made too wet, as
+any earthy or clayey matter in the gravel is liable to be dissolved.
+
+As soon as the first layer has been properly consolidated, a second,
+third, and, if necessary, fourth layer, each three or four inches in
+thickness, is spread on and treated in the same manner, until the road
+is built up to the required thickness and cross section. The thickness
+in most cases need not be greater than ten or twelve inches, and the
+fall from the center to the sides ought not to be greater than one foot
+in twenty feet, or less than one in twenty-five.
+
+The last or surface layer should be rolled until the wheels of heavily
+loaded vehicles passing over it make no visible impression. If the top
+layer is deficient in binding material and will not properly
+consolidate, a thin layer, not exceeding one inch in thickness, of sand
+or gravelly loam or clay, should be evenly spread on and slightly
+sprinkled if in dry weather, before the rolling is begun. Hardpan or
+stone screenings are much preferred for this purpose if they can be had.
+
+The tendency of material to spread under the roller and work toward the
+sides can be resisted by rolling that portion nearest the gutters first.
+To give the surface the required form and to secure uniform density, it
+is necessary at times to employ men with rakes to fill any depressions
+which may form.
+
+In order to maintain a gravel road in good condition, it is well to keep
+piles of gravel alongside at frequent intervals, so that the person who
+repairs the road can get the material without going too far for it. As
+soon as ruts or holes appear on the surface some of this good fresh
+material should be added and tamped into position or kept raked smooth
+until properly consolidated.
+
+If the surface needs replenishing or rounding up, as is frequently the
+case with new roads after considerable wear, the material should be
+applied in sections or patches, raked and rolled until hard and smooth.
+
+Care must be taken that the water from higher places does not drain upon
+or run across the road. The side ditches, culverts, and drains should be
+kept open and free from debris.
+
+In many of the Eastern and Southern States road stones do not exist;
+neither is it possible to secure good coarse gravel. No such material
+can be secured except at such an expense for freight as to practically
+preclude its use for road-building. Oyster shells can be secured
+cheaply in most of these states, and when applied directly upon sand or
+sandy soil, eight or ten inches in thickness, they form excellent roads
+for pleasure driving and light traffic. Shells wear much more rapidly
+than broken stone or gravel of good quality, and consequently roads made
+of them require more constant attention to keep them in good order. In
+most cases they should have an entirely new surface every three or four
+years. When properly maintained they possess many of the qualities found
+in good stone or gravel roads, and so far as beauty is concerned they
+cannot be surpassed.
+
+The greatest obstacles to good stone road construction in most places in
+the United States are the existing methods of building and systems of
+management, whereby millions of dollars are annually wasted in improper
+construction or in making trifling repairs on temporary structures.
+
+[Illustration: OYSTER-SHELL OBJECT-LESSON ROAD
+
+[_In course of construction, near Mobile, Alabama_]]
+
+The practice of using too soft, too brittle, or rotten material on roads
+cannot be too severely condemned. Some people seem to think that if a
+stone quarries easily, breaks easily, and packs readily, it is the
+very best stone for road-building. This practice, together with that of
+placing the material on unimproved foundations and leaving it thus for
+traffic to consolidate, has done a great deal to destroy the confidence
+of many people in stone roads. There is no reason in the world why a
+road should not last for ages if it is built of good material and kept
+in proper repair. If this is not done, the money spent is more than
+wasted. It is more economical, as a rule, to bring good materials a long
+distance by rail or water than to employ inferior ones procured close at
+hand.
+
+The durability of roads depends largely upon the power of the materials
+of which they are composed to resist those natural and artificial forces
+which are constantly acting to destroy them. The fragments of which they
+are constructed are liable to be attacked in cold climates by frost, and
+in all climates by water and wind. If composed of stone or gravel, the
+particles are constantly grinding against each other and being exposed
+to the impact of the tires of vehicles and the feet of animals.
+Atmospheric agencies are also at work decomposing and disintegrating
+the material. It is obviously necessary, therefore, that great care be
+exercised in selecting for the surfacing of roads those stones which are
+less liable to be destroyed or decomposed by these physical, dynamical,
+and chemical forces.
+
+Siliceous materials, those composed of flint or quartz, although hard,
+are brittle and deficient in toughness. Granite is not desirable because
+it is composed of three materials of different natures, viz., quartz,
+feldspar, and mica, the first of which is brittle, the second liable to
+decompose rapidly, and the third laminable or of a scaly or layerlike
+nature. Some granites which contain hornblende instead of feldspar are
+desirable. The darker the variety the better. Gneiss, which is composed
+of quartz, feldspar, and mica, more or less distinctly slaty, is
+inferior to granite. Mica-slate stones are altogether useless. The
+argillaceous slates or clayey slates make a smooth surface, but one
+which is easily destroyed when wet. The sandstones are utterly useless
+for road-building. The tougher limestones are very good, but the softer
+ones, though they bind and make a smooth surface very quickly, are too
+weak for heavy loads; they wear, wash, and blow away very rapidly.
+
+The materials employed for surfacing roads should be both hard and
+tough, and should possess by all means cementing and recementing
+qualities. For the Southern States, where there are no frosts to contend
+with, the best qualities of limestone are considered quite satisfactory
+so far as the cementing and recementing qualities are concerned; but in
+most cases roads of this class of material do not stand the wear and
+tear of traffic like those built of trap rock, and when exposed to the
+severe northern winters such material disintegrates very rapidly. In
+fact, trap rock, "nigger heads," technically known as diabase, and
+diorites, are considered by most road engineers of long experience to be
+the very best stones for road-building. Trap rocks as a rule possess all
+the qualities most desired for road stones. They are hard and tough, and
+when properly broken to small sizes and rolled thoroughly, cement and
+consolidate into a smooth, hard crust which is impervious to water, and
+the broken particles are so heavy that they are not readily broken or
+washed away.
+
+Unfortunately the most useful stones for road-building are the most
+difficult to prepare, and as trap rocks are harder to break than any
+other stones they usually cost more. The foundation or lower courses may
+be formed of some of the softer stones like gneiss or limestone, but
+trap rock should be used for the wearing surface, if possible, even if
+it has to be brought from a distance.
+
+As to the construction of macadam roads, Mr. Potter says:
+
+"In the construction of a macadam road in any given locality, the
+question of economy generally compels us to use a material found near at
+hand, and where a local quarry does not exist field stone and stone
+gathered from the beds of rivers and small streams may often be made to
+serve every purpose. Many of the stones and boulders thus obtained are
+of trap rock, and in general it may be said that all hard field and
+river stones, if broken to a proper size, will make fairly good and
+sometimes very excellent road metal. No elaborate test is required to
+determine the hardness of any given specimen. A steel hammer in the
+hands of an intelligent workman will reveal in a general way the
+relative degree of toughness of two or more pieces of rock. Field and
+river stone offer an additional advantage in that they are quickly
+handled, are generally of convenient size, and are more readily broken
+either by hand or by machine than most varieties of rock which are
+quarried in the usual way.
+
+"It is a simple task to break stone for macadam roadways, and by the aid
+of modern inventions it can be done cheaply and quickly. Hand-broken
+stone is fairly out of date and is rarely used in America where any
+considerable amount of work is to be undertaken. Stone may be broken by
+hand at different points along the roadside where repairs are needed
+from time to time, but the extra cost of production by this method
+forbids its being carried on where extended work is undertaken.
+Hand-broken stone is generally more uniform in size, more nearly cubical
+in shape, and has sharper angles than that broken by machinery, but the
+latter, when properly assorted or screened, has been found to meet every
+requirement.
+
+"A good crusher driven by eight horsepower will turn out from forty to
+eighty cubic yards of two-inch stone per day of ten hours, and will cost
+from four hundred dollars upward, according to quality.
+
+"Some crushers are made either stationary, semistationary, or portable,
+according to the needs of the purchaser, and for country-road work it is
+sometimes very desirable to have a portable crusher to facilitate its
+easy transfer from one part of the township to another. The same
+portable engine that is used in thrashing, sawing wood, and other
+operations requiring the use of steam power may be used in running a
+stone crusher, but it is best to remember that a crusher will do its
+best and most economical work when run by a machine having a horsepower
+somewhat in excess of the power actually required.
+
+"As the stone comes from the breaker the pieces will be found to show a
+considerable variety in size, and by many practical road-makers it is
+regarded as best that these sizes should be assorted and separated,
+since each has its particular use. To do this work by hand would be
+troublesome and expensive, and screens are generally employed for that
+purpose. Screens are not absolutely necessary, and many road-makers do
+not use them; but they insure uniformity in size of pieces, and
+uniformity means in many cases superior wear, smoothness, and economy.
+Most of the screens in common use today are of the rotary kind. In
+operating they are generally so arranged that the product of the crusher
+falls directly into the rotary screen, which revolves on an inclined
+axis and empties the separate pieces into small bins below the crusher.
+A better form for many purposes includes a larger and more elaborate
+outfit, in which the stone is carried by an elevator to the screen and
+by the screen emptied into separate bins according to the respective
+sizes. From the bins it is easily loaded into wagons or spreading carts
+and hauled to any desired point along the line of the road.
+
+"The size to which stone should be broken depends upon the quality of
+the stone, the amount of traffic to which the road will be subjected,
+and to some extent upon the manner in which the stone is put in place.
+If a hard, tough stone is employed it may be broken into rough cubes or
+pieces of about one and a half inches in largest face dimensions, and
+when broken to such a size the product of the crusher may generally be
+used to good advantage without the trouble of screening, since dust
+'tailings' and fine stuff do not accumulate in large quantities in the
+breaking of the tougher stone.
+
+"If only moderate traffic is to be provided for, the harder limestones
+may be broken so the pieces will pass through a two-inch ring, though
+sizes running from two and a quarter to two and a half inches will
+insure a more durable roadway, and if a steam roller is used in
+compacting the metal it will be brought to a smooth surface without much
+trouble. As a rule, it may be said that to adhere closely to a size
+running from two and a quarter to two and a half inches in largest face
+dimensions, and to use care in excluding too large a proportion of
+small stuff as well as all pieces of excessive size, will insure a
+satisfactory and durable macadam road."
+
+Macadam insisted that no large stone should ever be employed in
+road-making, and, indeed, most modern road builders practice his
+principle that "small angular fragments are the cardinal requirements."
+As a general rule it has been stated that no stone larger than a walnut
+should be used for the surfacing of roads.
+
+Stone roads are built in most cases according to the principles laid
+down by John L. Macadam, while some are built by the methods advocated
+by Telford. The most important difference between these two principles
+of construction relates to the propriety or necessity of a paved
+foundation beneath the crust of broken stone. Telford advocated this
+principle, while Macadam strongly denied its advantages.
+
+In building roads very few iron-clad rules can be laid down for
+universal application; skill and judgment must be exercised in designing
+and building each road so that it will best meet the requirements of the
+place it is to occupy. The relative value of the telford and macadam
+systems can most always be determined by the local circumstances,
+conditions, and necessities under which the road is to be built. The
+former system seems to have the advantage in swampy, wet places, or
+where the soil is in strata varying in hardness, or where the foundation
+is liable to get soft in spots. Under most other circumstances
+experienced road builders prefer the macadam construction, not only
+because it is considered best, but also because it is much cheaper.
+
+The macadam road consists of a mass of angular fragments of rock
+deposited usually in layers upon the roadbed or prepared foundation and
+consolidated to a smooth, hard surface produced by the passage of
+vehicles or by use of a road roller. The thickness of this crust varies
+with the soil, the nature of the stone used, and the amount of traffic
+which the road is expected to have. It should be so thick that the
+greatest load will not affect the foundation. The weight usually comes
+upon a very small part of the surface, but is spread over a large area
+of the foundation, and the thicker the crust the more uniformly will
+the load be distributed over the foundation.
+
+Macadam earnestly advocated the principle that all artificial
+road-building depended wholly for its success upon the making and
+maintaining of a solid dry foundation and the covering of this
+foundation with a durable waterproof coating or roof of broken stone.
+The foundation must be solid and firm; if it be otherwise the crust is
+useless. A road builder should always remember that without a durable
+foundation there is no durable road. Hundreds of miles of macadam roads
+are built in the United States each year on unimproved or unstable
+foundations and almost as many miles go to pieces for this same reason.
+Says Macadam:
+
+"The stone is employed to form a secure, smooth, water-tight flooring,
+over which vehicles may pass with safety and expedition at all seasons
+of the year. Its thickness should be regulated only by the quality of
+the material necessary to form such a flooring and not at all by any
+consideration as to its own independent power of bearing weight.... The
+erroneous idea that the evils of an underdrained, wet, clayey soil can
+be remedied by a large quantity of materials has caused a large part of
+the costly and unsuccessful expenditures in making stone roads."
+
+The evils from improper construction of stone roads are even greater
+than those resulting from the use of improper material. Macadam never
+intended that a heterogeneous conglomeration of stones and mud should be
+called a macadam road. The mistake is often made of depositing broken
+stone on an old road without first preparing a suitable foundation. The
+result, in most cases, is that the dirt and mud prevent the stone from
+packing and by the action of traffic ooze to the surface, while the
+stones sink deeper and deeper, leaving the road as bad as before.
+
+Another great mistake is often made of spreading large and small stones
+over a well-graded and well-drained foundation and leaving them thus for
+traffic to consolidate. The surface of a road left in this manner is
+often kept in constant turmoil by the larger stones, which work
+themselves to the surface and are knocked hither and thither by the
+wheels of vehicles and the feet of animals. These plans of construction
+cannot be too severely condemned.
+
+The roadbed should be first graded, then carefully surface-drained. The
+earth should then be excavated to the depth to which material is to be
+spread on and the foundation properly shaped and sloped each way from
+the center so as to discharge any water which may percolate through.
+This curvature should conform to the curvature of the finished road. A
+shouldering of firm earth or gravel should be left or made on each side
+to hold the material in place, and should extend to the gutters at the
+same curvature as the finished road. The foundation should then be
+rolled until hard and smooth.
+
+Upon this bed spread a layer of five or six inches of broken stone,
+which stone should be free from any earthy mixture. This layer should be
+thoroughly rolled until compact and firm. Stone may be hauled from the
+stone-crusher bins or from the stone piles in ordinary wheelbarrows or
+from wagons, and should be distributed broadcast over the surface with
+shovels, and all inequalities leveled up by the use of rakes. If this
+method of spreading is employed, grade stakes should be used so as to
+insure a uniformity of thickness. After the stakes are driven the height
+of the layer is marked on their sides, and if thought necessary a piece
+of stout cord is stretched from stake to stake, showing the exact height
+to which the layer should be spread. Spreading carts have been recently
+invented which not only place the stone where it is needed without the
+use of shovels, but spread it on in layers of any desired thickness and
+at the same time several inches wider than the carts themselves.
+
+If the stones have been separated into two or three different sizes, the
+largest size should compose the bottom layer, the next size the second
+layer, etc. The surface of each course or layer should be thoroughly and
+repeatedly rolled and sprinkled until it becomes firm, compact, and
+smooth. The first layer, however, should not be sprinkled, as the water
+is liable to soften the foundation. The rolling ought to be done along
+the side lines first, gradually working toward the center as the job is
+being completed. In rolling the last course it is well to begin by
+rolling first the shoulderings or the side roads if such exist.
+
+A coat of three-quarter inch stone and screenings, of sufficient
+thickness to make a smooth and uniform surface, should compose the last
+course, and, like the other layers, should be rolled until perfectly
+firm and smooth. As a final test of perfection, a small stone placed on
+the surface will be crushed before being driven into the material.
+
+If none of the stones used be larger than will pass through a two-inch
+ring, they can be spread on in layers as above described without
+separating them by screens. Water and binding material--stone screenings
+or good packing gravel--can be added if found necessary for proper
+consolidation. Earth or clay should never be used for a binding
+material. Enough water should be sprinkled on to wash in and fill all
+voids between the broken stones with binding material and to leave such
+material damp enough to insure a set.
+
+If a road is built of tough, hard stone, and if the binding material has
+the same characteristics, a steam roller is essential for speedy
+results. A horse roller may be used to good advantage if the softer
+varieties of stone are employed. For general purposes a roller weighing
+from eight to twelve tons is all that is necessary. Heavier weights are
+difficult to handle upon unimproved surfaces unless they be constructed
+like the Addison roller, the weight of which can be increased or
+lightened at will by filling the drum with water or drawing the water
+out. This roller can be made to weigh as much as eight tons and, like
+several other very excellent ones now on the market, is provided with
+anti-friction roller bearings, which lighten the draft considerably.
+
+Every stone road, unless properly built with small stones and just
+enough binding material to fill the voids, presents a honeycombed
+appearance. In fact, a measure containing two cubic feet of broken stone
+will hold in addition one cubic foot of water, and a cubic yard of
+broken macadam will weigh just about one-half as much as a solid cubic
+yard of the same kind of stone. Isaac Potter says:
+
+"To insure a solid roadway and to fill the large proportion of voids or
+interstices between the different pieces of broken stone, some finer
+material must be introduced into the structure of the roadway, and this
+material is usually called a binder, or by some road-makers a 'filler.'
+
+"There used to be much contention regarding the use of binding material
+in the making of a macadam road, but it is now conceded by nearly all
+practical and experienced road-makers, both in Europe and America, that
+the use of a binding material is essential to the proper construction of
+a good macadam road. It adds to its solidity, insures tightness by
+closing all of the spaces between the loose, irregular stones, and binds
+together the macadam crust in a way that gives it firmness, elasticity,
+and durability."
+
+Binding material to produce the best results should be equal in hardness
+and toughness with the road stone; the best results are therefore
+obtained by using screenings or spalls from the broken stone used.
+Coarse sand and gravel can sometimes be used with impunity as a binder,
+but the wisdom of using loam or clay is very much questioned. When the
+latter material is used for a binder the road is apt to become very
+dusty in dry weather, and sticky, muddy, and rutty in wet weather.
+
+The character of the foundation should never take the place of proper
+drainage. The advisability of underground or subdrainage should always
+be carefully considered where the road is liable to be attacked from
+beneath by water. In most cases good subdrains will so dry the
+foundation out that the macadam construction can be resorted to.
+Sometimes, however, thorough drainage is difficult or doubtful, and in
+such cases it is desirable to adopt some heavy construction like the
+telford; and, furthermore, the difficulty of procuring perfectly solid
+and reliable roadbeds in many places is often overcome by the use of
+this system.
+
+In making a telford road the surface for the foundation is prepared in
+the same manner as for a macadam road. A layer of broken stone is then
+placed on the roadbed from five to eight inches in depth, depending upon
+the thickness to be given the finished road. As a rule this foundation
+should form about two-thirds of the total thickness of the material. The
+stone used for the first layer may vary in thickness from two to four
+inches and in length from eight to twelve inches. The thickness of the
+upper edges of the stones should not exceed four inches. They are set by
+hand on their broadest edges lengthwise across the road, breaking joints
+as much as possible. All projecting points are then broken off and the
+interstices or cracks filled with stone chips, and the whole structure
+wedged and consolidated into a solid and complete pavement. Upon this
+pavement layers of broken stones are spread and treated in the same way
+as for a macadam road.
+
+Stone roads should be frequently scraped, so as to remove all dust and
+mud. Nothing destroys a stone road quicker than dust or mud. The hand
+method of scraping with a hoe is considered best. No matter how
+carefully adjusted the machinery built for this purpose may be, it is
+liable to ravel a road by loosening some of the stones. The gutters and
+surface drains should be kept open, so that all water falling upon the
+road or on the adjacent ground may promptly flow away. Says Spalding, a
+road authority:
+
+"If the road metal be of soft material which wears easily, it will
+require constant supervision and small repairs whenever a rut or
+depression may appear. Material of this kind binds readily with new
+material that may be added, and may in this manner frequently be kept in
+good condition without great difficulty, while if not attended to at
+once when wear begins to show it will very rapidly increase, to the
+great detriment of the road. In making repairs by this method the
+material is commonly placed a little at a time and compacted by passing
+vehicles. The material used for this purpose should be the same as that
+of the road surface and not fine material, which would soon reduce to
+powder under the loads which come upon it. By careful attention to
+minute repairs in this manner a surface may be kept in good condition
+until it wears so thin as to require renewal.
+
+"In case the road be of harder material, that will not so readily
+combine when a thin coating is added, repairs may not be frequent, as
+the surface will not wear so rapidly, and immediate attention is not so
+important. It is usually more satisfactory in this case to make more
+extensive repairs at one time, as a larger quantity of material added at
+once may be more readily compacted to a uniform surface, the repairs
+taking the form of an additional layer upon the road.
+
+"Where the material of the road surface is very hard and durable, a
+well-constructed road may wear quite evenly and require hardly any
+attention, beyond ordinary small repairs, until worn out. It is now
+usually considered the best practice to leave such a road to itself
+until it wears very thin, and then renew it by an entirely new layer of
+broken stone placed on the worn surface and without in any way
+disturbing that surface.
+
+"If a thin layer only of material is to be added at one time, in order
+that it may unite firmly with the upper layer of the road, it is usually
+necessary to break the bond of the surface material before placing the
+new layer, either by picking it up by hand or by a steam roller with
+short spikes in its surface, if such a machine is at hand. Care should
+be taken in doing this, however, that only the surface layer be loosened
+and that the solidity of the body of the road be not disturbed, as might
+be the case if the spikes are too long."
+
+In repairing roads the time-honored custom of waiting until the road has
+lost its shape or until the surface has become filled with holes or ruts
+should never be tolerated. Much good material is wasted by spreading a
+thick coat over such a road and leaving it thus for passing vehicles to
+consolidate. The material necessary to replace defects in a road should
+be added when the necessities arise and should be of the best quality
+and the smallest possible quantity. If properly laid in small patches
+the inconvenience to traffic will be scarcely perceptible. If such
+repairs are made in damp weather, as they ought to be, little or no
+difficulty is experienced in getting a layer of stone to consolidate
+properly. If mud fills the rut or hole to be repaired, it should be
+carefully removed before the material is placed.
+
+Wide tires should be used on all heavy vehicles which traverse stone
+roads. A four or five inch stone or gravel road will last longer without
+repair when wide tires are used than an eight or ten inch road of the
+same material on which narrow tires are used.
+
+Not only should brush and weeds be removed from the roadside, but grass
+should be sown, trees planted, and a side path or walk be prepared for
+the use of pedestrians, especially women and children, going to and
+coming from church, school, and places of business and amusement.
+Country roads can be made far more useful and attractive than they
+usually are, and this may be secured by the expenditure of only a small
+amount of labor and money. Although such improvements are not necessary,
+they make the surroundings attractive and inviting and add to the value
+of property and the pleasure of the traveler.
+
+If trees are planted alongside the road they should be far enough back
+to admit the wind and sun. Most strong growing trees are apt to extend
+their roots under the gutters and even beneath the roadway if they are
+planted too close to the roadside. Even if they be planted at a safe
+distance those varieties should be selected which send their roots
+downward rather than horizontally. The most useful and beautiful tree
+corresponding with these requirements is the chestnut, while certain
+varieties of the pear, cherry, and mulberry answer the same purpose.
+Where there is no danger of roots damaging the subdrainage or the
+substructure of the road, some other favorite varieties would be elms,
+rock maples, horse-chestnuts, beeches, pines, and cedars. Climate,
+variety of species selected, and good judgment will determine the
+distance between such trees. Elms should be thirty feet apart, while the
+less spreading varieties need not be so far. The trunks should be
+trimmed to a considerable height, so as to admit the sun and air. Fruit
+trees are planted along the roadsides in Germany and Switzerland, while
+mulberry trees may be seen along the roads in France, serving the
+twofold purpose of food for silkworms and shade. If some of our many
+varieties of useful, fruitful, and beautiful trees were planted along
+the roads in this country, and if some means could be devised for
+protecting the product, enough revenue could be derived therefrom to pay
+for the maintenance of the road along which they throw their grateful
+shade.
+
+The improvement of country roads is chiefly an economical question,
+relating principally to the waste of effort in hauling over bad roads,
+the saving in money, time, and energy in hauling over good ones, the
+initial cost of improving roads, and the difference in the cost of
+maintaining good and bad ones. It is not necessary to enlarge on this
+subject in order to convince the average reader that good roads reduce
+the resistance to traffic, and consequently the cost of transportation
+of products and goods to and from farms and markets is reduced to a
+minimum.
+
+The initial cost of a road depends upon the cost of materials, labor,
+machinery, the width and depth to which the material is to be spread
+on, and the method of construction. All these things vary so much in the
+different states that it is impossible to name the exact amount for
+which a mile of a certain kind of road can be built.
+
+The introduction in recent years of improved road-building machinery has
+enabled the authorities in some of the states to build improved stone
+and gravel roads quite cheaply. First-class single-track stone roads,
+nine feet wide, have been built near Canandaigua, New York, for $900 to
+$1,000 per mile. Many excellent gravel roads have been built in New
+Jersey for $1,000 to $1,300 per mile. The material of which they were
+constructed was placed on in two layers, each being raked and thoroughly
+rolled, and the whole mass consolidated to a thickness of eight inches.
+In the same state macadam roads have been built, for $2,000 to $5,000
+per mile, varying in width from nine to twenty feet and in thickness of
+material from four to twelve inches. Telford roads fourteen feet wide
+and ten to twelve inches thick have been built in New Jersey for $4,000
+to $6,000 per mile. Macadam roads have been built at Bridgeport and
+Fairfield, Connecticut, eighteen to twenty feet wide, for $3,000 to
+$5,000 per mile. A telford road sixteen feet wide and twelve inches
+thick was built at Fanwood, New Jersey, for $9,500 per mile. Macadam
+roads have been built in Rhode Island, sixteen to twenty feet wide, for
+$4,000 to $5,000 per mile.
+
+Massachusetts roads are costing all the way from $6,000 to $25,000 per
+mile. A mile of broken stone road, fifteen feet wide, costs in the state
+of Massachusetts about $5,700 per mile, while a mile of the same width
+and kind of road costs in the state of New Jersey only $4,700. This is
+due partly to the fact that the topography of Massachusetts is somewhat
+rougher than that of New Jersey, necessitating the reduction of many
+steep grades and the building of expensive retaining walls and bridges,
+and partly to the difference in methods of construction and the
+difference in prices of materials, labor, etc.
+
+Doubtless the state of New Jersey is building more roads and better
+roads for less money per mile than any other state in the Union. Its
+roads are now costing from twenty to seventy cents per square yard.
+Where the telford construction is used they sometimes cost as much as
+seventy-three cents per square yard. The average cost of all classes of
+the roads of that state during the last season was about fifty cents per
+square yard. The stone was, as a rule, spread on to a depth of nine
+inches, which, after rolling, gave a depth of about eight inches. At
+this rate a single-track road eight feet wide costs about $2,346 per
+mile, while a double-track road fourteen feet wide costs about $4,106
+per mile, and one eighteen feet wide costs about $5,280 per mile. Where
+the material is spread on so as to consolidate to a four-inch layer the
+eight-foot road will cost about $1,173 per mile, the fourteen-foot road
+about $2,053 per mile, while the one eighteen feet wide will cost about
+$2,640 per mile.
+
+[Illustration: EARTH AND MACADAM ROADS
+
+[_Built by convict labor in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina_]]
+
+The total cost of maintaining roads in good order ranges, on account of
+varying conditions, between as wide limits almost as the initial cost of
+construction. Suffice it to say that all money spent on repairing earth
+roads becomes each year a total loss without materially improving
+their condition. They are, as a rule, the most expensive roads that can
+be used, while on the other hand stone roads, if properly constructed of
+good material and kept in perfect condition, are the most satisfactory,
+the cheapest, and most economical roads that can be constructed.
+
+The road that will best suit the needs of the farmer, in the first
+place, must not be too costly; and, in the second place, must be of the
+very best kind, for farmers should be able to do their heavy hauling
+over them when their fields are too wet to work and their teams would
+otherwise be idle.
+
+The best road for the farmer, all things being considered, is a solid,
+well-built stone road, so narrow as to be only a single track, but
+having a firm earth road on one or both sides. Where the traffic is not
+very extensive the purposes of good roads are better served by narrow
+tracks than by wide ones, while many of the objectionable features of
+wide tracks are removed, the initial cost of construction is cut down
+one-half or more, and the charges for repair reduced in proportion.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] By Hon. Maurice O. Eldridge, Assistant Director Office of Public
+Road Inquiries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS[7]
+
+
+No one rock can be said to be a universally excellent road material. The
+climatic conditions vary so much in different localities, and the volume
+and character of traffic vary so much on different roads, that the
+properties necessary to meet all the requirements can be found in no one
+rock. If the best macadam road be desired, that material should be
+selected which best meets the conditions of the particular road for
+which it is intended.
+
+The movement for better country roads which has received such an impetus
+from the bicycle organizations is still felt, and is gaining force from
+the rapid introduction of horseless vehicles. To this demand, which
+comes in a large measure from the urban population, is to be added that
+of the farmer, who is wakening to the fact that good roads greatly
+increase the profits from his farm produce, and thus materially better
+his condition; and to the farmer, indeed, we must look for any real
+improvement in our country roads.
+
+In considering the comparative values of different rocks for
+road-building, it must be taken for granted in all cases that the road
+is properly laid out, constructed, and maintained. For if this is not
+the case, only inferior results can be expected, no matter how good the
+material may be.
+
+In most cases the selection of a material for road-making is determined
+more by its cheapness and convenience of location than by any properties
+it may possess. But when we consider the number of roads all over our
+country which are bad from neglect and from obsolete methods of
+maintenance that would be much improved by the use of any rock, this
+regard for economy is not to be entirely deprecated. At the same time,
+as a careless selection leads to costly and inferior results, too much
+care cannot be used in selecting the proper material when good roads
+are desired at the lowest cost. When macadam roads are first introduced
+into a district they are at worst so far superior to the old earth roads
+that the question is rarely asked, whether, if another material had been
+used, better roads would not have been obtained, and this at a smaller
+cost. When mistakes are made they are not generally discovered until
+much time and money have been expended on inferior roads. Such errors
+can in a great measure be avoided if reasonable care is taken in the
+selection of a suitable material. To select a material in a haphazard
+way, without considering the needs of the particular road on which it is
+to be used, is not unlike an ill person taking the nearest medicine at
+hand, without reference to the nature of the malady or the properties of
+the drug. If a road is bad, the exact trouble must first be ascertained
+before the proper remedy can be applied. If the surface of a macadam
+road continues to be too muddy or dusty after the necessary drainage
+precautions have been followed, then the rock of which it is constructed
+lacks sufficient hardness or toughness to meet the traffic to which it
+is subjected. If, on the contrary, the fine binding material of the
+surface is carried off by wind and rain and is not replaced by the wear
+of the coarser fragments, the surface stones will soon loosen and allow
+water to make its way freely to the foundation and bring about the
+destruction of the road. Such conditions are brought about by an excess
+of hardness or toughness of the rock for the traffic. Under all
+conditions a rock of high cementing value is desirable; for, other
+things being equal, such a rock better resists the wear of traffic and
+the action of wind and rain. This subject, however, will be referred to
+again.
+
+Until comparatively recent years but little was known of the relative
+values of the different varieties of rock as road material, and good
+results were obtained more by chance and general observation than
+through any special knowledge of the subject. These conditions, however,
+do not obtain at present, for the subject has received a great deal of
+careful study, and a fairly accurate estimate can be made of the
+fitness of a rock for any conditions of climate and traffic.
+
+In road-building the attempt should be made to get a perfectly smooth
+surface, not too hard, too slippery, or too noisy, and as free as
+possible from mud and dust, and these results are to be attained and
+maintained as cheaply as possible. Such results, however, can only be
+had by selecting the material and methods of construction best suited to
+the conditions.
+
+In selecting a road material it is well to consider the agencies of
+destruction to roads that have to be met. Among the most important are
+the wearing action of wheels and horses' feet, frost, rain, and wind. To
+find materials that can best withstand these agencies under all
+conditions is the great problem that confronts the road-builder.
+
+Before going further, it will be well to consider some of the physical
+properties of rock which are important in road-building, for the value
+of a road material is dependent in a large measure on the degree to
+which it possesses these properties. There are many such properties that
+affect road-building, but only three need be mentioned here. They are
+hardness, toughness, and cementing or binding power.
+
+By hardness is meant the power possessed by a rock to resist the wearing
+action caused by the abrasion of wheels and horses' feet. Toughness, as
+understood by road-builders, is the adhesion between the crystal and
+fine particles of a rock, which gives it power to resist fracture when
+subjected to the blows of traffic. This important property, while
+distinct from hardness, is yet intimately associated with it, and can in
+a measure make up for a deficiency in hardness. Hardness, for instance,
+would be the resistance offered by a rock to the grinding of an emery
+wheel; toughness, the resistance to fracture when struck with a hammer.
+Cementing or binding power is the property possessed by the dust of a
+rock to act, after wetting, as a cement to the coarser fragments
+composing the road, binding them together and forming a smooth,
+impervious shell over the surface. Such a shell, formed by a rock of
+high cementing value, protects the underlying material from wear and
+acts as a cushion to the blows from horses' feet, and at the same time
+resists the waste of material caused by wind and rain, and preserves the
+foundation by shedding the surface water. Binding power is thus,
+probably, the most important property to be sought for in a
+road-building rock, as its presence is always necessary for the best
+results. The hardness and toughness of the binder surface more than of
+the rock itself represents the hardness and toughness of the road, for
+if the weight of traffic is sufficient to destroy the bond of
+cementation of the surface, the stones below are soon loosened and
+forced out of place. When there is an absence of binding material, which
+often occurs when the rock is too hard for the traffic to which it is
+subjected, the road soon loosens or ravels.
+
+Experience shows that a rock possessing all three of the properties
+mentioned in a high degree does not under all conditions make a good
+road material; on the contrary, under certain conditions it may be
+altogether unsuitable. As an illustration of this, if a country road or
+city park way, where only a light traffic prevails, were built of a
+very hard and tough rock with a high cementing value, neither the best,
+nor, if a softer rock were available, would the cheapest results be
+obtained. Such a rock would so effectively resist the wear of a light
+traffic that the amount of fine dust worn off would be carried away by
+wind and rain faster than it would be supplied by wear. Consequently the
+binder supplied by wear would be insufficient, and if not supplied from
+some other source the road would soon go to pieces. The first cost of
+such a rock would in most instances be greater than that of a softer one
+and the necessary repairs resulting from its use would also be very
+expensive.
+
+A very good illustration of this point is the first road built by the
+Massachusetts Highway Commission. This road is on the island of
+Nantucket and was subjected to a very light traffic. The commission
+desired to build the best possible road, and consequently ordered a very
+hard and tough trap rock from Salem, considered then to be the best
+macadam rock in the state. Delivered on the road this rock cost $3.50
+per ton, the excessive price being due to the cost of transportation.
+The road was in every way properly constructed, and thoroughly rolled
+with a steam roller; but in spite of every precaution it soon began to
+ravel, and repeated rolling was only of temporary benefit, for the rock
+was too hard and tough for the traffic. Subsequently, when the road was
+resurfaced with limestone, which was much softer than the trap, it
+became excellent. Since then all roads built on the island have been
+constructed of native granite bowlders with good results, and at a much
+lower cost.
+
+If, however, this hard and tough rock, which gave such poor results at
+Nantucket, were used on a road where the traffic was sufficient to wear
+off an ample supply of binder, very much better results would be
+obtained than if a rock lacking both hardness and toughness were used;
+for, in the latter case, the wear would be so great that ruts would be
+formed which would prevent rain water draining from the surface. The
+water thus collecting on the surface would soon make its way to the
+foundation and destroy the road. The dust in dry weather would also be
+excessive.
+
+Only two examples of the misuse of a road material have been given, but,
+as they represent extreme conditions, it is easy to see the large number
+of intermediate mistakes that can be made, for there are few rocks even
+of the same variety that possess the same physical properties in a like
+degree. The climatic and physical conditions to which roads are
+subjected are equally varied. The excellence of a road material may,
+therefore, be said to depend entirely on the conditions which it is
+intended to meet.
+
+It may be well to mention a few other properties of rock that bear on
+road-building, though they will not be discussed here. There are some
+rocks, such as limestones, that are hygroscopic, or possess the power of
+absorbing moisture from the air, and in dry climates such rocks are
+distinctly valuable, as the cementation of rock dust is in a large
+measure dependent for its full development on the presence of water. The
+degree to which a rock absorbs water may also be important, for in cold
+climates this to some extent determines the liability of a rock to
+fracture by freezing. It is not so important, however, as the
+absorptive power of the road itself, for if a road holds much water the
+destruction wrought by frost is very great. This trouble is generally
+due to faulty construction rather than to the material. The density or
+weight of a rock is also considered of importance, as the heavier the
+rock the better it stays in place and the better it resists the action
+of wind and rain.
+
+Only a few of the properties of rock important to road builders have
+been considered, but if these are borne in mind when a material is to be
+selected better results are sure to be obtained. In selecting a road
+material the conditions to which it is to be subjected should first be
+considered. These are principally the annual rainfall, the average
+winter temperature, the character of prevailing winds, the grades, and
+the volume and character of the traffic that is to pass over the road.
+The climatic conditions are readily obtained from the Weather Bureau,
+and a satisfactory record of the volume and character of the traffic can
+be made by any competent person living in view of the road.
+
+In France the measuring of traffic has received a great deal of
+attention, and a census is kept for all the national highways. The
+traffic there is rated and reduced to units in the following manner: A
+horse hauling a public vehicle or cart loaded with produce or
+merchandise is considered as the unit of traffic. Each horse hauling an
+empty cart or private carriage counts as one-half unit; each horse, cow,
+or ox, unharnessed, and each saddle horse, one-fifth unit; each small
+animal (sheep, goat, or hog), one-thirtieth unit.
+
+A record is made of the traffic every thirteenth day throughout the
+year, and an average taken to determine its mean amount. Some such
+general method of classifying traffic in units is desirable, as it
+permits the traffic of a road to be expressed in one number.
+
+Before this French method can be applied to the traffic of our country
+it will be necessary to modify considerably the mode of rating. This,
+however, is a matter which can be studied and properly adjusted by the
+Office of Public Road Inquiries. It is most important to obtain a record
+of the average number of horses and vehicles and kind of vehicles that
+pass over an earth road in a day before the macadam road is built. The
+small cost of such a record is trifling when compared with the cost of a
+macadam road (from $4,000 to $10,000 per mile for a fifteen-foot road),
+in view of the fact that an error in the selection of material may cost
+a much larger sum of money. After a record of the traffic is obtained,
+if the road is to be built of crushed rock for the first time, an
+allowance for an immediate increase in traffic amounting at least to ten
+or fifteen per cent had best be made, for the improved road generally
+brings traffic from adjoining roads.
+
+To simplify the matter somewhat, the different classes of traffic to
+which roads are subjected may be divided into five groups, which may be
+called city, urban, suburban, highway, and country road traffic,
+respectively. City traffic is a traffic so great that no macadam road
+can withstand it, and is such as exists on the business streets of large
+cities. For such a traffic stone and wood blocks, asphalt, brick, or
+some such materials are necessary. Urban traffic is such as exists on
+city streets which are not subjected to continuous heavy teaming, but
+which have to withstand very heavy wear, and need the hardest and
+toughest macadam rock. Suburban traffic is such as is common in the
+suburbs of a city and the main streets of country towns. Highway traffic
+is a traffic equal to that of the main country roads. Country road
+traffic is a traffic equal to that of the less frequented country roads.
+
+The city traffic will not be considered here. For an urban traffic, the
+hardest and toughest rock, or in other words, a rock of the highest
+wearing quality that can be found, is best. For a suburban traffic the
+best rock would be one of high toughness but of less hardness than one
+for urban traffic. For highway traffic a rock of medium hardness and
+toughness is best. For country road traffic it is best to use a
+comparatively soft rock of medium toughness. In all cases high cementing
+value should be sought, and especially if the locality is very wet or
+windy.
+
+Rocks belonging to the same species and having the same name, such as
+traps, granites, quartzites, etc., vary almost as much in different
+localities in their physical road-building properties as they do from
+rocks of distinct species. This variation is also true of the mineral
+composition of rocks of the same species, as well as in the size and
+arrangement of their crystals. It is impossible, therefore, to classify
+rocks for road-building by simply giving their specific names. It can be
+said, however, that certain species of rock possess in common some
+road-building properties. For instance, the trap[8] rocks as a class are
+hard and tough and usually have binding power, and consequently stand
+heavy traffic well; and for this reason they are frequently spoken of as
+the best rocks for road-building. This, however, is not always true, for
+numerous examples can be shown where trap rock having the above
+properties in the highest degree has failed to give good results on
+light traffic roads. The reason trap rock has gained so much favor with
+road-builders is because a large majority of macadam roads in our
+country are built to stand an urban traffic, and the traps stand such a
+traffic better than any other single class of rocks. There are, however,
+other rocks that will stand an urban traffic perfectly well, and there
+are traps that are not sufficiently hard and tough for a suburban or
+highway traffic. The granites are generally brittle, and many of them do
+not bind well, but there are a great many which when used under proper
+conditions make excellent roads. The felsites are usually very hard and
+brittle, and many have excellent binding power, some varieties being
+suitable for the heaviest macadam traffic. Limestones generally bind
+well, are soft, and frequently hygroscopic. Quartzites are almost always
+very hard, brittle, and have very low binding power. The slates are
+usually soft, brittle, and lack binding power.
+
+The above generalizations are of necessity vague, and for practical
+purposes are of little value, since rocks of the same variety occurring
+in different localities have very wide ranges of character. It
+consequently happens in many cases, particularly where there are a
+number of rocks to choose from, that the difficulty of making the best
+selection is great, and this difficulty is constantly increasing with
+the rapidly growing facilities of transportation and the increased range
+of choice which this permits. On account of their desirable road
+properties some rocks are now shipped several hundred miles for use.
+
+There are but two ways in which the value of a rock as a road material
+can be accurately determined. One way, and beyond all doubt the surest,
+is to build sample roads of all the rocks available in a locality, to
+measure the traffic and wear to which they are subjected, and keep an
+accurate account of the cost both of construction and annual repairs for
+each. By this method actual results are obtained, but it has grave and
+obvious disadvantages. It is very costly (especially so when the results
+are negative), and it requires so great a lapse of time before results
+are obtained that it cannot be considered a practical method when
+macadam roads are first being built in a locality. Further than this,
+results thus obtained are not applicable to other roads and materials.
+Such a method, while excellent in its results, can only be adopted by
+communities which can afford the necessary time and money, and is
+entirely inadequate for general use.
+
+The other method is to make laboratory tests of the physical properties
+of available rocks in a locality, study the conditions obtaining on the
+particular road that is to be built, and then select the material that
+best suits the conditions. This method has the advantages of giving
+speedy results and of being inexpensive, and as far as the results of
+laboratory tests have been compared with the results of actual practice
+they have been found to agree.
+
+Laboratory tests on road materials were first adopted in France about
+thirty years ago, and their usefulness has been thoroughly established.
+The tests for rock there are to determine its degree of hardness,
+resistance to abrasion, and resistance to compression. In 1893 the
+Massachusetts Highway Commission established a laboratory at Harvard
+University for testing road materials. The French abrasion test was
+adopted, and tests for determining the cementing power and toughness of
+rock were added. Since then similar laboratories have been established
+at Johns Hopkins University, Columbia University, Wisconsin Geological
+Survey, Cornell University, and the University of California.
+
+The Department of Agriculture has now established a road-material
+laboratory in the Division of Chemistry, where any person residing in
+the United States may have road materials tested free by applying for
+instructions to the Office of Public Road Inquiries. The laboratory is
+equipped with the apparatus necessary for carrying on such work, and the
+Department intends to carry on general investigations on roads. Part of
+the general plan will be to make tests on actual roads for the purpose
+of comparing the results with those obtained in the laboratory.
+
+Besides testing road materials for the public, blank forms for recording
+traffic will be supplied by the department to any one intending to
+build a road. When these forms are filled and returned to the
+laboratory, together with the samples of materials available for
+building the road, the traffic of the road will be rated in its proper
+group, as described above; each property of the materials will be tested
+and similarly rated according to its degree, the climatic conditions
+will be considered, and expert advice given as to the proper choice to
+be made.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[7] By Logan Waller Page, expert in charge of Road Material Laboratory,
+Division of Chemistry.
+
+[8] This term is derived from the Swedish word _trappa_, meaning steps,
+and was originally applied to the crystallized basalts of the coast of
+Sweden, which much resemble steps in appearance. As now used by road
+builders, it embraces a large variety of igneous rocks, chiefly those of
+fine crystalline structure and of dark-blue, gray, and green colors.
+They are generally diabases, diorites, trachytes, and basalts.--PAGE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+STONE ROADS IN NEW JERSEY[9]
+
+
+As New Jersey contains a great variety of soils, there are many
+conditions to be met with in road construction. The northern part of the
+state is hilly, where we have clay, soft stone, hard stones, loose
+stones, quicksand, and marshes. In the eastern part of the state,
+particularly in the seashore sections, the roads are at their worst in
+summer in consequence of loose, dry sand, which sometimes drifts like
+snow. In west New Jersey, which comprises the southern end of the state,
+there is much loose, soft sand, considerable clay, marshes, and low
+lands not easily drained.
+
+In addition to the condition of the soil, there is the economic
+condition to be considered. In the vicinity of large towns or cities,
+where there is heavy carting by reason of manufactories and produce
+marketing, it is necessary to have heavy, thick, substantial roads,
+while in more rural districts and along the seashore, where the travel
+is principally by light carriages, a lighter roadbed construction is
+preferred. In rural districts, where the roads are used for immediate
+neighborhood purposes, an inexpensive road is desirable. The main
+thoroughfares have to be constructed with a view to considerable
+increase of travel, as farmers in the outlying districts who formerly
+devoted their time to grazing of stock, raising of grain, etc., find it
+more profitable to change the mode of farming to that of truck raising,
+fruit growing, etc.
+
+The road engineers of New Jersey find that they cannot follow old paths
+and make their roads after one style or pattern. Technical engineering
+in road construction must yield to the practical, common-sense plan of
+action. An engineer with plenty of money and material at hand can
+construct a good road almost anywhere and meet any condition, but with
+limited resources and a variety of physical conditions he has to "cut
+the garment to suit the cloth." We start out with this dilemma. We must
+have better roads, and our means for getting them being very limited, if
+we cannot get them as good as we would like, let us get them as good as
+we can.
+
+Let me give a practical illustration. Stone-road construction outside of
+turnpike corporations in West Jersey was begun in the spring of 1891. I
+was called on by the township committee of Chester Township, Burlington
+County, to construct some roads. Moorestown is a thriving town of about
+three thousand inhabitants in the center of the township. The roads to
+be constructed, with one exception, ran out of the town to the township
+limits, being from one-half to three miles in length. The roads were
+generally for local purposes. There were ten roads, aggregating about
+eleven miles. The bonding of the township was voted upon, and it was
+necessary, in order to carry the bonding project of $40,000, to have all
+these roads constructed of stone macadam. The roads to be improved were
+determined on at a town meeting without consulting an engineer as to the
+cost, etc., so that the plain question submitted to me was, Can you
+construct eleven miles of stone road nine feet wide for $40,000? The
+conditions to be met were these: There was no stone suitable for
+road-building nearer than from sixty to eighty miles; cost of freight,
+about seventy-five cents per ton; the hauls from the railroad siding
+averaged about one and three-quarter miles; price of teams in summer,
+when farmers were busy, about $3.50 per day. In preparation for road
+construction there were several hills to be cut from one to three feet;
+causeways and embankments to be made over wet and swampy ground. For
+this latter work the property holders and others interested along the
+road agreed to furnish teams, the township paying for laborers. The next
+difficulty was the kind of a road to build. As the width was fixed at
+nine feet as a part of the conditions for bonding, there seemed only one
+way left to apply the economics--that was, in the depth of the roads.
+
+On the dry, sandy soils I put the macadam six inches deep; this depth
+was applied to about six miles of road. On roads where the heaviest
+travel would come the roadbed was made eight inches deep. On soils
+having springs and on embankments over causeways the depth was ten
+inches with stone foundation, known as telford. Where springs existed,
+they were cut off by underdrains.
+
+It had been the practice of engineers in their specifications to call
+for the best trap rock for all the stone construction. As this rock is
+hard to crush and difficult to be transported some seventy or eighty
+miles to this part of New Jersey, I found that in order to construct all
+of the road from this best material it would take more money than the
+bonds would provide; so I had half of the depth which forms the
+foundation made of good dry sedimentary rock. Of course, in this there
+is considerable slate, but the breaking is not nearly so costly as the
+breaking of syenite or Jersey trap rock, and there was a saving of
+thirty per cent. As the surface of the road had to take all the wear, I
+required the best trap rock for this purpose.
+
+Since the construction of these roads in Chester Township, roads are now
+built under the state-aid act by county officials and paid for as
+follows: One-third by the state, ten per cent by the adjoining property
+holders, and the balance (56-2/3 per cent) by the county. The roads
+constructed under this act are generally leading roads and those mostly
+traversed by heavy teams. They are constructed similarly to those in
+Chester Township, excepting that they are generally twelve feet wide and
+from ten to twelve inches deep. Many of them have a telford foundation,
+which is now put down at about the same price as macadam, and meets most
+of the conditions better than macadam. The less expensive stone is used
+for foundations, and the best and more costly for surface only. In this
+way the cost of construction has been greatly reduced.
+
+In regard to the width, a road nine or ten feet wide has been found to
+be quite as serviceable as one of greater width, unless it is made
+fourteen feet and over. It is not claimed that a narrow road is just as
+good as a wide road, but it has been found better to have the cost in
+length than in width in rural districts. In and near towns, where there
+is almost constant passing, the road should not be less than from
+fourteen to twenty feet in width. The difficulty in getting on and off
+the stone road where teams are passing is not so great as is supposed.
+To meet this difficulty in the past, on each side of the road the
+specifications require the contractor to make a shoulder of clay,
+gravel, or other hard earth; this is never less than three feet and
+sometimes six to eight feet in width, according to the kinds of soil the
+road is composed of and the liability of frequent meeting and passing.
+In rural districts the top-dressing of these shoulders is taken from the
+side ditches; grass sods are mixed in when found, and in some cases
+grass seed is sown. As the stone roadbed takes the travel the grass soon
+begins to grow, receiving considerable fertilizing material from the
+washing of the road; and when the sod is once formed the waste material
+from the wear of the road is lodged in the grass sod and the shoulder
+becomes hard and firm, except when the frost is coming out.
+
+Another mode of building a rural road cheaply and still have room for
+passing without getting off the stone construction is to make the
+roadbed proper about ten feet wide, ten or twelve inches deep; then have
+wings of macadam on each side three feet wide and five or six inches
+deep. In case ten feet is used the two wings would make the stone
+construction six feet wide. If the road is made considerably higher in
+the center than the sides, as it should be, the travel, particularly the
+loaded teams, will keep in the center, and the wings will only be used
+in passing and should last as long as the thicker part of the road.
+
+The preparation of the road and making it suitable for the stone bed is
+one of the most important parts of road construction. This, once done
+properly, is permanent. Wherever it is possible the hills should be cut
+and low places filled, so that the maximum grade will not exceed five or
+six feet rise in one hundred feet; where hills cannot be reduced to this
+grade without incurring too much expense, the hill, if possible, should
+be avoided by relaying the road in another place.
+
+Wherever stone roads have been constructed it has been found that those
+using them for drawing heavy loads will increase the capacity of their
+wagons so as to carry three or four times the load formerly carried.
+This can easily be done where the road has a maximum grade of not
+greater than five or six per cent, as before stated; but when the grade
+is greater than this the power to be expended on such loads upon such
+grades will exhaust and wear out the horses; thus a supposed saving in
+heavy loading may prove to be a loss.
+
+In the preparation of the road it is necessary to have the ditches wide
+and deep enough to carry all the water to the nearest natural water way.
+These ditches should at all times be kept clear of weeds and trash, so
+that the water will not be retained in pools. Bad roads often occur
+because this important matter is overlooked.
+
+On hills the slope or side grade in construction from center of road to
+side ditches should be increased so as to exceed that of the
+longitudinal grade; that is, if the latter is, say, five per cent, the
+slope to side should be at least six per cent and over.
+
+Where the road in rural districts is on rolling ground and hills do not
+exceed three or four per cent, it is an unnecessary expense to cut the
+small ones, but all short rises should be cut and small depressions
+filled. A rolling road is not objectionable, and besides there is no
+better roadbed for laying on metal than the hard crust formed by
+ordinary travel. In putting on the metal, particularly on narrow roads,
+the roadbed should be "set high;" it will soon get "flat enough." It is
+better to put the shouldering up to the stone than to dig a trench to
+put the stone in. If the road after preparation is about level from side
+to side and the stone or metal construction is to be, say, ten inches
+deep, the sides of the roadbed to receive the metal should be cut about
+three inches and placed on the side to help form the shoulder; the rest
+of the shoulder, when suitable, being taken from the ditches and sides
+in forming the proper slope. The foundation to receive the metal, if the
+natural roadbed is not used and the bed is of soft earth, should be
+rolled until it is hard and compact. It should also conform to the same
+slope as the road when finished from center to sides. If the bed or
+foundation is of soft sand rolling will be of little use. In this case
+care must be taken to keep the bed as uniform as possible while the
+stone is being placed on the foundation.
+
+When the road passes through villages and towns the grading should
+reduce the roadbed to a grade as nearly level as possible. It must be
+borne in mind that the side ditches need not necessarily always conform
+to the center grade of the road. When the center grade is level the side
+ditches should be graded to carry off the water. In some cases I have
+found it necessary to run the grade for the side ditches in an opposite
+direction from the grade of the road. This, however, does not often
+occur. The main thing is to get the water off the road as soon as
+possible after it falls, and then not allow it to remain in the ditches.
+And just here the engineer will meet with many difficulties. The
+landowners in rural districts are opposed to having the water from the
+roads let onto their lands, and disputes often arise as to where the
+natural water way is located. This should be determined by the people
+in the neighborhood, or by the local authorities. I have found in
+several cases, where the water from side ditches was allowed to run on
+the land, that the land was generally benefited by having the soil
+enriched by the fertilizing matter from the road.
+
+After the roadbed has been thoroughly prepared, if made of loam or clay,
+it should be rolled and made as hard and compact as possible. Wherever a
+depression appears it should be filled up and made uniformly hard. Place
+upon it a light coat of loam or fine clay, which will act as a binder.
+If the roller used is not too heavy it may be rolled to advantage, but
+the rolling of this course depends upon the character of the stones. If
+the stones are cubical in form rolling is beneficial, but if they are of
+shale and many of them thin and flat, rolling has a tendency to bring
+the flat sides to the surface. When this is the case the next course of
+fine stone for the surface will not firmly compact and unite with them.
+
+When the foundation is of telford it is important that stones not too
+large should be used. They should not exceed ten inches in length, six
+inches on one side, which is laid next to the earth, and four inches on
+top, the depth depending on the thickness of the road. If the thickness
+of the finished road is eight inches, the telford pavement should not
+exceed five inches; if it is ten or more inches deep, then the telford
+could be six inches. It need in no case be greater than this, as this is
+sufficient to form the base or foundation of the metal construction. The
+surface of the telford pavement should be as uniform as possible, all
+projecting points broken off, and interstices filled in with small
+stone. Care should be taken to keep the stone set up perpendicular with
+the roadbed and set lengthwise across the road with joints broken. This
+foundation should be well hammered down with sledge hammers and made
+hard and compact. Upon this feature greatly depends the smoothness of
+the surface of the road and uniform wear. If put down compactly rolling
+is not necessary, and if not put down solid rolling might do it damage
+in causing the large stones to lean and set on their edges instead of on
+the flat sides. I refer to instances where the road is to be ten inches
+and over. Then put on a light coat or course of one and one-half inch
+stone, with a light coat of binding, and then put on the roller, thus
+setting the finer stone well with the foundation and compacting the
+whole mass together.
+
+After the macadam or telford foundation is well laid and compacted, the
+surface or wearing stone is put on. If the thickness of the road is
+great enough, say twelve or fourteen inches, this surface stone should
+be put on in courses, say of three and four inches, as may be required
+for the determined thickness of the road. On each course there should be
+applied a binding, but only sufficient to bind the metal together or
+fill up the small interstices. It must be remembered that broken stone
+is used in order to form a compact mass. The sides of the stone should
+come together and not be kept apart by what we call binding material;
+therefore only such quantity should be used as will fill up the small
+interstices made by reason of the irregularity of the stone. Each course
+should be thoroughly rolled to get the metal as compact as possible.
+When the stone construction is made to the required depth or thickness,
+the whole surface should be subjected to a coat of screenings about one
+inch thick. This must be kept damp by sprinkling, and thoroughly rolled
+until the whole mass becomes consolidated and the surface smooth and
+uniform. Before the rolling is finished the shoulders should be made up
+and covered with gravel or other hard earth and dressed off to the side
+ditches. When practicable these should have the same grade or slope as
+the stone construction. This finish should also be rolled and made
+uniform, so that, in order that the water may pass off freely, there
+will be no obstruction between the stone roadbed and side ditches. To
+prevent washes and insure as much hardness as possible on roads in rural
+districts, grass should be encouraged to grow so as to make a stiff sod.
+
+For shouldering, when the natural soil is of soft sand, a stiff clay is
+desirable. When the natural soil is of clay, then gravel or coarse sand
+can be used, covering the whole with the ditch scrapings or other
+fertilizing material, where grass sod is desirable. Of course this is
+not desirable in villages and towns.
+
+For binding, what is called garden loam is the best. When this cannot be
+found use any soft clay or earth free from clods or round stones. It
+must be spread on very lightly and uniformly.
+
+Any good dry stone not liable to disintegrate can be used as metal for
+foundation for either telford or macadam construction. For the surface
+it is necessary to have the best stone obtainable. Like the edge of a
+tool, it does the service and must take the wear. As in the tool it pays
+to have the best of steel, so on the road, which is subject to the wear
+and tear of steel horseshoes and heavy iron tires, it is found the
+cheapest to have the best of stone.
+
+It is difficult to describe the kind of stone that is best. The best is
+generally syenite trap rock, but this term does not give any definite
+idea. The kind used in New Jersey is called the general name of Jersey
+trap rock. It is a gray syenite, and is found in great quantities in a
+range running from Jersey City, on the Hudson River, to a point on the
+Delaware between Trenton and Lambertville. There are quantities of good
+stone lying north of this ledge, but none south of it.
+
+The best is at or near Jersey City. The same kind of stone is found in
+the same ranges of hills in Pennsylvania, but in the general run it is
+not so good. The liability to softness and disintegration increases
+after leaving the eastern part of New Jersey, and while good stone may
+be found, the veins of poorer stone increase as we go south and west.
+
+It is generally believed that the hardest stones are best for road
+purposes, but this is not the case. The hard quartz will crush under the
+wheels of a heavy load. It is toughness in the stone that is necessary;
+therefore a mixed stone, like syenite, is the best. This wears smooth,
+as the rough edges of the stone come in contact with the wheels. It
+requires good judgment based on experience to determine the right kind
+of stone to take the constant wear of horseshoes and wagon tires.
+
+If good roads are desired, the work is not done when the road is
+completed and ready for travel. There are many causes which make
+repairing necessary. I will refer to only a few of them. Stone roads are
+liable to get out of order because of too much water or want of water;
+also, when the natural roadbed is soft and springy and has not been
+sufficiently drained; when water is allowed to stand in ditches and form
+pools along the road, and when the "open winters" give us a
+superabundance of wet. Before the road becomes thoroughly consolidated
+by travel it is liable to become soft and stones get loose and move
+under the wheels of the heavily loaded wagons. In the earth foundation
+on which the stone bed rests the water finds the soft spots. The wheels
+of the loaded teams form ruts, and particularly where narrow tires are
+used.
+
+The work of repair should begin as soon as defects appear, for, if
+neglected, after every rain the depressions make little pools of water
+and hold it like a basin. In every case this water softens the material,
+and the wagon tires and horseshoes churn up the bottoms of the basins.
+This is the beginning of the work of destruction. If allowed to go on,
+the road becomes rough, and the wear and tear of the horses and wagons
+are increased. Stone roads out of repair, like any common road in
+similar condition, will be found expensive to those who use and maintain
+them. The way to do is to look over a road after a rain, when the
+depressions and basins will show themselves. Whenever one is large
+enough to receive a shovelful of broken stone, scrape out the soft dirt
+and let it form a ring around the depression. Fill with broken stone to
+about an inch or two above the surface of the road. The ring of dirt
+around will keep the stone above the surface in place, and the passing
+wheels will work it on the broken stone and also act as a binder. The
+whole will work down and become compact and even with the road surface.
+The ruts are treated in the same way. Use one and one-half inch stone
+for this; smaller stones will soon grind up and the hole appear again.
+
+The second cause of the necessity for road repairs is want of water.
+This occurs in summer during hot, dry spells. The surface stone
+"unravels;" that is, becomes loose where the horses travel. This
+condition is more liable to be found on dry, sandy soils, and where the
+roadbed is subject to the direct rays of the sun, and where the winds
+sweep off all the binding material from the surface. In clay soil there
+is little or no trouble from "unraveling." The cause being found, the
+remedy is applied in this way: Put on water with the sprinkler before
+all the binding material is blown off. If the hot, dry weather
+continues, sprinkling should continue. Do this in the evening or late in
+the afternoon.
+
+The next mode is to repair the road by placing the material back as it
+was originally. The loose stones are placed in the depressions and good
+binding material--garden loam or fine clay--is put on, then roll the
+whole repeatedly and dampen by sprinkling as needed until the whole
+surface becomes smooth and hard. Care must be taken that too much
+binding material is not used. If too much is used it will injure the
+road in winter when there is an excess of water.
+
+When a road has been neglected and allowed to become uneven and rough,
+or is by constant use worn down to the foundation stones, there should
+be a general repairing. In the first place, if it is the roughness and
+unevenness that is the only defect, this may be remedied by the use of a
+large, heavy roller with steel spikes in its rolling wheels. This will
+puncture the surface so that an ordinary harrow will tear up the surface
+stones. Then take the spikes out of the roller wheels, and, with
+sprinkling and rolling, the roadbed can be repaired and made like a new
+road. But if the cause of the roughness is from wearing away of the
+stone, so that the surface of the road is brought down to or near the
+foundation, then the road needs resurfacing. The mode of treatment is
+the same as in the other case.
+
+In districts where there is stone suitable for road construction the
+county, town, township, or other municipality, proposing to construct
+stone roads, should own a stone quarry and a stone crusher. For grading
+and preparing the road for construction, dressing up sides, clearing out
+side ditches, etc., a good road machine is necessary. For constructing
+roads and repairing them a roller is necessary, the weight depending
+upon the kind of road constructed. If the road is not wide a roller of
+from four to six tons is all the weight necessary. The rolling should be
+continued until compactness is obtained. For wide, heavy roads a steam
+roller of fifteen tons can be used to advantage. A sprinkling wagon
+completes the list that is necessary for the county or town or other
+municipality constructing its own roads.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[9] By E. G. Harrison, C. E., Secretary New Jersey Road Improvement
+Association.
+
+
+
+
+Important
+
+Historical Publications
+
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+1493-1898=
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+
+
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Note:                           |
+  |                                               |
+  | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the  |
+  | original document have been preserved.        |
+  |                                               |
+  | Typographical errors corrected in the text:   |
+  |                                               |
+  | Page 42 ben changed to been                   |
+  | Page 94 surfaceing changed to surfacing       |
+  +-----------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Future of Road-making in America, by
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