diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33700-8.txt | 8660 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33700-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 153151 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33700-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 172334 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33700-h/33700-h.htm | 8728 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33700-h/images/publisher.png | bin | 0 -> 1563 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33700.txt | 8660 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33700.zip | bin | 0 -> 152952 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
10 files changed, 26064 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/33700-8.txt b/33700-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..89b6c98 --- /dev/null +++ b/33700-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8660 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Modern Woman's Rights Movement, by Kaethe Schirmacher + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Modern Woman's Rights Movement + A Historical Survey + +Author: Kaethe Schirmacher + +Translator: Carl Conrad Eckhardt + +Release Date: September 10, 2010 [EBook #33700] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT + + + + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO + SAN FRANCISCO + + MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED + LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA + MELBOURNE + + THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. + TORONTO + + + + + THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT + + _A HISTORICAL SURVEY_ + + + BY DR. KAETHE SCHIRMACHER + + + TRANSLATED FROM THE + SECOND GERMAN EDITION + BY CARL CONRAD ECKHARDT, PH.D. + INSTRUCTOR IN HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO + + + New York + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + 1912 + _All rights reserved_ + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1912, + BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. + + Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1912. + + Norwood Press + J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. + Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. + + + + + "Unterdrückung ist gegen die menschliche Natur" + + "Oppression is opposed to human nature" + + + + +TRANSLATOR'S NOTE + + +Hitherto there has been no English book giving a history of the woman's +rights movement in all countries of the world. English and American +readers will therefore welcome the appearance of an English edition of Dr. +Schirmacher's "Die moderne Frauenbewegung." Since Dr. Schirmacher is a +German woman's rights advocate, actively engaged in propaganda, her book +is not merely a history, but a political pamphlet as well. Although the +reader may at times disagree with the authoress, he will be interested in +her point of view. + +In the chapter on the United States I have added, with Dr. Schirmacher's +consent, a number of translator's footnotes, showing what bearings the +elections of November, 1910, and October, 1911, have had on the woman's +rights question. An index, also, has been added. + + BOULDER, COLORADO, + November, 1911. + + + + +PREFACE + + +The first edition of this book appeared in 1905. That edition is +exhausted,--an evidence of the great present-day interest in the woman's +rights movement. This new edition takes into account the developments +since 1905, contains the recent statistical data, and gives an account of +the woman's suffrage movement which has been especially characteristic of +these later years. Wherever the statistical data have been left unchanged, +either there have been no new censuses or the new results were not +available. + +The facts contained in this volume do not require of me any prefatory +observations on the theoretical justification of the woman's rights +movement.[1] From the remotest time man has tried to rule her who ought to +be comrade and colleague to him. By virtue of the law of might he +generally succeeded. Every protest against this law of might was a +"woman's rights movement." + +History contains many such protests. The _modern_ woman's rights movement +is the first organized and international protest of this kind. Therefore +it is a movement full of success and promise. Leadership in this movement +has fallen to the women of the Caucasian race, among whom the women of the +United States have been foremost. At their instigation were formed the +World's Christian Temperance Union, the International Council of Women, +and the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +In many lands, even in those inhabited by the white race, there are, +however, only very feeble beginnings of the woman's rights movement. In +the Orient, the Far East, and in Africa, woman's condition of bondage is +still almost entirely unbroken. Nevertheless, in these regions of the +world, too, woman's day is dawning in such a way that we look for +developments more confidently than ever before. + +In all countries the woman's rights movement originated with the middle +classes. This is a purely historical fact which in itself in no way +implies any antagonism between the woman's rights movement and the +workingwomen's movement. There is no such antagonism either in Australia, +or in England, or in the United States. On the contrary, the middle class +and non-middle class movements are sharply separated in those countries +whose social democracy uses class-hatred as propaganda. Whether the +woman's rights movement is also a workingwomen's movement, or whether the +workingwomen's movement is also a woman's rights movement or socialism, +depends therefore in every particular case on national and historical +circumstances. + +The international organization of the woman's rights movement is as +follows: the International Council of Women consists of the presiding +officers of the various National Councils of Women. Of these latter there +are to-day twenty-seven; but the Servian League of Woman's Clubs has not +yet joined.[2] To a National Council may belong all those woman's clubs of +a country which unite in carrying out a certain general programme. The +programmes as well as the organizations are national in their nature, but +they all agree in their general characteristics, since the woman's rights +movement is indeed an international movement and arose in all countries +from the same general conditions. The first National Council was organized +in the United States in 1888. This was followed by organizations in +Canada, Germany, Sweden, England, Denmark, the Netherlands, Australia +(with five councils), Switzerland, Italy, France, Austria, Norway, +Hungary, etc. + +As yet there are no statistics of the women represented in the +International Council. Its membership is estimated at seven or eight +millions. The National Council admits only clubs,--not individuals,--the +chairmen of the various National Councils forming the International +Council of Women solely in their capacity of presiding officers. + +This International Council of Women is the permanent body promoting the +organized international woman's rights movement. It was organized in +Washington in 1888. + +The woman's suffrage movement, a separate phase of the woman's rights +movement, has likewise organized itself internationally,--though +independently. Woman's suffrage is the most radical demand made by +organized women, and is hence advocated in all countries by the "radical" +woman's rights advocates. The greater part of the membership of the +National Councils have therefore not been able in all cases to insert +woman's suffrage in their programmes. The International Council did +sanction this point, however, June 9, 1904, in Berlin. + +A few days previously there had been organized as the International +Woman's Suffrage Alliance, likewise in Berlin, woman's suffrage leagues +representing eight different countries. The leagues which joined the +Alliance represented the United States, Victoria, England, Germany, +Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Since then the woman's +suffrage movement has been the most flourishing part of the woman's rights +movement. The International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, which was pledged +to hold a second congress only at the end of five years, has already held +three congresses between 1905 and 1909 (1906, Copenhagen; 1908, Amsterdam; +1909, London), and has extended its membership to twenty-one countries +(the United States, Australia, South Africa, Canada, Great Britain, +Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, Russia, +Hungary, Austria, Bulgaria, Italy, Switzerland, France, Belgium, Servia, +and Iceland). The first president is Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt. + +The chief demands of the woman's rights movement are the same in all +countries. These demands are four in number. + +1. In the field of education and instruction: to enjoy the same +educational opportunities as those of man. + +2. In the field of labor: freedom to choose any occupation, and equal pay +for the same work. + +3. In the field of civil law: the wife should be given the full status of +a legal person before the law, and full civil ability. In criminal law: +the repeal of all regulations discriminating against women. The legal +responsibility of man in sexual matters. In public law: woman's suffrage. + +4. In the social field: recognition of the high value of woman's domestic +and social work, and the incompleteness, harshness, and one-sidedness of +every circle of man's activity (_Männerwelt_) from which woman is +excluded. + +A just and happy relationship of the sexes is dependent upon mutuality, +coördination, and the complementary relations of man and woman,--not upon +the subordination of woman and the predominance of man. Woman, in her +peculiar sphere, is entirely the equal of man in his. The origin of the +international woman's rights movement is found in the world-wide disregard +of this elementary truth. + +The subject which I have treated in this book is a very broad one, the +material much scattered and daily changing. It is therefore hardly +possible that my statements should not have deficiencies on the one hand, +and errors on the other. I shall indeed welcome any corrections and +authoritative information of a supplementary nature.[3] + +THE AUTHORESS. + +PARIS, JUNE 3, 1909. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + TRANSLATOR'S NOTE vii + + PREFACE ix-xiv + + + I. THE GERMANIC COUNTRIES + THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 2 + AUSTRALIA 42 + GREAT BRITAIN 58 + CANADA 96 + SOUTH AFRICA 100 + THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES 101-126 + SWEDEN 103 + FINLAND 110 + NORWAY 116 + DENMARK 122 + THE NETHERLANDS 126 + SWITZERLAND 133 + GERMANY 143 + LUXEMBURG 157 + GERMAN AUSTRIA 158 + HUNGARY 169 + + II. THE ROMANCE COUNTRIES + FRANCE 175 + BELGIUM 190 + ITALY 196 + SPAIN 206 + PORTUGAL 211 + THE LATIN-AMERICAN REPUBLICS OF CENTRAL + AND SOUTH AMERICA 212 + + III. THE SLAVIC AND BALKAN STATES + RUSSIA 215 + CZECHISH BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA 230 + GALICIA 232 + THE SLOVENE WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT 235 + SERVIA 236 + BULGARIA 239 + RUMANIA 242 + GREECE 242 + + IV. THE ORIENT AND THE FAR EAST + TURKEY AND EGYPT 245 + BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 250 + PERSIA 251 + INDIA 252 + CHINA 256 + JAPAN AND KOREA 260 + + CONCLUSION 263 + + INDEX 267 + + + + +THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE GERMANIC COUNTRIES + + +The woman's rights movement is more strongly organized and has penetrated +society more thoroughly in all the Germanic countries than in the Romance +countries. There are many causes for this: woman's greater freedom of +activity in the Germanic countries; the predominance of the Protestant +religion, which does not oppose the demands of the woman's rights movement +with the same united organization as does the Catholic Church; the more +vigorous training in self-reliance and responsibility which is customarily +given to women in Germanic-Protestant countries; the more significant +superiority in numbers of women in Germanic countries, which has forced +women to adopt business or professional callings other than domestic.[4] +The woman's rights movement in the Germanic-Protestant countries has been +promoted by _moral_ and _economic_ factors. + + +THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA + + Total population: 91,972,267. + Women: about 45,000,000. + Men: about 47,000,000. + + The General Federation of Women's Clubs. + The National American Woman's Suffrage Association. + +North America is the cradle of the woman's rights movement. It was the War +of Independence of the colonies against England (1774-1783) that matured +the woman's rights movement. In the name of "freedom" our cause entered +the history of the world. + +In these troubled times the American women had by energetic activities and +unyielding suffering entirely fulfilled their duty as citizens, and at the +Convention in Philadelphia, in 1787, they demanded as citizens the right +to vote. The Constitution of the United States was being drawn up at that +time, and by 1789 had been ratified by the thirteen states then existing. +In nine of these states (Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, New +Jersey, North and South Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island) the +right to vote in municipal and state affairs had hitherto been exercised +by all "free-born citizens" or all "taxpayers" and "heads of families," +the state constitutions being based on the principle: _no taxation without +representation_. + +Among these "free-born citizens," "taxpayers," and "heads of families" +there were naturally many women who were consequently both voters and +active citizens. So woman's right to vote in the above-named states was +practically established _before_ 1783. Only the states of Virginia and New +York had restricted the suffrage to males in 1699 and 1777, Massachusetts +and New Hampshire following their example in 1780 and 1784. + +In view of this retrograde movement American women attempted at the +Convention in Philadelphia to secure a recognition of their civil rights +through the Constitution of the whole federation of states. But the +Convention refused this request; just as before, it left the conditions of +suffrage to be determined by the individual states. To be sure, in the +draft of the Constitution the Convention _in no way opposed_ woman's +suffrage. But the nine states which formerly, as colonies, had practically +given women the right to vote, had in the meantime abrogated this right +through the insertion of the word "man" in their election laws, and the +first attempt of the American women to secure an expressed constitutional +recognition of their rights as citizens failed. + +These proceedings gave to the woman's rights movement of the United States +a political character from the very beginning. Since then the American +women have labored untiringly for their political emancipation. The +anti-slavery movement gave them an excellent opportunity to participate in +public affairs. + +Since the women had had experience of oppression and slavery, and since +they, like negroes, were struggling for the recognition of their "human +rights," they were amongst the most zealous opponents of "slavery," and +belonged to the most enthusiastic defenders of "freedom" and "justice." + +Among the Quakers, who played a very prominent part in the anti-slavery +movement, man and woman had the same rights in all respects in the home +and church. When the first anti-slavery society was formed in Boston in +1832, twelve women immediately became members. + +The principle of the equality of the sexes, which the Quakers held, was +opposed by the majority of the population, who held to the Puritanic +principle of woman's subordination to man. In consequence of this +principle it was at that time considered "monstrous" that a woman should +speak from a public platform. Against Abby Kelly, who at that time was +one of the best anti-slavery speakers, a sermon was preached from the +pulpit from the text: "This Jezebel has come into the midst of us." She +was called a "hyena"; it was related that she had been intoxicated in a +saloon, etc. When her political associate, Angelina Grimke, held an +anti-slavery meeting in Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia) in 1837, the hall +was set on fire, and in 1838 in the chamber of the House of +Representatives in Massachusetts a mob threatened to take her life. "The +mob howled, the press hissed, and the pulpit thundered," thus the +proceedings were described by Lucy Stone, the woman's rights advocate. + +Even the educated classes shared the prejudice against woman. To them she +was a "human being of the second order." The following is an illustration +of this: + +In 1840 Abby Kelly was elected to a committee. She was urged, however, to +decline the election. "If you regard me as incompetent, then I shall +leave." "Oh, no, not exactly that," was the answer. "Well, what is it +then?" "But you are a woman...." "That is no reason; therefore I remain." + +In the same year an anti-slavery congress was held in England. A number of +American champions of the cause went to London,--among them three women, +Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Elizabeth Pease. They were +accompanied by their husbands and came as delegates of the "National +Anti-slavery Society." Since the Congress was dominated by the English +clergy, who persisted in their belief in the "inferiority" of woman, the +three American women, being creatures without political rights, were not +permitted to perform their duties as delegates, but were directed to leave +the convention hall and to occupy places in the spectators' gallery. But +the noble William Lloyd Garrison silently registered a protest by sitting +with the women in the gallery. + +This procedure clearly indicated to the American women what their next +duty should be, and once when Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton +came from the gallery to the hotel Mrs. Stanton said, "The first thing +which we must do upon our return is to call a convention to discuss the +slavery of woman." + +This plan, however, was not executed till eight years later. At that time +Elizabeth Cady Stanton, on the occasion of a visit from Lucretia Mott, +summoned a number of acquaintances to her home in Seneca Falls, New York. +In giving an account of the meeting at Washington, in 1888, at the +Conference of Pioneers of the International Council of Women (see Report, +pp. 323, 324), she states that she and Lucretia Mott had drawn up the +grievances of woman under eighteen headings with the American Declaration +of Independence as a model, and that it was her wish to submit a suffrage +resolution to the meeting, but that Lucretia Mott herself refused to have +it presented. + +Nevertheless, in the meeting Elizabeth Cady Stanton herself, burning with +enthusiasm, introduced her resolution concerning woman's right to vote, +and, as she reports, the resolution _was adopted unanimously_. A few days +later the newspaper reports appeared. "There was," relates Elizabeth Cady +Stanton, "not a single paper from Maine to Louisiana which did not contain +our Declaration of Independence and present the matter as ludicrous. My +good father came from New York on the night train to see whether I had +lost my mind. I was overwhelmed with ridicule. A great number of women who +signed the Declaration withdrew their signatures. I felt very much +humiliated, so much the more, since I knew _that I was right_.... For all +that I should probably have allowed myself to be subdued if I had not soon +afterward met Susan B. Anthony, whom we call the Napoleon of our woman's +suffrage movement." + +Susan B. Anthony, the brave old lady, who in spite of her eighty-three +years did not dread the long journey from the United States to Berlin, and +in June, 1904, attended the meetings of the International Council of Women +and the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, was in early life a +teacher in Rochester, New York, and participated in the temperance +movement. She had assisted in securing twenty-eight thousand signatures to +a petition, providing for the regulation of the sale of alcohol, which was +presented to the New York State Legislature. Susan B. Anthony was in the +gallery during the discussion of the petition, and as she saw how one +speaker scornfully threw the petition to the floor and exclaimed, "Who is +it that demands such laws? They are only women and children...," she vowed +to herself that she would not rest content until a woman's signature to a +petition should have the same weight as that of a man. And she faithfully +kept her word. After a life of unceasing and unselfish work, Susan B. +Anthony died March 13, 1906, loved and esteemed by all who knew her. At +the commemoration services in 1907, twenty-four thousand dollars were +subscribed for the Susan B. Anthony Memorial Fund (to be used for woman's +suffrage propaganda). Susan B. Anthony was honorary president of the +International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +It is to be noted that a number of European women (such as Ernestine Rose +of Westphalia), imbued with the ideas of the February Revolution of 1848, +were compelled to seek new homes in America. These newcomers gave an +impetus to the woman's suffrage movement among American women. They were +greatly surprised to find that in republics also political freedom was +withheld from women. + +This was strikingly impressed upon the women of the United States in 1870. +At that time the negroes, who had been emancipated in 1863, were given +political rights throughout the Union by the addition of the Fifteenth +Amendment to the Federal Constitution.[5] In this way all power of the +individual states to abridge the political rights of the negro was taken +away. + +The American women felt very keenly that in the eyes of their legislators +a member of an inferior race, _if only a man_, should be ranked superior +to any woman, be she ever so highly educated; and they expressed their +indignation in a picture portraying the American woman and her political +associates. This represented the Indian, the idiot, the lunatic, the +criminal,--_and woman_. In the United States they are all without +political rights. + +Since 1848 an energetic suffrage movement has been carried on by the +American women. To-day there is a "Woman's Suffrage Society" in every +state, and all these organizations belong to a national woman's suffrage +league. In recent years there has arisen a vigorous woman's suffrage +movement within the numerous and influential woman's clubs (with almost a +million members) and among college women the College Equal Suffrage +League, the movement extending even into the secondary schools. The +National Trades Union League, the American Federation of Labor, and +nineteen state Federations of Labor have declared themselves in favor of +woman's suffrage. The leaders of the movement have now established the +fact that "the Constitution of the United States does not contain a word +or a line, which, if interpreted in the spirit of the 'Declaration of +Independence,' denies woman the right to vote in state and national +elections." + +The preamble to the Constitution of the United States reads as follows: +"We, the people of the United States ... do ordain and establish this +Constitution for the United States of America." Women are doubtlessly +people. All the articles of the Constitution repeat this expression. The +objects of the Constitution are: + + 1. The establishment of a more perfect union of the states among + themselves, + 2. The establishment of justice, + 3. The insurance of domestic tranquillity, + 4. The provision of common defense, + 5. The promotion of the general welfare, + 6. The securing of the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our + posterity. + +All of these six points concern and interest women as much as men. +Supplementary to this is the "Declaration of Independence." Here are +stated as self-evident truths: + + 1. "That all men are created equal," + + 2. "That they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable + Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of + Happiness," + + 3. "That to secure [not to grant] these rights, Governments are + instituted among men, _deriving their just powers from the consent + of the governed_." + +On this last passage the Americans comment with especial emphasis: they +say the right to vote is their right as human beings,--_they possess it as +a natural right_; the government cannot justly take it from them, cannot +even grant it to them justly. So long as the government does not ask the +women for their consent, it is acting _illegally_ according to the +Declaration of Independence. For it is nowhere stated that the consent of +one half, the male half, will suffice to make a government _legal_. + +On the basis of this declaration of principles the American women have +made it a point to oppose every individual argument against woman's +suffrage. For this purpose they frequently use small four-page pamphlets, +which are issued as the "Political Equality Series" by the American +Woman's Suffrage Association. They say "It is generally held that: + + 1. "Every woman is married, loved, and provided for. + + 2. "Every man stays at home every evening. + + 3. "Every woman has small children. + + 4. "All women, when they have once secured political rights, will + plunge into politics and neglect their households." + + "What is the exact state of affairs in these matters? + + 1. "A great many women are not married; many are widows who must + educate their children and seek a means of livelihood. Thousands + have no other home than the one they create for themselves, and + they must often support relatives in addition to themselves. Many + of the married women are neither loved, provided for, nor + protected. + + 2. "Many men are at home so seldom in the evening that their wives + could quietly concern themselves with political matters without + being missed at all. And such men, seconded by bachelors, clamor + most about the 'dissolution of the family' through politics. + + 3. "The children do not remain small indefinitely; they grow up and + hence leave the mother. It may be true that the mother, instead of + participating in political affairs, prefers to sew flannel shirts + for the heathen, or prefers to read novels, but one ought at least + to permit her the freedom of making the choice. + + 4. "The right to vote will not change the nature of woman. If she + wished to leave the home as her sphere of activity, she would have + found other opportunities long ago." + +Further fears are the following: 1. _The majority of women do not wish the +right to vote at all._ To this we must answer that we cannot yet come to a +conclusion concerning the wish of the majority in this respect. The +petitions for woman's suffrage always have a greater number of signatures +than any other petitions to Congress. 2. _Women will use the right to vote +only to a limited extent._ The statistics in Wyoming and Colorado prove +the contrary. 3. _Only women "of ill repute" will vote._ Thus far this has +been nowhere the case. The men guard against attracting these elements. +Moreover, the right to vote is not restricted to the men "of good repute" +either, etc., etc. + +The American women can obtain the political franchise by two methods: 1. +At the hands of every individual legislature (which would occasion 52 +separate legislative acts,--48 states and 4 territories). 2. Through the +adoption of a sixteenth amendment to the national Constitution by +Congress.[6] Let us consider the first method. The franchise +qualifications in the United States are generally the following: male sex, +twenty-one years of age, American citizenship (through birth, or by +naturalization after five years' residence). + +Amendments to the state constitution must be accepted by the state +legislature (consisting of the lower house and the senate),[7] and then be +accepted in a referendum vote by the (male) electorate. To secure the +adoption of such an amendment in a state legislature is no easy task. In +the first place the presentation of a woman's suffrage bill is not +received favorably; the Republicans and Democrats struggle for control of +the legislature, the majority one way or the other never being large. +Therefore the party leaders usually consider woman's suffrage not on the +basis of party politics. Matters are decided on the basis of +opportuneness. Especially is this the case in those states where the bill +must be passed by two successive legislatures. In this case, between the +time of the first passing of a bill and the referendum, there is a new +election, and the opponents of woman's suffrage can defeat the adherents +of the measure at the polls before the women themselves can exercise the +right of suffrage. + +Changing the national Constitution through the adoption of a sixteenth +amendment has difficulties equally great; the amendment must pass the +House of Representatives and the Senate by a two-thirds vote and then be +ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures or specially called +conventions. + +To the present time only two of the Presidents of the Union have publicly +expressed themselves in favor of woman's suffrage,--Abraham Lincoln and +Theodore Roosevelt. In 1836 Lincoln addressed an open letter to the voters +in New Salem, Illinois, in which he said: "I go for all sharing the +privileges of the government who assist in bearing its burdens"; and he +was in favor of "admitting all whites to the right of suffrage who pay +taxes or bear arms (_by no means excluding females_)." Garfield, Hayes, +and Cleveland gave their attention to the question of woman's suffrage; +the last two supporting motions in favor of the movement. Theodore +Roosevelt, in 1899, as Assemblyman in the New York State Legislature, +spoke in favor of woman's suffrage: "I call the attention of the Assembly +to the advantages which a general extension of woman's right to vote must +bring about." + +In order to attain their end,--political emancipation,--the American women +use the following means of agitation: petitions, the submission of +legislative bills, meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of +pamphlets, deputations to the legislatures of the individual states and to +the Congressional House of Representatives, the organization of +workingwomen, requests to teachers and preachers to comment on patriotic +memorial days on woman's worth, and to preach at least once during the +year in favor of woman's suffrage. + +To the present time four states of the Union have granted full municipal +and political suffrage to women (active suffrage, the right to vote; +passive suffrage, eligibility to office). The states in question are +Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and Idaho. Wyoming and Utah inaugurated woman's +suffrage in 1869 and 1870, respectively, when they were still territories; +and in 1890 and 1895, when they were given statehood, they retained +woman's suffrage. Colorado granted it in 1893 and Idaho in 1896. The +political emancipation of woman in the State of Washington is close at +hand,[8] in South Dakota,[9] Oregon,[9] and Nebraska it seems assured. In +Kansas, since 1887, women have possessed active and passive suffrage in +municipal elections. In the State of Illinois they are about to secure +it.[10] All of these are western states with a new civilization and a +numerical superiority of men. + +Practical experience with woman's suffrage shows the following: everywhere +the elections have become quieter and more respectable. _The wages and +salaries of women have been generally raised_, partly through the +enactment of laws, such as laws regulating the salaries of women teachers, +etc., partly through the better professional and industrial organization +of workingwomen, who are now trained in political affairs. A comparison of +the salaries of women teachers having woman's suffrage with salaries in +states not having woman's suffrage shows the value of the ballot. The +public finances have been more economically administered, intemperance and +immorality have been more energetically combated, candidates with immoral +records have been removed from the political arena. Inasmuch as women have +full political rights in the four states named (six, including Washington +and California), they also vote for presidential electors, and thus +exercise an influence in the national presidential elections. It is the +woman with good average abilities that is most frequently the successful +candidate in political campaigns. + +But as yet the number of women who devote themselves to a political life +is not large. The women in Colorado seem to have a special ability for +this. Without any consideration for party affiliations they secured the +reëlection of Judge Lindsey of the Juvenile Court. Generally speaking, +they have devoted their efforts everywhere to the protection of youth. At +the present time the establishment of a special bureau for the protection +of youth is being advocated, and a national conference to discuss the +welfare of children is to be held in Washington, D.C.[11] + +Because the English anti-woman's suffrage advocate, Mrs. Humphry Ward, +expressed the familiar fear that "the immoral vote would drown the moral +vote," the Reverend Anna Shaw declared at the Woman's Suffrage Congress at +London (May, 1909), that she openly challenges Mrs. Humphry Ward to +produce one convincing proof for her assertion. She herself had carefully +investigated the recent elections in Denver, Colorado, to ascertain how +many, if any, of the "immoral" women voted, and received as answer that +these women, who naturally are in a minority, generally do not vote at +all; first, because they pursue their trade under false names, secondly, +because most of them are not permanently domiciled and for both reasons +are not entered on the voting lists; these women vote only when an +influence is exerted on them from above or by persons around them. + +In the State of Utah, where woman's suffrage has existed since 1870, "the +women have quietly begun and continued without a break the exercise of +that power, which from the remotest time had been their right. They have +concerned themselves with political and economic questions, and if they +have committed any errors, these have not yet come to light. They have +been delegates to county and state conventions, they have represented the +richest and most populous electoral districts in the state legislature, +and they serve as heads of various state departments" (state treasurer, +supervisor of the poor, superintendent of education, etc.). In Colorado +(with woman's suffrage since 1893) the women have organized clubs in all +cities, even in the lonely mining towns (Colorado is in the Rocky +Mountains), and have informed themselves in political affairs to the best +of their ability. In the capital city, Denver, a club has been formed in +which busy women can meet weekly to inform themselves on political +affairs. In Colorado _parental_ authority over children prevails now (in +place of the exclusively paternal). In Idaho (with woman's suffrage since +1896) the women voters exerted a strong influence against gambling. The +enfranchised women, who had a right to vote in the little town of +Caldwell, had supported a mayor who was determined to take measures +against gambling. The barkeepers, topers, gamblers, and ne'er-do-wells +were against him. The women presented the magistrate with a petition, +which was read together with the signatures. "During the reading of the +names of the unobtrusive housewives who were rarely seen beyond their own +thresholds, the countenances of the men became serious. For the first time +they seemed to grasp what it really meant for a city to have woman's +suffrage." The barkeepers and the gamblers got the worst of it and +disappeared from the town hall. An old municipal judge said, "When have +our mothers ever _demanded_ anything before?"[12] In the same way the +women of Kansas have employed their municipal suffrage since 1887. + +Concerning an election in which women voted, the "Women's Rights Movement" +reports the following: "Almost all the women (about one third of the +population) in Wyoming, voted" (7000 votes out of 23,000). "In Boise, +Idaho, it was one of the quietest election days in the annals of the city. +Everywhere the women came to the polls in the early part of the day." "In +Salt Lake City, Utah, there was no interruption of traffic, no disturbance +of any kind ... the women came alone without having their husbands +accompany them to the ballot-box during the noon-hour." + +Because of the unsatisfactory experiences which America has had with +universal suffrage[13] as such, the woman's rights movement had suffered +also and has been retarded; but owing to the proceedings of the English +suffragettes during the past three years it has been given a new impetus. +In the state legislatures throughout the various parts of the country, +legislative bills have, during this time, been introduced; on these +occasions the women presented their demands in the so-called "hearings" +(which take place before the legislature). This took place in 1908 in +Rhode Island, Wisconsin, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, New York, Illinois, +South Dakota, Kansas, Oklahoma[14], Maine, Massachusetts, California, +Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Washington. In the latter state the House +has just passed a woman's suffrage amendment; if the Senate passes it, the +amendment will be submitted to popular vote.[15] A very active woman's +suffrage campaign in the State of Oregon (1906) failed, owing to the +opposition of the friends of the liquor interests and the brothels.[16] It +is both significant and gratifying that the woman's suffrage movement is +spreading to the Eastern States; an example of this is the great +demonstration of February 22, 1909, in Boston. + +The woman's suffrage societies of the various states are formed into a +national league: the National Woman's Suffrage Association, with about +100,000 members. The President is the Reverend Anna Shaw. This Association +has recently drawn up an enormous petition to Congress in order to secure +woman's suffrage through federal law, and has established headquarters in +Washington, the federal capital. During eleven weeks 6000 letters and 1000 +postal cards were written, and 100,000 petition-blanks were distributed. + +To the present time only a small number of women have sought state +legislative offices; women members of city councils are rather numerous. +At the present time there is a woman representative in the legislature of +Colorado. The former governor, Mr. Alva Adams, alluded to her as "a +bright, efficient woman," who has introduced many bills and secured their +passage. For, says the governor, "it must be a pretty miserable law which +a tactful woman cannot have enacted, since the male legislators are +usually courteous and kindly disposed, and disregard party interests in +order to accept the measure of their female colleague." From which we +conclude that the women legislators strive especially for measures which +are for the general good.[17] + +In the United States there is also an "Association Opposed to Woman's +Suffrage." Its chief supporters are found among the saloon-keepers, the +habitual drunkards, and the women of the upper classes. But the American +women believe "that if every prayer, every tear can be supported by the +power of the ballot, mothers will no longer shed powerless tears over the +misfortunes of their children."[18] + +The American women had to struggle not only for their rights as citizens, +but they encountered great difficulty in securing an education. At the +beginning of the nineteenth century the education of girls in the United +States was entirely neglected; the secondary as well as the higher +institutions of learning were as good as closed to them. Woman's "physical +and intellectual inferiority" was referred to, just as with us [in +Germany]; woman's "loss of her feminine nature" was feared, and it was +declared "that within a short time the country would be full of the wrecks +of women who had overtaxed themselves with studies." To all these fears +the American women gave this answer: Women, you say, are foolish? God +created them so they would harmonize with man. As for the rest they +awaited developments. As early as 1821 the first institution for the +higher education of women, Troy Seminary, was founded with hopes for state +aid. In 1833, Oberlin College, the first coeducational college, was opened +with the express purpose "of giving all the privileges of higher education +to the unjustly condemned and neglected sex." Among the first women +students was the youthful woman's rights advocate, Lucy Stone. She wished +to learn Greek and Hebrew, for she was convinced that the Biblical +passage, "_and he shall rule over thee_," had not been correctly +translated by the men. In 1865 with the founding of Vassar College, the +first woman's college was established. To-day both sexes have the same +educational opportunities in the United States. The four oldest +universities (Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and Johns Hopkins), established on +the English model, still exclude women, and do not grant them academic +degrees. However, the latter point is of comparatively minor importance +in its relation to the _educational_ opportunities of women. Most of the +western universities are coeducational; in the East there are special +woman's colleges. In the colleges and universities the number of women +students is a little over one-third of the number of men students, but in +the high schools the girl students outnumber the boys. The removal of all +restrictions to woman's instruction in the secondary and higher +institutions of learning is furthering the activity of the American women +in the professions. As teachers, they are employed chiefly in the public +schools, in which they constitute 70 per cent of the total staff. So the +majority of the "freest citizens" in the world are educated by women. The +number of women teachers in the public schools is 327,151. In the higher +institutions of learning there is nothing to prevent their appointment. +Among university teachers (professors and those of lower rank) there are +about 1000 women. Their salaries are equal to those of the men, which is +not always the case in the elementary schools, since the tendency is to +restrict women to the subordinate positions.[19] + +The women who teach in the woman's colleges must, in every case, possess a +superior individuality. Thus a woman president of a college must possess +academic training in order to control her teaching force; she must +possess a deep insight into human nature in order that her educational +relations with the public may be successful; she must have a knowledge of +business in order to administer the property of her institution +satisfactorily and command the respect of the financiers of her governing +board. + +Fifteen thousand American women are students in woman's colleges, and +twenty thousand in coeducational colleges and universities. In the latter, +the women have distinguished themselves through application and ability so +that frequently they have taken all the academic honors and prizes to the +exclusion of the men. Since they can no longer be excluded on the ground +of their inferiority, their superiority is now the pretext for their +exclusion. But a suspension of coeducation in the United States is not to +be considered. The state universities, supported with public funds, are +all coeducational. The existence of non-coeducational colleges and +universities in addition to state institutions is regarded as a guarantee +of personal freedom in matters pertaining to higher education. + +Since the public school system in the United States is in great part +coeducational, the exclusion of women from conferences pertaining to +school affairs and their administration would indicate that an especially +great injustice were being committed. This was indeed recognized, and +women were given the right to vote on school affairs not only in the five +woman's suffrage states [Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, Idaho, and Kansas], but +also in twenty-three other states, in which women are without political +rights in other respects. The famous deaf-blind woman, Helen Keller, was +appointed to serve on the state committee on the education of the blind. +In Boston trained nurses are employed to make visits to the homes of the +school children. An agitation is on foot to have women inspectors of +schools. + +In all woman's suffrage states special attention is devoted to educational +matters. Thus the State of Idaho appropriated $2500 for the establishment +of a lectureship in domestic science. From 1872 to 1900 the number of +women students has increased 148.7 per cent (while the number of men +students increased 60.6 per cent). Among women there are also fewer +illiterates, drunkards, and criminals; in other words, women are the more +moral and better educated part of the American population; and it is these +who are excluded from active participation in political affairs. + +The number of women lawyers is estimated at one thousand; in twenty-three +states they may plead in the Supreme Court. Women lawyers have their own +professional organizations. + +In Ohio, women are employed in the police service; in Pennsylvania they +are appointed as tax-collectors; in the city of Portland a woman was +appointed as inspector of markets with police power. Women justices of the +peace are as numerous as women mayors. In Oregon a woman is secretary to +the governor, for whom she acts with full authority. + +In all woman's suffrage states women act as jurors. Besides these states +only Illinois permits women to serve as jurors--and then only in a +juvenile court. + +There are said to be about 2000 women journalists. Their writings are +often sensational, but in the United States sensationalism is +characteristic of the profession. + +Of women preachers there are 3,500, belonging to 158 different +denominations. Among these women preachers there are also negresses. The +women study in theological seminaries, are ordained and devote themselves +either to the real calling of the ministry, social rescue work, or to the +woman's rights propaganda, as does the excellent speaker, the Reverend +Anna Shaw. The women preachers who devote themselves to social rescue work +usually study medicine also, so that they can first secure confidence as +persons skilled in the cure of the body, and then later the cure of the +soul is less difficult. + +There are 7000 women in the medical profession,--more than in any other +profession. The first women who studied medicine were American, Elizabeth +Blackwell having done so as early as 1846. Only the University of Geneva +(New York) would admit her; in 1848 she graduated there. Then she +continued her studies in Paris and London, returning in 1851 to New York, +in order to practice. Her first patients were Quakers. Elizabeth Blackwell +and her sister Emily (Blackwell) then founded in New York the "Hospital +for Indigent Women," to which the medical schools in Boston and +Philadelphia sent their graduates to obtain practical work.[20] A large +number of women lawyers, preachers, and doctors are married. In 1900 the +total number of women in the professions (exclusive of teaching) was +16,000. In 1900, 14.3 per cent of the female population were engaged in +industries; since 1880 the number of women engaged in the professions and +industries increased 128 per cent (while that of the men increased 76 per +cent).[21] + +Most of the technical schools admit women. There are fifty-three women +architects. The Woman's Building of the World's Exposition in Chicago +(1893) was designed by Sophia Haydn and erected under her supervision. It +is not unusual for women who are owners of business enterprises to take +technical courses. Thus Miss Jones, as her father's heir, became, after a +careful education, manageress of her large steel works in Chicago. The +Cincinnati pottery [Rookwood], founded by women, is also managed by them. +There are five women captains of ships, four women pilots, and twenty-four +women engineers. + +During twenty-five years, women have had 4000 inventions patented. The +women of the South produced fewest inventions. But in these fields women +still meet with prejudice and difficulties. In increasing numbers women +are becoming bankers, merchants, contractors, owners or managers of +factories, shareholders, stock-brokers, and commercial travelers. About +1000 women are now engaged in these occupations. As office clerks women +have stood the test well in the United States. They are esteemed for their +discretion and willingness to work. They are paid $12 to $20 a week. +According to the most recent statistics on the trades and professions +(1900) there were 1271 women bank clerks, 27,712 women bookkeepers, and +86,118 women stenographers. + +In the civil service we find fewer women (they are not voters): in 1890 +there were 14,692, of whom 8474 were postal, telephone, and telegraph +clerks, and 300 were police officials. In 1900, the total number of women +engaged in commerce was 503,574. + +The prejudice against the women of the lower classes is still evident. +Here at the very outset there is a great difference between the wages of +men and women, the wages of the latter being from one third to one half +lower. This is caused partly by the fact that women are given the +disagreeable, tiresome, and unimportant work, which they _must_ accept, +not being given an opportunity to do the better class of work,--frequently +because they have not learned their trade thoroughly. A further cause for +the lower wages of women is that they are working for "pocket-money" and +"incidentals," and thus spoil the market for those who must pay their +whole living expenses with what they earn. Among the women workers of the +United States there are two classes,--the industrial class and the +amateurs. The latter make the existence of the former almost impossible. +Such a competition is unknown to men in industrial work. Mrs. v. Vorst[22] +proposes a solution--to make the industrial amateurs become special +artisans by means of a longer apprenticeship, thus relieving the +industrial slaves from injurious competition. + +Office work and work in the factories enables the American women of the +middle and lower classes to satisfy their desire for independence; those +who are not obliged to provide for themselves wish at least to have money +at their disposal. That is a thoroughly sound aspiration. These girls +become factory employees and not domestic servants, (1) because work in +their own home is not paid for (the general disregard of housework drives +the women striving for independence away from the house); (2) because of +the absence of regularity in housework; (3) because the domestic servants +are not free on Sundays; (4) because they must live with the employers. +These facts are established by answer to inquiries made by Miss Jackson, +factory inspector of Wisconsin. + +The women employed in the stores and factories are in general paid about +the same wages, $4 to $6 a week. A saleswoman, upon whom greater demands +are made as to dress and personal appearance, finds it more difficult to +live on these wages than would the woman employed in the factory. As +pocket-money, however, this sum is a very good remuneration, and this +explains why the girls of these classes, in imitation of the bad example +set them by the members of the upper ranks of society, manifest such an +extraordinary taste for costly clothes and expensive pleasures. In 1888, +an official inquiry showed that 95 per cent of the women laborers lived at +home; in 1891 another official inquiry showed that one third of the women +laborers earned $5 a week; two thirds from $5 to $7, and only 1.8 per cent +earned more than $12, while the men laborers earned on the average $12 to +$15 a week. Women laborers are organized as yet only to a small extent (1 +per cent, while 10 per cent of the men are organized). There are separate +social-democratic organizations of women, formed through the Federation of +Labor. + +The workingwomen especially will be helped by the right to vote. In the +"Political Equality Series" appears a pamphlet entitled _Why does the +Working-woman need the Right to Vote?_ In the first place she needs the +right to vote in order to secure higher wages. Just suppose that the +members of the typographical union were to-morrow deprived of their right +to vote. Only their full political emancipation could again restore them +to their former position of prestige among the working classes. This is +exactly the case with the women, and they have not even reached the +highly-developed organization of the typographers. A politically unfree +laboring class is also unable to maintain its vocation against a laboring +class possessing political rights; _if the vocation is remunerative the +unfree class will be deprived of it or be kept from it altogether_. The +oppression of the workingwomen has its effect also on men through its +tendency to lower wages. Therefore at the present time the trades-unions +have recognized that to organize women is _in the interests of all +workingmen_, and while the women were refused organization forty years +ago, the Federation of Labor is to-day paying trades-union organizers to +induce women to become members of trades-unions. The introduction of a +low rate of wages in one branch of a trade (pursued by both men _and_ +women) is always a menace to the branches that survive the reduction. The +number of women engaged in the industries in 1900 was 1,315,890. The +number of married women engaged in industrial pursuits is small; in 1895, +an official investigation showed that in 1067 factories 7,000 workingwomen +out of 71,000 were married. The chief industries in which women are +employed are the textile industry (cotton), laundering, the manufacture of +ready-made clothing, corsets, carpets, millinery, and fancy-goods. Women +work alongside the men in wool-spinning, in bookbinding, and in the +manufacture of shoes, mittens, tobacco, and confectionery. + +The inability of workingwomen to exercise political rights makes minors of +them when compared with workingmen, and this decreases their importance as +human beings. Women cannot protect themselves against injustice, and these +things put them at a great disadvantage. + +The American women became involved in a lively conflict with President +Roosevelt (otherwise favoring woman's rights) concerning his gift to a +father and mother for bringing twenty children into the world. The women +declared in the _Woman's Journal_ that it is wrong to encourage an +immoderate procreation of children among a population 70 per cent of +which possesses no property.[23] Above all, this encouragement is not only +a menace to the overworked and oppressed workingwomen, but it is inhuman, +and really lowers woman to the position of a machine for bearing children. + +The institution of factory inspection does not as yet exist in the whole +Union. According to the report of Mrs. v. Vorst[24] the factories and the +homes of laborers in the Southern States are extremely unsatisfactory. +Child labor is exploited there, a matter which is now being dealt with by +the National Child Labor Committee. According to this same work (the +inquiry of Mrs. v. Vorst) the living conditions in the North and Central +States are better, and the moral menaces to the young girl are +inconsiderable. The women of the property-holding classes are attempting +to do their duty toward the women of the factories and stores by founding +clubs, vacation colonies, and homes for them. Within recent years the +great department stores have appointed "social secretaries," who look +after the weal and woe of the employees. It would be well to have such +secretaries in the factories and mills also. Since 1874 the working week +of sixty hours for women in industry and commerce has spread from +Massachusetts to almost the entire Union. Since 1890, night labor has +been prohibited by law. The working girls have been provided with seats +while at work, partly as a result of legislation and partly by the +voluntary act of the employers. + +In agriculture women find a profitable field of activity. Of course they +are never field hands, but are employers and laborers in the dairy +business, in poultry farming, and in the raising of vegetables and fruit. +Women have introduced the growing of cress, cranberries, and cucumbers in +various regions, and have cultivated the famous asparagus of Oyster Bay +and the "Improved New York Strawberries." In 1900, there were 980,025 +women engaged in agriculture (as compared with 9,458,194 men). The number +of women domestic servants in the United States amounts to 2,099,165; +fifty per cent of the families dispense with servants, since they cannot +afford to pay $15 to $20 a month for a servant, or $30 for a cook. +Educated women, called visiting housekeepers, undertake the supervision of +some of the households of the better class, aided, of course, by help in +the house. + +The legal status of the American women is regulated by 52 sets of laws, +corresponding to the number of states and territories. The civil code is +unfavorable to woman in most of the states. In the National Trade Union +League (New York) the Reverend Anna Shaw declared recently that in 38 +states the property laws made "joint property holding" legal, as a result +of which the wife has no independent control of her personal earnings or +her personal effects, _e.g._ her clothes. In 38 states the wife also has +no legal authority over her children. For full particulars the reader is +referred to Volume IV of the _History of Woman's Suffrage_. To an +increasing extent the women are using their right to administer their +property independently, and the men are usually proud of the business +ability and success of their wives. + +A _legal_ regulation of prostitution (such as prevailed formerly in +England and as prevails now in Germany) does not exist in the United +States. Cincinnati is the only city which in the European sense has police +control of prostitution. Public opinion has successfully resisted all +similar attempts. (_Woman's Journal_, July, 1904.) The American +Commission, which went to Europe to study the regulation of prostitution, +declared that the American woman cannot be expected to sanction such an +arrangement, and that, moreover, the system had not stood the test. In the +police stations, police matrons are employed. The law protects the woman +in the street against the man and not, as in Europe, the man against the +woman. + +In order to combat the double standard of morals the "Social Purity +League" was formed. The membership is composed of those men and women who +are thoroughly convinced that there is only one standard of morality for +both sexes, since they have the same obligations to their offspring. +Founded in 1886, this organization has spread since 1889 throughout the +entire Union. + +The "World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union," the second largest +international woman's organization, originated in America. It was founded +in 1883 by Frances E. Willard (her father was Hilgard, from the +Palatinate). The Union has 300,000 members in the United States at the +present time, and 450,000 members in the whole world. In 1906 it met in +Boston. It is the determined enemy of alcohol, and gives proof of its +convictions through the work of its soldier's and sailor's department, its +committees on railroads, tramways, police stations, cab drivers, etc. This +Union, as well as the "Social Purity League," is a firm advocate of +woman's suffrage. + +The emancipation of the American women is promoted through sports. If on +the one hand they appreciate an elaborate toilette, on the other hand they +recognize the advantages of bloomers, the walking skirt, and the divided +skirt. In these costumes they play basketball, polo, tennis, and take +gymnastic exercise, fence, and row. The woman's colleges are centers of +athletic life. There the girls now play football in male costume, the +public being excluded. In all large cities there are athletic clubs for +women, some extremely sumptuous (with a hundred-dollar fee) as well as +very simple clubs for workingwomen of sedentary life. + +We have seen that the legal status of women in many states is still in +need of reform. All the more instructive is the survey of laws concerning +women and children in the _woman's suffrage states_, published by Mrs. C. +Waugh McCullock, a woman lawyer, of Chicago. The wife disposes of her +wages and her dowry (in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Idaho). Men and women +receive equal pay for the same work. All professions and public offices +are open to women. Women act as jurors. They have the same right of +inheritance as men. Divorce is granted to either party under the same +circumstances. The claims of the wife and the children under age are given +a decided preference over those of creditors. Education from the +kindergarten to the university is free and is open to women. The labor of +women in mines is prohibited. The maximum working-day for women is eight +hours. All houses of correction and institutions for the protection of +women and children must have women physicians and overseers. The age of +consent is 18 years. Gambling and prostitution are prohibited. Both father +and mother exercise parental authority. The surviving husband is guardian +of the children. The sale of alcoholic liquors and tobacco to children is +prohibited. No child under 14 years of age may work in the mines. +Pornographic literature and pictures are prohibited. + +In conclusion I shall take several points from the lecture which Professor +F. Laurie Poster held before the Political Equality League in Chicago, +after the women of Chicago had waged a vigorous campaign for the right to +vote in municipal affairs. + +Why is the value of woman placed so low? Merely because she is more +helpless than man. Children are valued even less than women because they +surpass the women in helplessness. Only animals have less power of +defense; therefore they have the lowest value placed on them. In the +United States it has now been demonstrated that whoever possesses the +right to vote is esteemed more highly than he who does not have that +right. We see this in the woman's suffrage states; here the women have +made provisions not only for themselves, but for the children as well, for +it is one of the fundamental instincts of woman to protect her little +ones. In most of the states of the Union, however, women can help directly +neither themselves nor their children. That women should be forced to +struggle for these ends against the opposition of man is one of the most +unfortunate phases of the whole movement. + +When woman became property, a possession, the overestimation of her sexual +value began. Her sex was her weapon, and her capabilities became stunted. +This over emphasis of the sexual causes a great part of the most flagrant +evils among civilized peoples. To-day we have reached a stage where we +despise him who sells his vote. Unfortunately it is still permitted to +sell one's sex. In this roundabout way woman attains most of the good +things in life. Her economic successes depend almost entirely on the +resources of the man to whom she belongs. Both sexes suffer as a result of +this attitude of society. Woman's uncertain feeling, that she must +concentrate her interests and responsibilities in the one who provides for +the family, has created exceedingly peculiar customs and a wholly absurd +code of honor for both man and woman. Thereby woman is directed to a +_roundabout way_ for everything she wishes to obtain. Whatever she wishes +for herself must appear as a domestic virtue, if possible as a sacrifice +for the family. Man thinks it very natural that he should do what he +desires, that he should pursue his pleasures and gratify his passions, for +he is indeed the one who possesses authority and does not need first to +stamp his wishes as virtues. But it seems just as natural to him that the +women of the family should be endowed with a double portion of piety, +economy and willingness to make sacrifices,--virtues in which he is so +lacking. Women are created especially for that. By nature they are better, +and indeed they make great efforts to cover the faults of the offending +one and forgivingly accept him again. In fact they do it gladly; it gives +them pleasure, and man certainly does not wish to deprive them of the +opportunity for such great joys. Therefore man is instantly at hand to +warn woman when she shows any inclination toward adopting "masculine" +habits. But he certainly would be more conscientious and more moral if +woman no longer assumed these virtues vicariously for him. Woman must make +her demands of man. For that she must be _free_.[25] + + +AUSTRALIA[26] + + Total population: 4,555,662. + Women: 2,166,318. + Men: 2,389,344. + + An association of women's clubs in each of five colonies. + The Australian Women's Political Association, embracing six colonies. + +It is a rare thing for Europeans to have a definite conception of the +Australian Commonwealth. This is the more to be regretted since this +federation of republics is among the countries that have made the greatest +progress in the woman's rights movement. In no other part of the world has +such a radical change in the status of woman been effected in so short a +time and with such comparatively insignificant struggles. + +Till 1840, Australia had been a penal colony. Since then,--after the +discovery of the first gold fields,--a multitude of fortune-seekers, +gold-miners, and adventurers joined the population of deported convicts. +The good middle-class element for a long time remained in the minority. +Certainly nobody would have believed that there existed at that time in +Australia all the conditions necessary for the growth of a flourishing and +highly civilized commonwealth. Nevertheless, such was the case. There were +formed seven democratic states, whose people were not bound by any +traditionalism or excessive fondness for time-honored, inherited customs; +these people wished to have elbowroom and were determined to establish +themselves on their own soil in their own way. This all took place the +more easily since England gave the growing commonwealth in general an +exceedingly free hand, and because the inhabitants were by nature +independent. Australia was colonized by those who, having come into +conflict with the laws of the old world, found their sphere of life narrow +and restricted. + +Because Australia to-day has only about five million inhabitants, the +country is confronted only in a limited way with the problem of dealing +with congested masses of people, a condition which is favorable to all +social experimentation. Those in authority believe they can direct and +eventually mold the development of the Commonwealth. + +Sixty-five per cent of the population are Protestant; the Germanic element +predominates. The women constitute not quite 50 per cent of the +population. Thus in many respects the Australian colonies possess +conditions similar to those prevailing in the western states of the +American Union, and the results of the woman's rights movement are in both +regions approximately the same. Mrs. M. Donohue, one of the delegates from +Australia, declared at the London Woman's Suffrage Congress that her +country had brought about "the greatest happiness for the greatest +number." + +Naturally, the Australian governments had originally a series of material +problems to solve, real problems of existence, as, for example, to find a +satisfactory agricultural policy in a predominantly farming and +cattle-raising country. When the economic basis of the country seemed +sufficiently secure, the intellectual interests were given attention. A +country which never had slavery or a feudal regime, a Salic Law, or a Code +Napoleon; a country which has no divine right of kings, and is not +oppressed with militarism; a country which judges a man by his personal +ability and esteems him for what he is, such a country certainly could not +tolerate the dogma of woman's inferiority. Between 1871 and 1880, the +school systems of the various colonies were regulated by a series of laws. +Elementary instruction, which is free and obligatory, is given in public +schools to children of both sexes between the ages of five and fifteen, +but in most cases the sexes are segregated. In the public schools of the +whole continent about 20,000 teachers are employed (9,000 men and 11,000 +women). The men predominate in the leading well-paid positions. The +secondary school system (as in England) is composed largely of private +schools, and is to a great extent in the hands of the Protestant +denominations and the Catholic orders. The governments subsidize these +institutions. Girls and boys enjoy the same educational opportunities in +the schools, part of which are coeducational. + +The four Australian universities--Sidney (New South Wales), Melbourne +(Victoria), Adelaide (South Australia), and Aukland (New Zealand)--are +to-day open to women, who can secure all academic degrees granted by the +philosophical, law, and medical faculties.[27] + +The number of students in the universities is as follows: in Sidney, 1054 +(of whom 142 are women); in New Zealand University, 1332 (of whom 369 are +women); in Melbourne, 853 (of whom 128 are women). The total number of +students in Adelaide and Hobart is 626 and 62 respectively, but the number +of women students is not given. The educational problem is thus solved for +the Australian woman in a favorable manner: she has equal and full +privileges in the universities. + +What are the conditions in the occupations? "All occupations are open to +women," is stated in a report which I have used.[28] But that is not +entirely correct. Women are teachers, but they are not lecturers and +professors in the universities. As preachers they are admitted only among +the Nonconformists. There are women doctors and dentists, and in four +colonies (New Zealand, Tasmania, West Australia, and Victoria) women are +permitted to practice law, but they are confronted with a certain popular +prejudice when they attempt to enter medicine, law, technical science, and +a teaching career in the universities. The state employs women in the +elementary schools; in the postal and telegraph service; as registrars +(permitting them to perform marriage ceremonies); and as factory +inspectors. But the salaries and wages in Australia are not always the +same for both sexes. Thus, for example, in South Australia the male head +masters of the public schools draw salaries of 110 to 450 pounds sterling, +while the women draw 80 to 156 pounds sterling. Since school affairs are +not affairs under the control of the Commonwealth, the federal law (equal +wages for equal work) cannot be applied in this particular. In +Tasmania[29] (where the women have voted since 1903) women are teachers in +the public schools, employees in the postal, telegraph, and telephone +systems, supervisors of health in the public schools, and assistants to +the quarantine and sanitary boards; they are registrars in the parishes, +superintendents of hospitals, asylums, prisons, etc. Public offices in the +army, the navy, and the church alone remain closed to them. + +It is to be noted here that Mrs. Dobson, of Tasmania, was the official +representative of the Australian government at the International Woman's +Suffrage Congress held in Amsterdam in 1908. + +The official yearbook of the Australian Federation gives the following +industrial statistics for 1901: state and municipal office holders, 41,235 +women (69,399 men); domestic servants, 150,201 women (50,335 men); +commerce, 34,514 women (188,144 men); transportation, 3429 women (118,730 +men); industry, 75,570 women (350,596 men); agriculture and forestry, +fisheries, and mining, 38,944 women (494,163 men). In all fields, with the +exception of domestic service, the men are in a numerical superiority; +therefore the matrimonial opportunities of the Australian woman are +favorable. For every 100 girls 105.99 boys were born in 1906; the +statistics for 1906 showed a greater number of marriages than ever before +(30,410). The difference in the ages of the married men and women is 4.5 +years on the average; the number of children per family is about 4 (3.77). + +Five Australian colonies (New Zealand, Victoria, Queensland, South +Australia, and New South Wales) have enacted the following laws for the +protection of workingwomen: + + 1. Maximum working time--48 hours a week. + + 2. The prohibition of night work (except in Queensland). + + 3. Higher wages for overtime. + +The eight-hour day is necessitated throughout Australia by the climate. +The other provisions are perhaps not stringently enforced. Children under +thirteen years cannot be employed in the factories. Socialistic +regulations, such as fixing the minimum wages in certain industries, and +the establishment of obligatory courts of arbitration, have been +instituted in several colonies (Victoria, New South Wales, etc.). + +In the beginning the English Common Law regulated the legal status of the +Australian women. During the past fifty years this law has undergone many +modifications. Each colony acted independently in the matter, and +therefore there is no longer uniformity. In all cases separate ownership +of property is legal. However, joint parental authority is legally +established only in New Zealand. The divorce laws are prejudicial to women +in almost all respects. + +In the field of legislation the influence of woman's suffrage has already +made itself definitely felt. Each colony has its state legislature which +consists of a Lower House and a Senate. Every Australian who is twenty-one +years old is a voter in both state and municipal elections. (There is a +property qualification only for those voting for the Senate.) In 1869 the +woman's suffrage movement began in Australia (in Victoria). The right to +vote in school and municipal affairs was given to women as a matter of +course.[30] The right to vote in state affairs was granted to women first +in New Zealand in 1893, in South Australia in 1895, in West Australia in +1899, in New South Wales in 1903, in Queensland in 1905, and in Victoria +in 1908. + +When the six Australian colonies (excluding New Zealand) formed themselves +into a federation in 1900, an Australian Federal Parliament was +established. The women of _all of the six colonies_ voted for the +parliamentary officers on an equality with men. Here was a curious +thing--the women of the four conservative colonies voted for the members +of the Federal Parliament but could not vote for the state legislature. + +On the basis of the documents dealing with Victoria I shall give a more +detailed account of the history of woman's suffrage in this colony. The +greatest statesman of Victoria, George Higinbotham, in 1873 introduced the +first woman's suffrage bill before Parliament. This met with no success. A +number of similar attempts were made until 1884. In this year there was +founded the first "Woman's Suffrage Society" in Victoria. The movement +then spread rapidly, and in 1891 thirty thousand women petitioned +Parliament for the suffrage in state affairs. For the time being this +attempt likewise met with failure. But the political organization of the +women was strengthened through the formation of the "United Council for +Woman's Suffrage." Every year after 1895 this Council gave advice to the +Lower House concerning the framing of woman's suffrage bills, and thus +enlarged its influence. Hitherto the passing of the suffrage bill had been +prevented by the opposition of the Upper House (which was not chosen by +universal suffrage). On November 18, 1908, the bill was finally passed by +the _House of Obstruction_, and thus the women, who had worked for the +suffrage, were finally emancipated. Since 1893, the year of the +emancipation of women in New Zealand, the opponents of woman's suffrage +put off the women with the request to wait and see how the plan worked in +New Zealand; in 1896 the women were asked to wait and see how the plan +worked in New South Wales; in 1902 they were asked to see how woman's +suffrage worked in the federal elections. In 1908 it was possible to +secure only 3500 signatures _against_ woman's suffrage. + +In New Zealand the women have exercised active suffrage since 1893. There +also, the gloomiest predictions were made when this "unprecedented" +measure was adopted. There were, of course, women opponents of woman's +suffrage. Such, for example, was Mrs. Seddon, the wife of the Prime +Minister of New Zealand. She said: "It seemed to me that the women ought +to remain away from the tumult and riotous scenes of the polling booths. +But I gave up this view. With us, the women benefited the suffrage and the +suffrage benefited the women. The elections have taken place more quietly +and women have indicated a lively interest in public affairs. + +"Woman's suffrage has not caused family dissensions. It has frequently +happened that whole families have voted for the same candidate. In other +cases different members of one family voted for different candidates. But +this has not disturbed domestic tranquillity, for nowhere have family +feuds been engendered by one member or another of the family boasting of +the success of his candidate. The fear that the women would vote largely +for Conservative candidates, through the influence of the clergy, was not +realized. Already the women have twice contributed to the reëlection of a +Liberal minister. Neither the Protestant nor the Catholic clergy +endeavored to influence the votes of the women anywhere." The Countess +Wachtmeister, a Californian traveling in Australia, confirms this opinion, +"Thanks to woman's suffrage the respectable elements that formerly often +remained away from the political arena have now again stepped to the +front; they have presented successful candidates, and have begun to play +an important part in the political life of the country." + +Since women have exercised the right to vote in New Zealand the following +legal reforms have been enacted: + + 1. Divorces are granted to the wife and to the husband upon the same + grounds. + + 2. The husband can no longer deprive the wife and children of their + inheritances by means of a will. + + 3. The conditions of suffrage in municipal elections were made the + same for both women and men. + + 4. The saloons are closed on election days. + + 5. Women are admitted to the practice of law. + + 6. The age of consent for girls was raised to 17. + +Similar reforms were enacted in South Australia. There Mrs. Mary Lee is +the leader in the woman's suffrage movement, and founder of the "Women's +Suffrage Society." When the woman's suffrage bill was passed in 1895 the +Prime Minister, the Minister of Public Instruction, and the Lord Mayor +gave Mrs. Lee an impressive reception in the town hall; they thanked her +for the untiring efforts which she had devoted to the cause, and the Prime +Minister said, "Mrs. Lee is the originator of the greatest reforms in the +constitutional history of Australia." What enlightened views the ministers +in the antipodal countries do have! Are they really our antiscians to such +a degree? + +Since 1896, the following reforms have been effected by the South +Australian Parliament: + + 1. A modification of the marriage law (the husband must provide for + the wife and children if his brutality leads to a divorce). An + enlargement of woman's sphere in the business world. Separate + property rights. + + 2. Greater strength was given to the law compelling the father of + illicit children to fulfill his pecuniary duties. + + 3. A severer penalty for trafficking in girls. + + 4. The increasing of the age of consent to 17. + + 5. Improved laws providing for the care of dependent children. + + 6. A maximum working week of 52 hours for children engaged in + industry. + + 7. Laws suppressing pornography. + + 8. Laws prohibiting the sale of liquor and tobacco to children. + + 9. Women were appointed to the positions of inspectors of schools, + prisons, hospitals, etc. + +In West Australia, where women have voted since 1899, the women were +admitted to the practice of law; the age of consent was raised to 17 +years; and the conditions on which divorce are granted were made the same +for man and woman. In Europe people still question the practical value of +woman's suffrage. + +Following the establishment of woman's suffrage in New South Wales and +Tasmania, juvenile courts were introduced; New South Wales adopted a very +stringent law regulating the sale of liquor (local option; no barmaids +under 21 years could be employed; the sale of liquors to children under 14 +years was prohibited). + +Since women have voted in the elections for the Federal Parliament they +have formed the Australian Woman's Political Association. The President is +Miss Vida Goldstein, of Victoria. To the Association belong woman's +suffrage leagues, woman's trade-unions, temperance societies, woman's +church clubs, and other organizations. For the present the women will not +ally themselves with any of the existing parties, since the principles of +none of them correspond exactly to the programme which the women have set +up. The "Political Equality League" is satisfactory in one respect (equal +rights for both sexes), but goes too far in its socialistic demands. + +The women have succeeded in having federal laws enacted providing that all +state employees be paid the same wages for the same work, and that the +legal provisions for naturalization permit woman to retain her right of +self-government and her individuality. The government will propose a +federal law securing uniformity in the marriage laws (laws in regard to +marriage, property, divorce, and parental authority). + +In all the Australian colonies women have active suffrage, but not in all +cases the passive. Wherever they possess the latter they have laid little +claim to it: + + 1. because a part of the capable women believe they can work more + effectively and achieve more if they are not attached to a + political party; + + 2. because the established party programmes very frequently embody + the demands of the women; + + 3. because for this reason the political parties expect no special + advantage from the women, and it is difficult to secure the + support of the great party papers for the women candidates; + + 4. because the Australian elections also cost money, and the capable + women are not always well-to-do. + +In 1903, Miss Vida Goldstein announced her candidature for the Federal +Parliament and was defeated. In the federal elections of 1906 on an +average 58.36 per cent of the registered men and 43.30 per cent of the +registered women voted (against 53.09 and 30.96 per cent in 1903). + +In two pamphlets,--_Woman's Suffrage in New Zealand_, and _Woman's +Suffrage in Australia_,[31]--the leading men of the youngest region of the +world have given their written testimony on the practical workings of +woman's suffrage. These men are prime ministers of the colonies, public +prosecutors, the ministers of the various state departments, members of +the lower houses in the parliaments, high dignitaries of the Church, the +editors of large political newspapers. They all make the most favorable +statements concerning woman's suffrage. + +"The women have demanded nothing unreasonable from their representatives, +and have always placed themselves on the side of clean politics and clean +politicians." "Woman's suffrage has brought about neither the millennium +nor pandemonium," and the New Zealanders do not understand why it is that +in other countries people "can still become agitated over anything so +inherently reasonable as woman's suffrage." + +All who wish to have the right to participate in a discussion on woman's +suffrage must first study these two books of testimonials. A mere +knowledge of these facts will cause much insipid discussion to cease in +public meetings. + +From the French consul in Dantzig, Count Jouffroy d'Abbans, one familiar +with Australian conditions, I learned the following isolated facts +concerning woman's suffrage. It has a salutary influence throughout. Women +show a lively interest in political and municipal questions; for the sake +of their political rights they neglect their "specifically feminine" +duties so little that they come to the parliamentary sessions with +knitting, embroidery, and sewing. They also engage in these feminine +activities while attending the night sessions. On election days there is +certainly often a cold dinner or supper. But that occurs on washing days, +too, and no one has yet wished to deny women the privilege of doing the +washing. It is safe to say that the Australian woman's rights movement +will not fail because of this obstacle. + + +GREAT BRITAIN + + Total population: 41,605,220. + Women: 21,441,911. + Men: 20,163,309. + + English Federation of Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +"England is the storm center of our movement," declared the President of +the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance in the Amsterdam Congress. +This was the conviction of the Congress, which therefore resolved to hold +the next International Woman's Suffrage Congress in London (in April, +1909). The fact is undisputed that the English suffragettes--whether one +favors or opposes their actions--have made Great Britain the center of the +modern woman's rights movement. England is a European country, an old +country with rigid traditions, which, nevertheless, are the freest +political traditions that we have in Europe to-day. For fifty years the +English women have struggled for the right to vote. In spite of the fact +that their country has neither Salic Law nor continental militarism (two +of the greatest obstacles to all woman's rights movements), the English +women have not as yet attained their ends. This is an indication of the +tenacity of the prejudices against women in the countries of older +civilizations. + +The opposition offered to the political emancipation of women in England +is all the more remarkable since the English women were able to exercise +the right to vote on an equality with men in national elections till 1832, +and in municipal elections till 1835.[32] To that time we find the same +conditions prevailing in England as prevailed in the nine American +commonwealths previous to 1783. This parity of circumstances is explained +by the English principle of representation: _no taxation without +representation_. In 1832 and 1835, however, the English women, who as +taxpayers were qualified to vote, had the right to vote in national and +municipal affairs taken from them; for the word "persons" the expression +"_male_ persons" was substituted in the election law. When this +disfranchisement took place none of those concerned cried out against it. +For two hundred years the women had made no use worth mentioning of the +right to vote. But a part of the women, especially those of the liberal +and cultured circles, saw the significance of this retrograde step. + +The political struggles of general concern during the following period +(such as the antislavery movement and the anticorn-law movement) furnished +these women an opportunity to educate themselves in political affairs, +and, like the American women of that time, they in many cases learned +their political ABC by means of the same questions. Such men as Cobden, +Pease, Biggs, Knight, and others were the advance guard of the political +women in England. The earliest pamphlet on women's suffrage preserved to +us appeared in 1847. It is a small leaflet and says among other things, +"As long as both sexes and all parties are not given a just +representation, good government is impossible" (which is a paraphrase of +the American principle--every just government derives its powers from the +consent of the governed). The contrary view had been stated in the +_Encyclopædia Britannica_ as early as 1842 by the father of John Stuart +Mill: "It is self-evident that all persons whose interests are identical +with those of a different class are excluded from political representation +without injury." Certainly from such an arrangement the "representatives" +will suffer no injury. That select group of intellectual women who trained +themselves politically during the antislavery movement and the struggle +for free trade consisted of the mothers, the sisters, and daughters of +liberal politicians and academically trained men. Many of these women were +themselves students and teachers. No antagonism ever existed in England +between the woman's suffrage movement and the movement favoring the +education of woman. + +Such were the conditions in 1866. A new election law was to be introduced +in Parliament; a new class of men was to be granted the right of suffrage +by the lowering of the property qualification. The women decided to +present a petition to the House of Commons requesting the right to vote in +national elections. The women had decided to act thus publicly because of +the presence of John Stuart Mill in the House of Commons, and because of +an utterance of Disraeli's, "In a country in which a woman can be ruler, +peer, church trustee, owner of estates, and guardian of the poor, I do not +see in the name of what principle the right to vote can be withheld from +her." Four petitions (one signed by 1499 women, one by 1605 taxpaying +women, and two more signed by 3559 and 3000 men and women) were sent to +the House of Commons; and on May 20, 1867, John Stuart Mill, after he had +presented the petitions, moved that the right to vote be given to the +qualified women taxpayers. His motion was rejected by a vote of 196 to 73. +Thereupon there were formed for systematic propaganda, woman's suffrage +societies in London, Edinburgh, Manchester, Birmingham, and Bristol; these +cities are still the center of the movement. The new election law gave +women a further advantage--the expression _male_ person was replaced with +the generic word "man."[33] Since an Act of Parliament (13 and 14 Vict., +c. 21) declares that in all laws the masculine expression also includes +the feminine, _unless the contrary is expressly stated_, the friends of +woman's suffrage believed they could interpret this expression in favor of +women. The attempt to do this was now made. A number of qualified women +demanded that they be registered with the voters; they were determined to +have recourse to the law if the government commission refused to register +their votes. At this time the first public meeting of women in England was +held in the famous "Free Trade Hall" in Manchester. But the courts and the +Supreme Court interpreted the law _against_ the women,--"they are +disqualified neither intellectually nor morally, but _legally_." Then a +methodical propaganda by means of public meetings was begun; the first +victory was won as early as 1869,--the women taxpayers were given the +right to vote in municipal affairs in England, Scotland, and Wales. + +Between 1870 and 1884, the political organization of the women was +strengthened; the women of the aristocracy (Lady Amberly, Lady Anne +Gore-Langton, and others) were won over to the cause of woman's suffrage. +A "Central Committee for Woman's Suffrage" was formed, and a number of +excellent women speakers (Biggs, Maclaren, Becker, Fawcett, Craigen, +Kingsley, Tod, and others) spoke throughout the country. A further success +was achieved when the Parliament of the Isle of Man[34] (House of Keys) +gave qualified women the right to vote. + +In 1884, the property qualification was again reduced through a new +election law; the friends of woman's suffrage took advantage of this +opportunity to present a motion in Parliament favoring woman's suffrage, +in support of which the following statements were made: "Two million men, +many of whom are ignorant and uneducated, and possess only a small plot of +ground, are to be given political rights. On what principle is the same +right withheld from 300,000 women who are educated and who are +landowners?" This motion was lost also. In 1885 the English women, in +order to make their influence felt in political affairs, formed the +"Primrose League," which supported the Conservative candidates in the +election campaigns; and in 1887 was formed the "Women's Liberal +Federation," which supported the Liberals in a similar manner. The next +attempt to secure woman's suffrage was made in 1897, but it was +unsuccessful. During the Boer War woman's suffrage receded into the +background, and not until March 14, 1904, was a woman's suffrage bill +again introduced; this bill did not become law. At that time the woman's +suffrage movement was lifeless, and in a thoroughly hopeless condition. +All the usual means of propaganda had been exhausted,--meetings, +petitions, and personal work during campaigns made no impressions either +on the members of Parliament, the government, or on public opinion. It was +no longer possible to educe arguments _against_ the right of _qualified_ +women to vote (it was not a question of universal suffrage, but, just as +in the case of the men, it was a matter of granting the franchise to women +holding property in their own name and earning their own living). +Governments, however, wish to be _coerced_ into granting the franchise, +and the representatives of the woman's suffrage movement were not +determined enough to exercise the necessary coercion. Therefore, the +National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies transferred the leadership of +the movement to the National Women's Social and Political Union, whose +members are known by the name of suffragettes. This transference of +leadership took place during the autumn of 1905. + +The suffragettes then adopted militant tactics, making the government +their point of attack. This was a good stroke, for since 1905 England has +had a Liberal Cabinet, and several of the ministers and over 400 of the +600 members of the House of Commons have declared themselves as friends of +woman's suffrage. "Then why don't you grant us our political freedom?" +asked the suffragettes. + +The women are heads of families, they pay rent and taxes, just as the men. +All their conditions of livelihood are as dependent upon the laws as are +those of the men. A _liberal_ government and _liberal_ members of +Parliament ought to be liberal towards women and grant them the suffrage. +Many of these ministers and many members of Parliament owe their political +careers, their election, and their influence to the practical campaign +activities of women or to the woman's suffrage movement, which they +supported in order to enlarge their political influence. They have made +use of the woman's suffrage movement and now wish to do nothing in return. +The fate of all woman's suffrage bills introduced since 1870 (13 in +number) proves that it is hopeless to have such bills introduced by +private members. _Women must turn their hopes to a bill introduced by the +government._ The present Liberal government needs only to treat the matter +seriously; then a woman's suffrage bill will be passed. + +But the government has not treated the matter seriously; hence the +suffragettes have declared war. It is their determination to fight every +ministry which is not kindly disposed toward the suffrage movement. + +The struggle is carried on by the following means: organization of +societies; meetings throughout the country; street parades and open air +meetings (especially significant are those of June 13 and 21, 1908); the +employment of first-class speakers, who make concise, clear, ingenious, +and stirring speeches; the raising of large sums of money (20,000 pounds, +_i.e._ $100,000 annually; there is a reserve fund of 50,000 pounds, _i.e._ +$250,000); the publication of a well-managed periodical, _Votes for +Women_.[35] + +The leaders are Mrs. and Miss Pankhurst, Mrs. Drummond, Annie Kenney, Mr. +and Mrs. Pethick Lawrence. These and the most determined of their +associates undertake to send deputations to the Liberal Prime Minister, +Mr. Asquith, and to ask the question in all public meetings in which +members of the Cabinet speak,--when will you give women the right to vote? + +The deputations go to Parliament _because women, as taxpayers, have the +right to speak to the Prime Minister_, who continually receives +deputations of men. Since the Prime Minister does not wish to grant women +the right to vote, the deputations of women are prevented from entering +the Houses of Parliament by strong squads of police, both mounted and on +foot; and if the women do not desist from their attempt to make known to +the Prime Minister the resolutions of their meeting, they are arrested for +the disturbance of the peace, the interruption of traffic, or the +instigation of tumult and riot; they are arraigned in the _police court_ +and are sentenced to imprisonment in the ordinary prisons. The Liberal +government stubbornly refuses to regard these women as political offenders +and to punish them as such. + +The woman's suffrage advocates, who ask the Cabinet members questions in +public meetings, direct their questions to both friends and opponents of +woman's suffrage. For, they inquire, of what use are our friends to us if +they do nothing for us? The members of the English Cabinet have a joint +responsibility for their political programme. If the friends of woman's +suffrage treat the matter seriously, they must either convert their +colleagues or resign. As long as they do not do that, they are merely +playing with woman's suffrage and the women think it necessary to "heckle" +them. The women who ask the questions are often ejected from the meetings +in a very rough way.[36] + +The suffragettes give the government conclusive proof of their political +power when they oppose Liberal candidates at all by-elections and +contribute to the defeat of the candidates or cause a reduction of their +votes. To the present this has occurred in fourteen cases. It is due to +the success of these tactics that the whole world is to-day speaking about +woman's suffrage, which has become a burning political question in +England. All along the people and the press are giving greater support to +the suffragettes who have the courage to brave the horrors of the London +prison, and there become acquainted with the distress of the poor, the +destitute, and the helpless. + +During the last three or four years of the activity of the suffragettes a +great number of woman's suffrage organizations were founded: The Woman's +Freedom League (Mrs. Despard), The Men's League for Woman's Suffrage, The +Artists' Suffrage League, The Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise +Association, The Actresses' Franchise League, The Writers' League, etc. +Scotland and Ireland have their own woman's suffrage associations. + +In opposition there have been formed the National Women's Antisuffrage +Association and a Men's League for Opposing Woman's Suffrage (those are +supported chiefly by the aristocratic circles). They declare that woman +does not need the right to vote since she exercises an "enormous indirect +influence"; that woman does not _wish_ the right to vote; that her +subordination is based on natural law since brute force rules the world; +woman's suffrage would result in England's destruction, if a majority of +women voters (England has a majority of women) were permitted to decide +questions concerning the army and navy. + +The leader of the suffragettes, Mrs. Fawcett, recently established the +fact that the newly formed Association has a considerably smaller number +of prominent names among its members _than the organization formed two +years ago_, which soon came to an inglorious end. She emphasized the fact +that the two important women, who at that time still favored the +antisuffrage movement,--Mrs. Louise Creighton and Mrs. Sidney Webb,--have +since gone over to the suffrage advocates. On the occasion of Mrs. +Fawcett's public debate with Mrs. Humphry Ward, the leader of the +antisuffragists (in February, 1909), it happened that 235 of those present +favored woman's suffrage and 74 were opposed. + +The argument against the brute force statement was treated in three +excellent articles in _Votes for Women_ under the title "The Physical +Force Fallacy."[37] The most influential of the English women, together +with the women in the industries, the students of both sexes, the +workingwomen,--in short, the intellectual and professional women are in +favor of the suffragettes; and the woman's suffrage advocates have "the +spiritual certainty" that moves mountains. Let no one believe that the +appeals made on the streets, the parades of the women as sandwich-men, or +the noisy publicity of their tactics are gladly indulged in by the women. +These actions are entirely opposed to woman's nature. But the women have +recognized that these tactics are necessary and they act accordingly +because it is their duty. Such movements have always been successful. + +Women do not possess the right to vote in parliamentary elections; but, if +taxpayers, they can vote in municipal affairs in the whole of Great +Britain and Ireland. The _married_ women of England and Wales have a +restricted right of suffrage, however: they are "persons" and therefore +voters in parochial elections, in the election of poor-law administrators, +and of urban and rural district councillors; but they are not regarded as +"persons" and are not voters in elections for the borough and county +councils. In one single case, in the County of London, by the law of 1900, +married women were given almost the same rights as those exercised by +married women in Scotland and Ireland.[38] The right of single or married +women to hold office (passive suffrage)[39] has prevailed in England and +Wales since 1869 in respect to the offices of guardians of the poor, +overseers, waywardens, churchwardens,--and since 1870 (Education Act) in +respect to school boards.[40] At the very first school elections women +were elected, which induced women to have themselves presented also as +candidates for the offices of poor-law administrators. In 1875 the first +unmarried woman was elected to that office, the first married woman in +1881. In the discharge of their duties in both classes of offices the +women have acted admirably. Nevertheless, the reactionary Education Act of +June, 1903, took away from the women the right to hold office as members +of school boards in the County of London. They can still secure +administrative offices by governmental appointment, but no longer by an +election. In 1888 were created the county councils for England and Wales; +the county councils were at the same time organs for the self-governing +municipalities. Since this law, like those of 1869 and 1870, did not +specially exclude women from the right to hold office, two women, Mrs. +Cobden and Lady Sandhurst, presented themselves as candidates for the +office of county councillors of London. They were elected. Thereupon Mrs. +Beresford-Hope, whom Lady Sandhurst had defeated, contested the legality +of the election. In 1889, the Court of Appeals declared that women were +eligible to public office only _when this is expressly stated_.[41] This +decision of the Court, which was in conflict with the English +Constitution, also brought about the loss of the right of the women of +Scotland and Ireland to hold office as county councillors. + +As a result of this judicial decision, when the new Local Self-government +Act for England and Wales was enacted (1894), it was necessary expressly +to state the eligibility of women (unmarried and married) to hold the +minor local offices (parish, urban, rural district councillors, poor-law +guardians, etc.). Article 22, however (in spite of historical precedents), +excluded women from the office of justice of the peace. In 1894 the same +thing occurred in Scotland, and in 1898 in Ireland. + +In 1899, the attempt to secure the eligibility of women to the +metropolitan borough councils (for London only)[42] failed, owing to the +opposition of the House of Lords. + +The law of 1907,[43] known as the _Qualification of Women Act_, grants +unmarried women the right to hold office in the borough and county +councils (councillor, alderman, mayor). Married women have this right only +in the County of London; elsewhere they can merely vote for these +officers.[44] On the occasion of the first elections under this act twelve +women presented themselves as candidates; six were elected (one as mayor); +hitherto the women had been elected only in small places, and then owing +to exceptional circumstances. Whoever investigates the struggle of the +women to secure their rights in the local government and studies the +attitude of the men toward these exceedingly just demands will comprehend +the exasperating circumstances under which the women are to-day struggling +for the right to vote in the English parliamentary elections. In questions +of power and of gaining a livelihood [_Macht- und Brotfragen_] the +nobility of man can really not be depended upon. + +The woman's suffrage movement has led to the consummation of a number of +legal reforms: the property laws now legalize the separation of the +property of husband and wife[45]; in the United Kingdom the wife +administers her own property and disposes of it, and has full control over +her earnings. The remainder of the laws regulating marriage are still +rather rigorous,--in England at least; the wife has no _hereditary right_ +to her husband's property. If she economizes in the administration of the +household, the savings belong to the husband. The wife cannot demand any +pay in money for performing her domestic duties; the mere expenses of +maintenance are sufficient remuneration, etc. In normal cases the _father_ +alone has authority over the children. It is made very difficult for a +woman to secure a divorce, etc.[46] + +The women that have labored so untiringly in political affairs have very +naturally made it a point to promote the educational opportunities of +their sex. Since 1870, the elementary school system has been regulated by +the school boards, which have introduced obligatory public instruction. In +these institutions the boys and girls are segregated (except in the rural +districts). On an average there is one male teacher to every three women +teachers in these institutions. The secondary schools are private, as in +Australia. Hence it was not necessary for the English women to wrest every +concession from a reluctant government (as was the case in Germany); but +private initiative, combined with the devotion of private individuals, +made possible in a few years the full reorganization of England's +institutions of learning for girls. This reorganization began in 1868 and +led to the following results: the establishment of higher institutions of +learning in all English cities (these are called girls' public day +schools, most of them being day schools. They are governed by committees +consisting of the founders, the principals, and the qualified advisers). +Latin and mathematics are obligatory studies in the curriculum. The +schools are in close relationship with Oxford and Cambridge universities, +the universities inspecting the schools and supervising the various +examinations (including the examinations of the students upon leaving the +schools). In England these schools are for girls only; in Scotland, girls +attend similar schools which are coeducational. The number of women +teachers is estimated at 8000. + +Admission to the universities was secured with difficulty by the women. At +first a number of women requested the privilege of attending lectures in +the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Since these universities are +resident colleges, it was necessary to provide boarding places for women. +This was done in 1869 and 1870 in both places, through the work of Miss +Emily Davies and Miss Anna Clough. Both of these beginnings developed into +the women's colleges of Girton and Newnham. Since then, St. Margaret's +Hall, Somersville Hall, and Holloway College have been established for +women. These institutions correspond to the German philosophical faculties +[the colleges of literature and liberal arts in the United States]. An +entrance examination is necessary for admission. The course of study is +three years. The final examination, called "tripos," embraces three +subjects; it corresponds to the German _Oberlehrerexamen_,--examinations +given to candidates for the position of teachers in the _Gymnasiums_, the +_Realgymnasiums_, _Oberrealgymnasiums_, etc. Theology, medicine, and law +cannot be studied in these woman's colleges (any more than in the American +woman's colleges). Part of the teachers live in the woman's college +buildings; part of them belong to the faculties of Oxford and Cambridge. +The former are women tutors and professors. + +The English colleges for women are maintained by private funds. Many women +not wishing to take the "tripos" examination or to become teachers attend +the university to acquire a higher education. Others prepare themselves +for the degree of Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, or Doctor of +Philosophy. These examinations are accepted by Oxford and Cambridge +universities, but the women are not granted the corresponding titles, +because the use of such titles would make the women _Fellows_ of the +University, which would entitle them to the use of the university gardens +and parks, and to live in one of the colleges. All other universities in +England, Scotland, and Ireland, with the exception of Trinity College, +Dublin, admit women to all departments, accepting their examinations and +granting them academic degrees. + +The women's colleges are centers of sport,--incidentally they possess +their own fire department. To arouse an interest in political affairs and +to develop facility in speaking, debating clubs have been organized. More +than 1300 women have graduated from Cambridge, and more than 1200 from the +University of London. When Mary Putnam wished to study medicine in 1868, +she had to go to Paris. Jex Blake, who attempted the same thing in +Edinburgh in 1869, was driven out by the students. She went to London and +was there at first given instruction by the noble Dr. Anstie. As early as +1870 there was formed in London a special School of Medicine for women, to +which a hospital for women was later attached, being directed and +supported entirely by women physicians. To-day, 553 women doctors are +practicing in Great Britain. Of these 538 have expressed themselves in +favor of, and 15 against, woman's suffrage. In England, women were first +permitted to take the public examination in dental surgery as late as +1908; while the Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Irish Royal Colleges of Surgeons +had admitted them long before. Women can study law in England, but as yet +they have not been admitted to the bar. If this privilege were granted to +women, they would have to affiliate with the London lawyers' associations, +such as the _Inner Temple_, the _Middle Temple_, _Gray's Inn_, etc. +Members of these organizations must several times a month attend the +dinners or banquets of the lawyers. These corporate customs of the English +Bar are said to exclude women from the legal profession just as similar +customs have excluded them from tutorships and professorships in Oxford +and Cambridge. + +In spite of this, Miss Cave recently sought admission to _Gray's Inn_, but +was refused _because she was a woman_. She appealed her case to the Lords +of Appeal in Ordinary, but they declared that they had no jurisdiction; +the matter will be pursued further. The first woman preacher in England, a +native of Germany, Miss v. Petzold, studied theology in Germany and +graduated there. After her trial sermon in Leicester she was elected in +preference to her male competitors. Later she accepted a call to Chicago. +The Congregationalists have four women preachers; the Salvation Army over +3000. Except in those callings where personal ability is determinative, +the salaries of English women are lower than those of the men. The women +have a large field for their efforts in the public schools (where there +are three women teachers to one man teacher). In the secondary schools for +girls, instruction and control are entirely in the hands of women; their +salaries are quite sufficient (the minimum being 100 pounds sterling, +about $500). As we have seen, the higher institutions of learning also +offer the women well-paid positions (the tutors being paid $2000, with +board and lodging; the principals $2500). + +The _well-paid_ civil offices are reserved for the men. Although there are +more women teachers and more female students in the schools than males, +there are 244 male inspectors of public schools and 18 women inspectors; +the male inspector-general is paid 1000 pounds sterling annually, the +woman inspector-general 500 pounds. In the secondary schools there are 20 +male inspectors and 3 women inspectors with annual salaries of 400 to 800 +pounds, and 300 pounds respectively. The women teachers of the elementary +schools (of whom there are approximately 111,000) draw on an average two +thirds the salary of the men teachers, though they have the same training +and do the same amount of work. + +In spite of the fact that there are two million women engaged in industry, +there are 900 male factory inspectors and hardly 60 female factory +inspectors. Here again the men are paid 1000 pounds and the women only 500 +pounds a year. In the postal and telegraph service the same injustice +exists: the men begin with a minimum wage of 20 shillings a week, while +the women are paid 14 shillings; the men increase their salaries to 62 +shillings a week; the women to 30 shillings. The male telegraph operator +begins with 18 shillings and is finally given 65 shillings a week; the +woman telegraph operator begins with 16 and reaches 40 shillings. The male +clerks of the second division of the civil service are paid 250 pounds and +the women 100 annually. In 1908, the number of women employees in the +postal and telegraph service of Great Britain was 13,259; the number of +women supernumeraries, 30,476: total number, 43,735. The highest positions +(heads of departments, staff officers) have been attained by 4 women and +by 178 men. + +In recent years many new callings have been opened to women living in the +cities. They are engaged in the manufacture of confectionery. Prominent +and wealthy women have established businesses of their own, in which fine +confections are produced,--in many cases by destitute, nervous, and +overworked women music teachers. Women are active as bookbinders, +stockbrokers, bills of exchange agents, auditors, teachers of domestic +economy, instructors in gymnastics, ladies' guides, wardrobe dealers (the +costly robes of the women of fashion are sold on commission through +agents), paperers and decorators, etc. + +The Woman's Institute[47] has published a complete handbook on the +occupations of women. This book does not omit the occupation of explorer, +in which Mrs. French Sheldon has distinguished herself (by exploration in +the interior of Africa). In London, the number of women engaged in +gainful pursuits is naturally very large, many of the women being alone in +the world. The women journalists and authoresses in London have been +numerous enough to organize a club of their own,--the Writers' Club, in +the Strand. The number of women employed in commercial houses is very +large,--450,000. The weekly wages, especially the wages of the saleswomen +in the shops, are often quite moderate, 20 to 25 shillings where +exceptional demands are made as to attractive dress and appearance. The +women have organized the Shop Assistants' Union. For women with this +weekly wage the securing of good rooms and board at a reasonable price is +a vital question. There are three apartment houses for workingwomen,--the +_Sloane Garden Houses_, and the apartments for women in Chenies Street and +in York Street. Women teachers, designers, artists, bookkeepers, cashiers, +secretaries and stenographers obtain room and board here at varying rates. +There are bedrooms (with two beds) for 4-1/2 to 5 shillings a week for +each person, furnished rooms for 10 to 14 shillings. The dining room is a +restaurant. Only the evening meal, dinner (served from 6 to 7), is served +to all at once. This meal costs 10 pence (20 cents). In Chenies Street +living expenses are somewhat higher: 6 pence for breakfast, 9 pence for +luncheon, 1 shilling for dinner; which is about 55 cents a day for board. +For suites of two to four rooms $15 to $30 a month is charged. The +_Alexandra House_ in Kensington offers women artists similar privileges; +the _Brabanzon House_ (under the protection of the Countess of Meath) +accommodates employees of the shops only. Since the English women +are--fortunately--independent in spirit, these institutions lack the +scholastic, monastic, or tutelary characteristics that are unfortunately +found in many similar institutions on the continent. + +Very few of the English women have become industrial entrepreneurs. +However, they have directed their attention to agriculture as a means of +earning a livelihood and have organized agricultural schools for women. +Here the women engage especially in poultry raising, vegetable and fruit +growing, which in England are very lucrative; England annually imports 41 +million pounds' worth of milk, eggs, poultry, vegetables, and fruits. The +councils of London, Berkshire, Essex, and Kent counties support the +Horticultural College for women in Swanley, Kent, which was founded +privately by wealthy and influential persons. In England 100,000 women are +engaged in agriculture. The demand for trained women gardeners to-day +still exceeds the supply. Trained women gardeners are frequently engaged +for a long term of years to teach untrained gardeners. Women are employed +in the Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew and in Edinburgh. Holloway College +has a woman gardener. In 1898 a model farm for women was founded by Lady +Warwick in Reading. The institution began with twelve women students, who +cultivated two acres of land. Within a year the number of students was +quadrupled; and then eleven acres were cultivated instead of two. + +The woman that wishes to learn stock feeding and dairying is sent to a +special farm. The course requires two years. The _Agricultural Association +for Women_, founded by Lady Warwick, aids the women agriculturists and +finds positions for the pupils. In Great Britain there are eight public +schools in which women can learn agriculture and gardening. Many county +councils have established courses in gardening, to which women are +admitted. + +Agriculture is encouraged in England because the migration from the +country to the city has increased extraordinarily. Agriculture is +restricted in favor of stock raising, which gives employment to fewer +laborers than agriculture. In spite of the great increase in population, +the number of agriculturists has steadily decreased since 1851. On the +other hand, the industrial population (and it is predominantly urban) has +increased significantly. Every industrialization means a pauperization to +a certain extent. It produces the army of unskilled laborers, the victims +of the sweating system, who in a destitute condition are left to eke out +their wretched existence in the "East Ends" of the large cities. There is +no corresponding misery in the country districts. A marked +industrialization therefore causes a degree of general pauperism such as +is unknown in the agricultural regions of western Europe. The pursuit of +gardening among women has a social-political significance. The English +laboring population is estimated at 4,000,000 people, among whom the +trade-union movement has made considerable progress. The English +trade-union statistics of 1904 show 148 trade-unions having women members. +There are all together 125,094 female members, _i.e._ 6.7 per cent of all +organized laborers. The greatest number of these are in the textile +industries (almost 100,000). The total number of women laborers in this +industry is 800,000. + + MEN WOMEN + (SHIL. A WEEK) (SHIL. A WEEK) + + Cotton Industry 29.6 18.8 + Woolen Industry 26.1 13.1 + Lace Industry 39.6 13.5 + Woven Goods Industry 31.5 14.3 + Linen Industry 22.4 10.9 + Jute Industry 21.7 13.5[48] + +In the textile industry, in which women are better organized than +elsewhere (there being 96,000), there existed in 1906 the preceding +difference between the wages of men and women (see table, p. 84). + +The organization of women laborers was first advocated by Mrs. Paterson +and Miss Simcox at the trade-union congress held in Glasgow in 1875. But +this organization is confronted with the same difficulties as exist +elsewhere: the women believe that they are engaged in non-domestic work +only temporarily; therefore they are interested in the improvement of +labor only to a slight degree, and in addition are burdened with +housework; while the male laborer is free when the factory closes. In +almost all industries women are paid lower wages than men,--partly because +those who are poorly equipped are given the lower grades of work and are +not given an opportunity to do the more difficult work; partly, too, +because _they are women, i.e._ people of the second order. Weekly wages of +5 to 7 shillings are common. Naturally, the workingwoman who is all alone +in the world cannot exist on such a sum. In _one_ industry only the women +are given the same pay as the men for doing the same work,--this is the +textile industry in Lancashire. Since 1847 this industry has been +protected by a law prohibiting night work for women. In this industry men +and women laborers are organized in the same trade-union. The standard of +living of the whole body of workers is very high. There can be no doubt +that the legislation for the protection of the laborers of this industry, +in which the exploitation of women and children had been carried to the +extreme previous to 1847, has caused the raising of the general standard +of living. Without the intervention of law, exploitation would have been +pursued further in this industry. So the English women have before them an +example of the salutary effect of legislation for the protection of the +laborers in the textile industries. Nevertheless, there is in England a +faction among the woman's rights advocates which vigorously resists every +movement for the protection of women laborers; it has organized itself +into the "League for Freedom of Labor Defense." It acts on the principle +that every law for the protection of women laborers signifies an +unjustifiable tutelage; that the workingwomen should defend themselves +through the organization of trade-unions; that the laws for the protection +of women laborers decrease women's opportunities for work and drive them +from their positions, which are filled by men (who can work at night). + +These fears are based purely on theory. In practice they are realized only +in entirely isolated cases. The truth is that legislation for the +protection of women laborers (prohibition of night work and the fixing of +a maximum number of work hours a day) is entirely favorable to an +overwhelming majority of workingwomen. It protects them against a degree +of exploitation that they could not resist unaided because _the majority +of them are not organized_, and have no power to organize themselves; they +will secure this power only through laws protecting women laborers. A +comparative international study of laws for the protection of women +laborers, published by the Belgian department of labor,[49] shows that the +number of women laborers has nowhere decreased, and that wages have not +declined as a result. + +Concerning this point Mrs. Sidney Webb says: "In most cases women _cannot_ +be replaced by men, either because the men are not sufficiently dextrous +or because their labor is too expensive. What employer will pay a man 20 +to 30 shillings a week when a woman can accomplish just as much for 5 to +12 shillings a week?" We shall return to this subject in discussing +France. + +Those women that are members of trade-unions persistently demand the right +to vote; many of them intimate that through this right they expect to +secure an increase in wages. Naturally the wishes of women laborers +possessing the franchise will be considered very differently from the +wishes of those not possessing this right. Proof of this has been given +by the American woman's suffrage states. Previous to the debates on +woman's suffrage in Parliament in 1904, a deputation of workingwomen from +the potteries in Staffordshire presented the members of Parliament from +that district with a petition having 4000 signatures, requesting the +introduction of a woman's suffrage bill, so that women might not continue +to be excluded from all well-paid positions on account of their political +inferiority. On this occasion the Hon. Mr. A. L. Emmott (member of +Parliament from the Oldham district) declared that the salary of the women +employees in the postal savings banks had been reduced from 65 pounds +(with an annual increase of 3 pounds) to 55 pounds (with an annual +increase of 2 pounds, 10 shillings). _This would have been impossible if +women had had the right to vote._ Domestic servants are as yet organized +only to a small extent, but they are well trained; they number 1,331,000. + +In none of the Anglo-Saxon countries of the world is there a schism +between the woman's rights movements of the middle class and the +Social-Democrats, such as is found in Germany. In each of the Anglo-Saxon +countries there is a Socialist, and even an Anarchist party, but these +parties do not antagonize the woman's rights movement. The republican +constitutions in America,--the more democratic institutions of +society,--in general moderate the acute opposition. The absence of +historical obstacles has a conciliating influence everywhere in these +countries. In England, where history, monarchy, and traditional class +antagonism seem to give socialism favorable conditions of growth, +socialism has for a long time been hampered by the trade-unions. In other +words, the English workingmen, the first to organize in Europe, had +already improved their condition greatly when the socialistic propaganda +commenced in England. In their trade-unions they confined themselves to +the economic field; they avoided mixing economics with politics; they +worked with both parties, they steered clear of class hatred, and it was +difficult to influence them with the speculative ultimate aims of social +democracy. It has been only in the last decade that social-democracy has +made any progress in England; therefore in the woman's rights movement +middle-class women and workingwomen work together peaceably. + +Of all the women in Europe the English women first became conscious of +their duty toward the lower classes. In this atmosphere,--clubs and homes +for working girls, and the London "College for Working +Women,"--institutions such as we on the continent know only in isolated +cases flourished readily. These institutions devote their attention to the +girls of the lower ranks of society. + +The oldest club is the "Soho Club and Home for Working Girls" in Soho +Square, London, founded in 1880 by the Hon. Maude Stanley. It is open from +seven in the morning to ten at night and _also on Sunday_. Tea can be +obtained for 2-1/2 pence (5 cents), and dinner for 6-1/2 pence (13 cents). +The admission fee is 1 shilling, the annual dues are 8 shillings. The +members have a library at their disposal, and they publish a club +magazine, _The London Girls' Club Union Magazine_. Members of such clubs +(including those outside London) have formed themselves into a union. The +members of the committee--composed of wealthy and influential +women--concern themselves personally with the affairs of the clubs, giving +not only their money, but their time and influence. The "College for +Working Women" has existed in Fitzroy Square for more than 25 years. Here +are taught English, French, history, geography, drawing, arithmetic, +reading, writing, singing, cooking, sewing, wood turning, and other +subjects. The quarterly fee is 1 shilling (for use of the library, +attending lectures, etc.), the fees for the courses range from 1 shilling +and 3 pence to 2 shillings and 6 pence (31 to 62 cents) quarterly. A +commission gives examinations. The institution grants scholarships and +gives prizes. The number of such clubs in the whole of Great Britain is +estimated at 800. + +The English woman is developing a considerable activity in the +sociological field. Florence Nightingale, who organized a regular hospital +service on the field of battle during the Crimean War (1854), upon her +return to England took steps to secure the training of educated women for +the nursing profession, in which the English nurse has been the model. The +most important Training College for nurses not connected with religious +orders is in Henrietta Street, in London. Still this distinguished +profession, which is represented in the International Red Cross Society, +has not yet attained state registration of nurses,--_i.e._ an officially +prescribed course of study concluding with a state examination. + +The English midwives are vehemently complaining because the new Midwives +Act will be deliberated on by a commission having no midwife as a member. +The superintendent of the London Institute for Midwives has protested +against this on behalf of 26,000 midwives. + +Another woman, Octavia Hill, participated in the official inquiry of the +living conditions of the London East End, which led to a systematic +campaign against the slums. This work is at present continued in London by +31 or more women sanitary officers. They supplement the work of the +factory inspectors, since they inspect the conditions under which women +home-workers live. In the whole country there are more than 80 such women +sanitary officers. + +The home-workers are mostly women. Half of the 900,000 or more English +women engaged in the manufacture of ready-made clothing are permitted to +work at home. Their wages are wretchedly low. The government, which pays +the _men_ of the Woolwich Arsenal trade-union wages, is one of the worst +exploiters of women (who do not have the right to vote); in the Army +Clothing Works the government employs women either directly or indirectly +(as home-workers through sweaters).[50] + +The urgent need of widening woman's field of labor and improving her +conditions of labor is clearly stated in a lecture which Miss B. L. +Hutchins delivered before the Royal Statistical Society. According to the +census of 1901 there were 1,070,000 more women than men in Great Britain. +In 1901, of every 1000 persons 516 were women (in 1841, only 511 were +women). The longevity of women is higher than that of men (47.77 to +44.13). When the old age pensions were introduced, 135 women to every 100 +men applied for aid. Only half of the adult women (5,700,000) are provided +for through marriage, and then only for 20 to 30 years of their lives. +Previous to marriage, and afterward, most of the women are dependent on +their own work for a living. Because English women know from experience +that their conditions of labor can be improved only through the exercise +of the suffrage, they have adopted their "militant tactics." + +In the field of poor-relief England again has taken the lead, inasmuch as +she has permitted women to fill honorary posts in the municipal +administration of the poor-law. At the present time 1162 women are engaged +in this work, 147 of whom are rural district councillors. + +The chief reform efforts of the women were directed to the care of +children and to the workhouses, through which channels private aid reaches +the recipient. Still, among 22,000 guardians of the poor the number of +women hardly reaches 1000. The old prejudice against women asserted itself +even in this field. A "Society for Promoting the Return of Women as +Poor-law Guardians" is endeavoring to hasten reform.[51] + +The Englishman has the valuable characteristic of forming organizations +that strive to achieve very definite, though often temporary, ends, thus +giving private initiative great flexibility. Such an organization, with a +limited purpose, is the "Woman's Coöperative Gild," founded in 1883. Its +purpose is to promote the coöperative movement (as far as consumption is +concerned) among women, and to show them their enormous social and +economic power as _consumers_. Women are the chief purchasers, as they +purchase the housekeeping supplies. It is to their interest to purchase +through the coöperative associations that exclude the middlemen, and at +the end of the year pay a dividend to the members of the associations. +These associations can exercise an important social influence inasmuch as +they create model conditions of labor for their employees (short working +day, high wages, early closing of the shops, no work on Sundays or +holidays, opportunity to sit down during working hours, insurance against +sickness, old age insurance, sanitary conditions of labor, etc.). The Gild +organizes women into coöperative societies, and by theoretical as well as +practical studies informs the women of the advantages of the coöperative +system. The movement to-day numbers 26,000 members. + +In England a marked increase in the use of alcoholic liquors among women +was noticed; whereupon legal and medical measures were taken to curb the +evil. The most effective measure would be an attack on the drunkenness of +the husband, which destroys the home. + +The official report of the first English school for mothers, located in +St. Pancras, London, has just appeared. This report shows that the +experiment has been entirely successful. Of all measures to decrease the +death rate among children, the establishment of schools for mothers is the +best. During the course of instruction the young married women were +recommended to organize mothers' clubs in order to secure the necessaries +of life more cheaply. The school for mothers also attempts to give the +young mothers nourishing meals, which can be furnished for the low sum of +2-3/4 pence (about 6 cents). + +In the field of morals English women have achieved a success which might +well excite the envy of other countries; viz. the repeal of the law of +1869 concerning the state regulation of prostitution. The law had hardly +been accepted by an accidental majority when public opinion, under the +leadership of members of Parliament, doctors, and preachers, protested +against the measure. Nothing made such an impression as the public +appearance of a woman on behalf of the repeal of this measure concerning +women. In spite of all scorn, all feigned and frequently malicious +pretensions not to comprehend her, in spite of all attempts, frequently +brutal, to browbeat her,--Josephine Butler from 1870 to 1886 unswervingly +supported the view that the regulation was to be condemned from the legal, +sanitary, and moral viewpoint. Through the tireless work of Mrs. Butler +and her faithful associates, Parliament in 1886 repealed the act providing +for the regulation of prostitution. Since 1875, Mrs. Butler has organized +internationally the struggle against the official regulation of +prostitution. On December 30, 1906, death came to the noble woman. + +Conditions in England are an evidence of how much more difficult it is for +the woman's rights movement to make progress in _old_ countries than in +new. Traditions are deeply rooted, customs are firmly established, the +whole weight of the past is blocking the wheels of progress. In countries +with older civilization the woman's question is entirely a question of +force.[52] + + +CANADA + + Total population: 5,372,600. + Women: 2,619,578. + Men: 2,751,473. + + Canadian Federation of Women's Clubs. + Canadian Woman's Suffrage Association. + +Politically Canada belongs to England, geographically it is a part of +North America. The Canadian women take a keen interest in the woman's +rights movement of the United States, which is setting them an excellent +example. The last congress of the "International Council of Women" met in +Toronto, Canada, under the presidency of Lady Aberdeen, the present +president and the wife of the former governor-general of Canada. Canada is +a large, young, agricultural country with large families and primitive +needs. Therefore the progress of the woman's rights movement is less +marked in Canada than in the United States and England. Throughout Canada +the workingwoman is paid less than the workingman, partly because she is +more poorly trained, partly because she is kept in subordinate positions, +partly because, in order to find work at all, she must offer her services +for less money. Even when teaching, or doing piecework, woman is paid less +than man. In Canada there is as yet no political woman's rights movement +strong enough to rectify this injustice by means of organizations and laws +as has been done in Australia. As yet there are no women preachers in +Canada. Women lawyers are confronted both with popular prejudice and legal +obstacles. The study and practice of medicine is made very difficult for +women, especially in Quebec and Montreal. In New Brunswick and Ontario as +well as in the northwest provinces there is a more liberal attitude toward +women's pursuit of higher education. No Canadian university excludes women +entirely, but not a few of the higher institutions of learning refuse +women admission to certain courses and refuse to grant certain degrees. +The prevailing property laws in the eastern part of Canada legalize joint +property holding (and we know what that means for woman); in the western +part there is separation of property rights or at least separate control +over earnings, the wife having full control of her wages. The male +Canadian, when twenty-one years old, becomes a voter and has full +political rights.[53] But the Canadian woman has only restricted suffrage +rights. Unmarried women that are taxpayers exercise only active suffrage +in _municipal and school elections_. Each province has its own laws +regulating these conditions of suffrage. + +The Copenhagen Congress (1906) of the International Woman's Suffrage +Alliance promoted the cause of woman's suffrage in Canada very +considerably. At a public meeting in which the Canadian delegate, Mrs. +MacDonald Denison, gave a report of the work of the International +Congress, a resolution favoring woman's suffrage was adopted, and this was +used very effectively in propaganda. This propaganda was carried on among +women's clubs, students' clubs, debating clubs, etc. The intellectual +élite is to-day in favor of woman's suffrage. In 1907 the Canadian Woman's +Suffrage Association, supported by the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, +the Women Teachers, the Medical Alumnæ, the Progressive Thought +Association, the Toronto Local Council of Women, and the Progressive Club, +sent a delegation to the Mayor and Council of the city of Toronto to +express their support of a resolution which the Council had drawn up +favoring the right of married women to vote in municipal elections. Thus +supported, the resolution was presented to the authorized commission, but +here it was weakened by an amendment (granting the suffrage only to +married women _owning property_). The author of this amendment, a member +of the Toronto City Council, received his reward for this kindness to the +women in the form of a defeat at the next election. + +Organizations favoring woman's suffrage have been founded throughout the +country (Halifax, Nova Scotia; St. John, New Brunswick). Woman's suffrage +advocates speak in mass meetings and in men's clubs, etc.[54] + +A demand for woman's suffrage, made by the Woman's Christian Temperance +Union, was answered evasively by the Prime Minister, Sir Wilfred +Laurier,--the provincial parliaments must take the matter up first, then +the Dominion Parliament can consider it. In the spring of 1909 the City +Council of Toronto sent a petition favoring woman's suffrage to the +Canadian Parliament, and at the same time 1000 woman's suffrage advocates +called on the Prime Minister. The 1909 Congress of the International +Woman's Suffrage Alliance will undoubtedly help the Canadian woman's +suffrage movement. + + +SOUTH AFRICA + + _Natal and Cape Colony_[55] + Total population: 1,830,063. + _Transvaal_ + Total population: 1,354,200. + + Woman's Suffrage Association for all three countries. + +In South Africa, Natal was the leader in the woman's rights movement. In +1902, through the work of Mr. and Mrs. Ancketill, the Woman's Equal +Suffrage League was organized, which endeavored primarily to interest and +educate its members. Later, in 1904, public propaganda was begun. In June +a petition was presented to the Lower House by Mr. Ancketill. When he +presented the matter in the form of a motion, it was not put to a vote, +owing to the newness of the subject. The agricultural population opposes +woman's suffrage; the urban population favors it. The woman's rights +movement is made difficult in South Africa by the following circumstances: +An enervating climate "that makes people languidly content with things as +they are." The lack of educated and independent women (women teachers are +state employees); the lack of a numerous class of workingwomen; difficult +housekeeping, owing to the untrustworthiness of the natives as domestic +servants; the peculiar position of men as taxpayers (men only pay a poll +tax) and as arms bearers (all men must serve in the army).[56] + +In Cape Colony similar conditions prevail. The Women's Enfranchisement +League was formed in 1907; and in July, 1907, there took place the first +woman's suffrage debate in Parliament. The woman's suffrage societies of +Natal, Cape Colony, and the Transvaal have formed an association and have +joined the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. In Natal and Cape +Colony women taxpayers exercise the right to vote in municipal affairs. +The regulation of the suffrage qualifications for the Federal Parliament +is being considered. The South African delegates in London (1909) +expressed the fear that women would not be given the federal suffrage. + + +THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES + + _Sweden_ + Total population: 5,377,713. + Women: 2,751,257. + Men: 2,626,456. + + _Finland_ + Total population: 2,712,562. + Women: 1,370,480. + Men: 1,342,082. + + _Norway_ + Total population: 2,240,860. + Women: 1,155,169. + Men: 1,085,691. + + _Denmark_ + Total population: 2,588,919. + Women: 1,331,154. + Men: 1,257,765. + +Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Denmark will be grouped together since they +are so closely connected by race and culture; repetition will thereby be +avoided, and clearness promoted. + +All four countries have the advantage of having a population largely +agricultural,--a population scattered in small groups. Clearly, the +problem of dealing with congested masses of people is here absent. +Everywhere there is an eagerness for education. The educational average is +high. The position of woman is one of freedom, for here have been kept +alive the old Germanic traditions which we [the Germans] know only from +reading Cæsar or Tacitus. An external factor in hastening the solution of +the question of woman's rights was the very unusual numerical superiority +of women. The foreign wars, which took the majority of the men away from +home for long periods of time,--first in the Middle Ages, and then again +in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,--and the fact that the +Scandinavian countries themselves were afflicted with wars only to a small +extent, explain the freedom of the Scandinavian women. Like the English +women, they had for centuries not known the significance of war for woman. +In the absence of the men, women continued the transaction of business and +industrial enterprises. In the name of the feudal law and as heads of +families they administered affairs, exercising rights that were elsewhere +denied to women. + + +SWEDEN + + Total population: 5,377,213. + Women: 2,751,257. + Men: 2,626,456. + + Swedish Association of Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage Society. + +In Sweden the woman's rights movement is closely connected with that of +the United States. The founder of the Swedish woman's rights movement was +Frederika Bremer, who in 1845 visited the United States, studying the +conditions of the women there. Upon her return she encouraged the Swedish +women through her novel _Hertha_ to emancipate themselves. This took place +in 1856. The government, being unable to disregard the free traditions of +the past, was thoroughly in favor of the demands of the woman's rights +movement. As early as 1700, women owning property exercised the right of +voting in the election of ministers. In 1843 this right had been extended +to all women taxpayers. In 1845 the daughter's right of inheritance had +been made equal to that of the son's. In 1853 was begun the custom of +appointing women teachers in the small rural schools; in 1859 women were +admitted as teachers in all public institutions of learning. Since 1861 +women have been eligible as dentists, regimental surgeons, and organists +(but not as preachers). In 1862 every unmarried woman or widow over +twenty-one years of age, and paying a tax of 500 crowns (about $135), was +granted active suffrage in municipal affairs. The municipal electors, +inasmuch as they elect the members of the _Landsthing_ (county council) +and the members of the town councils, exercise a political influence, for +the members of the _Landsthing_ and the town councils elect the members of +the two Chambers of the _Riksdag_, the national legislative body. On +February 10, 1909, all taxpaying women (unmarried, widowed, and married) +were granted the _passive_ suffrage (except for the office of county +councillor). Here is a curious fact,--married women that do _not_ possess +the right to vote in municipal affairs can still hold office! + +In 1866 the art academies were opened to women, in 1870, the universities; +later women were permitted to enter the postal and telegraph service. In +peculiar contrast to these reforms are the old regulations concerning the +guardianship of women,[57] which has been especially supported by the +nobility and conservatives, and has been used chiefly to maintain the +subordination of married women. + +Against this condition the "Association to Advocate the Right of Married +Women to Possess Property" has struggled since 1873. It secured, in 1874, +the right of women to make a marriage contract providing for the +separation of property.[58] This association now undertook the political +education of the women voters in municipal elections; hitherto they had +made little use of their right to vote (in 1887, of 62,362 women having +the right to vote only 4844 voted). Thanks to the propaganda of this +association, participation in elections is to-day quite general. The +introduction of coeducation in the secondary schools is also due to the +activity of this association, supported by Professor Wallis, who had +investigated coeducation in the United States. But in the field of +secondary education there is still much to be done for Swedish +women,--their salaries as teachers are lower than those of men; in +matters of advancement and pensions women are discriminated against, +though they are expected to possess professional training and ability +equal to that of the men. + +In 1889 the Baroness of Adlersparre succeeded, through untiring +propaganda, in securing for women admission to school and poor-law +administration. To the baroness is due also the revival of needlework as +an applied art, as well as the revival of agricultural instruction for +women. All of these ideas she had expressed since 1859 in her magazine +_For the Home_ (_Fürs Heim_). + +Since 1884 the center of the Swedish woman's rights movement has been the +"Frederika Bremer League," founded by the Baroness of Adlersparre. This is +a sort of "Woman's Institute," and undertakes inquiries, collects data, +secures employment, organizes members of trades and professions, fixes +minimum wages, organizes petitions, gives advice, offers leadership, gives +stipends; in short, in various ways it centralizes the Swedish women's +rights movement. In 1896 the "Association to Advocate the Right of Married +Women to Possess Property" affiliated with the "Frederika Bremer League." + +The following are the facts concerning the work of educated women in +Sweden: The number of elementary school teachers is about double that of +the men (in 1899 there were 9950 women as compared with 5322 men). The +salaries of the women are everywhere lower than those of the men. In 1908 +there were 12,000 women teachers in the elementary schools, their annual +salary being 1400 crowns ($375) or more. + +There are 35 women doctors in Sweden, most of whom practice in Stockholm. +The Swedish midwives are well trained. Nursing is a respected calling for +educated women; also kinesiatrics (hygienic gymnastics), the latter being +lucrative as well. + +The first woman Doctor of Philosophy was Ellen Fries, who received the +degree in 1883. Sonja Kowalewska was a professor in mathematics in the +free University of Stockholm. Ellen Key is also a teacher, her field being +sociology. + +In Sweden there are two women university lecturers; one in law, the other +in physics. As yet there are no women lawyers and preachers. The +legislative act of February, 1909, which secures for women their +appointment in all _state_ institutions (educational, scientific, +artistic, and industrial), will greatly improve woman's professional +prospects. + +Sweden is not a land of large manufactories; hence there is no problem +arising from the presence of large masses of industrial laborers. Since +1865 the wages of the agricultural laborers have risen 85 per cent for +women and 65 per cent for men. There are 242,914 women engaged in +agriculture, 57,053 in industry,--3400 of the latter being organized. +There are 15,376 women employed in commerce; they are throughout paid +lower wages than the men (400 to 1200 crowns, _i.e._ $107 to $321). + +The organization of the workingwomen is not connected with the woman's +rights movement; it is affiliated with the workingmen's movement. In this +field Ellen Key has been quite active as a national educator. She is a +supporter of the laws for the protection of women laborers, and on this +point she has frequently met opposition among the woman's rights advocates +of Sweden (an opposition similar to that offered by the English Federation +for Freedom of Labor Defense). In 1907 an exposition of home-work was held +in Stockholm, similar to the German expositions. + +The right to vote in national elections[59] in Sweden is exercised by +landowners and taxpayers; however, only by men. Therefore there is a +Swedish National Woman's Suffrage Society, which in recent years has grown +very considerably, having over 10,000 members. In the autumn of 1906 a +delegation from the society was received by the Prime Minister and the +King, who, however, could hold out no promise of a government measure +favoring woman's suffrage. The society then tried to influence the +Parliament with an enormous petition having 142,188 signatures. This +petition was presented February 6, 1907. + +In 1906 and 1907 the Labor party and the Liberal party inserted woman's +suffrage into their platforms and presented bills favoring the measure. +Twice (in 1907 and 1908) Parliament rejected the clause providing for +woman's suffrage. On February 13, 1909, the Swedish males were granted +universal suffrage (active and passive) in national elections; at the same +time Parliament tried to appease the women by granting them the passive +suffrage in municipal elections. In the spring of 1909 the bill concerning +woman's right to vote in national elections (Staaf Bill) was accepted by +the Constitutional Commission by a vote of 11 to 9; the Lower House also +accepted it, but it was rejected by the Upper House. + +The political successes of the Norwegian women have a stimulating effect +on Sweden. + +Prohibition has influential advocates in Sweden, and supporters in +Parliament. At the request of the Swedish women's clubs, police matrons +were appointed to coöperate with the police regulating prostitution in +Stockholm, Helsingborg, Trelleborg, and Malmö. At the present time a +commission is considering future plans for police regulation of +prostitution in Sweden. + +In Sweden, where there are about half a million organized adherents to +the cause of temperance, there are 77 daily papers that consistently print +matter pertaining to temperance. Not only these 77 papers, most of whose +editors are Good Templars, but at least 13 other dailies refuse all +advertisements of alcoholic liquors.[60] In Norway, where similar +conditions prevail, there are a quarter of a million temperance advocates, +and about 40 daily papers that favor the cause. + + +FINLAND + + Total population: 2,712,562. + Women: 1,370,480. + Men: 1,342,082. + + No league of Finnish women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The discussion of the Finnish woman's rights movement will follow that of +Sweden, for Finland was till 1809 politically a part of Sweden; the +cultural tie still exists. + +In Finland also, the woman's rights movement is of literary +origin,--Adelaide Enrooth and Frederika Runeburg preached the gospel of +woman's emancipation to an intellectual élite. Through the influence of +Björnson, Ibsen, and Strindberg the discussion of the "social lie" +(_Gesellschaftslüge_) became general. In the eighties of the last +century, the ideas and criticisms were turned into deeds and reforms. +Above all a thorough education for woman was demanded. Since 1883, +coeducational schools have been established through private funds in all +cities of the country. These institutions have received state aid since +1891. They are secondary schools, having the curriculums of German +_Realschulen_ and _Gymnasiums_.[61] Not only is the student body composed +of _boys_ and _girls_, but the direction and instruction in these schools +are divided equally between _women_ and _men_; thereby the predominance of +the men is counteracted. Even before the establishment of these schools +women had privately prepared themselves for the _Abiturientenexamen_ +(examinations taken when leaving the secondary schools), and had entered +the University of Helsingfors. In 1870 the first woman entered the +University; in 1873 the second; in 1885 two more followed. To-day, 478 +women are registered in Helsingfors. Most of these women are devoting +themselves to the teaching profession, which is more favorable to women in +Finland than in Sweden. The first woman doctor, Rosina Hickel, has been +practicing in Helsingfors since 1879. The number of women doctors has +since risen to 20. + +In Finland any reputable person can plead before the court; but there are +no professional women lawyers and no women preachers. However, there are +women architects and women factory inspectors. Since 1864, women have been +employed in the postal service; since 1869, in the telegraph service and +in the railway offices. Here they draw the same salary as the men, when +acting in the same capacity. Commercial callings have been opened to +women, and there is a demand for women as office clerks. + +The statistical yearbook for Finland does not give separate statistics +concerning workingwomen. The total number of laborers in 1906 was 113,578. +Perhaps one tenth of these were women,--engaged chiefly in the textile and +paper industries, and in the manufacture of provisions and ready-made +clothing. There are few married women engaged in industrial work. Women +are admitted to membership in the trade-unions. + +In a monograph on women engaged in the ready-made clothing industry[62] +are found the following facts (established by official investigation of +621 establishments employing 3205 women laborers): 97.7 per cent of the +women were unmarried, and 2.3 per cent married; the minimum wages were 10 +cents a day; the maximum, $1.50; the women laborers living with their +parents or relatives numbered 1358; the sanitary conditions were bad. + +Home industry in Finland (as well as in Sweden and Norway) has recently +shown a striking growth. It was on the point of succumbing to the cheap +factory products. In order to perpetuate the industry, schools for +housewives were established in connection with the public high schools in +the rural districts. In these schools were taught, in addition to domestic +science and agriculture, various domestic handicrafts that offered the +women a pleasant and useful activity during the long winters. Not being +carried on intensively, these handicrafts could never lead to exploitation +and overwork. + +In 1864 the guardianship of men over unmarried women was abolished. +Married women are still under the guardianship of their husbands. Since +1889, the wife has been able to secure a separation of property by means +of a contract. She has control of her earnings when joint property holding +prevails. The unmarried women taxpayers and landowners have been voters in +municipal elections since 1865. In the rural districts they have also had +the right to hold local administrative offices. Just as in Sweden, they +have the right to participate in the election of ministers; and since 1891 +and 1893 they have had active and passive suffrage in regard to school +boards and poor-law administration. + +Taking advantage of the collapse of Russia in the Far East, Finland--in +May, 1906--established universal active and passive suffrage for all male +and female citizens over twenty-four years of age. She was the first +European country to take this step. On March 15, 1907, the Finnish women +exercised for the first time the right of suffrage in state elections. +Nineteen women were elected to the Parliament (comprising 200 +representatives). The women belonged to all parties, but most of them were +adherents of the Old-Finnish party (having 6 representatives) and of the +Socialist party (having 9 representatives). Ten of the women +representatives were either married or were widows. They belonged quite as +much to the cultured, property-owning class as to the masses. This +Parliament was dissolved in April, 1908. In the new elections of July, 25 +women were elected as representatives. Here again most of the elected +women belonged to the Old-Finnish party (with 6 representatives) and to +the Socialists (with 13 representatives). Nine of the women +representatives are married. Of the husbands of these women one is a +doctor, one a clergyman, one a workingman, two are farmers, etc. Of the +unmarried women representatives six are teachers, two are tailors, two are +editors of women's newspapers, four are traveling lecturers, one is a +factory inspector, and there is one Doctor of Philosophy. + +In both parliaments the women presented numerous measures, some of general +concern, others bearing on woman's rights.[63] Some of the measures +provided for: the improvement of the legal status of illicit children, +parental authority, the protection of maternity, the abolition of the +husband's guardianship over the wife, the better protection of children, +the protection of the woman on the street, the abolition of the regulation +of prostitution, and the raising of the age of consent. + +This list of measures indicates that the Finnish laws regulating marriage +are still antiquated, and that the political emancipation of woman did not +immediately effect her release from legal bondage. One of the Finnish +woman's advocates said, "Our short experience has taught us that we may +still have a hard fight for equal rights." + +Not only the antiquated marriage laws are inconsistent with the national +political rights of women; in the municipal election laws, too, woman is +treated unjustly. Married women do not exercise the right of suffrage, and +widows and unmarried women possess the passive suffrage only in the +election of poor-law administrators and school boards. Two woman's +suffrage organizations--_Unionen_ and _Finsk Kvinnoforening_--have +existed since 1906; they have no party affiliations. Two new woman's +suffrage societies--_Swenska Kinnoforbundet_ and _Naitlütto_ +(Young-Finnish)--are party organizations. + +The bill concerning the abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution has meanwhile become law, replacing the former +unsatisfactory, and for Finland, exceptional law. The law corresponding to +the English Vagrancy Act (supplement to paragraph 45 of the Finnish Civil +Code) provides that "whoever accosts a woman in public places for immoral +purposes shall pay a fine of $50." + +On October 31, 1907, the manufacture, importation, sale, or storing of +alcoholic liquors in any form whatever was prohibited by law. In recent +years the Finnish woman temperance lecturer, Trigg Helenius, has carried +on a successful international propaganda. + +External and internal difficulties have to the present made impossible the +formation of Finnish women's clubs and a federation of the women voters. + + +NORWAY + + Total population: 2,240,860. + Women: 1,155,169. + Men: 1,085,691. + + League of Norwegian Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage Association. + +In recent years the Norwegian woman's rights movement has made marked +progress. Just as in the other Scandinavian countries, women were freed as +early as the middle of the nineteenth century from the most burdensome +legal restrictions by a liberal majority in Parliament. In 1854 the +daughters were given the same right of inheritance as the sons, and male +guardianship for unmarried women was abolished. However, the real woman's +rights movement, like that of Sweden and Finland, began in the eighties of +the last century. Aasta Hansteen, Clara Collett, Björnson, and Ibsen had +prepared public opinion for the emancipation of women. Like Frederika +Bremer, Aasta Hansteen had emigrated to America owing to the prejudices of +her countrymen; and, again like Frederika Bremer, she returned to her +native land and could rejoice over the progress of the movement which she +had instigated. In 1884 the Norwegian Woman's League was founded. It has +since 1886 published a semimonthly woman's suffrage magazine, _Nylaende_. +In 1887 the Norwegian woman's rights movement won the same victory that +Mrs. Butler had won in England in 1886: the official regulation of +prostitution was abolished (neither in Sweden nor in Denmark has a similar +reform been secured thus far). As early as 1882 several university +faculties had admitted women, and in 1884 women were given the legal +right to secure an academic training, and they were declared eligible to +receive all scholarships and all academic degrees. In 1904 a law was +enacted admitting women to a number of public offices. Paragraph 12 of the +Constitution excludes them from the office of minister in the Cabinet; +they are excluded from consulships on international grounds, from military +offices by the nature of the offices, and from the theological field +through the backwardness of the Norwegian clergy. But they were admitted +to the teaching and legal professions, and to some of the administrative +departments of the government. The law made no discrimination between +married and unmarried women. It is believed that the women can decide best +for themselves whether or not they can combine the work of an +administrative office with their domestic duties. + +Hitherto the teaching profession had presented difficulties for women. +Fewer women than men were appointed; the women were given the subordinate +positions and paid lower salaries. The women had energetically protested +against these conditions since the passing of the law of 1904; in 1908 +they succeeded in having the magistrate of Christiania raise the initial +salary of women teachers in the elementary schools from 900 crowns ($241) +to 1100 crowns ($295), and the maximum salary from 1500 crowns ($402) to +1700 crowns ($455). In Christiania the women also demanded that women +teachers be given the position of head master; there were many women in +the profession,--2900 in the elementary schools, and 736 in the secondary +schools. + +The women shop assistants' trade-union in an open meeting in Christiania +has demanded equal pay for equal work. + +By a law passed in May, 1908, women employees in the postal service were +given the same pay as the men employees. As a result of this the women +telegraph operators, supported by the Norwegian Woman's Suffrage +Association, drew up a petition requesting the same concession as was made +the women postal employees, and presented the petition to the government +and the Storthing. This movement favoring an increase of wages was +strongly supported by the woman's suffrage movement. + +The women taxpayers (including married women) have possessed active and +passive suffrage in municipal affairs since 1901. The property +qualification requires that a tax of 300 crowns ($80) must be paid in the +rural districts, and 400 crowns ($107) in cities. In 1902 women exercised +the suffrage in municipal affairs for the first time; in Christiania 6 +women were elected to municipal offices. + +The Norwegian League of Women's Clubs and the woman's suffrage +associations protested to the government and to the Parliament because +suffrage in the national elections had been withheld from the women. The +separation of Sweden and Norway (1906), which concerned the women greatly, +but in which they could exercise no voice, was a striking proof of woman's +powerlessness in civil affairs. Hence the Norwegian Woman's Suffrage +League instituted a woman's ballot, in which 19,000 votes were cast in +favor of separation, none being cast against it. + +In 1907 six election bills favorable to woman's suffrage were presented to +the Storthing; and June 10, 1907, _women taxpayers were granted active and +passive suffrage in municipal elections_ (affecting about 300,000 women; +200,000 are still not enfranchised). This right of suffrage is accorded to +married women. The next general elections will take place in 1909. + +Since the Norwegian men have active and passive suffrage in parliamentary +elections, the women also made their demands to the Storthing. The +Ministry resolved, in pursuance of this demand, to present the Storthing +with the requisite constitutional amendment (Article 52). The Storthing +requested that before the next municipal elections (1910) the Ministry +present a satisfactory bill providing for woman's suffrage in municipal +elections. At the present time 142 women are city councilors (122 in the +cities). In the autumn of 1909 women will for the first time participate +in the parliamentary elections. + +At two congresses of the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance +(Amsterdam, in 1908; and London, in 1909), Norway was officially +represented by the wife of the Minister of State, Qvam. + +The emancipation of women legally and in the professions had preceded +their political emancipation. Norwegian women first practiced as dentists +in 1872; since 1884, women have been druggists and have practiced +medicine. They practice in all large cities. There are 38 women engaged as +physicians for the courts, as school physicians, as university assistants +in museums and laboratories, and as sanitary officers. Since 1904 there +have been two women lawyers. _Cand. jur._ Elisa Sam was the first woman to +profit by this reform. The first woman university professor was Mrs. +Matilda Schjott in Christiania; to-day there are three such professors. +There are 37 women architects. In 1888 married women were given the right +to make marriage contracts providing for separate property holding. Even +where there is joint property holding, the wife controls her earnings. + +In Norway the law protects the illegitimate mother and her child better +than elsewhere. The Norwegian law regards and punishes as accomplices in +infanticide all those that drive a woman to such a step,--the illicit +father, the parents, the guardians, and employers, who desert a woman in +such circumstances and put her out into the street. Since 1891, women have +been eligible to hold office as poor-law administrators; since 1899 they +can be members of school boards. The number of workingwomen is 67,000. Of +these 2000 are organized. + + +DENMARK + + Total population: 2,588,919. + Women: 1,331,154. + Men: 1,257,765. + + Federation of Danish Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +The origin of the woman's rights movement in Denmark is also literary,--to +Frederika Bremer in Sweden, Aasta Hansteen and Clara Collett in Norway, +must be added as emancipators, Mathilda Fibiger and Pauline Worm in +Denmark. The writings of both of these women in favor of +emancipation,--"Clara Raphael's Letters" and "Sensible People,"--date back +as far as 1848; they were inspired by the liberal ideas prevailing in +Germany previous to the "March Revolution." An _organized_ woman's rights +movement did not come into being until twenty-five years later. A liberal +parliamentary majority in Denmark abolished, in 1857, male guardianship +over unmarried women; and in 1859 established the equal inheritance +rights of daughters, thus following the example of Sweden and Norway. It +was necessary first to secure the support of public opinion through a +literary discussion of woman's rights. This was carried on between 1868 +and 1880 by Georg Brandes, who translated John Stuart Mill's _The +Subjection of Women_, and by Björnson and Ibsen. In 1871 Representative +Bajer and his wife organized the first woman's rights society, the "Danish +Woman's Club," which rapidly spread throughout Denmark. At first the Club +endeavored to secure a more thorough education for women, and therefore +labored for the improvement of the girls' high schools, and for the +institution of coeducational schools. In 1876 it secured the admission of +women to the University of Copenhagen. + +In the teaching profession women are employed in greater numbers, and are +better paid than in Sweden at the present time. There are 3003 women +elementary school teachers and 2240 women teachers in the high schools. As +yet there are no women lecturers or professors in the university.[64] +Since 1860, women have filled subordinate positions in the postal and +telegraph services, and since 1889 they have also filled the higher +positions; there are in all 1500 women employees. The subordinate +positions in the national and local administrations are to a certain +extent open to them. The number of women engaged in industrial pursuits is +47,617; the number of domestic servants, 89,000. The domestic servants are +organized only to a limited extent (800 being organized). The women in the +industries are better organized,--chiefly in the same trade-unions as the +men. In 1899 the women comprised one fifth of the total number of +organized laborers; since then this proportion has increased considerably. +The average wages of the women domestic servants are 20 crowns ($5.36) a +month; the average wages of the workingwomen are from 2 to 2.5 crowns (53 +to 67 cents) a day. + +Since 1880 the wife can secure separate property holding rights through a +marriage contract. Where joint property holding prevails, the wife +controls her own earnings and savings. In 1888 municipal suffrage was +demanded by the "Danish Woman's Club," but the _Rigsdag_ rejected the +measure. Since then the question has occupied much attention. In 1906 the +Congress of the Woman's International Suffrage Alliance performed +excellent propaganda work. New woman's suffrage societies were organized, +and the older societies were enlarged.[65] In the meantime the bill +concerning municipal suffrage was being sent from one House to the other. +Finally, on February 26, 1908, it was adopted by the Upper House, on April +14 by the Lower House, and on April 20 signed by the King. All taxpayers, +twenty-five years of age, were permitted to vote. All classes of +women--widows, unmarried, and married women--were enfranchised. They have +active and passive suffrage. In March, 1909, they exercised both rights +for the first time. The participation in the election was general; six +women were elected in Copenhagen. The women are now demanding the suffrage +in national affairs. Immediately after the victory of 1908 the Woman's +Suffrage League organized strong demonstrations in forty cities in favor +of this demand. + +Here it must be mentioned that the women in Iceland were granted, in the +autumn of 1907, active and passive suffrage in municipal affairs. In +January, 1908, they participated in the elections for the first time. In +Reikiavik, the capital, 2850 people voted, 1220 of whom were women. Four +women were elected to the city council, one polling the highest number of +votes. In 1909, the Icelandic Woman's Suffrage League joined the +International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. A number of Icelandic woman's +suffrage societies in Canada have affiliated with the Canadian Woman's +Suffrage League. + +On March 30, 1906, official regulation of prostitution was abolished in +Denmark; but a new law of similar character was enacted providing for +stringent measures. + + +THE NETHERLANDS + + Total population: 5,673,237. + Women: 2,583,535. + Men 2,520,602. + + Federation of the Netherlands Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +Although women are in a numerical superiority in the Netherlands, it is +much less difficult for them to find non-domestic employment than it is +for the German women, for instance. The Netherlands has large colonies and +therefore a good market for its male workers. The educated Dutchman is +kindly disposed toward the woman's rights movement, and in the educated +circles the wife really enjoys rights equal to those of the husband, which +is less frequently the case among the lower classes. The marriage laws are +based on the Code Napoleon, which, however, was considerably altered in +1838. The guardianship of the husband over the wife still prevails. +According to paragraph 160 of the Civil Code the husband controls the +personal property that the wife acquires; but he administers her real +estate only with the wife's consent. According to paragraph 163 of the +Civil Code the wife cannot give away, sell, mortgage, or acquire anything +independently. She can do those things only with her husband's written +consent. No marriage contract can annul _this_ requirement; but the wife +can stipulate the independent control of her income. According to +paragraph 1637 of the Civil Code the wife is permitted to control for _the +benefit of the family_ the money that she earns while fulfilling a labor +contract. Affiliation cases, it is true, are recognized by law, but under +considerable restrictions. + +The first sign of the woman's rights movement manifested itself in the +Netherlands in 1846. At that time a woman appeared in public for the first +time as a speaker. She was the Countess Mahrenholtz-Bülow, who introduced +kindergartens (_Fröbelsystem_) into the Netherlands. + +In 1857 elementary education was made compulsory in the Netherlands. At +that time this instruction was free, undenominational, and under the +control of the state; but in 1889 it was partly given over into +denominational and private hands. The secondary schools for girls are +partly municipal, partly private. Most of the elementary schools are +coeducational; in the secondary schools the sexes are segregated; in the +higher institutions of learning coeducation prevails, the right of girls +to attend being granted as a matter of course. Girls were admitted to the +high schools also without any opposition. These measures were due to +Minister Thorbecke. Thirty years ago the first woman registered at the +University of Leyden. Women study and are granted degrees in all +departments of the universities of Leyden, Utrecht, Gröningen, and +Amsterdam. In the elementary, secondary, and higher institutions of +learning, there are fewer women teachers than men, and the salary of the +women teachers is lower. Women are now being appointed as science teachers +in boys' schools also. The government is planning measures opposed to +having married women as teachers and as employees in the postal service. +The women's clubs are vigorously protesting against this. Women serve as +examination commissioners and as members of school boards, though in small +numbers. The city school boards rely almost entirely upon women for +supervising the instruction in needlework. Since 1904 two women were +appointed as state school inspectors, with salaries only sufficient for +maintenance. + +In the Netherlands there are 20 women doctors (31 including those in the +colonies), 57 women druggists, 5 women lawyers, and one woman lecturer in +the University of Gröningen. There are three women preachers in the +Liberal "League of Protestants." Since 1899 4 women have been factory +inspectors; 2, prison superintendents; 2, superintendents of rural +schools. Thirty-four are in the courts for the protection of wards. Women +participate in the care of the poor and the care of dependent children. +The care of dependent children is in the hands of a national society, _Pro +juventute_, which aided in securing juvenile courts in the Netherlands. +Especially useful in the education and support of workingwomen has been +the Tessel Benefit Society (_Tessel Schadeverein_), which is national in +its organization. + +It will be well to state here that the appointment of women factory +inspectors was secured in a rather original manner. In 1898 a national +exhibition of commodities produced by women was held in the Hague. In a +conspicuous place the women placed an empty picture frame with this +inscription: "The Women Inspectors of all These Commodities Produced by +Women." This hastened results. + +The shop assistants of both sexes organized themselves conjointly in +Amsterdam in 1898. There are two organizations of domestic servants. The +Dutch woman's rights advocates proved by investigation that for the same +work the workingwomen--because they were women--were paid 50 per cent less +than men. The "Workingwomen's Information Bureau," which was made into a +permanent institution as a result of the exhibition of 1898, has been +concerning itself with the protection of workingwomen and with their +organization. The women organizers belong to the middle class. The +Socialist party in the Netherlands has been organizing workingwomen into +trade-unions. In this the party has encountered the same difficulties as +exist elsewhere; to the present time it can point only to small successes. +Two of the Socialist woman's rights advocates are Henrietta Roland and +Roosje Vos. Henrietta Roland is of middle-class parentage, being the +daughter of a lawyer; she is the wife of an artist of repute. Roosje Vos, +on the contrary, comes from the lower classes. Both of these women played +an important part in the strike of 1903. They organized the "United +Garment Workers' Union." + +In spite of the fact that a woman can be ruler of the Netherlands, the +Dutch women possess only an insignificant right of suffrage. In the dike +associations they have a right to vote if they are taxpayers or own +property adjoining the dikes. In June, 1908, the Lutheran Synod gave women +the same right to vote in church affairs as the men possess. The +Evangelical Synod, on the other hand, rejected a similar measure as well +as one providing for the ordaining of women preachers. An attempt to +secure municipal suffrage for women failed, and resulted in the enactment +of reactionary laws. + +In 1883 Dr. Aletta Jacobs (the first woman doctor in the Netherlands), +acting on the advice of the well-known jurist--and later Minister--van +Houten, requested an Amsterdam magistrate to enter her name on the list of +municipal electors. As a taxpayer she was entitled to this right. At the +same time she requested Parliament to grant her the suffrage in national +elections. Both requests were summarily refused. In order to make such +requests impossible in the future, parliament inserted the word "male" in +the election law.[66] These occurrences aroused in the Dutch women an +interest in political affairs; and in 1894 they organized a "Woman's +Suffrage Society," which soon spread to all parts of the country. The +Liberals, Radicals, Liberal Democrats, and Socialists admitted women +members to their political clubs and frequently consulted the women +concerning the selection of candidates. The clubs of the Conservative and +Clerical parties have refused to admit women. At the general meeting in +1906 a part of the members of the "Woman's Suffrage Society" separated +from the organization and formed the "Woman's Suffrage League" (the _Bond +voor Vrouwenkiesrecht_,--the older organization was called _Vereeniging +voor Vrouenkiesrecht_). Both carry on an energetic propaganda in the +entire country, the older organization being the more radical. In 1908 the +older organization made all necessary preparations for the Amsterdam +Congress of the Woman's Suffrage Alliance, which resulted in a large +increase in its membership (from 3500 to 6000), and resulted, furthermore, +in the founding of a Men's League for Woman's Suffrage (modeled after the +English organization). The question of woman's suffrage has aroused a +lively interest throughout the Netherlands; even the _Bond_ increased its +membership during the winter of 1908 and 1909 from 1500 to 3500. + +In September, 1908, there were two great demonstrations in the Hague in +favor of _universal_ suffrage for both men and women. The right to vote in +Holland is based on the payment of a property tax or ground rent; +therefore numerous proposals in favor of widening the suffrage had been +made previously. When a liberal ministry came into power in 1905, it +undertook a reform of the suffrage laws; in 1907 the Committee on the +Constitution, by a vote of six out of seven, recommended that Parliament +grant active and passive suffrage to men and women. But with the fall of +the Liberal ministry fell the hope of having this measure enacted, for +there is nothing to be expected from the present government, composed of +Catholic and Protestant Conservatives. As has already been stated, +propaganda is in the meantime being carried on with increasing vigor, and +in Java a woman's suffrage society has also been organized. A noted +jurist, who is a member of the Dutch _Bond voor Vrouwenkiesrecht_, has +just issued a pamphlet in which he proves the necessity of granting +woman's suffrage: "Man makes the laws. Wherever the interests of the +unmarried or the married woman are in conflict with the interests of man, +the rights of the woman will be set aside. This is injurious to man, +woman, and child, and it blocks progress. The remedy is to be found only +in woman's suffrage. The granting of woman's suffrage is an urgent demand +of justice." + + +SWITZERLAND[67] + + Total population: 3,313,817. + Women: about 1,700,000. + Men: about 1,616,000. + + Federation of Swiss Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +Switzerland's existence and welfare depend on the harmony of the German, +the French, and the Italian elements of the population. Switzerland is +accustomed to considering three racial elements; out of three different +demands it produces one acceptable compromise. Naturally the Swiss woman's +rights movement has steadily developed in the most peaceful manner. No +literary manifesto, no declaration of principles of freedom is at the root +of this movement. It is supported by public opinion, which is gradually +being educated to the level of the demands of the movement. The woman's +rights movement began in Switzerland as late as 1880; in 1885 the Swiss +woman's club movement was started. The Federation of Women's Clubs is made +up of cantonal women's clubs in Zurich, Berne, Geneva, St. Gallen, Basel, +Lausanne, Neuchâtel, and in other cities, as well as of intercantonal +clubs, such as the "Swiss Public Utility Woman's Club" (_Schweizer +Gemeinnütziger Verein_), "la Fraternité," the "Intercantonal Committee of +Federated Women," etc. Recently a Catholic woman's league was formed. +Since 50 per cent of the Swiss women remain unmarried, the woman's rights +movement is a social necessity. In the field of education the authorities +have been favorable to women in every way. In nine cantons the elementary +schools are coeducational. There are public institutions for higher +learning for girls in all cities. In German Switzerland (Zurich, +Winterthur, St. Gallen, Berne) girls are admitted to the higher +institutions of learning for boys, or they can prepare themselves in the +girls' schools for the examination required for entrance to the +universities (_Matura_). There are 18 seminaries that admit girls only; +the seminaries in Küssnacht, Rorschach, and Croie are coeducational. +Women teachers are not appointed in the elementary schools of the cantons +of Glarus and Appenzell-Outer-Rhodes. On the other hand in the cantons of +Geneva, Neuchâtel, and Ticino 59 to 66 per cent of the teachers in the +elementary schools are women. They are given lower salaries than the men. +The canton of Zurich pays (by law) equal wages to its men and women +teachers, but the additional salary paid by the municipalities and rural +districts to the men teachers is greater than that paid to the women. In +its elementary schools the canton of Vaud employs 500 women teachers, some +of whom are married. The Swiss universities have been open to women since +the early sixties of the nineteenth century. As in France, the native +women use this right far less than foreign women, especially Russians and +Germans. The total number of women studying in the Swiss universities is +about 700. Most of the Swiss women that have studied in the universities +enter the teaching profession. Women are frequently employed as teachers +in high schools, as clerks, and as librarians. Sometimes these positions +are filled by foreign women. + +The first woman lecturer in a university in which German is the language +used has been employed in Berne since 1898. She is Dr. Anna Tumarkin, a +native Russian, having the right to teach in universities æsthetics and +the history of modern philosophy. In 1909 she was appointed professor. In +each of the universities of Zurich, Berne, and Geneva, a woman has been +appointed as university lecturer. Women doctors practice in all of the +larger cities. There are twelve in Zurich. The city council of Zurich has +decided to furnish free assistance to women during confinement, and to +establish a municipal maternity hospital. In Zurich there has been +established for women a hospital entirely under the control of women; the +chief physician is Frau Dr. Heim. The practice of law has been open to +women in the canton of Zurich since 1899, and in the canton of Geneva +since 1904. Miss Anna Mackenroth, _Dr. jur._, a native German, was the +first Swiss woman lawyer. Miss Nelly Favre was the second. Miss Dr. +Brüstlein was refused admission to the bar in Berne. Miss Favre was the +first woman to plead before the Federal Court in Berne, the capital. As +yet there are no women preachers in Switzerland. In Lausanne there is a +woman engineer. In the field of technical schools for Swiss women, much +remains to be done. The commercial education of women is also neglected by +the state, while the professional training of men is everywhere promoted. +Women are employed in the postal and telegraph service. The Swiss hotel +system offers remunerative positions and thoroughly respectable callings +to women of good family. In 1900 the number of women laborers was 233,912; +they are engaged chiefly in the textile and ready-made clothing +industries, in lacemaking, cabinetmaking, and the manufacture of food +products, pottery, perfumes, watches and clocks, jewelry, embroidery, and +brushes.[68] Owing to French influence, laws for the protection of women +laborers are opposed, especially in Geneva. The inspection of factories is +largely in the hands of men. Home industry is a blessing in certain +regions, a curse in others. This depends on the intensity of the work and +on the degree of industrialism. The trade-union movement is still very +weak among women laborers. According to the canton the movement has a +purely economic or a socialist-political character. Only a few +organizations of workingwomen belong to the Swiss Federation of Women's +Clubs. Since 1891 the men's trade-unions have admitted women. The first +women factory inspectors were appointed in 1908. According to the census +of August 9, 1905, 92,136 persons in Switzerland are engaged in home +industry; this number is 28.3 per cent of the total number of persons +(325,022) engaged in these industries. The foremost of the home +industries is the manufacture of embroidery, engaging a total of 65,595 +persons, of whom 53.5 per cent work at home. The next important home +industries are silk-cloth weaving, engaging 12,478 persons (41 per cent of +the total employed); watch making, engaging 12,071 persons in home +industry (or 23.7 per cent of the total); silk-ribbon weaving, engaging +7557 persons (or 51.9 per cent of the total). The highest percentage of +home workers is found among the straw plaiters (78.8 per cent); then +follow the military uniform tailors (60.1 per cent), the embroidery makers +(53.5 per cent), the wood carvers and ivory carvers (52 per cent), the +silk-ribbon weavers (51.9 per cent), and the ready-made clothing workers +(49.3 per cent). The International Association for Labor Legislation, as +everybody knows, is trying to ascertain whether an international +regulation of labor conditions is possible in the embroidery-making +industry. The statistics just given indicate the importance of this +investigation for Switzerland. The statistics of the home industries of +Switzerland will be found in the ninth issue of the second volume of the +Swiss Statistical Review (_Zeitschrift für Schweizerische Statistik_). + +The new Swiss law for the protection of women laborers has produced a +number of genuine improvements for the workingwomen. A maximum working +day of 10 hours and a working week of 60 hours have been established. +Women can work overtime not more than 60 days a year; they are then paid +at least 25 per cent extra. The most significant innovation is the legal +regulation of _vacations_. Every laborer that is not doing piecework or +being paid by the hour must, after one year of continuous service for the +same firm, be granted six consecutive days of vacation with full pay; +after two years of continuous service for the same firm the laborer must +be given eight days; after three years of service ten days; and after the +fourth year twelve days annually. A violation of this law renders the +offending employer liable to a fine of 200 to 300 francs ($40 to $60). + +In 1912 a new civil code will come into force. Its composition has been +influenced by the German Civil Code. The government, however, regarded the +"Swiss Federation of Women's Clubs" as the representative of the women, +and charged a member of the code commission to put himself into +communication with the executive committee of the Federation and to +express the wishes of the Federation at the deliberations of the +committee. This is better than nothing, but still insufficient. When the +civil code had been adopted, every male elector was given a copy; the +women's clubs secured copies only after prolonged effort. + +The property laws in the new Swiss Civil Code provide for joint property +holding,--not separation of property rights. However, even with joint +property holding the wife's earnings and savings belong to her (a +provision which the German cantons opposed). On the other hand, +affiliation cases are admissible (the French cantons opposed them). The +wife has the full status of a legal person before the law and full civil +ability, and _shares parental authority with the father_. French +Switzerland (through the influence of the Code Napoleon) opposes the +pecuniary responsibility of the illegal father toward the mother and +child. Official regulation of prostitution has been abolished in all the +cantons except Geneva; several years ago a measure to introduce it again +was rejected by the people of the Canton Zurich by a vote of 40,000 to +18,000. Geneva is the headquarters of the International Federation for the +Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution. In 1909 the +abolition of the official regulation of prostitution was again demanded in +the city council. + +By a vote of the people the Canton Vaud accepted a measure prohibiting the +manufacture, storage, and sale of absinthe. + +Recently the Swiss women have presented a petition requesting that an +illicit mother be granted the right to call herself "Frau" and use this +designation (Mrs.) before her name. The benevolent purpose of this +movement is self-evident. Through this measure the illicit mother is +placed in a position enabling her openly to devote herself to the rearing +of her child. With this purpose in view, not less than 10,000 women have +signed a petition to the Swiss Federal Council, requesting that a law be +enacted compelling registrars to use the title "Frau" (Mrs.) when +requested to do so by the person concerned. Thirty-four women's clubs have +collectively declared in favor of this petition. + +Women exercise the right of municipal suffrage only in those localities +whose male population is absent at work during a large part of the year +(as in Russia). Women can be elected as members of school boards and as +poor-law administrators in the Canton Zurich; as members of school boards +in the Canton Neuchâtel. The question of granting women the right to vote +in church affairs has long been advocated in the Canton Geneva by the +Reverend Thomas Müller, a member of the Consistory of the National +Protestant Church, and by Herr Locher, Chief of the Department of Public +Instruction of the Canton Zurich. In the Canton Geneva, where there is +separation of church and state, agitation in favor of the reform is being +carried on. The women in the Canton Vaud have exercised the right to vote +in the _Église libre_ since 1899, and in the _Église nationale_ since +1908. Since 1909, women have exercised the right to vote in the _Église +évangélique libre_ of Geneva. The woman's suffrage movement was really +started by the renowned Professor Hilty, of Berne, who declared himself +(in the Swiss Year Book of 1897) in _favor_ of woman's suffrage. The first +society concerning itself exclusively with woman's suffrage originated in +Geneva (_Association pour le suffrage feminin_). Later other organizations +were formed in Lausanne, Chaux de Fonds, Neuenburg, and Olten. The Woman's +Reading Circle of Berne had, since 1906, demanded political rights for +women, and the Zurich Society for the Reform of Education for Girls had +worked in favor of woman's suffrage. On May 12, 1908, these seven +societies organized themselves into the National Woman's Suffrage League, +and in June affiliated with the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. +The Report of the International Woman's Suffrage Congress, Amsterdam, +1908, explains in a very lucid manner the political backwardness of the +Swiss women: Switzerland regards itself as the model democracy; time has +been required to make it clear that politically the women of this model +state still have everything to achieve. The meeting of the Committee of +the International Council of Women in Geneva (September, 1908) +accomplished much for the movement. + +The Swiss Woman's Public Utility Association, which had refused to join +the Swiss Federation of Women's Clubs because the Federation concerned +itself with political affairs (the Public Utility Association wishing to +restrict itself to public utilities only), was given this instructive +answer by Professor Hilty: "Public utility and politics are not mutually +exclusive; an educated woman that wishes to make a living without +troubling herself about politics is incomprehensible to me. The women +ought to take Carlyle's words to heart: 'We are not here to submit to +everything, but also to oppose, carefully to watch, and to win.'" + + +GERMANY + + Total population: 61,720,529. + Women: 31,259,429. + Men: 30,461,100. + + German Federation of Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +In no European country has the woman's rights movement been confronted +with more unfavorable conditions; nowhere has it been more persistently +opposed. In recent times the women of no other country have lived through +conditions of war such as the German women underwent during the Thirty +Years' War and from 1807 to 1812. Such violence leaves a deep imprint on +the character of a nation. + +Moreover, it has been the fate of no other civilized nation to owe its +political existence to a war triumphantly fought out in less than one +generation. Every war, every accentuation and promotion of militarism is a +weakening of the forces of civilization and of woman's influence. "German +masculinity is still so young," I once heard somebody say. + +A reinforcement of the woman's rights movement by a large Liberal majority +in the national assemblies, such as we find in England, France, and Italy, +is not to be thought of in Germany. The theories of the rights of man and +of citizens were never applied by German Liberalism to woman in a broad +sense, and the Socialist party is not yet in the majority. The political +training of the German man has in many respects not yet been extended to +include the principles of the American Declaration of Independence or the +French Declaration of the Rights of Man; his respect for individual +liberty has not yet been developed as in England; therefore he is much +harder to win over to the cause of "woman's rights." + +Hence the struggle against the official regulation of prostitution has +been left chiefly to the German women; whereas in England and in France +the physicians, lawyers, and members of Parliament have been the chief +supporters of abolition. I am reminded also of the inexpressibly long and +difficult struggle that we women had to carry on in order to secure the +admission of women to the universities; the establishment of high schools +for girls; and the improvement of the opportunities given to women +teachers. In no other country were women teachers for girls wronged to +such an extent as in Germany. The results of the last industrial census +(1907) give to the demands of the woman's rights movement an invaluable +support: _Germany has nine and a half million married women, i.e._ only +one half of all adult women (over 18 years of age) are married. In +Germany, too, marriage is not a lifelong "means of support" for woman, or +a "means of support" for the whole number of women. Therefore the demands +of woman for a complete professional and industrial training and freedom +to choose her calling appear in the history of our time with a tremendous +weight, a weight that the founders of the movement hardly anticipated. + +The German woman's rights movement originated during the troublous times +immediately preceding the Revolution of 1848. The founders--Augusta +Schmidt, Louise Otto-Peters, Henrietta Goldschmidt, Ottilie v. Steyber, +Lina Morgenstern--were "forty-eighters"; they believed in the right of +woman to an education, to work, and to choose her calling, and as a +citizen to participate directly in public life. Only the first three of +these demands are contained in the programme of the "German General +Woman's Club" (founded in 1865 by four of these women, natives of Leipzig, +on the anniversary of the battle of Leipzig). At that time woman's right +to vote was put aside as something utopian. The founders of the woman's +rights movement, however, from the very first included in their programme +the question of women industrial laborers, and attacked the question in a +practical way by organizing a society for the education of workingwomen. +The energies of the middle-class women were at this time very naturally +absorbed by their own affairs. They suffered want, material as well as +intellectual. Therefore it was a matter of securing a livelihood for +middle-class women no longer provided for at home. This was the first duty +of a woman's rights movement originating with the middle class. + +Of special service in the field of education and the liberal +professions[69] were the efforts of Augusta Schmidt, Henrietta +Goldschmidt, Marie Loeper-Housselle, Helena Lang, Maria Lischnewska, and +Mrs. Kettler. Kindergartens were established; also courses for the +instruction of adult women, for women principals of high schools, for +women in the _Gymnasiums_ and _Realgymnasiums_. Moreover, the admission of +women to the universities was secured; the General Association of German +Women Teachers was founded, also the Prussian Association of Women Public +School Teachers, and high schools for girls. The Prussian law of 1908 for +the reform of girls' high schools (providing for the education of girls +over 12 years,--_Realgymnasiums_ or _Gymnasiums_ for girls from 12 to 16 +years, women's colleges for women from 16 to 18 years) was enacted under +pressure from the German woman's rights movement. Both the state and city +must now do more for the education of girls. The academically trained +women teachers in the high schools are given consideration when the +appointments of principals and teachers for the advanced classes are made. +The women teachers have organized themselves and are demanding salaries +equal to those of the men teachers. At the present time girls are admitted +to the boys' schools (_Gymnasiums_, _Realgymnasiums_, etc.) in Baden, +Hessen, the Imperial Provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, Oldenburg, and +Wurttemberg. The German Federation of Women's Clubs and the convention of +the delegates of the Rhenish cities and towns have made the same demands +for Prussia. + +The Prussian Association of Women Public School Teachers is demanding that +women teachers be appointed as principals, and is resisting with all its +power the threatened injustice to women in the adjustment of salaries. The +universities in Baden and Wurttemberg were the first to admit women; then +followed the universities in Hessen, Bavaria, Saxony, the Imperial +Provinces, and finally,--in 1908,--Prussia. The number of women enrolled +in Berlin University is 400. + +About 50 women doctors are practicing in Germany; as yet there are no +women preachers, but there are 5 women lawyers, one of whom in 1908 +pleaded the case of an indicted youth before the Altona juvenile court. +Although there are only a few women lawyers in Germany, women are now +permitted to act as counsel for the defendant, there being 60 such women +counselors in Bavaria. Recently (1908) even Bavaria refused women +admission to the civil service. + +In the autumn there was appointed the first woman lecturer in a higher +institution of learning,--this taking place in the Mannheim School of +Commerce. Within the last five years many new callings have been opened to +women: they are librarians (of municipal, club, and private libraries) and +have organized themselves into the Association of Women Librarians; they +are assistants in laboratories, clinics, and hospitals; they make +scientific drawings, and some have specialized in microscopic drawing; +during the season for the manufacture of beet sugar, women are employed as +chemists in the sugar factories; there is a woman architect in Berlin, and +a woman engineer in Hamburg. Women factory inspectors have performed +satisfactory service in all the states of the Empire. But the future field +of work for the German women is the sociological field. State, municipal, +and private aid is demanded by the prevailing destitution. At the present +time women work in the sociological field without pay. In the future much +of this work must be performed by the _professional_ sociological women +workers. In about 100 cities women are guardians of the poor. There are +103 women superintendents of orphan asylums; women are sought by the +authorities as guardians. Women's coöperation as members of school +committees and deputations promotes the organized woman's rights movement. +The first woman inspector of dwellings has been appointed in Hessen. +Nurses are demanding that state examinations be made requisite for those +wishing to become nurses; some cities of Germany have appointed women as +nurses for infant children. In Hessen and Ostmark [the eastern part of +Prussia], women are district administrators. There is an especially great +demand for women to care for dependent children and to work in the +juvenile courts; this will lead to the appointment of paid probation +officers. In southern Germany, women police matrons are employed; in +Prussia there are women doctors employed in the police courts. There are +also women school physicians. Since 1908, trained women have entered the +midwives' profession. + +When the German General Woman's Club was formed in 1865, there was no +German Empire; Berlin had not yet become the capital of the Empire. But +since Berlin has become the seat of the Imperial Parliament, Berlin very +naturally has become the center of the woman's rights movement. This +occurred through the establishment of the magazine _Frauenwohl_ [_Woman's +Welfare_] in 1888, by Mrs. Cauer. In this manner the younger and more +radical woman's rights movement was begun. The women that organized the +movement had interested themselves in the educational field. The radicals +now entered the sociological and political fields. Women making radical +demands allied themselves with Mrs. Cauer; they befriended her, and +coöperated with her. This is an undisputed fact, though some of these +women later left Mrs. Cauer and allied themselves with either the +"Conservatives" or the "Socialists." + +In the organization of trade-unions for women not exclusively of the +middle class, Minna Cauer led the way. In 1889, with the aid of Mr. Julius +Meyer and Mr. Silberstein, she organized the "Commercial and Industrial +Benevolent Society for Women Employees." The society has now 24,000 +members. State insurance for private employees is now (1909) a question of +the day. + +Jeannette Schwerin founded the information bureau of the Ethical Culture +Society, which furnished girls and women assistants for social work. At +the same time Jeannette Schwerin demanded that women be permitted to act +as poor-law guardians. The agitation in public meetings and legislative +assemblies against the Civil Code was instituted by Dr. Anita Augsburg and +Mrs. Stritt. + +The opposition to state regulation of prostitution was begun by the +"radical" Hanna Bieber-Böhm and Anna Pappritz. Lily v. Gikycki was the +first to speak publicly concerning the civic duty of women. The Woman's +Suffrage Society was organized in 1901 by Mrs. Cauer, Dr. Augsburg, Miss +Heymann, and Dr. Schirmacher. + +In 1894 the radical section of the "German Federation of Women's Clubs" +proposed that women's trade-unions be admitted to the Federation. This +radical section had often given offense to the "Conservatives"--in the +Federation, for instance--by the proposal of this measure; but the +radicals in this way have stimulated the movement. As early as 1904 the +Berlin Congress of the International Council of Women had shown that the +Federation, being composed chiefly of conservative elements, should adopt +in its programme all the demands of the radicals, including woman's +suffrage. The differences between the Radicals and the Conservatives are +differences of personality rather than of principles. The radicals move to +the time of _allegro_; the conservatives to the time of _andante_. In all +public movements there is usually the same antagonism; it occurred also in +the English and the American woman's rights movements. + +In no other country (with the exception of Belgium and Hungary) is the +schism between the woman's rights movement of the middle class and the +woman's rights movement of the Socialists so marked as in Germany. At the +International Woman's Congress of 1896 (which was held through the +influence of Mrs. Lina Morgenstern and Mrs. Cauer) two Social Democrats, +Lily Braun and Clara Zetkin, declared that they never would coöperate with +the middle-class women. This attitude of the Social Democrats is the +result of historical circumstances. The law against the German Socialists +has increased their antagonism to the middle class. Nevertheless, this +harsh statement by Lily Braun and Clara Zetkin was unnecessary. It has +just been stated that the founders of the German woman's rights movement +had included the demands of the workingwomen in their programme, and that +the Radicals (by whom the congress of 1896 had been called, and who for +years had been engaged in politics and in the organization of +trade-unions) had in 1894 demanded the admission of women's labor +organizations to the Federation of Women's Clubs. Hence an alignment of +the two movements would have been exceedingly fortunate. However, a part +of the Socialists, laying stress on ultimate aims, regard "class hatred" +as their chief means of agitation, and are therefore on principle opposed +to any peaceful coöperation with the middle class. A part of the women +Socialist leaders are devoting themselves to the organization of +workingwomen,--a task that is as difficult in Germany as elsewhere. Almost +everywhere in Germany women laborers are paid less than men laborers. The +average daily wage is 2 marks (50 cents), but there are many workingwomen +that receive less. In the ready-made clothing industry there are weekly +wages of 6 to 9 marks ($1.50 to $2.25). At the last congress of home +workers, held at Berlin, further evidence of starvation in the home +industries was educed. But for these wages the German woman's rights +movement is not to be held responsible. + +In the social-political field the woman's rights advocates hold many +advanced views. Almost without exception they are advocating legislation +for the protection of the workingwomen; they have stimulated the +organization of the "Home-workers' Association" in Berlin; they urged the +workingwomen to seek admission to the Hirsch-Duncker Trades Unions (the +German national association of trade-unions); they have established a +magazine for workingwomen, and have organized a league for the +consideration of the interests of workingwomen. In 1907 Germany had +137,000 organized workingwomen and female domestic servants.[70] Most of +these belong to the socialistic trade-unions. The maximum workday for +women is fixed at ten hours. The protection of maternity is promoted by +the state as well as by women's clubs. + +Peculiar to Germany is the denominational schism in the woman's rights +movement. The precedent for this was established by the "German +Evangelical Woman's League," founded in 1899, with Paula Müller, of +Hanover, as President. The organization of the League was due to the +feeling that "it is a sin to witness with indifference how women that wish +to know nothing of Biblical Christianity represent all the German women." +The organization opposes equality of rights between man and woman; but in +1908 it joined the Federation of Women's Clubs. In 1903 a "Catholic +Woman's League" was formed, but it has not joined the Federation. There +has also been formed a "Society of Jewish Women." We representatives of +the interdenominational woman's rights movement deplore this +denominational disunion. These organizations are important because they +make accessible groups of people that otherwise could not be reached by +us. + +Another characteristic of the German woman's rights movement is its +extensive and thorough organization. The smallest cities are to-day +visited by women speakers. Our "unity of spirit,"--praised so frequently, +and now and then ridiculed,--is our chief power in the midst of specially +difficult conditions in which we must work. With tenacity and patience we +have slowly overcome unusual difficulties,--to the present without any +help worth mentioning from the men. + +In the Civil Code of 1900 the most important demands of the women were not +given just consideration. To be sure, woman is legally competent, but the +property laws make joint property holding legal (wives control their +earnings and savings), and the mother has no parental authority. Relative +to the impending revision of the criminal law, the women made their +demands as early as 1908 in a general meeting of the Federation of Women's +Clubs, when a three days' discussion took place. Since 1897 the women have +progressed considerably in their knowledge of law. The German women +strongly advocate the establishment of juvenile courts such as the United +States are now introducing. The Federation also demands that women be +permitted to act as magistrates, jurors, lawyers, and judges. + +In the struggle against official regulation of prostitution the women were +supported in the Prussian Landtag by Deputy Münsterberg, of Dantzig. +Prussia established a more humane regulation of prostitution, but as yet +has not appointed the extraparliamentary commission for the study of the +control of prostitution, a measure that was demanded by the women. The +most significant recent event is the admission of women to political +organizations and meetings by the Imperial Law of May 15, 1908. Thereby +the German women were admitted to political life. The Woman's Suffrage +Society--founded in 1902, and in 1904 converted into a League--was able +previous to 1908 to expand only in the South German states (excluding +Bavaria). By this Imperial Law the northern states of the Empire were +opened, and a National Woman's Suffrage Society was formed in Prussia, in +Bavaria, and in Mecklenburg. As early as 1906, after the dissolution of +the Reichstag, the women took an active part in the campaign, a right +granted them by the _Vereinsrecht_ (Law of Association). In Prussia, +Saxony, and Oldenburg the women worked for universal suffrage for women in +Landtag elections. Since 1908 the political woman's rights movement has +been of first importance in Germany. As the women taxpayers in a number of +states can exercise municipal suffrage by proxy, and the women owners of +large estates in Saxony and Prussia can exercise the suffrage in elections +for the Diet of the Circle (_Kreistag_) by proxy, an effort is being made +to attract these women to the cause of woman's suffrage. + +In 1908 the Protestant women of the Imperial Provinces (Alsace and +Lorraine) were granted the right to vote in church elections, a right that +had been granted to the women of the German congregations in Paris as +early as 1907[71]. + + +LUXEMBURG + + Total population: 246,455. + Women: 120,235. + Men: 126,220. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The woman's rights movement in Luxemburg originated in December, 1905, +with the organization of the "Society for Women's Interests" (_Verein für +Fraueninteressen_), which has worked admirably. The society has 300 +members, and is in good financial condition. Throughout the country it is +now carrying on successful propaganda in the interest of higher education +for girls and in the interest of women in the industries. In Luxemburg, +after girls have graduated from a convent, they have no further +educational facilities. The society has established a department for +legal protection, and an employment agency; it has published an inquiry +into the living conditions in the capital. + +In the capital city there is a woman member of the poor-law commission; +ten women are guardians of the poor; one woman is a school commissioner; +and there is a woman inspector of the municipal hospital. The society is +well supported by the liberal elements of the government and the public. +Its chief object must be the establishment of a secular school that will +prepare women for entrance to the universities. + + +GERMAN AUSTRIA + + Total population: about 7,000,000. + Women: about 3,750,000. + Men: about 3,250,000. + + Federation of Austrian Women's Clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The Austrian woman's rights movement is based primarily on economic +conditions. More than 50 per cent of the women in Austria are engaged in +non-domestic callings. This percentage is a strong argument against the +theory that woman's sphere is merely domestic. Unfortunately this +non-domestic service of the Austrian women is seldom very remunerative. +Austria itself is a country of low wages. This condition is due to a +continuous influx of Slavic workers, to large agricultural provinces, to +the tenacious survivals of feudalism, etc. Therefore women's wages and +salaries are lower than in western Europe, and low living expenses do not +prevail everywhere (Vienna is one of the most expensive cities to live +in). The "Women's Industrial School Society," founded in 1851, attempted +to raise the industrial ability of the girls of the middle class. In +accordance with the views of the time, needlework was taught. Free schools +for the instruction of adults were established in Vienna. The economic +misery following the war of 1866 led to the organization of the "Woman's +Industrial Society," which enlarged woman's sphere of activity as did the +Lette-Society in Berlin. Since 1868 the woman's rights movement has +secured adherents from the best educated middle-class women,--namely, +women teachers. In that year the Catholic women teachers organized a +"Catholic Women Teachers' Society." In 1869 was organized the +interdenominational "Austrian Women Teachers' Society." This society has +performed excellent service. The women teachers, who since 1869 had been +given positions in the public schools, were paid less than the men +teachers having the same training and doing the same work. Therefore the +women teachers presented themselves to the provincial legislatures, +demanded an increase in salary, and, in spite of the opposition of the +male teachers, secured the increase by the law of 1891. In 1876 a society +devoted its efforts to the improvement of the girls' high schools, which +had been greatly neglected. In 1885 the women writers and the women +artists organized, their male colleagues having refused to admit women to +the existing professional societies. In 1888 the women music teachers +likewise organized themselves. At the same time the question of higher +education for women was agitated. In Vienna a "lyceum" class--the first of +its kind--was opened to prepare girls for entrance to the universities +(_Abiturientenexamen_). Admission to the boys' high schools was refused to +girls in Vienna, but was granted in the provinces (Troppau, and +Mährisch-Schönberg). Girls were at all times admitted as outsiders +(_Extraneae_) to the examinations held on leaving college +(_Abiturientenexamen_). In this way many girls passed the "leaving" +examination before they began their studies in Switzerland. Until 1896 the +Austrian universities remained closed to women. The law faculties do not +as yet admit women. The women's clubs are striving to secure this reform. +Those women that had studied medicine in Switzerland previous to 1896, and +wished to practice in Austria, required special imperial permission, which +was never withheld from them in their noble struggle. + +In this way Dr. Kerschbaumer began her practice as an oculist in +Salzburg. However, the Countess Possanner, M.D., after passing the Swiss +state examination, also took the Austrian examination. She is now +practicing in Vienna. + +As the Austrian doctors have active and passive suffrage in the election +to the Board of Physicians (_Ärztekammer_)[72] Dr. Possanner also +requested this right. Her request was refused by the magistrate in Vienna +because, _as a woman_, she did not have the suffrage in municipal +elections, and the suffrage for the Board of Physicians could be exercised +only by those doctors that were municipal electors.[73] Thereupon Dr. +Possanner appealed her case to the government, to the Minister of the +Interior, and finally to the administrative court. The court decided in +favor of the petition. It must be emphasized, however, that the Board of +Physicians favored the request from the beginning. + +Women preachers and women lawyers are as yet unknown in Austria. As in +former times, the teaching profession is still the chief sphere of +activity for the middle-class women of German Austria. According to the +law of 1869 they can be appointed not only as teachers in the elementary +schools for girls, but also as teachers of the lower classes in the boys' +schools. Their not being municipal voters has two results: if the +municipality is seeking votes, it appoints men teachers that are +"favorably disposed"; if the municipality is politically opposed to the +male teachers, it appoints women teachers in preference. But to be the +plaything of political whims is not a very worthy condition to be in. If +women teachers marry, they need not withdraw from the service (except in +the province of Styria). More than 10 per cent of the women teachers in +the whole of Austria are married, more than 2 per cent are widows. The +women comprise about one fourth of the total number of elementary school +teachers, of whom there are 9000. Their annual salaries vary from 200 to +1600 guldens ($96.40 to $771.20). The ordinary salary of 200 guldens is so +insufficient that many elementary school teachers actually starve. The +competition of the nuns is feared by the whole body of secular school +teachers. In Tyrol instruction in the elementary schools is still almost +wholly in the hands of the religious orders. The sisters work for little +pay; they have a community life and consume the resources of the dead +hand. + +Of the secondary schools for girls some are ecclesiastic, some are +municipal, and some private. The lyceums give a very good education +(mathematics is obligatory), but as yet there are no ordinary secondary +schools whose leaving examinations are equivalent to the +_Abiturientenexamen_ of the _Gymnasiums_. The "Academic Woman's Club" in +Vienna is demanding this reform, and the Federation of Austrian Women's +Clubs is demanding the development of the municipal girls' schools into +_Realschulen_. The state subsidizes various institutions. The girls' +_Gymnasiums_ were privately founded. Dr. Cecilia Wendt, upon whom the +degree of Doctor of Philosophy was conferred by Vienna University, and who +took the state examination for secondary school teachers in mathematics, +physics, and German, was the first woman appointed as teacher in a +_Gymnasium_, being appointed in the Vienna _Gymnasium_ for girls. Since +1871, women have been appointed in the postal and telegraph service. Like +most of the subordinate state officials, they receive poor pay, and dare +not marry. The women telegraph operators in the central office in Vienna +are paid 30 guldens ($14.46) a month. "The woman telegraph operator can +lay no claims to the pleasures of existence." "These girls starve +spiritually as well as physically."[74] During the past twenty-eight years +salaries have not been increased. Every two years a two-week vacation is +granted. Since 1876 there has existed a relief society for women postal +and telegraph employees. + +The woman stenographer, to-day so much sought after in business offices, +was in 1842 _absolutely excluded_ from the courses in Gabelsberger +stenography[75] by the Ministry of Public Instruction. In the courts of +chancery (_Advokatenkanzleien_) women stenographers are paid 20 to 30 +guldens ($9.64 to $14.46) a month. They are given the same pay in the +stores and offices where they are expected to use typewriters. They are +regarded as subordinates, though frequently they are thorough specialists +and masters of languages. In the governmental service the women +subordinates that work by the day (1.50 guldens,--73 cents) have no hope +for advancement or pension. The first woman chief of a government office +has been appointed to the sanitary department of the Ministry of the Labor +Department, in which there is also a woman librarian. + +It is not easy to imagine the deplorable condition of workingwomen when +women public school teachers and women office clerks are expected to live +on a monthly salary of $9.64 to $14.46. The Vienna inquiry into the +condition of workingwomen in 1896 disclosed frightfully miserable +conditions among workingwomen. Since then, especially through the efforts +of the Socialists, the conditions have been somewhat improved. + +In Vienna, efforts to organize women into trade-unions have been +made,--especially among the bookbinders, hat makers, and tailors. Outside +Vienna, organization has been effected chiefly among the women textile +workers in Silesia, as well as among the women employees of the state +tobacco factories. The most thorough organization of women laborers is +found in northern and western Bohemia among the glassworkers and bead +makers. In Styria, Salzburg, Tyrol, and Carinthia the organization of +women is found only in isolated cases. Everywhere the organization of +women is made difficult by domestic misery, which consumes the energy, +time, and interest of the women. The organized Social-Democratic women +laborers of German Austria have a permanent representation in the "Women's +Imperial Committee." Of the 50,000 women organized in trade-unions, 5000 +belong to the Social-Democratic party. The _Magazine for Workingwomen_ +(_Arbeiterinnenzeitung_) has 13,400 subscribers. Women industrial +inspectors have proved themselves efficient. + +It is to be expected as a result of the wretched economic conditions of +the workingwomen that prostitution with its incidental earnings should be +widespread in German Austria. Vienna is the refuge of those seeking work +and seclusion (_Verschwiegenheit_). The number of illicit births in Vienna +is, as in Paris, one third of the total number of births. For these and +other reasons the "General Woman's Club of Austria" (_Allgemeine +Österreiche Frauenverein_), founded in 1893 under the leadership of Miss +Augusta Fickert, has frequently concerned itself with the question of +prostitution, of woman's wages, and of the official regulation of +prostitution,--always being opposed to the last. The International +Federation for the Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution +(_internationale abolinistische Föderation_) was, however, not represented +in German Austria before 1903; the Austrian branch of this organization +being established in 1907 in Vienna. + +The middle-class women are doing much as leaders of the charitable, +industrial, educational, and woman's suffrage societies to raise the +status of woman in Austria. The most prominent members of these societies +are: Augusta Fickert, Marianne Hainisch, Mrs. v. Sprung, Miss Herzfelder, +v. Wolfring, Mrs. v. Listrow, Rosa Maireder, Maria Lang (editor of the +excellent _Dokumente der Frauen_, which, unfortunately, were discontinued +in 1902), Mrs. Schwietland, Elsie Federn (the superintendent of the +settlement in the laborers' district in North Vienna), Mrs. Jella Hertzka, +(Mrs.) Dr. Goldmann, superintendent of the Cottage Lyceum, and others. + +These women frequently coöperate with the leaders of the Socialistic +woman's rights movement, Mrs. Schlesinger, Mrs. Popp, and others. The +disunion of the two forces of the movement is much less marked in Austria +than in Germany, the circumstances much more resembling those in Italy. +In these lands it is expected that the woman's rights movement will profit +greatly through the growth of Socialism. This is explained by the fact +that the Austrian Liberals are not equal to the assaults of the +Conservatives. Universal equal suffrage, which does not as yet exist in +Austria, has its most enthusiastic advocates among the Socialists. With +the Austrian Socialists, universal suffrage means woman's suffrage +also.[76] + +During the Liberal era two rights were granted to the Austrian women: +since 1849 the women taxpayers vote by proxy in municipal elections, and +since 1861 for the local legislatures (_Provinciallandtagen_).[77] In +Lower Austria the _Landtag_ in 1888 deprived them of this right, and in +1889 an attempt was made to deprive them of their municipal suffrage. But +the women concerned successfully petitioned that they be left in +possession of their active municipal suffrage. Since 1873 the Austrian +women owners of large estates vote also for the Imperial Parliament +through proxy. The Austrian women, supported by the Socialist deputies, +Pernerstorfer, Kronawetter, Adler, and others, have on several occasions +demanded the passive suffrage in the election of school boards and +poor-law guardians; they have also demanded a reform of the law of +organization, so that women can be admitted to political organizations. To +the present these efforts have been fruitless. When universal suffrage was +granted in 1906 (creating the fifth class of voters), the women were +disregarded. In the previous year a Woman's Suffrage Committee had been +established with headquarters in Vienna. It is endeavoring especially to +secure the repeal of paragraph 30 of the law regulating organizations and +public meetings. This law (like that of Prussia and Bavaria previous to +1908) excludes women from political organization, thus making the forming +of a woman's suffrage society impossible. For this reason Austria cannot +join the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +During the consideration of the new municipal election laws in Troppau +(Austrian Silesia), it was proposed to withdraw the right of suffrage from +the women taxpayers. They resisted the proposal energetically. At present +the matter is before the supreme court. In Voralberg the unmarried women +taxpayers were also given the right to vote in elections of the _Landtag_. +The legal status of the Austrian woman is similar to that of the French +woman: the wife is under the guardianship of her husband; the property law +provides for the amalgamation of property (not joint property holding, as +in France). But the wife does not have control of her earnings and +savings, as in Germany under the Civil Code. The father alone has legal +authority over the children. + +Here the names of two women must be mentioned: Bertha v. Suttner, one of +the founders of the peace movement, and Marie v. Ebner-Eschenbach, the +greatest living woman writer in the German language. Both are Austrians; +and their country may well be proud of them. + +In Austria the authorities are more favorably disposed toward the woman's +rights movement than in Germany, for example. + + +HUNGARY[78] + + Total population: 19,254,559. + Women: 9,672,407. + Men: 9,582,152. + + Federation of Hungarian Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +At first the Hungarian woman's rights movement was restricted to the +advancement of girls' education. The attainment of national independence +gave the women greater ambition; since 1867 they have striven for the +establishment of higher institutions of learning for girls. In 1868 Mrs. +v. Veres with twenty-two other women founded the "Society for the +Advancement of Girls' Education." In 1869, the first class in a high +school for girls was formed in Budapest. An esteemed scholar, P. Gyulai, +undertook the superintendence of the institution. Similar schools were +founded in the provinces. In 1876 the Budapest model school was completed; +in 1878 it was turned over to a woman superintendent, Mrs. v. Janisch. A +seminary for women teachers was established, a special building being +erected for the purpose. Then the admission of women to the university was +agitated. A special committee for this purpose was formed with Dr. Coloman +v. Csicky as chairman. In the meantime the "Society" gave domestic economy +courses and courses of instruction to adults (in its girls' high school). +The Minister of Public Instruction, v. Wlassics, secured the imperial +decree of November 18, 1895, by which women were admitted to the +universities of Klausenburg and Budapest (to the philosophical and medical +faculties). It was now necessary to prepare women for the entrance +examinations (_Abiturientenexamen_). This was undertaken by the "General +Hungarian Woman's Club" (_Allgemeine ungarische Frauenverein_). With the +aid of Dr. Béothy, a lecturer at the University of Budapest, the club +formulated a programme that was accepted by the Minister of Public +Instruction. By the rescript of July 18, 1896, he authorized the +establishment of a girls' gymnasium in Budapest. It is evident that such +reforms, when in the hands of _intelligent_ authorities, are put into +working order as easily as a letter passes through the mails. + +In the professional callings we find 15 women druggists, 10 women doctors, +and one woman architect. Erica Paulus, who has chosen the calling of +architect (which elsewhere in Europe has hardly been opened to women), is +a Transylvanian. Among other things she has been given the supervision of +the masonry, the glasswork, the roofing, and the interior decoration of +the buildings of the Evangelical-Reformed College in Klausenburg. A second +woman architect, trained in the Budapest technical school, is a builder in +Besztercze. + +Higher education of women was promoted in the cities, the home industries +of the Hungarian rural districts were fostered. This was taken up by the +"Rural Woman's Industry Society" (_Landes-Frauenindustrieverein_). Aprons, +carpets, textile fabrics, slippers, tobacco pouches, whip handles, and +ornamental chests are made artistically according to antique models (this +movement is analogous to that in Scandinavia). Large expositions aroused +the interest of the public in favor of the national products, for the +disposal of which the women of the society have labored with enthusiasm. +These home industries give employment to about 750,000 women (and 40,000 +men). + +Hungary is preëminently an agricultural country and its wages are low. The +promotion of home industry therefore had a great economic importance, for +Hungary is a center of traffic in girls. A great number of these poor +ignorant country girls, reared in oriental stupor, congregate in Budapest +from all parts of Hungary and the Balkan States, to be bartered to the +brothels of South America as "Madjarli and Hungara."[79] An address that +Miss Coote of the "International Vigilance Society" delivered in Budapest +resulted in the founding of the "Society for Combating the White Slave +Trade." The committee was composed of Countess Czaky, Baroness Wenckheim, +Dr. Ludwig Gruber (royal public prosecutor), Professor Vambéry, and +others. The recent Draconic regulation of prostitution in Pest (1906) +caused the Federation of Hungarian Women's Clubs to oppose the official +regulation of prostitution, and to form a department of morals, which is +to be regarded as the Hungarian branch of the International Federation for +the Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution. Since then, +public opinion concerning the question has been aroused; the laws against +the white slave traffic have been made more stringent and are being more +rigidly enforced. + +A new development in Hungary is the woman's suffrage movement (since +1904), represented in the "Feminist Society" (_Feministenverein_). During +the past five years the society has carried on a vigorous propaganda in +Budapest and various cities in the provinces (in Budapest also with the +aid of foreign women speakers); recently the society has also roused the +countrywomen in favor of the movement. Woman's suffrage is opposed by the +Clericals and the _Social-Democrats_, who favor only male suffrage in the +impending introduction of universal suffrage[80]. On March 10, 1908, a +delegation of woman's suffrage advocates went to the Parliament. During +the suffrage debates the women held public meetings. + +From the work of A. v. Maclay, _Le droit des femmes au travail_, I take +the following statements: According to the industrial statistics of 1900 +there were 1,819,517 women in Hungary engaged in agriculture. Industry, +mining, and transportation engaged 242,951; state and municipal service, +and the liberal callings engaged 36,870 women. There were 109,739 women +day laborers; 350,693 domestic servants; 24,476 women pursued undefined or +unknown callings; 83,537 women lived on incomes from their property. Since +1890 the number of women engaged in all the callings has increased more +rapidly than the number of men (26.3 to 27.9 per cent being the average +increase of the women engaged in gainful pursuits). In 1900 the women +formed 21 per cent of the industrial population. They were engaged chiefly +in the manufacture of pottery (29 per cent), bent-wood furniture (46 per +cent), matches (58 per cent), clothing (59 per cent), textiles (60 per +cent). In paper making and bookbinding 68 per cent of the laborers are +women. In the state mints 25 per cent of the employees are women; the +state tobacco factories employ 16,720 women, these being 94 per cent of +the total number of employees. Of those engaged in commerce 23 per cent +are women. + +The number of women engaged in the civil service (as private secretaries) +and in the liberal callings has increased even more than the number of +women engaged in industry. The women engaged in office work have +organized. In 1901 the number of women public school teachers was 6529 +(there being 22,840 men), _i.e._ 22.22 per cent were women. In the best +public schools there are more women teachers than men, the proportion +being 62 to 48; in the girls' high schools there are 273 women teachers to +145 men teachers. In 1903 the railroads employed 511 women; in 1898 the +postal service employed 4516 women; in 1899 the telephone system employed +207 women (and 81 men). These women employees, unlike those of Austria, +are permitted to marry. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE ROMANCE COUNTRIES + + +In the Romance countries the woman's rights movement is hampered by +Romance customs and by the Catholic religion. The number of women in these +countries is in many cases smaller than the number of men. In general, the +girls are married at an early age, almost always through the negotiations +of the parents. The education of women is in some respects very deficient. + + +FRANCE + + Total population: 38,466,924. + Women: 19,346,369. + Men: 18,922,651. + + Federation of French Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +The European woman's rights movement was born in France; it is a child of +the Revolution of 1789. When a whole country enjoys freedom, equality, and +fraternity, woman can no longer remain in bondage. The Declaration of the +Rights of Man apply to Woman also. The European woman's rights movement is +based on purely logical principles; not, as in the United States, on the +practical exercise of woman's right to vote. This purely theoretical +origin is not denied by the advocates of the woman's rights movement in +France. It ought to be mentioned that the principles of the woman's rights +movement were brought from France to England by Mary Wollstonecraft, and +were stated in her pamphlet, _A Vindication of the Rights of Women_. But +enthusiastic Mary Wollstonecraft did not form a school in England, and the +organized English woman's rights movement did not cast its lot with this +revolutionist. What Mary Wollstonecraft did for England, Olympe de Gouges +did for France in 1789; at that time she dedicated to the Queen her little +book, _The Declaration of the Rights of Women_ (_La declaration des droits +des femmes_). It happened that The Declaration of the Rights of Man (_La +declaration des droits de l'homme_) of 1789 referred only to the men. The +National Assembly recognized only male voters, and refused the petition of +October 28, 1789, in which a number of Parisian women demanded universal +suffrage in the election of national representatives. Nothing is more +peculiar than the attitude of the men advocates of liberty toward the +women advocates of liberty. At that time woman's struggle for liberty had +representatives in all social groups. In the aristocratic circles there +was Madame de Stael, who as a republican (her father was Swiss) never +doubted the equality of the sexes; but by her actions showed her belief in +woman's right to secure the highest culture and to have political +influence. Madame de Stael's social position and her wealth enabled her to +spread these views of woman's rights; she was never dependent on the men +advocates of freedom. Madame Roland was typical of the educated republican +bourgeoisie. She participated in the revolutionary drama and was a +"political woman." On the basis of historical documents it can be asserted +that the men advocates of freedom have not forgiven her. + +The intelligent people of the lower classes are represented by Olympe de +Gouges and Théroigne de Mericourt. Both played a political rôle; both +were woman's rights advocates; of both it was said that they had forgotten +the virtues of their sex,--modesty and submissiveness. The men of freedom +still thought that the home offered their wives all the freedom they +needed. The populace finally made demonstrations through woman's clubs. +These clubs were closed in 1793 by the Committee of Public Safety because +the clubs disturbed "public peace." The public peace of 1793! What an +idyl! In short, the régime of liberty, equality, and fraternity regarded +woman as unfree, unequal, and treated her very unfraternally. What harmony +between theory and practice! In fact, the Revolution even withdrew rights +that the women formerly possessed. For example, the old régime gave a +noblewoman, as a landowner, all the rights of a feudal lord. She levied +troops, raised taxes, and administered justice. During the old régime in +France there were women peers; women were now and then active in +diplomacy. The abbesses exercised the same feudal power as the abbots; +they had unlimited power over their convents. The women owners of large +feudal lands met with the _provincial estates_,--for instance, Madame de +Sévigné in the _Estates General_ of Brittany, where there was autonomy in +the provincial administration. In the gilds the women masters exercised +their professional right as voters. All of these rights ended with the old +régime; beside the politically free man stood the politically unfree +woman. Napoleon confirmed this lack of freedom in the Civil and Criminal +Codes. Napoleon's attitude toward all women (excepting his mother, _Madame +Mère_) was such as we still find among the men in Southern Italy, in +Spain, and in the Orient. His sisters and Josephine Beauharnais, the +creole, could not give him a more just opinion of women. His fierce hatred +for Madame de Stael indicates his attitude toward the woman's rights +representatives. The great Napoleon did not like intellectual women. + +The Code Napoleon places the wife completely under the guardianship of +the husband. Without him she can undertake no legal transaction. The +property law requires joint property holding, excepting real estate (but +most of the women are neither landowners nor owners of houses). The +married woman has had independent control of her earnings and savings only +since the enactment of the law of July 13, 1907. Only the husband has +legal authority over the children. Such a legal status of woman is found +in other codes. But the following provisions are peculiar to the Code +Napoleon: If a husband kills his wife for committing adultery, the murder +is "excusable." An illicit mother cannot file a paternity suit. In +practice, however, the courts in a roundabout way give the illicit mother +an opportunity to file an action for damages. + +No other code, above all no other Germanic or Slavic code,[81] has been +disgraced by such paragraphs. In the first of the designated paragraphs we +hear the Corsican, a cousin of the Moor of Venice; in the second we hear +the military emperor, and general of an unbridled, undisciplined troop of +soldiers. No one will be astonished to learn that this same lawgiver in +1801 supplemented the Code with a despotic state regulation of +prostitution. What became of the woman's rights movement during this +arbitrary military régime? Full of fear and anxiety, the woman's rights +advocates concealed their views. The Restoration was scarcely a better +time for advocating woman's rights. The philosopher of the epoch, de +Bonald, spoke very pompously against the equality of the sexes, "Man and +woman are not and never will be equal." It was not until the July +Revolution of 1830 and the February Revolution of 1848 that the question +of woman's rights could gain a favorable hearing. The Saint Simonians, the +Fourierists, and George Sand preached the rights of man and the rights of +woman. During the February Revolution the women were found, just as in +1789, in the front ranks of the Socialists. The French woman's rights +movement is closely connected with both political movements. Every time a +sacrifice of Republicans and Democrats was demanded, women were among the +banished and deported: Jeanne Deroin in 1848, Louise Michel, in 1851 and +1871. + +Marie Deraismes, belonging to the wealthy Parisian middle class, appeared +in the sixties as a public speaker. She was a woman's rights advocate. +However, in a still greater degree she was a tribune of the people, a +republican and a politician. Marie Deraismes and her excellent political +adherent, Léon Richer, were the founders of the organized French woman's +rights movement. As early as 1876 they organized the "Society for the +Amelioration of the Condition of Woman and for Demanding Woman's Rights"; +in 1878 they called the first French woman's rights congress. + +The following features characterize the modern French woman's rights +movement: It is largely restricted to Paris; in the provinces there are +only weak and isolated beginnings; even the Parisian woman's rights +organizations are not numerous, the greatest having 400 members. Thanks to +the republican and socialist movements, which for thirty years have +controlled France, the woman's rights movement is for political reasons +supported by the men to a degree not noticeable in any other country. The +republican majority in the Chamber of Deputies, the republican press, and +republican literature effectively promote the woman's rights movement. The +Federation of French Women's Clubs, founded in 1901, and reputed to have +73,000 members, is at present promoting the movement by the systematic +organization of provincial divisions. Less kindly disposed--sometimes +indifferent and hostile--are the Church, the Catholic circles, the +nobility, society, and the "liberal" capitalistic bourgeoisie. A sharp +division between the woman's rights movements of the middle class and the +movement of the Socialists, such as exists, for example, in Germany, does +not exist in France. A large part of the bourgeoisie (not the great +capitalists) are socialistically inclined. On the basis of principle the +Republicans and Socialists cannot deny the justice of the woman's rights +movement. Hence everything now depends on the _opportuneness_ of the +demands of the women. + +The French woman has still much to demand. However enlightened, however +advanced the Frenchman may regard himself, he has not yet reached the +point where he will favor woman's suffrage; what the National Assembly +denied in 1789, the Republic of 1870 has also withheld. Nevertheless +conditions have improved, in so far as measures in favor of woman's +suffrage and the reform of the civil rights of woman have since 1848 been +repeatedly introduced and supported by petitions.[82] As for the civil +rights of woman,--the principles of the Code Napoleon, the minority of the +wife, and the husband's authority over her are still unchanged. However, a +few minor concessions have been made: To-day a woman can be a witness to a +civil transaction, _e.g._ a marriage contract. A married woman can open a +savings bank account in her maiden name; and, as in Belgium, her husband +can make it impossible for her to withdraw the money! A wife's earnings +now belong to her. The severe law concerning adultery by the wife still +exists, and affiliation cases are still prohibited. That is not exactly +liberal. + +Attempts to secure reforms of the civil law are being made by various +women's clubs, the Group of Women Students (_Le groupe d'études +féministes_) (Madame Oddo Deflou), and by the committee on legal matters +of the Federation of French Women's Clubs (Madame d'Abbadie). + +In both the legal and the political fields the French women have hitherto +(in spite of the Republic) achieved very little. In educational matters, +however, the republican government has decidedly favored the women. Here +the wishes of the women harmonized with the republican hatred for the +priests. What was done perhaps not for the women, was done to spite the +Church. + +Elementary education has been obligatory since 1882. In 1904-1905 there +were 2,715,452 girls in the elementary schools, and 2,726,944 boys. State +high schools, or _lycées_, for girls have existed since 1880. The +programme of these schools is not that of the German _Gymnasiums_, but +that of a German high school for girls (foreign languages, however, are +elective). In the last two years (in which the ages of the girls are 16 to +18 years) the curriculum is that of a seminary for women teachers. In +1904-1905 these institutions were attended by 22,000 girls, as compared +with 100,000 boys. The French woman's rights movement has as yet not +succeeded in establishing _Gymnasiums_ for girls; at present, efforts are +being made to introduce _Gymnasium_ courses in the girls' _lycées_. The +admission of girls to the boys' _lycées_, which has occurred in Germany +and in Italy, has not even been suggested in France. To the present, the +preparation of girls for the universities has been carried on privately. + +The right to study in the universities has never been withheld from women. +From the beginning, women could take the _Abiturientenexamen_ (the +university entrance examinations) with the young men before an examination +commission. All departments are open to women. The number of women +university students in France is 3609; the male students number 38,288. +Women school teachers control the whole public school system for girls. In +the French schools for girls most of the teachers are women; the +superintendents are also women. The ecclesiastical educational +system,--which still exists in secular guise,--is naturally, so far as the +education of girls is concerned, entirely in the hands of women. The +salaries of the secular women teachers in the first three classes of the +elementary schools are equal to those of the men. The women teachers in +the _lycées_ (_agrégées_) are trained in the Seminary of Sèvres and in the +universities. Their salaries are lower than those of the men. In 1907 the +first woman teacher in the French higher institutions of learning was +appointed,--Madame Curie, who holds the chair of physics in the Sorbonne, +in Paris. In the provincial universities women are lecturers on modern +languages. There are no women preachers in France. _Dr. jur._ Jeanne +Chauvin was the first woman lawyer, being admitted to the bar in 1899. +To-day women lawyers are practicing in Paris and in Toulouse. + +In the government service there are women postal clerks, telegraph clerks, +and telephone clerks,--with an average daily wage of 3 francs (60 cents). +Only the subordinate positions are open to women. The same is true of the +women employed in the railroad offices. Women have been admitted as clerks +in some of the administrative departments of the government and in the +public poor-law administration. Women are employed as inspectors of +schools, as factory inspectors, and as poor-law administrators. There is a +woman member of each of the following councils: the Superior Council of +Education, the Superior Council of Labor, and the Superior Council of +Public Assistance (_Conseil Superior d'Education_, _Conseil Superior du +Travail_, _Conseil Superior de l'Assistance Publique_). The first woman +court interpreter was appointed in the Parisian Court of Appeals in 1909. + +The French woman is an excellent business woman. However, the women +employed in commercial establishments, being organized as yet to a small +extent, earn no more than women laborers,--70 to 80 francs ($14 to $16) a +month. In general, greater demands are made of them in regard to personal +appearance and dress. There is a law requiring that chairs be furnished +during working hours. There is a consumers' league in Paris which probably +will effect reforms in the laboring conditions of women. The women in the +industries, of whom there are about 900,000, have an average wage of 2 +francs (50 cents) a day. Hardly 30,000 are organized into trade-unions; +all women tobacco workers are organized. As elsewhere, the French +ready-made clothing industry is the most wretched home industry. A part of +the French middle-class women oppose legislation for the protection of +women workers on the ground of "equality of rights for the sexes."[83] +This attitude has been occasioned by the contrast between the typographers +and the women typesetters; the men being aided in the struggle by the +prohibition of night work for women. It is easy to explain the rash and +unjustifiable generalization made on the basis of this exceptional case. +The women that made the generalization and oppose legislation for the +protection of women laborers belong to the bourgeois class. There are +about 1,500,000 women engaged in agriculture, the average wage being 1 +franc 50 (about 37 cents). Many of these women earn 1 franc to 1 franc 20 +(20 to 24 cents) a day. In Paris, women have been cab drivers and +chauffeurs since 1907. In 1901 women formed 35 per cent of the population +engaged in the professions and the industries (6,805,000 women; +12,911,000 men: total, 19,716,000). + +There are three parties in the French woman's rights movement. The +Catholic (_le féminisme chrétien_), the moderate (predominantly +Protestant), and the radical (almost entirely socialistic). The Catholic +party works entirely independently; the two others often coöperate, and +are represented in the National Council of Women (_Conseil national des +femmes_), while the _féminisme chrétien_ is not represented. The views of +the Catholic party are as follows: "No one denies that man is stronger +than woman. But this means merely a physical superiority. On the basis of +this superiority man dare not despise woman and regard her as morally +inferior to him. But from the Christian point of view God gave man +authority over woman. This does not signify any intellectual superiority, +but is simply a fact of hierarchy."[84] The _féminisme chrétien_ +advocates: A thorough education for girls according to Catholic +principles; a reform of the marriage law (the wife should control her +earnings, separate property holding should be established); the same moral +standard for both sexes (abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution); the same penalty for adultery for both sexes (however, +there should be no divorce); the authority of the mother (_autorité +maritale_) should be maintained, for only in this way can peace prevail +in the family. "A high-minded woman will never wish to rule. It is her +wish to sacrifice herself, to admire, to lean on the arm of a strong man +that protects her."[85] + +In the moderate group (President, Miss Sara Monod), these ideas have few +advocates. Protestantism, which is strongly represented in this party, has +a natural inclination toward the development of individuality. This party +is more concerned with the woman that does not find the arm of the "strong +man" to lean on, or who detected him leaning upon her. This party is +entirely opposed to the husband's authority over the wife and to the dogma +of obligatory admiration and sacrifice. The leaders of the party are +Madame Bonnevial, Madame Auclert, and others. During the five years' +leadership of Madame Marguerite Durand, the "Fronde" was the meeting place +of the party. + +The radicals demand: absolute coeducation; anti-military instruction in +history; schools that prepare girls for motherhood; the admission of women +to government positions; equal pay for both sexes; official regulation of +the work of domestic servants; the abolition of the husband's authority; +municipal and national suffrage for women. A member of the radical party +presented herself in 1908 as a candidate in the Parisian elections. In +November, 1908, women were granted passive suffrage for the arbitration +courts for trade disputes (they already possessed active suffrage). + +The founding of the National Council of French Women (_Conseil national +des femmes française_) has aided the woman's rights movement considerably. +Stimulated by the progress made in other countries, the French women have +systematically begun their work. They have organized two sections in the +provinces (Touraine and Normandy); they have promoted the organization of +women into trade-unions; they have studied the marriage laws; and have +organized a woman's suffrage department. Since 1907 the woman's magazine, +_La Française_, published weekly, has done effective work for the cause. +The place of publication (49 rue Laffite, Paris) is also a public meeting +place for the leaders of the woman's rights movements. _La Française_ +arouses interest in the cause of woman's rights among women teachers and +office clerks in the provinces. Recently the management of the magazine +has been converted to the cause of woman's suffrage. In the spring of 1909 +the French Woman's Suffrage Society (_Union française pour le souffrage +des femmes_) was organized under the presidency of Madame Schmall (a +native of England). Madame Schmall is also to be regarded as the +originator of the law of July 13, 1907, which pertains to the earnings of +the wife. The _Union_ has joined the International Woman's Suffrage +Alliance. In the House of Deputies there is a group in favor of woman's +rights. The French woman's rights movement seems to be spreading rapidly. + +Émile de Morsier organized the French movement favoring the abolition of +the official regulation of prostitution. Through this movement an +extraparliamentary commission (1903-1907) was induced to recognize the +evil of the existing official regulation of prostitution. This is the +first step toward abolition. + + +BELGIUM + + Total population: 6,815,054. + Women: 3,416,057. + Men: 3,398,997. + + Federation of Belgian Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +It is very difficult for the woman's rights movement to thrive in Belgium. +Not that the movement is unnecessary there; on the contrary, the legal +status of woman is regulated by the Code Napoleon, hence there is decided +need for reform. The number of women exceeds that of the men; hence part +of the girls cannot marry. Industry is highly developed. The question of +wages is a vital question for women laborers. Accordingly there are +reasons enough for instituting an organized woman's rights movement in +Belgium. But every agitation for this purpose is hampered by the +following social factors: Catholicism (Belgium is 99 per cent Catholic), +Clericalism in Parliament, and the indifference of the rich bourgeoisie. + +The woman's rights movement has very few adherents in the third estate, +and it is exactly the women of this estate that ought to be the natural +supporters of the movement. In the fourth estate, in which there are a +great many Socialists, the woman's rights movement is identical with +Socialism. + +Since the legal status of woman is determined by the Code Napoleon, we +need not comment upon it here. By a law of 1900, the wife is empowered to +deposit money in a savings bank without the consent of her husband; the +limit of her deposit being 3000 francs ($600). The wife also controls her +earnings. If, however, _she draws more than 100 francs_ (_$20_) _a month +from the savings bank, the husband may protest_. Women are now admitted to +family councils; they can act as guardians; they can act as witnesses to a +marriage. Affiliation cases were made legal in 1906. On December 19, 1908, +women were given active and passive suffrage in arbitration courts for +labor disputes. + +The Belgium secondary school system is exceptional because the government +has established a rather large number of girls' high schools. However, +these schools do not prepare for the university entrance examinations +(_Abiturientenexamen_). Women contemplating entering the university, must +prepare for these examinations privately. This was done by Miss Marie +Popelin, of Brussels, who wished to study law. The universities of +Brussels, Ghent, and Liège have been open to women since 1886. Hence Miss +Popelin could execute her plans; in 1888 she received the degree of Doctor +of Laws. She made an attempt in 1888-1889 to secure admission to the bar +as a practicing lawyer, but the Brussels Court of Appeals decided the case +against her.[86] + +Miss Marie Popelin is the leader of the middle-class woman's rights +movement in Belgium. She is in charge of the Woman's Rights League (_Ligue +du droit des femmes_), founded in 1890. With the support of Mrs. Denis, +Mrs. Parent, and Mrs. Fontaine, Miss Popelin organized, in 1897, an +international woman's congress in Brussels. Many representatives of +foreign countries attended. One of the German representatives, Mrs. Anna +Simpson, was astonished by the indifference of the people of Brussels. In +her report she says: "Where were the women of Brussels during the days of +the Congress? They did not attend, for the middle class is not much +interested in our cause. It was especially for this class that the +Congress was held." Dr. Popelin is also president of the league that has +since 1908 taken up the struggle against the official regulation of +prostitution. + +The schools and convents are the chief fields of activity for the +middle-class Belgian women engaged in non-domestic callings. As yet there +are only a few women doctors. One of these, Mrs. Derscheid-Delcour, has +been appointed as chief physician at the Brussels Orphans' Home. Mrs. +Delcour graduated in 1893 at the University of Berlin _summa cum laude_; +in 1895 she was awarded the gold medal in the surgical sciences in a prize +contest for the students of the Belgian universities. + +In Belgium 268,337 women are engaged in the industries. The Socialist +party has recognized the organizations of these women; it was instrumental +in organizing 250,000 women into trade-unions. Elsewhere this would be +impossible.[87] + +Madame Vandervelde, the wife of the Socialist member of Parliament, and +Madame Gatti de Gammond, the publisher of the _Cahiers feministes_, were +the leaders of the Socialist woman's rights movement, which is organized +throughout the country in committees, councils, and societies. Madame +Gatti de Gammond died in 1905, and her publication, the _Cahiers +feministes_, was discontinued. The secretary of the Federation of +Socialist Women (_Fédération de femmes socialistes_) is Madame Tilmans. +Vooruit, of Ghent, publishes a woman's magazine: _De Stem der Vrouw_. + +The women are demanding the right to vote. The Belgian women possessed +municipal suffrage till 1830. They were deprived of this right by the +Constitution of 1831. A measure favoring universal suffrage (for men and +women) was introduced into Parliament in 1894. This bill, however, +provided also for plural voting, by which the property-owning and the +educated classes were given one or two additional votes. The Socialists +opposed this, and demanded that each person have one vote (_un homme, un +vote_). The Clerical majority then replied that it would not bring the +bill to a vote. In this way the Clericals remained assured of a majority. + +For tactical purposes the Socialists adopted the expression--_un homme, un +vote_. It harmonized with their principles and ideals. At a meeting of the +party in which the matter was discussed, it was shown that universal +suffrage would be detrimental to the party's interests; for the Socialists +were convinced that woman's suffrage would certainly insure a majority for +the Clericals. Hence, in meeting, the women were persuaded to withdraw +their demand for woman's suffrage on the grounds of opportuneness, and _in +the meantime to work for the inauguration of universal male suffrage +without the plural vote_.[88] + +In the _Fronde_, Audrée Téry summarized the situation in the following +dialogue:-- + + _The man._ Emancipate yourself and I will enfranchise you. + + _The woman._ Give me the franchise and I shall emancipate myself. + + _The man._ Be free, and you shall have freedom. + +In this manner, concludes Audrée Téry, this dialogue can be continued +indefinitely. + +Recently the middle-class women have begun to show an interest in woman's +suffrage. A woman's suffrage organization was formed in Brussels in 1908; +one in Ghent, in 1909. Together they have organized the Woman's Suffrage +League, which has affiliated with the International Woman's Suffrage +Alliance. + +Woman's lack of rights and her powerlessness in public life are shown by +the fact that in Antwerp, in 1908, public aid to the unemployed was +granted only to men,--to unmarried as well as to married men. As for the +unmarried women, they were left to shift for themselves. + + +ITALY + + Total population: 32,449,754. + Women: about 16,190,000. + Men: about 16,260,000. + + Federation of Italian Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +National unification raised Italy to the rank of a great power. Italy's +political position as a great power, her modern parliamentary life, and +the Liberal and Socialist majority in her Parliament give Italy a position +that Spain, for example, does not possess in any way. Catholicism, +Clericalism, and Roman custom are no match for these modern liberal +powers, and are therefore unable to hinder the woman's rights movement in +the same degree as do these influences in Spain. However, the Italian +woman in general is still entirely dependent on the man (see the +discussion in Alaremo's _Una Donna_), and in the unenlightened classes +woman's feeling of inferiority is impressed upon her by the Church, the +law, the family, and by custom. Naturally the woman attempts, as in Spain, +to take revenge in the sexual field. + +In Italy there is no strict morality among married men. Moreover, the +opposition to divorce in Italy comes largely from the women, who, +accustomed to being deceived in matrimony, fear that if they are divorced +they _will be left without means of support_. "Boys make love to +girls,--to mere unguided children without any will of their own,--and when +these boys marry, be they ever so young, they have already had a wealth of +experience that has taught them to regard woman disdainfully--with a sort +of cynical authority. Even love and respect for the innocent young wife is +unable to eradicate from the young husband the impressions of immorality +and bad examples. The wife suffers from a hardly perceptible, but +unceasing depression of mind. Innocently, without suspicion, uninformed as +to her husband's past, the wife persists in her belief in his manly +superiority until this belief has become a fixed habit of thought, and +then even a cruel revelation cannot take him from her."[89] + +In southern Italy,--especially in Sicily,--Arabian oriental conceptions of +woman still prevail. During her whole life woman is a grown-up child. No +woman, not even the most insignificant woman laborer, can be on the street +without an escort. On the other hand, the boys are emancipated very early. +With pity and arrogance the sons look down on the mother, who must be +accompanied in the street by her sons. + +"Close intellectual relations between man and woman cannot as yet be +developed, owing to the generally low education of woman, to her +subordination, and to her intellectual bondage. While still in the +schools the boy is trained for political life. The average Italian woman +participates in politics even less than the German woman; her influence is +purely moral. If the Italian woman wishes to accept any office in a +society, she must have the consent of her husband attested by a notary. +Just as in ancient times, the non-professional interests of the husband +are, in great part, elsewhere than at home. The opportunity daily to +discuss political and other current questions with men companions is found +by the German man in the smaller cities while taking his evening pint of +beer. The Italian man finds this opportunity sometimes in the café, +sometimes in the public places, where every evening the men congregate for +hours. So the educated man in Italy (even more than in Germany) has no +need of the intellectual qualities of his wife. Moreover, his need for an +educated wife is the less because his misguided precocity prevents him +from acquiring anything but an essentially general education. The +restricted intellectual relationship between husband and wife is explained +partly by the fact that the _cicisbeo_[90] still exists. This relation +ought to be, and generally is, Platonic and publicly known. The wife +permits her friend (the _cicisbeo_) to escort her to the theater and +elsewhere in a carriage; the husband also escorts a woman friend. So +husband and wife share the inwardly moral unsoundness of the medieval +service of love (_Minnedienst_). At any rate this custom reveals the fact +that after the honeymoon the husband and wife do not have overmuch to say +to each other. In this way there takes place, to a certain extent, an open +relinquishment of the postulate that, in accordance with the external +indissolubility of married life, there ought to be permanent intellectual +bonds between man and wife,--a postulate that is the source of the most +serious conscience struggles, but which has caused the great moral +development of the northern woman."[91] + +Naturally, under such circumstances, the woman's rights movement has done +practically nothing for the masses. In the circles of the nobility the +movement, with the consent of the clergy, has until recently confined +itself to philanthropy (the forming of associations and insurance +societies, the founding of homes, asylums, etc.) and to the higher +education of girls.[92] In a private audience the Pope has expressed +himself in _favor_ of women's engaging in university studies (except +theology), but he was _opposed_ to woman's suffrage. The daughters of the +educated, liberal (but often poor) bourgeoisie are driven by want and +conviction to acquire a higher education and to engage in academic +callings. The material difficulties are not great. As in France, the +government has during the past thirty-five years promoted all educational +measures that would take from the clergy its power over youth. + +Elementary education is public and obligatory. The laws are enforced +rather strictly. Coeducation nowhere exists. The number of women teachers +is 62,643. + +The secondary school system is still largely in the hands of the Catholic +religious orders. There are about 100,000 girls and nuns enrolled in these +church schools; only 25,000 girls are in the secondary state and private +schools (other than the Catholic schools), which cannot give instruction +as _cheaply_ as the religious schools. The efforts of the state in this +field are not to be criticized: it has given women every educational +opportunity. Girls wishing to study in the universities are admitted to +the boys' classical schools (_ginnasii_) and to the boys' technical +schools. This experiment in coeducation during the plastic age of youth +has not even been undertaken by France. To be sure, at present the girls +sit together on the front seats, and when entering and leaving class they +have the school porter as bodyguard. In spite of all fears to the +contrary, coeducation has been a success in northern Italy (Milan), as +well as in southern Italy (Naples). + +The universities have never been closed to women. In recent years 300 +women have attended the universities and have graduated. During the +Renaissance there were many women teachers in Italy. This tradition has +been revived; at present there are 10 women university teachers. _Dr. +jur._ Therese Labriola (whose mother is a German) is a lecturer in the +philosophy of law at Rome. _Dr. med._ Rina Monti is a university lecturer +in anatomy at Pavia. + +There are many practicing women doctors in Italy. _Dr. med._ Maria +Montessori (a delegate to the International Congress of Women in Berlin in +1896) is a physician in the Roman hospitals. The Minister of Public +Instruction has authorized her to deliver a course of lectures on the +treatment of imbecile children to a class of women teachers in the +elementary schools. The legal profession still remains closed to women, +although _Dr. jur._ Laidi Poët has succeeded in being admitted to the bar +in Turin. + +In government service (in 1901) there were 1000 women telephone employees, +183 women telegraph clerks, and 161 women office clerks. These positions +are much sought after by men. The number of women employed in commerce is +18,000; the total number of persons employed in commerce being 57,087. +Recently women have been appointed as factory inspectors. + +The beginnings of the modern woman's rights movement coincide with the +political upheavals that occurred between 1859 and 1870. When the Kingdom +of Italy had been established, Jessie White Mario demanded a reform of the +legal, political, and economic status of woman. Whatever legal concessions +have been made to women are due, as in France, to the Liberal +parliamentary majority. + +Since 1877, women have been able to act as witnesses in civil suits. Women +(even married women) can be guardians. The property laws provide for +separation of property. Even in cases of joint property holding, the wife +controls her earnings and savings. The husband can give her a general +authorization (_allgemeinautorisation_), thus giving her the full status +of a legal person before the law. These laws are the most radical reforms +to which the Code Napoleon has ever been subjected,--reforms which the +French did not venture to enact. + +The Liberal majority made an attempt in 1877 to emancipate the women +politically. But the attempt failed. Bills providing for municipal woman's +suffrage were introduced and rejected in 1880, 1883, and 1888. However, +since 1890, women have been eligible as poor-law guardians. The élite +among the Italian men loyally supported the women in their struggle for +emancipation. Since 1881 the women have organized clubs. At first these +were unsuccessful. Free and courageous women were in the minority. In Rome +the woman's rights movement was at first exclusively benevolent. In Milan +and Turin, on the other hand, there were woman's rights advocates (under +the leadership of _Dr. med._ Paoline Schiff and Emilia Mariani). The +leadership of the national movement fell to the more active, more +educated, and economically stronger northern Italy. Here also the movement +of the workingwomen had progressed to the stage of organization, as, for +example, in the case of the Lombard women workers in the rice fields. + +There are 1,371,426 women laborers in Italy. Their condition is wretched. +In agriculture, as well as in the industries, they are given the rough, +_poorly paid_ work to do. They are exploited to the extreme. Women straw +plaiters have been offered 20 centimes, even as little as 10 centimes (4 +to 2 cents), for twelve hours' work. The average daily wage for women is +80 centimes to 1 franc (16 to 20 cents). The maximum is 1 franc 50 +centimes (30 cents). The law has fixed the maximum working day for women +at twelve hours, and prohibits women under twenty years of age from +engaging in work that is dangerous and injurious to health. There are +maternity funds for women in confinement, financial aid being given them +for four weeks after the birth of the child. Under all these +circumstances the organization of women is exceedingly difficult. Even the +Socialists have neglected the organization of workingwomen. + +Socialist propaganda among women agricultural laborers was begun in 1901. +In Bologna, in the autumn of 1902, there was held a meeting of the +representatives of 800 agricultural organizations (having a total +membership of 150,000 men and women agricultural laborers). The +constitution of the society is characteristic; many of its clauses are +primitive and pathetic. This society is intended to be an educational and +moral organization. Women members are exhorted "to live rightly, and to be +virtuous and kind-hearted mothers, women, and daughters."[93] It is to be +hoped that the task of the women will be made easier through the efforts +of the society's male members to make themselves virtuous and kind-hearted +fathers, husbands, and sons. Or are moral duties, in this case also, meant +only for woman? + +The movement favoring the abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution was introduced into Italy by Mrs. Butler. A congress in favor +of abolition was held in 1898 in Genoa. Recently, thanks to the efforts of +Dr. Agnes MacLaren and Miss Buchner, the movement has been revived, and +urged upon the Catholic clergy. The Italian branch of the International +Federation for the Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution +was founded in 1908. In the same year was held in Rome the successful +Congress of the Federation of Women's Clubs. This Congress, representing +the nobility, the middle class, and workingwomen, brought the woman's +suffrage question to the attention of the public. A number of woman's +suffrage societies had been organized previously, in Rome as well as in +the provinces. They formed the National Woman's Suffrage League, which, in +1906, joined the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. Through the +discussions in the women's clubs, woman's suffrage became a topic of +public interest. The Amsterdam Report [of the Congress of the +International Woman's Suffrage Alliance] says: "The women of the +aristocracy wish to vote because they are intelligent; they feel +humiliated because their coachman or chauffeur is able to vote. The +workingwomen demand the right to vote, that they may improve their +conditions of labor and be able to support their children better." A +parliamentary commission for the consideration of woman's suffrage was +established in 1908. In the meantime the existence of this commission +enables the President of the Ministry to dispose of the various proposed +measures with the explanation that such matters will not be considered +_until the commission has expressed itself on the whole question_. Women +have active and passive suffrage for the arbitration courts for labor +disputes. + + +SPAIN[94] + + Total population: 18,813,493. + Women: 9,558,896. + Men: 9,272,597. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +Whoever has traveled in Spain knows that it is a country still living, as +it were, in the seventeenth century,--nay in the Middle Ages. The fact has +manifold consequences for woman. In all cases progress is hindered. Woman +is under the yoke of the priesthood, and of a Catholicism generally +bigoted. The Church teaches woman that she is regarded as the cause of +carnal desire and of the fall of man. By law, woman is under the +guardianship of man. Custom forbids the "respectable" woman to walk on the +street without a man escort. The Spanish woman regards herself as a person +of the second order, a necessary adjunct to man. Such a fundamental +humiliation and subordination is opposed to human nature. As the Spanish +woman has no power of open opposition, she resorts to cunning. By instinct +she is conscious of the power of her sex; this she uses and abuses. A +woman's rights advocate is filled with horror, quite as much as with pity, +when she sees this mixture of bigotry, coquetry, submissiveness, cunning, +and hate that is engendered in woman by such tyranny and lack of progress. + +The Spanish woman of the lower classes receives no training for any +special calling; she is a mediocre laborer. She acts as beast of burden, +carries heavy burdens on her shoulders, carries water, tills the fields, +and splits wood. She is employed as an industrial laborer chiefly in the +manufacture of cigars and lace. "The wages of women," says Professor +Posada,[95] "are incredibly low," being but 10 cents a day. As tailors, +women make a scanty living, for many of the Spanish women do their own +tailoring. The mantilla makes the work of milliners in general +superfluous. In commercial callings women are still novices. Recently +there has been talk of beginning the organization of women into +trade-unions. + +Women are employed in large numbers as teachers; teaching being their sole +non-domestic calling. Elementary instruction has been obligatory since +1870, however, only in theory. In 1889 28 per cent of the women were +illiterate. In many cases the girls of the lower classes do not attend +school at all. When they do attend, they learn very little; for owing to +the lack of seminaries the training of women teachers is generally quite +inadequate. A reform of the central seminary of women teachers, in Madrid, +took place in 1884; this reform was also a model for the seminaries in the +provinces. The secondary schools for girls are convent schools. In France +there are complaints that these schools are inadequate. What, then, can be +expected of the Spanish schools! The curriculum includes only French, +singing, dancing, drawing, and needlework. But the "Society for Female +Education" is striving to secure a reform of the education for girls. + +Preparation for entrance to the university must be secured privately. The +number of women seeking entrance to universities is small. Most of them, +so far as I know, are medical students. However, the Spanish women have a +brilliant past in the field of higher education. Donna Galinda was the +Latin professor of Queen Isabella. Isabella Losa and Sigea Aloisia of +Toledo were renowned for their knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew; +Sigea Aloisia corresponded with the Pope in Arabic and Syriac. Isabel de +Rosores even preached in the Cathedral of Barcelona. + +In the literature of the present time Spanish women are renowned. Of first +rank is Emilia Pardo Bazan, who is called the "Spanish Zola." She is a +countess and an only daughter, two circumstances that facilitated her +emancipation and, together with her talent, assured her success. She +characterizes herself as "a mixture of mysticism and liberalism." At the +age of seven she wrote her first verses. Her best book portrayed a +"liberal monk," Father Fequë. _Pascual Loper_, a novel, was a great +success. She then went to Paris to study naturalism. Here she became +acquainted with Zola, Goncourt, Daudet, and others. A study of Francis of +Assisi led her again to the study of mysticism. In her recent novels +liberalism is mingled with idealism. + +Emilia Pardo Bazan is by conviction a woman's rights advocate. In the +Madrid Atheneum she filled with great success the position of Professor of +French Literature. At the pedagogical congress in Madrid, in 1899, she +gave a report on _Woman, her Education, and her Rights_. + +In Spain there are a number of well-known women journalists, authors, and +poets. Dr. Posada enumerates a number of woman's rights publications on +pages 200-202 of his book, _El Feminismo_. + +Concepcion Arenal was a prominent Spanish woman and woman's rights +advocate. She devoted herself to work among prisoners, and wrote a +valuable handbook dealing with her work. She felt the oppression of her +sex very keenly. Concerning woman's status, which man has forced upon her, +Concepcion Arenal expressed herself as follows: "Man despises all women +that do not belong to his family; he oppresses every woman that he does +not love or protect. As a laborer, he takes from her the best paid +positions; as a thinker, he forbids the mental training of woman; as a +lover, he can be faithless to her without being punished by law; as a +husband, he can leave her without being guilty before the law." + +The wife is legally under the guardianship of her husband; she has no +authority over her children. The property laws provide for joint property +holding. + +In spite of these conditions Concepcion Arenal did not give up all hope. +"Women," said she, "are beginning to take interest in education, and have +organized a society for the higher education of girls." The pedagogical +congresses in Madrid (1882 and 1889) promoted the intellectual +emancipation of women. Catalina d'Alcala, delegate to the International +Congress of Women in Chicago in 1893, closed her report with the words, +"We are emerging from the period of darkness." However, he who has +wandered through Spanish cathedrals knows that this darkness is still very +dense! Nevertheless, the woman's suffrage movement has begun: the women +laborers are agitating in favor of a new law of association. A number of +women teachers and women authors have petitioned for the right to vote. In +March, 1908, during the discussion of a new law concerning municipal +administration, an amendment in favor of woman's suffrage was introduced, +but was rejected by a vote of 65 to 35. The Senate is said to be more +favorable to woman's suffrage than is the Chamber of Deputies. + +The fact that women of the aristocracy have opposed divorce, and that +women of all classes have opposed the enactment of laws restricting +religious orders, is made to operate against the political emancipation of +women. A deputy in the Cortez, Senor Pi y Arsuaga, who introduced the +measure in favor of the right of women taxpayers to vote in municipal +elections, argued that the suffrage of a woman who is the head of a family +seems more reasonable to him than the suffrage of a young man, twenty-five +years old, who represents no corresponding interests. + + +PORTUGAL + + Total population: 5,672,237. + Women: 2,583,535. + Men: 2,520,602. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +Portugal is smaller than Spain; its finances are in better condition; +therefore the compulsory education law (introduced in 1896) is better +enforced. As yet there are no public high schools for girls; but there +are a number of private schools that prepare girls for the university +entrance examinations (_Abiturientenexamen_). The universities admit +women. Women doctors practice in the larger cities. The women laborers are +engaged chiefly in the textile industry; their wages are about two thirds +of those of the men. + + +THE LATIN-AMERICAN REPUBLICS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA + +MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA[96] + +The condition prevailing in Mexico and Central America is one of +patriarchal family life, the husband being the "master" of the wife. There +are large families of ten or twelve children. The life of most of the +women without property consists of "endless routine and domestic tyranny"; +the life of the property-owning women is one of frivolous coquetry and +indolence. There is no higher education for women; there are no high +ideals. The education of girls is generally regarded as unnecessary. + +There are public elementary schools for girls,--with women teachers. The +higher education of girls is carried on by convent schools, and comprises +domestic science, sewing, dancing, and singing. In the Mexican public +high schools for girls, modern subjects and literature are taught; the +work is chiefly memorizing. Technical schools for girls are unknown. Women +do not attend the universities. Women teachers in Mexico are paid good +salaries,--250 francs ($50) a month. + +Women are engaged in commerce only in their own business establishments; +and then in small retail businesses. The rest of the workingwomen are +engaged in agriculture, domestic service, washing, and sewing. Their wages +are from 40 to 50 per cent lower than those of men. The legal status of +women is similar to that of the French women. In Mexico only does the wife +control her earnings. Divorce is not recognized by law, though separation +is. By means of foreign teachers the initiative of the people has been +slightly aroused. It will take long for this stimulus to reach the +majority of the people. + + +SOUTH AMERICA[97] + +In South America there are the same "patriarchal" forms of family life, +the same external restrictions for woman. She must have an escort on the +streets, even though the escort be only a small boy. + +Just as in Central America, the occupations of the women of the lower and +middle class are agriculture, domestic service, washing, sewing, and +retail business. But woman's educational opportunities in South America +are greater, although through public opinion everything possible is done +to prevent women from desiring an education and admission to a liberal +calling. Elementary education is compulsory (often in coeducational +schools). Secondary education is in the hands of convents. In Brazil, +Chili, Venezuela, Argentine Republic, Paraguay, and Colombia, the +universities have been opened to women. As yet there are no women +preachers or lawyers, although several women have studied law. Women +practice as physicians, obstetrics still being their special field. + +The beginnings of a woman's rights movement exist in Chili. The Chilean +women learn readily and willingly. They have proved their worth in +business and in the liberal callings. They have competed successfully for +government positions; they have founded trade-unions and coöperative +societies; many women are tramway conductors, etc. In all the South +American republics women have distinguished themselves as poets and +authors. In the Argentine Republic there is a Federation of Woman's Clubs, +which, in 1901, joined the International Council of Women. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE SLAVIC AND BALKAN STATES + + +In the Slavic countries there is a lack of an ancient, deeply rooted +culture like that of western Europe. Everywhere the oriental viewpoint has +had its effect on the status of woman. In general the standards of life +are low; therefore, the wages of the women are especially wretched. +Political conditions are in part very unstable,--in some cases wholly +antique. All of these circumstances greatly impede the progress of the +woman's rights movement. + + +RUSSIA + + Total population: 94,206,195. + Women: 47,772,455. + Men: 46,433,740. + + Federation of Russian Women's Clubs.[98] + National Woman's Suffrage League. + +The Russian woman's rights movement is forced by circumstances to concern +itself chiefly with educational and industrial problems. All efforts +beyond these limits are, as a matter of course, regarded as revolutionary. +Such efforts are a part of the forbidden "political movement"; therefore +they are dangerous and practically hopeless. Some peculiarities of the +Russian woman's rights movement are: its individuality, its independence +of the momentary tendencies of the government, and the companionable +coöperation of men and women. All three characteristics are accounted for +by the absolute government that prevails in Russia, in spite of its Duma. + +Under this régime the organization of societies and the holding of +meetings are made exceedingly difficult, if not impossible. Individual +initiative therefore works in solitude; discussion or the expression of +opinions is not very feasible. When individual initiative ceases, progress +usually ceases also. Corporate activity, such as educates women adherents, +did not exist formerly in Russia. The lack of united action wastes much +force, time, and money. Unconsciously people compete with each other. +Without wishing to do so, people neglect important fields. The absolute +régime regards all striving for an education as revolutionary. The +educational institutions for women are wholly in the hands of the +government. These institutions are tolerated; but a mere frown from above +puts an end to their existence. + +It is the absolute régime that makes comrades of men and women struggling +for emancipation. The oppression endured by both sexes is in fact the +same. + +The government has not always been an enemy of enlightenment, as it is +to-day. The first steps of the woman's rights movement were made through +the influence of the rulers. Although polygamy did not exist in Russia, +the country could not free itself from certain oriental influences. Hence +the women of the property-owning class formerly lived in the harem (called +_terem_). The women were shut off from the world; they had no education, +often no rearing whatever; they were the victims of deadly ennui, ecstatic +piety, lingering diseases, and drunkenness. + +With a strong hand Peter the Great reformed the condition of Russian +women. The _terem_ was abolished; the Russian woman was permitted to see +the world. In rough, uncivilized surroundings, in the midst of a brutal, +sensuous people, woman's release was not in all cases a gain for morality. +It is impossible to become a woman of western Europe upon demand. + +Catherine II saw that there must be a preparation for this emancipation. +She created the _Institute de demoiselles_ for girls of the upper classes. +The instruction, borrowed from France, remained superficial enough; the +women acquired a knowledge of French, a few _accomplishments_, polished +manners, and an aristocratic bearing. For all that, it was then an +achievement to educate young Russian women according to the standards of +western Europe. The superficiality of the _Institutka_ was recognized in +the middle of the nineteenth century. Alexander II, the Tsarina, and her +aunt, Helene Pavlovna, favored reforms. The emancipator of the serfs could +also liberate women from their intellectual bondage. + +Thus with the protection of the highest power, the first public lyceum for +girls was established in 1857 in Russia. This was a day school for girls +of _all_ classes. What an innovation! To-day there are 350 of these +lyceums, having over 10,000 women students. The curriculums resemble those +of the German high schools for girls. None of these lyceums (except the +humanistic lyceum for girls in Moscow), are equivalent to the German +_Gymnasiums_ or _Realgymnasiums_, nor even to the _Oberrealschulen_ or +_Realschulen_. This explains and justifies the refusal of the German +universities to regard the leaving certificates of the Russian lyceums as +equivalent to the _Abiturienten_ certificate of the German schools. The +compulsory studies in the girls' lyceums are: Russian, French, religion, +history, geography, geometry, algebra, a few natural sciences, dancing, +and singing. The optional studies are German, English, Latin, music, and +sewing. The lyceums of the large cities make foreign languages compulsory +also; but these institutions are in the minority. In the natural sciences +and in mathematics "much depends on the teacher." A Russian woman wishing +to study in the university must pass an entrance examination in Latin. + +The first efforts to secure the higher education of women were made by a +number of professors of the University of St. Petersburg in 1861. They +opened courses for the instruction of adult women in the town hall. +Simultaneously the Minister of War admitted a number of women to the St. +Petersburg School of Medicine, this school being under his control. + +However, the reaction began already in 1862. Instruction in the School of +Medicine, as well as in the town hall, was discontinued. Then began the +first exodus of Russian women students to Germany and Switzerland. But in +St. Petersburg, in 1867, there was formed a society, under the presidency +of Mrs. Conradi, to secure the reopening of the course for adult women. +The society appealed to the first congress of Russian naturalists and +physicians. This congress sent a petition, with the signatures of +influential men, to the Minister of Public Instruction. In two years Mrs. +Conradi was informed that the Minister would grant a two-year course for +men and women in Russian literature and the natural sciences. The society +accepted what was offered. It was little enough. Moreover, the society had +to defray the cost of instruction; but it was denied the right to give +examinations and confer degrees. All the teachers, however, taught without +pay. In 1885 the society erected its own building in which to give its +courses. The instruction was again discontinued in 1886. Once more the +Russian women flocked to foreign countries. In 1889 the courses were again +opened (Swiss influence on Russian youth was feared). The number of those +enrolled in the courses was limited to 600 (of these only 3 per cent could +be unorthodox, _i.e._ Jewish). These courses are still given in St. +Petersburg. Recently the Council of Ministers empowered the Minister of +Public Instruction to forbid women to attend university lectures; but +those who have already been admitted, and find it impossible to attend +other higher institutions of learning for girls, have been allowed to +complete their course in the university. The present number of women +hearers in Russian universities is 2130. A Russian woman doctor was +admitted as a lecturer by the University of Moscow, but her appointment +was not confirmed by the Minister of Public Instruction. She appealed +thereupon to the Senate, declaring that the Russian laws nowhere +prohibited women from acting as teachers in the universities; moreover, +her medical degree gave her full power to do so. The decision of the +Senate is still pending. + +A recent law opens to women the calling of architect and of engineer. The +work done on the Trans-Siberian Railroad by the woman engineer has given +better satisfaction than any of the other work. A bill providing for the +admission of women to the legal profession has been introduced but has not +yet become law. + +The Russian women medical students shared the vicissitudes of Russian +university life for women. After 1862 they studied in Switzerland, where +Miss Suslowa, in 1867, was the first woman to be given the doctor's degree +in Zurich. However, since the lack of doctors is very marked on the vast +Russian plains, the government in 1872 opened special courses for women +medical students in St. Petersburg. (In another institution courses were +given for midwives and for women regimental surgeons.) The women +completing the courses in St. Petersburg were not granted the doctor's +degree, however. The Russian women earned the doctor's degree in the +Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878); for ten years after this war women +graduates of the St. Petersburg medical courses were granted degrees. Then +these courses were closed in 1887. They were opened again in 1898. Under +these difficult circumstances the Russian women secured their higher +education. + +In the elementary schools, for every 1000 women inhabitants there are only +13.1 women public school teachers. Of the 2,000,000 public school +children, only 650,000 are girls. The number of illiterates in Russia +varies from 70 to 80 per cent. The elementary school course in the country +is only three years (it is five years in the cities). + +The number of women public school teachers is 27,000 (as compared with +40,000 men teachers). An attempt has been made by the women village school +teachers to arouse the women agricultural laborers from their stupor. +Organization of women laborers has been attempted in the cities. For the +present the task seems superhuman.[99] + +When graduating from the lyceum the young girl is given her _teaching +diploma_, which permits her to teach in the four lower classes in the +girls' lyceums. Those wishing to teach in the higher classes must take a +special examination in a university. The higher classes in the girls' +lyceums are taught chiefly by men teachers. When a Russian woman teacher +marries she need not relinquish her position. + +In Russia the women doctors have a vast field of work. For every 200,000 +inhabitants there is only one doctor! However, in St. Petersburg there is +one doctor for every 10,000 inhabitants. According to the most recent +statistics there are 545 women doctors in Russia. Of these, 8 have ceased +to practice, 245 have official positions, and 292 have a private practice. +Of the 132 women doctors in St. Petersburg, 35 are employed in hospitals, +14 in the sanitary department of the city; 7 are school physicians, 5 are +assistants in clinics and laboratories, 2 are superintendents of maternity +hospitals, 2 have charge of foundling asylums, 5 have private hospitals, +and the rest engage in private practice. Of the 413 women doctors not in +St. Petersburg, 173 have official positions, the others have a private +practice. + +The local governments (_zemstvos_) have appointed 26 women doctors in the +larger cities, 21 in the smaller, and 55 in the rural districts. There are +18 women doctors employed in private hospitals on country estates, 8 in +hospitals for Mohammedan women, 16 in schools, 9 in factories, 4 are +employed by railroads, 4 by the Red Cross Society, etc. The practice of +the woman doctor in the country is naturally the most difficult and the +least remunerative. Therefore, it is willingly given over to the women. +Thanks to individual ability, the Russian woman doctor is highly +respected. + +There are 400 women druggists in Russia. Their training for the calling is +received by practical work (this is true of the men druggists also). +According to the last statistics (1897), there were 126,016 women engaged +in the liberal professions. There are a number of women professors in the +state universities. + +Women engage in commercial callings. The schools of commerce for women +were favored by Witte in his capacity of Minister of Finance. They have +since been placed under the control of the Minister of Instruction and +Religion. This will restrict the freedom of instruction. Instruction in +agriculture for women has not yet been established. Commerce engages +299,403 women; agriculture and fisheries, 2,086,169. + +Women have been appointed as factory inspectors since 1900. The Ministry +of Justice and the Ministry of Communication employ women in limited +numbers, without entitling them to pensions. The government of the +province of Moscow has appointed women to municipal offices, and has +appointed them as fire insurance agents. The _zemstvo_ of Kiew had done +this previously; but suddenly it discharged them from the municipal +offices. For the past nine years an institution founded by the Princes +Liwin has trained women as managers of prisons.[100] + +The names of two prominent Russian women must be mentioned: Sonja +Kowalewska, the winner of a contest in mathematics, and Madame +Sklodowska-Curie, the discoverer of radium. Both prove that women can +excel in scientific work. It must be emphasized that the woman student in +Russia must often struggle against terrible want. Whoever has studied in +Swiss, German, or French universities knows the Russian-Polish students +who in many cases must get along for the whole year with a couple of ten +ruble bills (about ten dollars). They are wonderfully unassuming; they +possess inexhaustible enthusiasm. + +Many Russian women begin their university careers poorly prepared. To +unfortunate, divorced, widowed, or destitute women the "University" +appears to be a golden goal, a promised land. Of the privations that these +women endure the people of western Europe have no conception. In Russia +the facts are better known. Wealthy women endow all educational +institutions for girls with relief funds and with loan and stipend funds. +Restaurants and homes for university women have been established. The +"Society for the Support of University Women" in Moscow has done its +utmost to relieve the misery of the women students.[101] + +The economic misery of the industrial and agricultural women (who are +almost wholly unorganized) is somewhat worse than that of the university +women. The statements concerning women's wages in Vienna might give some +idea of the misery of the Russian women. In Bialystock, which has the +best socialistic organization of women, the women textile workers earn +about 18 cents a day; under favorable circumstances $1.25 to $1.50 a week. +A skillful woman tobacco worker will earn 32-1/2 cents a day. The average +daily wages for Russian women laborers are 18 to 20 cents. + +Hence it is not astonishing that in the South American houses of ill-fame +there are so many Russian girls. The agents in the white slave trade need +not make very extravagant promises of "good wages" to find willing +followers.[102] A workingwomen's club has existed since 1897 in St. +Petersburg. There are 982,098 women engaged in industry and mining; +1,673,605 in domestic service (there being 1,586,450 men domestic +servants). Of the women domestic servants 53,283 are illiterate (of the +men only 2172!). In 1885 the women formed 30 per cent of the laboring +population; in 1900 the number had increased to 44 per cent. Of the total +number of criminals in Russia 10 per cent are women. + +The legal status of the Russian woman is favorable in so far as the +property law provides for property rights. The Russian married woman +controls not only her property, but also her earnings and her savings. As +survival of village communism and the feudal system, the right to vote is +restricted to taxpayers and to landowners. In the rural districts the +wife votes as "head of the family," if her husband is absent or dead. Then +she is also given her share of the village land. She votes in person. In +the cities the women that own houses and pay taxes vote by proxy. The +women owners of large estates (as in Austria) vote also for the provincial +assemblies. Although constitutional liberties have a precarious existence +in Russia, they have now and then been beneficial to women. + +With great effort, and in the face of great dangers, woman's suffrage +societies were formed in various parts of the Empire. They united into a +national Woman's Suffrage League. The brave Russian delegates were present +in Copenhagen and in Amsterdam. They belonged to all ranks of society and +were adherents to the progressive political parties. Since the dissolution +of the first Duma (June 9, 1906) the work of the woman's suffrage +advocates has been made very difficult; in the rural districts especially +all initiative has been crippled. In Moscow and St. Petersburg the work is +continued by organizations having about 1000 members; 10,000 pamphlets +have been distributed, lectures have been held, a newspaper has been +established, and a committee has been organized which maintains a +continuous communication with the Duma. + +The best established center of the Russian woman's rights movement is the +Woman's Club in St. Petersburg. Through the tenacious efforts of the +leading women of the club,--Mrs. v. Philosophow, (Mrs.) _Dr. med._ +Schabanoff, and others,--the government granted them, in the latter part +of December, 1908, the right to hold the first national congress of women. +(The stipulation was made that foreign women should not participate, and +that a federation of women's clubs should not be formed.) The discussions +concerned education, labor problems, and politics. Publicity was much +restricted; police surveillance was rigid; addresses on the foreign +woman's suffrage movement were prohibited. Nevertheless, this progressive +declaration was made: Only the right to vote can secure for the Russian +women a thorough education and the right to work. Moreover, the Congress +favored: better marriage laws (a wife cannot secure a passport without the +consent of her husband), the abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution, the abolition of the death penalty, the struggle against +drunkenness, etc. The Congress was opened by the Lord Mayor of St. +Petersburg and was held in the St. Petersburg town hall. This was done in +a sense of obligation to the women school teachers of St. Petersburg and +to those women who had endeared themselves to the people through their +activity in hospitals and asylums. The Lord Mayor stated that these +activities were appreciated by the municipal officers and by all municipal +institutions. + +Although the Congress was opened with praise for the women, it ended with +an intentional insult to the highly talented and deserving leader, Mrs. v. +Philosophow. Mr. Purischkewitch, the reactionary deputy of the Duma, wrote +a letter in which he expressed his pleasure at the adjournment of her +"congress of prostitutes" (_Bordellkongress_). Mrs. v. Philosophow +surrendered this letter and another to the courts, which sentenced the +offender to a month's imprisonment, against which he appealed. After this +Congress has worked over the whole field of the woman's rights movement, a +special congress on the education of women will be held in the autumn of +1909.[103] + +Since the Revolution of 1905 the women of the provinces have been astir. +It has been reported that the Mohammedan women of the Caucasus are +discarding their veils, that the Russian women in the rural districts are +petitioning for greater privileges, etc. An organized woman's rights +movement has originated in the Baltic Provinces; its organ is the _Baltic +Women's Review_ (_Baltische Frauenrundschau_), the publisher being a +woman, E. Schütze, Riga. + + +CZECHISH BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA + + Total population: about 5,500,000. + + The women predominate numerically. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The woman's rights movement is strongly supported among the Czechs. Woman +is the best apostle of nationalism; the educated woman is the most +valuable ally. In the national propaganda woman takes her place beside the +man. The names of the Czechish women patriots are on the lips of +everybody. Had the Liberals of German Austria known equally well how to +inspire their women with liberalism and Germanism, their cause would +to-day be more firmly rooted. + +In inexpensive but well-organized boarding schools the Czechish girls +(especially country girls, the daughters of landowners and tenants) are +being educated along national lines. An institute such as the +"_Wesna_"[104] in Brünn is a center of national propaganda. Prague, like +Brünn, has a Czechish _Gymnasium_ for girls as well as the German +_Gymnasium_. There is also a Czechish University besides the German +University. The first woman to be given the degree of Doctor of Philosophy +at the Czechish university was Fräulein Babor. + +The industrial conditions in Czechish Bohemia and in Moravia differ very +little from those in Galicia. The lot of the workingwomen, especially in +the coal mining districts, is wretched. According to a local club doctor +(_Kassenarzt_),[105] life is made up of hunger, whiskey, and lashes. + +Although paragraph 30, of the Austrian law of association +(_Vereinsgesetz_) prevents the Czechish women from forming political +associations, the women of Bohemia, especially of Prague, show the most +active political interest. The women owners of large estates in Bohemia +voted until 1906 for members of the imperial Parliament. When universal +suffrage was granted to the Austrian men, the voting rights of this +privileged minority were withdrawn. The government's resolution, providing +for an early introduction of a woman's suffrage measure, has not yet been +carried out. + +The suffrage conditions for the Bohemian _Landtag_ (provincial +legislature) are different. Taxpayers, office-holders, doctors, and +teachers vote for this body; the women, of course, voting by proxy. The +same is true in the Bohemian municipal elections. In Prague only are the +women deprived of the suffrage. The Prague woman's suffrage committee, +organized in 1905, has proved irrefutably that the women in Prague are +legally entitled to the suffrage for the Bohemian _Landtag_. In the +_Landtag_ election of 1907 the women presented a candidate, Miss Tumova, +who received a considerable number of votes, but was defeated by the most +prominent candidate (the mayor). However, this campaign aroused an active +interest in woman's suffrage. In 1909 Miss Tumova was again a candidate. +The proposed reform of the election laws for the Bohemian _Landtag_ (1908) +(which provides for universal suffrage, although not equal suffrage) would +disfranchise the women outside Prague. The women are opposing the law by +indignation meetings and deputations. + + +GALICIA[106] + + Total population: about 7,000,000. + Poles: about 3,500,000. + Ruthenians: about 3,500,000. + + The women predominate numerically. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The conditions prevailing in Galicia are unspeakably pathetic,--medieval, +oriental, and atrocious. Whoever has read Emil Franzo's works is familiar +with these conditions. The Vienna official inquiry into the industrial +conditions of women led to a similar inquiry in Lemberg. This showed that +most of the women _cannot_ live on their earnings. The lowest wages are +those of the women engaged in the ready-made clothing industry,--2 to +2-1/2 guldens ($.96 to $1.10) a _month_ as beginners; 8 to 10 guldens +($3.85 to $4.82) later. The wages (including board and room) of servant +girls living with their employers are 20 to 25 cents a day. The skilled +seamstress that sews linen garments can earn 40 cents a day if she works +sixteen hours. + +As a beginner, a milliner earns 2 to 4 guldens ($.96 to $1.93) a _month_, +later 10 guldens ($4.82). In the mitten industry (a home industry) a +week's hard work brings 6 to 8 guldens ($2.89 to $3.88). In laundries +women working 14 hours earn 80 kreuzer (30 cents) a day without board. In +printing works and in bookbinderies women are employed as assistants; for +9-1/2 hours' work a day they are paid a _monthly_ wage of from 2 to 14 and +15 guldens ($.96 to $7.23). In the bookbinderies women sometimes receive +16 guldens ($7.71) a month. + +In Lemberg, as in Vienna, women are employed as brickmakers and as +bricklayers' assistants, working 10 to 11 hours a day; their wages are 40 +to 60 kreuzer (19 to 29 cents) a day. No attempt to improve these +conditions through organizations has yet been made. The official inquiry +thus far has confined itself to the Christian women laborers. What +miseries might not be concealed in the ghettos! + +An industrial women's movement in Galicia is not to be thought of as yet. +There is a migration of the women from the flat rural districts to the +cities; _i.e._ into the nets of the white slave agents. Women earning 10, +15, or 20 cents a day are easily lured by promises of higher wages. The +ignorance of the lower classes (Ruthenians and Poles) is, according to the +ideas of western Europe, immeasurable. In 1897 336,000 children between +six and twelve years (in a total of about 923,000) had _never attended +school_. Of 4164 men teachers, 139 had no qualifications whatever! Of the +4159 women teachers 974 had no qualifications! The minimum salary is 500 +kronen ($101.50). The women teachers in 1909 demanded that they be +regarded on an equality with the men teachers by the provincial school +board. There are _Gymnasiums_ for girls in Cracow, Lemberg, and Przemysl. +Women are admitted to the universities of Cracow and Lemberg. In one of +the universities (Mrs.) Dr. Dazynska is a lecturer on political economy. +In Cracow there is a woman's club. Propaganda is being organized +throughout the land. + +A society to oppose the official regulation of prostitution and to improve +moral conditions was organized in 1908. The Galician woman taxpayer votes +in municipal affairs; the women owners of large estates vote for members +of the _Landtag_. (Mrs.) Dr. Dazynska and Mrs. Kutschalska-Reinschmidt of +Cracow are champions of the woman's rights movement in Galicia. Mrs. +Kutschalska lives during parts of the year in Warsaw. She publishes the +magazine _Ster_. In Russian Poland her activities are more restricted +because the forming of organizations is made difficult. In spite of this +the "Equal Rights Society of Polish Women" has organized local societies +in Kiew, Radom, Lublin, and other cities. The formation of a federation of +Polish women's clubs has been planned. In Warsaw the Polish branch of the +International Federation for the Abolition of Prostitution was organized +in 1907. An asylum for women teachers, a loan-fund for women teachers, and +a commission for industrial women are the external evidences of the +activities of the Polish woman's rights movement in Warsaw. + +The field of labor for the educated woman is especially limited in Poland. +Excluded from government service, many educated Polish women flock into +the teaching profession; there they have restricted advantages. The +University of Warsaw has been opened to women. + + +THE SLOVENE WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT[107] + + Total population: 1,176,672. + + The women preponderate numerically. + +The Slovene woman's rights movement is still incipient; it was stimulated +by Zofka Kveder's "The Mystery of Woman" (_Mysterium der Frau_). Zofka +Kveder's motto is: "To see, to know, to understand.--Woman is a human +being." Zofka Kveder hopes to transform the magazine _Slovenka_ into a +woman's rights review. A South Slavic Social-Democratic movement is +attempting to organize trade-unions among the women. The women lace makers +have been organized. Seventy per cent of all women laborers cannot live on +their earnings. In agricultural work they earn 70 hellers (14 cents) a +day. In the ready-made clothing industry they are paid 30 hellers (6 +cents) for making 36 buttonholes, 1 krone 20 hellers (25 cents) for making +one dozen shirts. + + +SERVIA + + Total population: 2,850,000. + + The number of women is somewhat greater than that of the men. + + Servian Federation of Women's Clubs. + +Servia has been free from Turkish control hardly forty-five years. Among +the people the oriental conception of woman prevails along with +patriarchal family conditions. The woman's rights movement is well +organized; it is predominantly national, philanthropic, and educational. + +Elementary education is obligatory, and is supported by the "National +Society for Public Education" (_Nationalen Verein für Volksbildung_). The +girls and women of the lower classes are engaged chiefly with domestic +duties; in addition they work in the fields or work at excellent home +industries. These home industries were developed as a means of livelihood +by the efforts of Mrs. E. Subotisch, the organizer of the Servian woman's +rights movement. The Servian women are rarely domestic servants (under +Turkish rule they were not permitted to serve the enemy); most of the +domestic servants are Hungarians and Austrians. + +All educational opportunities are open to the women of the middle class. +In all of the more important cities there are public as well as private +high schools for girls. The boys' _Gymnasiums_ admit girls. The university +has been open to women for twenty-one years; women are enrolled in all +departments; recently law has attracted many. For medical training the +women, like the men, go to foreign countries (France, Switzerland). + +Servia has 1020 women teachers in the elementary schools (the salary being +720 to 2000 francs--$144 to $500--a year, with lodging); there are 65 +women teachers in the secondary schools (the salary being 1500 to 3000 +francs,--$300 to $600). To the present no woman has been appointed as a +university professor. There are six women doctors, the first having +entered the profession 30 years ago; there are two women dentists; but as +yet there are no women druggists. There are no women lawyers. There is a +woman engineer in the service of the government. In the liberal arts there +are three well-known women artists, seven women authors, and ten women +poets. + +There are many women engaged in commercial callings, as office clerks, +cashiers, bookkeepers, and saleswomen. Women are also employed by banks +and insurance companies. "A woman merchant is given extensive credit," is +stated in the report of the secretary of the Federation. + +In the postal and telegraph service 108 women are employed (the salaries +varying from 700 to 1260 francs,--$140 to $252). There are 127 women in +the telephone service (the salaries varying from 360 to 960 francs,--$72 +to $192). Servia is just establishing large factories; the number of women +laborers is still small; 1604 are organized. + +Prostitution is officially regulated in Servia; its recruits are chiefly +foreign women. Each vaudeville singer, barmaid, etc., is _ex officio_ +placed under control. + +The oldest woman's club is the "Belgrade Woman's Club," founded in 1875; +it has 34 branches. It maintains a school for poor girls, a school for +weavers in Pirot, and a students' kitchen (_studentenküche_). The "Society +of Servian Sisters" and the "Society of Queen Lubitza" are patriotic +societies for maintaining and strengthening the Servian element in +Turkey, Old Servia, and Macedonia. The "Society of Mothers" takes care of +abandoned children. The "Housekeeping Society" trains domestic servants. +The Servian women's clubs within the Kingdom have 5000 members; in the +Servian colonies without the Kingdom they have 14,000 members. + +The property laws provide for joint property holding. The wife controls +her earnings and savings only when this is stipulated in the marriage +contract. + +In 1909, the Federation of Servian Women's Clubs inserted woman's suffrage +in its programme, and joined the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +In the struggle for national existence the Servian woman demonstrated her +worth, and effected a recognition of her right to an education. + + +BULGARIA + + Total population: 4,035,586. + Women: 1,978,457. + Men: 2,057,111. + + Federation of Bulgarian Women's Clubs. + +Like Servia, Bulgaria was freed from Turkish control about forty years +ago. The liberation caused very little change in the life of the peasant +women. But it opened new educational opportunities for the middle +classes. The elementary schools naturally provide for the girls also. (In +1905-1906 there were 1800 men teachers and 800 women teachers in the +villages; in the cities 415 men and 355 women.) High schools for girls +have been established, but not all of them prepare for the +_Abiturientenexamen_. The first women entered the university of Sofia in +1900. There are now about 100 women students. Since 1907, through the work +of a reactionary ministry, the university has excluded women; married +women teachers have been discharged. Women attend the schools of commerce, +the technical schools, and the agricultural schools. Women are active as +doctors (there being 56), midwives, journalists, and authors. + +The men and women teachers are organized jointly. Women are employed by +the state in the postal and telegraph service. The wages of these women, +like those of the women laborers, are lower than those of the men. There +is a factory law that protects women laborers and children working in the +factories. The trade-unions are socialistic and have men and women +members. The laws regulating the legal status of woman have been +influenced by German laws. The wife controls her earnings. Politically the +Bulgarian woman has no rights. + +The Federation of Bulgarian Women's Clubs was organized in 1899; in 1908 +it joined the International Council of Women. Woman's suffrage occupies +the first place on the programme of the Federation; in 1908 it joined the +International Woman's Suffrage Affiance. + +The Bulgarian women, too, have recognized woman's suffrage as the key to +all other woman's rights. To the present time their demands have been +supported by radicals and democrats (who are not very influential). + +A meeting of the Federation in 1908 demanded: + + 1. Active and passive suffrage for women in school administration and + municipal councils. + + 2. The reopening of the University to women. (This has been granted.) + + 3. The increase of the salaries of women teachers. (They are paid 10 + per cent less than the men teachers.) + + 4. The same curriculums for the boys' and girls' schools. + + 5. An enlargement of woman's field of labor. + + 6. Better protection to women and children working in factories. + +The President of the Federation is the wife of the President of the +Ministry, Malinoff. Because the Federation, led by Mrs. Malinoff, did not +oppose the reactionary measures of the Ministry (of Stambolavitch), Mrs. +Anna Carima, who had been President of the Federation to 1906, organized +the "League of Progressive Women." This League demands equal rights for +the sexes. It admits only confirmed woman's rights advocates (men and +women). It will request the political emancipation of women in a petition +which it intends to present to the National Parliament, which must be +called after Bulgaria has been converted into a kingdom. In July (1909) +the Progressive League will hold a meeting to draft its constitution. + + +RUMANIA + + Total population: 6,585,534. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The status of the Rumanian women is similar to that of the Servian and +Bulgarian women; but the legal profession has been opened to the Bulgarian +women. A discussion of Rumania must be omitted, since my efforts to secure +reliable information have been unsuccessful. + + +GREECE[108] + + Total population: 2,433,806. + Women: 1,166,990. + Men: 1,266,816. + + Federation of Greek Women. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The Greek woman's rights movement concerns itself for the time being with +philanthropy and education. Its guiding spirit is Madame Kallirhoe Parren +(who acted as delegate in Chicago in 1893, and in Paris in 1900). Madame +Parren succeeded in 1896 in organizing a Federation of Greek Women, which +has belonged to the International Council of Women since 1908. The +presidency of the Federation was accepted by Queen Olga. + +The Federation has five sections: + +1. The national section. This acts as a patriotic woman's club. In 1897 it +rendered invaluable assistance in the Turco-Greek War, erecting four +hospitals on the border and one in Athens. The nurses belonged to the best +families; the work was superintended by _Dr. med._ Marie Kalapothaki and +_Dr. med._ Bassiliades. + +2. The educational section. This section establishes kindergartens; it has +opened a seminary for kindergartners, and courses for women teachers of +gymnastics.[109] + +3. The section for the establishment of domestic economy schools and +continuation schools. This section is attempting to enlarge the +non-domestic field of women and at the same time to prepare women better +for their domestic calling. The efforts of this section are quite in +harmony with the spirit of the times. The Greek woman's struggle for +existence is exceedingly difficult; she must face a backwardness of +public opinion such as was overcome in northern Europe long ago. This +section has also founded a home for workingwomen. + +4. The hygiene section. Under the leadership of Dr. Kalapothaki this +section has organized an orthopedic and gynecological clinic. The section +also gives courses on the care of children, and provides for the care of +women in confinement. + +5. The philanthropic section. This provides respectable but needy girls +with trousseaus (_Austeuern_). + +Mrs. Parren has for eighteen years been editor of a woman's magazine in +Athens. (Miss) _Dr. med._ Panajotatu has since 1908 been a lecturer in +bacteriology at Athens University. At her inaugural lecture the students +made a hostile demonstration. Miss Bassiliades acts as physician in the +women's penitentiary. Miss Lascaridis and Miss Ionidis are respected +artists; Mrs. v. Kapnist represents woman in literature, especially in +poetry. Mrs. Parren has written several dramatic works (some advocating +woman's rights), which have been presented in Athens, Smyrna, +Constantinople, and Alexandria. Mrs. Parren is a director of the society +of dramatists. + +Government positions are still closed to women. As late as 1909, after +great difficulties, the first women telephone clerks were appointed. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE ORIENT AND THE FAR EAST + + +In the Orient and the Far East woman is almost without exception a +plaything or a beast of burden; and to a degree that would incense us +Europeans. In the uncivilized countries, and in the countries of +non-European civilization, the majority of the women are insufficiently +nourished; in all cases more poorly than the men. Early marriages enervate +the women. They are old at thirty; this is especially true of the lower +classes. Among us, to be sure, such cases occur also; unfortunately +without sufficient censure being given when necessary. But we have +abolished polygamy and the harem. Both still exist almost undisturbed in +the Orient and the Far East. + + +TURKEY AND EGYPT + + Total population: 34,000,000. + + A federation of women's clubs has just been founded in each country. + +In all the Mohammedan countries the wealthy woman lives in the harem with +her slaves. The woman of the lower classes, however, is guarded or +restricted no more than with us. Apparently the Turkish and the Arabian +women of the lower classes have an unrestrained existence. But because +they are subject to the absolute authority of their husbands, their life +is in most cases that of a beast of burden. They work hard and +incessantly. For the Mohammedan of the lower classes polygamy is +economically a useful institution: four women are four laborers that earn +more than they consume. + +Domestic service offers workingwomen in the Orient the broadest field of +labor. The women slaves in the harems[110] are usually well treated, and +they have sufficient to live on. They associate with women shopkeepers, +women dancers, midwives, hairdressers, manicurists, pedicures, etc. These +are in the pay of the wives of the wealthy. Thanks to this army of spies, +a Turkish woman is informed, without leaving her harem, of every step of +her husband. + +The oppression that all women must endure, and the general fear of the +infidelity of husbands, have created among oriental women an _esprit de +corps_ that is unknown to European women. Among the upper classes polygamy +is being abolished because the country is impoverished and the large +estates have been squandered; moreover, each wife is now demanding her own +household, whereas formerly the wives all lived together. + +Through the influence of the European women educators, an emancipation +movement has been started among the younger generation of women in +Constantinople. Many fathers, often through vanity, have given their +daughters a European education. Elementary schools, secondary schools, and +technical schools have existed in Turkey and Egypt since 1839. The women +graduates of these schools are now opposing oriental marriage and life in +the harem. At present this is causing tragic conflicts.[111] + +To the present, two Turkish women have spoken publicly at international +congresses of women. Selma Riza, sister of the "Young Turkish" General, +Ahmed Riza, spoke in Paris in 1900, and Mrs. Haïrie Ben-Aid spoke in +Berlin in 1904. + +The Mohammedan women have a legal supporter of their demands in Kassim +Amin Bey, counselor of the Court of Appeals in Cairo. In his pamphlet on +the woman's rights question he proposes the following programme:-- + + Legal prohibition of polygamy. + + Woman's right to file a divorce suit. (Hitherto a woman is divorced + if her husband, even without cause, says thee times consecutively + "You are divorced.") + + Woman's freedom to choose her husband. + + The training of women in independent thought and action. + + A thorough education for woman. + +In 1910 a congress of Mohammedan women will be held in Cairo. + +I may add that the Koran, the Mohammedan code of laws, gives a married +woman the full status of a legal person before the law, and full civil +ability. It recognizes separation of property as legal, and grants the +wife the right to control and to dispose of her property. Hence the Koran +is more liberal than the Code Napoleon or the German Civil Code. Whether +the restrictions of the harem make the exercise of these rights impossible +in practice, I am unable to say. + +European schools, as well as the newly founded _Universités populaires_, +are in Turkey and in Egypt the centers of enlightenment among the +Mohammedans. The European women doctors in Constantinople, Alexandria, and +Cairo are all disseminators of modern culture. A woman lawyer practices in +the Cairo court, and has been admitted to the lawyers' society. + +The Young Turk movement and the reform of Turkey on a constitutional basis +found hearty support among the women. They expressed themselves orally and +in writing in favor of the liberal ideas; they spoke in public and held +public meetings; they attempted to appear in public without veils, and to +attend the theater in order to see a patriotic play; they sent a +delegation to the Young Turk committee requesting the right to occupy the +spectators' gallery in Parliament; and, finally, they organized the +Women's Progress Society, which comprises women of all nationalities but +concerns itself only with philanthropy and education. As a consequence, +the government is said to have resolved to erect a humanistic _Gymnasium_ +for girls in Constantinople. The leader of the Young Turks, the present +President of the Chamber of Deputies, is, as a result of his long stay in +Paris, naturally convinced of the superiority of harem life and legal +polygamy (when compared with occidental practices).[112] The freedom of +action of the Mohammedan women, especially in the provinces, might be much +hampered by traditional obstacles. Nevertheless, the restrictions placed +on the Mohammedan woman have been abolished, as is proved by the +following:-- + +In Constantinople there has been founded a "Young Turkish Woman's League" +that proposes to bring about the same great revolutionary changes in the +intellectual life of woman that have already been introduced into the +political life of man. Knowledge and its benefits must in the future be +made accessible to the Turkish women. This is to be done openly. Formerly +all strivings of the Turkish women were carried on in secret. The women +revolutionists were anxiously guarded; as far as possible, information +concerning their movements was secured before they left their homes. The +Turkish women wish to prove that they, as well as the women of other +countries, have human rights. When the constitution of the "Young Turkish +Woman's League" was being drawn up, Enver Bey was present. He was +thoroughly in favor of the demands of the new woman's rights movement. The +"Young Turkish Woman's League" is under the protection of Princess Refià +Sultana, daughter of the Sultan. Princess Refià, a young woman of +twenty-one years of age, has striven since her eighteenth year to acquire +a knowledge of the sciences. She speaks several languages. The enthusiasm +of the Young Turkish women is great. Many of them appear on the streets +without veils,--a thing that no prominent Turkish woman could do formerly. +Women of all classes have joined the League. The committee daily receives +requests for admission to membership. + + +BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA + + Total population: 1,591,036. + + The men preponderate numerically. + +Bosnia and Herzegovina, being Mohammedan countries, have harems and the +restricted views of harem life. Naturally, a woman's rights movement is +not to be thought of. Polygamy and patriarchal life are characteristic. + +Into this Mohammedan country the Austrian government has sent women +disseminators of the culture of western Europe,[113]--the Bosnian district +women doctors. The first of these was Dr. Feodora Krajevska in Dolna +Tuszla, now in Serajewo. Now she has several women colleagues. The women +doctors wear uniforms,--a black coat, a black overcoat with crimson +facings and with two stars on the collar. + + +PERSIA + + Total population: about 9,500,000. + +In Persia hardly a beginning of the woman's rights movement exists. The +Report[114] that I have before me closes thus: "The Persian woman lives, +as it were, a negative life, but does not seem to strive for a change in +her condition." Certainly not. Like the Turkish and the Arabian woman, she +is bound by the Koran. Her educational opportunities are even less (there +are very few European schools, governesses, and women doctors in Persia). +Her field of activity is restricted to agriculture, domestic service, +tailoring, and occasionally, teaching. However, she is said to be quite +skillful in the management of her financial affairs. As far as I know, the +Persian woman took no part in the constitutional struggle of 1908-1909. + + +INDIA + + Total population: 300,000,000. + +The Indian woman's rights movement originated through the efforts of the +English. The movement is as necessary and as difficult as the movement in +China. The Indian religions teach that woman should be despised. "A cow is +worth more than a thousand women." The birth of a girl is a misfortune: +"May the tree grow in the forest, but may no daughter be born to me."[115] + +Formerly it was permissible to drown newborn girls; the English government +had to abolish this barbarity (as it abolished the suttee). The Indian +woman lives in her apartment, the zenana; here the mother-in-law wields +the scepter over the daughters-in-law, the grandchildren, and the women +servants. The small girl learns to cook and to embroider; anything beyond +that is iniquitous: woman has no brain. The girls that are educated in +England must upon their return again don the veil and adjust themselves +to native conditions. At the age of five or six the little girls are +engaged, sometimes to young men of ten or twelve years, sometimes to men +of forty or fifty. The marriage takes place several years later. Sometimes +a man has more than one wife. The wife waits on her husband while he is +eating; she eats what remains. + +If the wife bears a son, she is reinstated. If she is widowed, she must +fast and constantly offer apologies for existing. The widows and orphans +were the first natives to become interested in the higher education of +women. This was due to economic and social conditions. + +India was the cradle of mankind. Even the highest civilizations still bear +indelible marks of the dreadful barbarities that have just been mentioned. +The Indian woman has rebelled against her miserable condition. The English +women considered it possible to bring health, hope, and legal aid to the +women of the zenana, through women doctors, women missionaries, and women +lawyers. Hence in 1866 zenana missions were organized by English women +doctors and missionaries. Native women were soon studying medicine in +order to bring an end to the superstitions of the zenana. Dr. Clara Swain +came to India in 1869 as the first woman medical missionary. As early as +1872-1873 the first hospital for women was founded; in 1885, through the +work of Lady Dufferin, there originated the Indian National League for +Giving Medical Aid to Women (_Nationalverband für ärztliche Frauenhilfe in +Indien_). + +Native women have studied law in order to represent their sex in the +courts. Their chief motive was to secure an opportunity of conferring with +the women in the zenana, a privilege not granted the male lawyer. The +first Indian woman lawyer, Cornelia Sorabija, was admitted to the bar in +Poona. Even in England the women have not yet been granted this privilege. +This is easily explained. The Indian women cannot be clients of men +lawyers; what men lawyers cannot take, they generously leave to the women +lawyers. + +India has 300,000,000 people; hence these meager beginnings of a woman's +rights movement are infinitesimal when compared with the vast work that +remains undone.[116] The educated Indian woman is participating in the +nationalist movement that is now being directed against English rule. +Brahmanism hinders the Indian woman in making use of the educational +opportunities offered by the English government. Brahmanism and its +priests nourish in woman a feeling of humility and the fear that she will +lose her caste through contact with Europeans and infidels. The Parsee +women and the Mohammedan women do not have this fear. The Parsee women +(Pundita Ramabai, for example) have played a leading part in the +emancipation of their sex in India. But the Mohammedan women of India are +reached by the movement only with difficulty. By the Hindoo of the old +régime, woman is kept in great ignorance and superstition; her education +is limited to a small stock of aphorisms and rules of etiquette; her life +in the zenana is largely one of idleness. "Ennui almost causes them to +lose their minds" is a statement based on the reports of missionaries. + +There are modern schools for girls in all large cities (Calcutta, Madras, +Bombay, etc.). The status of the native woman has been Europeanized to the +greatest extent in Bengal. The best educated of the native women of all +classes are the dancing girls (_bayadères_); unfortunately they are not +"virtuous women" (_honnêtes femmes_), hence education among women has been +in ill repute. + +A congress of women was held in Calcutta in 1906 with a woman as chairman; +this congress discussed the condition of Indian women. At the medical +congress of 1909, in Bombay, Hindoo women doctors spoke effectively. The +women doctors have formed the Association of Medical Women in India. In +Madras there is published the _Indian Ladies' Magazine_.[117] + + +CHINA[118] + + Total population: 426,000,000. + +The Chinese woman of the lower classes has the same status as the +Mohammedan woman,--ostensible freedom of movement, and hard work. The +women of the property owning classes, however, must remain in the house; +here, entertaining one another, they live and eat, apart from the men. As +woman is not considered in the Chinese worship of ancestors, her birth is +as unwished for as that of the Indian woman. Among the poor the birth of a +daughter is an economic misfortune. Who will provide for her? Hence in the +three most densely populated provinces the murder of girl babies is quite +common. In many cases mothers kill their little girls to deliver them from +the misery of later life. The father, husband, and the mother-in-law are +the masters of the Chinese woman. She can possess property only when she +is a widow (see the much more liberal provisions of the Koran). + +The earnings of the Chinese wife belong to her husband. But in case of a +dispute in this matter, no court would decide in the husband's favor, for +he is supposed to be "the bread winner" of the family. Polygamy is +customary; but the Chinese may have only _one_ legitimate wife (while the +Mohammedan may have four). The concubine has the status of a _hetaera_; +she travels with the man, keeps his accounts, etc. The Chinese woman of +the property owning class lives, in contrast to the Hindoo woman, a life +filled with domestic duties. She makes all the clothes for the family; +even the most wealthy women embroider. Frequently the wife succeeds in +becoming the adviser of the husband. A widow is not despised; she can +remarry. The women of the lower classes engage in agriculture, domestic +service, the retail business, all kinds of agencies and commission +businesses, factory work (to a small extent), medical science (practiced +in a purely experimental way), and midwifery; they carry burdens and +assist in the loading and unloading of ships. Women's wages are one half +or three fourths of those of the men. + +The lives of the Chinese women, especially among the lower classes, are so +wretched that mothers believe they are doing a good deed when they +strangle their little girls, or place them on the doorstep where they will +be gathered up by the wagon that collects the corpses of children. Many +married women commit suicide. "The suffering of the women in this dark +land is indescribable," says an American woman missionary. Those Chinese +women that believe in the transmigration of souls hope "in the next world +to be anything but a woman." + +Foreign women doctors, like the women missionaries, are bringing a little +cheer into these sad places. Most of these women are English or American. +The beginning of a real woman's rights movement is the work of the +Anti-Foot-Binding societies, which are opposing the binding of women's +feet. This reform is securing supporters among men and women. + +For seventeen years there has existed a school for Chinese women. This was +founded by Kang You Wei, the first Chinese to demand that both sexes +should have the same rights. The women that have devoted themselves during +these seventeen years to the emancipation of their sex must often face +martyrdom. Tsin King, the founder of a semimonthly magazine for women, and +of a modern school for girls, met death on the scaffold in 1907 during a +political persecution directed against all progressive elements. + +Another woman's rights advocate, Miss Sin Peng Sie, donated 200,000 taëls +(a taël is equivalent to 72.9 cents) for the erection of a _Gymnasium_ for +girls in her native city, 100,000 taëls to endow a pedagogical magazine, +and 50,000 taëls for the support of minor schools for girls. Still another +woman's rights advocate, Wu Fang Lan, resisted every attempt to bind her +feet in the traditional manner. There exists a woman's league, through +whose efforts the government, in 1908, prohibited the binding of the feet +of little girls. + +In recent years the _women's magazines_ have increased in number. Four +large publications, devoted solely to women's interests, are published in +Canton; five are published in Shanghai, and about as many in every other +large city. The new system of education (adopted in 1905) grants women +freedom. Girls' schools have been opened everywhere; in the large cities +there are girls' secondary schools in which the Chinese classics, foreign +languages, and other cultural subjects are taught. In Tien Tsin there is a +seminary for women teachers. + +Sie Tou Fa, a prominent Chinese administrative official (who is also a +governor and a lawyer), recently delivered a lecture in Paris on the +status of the Chinese woman. This lecture contradicts the statements made +above. Among other things he declared that China has produced too many +distinguished women (in the political as well as in other fields) for law +and public opinion to restrict the freedom of woman. "The Chinese admits +superiority, with all its consequences, as soon as he sees it; and this, +whether it is shown by man or woman."[119] According to him there can be +no woman's rights movement in China, because man does not oppress woman! +He declares that the progress of women in China since 1905 is a +manifestation of patriotism, not of feminism. According to our +experiences the opinions of Sie Tou Fa are attributable to a peculiarly +masculine way of observing things. + + +JAPAN AND KOREA[120] + + Total population: 46,732,876. + Women: 23,131,236. + Men: 23,601,640. + +Previous to the thirteenth century the Japanese woman, when compared with +the other women of the Far East, occupied a specially favored +position,--as wife and mother, as scholar, author, and counselor in +business and political affairs. All these rights were lost during the +civil wars waged in the period between the thirteenth and seventeenth +centuries. War and militarism are the sworn enemies of woman's rights. A +further cause of the Japanese woman's loss of rights was the strong +influence of Chinese civilization, embodied in the teachings of Confucius. + +The Japanese woman was expected to be obedient; her virtues became passive +and negative. In the seaports and chief cities, European influence has +during the last fifty years caused changes in the dress, general bearing, +and social customs of the Japanese. During the past thirty years these +changes have been furthered by the government. While Japan was rising to +the rank of a great world power, she was also providing an excellent +educational system for women. The movement began with the erection of +girls' schools. The Empress is the patroness of an "Imperial Educational +Society," a "Secondary School for Girls," and "Educational Institute for +the Daughters of Nobles," and of a "Seminary for Women Teachers." All of +these institutions are in Tokio. Women formed in 1898 13 per cent of the +total number of teachers. + +Japanese women of wealth and women of the nobility support these +educational efforts; they also support the "Charity Bazaar Society," the +Orphans' Home, and the Red Cross Society. The Red Cross Society trained an +excellent corps of nurses, as the Russo-Japanese War demonstrated. + +Women are employed as government officials in the railroad offices; they +are also employed in banks. Japanese women study medicine, pharmacy, and +midwifery in special institutions,[121] which have hundreds of women +enrolled. Many women attend commercial and technical schools. Women are +engaged in industry,--at very low wages, to be sure; but this fact enables +Japan to compete successfully for markets. The number of women in industry +exceeds that of the men; in 1900 there were 181,692 women and 100,962 men +industrially engaged. In the textile industry 95 per cent of the laborers +are women. Women also outnumber the men in home industries. Women's +average daily wages are 12-1/2 cents. Women remain active in commerce and +industry, for the workers are recruited from the lower classes, and they +have been better able to withstand Chinese influence. Chinese law (based +on the teachings of Confucius) still prevails with all its harshness for +the Japanese woman. + +The taxpaying Japanese becomes a voter at the age of twenty-five. The +Japanese woman has no political rights. Hence a petition has been +presented to Parliament requesting that women be granted the right to form +organizations and to hold meetings. Parliament favored the measure. But +the government is still hesitating, hence a new petition has been sent to +Parliament. + +The modern woman's rights movement in Japan is supported by the following +organizations: two societies favoring woman's education, the associations +for hygiene, and the society favoring dress reform. The _Women's Union_ +and the _League of Women_ can be regarded as political organizations. +There are Japanese women authors and journalists. + +Since Korea has belonged to Japan, changes have begun there also. The +Korean women have neither a first name nor a family name. According to +circumstances they are called daughter of A. B., wife of A., etc. It is a +sign of the time and also of the awakening of woman's self-reliance that +the government of Korea has been presented with a petition, signed by many +women, requesting that these conditions be abolished and that women be +granted the right to have their own names. + + * * * * * + +We have completed our journey round the world,--from Japan to the United +States is only a short distance, and the intellectual relations between +the two countries are quite intimate. Few oriental people seem more +susceptible to European culture than the Japanese. But whatever woman's +rights movement there is in non-European countries, it owes its origin +almost without exception to the activity of educated occidentals,--to the +men and women teachers, educators, doctors, and missionaries. Here is an +excellent field for our activities; here is a duty that we dare not forget +in the midst of our own struggles. For we cannot estimate the noble work +and uplifting power that the world loses in those countries where women +are merely playthings and beasts of burden. + + +CONCLUSION + +In the greater part of the world woman is a slave and a beast of burden. +In these countries she rules only in exceptional cases--and then through +cunning. Equality of rights is not recognized; neither is the right of +woman to act on her own responsibility. Even in most countries of European +civilization woman is not free or of age. In these countries, too, she +exists merely as a sexual being. Woman is free and is regarded as a human +being only in a very small part of the civilized world. Even in these +places we see daily tenacious survivals of the old barbarity and tyranny. +Hence it is not true that woman is the "weaker," the "protected," the +"loved," and the "revered" sex. In most cases she is the overworked, +exploited, and (even when living in luxury) the oppressed sex. These +circumstances dwarf woman's humanity, and limit the development of her +individuality, her freedom, and her responsibility. These conditions are +opposed by the woman's rights movement. The movement hopes to secure the +happiness of woman, of man, of the child, and of the world by establishing +the equal rights of the sexes. These rights are based on the recognition +of equality of merit; they provide for responsibility of action. Most men +do not understand this ideal; they oppose it with unconscious egotism. + +This book has given an accurate account of the _means_ by which men oppose +woman's rights: scoffing, ridicule, insinuation; and finally, when +prejudice, stubbornness, and selfishness can no longer resist the force +of truth, the argument that they do not wish to grant us our rights. There +is little encouragement in this; but it shall not perplex us. Man, by +opposing woman, caused the struggle between the sexes. Only equality of +rights can bring peace. _Woman_ is already certain of her equality. _Man_ +will learn by experience that renunciation can be "manly," that business +can be "feminine," and that all "privilege" is obnoxious. The emancipation +of woman is synonymous with the education of man. + +Educating is always a slow process; but it inspires limitless hope. When +"ideas" have once seized the masses, these ideas become an irresistible +force. This is irrefutably proved by the strong growth of our movement +since 1904 in all countries of European civilization, and by the awakening +of women even in the depths of oriental civilization. The events of the +past five years justify us in entertaining great hopes. + + + + +Footnotes: + +[1] I have discussed the theoretical side in a pamphlet of "The German +Public Utility Association" (_Deutscher Gemeinnütziger Verein_), Prague, +1918 Palackykai. + +[2] The presiding officers of the International Council to the present +time were: Mrs. Wright Sewall and Lady Aberdeen. This year, June, 1909, +Lady Aberdeen was reëlected. + +[3] The report of the International Woman's Suffrage Congress, London, +May, 1909, had not yet appeared, and the reader is therefore referred to +it. + +[4] Their inferiority in numbers (in Australia and in the western states +of the United States) has, however, often served their cause in just the +same way. + +[5] "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be +denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of +race, color, or previous condition of servitude." + +[6] Composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate. + +[7] In many states by two consecutive legislatures. + +[8] On November 8, 1910, an amendment providing for woman's suffrage was +adopted by the voters of Washington. [Tr.] + +[9] On November 8, 1910, both South Dakota and Oregon rejected amendments +providing for woman's suffrage. [Tr.] + +[10] In October, 1911, California adopted woman's suffrage by popular +vote. [Tr.] + +[11] This "Conference on the Care of Dependent Children" was called by +President Roosevelt, and met, January 25 and 26, 1909, in the White House. +Two hundred and twenty men and women,--experts in the care of children, +from every state in the Union,--met, and proposed, among other things, the +establishment of a Federal Child's Bureau. Thus far Congress has done +nothing to carry out the proposal. (_Charities and the Commons_, Vol. XXI, +643, 644; 766-768; 968-990.) [Tr.] + +[12] The "mothers" hold special congresses in the United States to discuss +educational and public questions. (Mothers' Congresses.) + +[13] Here universal male suffrage is meant. [Tr.] + +[14] In November, 1910, an amendment in favor of woman's suffrage was +defeated by a referendum vote in Oklahoma. [Tr.] + +[15] The amendment passed the Senate and was adopted in November, 1910, by +popular vote. [Tr.] + +[16] In November, 1910, a woman's suffrage amendment was again defeated, +as was the amendment prohibiting the sale of liquor. [Tr.] + +[17] In November, 1910, four women were elected to the House of +Representatives of the Colorado legislature. [Tr.] + +[18] Mrs. Ida Husted Harper, in collaboration with Susan B. Anthony, has +written a _History of Woman's Suffrage_ which deals with the subject so +far as the United States are concerned. [Tr.] + +[19] Equal pay has been established by law in the states having woman's +suffrage. + +[20] It is worth mentioning that in the Spanish-American War Miss McGee +filled the position of assistant surgeon in the medical department, doing +so with distinction. + +[21] A. v. Máday, _Le droit des femmes au travail_, Paris, Giardet et +Briere. + +[22] In her book, _L'ouvrière aux États-Unis_, Paris, Juven, 1904. + +[23] Those who cannot pay an annual tax of two dollars. + +[24] In _L'ouvrière aux États-Unis_. + +[25] The organ of the National American Woman's Suffrage Association is +_Progress_ and is published in Warren, Ohio. There, one can also secure +_Perhaps_ and _Do you Know_, two valuable propaganda pamphlets written by +Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt. Other literature on woman's suffrage can be +obtained from the same source. + +[26] Although New Zealand is not politically a part of the Australian +Federation, it will for convenience be treated here as such. + +[27] The theological degrees are granted only in England. + +[28] Report of the International Woman's Suffrage Conference, Washington, +1902. + +[29] Report of the National Council of Women, 1908. + +[30] _Woman Suffrage in Australia_, by Vida Goldstein. + +[31] Both published in Rotterdam, 92 Kruiskade, International Woman's +Suffrage Alliance. + +[32] Consult Helen Blackburn, _History of Woman's Suffrage in England_. + +[33] See the excellent little work of Mrs. C. C. Stopes, "The Sphere of +'Man' in the British Constitution," _Votes for Women_, London, 4 Clement's +Inn. + +[34] In the Irish Sea, between Ireland and Scotland, having a population +of 29,272 women and 25,486 men. + +[35] 4 Clement's Inn, Strand, London, W.C. + +[36] See E. Robin's novel, _The Convert_. + +[37] By Lawrence Housman, Feb. 11, 18, and 26, 1909. + +[38] See E. C. Wolstenholme Elmy, _Women's Franchise, the Need of the +Hour_. + +[39] Wolstenholme Elmy, _ibid._ + +[40] This right is possessed by women in Scotland and Ireland also. + +[41] This is in direct conflict with the statute (13 Vict., c. 21, sec. 4) +providing that women enjoy all those rights from which they are not +expressly excluded. + +[42] London, like other capital cities, is regulated by a separate set of +laws. + +[43] Applying to England and Wales. + +[44] The right to vote is a condition necessary for the holding of office. + +[45] See the Married Women's Property Acts of 1870 and 1883. + +[46] See the article by Mr. Pethick Lawrence in _Votes for Women_, March +3, 1909. + +[47] London, S.W., 92 Victoria Street. + +[48] Valuable information concerning women in the industries is given in +the programme of April 4, 1909, of the London Congress of the +International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +[49] Ansiaux, _La réglementation du travail des femmes_. + +[50] See Mrs. Pethick Lawrence, "Women and Administration," _Votes for +Women_, March 12, 1909. + +[51] See the article of Alice Salmon, _Zentralblatt_. + +[52] For a survey of English conditions affecting women we recommend _The +Women's Charter of Rights and Liberties_, by Lady McLaren, 1909, London. + +[53] In Canada there are municipal elections, provincial parliamentary +elections, and elections for the Dominion Parliament. + +[54] See the Report of the Woman's Suffrage Alliance Congress, Amsterdam, +1908. + +[55] See the Report of the International Women's Suffrage Alliance, +Amsterdam, 1908. + +[56] The last two arguments are easily refuted. + +[57] Woman never reaches her majority; she must always have a male +representative. + +[58] The husband still remains the guardian of the wife. To-day the wife +controls her personal earnings, but merely as long as they are in cash; +whatever she _buys_ with them falls into the control of the husband. + +[59] See the Report of the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance +Congress, Amsterdam, 1908. + +[60] See the supplement, "Opposed to Alcoholism," in _One People, One +School_, for April, 1909. + +[61] A _Realschule_ teaches no classics, but is a scientific school +emphasizing manual training. A _Gymnasium_ prepares for the university, +making the classics an essential part of the curriculum. [Tr.] + +[62] By Vera Hillt, _Statistics of Labor_, VI, Helsingfors, 1908. + +[63] See the complete list of measures in _Jus Suffragi_, September 15, +1908. This is the organ of the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +[64] In 1904 women were declared eligible by an official ordinance to hold +university offices. + +[65] It might be well to mention _Dansk Kvindesamfund, Politisk +Kvindeforening, Landsforbund, Valgretsforeningen of 1908_ (a Christian +association of men and women). + +[66] Compare similar proceedings in the United States and England. + +[67] Since Switzerland contains a preponderance of the Germanic element, +it will be considered with the Germanic countries. + +[68] In Geneva and Lausanne the men exerted every effort to exclude women +from the typographical trade. The prohibition of night work made this +easy. The same result will follow in the railroad and postal service. +Therefore in the Swiss woman's rights movement there are some that are +opposed to laws for the protection of women laborers. + +[69] Industrial training was promoted chiefly by the "Lette-House," +founded in Berlin in 1865 by President Lette and his wife. + +[70] In Germany there are one million domestic servants. + +[71] For information concerning the German woman's rights movement we +recommend _The Memorandum-book of the Woman's Rights Movement_ (_Das +Merkbuch der Frauenbewegung_), B. G. Teubner, Leipzig. + +[72] A body having advisory powers in matters relating to the medical +profession and to sanitary measures. [Tr.] + +[73] The question was decided by the administrative court in _one_ special +case. Compare the case of Jacobs, Amsterdam. + +[74] See _Dokumente der Frauen_ (_Documents concerning Women_); November +15, 1899. + +[75] The German system of stenography. [Tr.] + +[76] See the resolutions of the party sessions in Graz, 1900; in Vienna, +1903; and of the first, second, and third conferences of the International +Woman's Suffrage Alliance, in 1904, 1906, and 1908. + +[77] Except in Illyria, Carinthia, and Lower Austria. + +[78] For political and practical reasons Hungary will be discussed at this +point. + +[79] _Dokumente der Frauen_, June 1, 1901. + +[80] The proposed law grants the suffrage even to male illiterates. + +[81] Later the Code Napoleon infected other countries, but such horrors +originated spontaneously nowhere else. + +[82] In the years 1848, 1851, 1871, 1874, 1882, 1885. + +[83] See the resolutions of the two women's congresses, Paris, 1900. + +[84] _Le mouvement féministe_, Countess Marie de Villermont. + +[85] _Le féminisme_, Emile Ollivier. + +[86] Miss Chauvin made a similar request of the French Chamber of +Deputies; as we have seen, her request was granted. Dr. Popelin did not +make her request of the Belgian Chamber of Deputies, which had not a +Republican majority. Dr. Popelin may have considered such a step hopeless. + +[87] Since 1899 special socialistic workingwomen's congresses have been +held. + +[88] See the action of the Socialists in Sweden and in Hungary. + +[89] Else Hasse, _Neue Bahnen_. + +[90] The recognized gallant of a married woman. [Tr.] + +[91] Marianne Weber, _Zentralblatt_. + +[92] But only the enlightened clergy--those living in Rome--consent to the +higher education of girls. + +[93] _Dokumente der Frauen_, June 1, 1901. + +[94] See Stanton, _The Woman's Rights Movement in Europe_. + +[95] _El Feminismo_, 1899. + +[96] See the Report of the International Suffrage Congress, Washington, +1902. + +[97] See the Report of the International Suffrage Congress, Washington, +1902. + +[98] This has just been organized. + +[99] The following statistics are significant: Between January 1 and July +1, 1908, Russia showed an increase in the consumption of alcoholic +liquors. The total amount of spirits consumed was 40,887,509 _vedros_ (1 +_vedro_ is 3.25 gallons), which is an increase of 600,185 _vedros_ over +the amount consumed during the same months of the preceding year. These +figures correspond also to the government's income from its monopoly on +spirits; this was 327,795,312 rubles (a ruble is worth 51.5 cents), an +increase of 3,745,836 rubles over the same months of the preceding year. + +[100] See the very interesting article _Frauenbewegung_ (_The Woman's +Rights Movement_), by Berta Kes, Moscow. + +[101] See Berta Kes, _Frauenbewegung_. + +[102] See _Documents Concerning Women_ (_Dokumente der Frauen_), April 15, +1900. + +[103] I am indebted to Mrs. Eudokimoff, of St. Petersburg, for an English +translation of the resolutions, the address of the Lord Mayor, and the +proceedings against the deputy of the Duma; also for a biography of Mrs. +v. Philosophow. + +[104] Springtime. + +[105] A doctor employed by a workingmen's association. [Tr.] + +[106] Dr. Schirmacher treats Russian Poland here with Galicia, which is +Austrian Poland. [Tr.] + +[107] _Dokumente der Frauen_, November, 15, 1901. + +[108] Greek conditions are analogous to conditions prevailing in Slavic +countries; hence Greece will be treated here. Greece was liberated from +Turkish control in 1827. + +[109] There are elementary schools for boys and girls. The secondary +schools for girls are private. The first of these was founded by Dr. Hill +and his wife, who were Americans. Preparation for entrance to the +university is optional and is carried on privately. Athens University has +admitted women since 1891. + +[110] The English have abolished slavery in Egypt. + +[111] See _Conseil des Femmes_, October, 1902, for the romantic +"Désenchantées" of P. Loti, and Hussein Rachimi's "Verliebter Bey." + +[112] Compare _La crise de l'orient_, by Ahmed Riza. + +[113] See the analogous action of the English in India. + +[114] Report of the International Suffrage Congress, Washington, 1902. + +[115] + _Mag der Baum wohl wachsen in dem Walde, + Aber keine Tochter mir geboren werden._ + +[116] India still retains the official regulation of prostitution (which +was abolished in England in 1886). Here again, militarism is playing a +decisive part in blocking this reform. + +[117] In Bangkok, in Farther India (Siam), there is a woman's club with +the Siamese Princess as President. + +[118] Report of the International Suffrage Conference, Washington, 1902. + +[119] "_Le Chinois admet la supériorité, avec toutes ses conséquences, dès +qu'il la constate, qu'elle se révèle chez un homme ou chez une femme._" + +[120] Report of the International Suffrage Conference, Washington, 1902. + +[121] The University of Tokio is still closed to women. Women attend the +Woman's University, founded in 1901 by N. Naruse. + + + + +INDEX + + + Abbans, Count Jouffroy d', 57. + + Aberdeen, Lady, xi, note 1, 96. + + Actresses' Franchise League, 68. + + Adams, Mr. Alva, 22, 23. + + Adler, 167. + + Adlersparre, Baroness of, 106. + + Age of consent, in woman's suffrage states of the United States, 39. + in Australia, 53, 54. + + Agricultural Association for Women, 83. + + Agriculturists, women, + in the United States, 36. + in Great Britain, 82-84. + in Sweden, 108. + in France, 186. + in Italy, 203, 204. + + Alcala, Catalina d', 210. + + Alexander II, 218. + + Alexandra House, 82. + + Aloisia, Sigea, 208. + + Amberly, Lady, 62. + + American Commission, report on European prostitution, 37. + + American Federation of Labor, favors woman's suffrage, 10. + forms organizations of workingwomen, 33. + + American Woman's Suffrage Association, 12. + + American women, + activities of, at Constitutional Convention (1787), 2-4. + means of agitation used by, 15, 16. + and political life, 18. + and the protection of youth, 18 and note 1. + and state legislative offices, 22, 23 and note 1. + members of city councils, 22. + in the Colorado legislature, 22, 23 and note 1. + and education, 23-27. + excluded by certain universities, 24. + and the teaching profession, 25. + students in higher institutions of learning, 26. + suffrage of, in school affairs, 27. + increase of women students, 27. + admitted to technical schools, 29. + legal status of, 36, 37. + and sports, 38, 39. + + Amsterdam, xiii. + + Ancketill, Mr., 100. + + Ancketill, Mrs., 100. + + Anstie, Dr., 77. + + Anthony, Susan B., the Napoleon of the woman's suffrage movement, 7. + various facts concerning, 7, 8. + joint author of a _History of Woman's Suffrage_, 23, note 2. + + Anti-Foot-Binding Societies, 258. + + Anti-Slavery Congress, 5, 6. + + Arenal, Concepcion, 209, 210. + + Argentine Republic, 214. + + Arsuaga, Pi y, 211. + + Artists' Suffrage League, 68. + + Asquith, Mr., 66. + + Association Opposed to Woman's Suffrage (in the United States), 23. + + Auclert, Madame, 188. + + Augsburg, Dr. Anita, 151. + + Australia, member of the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 42 and ff. + + Australian universities, 45, 46. + + Australian Women's Political Association, 54. + + Austria, represented in The International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii; _see also_ German Austria. + + Austrian Women Teachers' Society, 159. + + + Bajer, 123. + + _Baltic Women's Review_, 229. + + Bassiliades, Dr., 243, 244. + + _Bayadères_, 255. + + Bazan, Emilia Pardo, 208, 209. + + Beauharnais, Josephine, 178. + + Becker, 63. + + Belgium, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii. + conditions in, 190, 191. + + Ben-Aid, Mrs. Haïrie, 247. + + Béothy, Dr., 170. + + Beresford-Hope, Mrs., 71. + + Bey, Kassim Amin, 247. + + Bieber-Böhm, Hanna, 151. + + Biggs, 63. + + Birmingham, 61. + + Björnson, 110, 117, 123. + + Blackburn, Helen, 59, note 1. + + Blackwell, Elizabeth, 28, 29. + + Blackwell, Emily, 29. + + Blake, Jex, 77. + + Boer War, 64. + + Bohemia, conditions in, 230-232. + + Boise, Idaho, 21. + + Bonald, de, 180. + + Bonnevial, Madame, 188. + + Bosnia, conditions in, 250. + + Boston, 22, 27, 38. + + Brabanzon House, 82. + + Brahmanism, 254. + + Brandes, George, 123. + + Braun, Lily, 152. + + Bremer, Frederika, 103; + _see also_ Fredericka Bremer League. + + Bristol, 61. + + Brüstlein, Miss Dr., 136. + + Buchner, Miss, 204. + + Bulgaria, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii. + conditions in, 239-242. + + Butler, Mrs. Josephine, 95, 204. + + + Cabinet, British, and woman's suffrage, 65, 67. + + _Cahiers feministes_, 193. + + California, woman's suffrage amendment adopted by, 17, note 1. + efforts of women of, to secure the suffrage, 21. + + Cambridge University, 75, 76. + + Canada, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii. + woman's rights movement in, 96 and ff. + + Carima, Mrs., 241. + + Carinthia, _see_ Slovene Woman's Rights Movement. + + Carniola, _see_ Slovene Woman's Rights Movement. + + Catharine II, 217. + + Catholic Woman's League, 154. + + Catholic Women Teachers' Society, 159. + + Catt, Mrs. Carrie Chapman, xiii, 42. + + Cauer, Mrs., 150, 151, 152. + + Cave, Miss, 78. + + Central America, conditions in, 212, 213. + + Central Committee for Woman's Suffrage (England), 63. + + Central states (of the United States), 35. + + Chauvin, Jeanne, 185. + + Chicago, 40. + + Child labor, in United States, 35. + + Children, + "Conference on the Care of Dependent Children," 18 and note 1. + National Child Labor Committee, 35. + laws protecting, in Australia, 54. + _see also_ Laws protecting women and children. + + Children, authority over, + in Colorado, 19, 20. + in thirty-eight of the United States, 37. + in Australia, 49, 55. + in England, 74. + in Finland, 115. + in German Austria, 169. + in Switzerland, 140. + in France, 179. + in Spain, 210. + + Chili, 214. + + China, conditions in, 256-260. + + Cincinnati, 30, 37. + + Clergy, English, 6. + + Cleveland, President, 15. + + Clough, Anne, 75. + + Cobden, Mrs., 71. + + Code Napoleon, absence of, in Australia, 44. + in the Netherlands, 126. + in France, 178, 179. + in Belgium, 191. + in Italy, 202. + + Coeducation, + in the United States, 24, 25. + in Australia, 45, 46. + in Scotland, 75. + in Sweden, 105. + in the Netherlands, 127. + in Switzerland, 134, 135. + in Germany, 147. + in Italy, 200. + + College Equal Suffrage League, 10. + + Collett, Clara, 117. + + Colorado, woman's suffrage in, 16. + activities and rights of women in, 19, 20. + vote of immoral women in, 18, 19. + women in legislature of, 22, 23 and note 1. + conditions of women and children in, 39, 40. + + Columbia University, 24. + + "Conference on the Care of Dependent Children," 18 and note 1. + + Confucius, 260. + + Conradi, Mrs., 219. + + Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise Association, 68. + + _Convert, The_ (novel), 67, note 1. + + Coote, Miss, 172. + + Copenhagen, xiii. + + Court of Appeals, 71. + + Craigen, 63. + + Creighton, Mrs. Louise, 69. + + Curie, Madame, 84, 224. + + Czaky, 172. + + + Davies, Emily, 75. + + Dazynska, Dr., 234. + + _De Stem der Vrouw_, 194. + + Declaration of Independence, Woman's, 6, 7, 11. + "The Declaration of the Rights of Women," 176. + + Deflou, Madame Oddo, 182. + + Denison, Mrs. Macdonald, 98. + + Denmark, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii. + conditions in, 122-126. + + Dennis, Mrs., 192. + + Denver, Colorado, 18, 19. + + Deraismes, Marie, 180. + + Deroin, Jeanne, 180. + + Derscheid-Delcour, Mrs., 193. + + Despard, Mrs., 68. + + Disraeli, 61. + + Divorce laws, + in woman's suffrage states, 39. + in Australia, 49, 52, 55. + in England, 74. + in Mexico and Central America, 213. + in Turkey and Egypt, 247. + + Dobson, Mrs., 47. + + Doctors, women, + in the United States, 28, 29. + in Australia, 46. + in Great Britain, 77. + in Sweden, 104, 107. + in Finland, 111. + in Norway, 121. + in the Netherlands, 128, 130, 131. + in Switzerland, 136. + in Germany, 148. + in German Austria, 160, 161. + in Hungary, 171. + in Belgium, 193. + in Italy, 201. + in Portugal, 212. + in Russia, 220, 221, 222, 223. + in Servia, 237. + in Bulgaria, 240. + in Rumania, 242. + in Bosnia, 251. + in Persia, 251. + in India, 253. + + _Dokumente der Frauen_, 166. + + Donohue, Mrs. M., 44. + + _Do You Know?_ (pamphlet), 42. + + Drummond, Mrs., 66. + + Dufferin, Lady, 254. + + Durand, Madame Marguerite, 188. + + + Ebner-Eschenbach, Marie v., 169. + + Education, women and, + in the United States, 23-27, 39. + in Australia, 45, 46. + in Great Britain, 74 and ff. + in Canada, 97. + in Sweden, 104, 106, 107. + in Finland, 111. + in Norway, 117-119. + in Denmark, 123. + in the Netherlands, 127, 128. + in Switzerland, 134-136. + in Germany, 146-148. + in Luxemburg, 157, 158. + in German Austria, 159, 160, 161-163. + in Hungary, 169-171. + in France, 183, 184. + in Belgium, 191-193. + in Italy, 199-201. + in Spain, 207, 208. + in Portugal, 212. + in Mexico and Central America, 212. + in South America, 214. + in Russia, 217-222, 225. + in Czechish Bohemia and Moravia,230. + in Servia, 236, 237. + in Bulgaria, 240. + in Greece, 243. + in Turkey and Egypt, 247, 248. + in India, 255. + in China, 259. + in Japan, 261. + + Education Act, 71. + + Egypt, conditions in, 245-250. + + _El Feminismo_, 209. + + Elmy, E. C. Wolstenholme, 70, notes 1 and 2. + + _Encyclopedia Britannica_, 60. + + England, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xii; + _see_ Great Britain. + + English Constitution, 72. + + Enrooth, Adelaide, 110. + + Eudokimoff, Mrs., 229, note 1. + + + Factory inspectors, women, + in the Netherlands, 128, 129. + in Switzerland, 137. + in Germany, 149. + in France, 185. + in Italy, 201. + in Russia, 224. + + Far East, conditions in the, 245-265. + + Favre, Miss Nellie, 136. + + Fawcett, 63, 69. + + February Revolution (1848), 180. + + Federal Child's Bureau, proposed in the United States, 18 and note 1. + + Federation of French Women's Clubs, 181, 183. + + Federation of Labor, 10. + + Federn, Elsie, 166. + + _Féminisme chrétien, le_, 187. + + "Feminist Society," 172. + + Fibiger, Matilda, 122. + + Fickert, Augusta, 166. + + Fifteenth Amendment, women and the, 9. + + Finland, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 110-116. + + Fontaine, Mrs., 192. + + Fourierists, 180. + + France, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii; + conditions in, 175 and ff. + + _Frauenwohl_ (magazine), 150. + + "Frederika Bremer League," 106. + + French Revolution, and the woman's rights movement, 175-178. + + French Woman's Suffrage Society, the, 189. + + Fries, Ellen, 107. + + "Fronde," the, 188. + + + Galicia, conditions in, 232-235. + + Galinda, Donna, 208. + + Gammond, Madame Gatti de, 193. + + Garfield, President, 15. + + Garrison, William Lloyd, 6. + + Geneva, University of, 29. + + German Austria, conditions in, 158 and ff. + + German Evangelical Woman's League, 154. + + Germanic countries, modern woman's rights movement in, 1-174. + + Germany, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 143-145. + + Gikycki, Lily v., 151. + + Girton College, 75. + + Goldmann, (Mrs.) Dr., 166. + + Goldschmidt, Henrietta, 145, 146. + + Goldstein, Vida, 49, note 1, 54, 56. + + Gore-Langton, Lady Anne, 62. + + Gouges, Olympe de, 176, 177. + + Great Britain, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 58 and ff. + + Greece, conditions in, 242-244. + + Grimke, Angelina, 5. + + Group of Women Students, the, in France, 182, 183. + + Gruber, Dr. Ludwig, 172. + + Gyulai, P., 170. + + + Hainisch, Marianne, 166. + + Hansteen, Aasta, 117. + + Harem, 245. + + Harper, Ida Husted, 23, note 2. + + Harvard University, 24. + + Hayden, Sophia, 29. + + Hayes, President, 15. + + Hein, Frau Dr., 136. + + Helenius, Trigg, 116. + + Hertzka, Mrs. Jella, 166. + + Herzegovina, conditions in, 250. + + Herzfelder, Miss, 166. + + Heymann, Miss, 151. + + Hickel, Rosina, 111. + + Higinbotham, George, 50. + + Hill, Octavia, 91. + + Hirsch-Duncker Trades Union, 153. + + _History of Woman's Suffrage_, by Harper and Anthony, 23, note 1. + referred to, 37. + + Holloway College, 75, 83. + + House of Commons, attitude toward woman's suffrage, 65. + + Housmann, Lawrence, 69. + + Hungarian Woman's Club, 170. + + Hungary, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 169 and ff. + + Hutchins, Mrs. B. L., 92. + + + Ibsen, 110, 117, 123. + + Iceland, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii. + + Idaho, + woman's suffrage in, 16. + activities and influence of women in, 20, 21. + establishes lectureship in domestic science, 27. + condition of women and children in, 39, 40. + + Illinois, + and woman's suffrage, 6, 21. + women jurors in, 28. + + India, conditions in, 252-255. + + _Indian Ladies' Magazine_, 255. + + Inspectors of schools, _see_ School inspectors (women). + + Institute de demoiselles, 217. + + International Council of Women, x-xii. + + International Federation for the Abolition of the Official Regulation + of Prostitution, + headquarters of, 140. + Austrian branch of, 166. + Hungarian branch of, 172. + Italian branch of, 204, 205. + Polish branch of, 235. + + International Vigilance Society, 172. + + International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, the, various facts concerning, + x, xii, xiii. + + Ionades, Miss, 244. + + Iowa, 21. + + Ireland, 68; _see_ Great Britain. + + Isle of Man, 63. + + Italy, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 196-199. + + + Jackson, Miss, 32. + + Jacobs, Dr. Aletta, 130. + + Japan, conditions in, 260-262. + + Java, woman's suffrage society in, 132. + + Johns Hopkins University, 24. + + Jones, Miss, 29, 30. + + Journalists, women, + in the United States, 28. + in Great Britain, 81. + in Spain, 209. + in Bulgaria, 240. + + July Revolution (1830), 180. + + Juvenile courts, + in Australia, 54. + advocated in Germany, 155. + + + Kalapothaki, Marie, 243. + + Kang You Wei, 258. + + Kansas, + municipal woman's suffrage in, 16, 20. + efforts of women of, to secure full suffrage rights, 21. + + Kapnist, Mrs. v., 244. + + Keller, Helen, 27. + + Kelly, Abby, 4, 5. + + Kenney, Annie, 66. + + Kerschbaumer, Dr., 160, 161. + + Kettler, Mrs., 146. + + Key, Ellen, 107, 108. + + Kingsley, 63. + + Koran, 248, 251. + + Korea, conditions in, 262, 263. + + Kowalewska, Sonja, 107, 224. + + Krajevska, Feodora, 251. + + Kronauwetter, 167. + + Kutschalska-Reinschmidt, Mrs., 234, 235. + + Kveder, Zofka, 235, 236. + + + Labriola, Therese, 201. + + _La Française_, 189. + + Lang, Helena, 146. + + Lang, Maria, 166. + + Lascaridis, Miss, 244. + + Lawrence, Mr. Pethick, 66, 74, + note 1, 92, note 1. + + Lawrence, Mrs., Pethick, 66. + + Laws protecting women and children, + in the United States, 39, 40. + in Australia, 48, 52-54. + in Great Britain, 86, 87. + in Finland, 115. + in Norway, 121, 122. + in Switzerland, 138, 140, 141. + in Germany, 154. + lack of, in France, 179. + + Lawyers, women, + in the United States, 27. + in Australia, 54. + absence of, in Great Britain, 77. + in Canada, 97. + in Sweden, 107. + in Finland, 112. + in Norway, 121. + in Switzerland, 136. + in Germany, 148. + in German Austria, 161. + in France, 185. + in Belgium, 192. + in India, 253, 254. + + League for Freedom of Labor Defense, 86. + + Lee, Mrs. Mary, 53. + + Lincoln, Abraham, 15. + + Lindsey, Judge, 18. + + Lischnewska, Maria, 146. + + Listrow, Mrs. v., 166. + + Local Self-government Act for England and Wales, 72. + + Loeper-Houselle, Marie, 146. + + London, xiii, 61, 81. + + London, University of, 77. + + London College for Workingwomen, 89, 90. + + _London Girls' Club Union Magazine_, 90. + + Lords, House of, 72. + + Losa, Isabella, 208. + + Luxemburg, conditions in, 157. + + + McCullock, Mrs. C. Waugh, 39. + + McGee, Miss, 29, note 1. + + Mackenroth, Miss Anna, 136. + + MacLaren, Agnes, 204. + + MacLaren, 63, 96, note 1. + + Maclay, A. v., 173. + + _Madame Mère_, 178. + + Mahrenholtz-Bülow, Countess, 127. + + Maine, 21. + + Maireder, Rosa, 166. + + Malinoff, Mrs., 241. + + Manchester, 61, 62. + + Mariani, Emilia, 203. + + Mario, Jessie White, 202. + + Massachusetts, 21. + + Meath, Countess of, 82. + + Men's League for Woman's Suffrage, 68. + + Men's League Opposing Woman's Suffrage, 68. + + Mericourt, Théroigne de, 177. + + Mexico, conditions in, 212, 213. + + Meyer, Mr. Julius, 150. + + Michel, Louise, 180. + + Mill, John Stuart, 60, 61, 123. + + Miller, Paula, 154. + + Minnesota, 21. + + Mohammedan countries, _see_ Turkey, Egypt, Persia, Bosnia, and + Herzegovina. + + Monod, Miss Sara, 188. + + Montessori, Maria, 201. + + Monti, Rina, 201. + + Moravia, conditions in, 230-232. + + Morgenstern, Lina, 145, 152. + + Morsier, Emile de, 190. + + Mothers, school for, 94, 95. + + Mothers' congresses, in the United States, 20, note 1. + + Mott, Lucretia, 5, 6. + + Münsterberg, Deputy, 156. + + _Mystery of Woman, The_, 236. + + + Napoleon, 178, 179. + + Napoleonic Code, _see_ Code Napoleon. + + National American Woman's Suffrage Association, 22, 42, note 1. + + National Anti-slavery Society, 6. + + National Child Labor Committee, 35. + + National Council, xi, xii. + + National Council of French Women, 189. + + National Council of Women (in Australia), 47, note 1. + + National Trades Union League, 10. + + National Union of Woman's Suffrage Societies, 64. + + National Woman's Antisuffrage Association, 68. + + National Woman's Social and Political Union, 64. + + Nebraska, 16, 21. + + Netherlands, the, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 126. + + New Hampshire, 21. + + Newnham College, 75. + + New York, 21. + + New Zealand, 42, note 2; _see_ Australia. + + Nightingale, Florence, 91. + + Night labor, of women, in the United States, 36. + + North America, the cradle of the woman's rights movement, 2. + + Northern states (of the United States), 35. + + + Oberlin College, 24. + + Ohio, 27. + + Oklahoma, 21, and note 2. + + Olga, Queen of Greece, 243. + + Oregon, outlook for woman's suffrage in, 16. + woman's suffrage amendment (1910) defeated in, 16, note 2; 22, note 2. + opposition to woman's suffrage in, 22. + failure of woman's suffrage campaign (1906) in, 22. + + Orient, the, conditions in, 245-265. + + Otto-Peters, Louise, 145. + + Oxford University, 75, 76. + + + Panajuta, Miss, 244. + + Pankhurst, Miss, 66. + + Pankhurst, Mrs., 66. + + Pappritz, Anna, 151. + + Parent, Mrs., 192. + + Parental authority, _see_ Children, authority over. + + Parliament, + act of, bearing on woman's suffrage, 62. + obligation of members of, to the woman's suffrage movement, 65. + women deputations and, 66, 67. + + Parren, Madame Killirhoe, 243, 244. + + Parsee women, 255. + + Patents, taken out by women in the United States, 30. + + Paterson, Mrs., 85. + + Paulus, Erica, 171. + + Pavlovna, Helene, 218. + + Pease, Elizabeth, 5, 6. + + Pennsylvania, 21, 27. + + _Perhaps_ (pamphlet), 42. + + Pernerstorfer, 167. + + Persia, conditions in, 251, 252. + + Peter the Great, 217. + + Petzold, Miss v., 78. + + Philosophow, Mrs. v., 228, 229. + + "Physical Force Fallacy, The," 69. + + Poët, Laidi, 201. + + Police matrons, in the United States, 37. + + Political Equality League, in Australia, 55. + + Political Equality League (Chicago), 40. + + "Political Equality Series," 12, 33. + + Popelin, Miss Marie, 192. + + Popp, Mrs., 166. + + Pornography, + prohibited in woman's suffrage states of the United States, 40. + suppressed in Australia, 54. + + Portland, 27. + + Portugal, conditions in, 211, 212. + + Posada, Professor, 207, 208. + + Possauer, Dr., 161. + + Poster, F. Laurie, 40. + + Preachers, women, + in the United States, 28. + in Australia, 46. + in Great Britain, 78. + in Canada, 97. + in Sweden, 104, 107. + in the Netherlands, 128. + in German Austria, 161. + in France, 185. + + "Primrose League," 63. + + Prohibition movement, + in Sweden, 109, 110. + in Finland, 116. + + _Progress_, 42. + + Prostitution, laws concerning, + in the United States, 37. + in woman's suffrage states, 39. + in England, 95. + in Finland, 115, 116. + in Norway, 117. + in Denmark, 126. + in Switzerland, 140. + in Germany, 144, 155, 156. + in German Austria, 165, 166. + in Hungary, 172. + in France, 190. + in Italy, 204, 205. + in Galicia, 234. + in Servia, 238. + in India, 254, note 1. + + Purischkewitch, Mr., 229. + + Putnam, Mary, 77. + + + Quakers, in the United States, 4. + + Qualification of Women Act, 72. + + Qvam, Mrs., 121. + + + Ramabai, Pundita, 255. + + Red Cross Society, 91, 261. + + Refia, Princess, 250. + + Rhode Island, 21. + + Richer, Leon, 180. + + Riza, Selma, 247. + + Robin, E., 67, note 1. + + Roland, Henrietta, 130. + + Roland, Madame, 177. + + Romance countries, conditions in, 175. + + Rookwood pottery, 30. + + Roosevelt, Theodore, + and woman's suffrage, 15. + calls "Conference on the Care of Dependent Children," 18, note 1. + involved in conflict with American women, 34. + + Rose, Ernestine, 8. + + Rosores, Isabel de, 208. + + Rumania, conditions in, 242-244. + + Runeburg, Frederika, 110. + + Rural Woman's Industrial Society, 171. + + Russia, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 215 and ff. + + + Saint Simonians, 180. + + Salaries, women's compared with men's, + in the United States, 25 and note 1, 31. + in woman's suffrage states, 39. + in Australia, 46, 47, 55. + in Great Britain, 78-80, 85. + in Canada, 97. + in Sweden, 105, 107, 108. + in Norway, 118, 119. + in the Netherlands, 128. + in Switzerland, 135. + in Germany, 147. + in German Austria, 159. + in France, 184. + in Portugal, 212. + in Bulgaria, 240. + + Salic Law, absence of, + in Australia, 44. + in England, 58. + + Salt Lake City, Utah, 21. + + Sand, George, 180. + + Sandhurst, Lady, 71. + + Scandinavian countries, conditions in, 102, 103. + + Schabanoff, Mrs., 228. + + Schiff, Paoline, 203. + + Schirmacher, Dr., 151. + + Schlesinger, Mrs., 166. + + Schmall, Madame, 189. + + Schmidt, Augusta, 145, 146. + + School inspectors, women, + appointment of, agitated in the United States, 27. + in Great Britain, 79. + in France, 185. + + Schütze, E., 229. + + Schwerin, Jeanette, 151. + + Schwietland, Mrs., 166. + + Scotland, 68; _see also_ Great Britain. + + Seddon, Mrs., 51, 52. + + Servia, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 236, 239. + + Sévigné, Madame de, 178. + + Sewall, Mrs. Wright, xi, note 1. + + Sex, the sexes, + relationship of the sexes, xiv. + woman's use of her sex, as a weapon, 40-42. + + Shaw, Rev. Anna Howard, + challenges Mrs. Humphrey Ward, 18. + Denver elections investigated by, 18. + president of the National Woman's Suffrage Association, 22. + a woman's rights advocate with theological training, 28. + on the legal status of woman, 36, 37. + + Sheldon, Mrs. French, 80. + + Siam, 255, note 1. + + Sie, Tou Fa, 259. + + Silberstein, Mr., 150. + + Simcox, Miss, 85. + + Simpson, Mrs. Anna, 192. + + Sin, Miss Peng Sie, 258. + + Slavic countries, conditions in, 215 and ff. + + Sloane Garden Houses, 81. + + Slovene woman's rights movement, 235, 236. + + _Slovenka_, 236. + + "Social Purity League," 37, 38. + + Social secretaries, 35. + + Society for Jewish Women, 154. + + Society for the Amelioration of the Condition of Woman and for Demanding + Woman's Rights, 180. + + Soho Club and Home for Working Girls, 90. + + Somersville Hall, 75. + + Sorabija, Cornelia, 254. + + South Africa, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 100, 101. + + South America, conditions in, 213, 214. + + South Dakota, 16 and note 2, 21. + + Southern States, conditions in, 35. + + Spain, conditions in, 206, 207. + + Sprung, Mrs. v., 166. + + Stael, Madame de, 177, 178. + + Stanley, Hon. Maude, 90. + + Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, + refused admission to anti-slavery congress, 5, 6. + introduces woman's suffrage resolution, 7. + + Steyber, Ottilie v., 145. + + Stone, Lucy, 5, 24. + + Stopes, Mrs. C. C., 62, note 1. + + Strindberg, 110. + + Stritt, Mrs., 151. + + Styria, _see_ Slovene woman's rights movement. + + Suffragettes, English, + influence of, in the United States, 21. + importance of, 58. + tactics, influence, and activities of, 65-70. + support given to, 69. + + Suslowa, Miss, 221. + + Suttner, Bertha v., 169. + + Swain, Dr. Clara, 253. + + Sweden, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 103-110. + + Switzerland, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 133-134. + + + Tasmania, _see_ Australia. + + Teachers, women, + in the United States, 25. + in Australia, 46, 47. + in Great Britain, 76, 81. + in Sweden, 104, 106, 107. + in Finland, 111. + in Norway, 118, 119. + in Denmark, 123. + in the Netherlands, 128. + in Switzerland, 135. + in Germany, 147. + in German Austria, 161, 162. + in Hungary, 174. + in France, 184. + in Italy, 200, 201. + in Spain, 207, 208. + in Mexico and Central America, 212, 213. + in Russia, 221, 222. + in Galicia, 234. + in Servia, 237. + in Bulgaria, 240. + in Persia, 251, 252. + + _Terem_, 217. + + Téry, Audrée, 195. + + Tessel Benefit Society (_Schadeverein_), 129. + + Thorbecke, Minister, 138. + + Tilmans, Madame, 194. + + Tod, 63. + + Trade-unions, women in, + in the United States, 32, 33. + in Great Britain, 84-88. + in Sweden, 108. + in Finland, 112. + in Norway, 122. + in the Netherlands, 129, 130. + in Switzerland, 137. + in Germany, 150, 153, 154. + in German Austria, 159, 160, 164, 165. + in France, 185, 186. + in Belgium, 193. + in Italy, 203, 204. + in Russia, 222, 225. + in the Slovene countries, 236. + in Bulgaria, 240. + + Trinity College, 76. + + Troy Seminary, 24. + + Tsin King, 258. + + Tumova, Miss, 232. + + Turkey, conditions in, 245-250. + + Turmarkin, Dr. Anna, 135, 136. + + Tuszla, Dolna, 251. + + + United States, + Represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xii, xiii. + conditions in, 2-42. + _See also_ American Women. + + United States, Constitution of, + leaves suffrage matters to the various states, 3. + not opposed to woman's suffrage, 10. + preamble to, 10. + + United States, women in, + leaders in modern woman's rights movement, x. + oppose slavery, 4. + attitude toward negro suffrage, 9. + methods of obtaining the franchise, 13-15. + + Universities, state, in the United States, 26. + + Utah, + woman's suffrage in, 16. + work of women in, 19. + condition of women and children in, 39, 40. + + + Vambéry, Professor, 172. + + Vandervelde, Madame, 193. + + Vassar College, 24. + + Veres, Mrs. v., 169. + + Victoria, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xii; + _see also_ Australia. + + Vooruit, 194. + + Vorst, Mrs. v., her book referred to, 31, 35. + + Vos, Roosje, 130. + + _Votes for Women_, English woman's suffrage organ, referred to, 62, + note 1, 66, 69. + + + Wachtmeister, Countess, 52. + + Wales, _see_ Great Britain. + + Wallis, Professor, 105. + + War of Independence (1774-1783), relation of, to woman's rights + movement, 2. + + Ward, Mrs. Humphry, + opposed to woman's suffrage, 18. + in debate, 69. + + Warren, Ohio, 42. + + Warwick, Lady, 83. + + Washington, State of, woman's suffrage secured in, 16, note 1, 21, + 22, and note 1. + + Webb, Mrs. Sidney, 69. + + Wenckheim, Baroness, 172. + + Wendt, Dr, Cecilia, 163. + + West Australia, _see_ Australia. + + White slave trade, + in Australia, 54. + in Hungary, 172. + + _Why does the Working-woman need the Right to Vote?_ (pamphlet), 33. + + Willard, Frances E., 38. + + Wisconsin, 21. + + Wolfring, v., 166. + + Wollstonecraft, Mary, 176. + + Woman's Coöperative Gild, 93, 94. + + Woman's Equal Suffrage League (Natal), 100. + + Woman's Freedom League, 68. + + Woman's Industrial Society, 159. + + Woman's Institute, 80. + + _Woman's Journal_, 34, 35. + + Woman's rights movement, the modern, + definition, leadership in, origins, ix, x. + international organization of, xi, xii. + chief demands of, xiii, xiv. + characteristics, in Germanic and Romance countries compared, 1, 2. + in Germanic-Protestant countries, 1, 2. + the cradle of, 2. + and American War of Independence, 2. + character of, in the United States, 4 and ff. + in Australia, 42 and ff. + in Great Britain, 58 and ff. + in Canada, 96 and ff. + in South Africa, 100 and ff. + in the Scandinavian countries, 103 and ff. + in the Netherlands, 126 and ff. + in Switzerland, 133 and ff. + in Germany, 144 and ff. + in German Austria, 158 and ff. + in Europe, 175. + in France, 176 and ff. + in Belgium, 191 and ff. + in Italy, 199 and ff. + in Spain, 210, 211. + in South America, 214. + in Russia, 215 and ff. + in Bohemia, 230-232. + in Servia, 236-239. + in Bulgaria, 240-242. + in Turkey and Egypt, 247-250. + in Persia, 251. + in India, 252-255. + in China, 258-260. + in Japan, 262. + in Korea, 263. + _See also_ Woman's suffrage movement. + + Woman's Rights Movement (periodical), 20, 21. + + Woman's Suffrage Alliance, _see_ International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + + _Woman's Suffrage in Australia_ (pamphlet), 56. + + _Woman's Suffrage in New Zealand_, (pamphlet), 56. + + Woman's suffrage movement, + organized internationally, xii, xiii. + in the United States, 2-23. + in Australia, 49-58. + in England, 58-74. + in Canada, 98, 99. + in South Africa, 100, 101. + in Sweden, 104, 108, 109. + in Finland, 114-116. + in Norway, 119-121. + in Denmark, 124, 125. + in Iceland, 125. + in the Netherlands, 130-133. + in Switzerland, 141-143. + in Germany, 153-157. + in German Austria, 166-169. + in Hungary, 172, 173. + in France, 188 and ff. + in Belgium, 194, 195. + in Italy, 202 and ff. + in Russia, 227-229. + in Czechish Bohemia and Moravia, 231, 232. + in Japan, 262. + + Woman's suffrage states (United States), + and educational matters, 27. + women jurors in, 28. + laws concerning women and children in, 39, 40. + + Women, _see also_ Agriculturists, American women, Coeducation, Divorce + laws, Doctors, Children (authority over), Education, Factory + inspectors, Journalists, Laws protecting women and children, + Lawyers, Patents, Preachers, Salaries, Sex, Teachers, Trade-unions, + Working-day. + + Women in the professions and the industries, + in the United States, 25-36. + in Australia, 46-48. + in Great Britain, 77-95. + in Canada, 97. + in Sweden, 104-108. + in Finland, 111-113. + in Norway, 117-121. + in Denmark, 123-124. + in the Netherlands, 128-131. + in Switzerland, 135-139. + in Germany, 147-150. + in Luxemburg, 157, 158. + in Hungary, 171-174. + in France, 185-187. + in Belgium, 193. + in Italy, 200-204. + in Portugal, 212. + in Mexico and Central America, 212, 213. + in South America, 214. + in Russia, 220-226. + in Czechish Bohemia and Moravia, 230, 231. + in Galicia, 232, 233, 235. + in the Slovene countries, 236. + in Servia, 237, 238. + in Greece, 243, 244. + in Persia, 251, 252. + in Japan, 261, 262. + + Women, legal status of, + in the United States, 36, 37. + in Australia, 49. + in England, 73, 74. + in Canada, 97, 98. + in Sweden, 105, 106. + in Finland, 113. + in Denmark, 122, 123, 124. + in the Netherlands, 126, 127. + in Switzerland, 140. + in Germany, 155. + in German Austria, 168, 169. + in France, 178, 179, 182. + in Belgium, 191. + in Italy, 202. + in Spain, 210. + in Mexico and Central America, 213. + in Russia, 226, 227. + in Servia, 239. + in Bulgaria, 240. + according to the Koran, 248. + in China, 256, 257. + + Women's Charter of Rights and Liberties, the, 96, note 1. + + Women's clubs, _see under_ the Woman's rights movement of the various + countries. + + Women's colleges, + in the United States, 24. + in Great Britain, 75-77. + + Women's Enfranchisement League (in Cape Colony), 101. + + _Women's Franchise, the Need of the Hour_, 70, note 1. + + Women's Liberal Federation, 63. + + Working-day for women, + in the United States, 35. + in woman's suffrage states, 39. + in Australia, 48. + in Switzerland, 139. + in Germany, 154. + in Italy, 203. + + Workingwoman's movement, not antagonistic to woman's rights movement, x. + + World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union, + formation of, x. + facts concerning, 38. + advocates woman's suffrage, 38. + + Worm, Pauline, 122. + + Writers' League, 68. + + Wu, Fang Lan, 258. + + Wyoming, + woman's suffrage in, 16. + elections in, 20. + legal status of women in, 39, 40. + + + Yale University, 24. + + Young Turkish Woman's League, 249, 250. + + Young Turk movement, women and, 248, 249. + + + Zenana, 250, 253. + + Zetkin, Clara, 152. + + + + +The following pages contain advertisements of Macmillan books of related +interest. + + +By MISS JANE ADDAMS, Hull-House, Chicago + +The Newer Ideals of Peace + +_12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_ + +"A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as against +the waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of standards that +must ensue when labor and the spirit of militarism are relegated to their +right places in the minds of men."--_Chicago Tribune._ + +"It is given to but few people to have the rare combination of power of +insight and of interpretation possessed by Miss Addams. The present book +shows the same fresh virile thought, and the happy expression which has +characterized her work ... There is nothing of namby-pamby sentimentalism +in Miss Addams's idea of the peace movement. The volume is most inspiring +and deserves wide recognition."--_Annals of the American Academy._ + +"No brief summary can do justice to Miss Addams's grasp of the facts, her +insight into their meaning, her incisive estimate of the strength and +weakness alike of practical politicians and spasmodic reformers, her +sensible suggestions as to woman's place in our municipal housekeeping, +her buoyant yet practical optimism."--_Examiner._ + + +Democracy and Social Ethics + +_12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_ + +"Its pages are remarkably--we were about to say refreshingly--free from +the customary academic limitations...; in fact, are the result of actual +experience in hand-to-hand contact with social problems. + +"The result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social +problems ... No more truthful description, for example, of the 'boss' as +he thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is +contained in Miss Addams's chapter on 'Political Reform.'... The same +thing may be said of the book in regard to the presentation of social and +economic facts."--_Review of Reviews._ + +"The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent"--_Philadelphia +Ledger._ + + +_An Unusually Interesting Book_ + +The Book of Woman's Power + +With an Introduction by IDA M. TARBELL + + _Decorated cloth, 16mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35 + Also in limp leather, $1.75 net; by mail, $1.85_ + +"Whether the reader favors votes for women or not, 'The Book of Woman's +Power' will make a particular appeal to all interested in that +subject."--_Ohio State Journal._ + +"It is a well-made book; the purpose of it is uplifting, and the contents +are certainly of the highest class. It is a book good to read, and full of +instruction for every one who wishes to pursue this theme."--_Salt Lake +Tribune._ + + +MISS MOLLY ELLIOT SEAWELL'S + +The Ladies' Battle + +_Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net; by mail $1.10_ + +"Her reasoning is clear and the arguments she presents are forcibly put +... a racy little book, logical and convincing."--_Boston Globe._ + +"The book is one which every woman, whatever her views, ought to read. It +has no dull pages."--_Record-Herald, Chicago._ + +"Miss Seawell treats a subject of universal interest soberly and +intelligently. She deserves to be widely read."--_Boston Daily +Advertiser._ + +"The clearest and the most thorough little treatise on the theme of woman +suffrage."--_Chicago Inter-Ocean._ + + +Wage-Earning Women + +By ANNIE MARION MACLEAN + +Professor of Sociology in Adelphi College. + +_Cloth, leather back, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail $1.35_ + +"The chapters give glimpses of women wage-earners as they toil in +different parts of the country. The author visited the shoeshops, and the +paper, cotton, and woollen mills of New England, the department stores of +Chicago, the garment-makers' homes in New York, the silk mills and +potteries of New Jersey, the fruit farms of California, the coal fields of +Pennsylvania, and the hop industries of Oregon. The author calls for +legislation regardless of constitutional quibble, for a shorter work-day, +a higher wage, the establishment of residential clubs, the closer +coöperation between existing organizations for industrial +betterment."--_Boston Advertiser._ + + +Making Both Ends Meet: The Income and Outlay of New York Working Girls + +By SUE AINSLIE CLARK AND EDITH WYATT + +_Illustrated, cloth, gilt top, 12mo, 270 pp., $1.50 net; by mail, $1.60_ + +"Gives a vivid picture of the way the 'other half' lives, the half that is +ground down by overwork, lack of home comfort and of recreation. So +powerful are the facts presented that the very simplicity of their +narration rouses the reader to the desperate need of safeguarding the girl +workers in our cities against exhausting mental and physical +demands."--_Continent._ + +"The point of view of the book is constructive throughout, and it is safe +to say that it will be for a long time, both for the practical worker and +for the scientific student, the authoritative work in this +field."--_Detroit News._ + +"It is a recital of facts that makes one's heart and soul shrink up and +grow small for pity and helplessness to help."--_Lexington Herald._ + + +Some Ethical Gains through Legislation + +By FLORENCE KELLEY + +Secretary of the National Consumers' League. + +_Cloth, leather back, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_ + +This interesting volume has grown out of the author's experience in +philanthropic work in Chicago and New York, and her service for the State +of Illinois and for the Federal Government in investigating the +circumstances of the poorer classes, and conditions in various trades. + +The value of the work lies in information gathered at close range in a +long association with, and effort to improve the condition of, the very +poor. + +The author is not only a lawyer of large experience in Chicago, but has +served that city, the State of Illinois, and the Federal Government in +many investigations of conditions among various trades, and in reference +to the circumstances of the poorer classes. + +Among the topics here treated are: + + The Right to Childhood. + Interpretations of the Right to Leisure. + The Right of Women to the Ballot. + The Rights of Purchasers and the Courts. + + +The Women of America + +By ELIZABETH McCRACKEN + +_Cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net; by mail, $1.61_ + +"A work the immediate need of which is felt everywhere. It treats of the +American woman's economic condition and of women workers in various +fields. It can be recommended to every one who is interested in the grave +problems involved by the new and untoward conditions of women's +work."--_N. Y. Evening Sun._ + + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. + +Punctuation has been corrected without note. + +The following misprints have been corrected: + "Cubs" corrected to "Clubs" (page 133) + "classses" corrected to "classes" (page 184) + "admisson" corrected to "admission" (page 250) + "1 4" corrected to "184" (page 270) + +Other than the corrections listed above, inconsistencies in spelling and +hyphenation have been retained from the original. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Modern Woman's Rights Movement, by +Kaethe Schirmacher + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT *** + +***** This file should be named 33700-8.txt or 33700-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/7/0/33700/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/33700-8.zip b/33700-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c8ae11c --- /dev/null +++ b/33700-8.zip diff --git a/33700-h.zip b/33700-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..515dd39 --- /dev/null +++ b/33700-h.zip diff --git a/33700-h/33700-h.htm b/33700-h/33700-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..475f0d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/33700-h/33700-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,8728 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Modern Woman's Rights Movement, by Kaethe Schirmacher. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + + body {margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right; font-style: normal;} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center; clear: both;} + + hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .bb {border-bottom: solid black 1px; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .br {border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .bt {border-top: solid black 1px; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .bbr {border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .btr {border-top: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .dent {padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + + .blockquot {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .poem {margin-left:15%; margin-right:15%;} + .note {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;} + .index {margin-left: 20%;} + + .right {text-align: right;} + .center {text-align: center;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + a:link {color:#0000ff; text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:#6633cc; text-decoration:none} + + .spacer {padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + + ins.correction {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin solid gray;} + + .adverts {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;} + + .hang {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's The Modern Woman's Rights Movement, by Kaethe Schirmacher + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Modern Woman's Rights Movement + A Historical Survey + +Author: Kaethe Schirmacher + +Translator: Carl Conrad Eckhardt + +Release Date: September 10, 2010 [EBook #33700] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<h1>THE MODERN<br />WOMAN’S RIGHTS MOVEMENT</h1> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/publisher.png" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><small>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> +NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO<br />SAN FRANCISCO<br /><br /> +MACMILLAN & CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br /> +LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA<br />MELBOURNE<br /><br /> +THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br />TORONTO</small></p> + +<p> </p><p> </p><p> </p> + +<h1>THE MODERN<br />WOMAN’S RIGHTS MOVEMENT</h1> +<p> </p> +<h3><i>A HISTORICAL SURVEY</i></h3> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<h4>BY</h4> +<h3>DR. KAETHE SCHIRMACHER</h3> +<p> </p><p> </p> + +<p class="center">TRANSLATED FROM THE<br /> +SECOND GERMAN EDITION<br /> +<small>BY</small><br /> +CARL CONRAD ECKHARDT, <span class="smcap">Ph.D.</span><br /> +<small>INSTRUCTOR IN HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO</small></p> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center">New York<br /> +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> +1912<br /> +<i>All rights reserved</i></p> +<p> </p><p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1912,<br /> +<span class="smcap">By</span> THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.<br /><br /> +Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1912.</p> +<p> </p> +<p class="center">Norwood Press<br /> +J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.<br />Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center">“Unterdrückung ist gegen die menschliche Natur”<br /> +“Oppression is opposed to human nature”</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<h2>TRANSLATOR’S NOTE</h2> + +<div class="note"> +<p>Hitherto there has been no English book giving a history of the woman’s +rights movement in all countries of the world. English and American +readers will therefore welcome the appearance of an English edition of Dr. +Schirmacher’s “Die moderne Frauenbewegung.” Since Dr. Schirmacher is a +German woman’s rights advocate, actively engaged in propaganda, her book +is not merely a history, but a political pamphlet as well. Although the +reader may at times disagree with the authoress, he will be interested in +her point of view.</p> + +<p>In the chapter on the United States I have added, with Dr. Schirmacher’s +consent, a number of translator’s footnotes, showing what bearings the +elections of November, 1910, and October, 1911, have had on the woman’s +rights question. An index, also, has been added.</p> + +<p> +<span class="smcap">Boulder, Colorado</span>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">November, 1911.</span></p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>The first edition of this book appeared in 1905. That edition is +exhausted,—an evidence of the great present-day interest in the woman’s +rights movement. This new edition takes into account the developments +since 1905, contains the recent statistical data, and gives an account of +the woman’s suffrage movement which has been especially characteristic of +these later years. Wherever the statistical data have been left unchanged, +either there have been no new censuses or the new results were not +available.</p> + +<p>The facts contained in this volume do not require of me any prefatory +observations on the theoretical justification of the woman’s rights +movement.<small><a name="f1.1" id="f1.1" href="#f1">[1]</a></small> From the remotest time man has tried to rule her who ought to +be comrade and colleague to him. By virtue of the law of might he +generally succeeded. Every protest against this law of might was a +“woman’s rights movement.”</p> + +<p>History contains many such protests. The <i>modern</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span> woman’s rights movement +is the first organized and international protest of this kind. Therefore +it is a movement full of success and promise. Leadership in this movement +has fallen to the women of the Caucasian race, among whom the women of the +United States have been foremost. At their instigation were formed the +World’s Christian Temperance Union, the International Council of Women, +and the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance.</p> + +<p>In many lands, even in those inhabited by the white race, there are, +however, only very feeble beginnings of the woman’s rights movement. In +the Orient, the Far East, and in Africa, woman’s condition of bondage is +still almost entirely unbroken. Nevertheless, in these regions of the +world, too, woman’s day is dawning in such a way that we look for +developments more confidently than ever before.</p> + +<p>In all countries the woman’s rights movement originated with the middle +classes. This is a purely historical fact which in itself in no way +implies any antagonism between the woman’s rights movement and the +workingwomen’s movement. There is no such antagonism either in Australia, +or in England, or in the United States. On the contrary, the middle class +and non-middle class movements are sharply separated in those countries +whose social democracy uses class-hatred as propaganda. Whether the +woman’s rights<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span> movement is also a workingwomen’s movement, or whether the +workingwomen’s movement is also a woman’s rights movement or socialism, +depends therefore in every particular case on national and historical +circumstances.</p> + +<p>The international organization of the woman’s rights movement is as +follows: the International Council of Women consists of the presiding +officers of the various National Councils of Women. Of these latter there +are to-day twenty-seven; but the Servian League of Woman’s Clubs has not +yet joined.<small><a name="f2.1" id="f2.1" href="#f2">[2]</a></small> To a National Council may belong all those woman’s clubs of +a country which unite in carrying out a certain general programme. The +programmes as well as the organizations are national in their nature, but +they all agree in their general characteristics, since the woman’s rights +movement is indeed an international movement and arose in all countries +from the same general conditions. The first National Council was organized +in the United States in 1888. This was followed by organizations in +Canada, Germany, Sweden, England, Denmark, the Netherlands, Australia +(with five councils), Switzerland, Italy, France, Austria, Norway, +Hungary, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span>As yet there are no statistics of the women represented in the +International Council. Its membership is estimated at seven or eight +millions. The National Council admits only clubs,—not individuals,—the +chairmen of the various National Councils forming the International +Council of Women solely in their capacity of presiding officers.</p> + +<p>This International Council of Women is the permanent body promoting the +organized international woman’s rights movement. It was organized in +Washington in 1888.</p> + +<p>The woman’s suffrage movement, a separate phase of the woman’s rights +movement, has likewise organized itself internationally,—though +independently. Woman’s suffrage is the most radical demand made by +organized women, and is hence advocated in all countries by the “radical” +woman’s rights advocates. The greater part of the membership of the +National Councils have therefore not been able in all cases to insert +woman’s suffrage in their programmes. The International Council did +sanction this point, however, June 9, 1904, in Berlin.</p> + +<p>A few days previously there had been organized as the International +Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, likewise in Berlin, woman’s suffrage leagues +representing eight different countries. The leagues which joined the +Alliance represented the United States, Victoria, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span>England, Germany, +Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Since then the woman’s +suffrage movement has been the most flourishing part of the woman’s rights +movement. The International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, which was pledged +to hold a second congress only at the end of five years, has already held +three congresses between 1905 and 1909 (1906, Copenhagen; 1908, Amsterdam; +1909, London), and has extended its membership to twenty-one countries +(the United States, Australia, South Africa, Canada, Great Britain, +Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, Russia, +Hungary, Austria, Bulgaria, Italy, Switzerland, France, Belgium, Servia, +and Iceland). The first president is Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt.</p> + +<p>The chief demands of the woman’s rights movement are the same in all +countries. These demands are four in number.</p> + +<p>1. In the field of education and instruction: to enjoy the same +educational opportunities as those of man.</p> + +<p>2. In the field of labor: freedom to choose any occupation, and equal pay +for the same work.</p> + +<p>3. In the field of civil law: the wife should be given the full status of +a legal person before the law, and full civil ability. In criminal law: +the repeal of all regulations discriminating against women. The legal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> +responsibility of man in sexual matters. In public law: woman’s suffrage.</p> + +<p>4. In the social field: recognition of the high value of woman’s domestic +and social work, and the incompleteness, harshness, and one-sidedness of +every circle of man’s activity (<i>Männerwelt</i>) from which woman is +excluded.</p> + +<p>A just and happy relationship of the sexes is dependent upon mutuality, +coördination, and the complementary relations of man and woman,—not upon +the subordination of woman and the predominance of man. Woman, in her +peculiar sphere, is entirely the equal of man in his. The origin of the +international woman’s rights movement is found in the world-wide disregard +of this elementary truth.</p> + +<p>The subject which I have treated in this book is a very broad one, the +material much scattered and daily changing. It is therefore hardly +possible that my statements should not have deficiencies on the one hand, +and errors on the other. I shall indeed welcome any corrections and +authoritative information of a supplementary nature.<small><a name="f3.1" id="f3.1" href="#f3">[3]</a></small></p> + +<p class="right">THE AUTHORESS.</p> +<p><small>PARIS, JUNE 3, 1909.</small></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></p> +<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="contents"> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Translator’s Note</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_ix">ix-xiv</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">I. THE GERMANIC COUNTRIES</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The United States of America</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Australia</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Great Britain</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Canada</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">South Africa</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Scandinavian Countries</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101-126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Sweden</span></span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Finland</span></span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Norway</span></span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Denmark</span></span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Netherlands</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Switzerland</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Germany</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Luxemburg</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">German Austria</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Hungary</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">II. THE ROMANCE COUNTRIES</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">France</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Belgium</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Italy</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span><span class="smcap">Spain</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Portugal</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Latin-American Republics of Central and South America</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">III. THE SLAVIC AND BALKAN STATES</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Russia</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Czechish Bohemia and Moravia</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Galicia</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Slovene Woman’s Rights Movement</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Servia</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Bulgaria</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Rumania</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Greece</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">IV. THE ORIENT AND THE FAR EAST</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Turkey and Egypt</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Bosnia and Herzegovina</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Persia</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">India</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">China</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Japan and Korea</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr></table> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h1>THE MODERN WOMAN’S RIGHTS MOVEMENT</h1> +<p> </p> +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> +<h3>THE GERMANIC COUNTRIES</h3> + +<p>The woman’s rights movement is more strongly organized and has penetrated +society more thoroughly in all the Germanic countries than in the Romance +countries. There are many causes for this: woman’s greater freedom of +activity in the Germanic countries; the predominance of the Protestant +religion, which does not oppose the demands of the woman’s rights movement +with the same united organization as does the Catholic Church; the more +vigorous training in self-reliance and responsibility which is customarily +given to women in Germanic-Protestant countries; the more significant +superiority in numbers of women in Germanic countries, which has forced +women to adopt business or professional callings other than domestic.<small><a name="f4.1" id="f4.1" href="#f4">[4]</a></small><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> +The woman’s rights movement in the Germanic-Protestant countries has been +promoted by <i>moral</i> and <i>economic</i> factors.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>91,972,267.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women: about</td><td>45,000,000.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men: about</td><td>47,000,000.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>The General Federation of Women’s Clubs.<br /> +The National American Woman’s Suffrage Association.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />North America is the cradle of the woman’s rights movement. It was the War +of Independence of the colonies against England (1774-1783) that matured +the woman’s rights movement. In the name of “freedom” our cause entered +the history of the world.</p> + +<p>In these troubled times the American women had by energetic activities and +unyielding suffering entirely fulfilled their duty as citizens, and at the +Convention in Philadelphia, in 1787, they demanded as citizens the right +to vote. The Constitution of the United States was being drawn up at that +time, and by 1789 had been ratified by the thirteen states then existing. +In nine of these states (Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, New +Jersey, North and South Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island) the +right to vote in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> municipal and state affairs had hitherto been exercised +by all “free-born citizens” or all “taxpayers” and “heads of families,” +the state constitutions being based on the principle: <i>no taxation without +representation</i>.</p> + +<p>Among these “free-born citizens,” “taxpayers,” and “heads of families” +there were naturally many women who were consequently both voters and +active citizens. So woman’s right to vote in the above-named states was +practically established <i>before</i> 1783. Only the states of Virginia and New +York had restricted the suffrage to males in 1699 and 1777, Massachusetts +and New Hampshire following their example in 1780 and 1784.</p> + +<p>In view of this retrograde movement American women attempted at the +Convention in Philadelphia to secure a recognition of their civil rights +through the Constitution of the whole federation of states. But the +Convention refused this request; just as before, it left the conditions of +suffrage to be determined by the individual states. To be sure, in the +draft of the Constitution the Convention <i>in no way opposed</i> woman’s +suffrage. But the nine states which formerly, as colonies, had practically +given women the right to vote, had in the meantime abrogated this right +through the insertion of the word “man” in their election laws, and the +first attempt of the American women to secure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> an expressed constitutional +recognition of their rights as citizens failed.</p> + +<p>These proceedings gave to the woman’s rights movement of the United States +a political character from the very beginning. Since then the American +women have labored untiringly for their political emancipation. The +anti-slavery movement gave them an excellent opportunity to participate in +public affairs.</p> + +<p>Since the women had had experience of oppression and slavery, and since +they, like negroes, were struggling for the recognition of their “human +rights,” they were amongst the most zealous opponents of “slavery,” and +belonged to the most enthusiastic defenders of “freedom” and “justice.”</p> + +<p>Among the Quakers, who played a very prominent part in the anti-slavery +movement, man and woman had the same rights in all respects in the home +and church. When the first anti-slavery society was formed in Boston in +1832, twelve women immediately became members.</p> + +<p>The principle of the equality of the sexes, which the Quakers held, was +opposed by the majority of the population, who held to the Puritanic +principle of woman’s subordination to man. In consequence of this +principle it was at that time considered “monstrous” that a woman should +speak from a public platform. Against Abby Kelly, who at that time was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +one of the best anti-slavery speakers, a sermon was preached from the +pulpit from the text: “This Jezebel has come into the midst of us.” She +was called a “hyena”; it was related that she had been intoxicated in a +saloon, etc. When her political associate, Angelina Grimke, held an +anti-slavery meeting in Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia) in 1837, the hall +was set on fire, and in 1838 in the chamber of the House of +Representatives in Massachusetts a mob threatened to take her life. “The +mob howled, the press hissed, and the pulpit thundered,” thus the +proceedings were described by Lucy Stone, the woman’s rights advocate.</p> + +<p>Even the educated classes shared the prejudice against woman. To them she +was a “human being of the second order.” The following is an illustration +of this:</p> + +<p>In 1840 Abby Kelly was elected to a committee. She was urged, however, to +decline the election. “If you regard me as incompetent, then I shall +leave.” “Oh, no, not exactly that,” was the answer. “Well, what is it +then?” “But you are a woman....” “That is no reason; therefore I remain.”</p> + +<p>In the same year an anti-slavery congress was held in England. A number of +American champions of the cause went to London,—among them three women, +Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Elizabeth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> Pease. They were +accompanied by their husbands and came as delegates of the “National +Anti-slavery Society.” Since the Congress was dominated by the English +clergy, who persisted in their belief in the “inferiority” of woman, the +three American women, being creatures without political rights, were not +permitted to perform their duties as delegates, but were directed to leave +the convention hall and to occupy places in the spectators’ gallery. But +the noble William Lloyd Garrison silently registered a protest by sitting +with the women in the gallery.</p> + +<p>This procedure clearly indicated to the American women what their next +duty should be, and once when Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton +came from the gallery to the hotel Mrs. Stanton said, “The first thing +which we must do upon our return is to call a convention to discuss the +slavery of woman.”</p> + +<p>This plan, however, was not executed till eight years later. At that time +Elizabeth Cady Stanton, on the occasion of a visit from Lucretia Mott, +summoned a number of acquaintances to her home in Seneca Falls, New York. +In giving an account of the meeting at Washington, in 1888, at the +Conference of Pioneers of the International Council of Women (see Report, +pp. 323, 324), she states that she and Lucretia Mott had drawn up the +grievances of woman under eighteen headings with the American Declaration +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> Independence as a model, and that it was her wish to submit a suffrage +resolution to the meeting, but that Lucretia Mott herself refused to have +it presented.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, in the meeting Elizabeth Cady Stanton herself, burning with +enthusiasm, introduced her resolution concerning woman’s right to vote, +and, as she reports, the resolution <i>was adopted unanimously</i>. A few days +later the newspaper reports appeared. “There was,” relates Elizabeth Cady +Stanton, “not a single paper from Maine to Louisiana which did not contain +our Declaration of Independence and present the matter as ludicrous. My +good father came from New York on the night train to see whether I had +lost my mind. I was overwhelmed with ridicule. A great number of women who +signed the Declaration withdrew their signatures. I felt very much +humiliated, so much the more, since I knew <i>that I was right</i>.... For all +that I should probably have allowed myself to be subdued if I had not soon +afterward met Susan B. Anthony, whom we call the Napoleon of our woman’s +suffrage movement.”</p> + +<p>Susan B. Anthony, the brave old lady, who in spite of her eighty-three +years did not dread the long journey from the United States to Berlin, and +in June, 1904, attended the meetings of the International Council of Women +and the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, was in early life a +teacher in Rochester, New<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> York, and participated in the temperance +movement. She had assisted in securing twenty-eight thousand signatures to +a petition, providing for the regulation of the sale of alcohol, which was +presented to the New York State Legislature. Susan B. Anthony was in the +gallery during the discussion of the petition, and as she saw how one +speaker scornfully threw the petition to the floor and exclaimed, “Who is +it that demands such laws? They are only women and children...,” she vowed +to herself that she would not rest content until a woman’s signature to a +petition should have the same weight as that of a man. And she faithfully +kept her word. After a life of unceasing and unselfish work, Susan B. +Anthony died March 13, 1906, loved and esteemed by all who knew her. At +the commemoration services in 1907, twenty-four thousand dollars were +subscribed for the Susan B. Anthony Memorial Fund (to be used for woman’s +suffrage propaganda). Susan B. Anthony was honorary president of the +International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance.</p> + +<p>It is to be noted that a number of European women (such as Ernestine Rose +of Westphalia), imbued with the ideas of the February Revolution of 1848, +were compelled to seek new homes in America. These newcomers gave an +impetus to the woman’s suffrage movement among American women. They were +greatly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> surprised to find that in republics also political freedom was +withheld from women.</p> + +<p>This was strikingly impressed upon the women of the United States in 1870. +At that time the negroes, who had been emancipated in 1863, were given +political rights throughout the Union by the addition of the Fifteenth +Amendment to the Federal Constitution.<small><a name="f5.1" id="f5.1" href="#f5">[5]</a></small> In this way all power of the +individual states to abridge the political rights of the negro was taken +away.</p> + +<p>The American women felt very keenly that in the eyes of their legislators +a member of an inferior race, <i>if only a man</i>, should be ranked superior +to any woman, be she ever so highly educated; and they expressed their +indignation in a picture portraying the American woman and her political +associates. This represented the Indian, the idiot, the lunatic, the +criminal,—<i>and woman</i>. In the United States they are all without +political rights.</p> + +<p>Since 1848 an energetic suffrage movement has been carried on by the +American women. To-day there is a “Woman’s Suffrage Society” in every +state, and all these organizations belong to a national woman’s suffrage +league. In recent years there has arisen a vigorous woman’s suffrage +movement within the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> numerous and influential woman’s clubs (with almost a +million members) and among college women the College Equal Suffrage +League, the movement extending even into the secondary schools. The +National Trades Union League, the American Federation of Labor, and +nineteen state Federations of Labor have declared themselves in favor of +woman’s suffrage. The leaders of the movement have now established the +fact that “the Constitution of the United States does not contain a word +or a line, which, if interpreted in the spirit of the ‘Declaration of +Independence,’ denies woman the right to vote in state and national +elections.”</p> + +<p>The preamble to the Constitution of the United States reads as follows: +“We, the people of the United States ... do ordain and establish this +Constitution for the United States of America.” Women are doubtlessly +people. All the articles of the Constitution repeat this expression. The +objects of the Constitution are:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang">1. The establishment of a more perfect union of the states among themselves,</p> +<p class="hang">2. The establishment of justice,</p> +<p class="hang">3. The insurance of domestic tranquillity,</p> +<p class="hang">4. The provision of common defense,</p> +<p class="hang">5. The promotion of the general welfare,</p> +<p class="hang">6. The securing of the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>All of these six points concern and interest women as much as men. +Supplementary to this is the “Declaration of Independence.” Here are +stated as self-evident truths:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang">1. “That all men are created equal,”</p> + +<p class="hang">2. “That they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable +Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness,”</p> + +<p class="hang">3. “That to secure [not to grant] these rights, Governments are +instituted among men, <i>deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed</i>.”</p></div> + +<p>On this last passage the Americans comment with especial emphasis: they +say the right to vote is their right as human beings,—<i>they possess it as +a natural right</i>; the government cannot justly take it from them, cannot +even grant it to them justly. So long as the government does not ask the +women for their consent, it is acting <i>illegally</i> according to the +Declaration of Independence. For it is nowhere stated that the consent of +one half, the male half, will suffice to make a government <i>legal</i>.</p> + +<p>On the basis of this declaration of principles the American women have +made it a point to oppose every individual argument against woman’s +suffrage. For this purpose they frequently use small four-page<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> pamphlets, +which are issued as the “Political Equality Series” by the American +Woman’s Suffrage Association. They say “It is generally held that:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang">1. “Every woman is married, loved, and provided for.</p> + +<p class="hang">2. “Every man stays at home every evening.</p> + +<p class="hang">3. “Every woman has small children.</p> + +<p class="hang">4. “All women, when they have once secured political rights, will +plunge into politics and neglect their households.”</p> + +<p>“What is the exact state of affairs in these matters?</p> + +<p class="hang">1. “A great many women are not married; many are widows who must +educate their children and seek a means of livelihood. Thousands have +no other home than the one they create for themselves, and they must +often support relatives in addition to themselves. Many of the +married women are neither loved, provided for, nor protected.</p> + +<p class="hang">2. “Many men are at home so seldom in the evening that their wives +could quietly concern themselves with political matters without being +missed at all. And such men, seconded by bachelors, clamor most about +the ‘dissolution of the family’ through politics.</p> + +<p class="hang">3. “The children do not remain small indefinitely; they grow up and +hence leave the mother.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> It may be true that the mother, instead of +participating in political affairs, prefers to sew flannel shirts for +the heathen, or prefers to read novels, but one ought at least to +permit her the freedom of making the choice.</p> + +<p class="hang">4. “The right to vote will not change the nature of woman. If she +wished to leave the home as her sphere of activity, she would have +found other opportunities long ago.”</p></div> + +<p>Further fears are the following: 1. <i>The majority of women do not wish the +right to vote at all.</i> To this we must answer that we cannot yet come to a +conclusion concerning the wish of the majority in this respect. The +petitions for woman’s suffrage always have a greater number of signatures +than any other petitions to Congress. 2. <i>Women will use the right to vote +only to a limited extent.</i> The statistics in Wyoming and Colorado prove +the contrary. 3. <i>Only women “of ill repute” will vote.</i> Thus far this has +been nowhere the case. The men guard against attracting these elements. +Moreover, the right to vote is not restricted to the men “of good repute” +either, etc., etc.</p> + +<p>The American women can obtain the political franchise by two methods: 1. +At the hands of every individual legislature (which would occasion 52 +separate legislative acts,—48 states and 4 territories).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> 2. Through the +adoption of a sixteenth amendment to the national Constitution by +Congress.<small><a name="f6.1" id="f6.1" href="#f6">[6]</a></small> Let us consider the first method. The franchise +qualifications in the United States are generally the following: male sex, +twenty-one years of age, American citizenship (through birth, or by +naturalization after five years’ residence).</p> + +<p>Amendments to the state constitution must be accepted by the state +legislature (consisting of the lower house and the senate),<small><a name="f7.1" id="f7.1" href="#f7">[7]</a></small> and then be +accepted in a referendum vote by the (male) electorate. To secure the +adoption of such an amendment in a state legislature is no easy task. In +the first place the presentation of a woman’s suffrage bill is not +received favorably; the Republicans and Democrats struggle for control of +the legislature, the majority one way or the other never being large. +Therefore the party leaders usually consider woman’s suffrage not on the +basis of party politics. Matters are decided on the basis of +opportuneness. Especially is this the case in those states where the bill +must be passed by two successive legislatures. In this case, between the +time of the first passing of a bill and the referendum, there is a new +election, and the opponents of woman’s suffrage can defeat the adherents +of the measure at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> the polls before the women themselves can exercise the +right of suffrage.</p> + +<p>Changing the national Constitution through the adoption of a sixteenth +amendment has difficulties equally great; the amendment must pass the +House of Representatives and the Senate by a two-thirds vote and then be +ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures or specially called +conventions.</p> + +<p>To the present time only two of the Presidents of the Union have publicly +expressed themselves in favor of woman’s suffrage,—Abraham Lincoln and +Theodore Roosevelt. In 1836 Lincoln addressed an open letter to the voters +in New Salem, Illinois, in which he said: “I go for all sharing the +privileges of the government who assist in bearing its burdens”; and he +was in favor of “admitting all whites to the right of suffrage who pay +taxes or bear arms (<i>by no means excluding females</i>).” Garfield, Hayes, +and Cleveland gave their attention to the question of woman’s suffrage; +the last two supporting motions in favor of the movement. Theodore +Roosevelt, in 1899, as Assemblyman in the New York State Legislature, +spoke in favor of woman’s suffrage: “I call the attention of the Assembly +to the advantages which a general extension of woman’s right to vote must +bring about.”</p> + +<p>In order to attain their end,—political emancipation,—the American women +use the following means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> of agitation: petitions, the submission of +legislative bills, meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of +pamphlets, deputations to the legislatures of the individual states and to +the Congressional House of Representatives, the organization of +workingwomen, requests to teachers and preachers to comment on patriotic +memorial days on woman’s worth, and to preach at least once during the +year in favor of woman’s suffrage.</p> + +<p>To the present time four states of the Union have granted full municipal +and political suffrage to women (active suffrage, the right to vote; +passive suffrage, eligibility to office). The states in question are +Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and Idaho. Wyoming and Utah inaugurated woman’s +suffrage in 1869 and 1870, respectively, when they were still territories; +and in 1890 and 1895, when they were given statehood, they retained +woman’s suffrage. Colorado granted it in 1893 and Idaho in 1896. The +political emancipation of woman in the State of Washington is close at +hand,<small><a name="f8.1" id="f8.1" href="#f8">[8]</a></small> in South Dakota,<small><a href="#f9">[9]</a></small> +Oregon,<small><a name="f9.1" id="f9.1" href="#f9">[9]</a></small> and Nebraska it seems assured. In +Kansas, since 1887, women have possessed active and passive suffrage in +municipal elections. In the State of Illinois they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> about to secure +it.<small><a name="f10.1" id="f10.1" href="#f10">[10]</a></small> All of these are western states with a new civilization and a +numerical superiority of men.</p> + +<p>Practical experience with woman’s suffrage shows the following: everywhere +the elections have become quieter and more respectable. <i>The wages and +salaries of women have been generally raised</i>, partly through the +enactment of laws, such as laws regulating the salaries of women teachers, +etc., partly through the better professional and industrial organization +of workingwomen, who are now trained in political affairs. A comparison of +the salaries of women teachers having woman’s suffrage with salaries in +states not having woman’s suffrage shows the value of the ballot. The +public finances have been more economically administered, intemperance and +immorality have been more energetically combated, candidates with immoral +records have been removed from the political arena. Inasmuch as women have +full political rights in the four states named (six, including Washington +and California), they also vote for presidential electors, and thus +exercise an influence in the national presidential elections. It is the +woman with good average abilities that is most frequently the successful +candidate in political campaigns.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>But as yet the number of women who devote themselves to a political life +is not large. The women in Colorado seem to have a special ability for +this. Without any consideration for party affiliations they secured the +reëlection of Judge Lindsey of the Juvenile Court. Generally speaking, +they have devoted their efforts everywhere to the protection of youth. At +the present time the establishment of a special bureau for the protection +of youth is being advocated, and a national conference to discuss the +welfare of children is to be held in Washington, D.C.<small><a name="f11.1" id="f11.1" href="#f11">[11]</a></small></p> + +<p>Because the English anti-woman’s suffrage advocate, Mrs. Humphry Ward, +expressed the familiar fear that “the immoral vote would drown the moral +vote,” the Reverend Anna Shaw declared at the Woman’s Suffrage Congress at +London (May, 1909), that she openly challenges Mrs. Humphry Ward to +produce one convincing proof for her assertion. She herself had carefully +investigated the recent elections in Denver, Colorado, to ascertain how +many, if any, of the “immoral” women voted, and received as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> answer that +these women, who naturally are in a minority, generally do not vote at +all; first, because they pursue their trade under false names, secondly, +because most of them are not permanently domiciled and for both reasons +are not entered on the voting lists; these women vote only when an +influence is exerted on them from above or by persons around them.</p> + +<p>In the State of Utah, where woman’s suffrage has existed since 1870, “the +women have quietly begun and continued without a break the exercise of +that power, which from the remotest time had been their right. They have +concerned themselves with political and economic questions, and if they +have committed any errors, these have not yet come to light. They have +been delegates to county and state conventions, they have represented the +richest and most populous electoral districts in the state legislature, +and they serve as heads of various state departments” (state treasurer, +supervisor of the poor, superintendent of education, etc.). In Colorado +(with woman’s suffrage since 1893) the women have organized clubs in all +cities, even in the lonely mining towns (Colorado is in the Rocky +Mountains), and have informed themselves in political affairs to the best +of their ability. In the capital city, Denver, a club has been formed in +which busy women can meet weekly to inform themselves on political +affairs. In Colorado <i>parental</i> authority<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> over children prevails now (in +place of the exclusively paternal). In Idaho (with woman’s suffrage since +1896) the women voters exerted a strong influence against gambling. The +enfranchised women, who had a right to vote in the little town of +Caldwell, had supported a mayor who was determined to take measures +against gambling. The barkeepers, topers, gamblers, and ne’er-do-wells +were against him. The women presented the magistrate with a petition, +which was read together with the signatures. “During the reading of the +names of the unobtrusive housewives who were rarely seen beyond their own +thresholds, the countenances of the men became serious. For the first time +they seemed to grasp what it really meant for a city to have woman’s +suffrage.” The barkeepers and the gamblers got the worst of it and +disappeared from the town hall. An old municipal judge said, “When have +our mothers ever <i>demanded</i> anything before?”<small><a name="f12.1" id="f12.1" href="#f12">[12]</a></small> In the same way the +women of Kansas have employed their municipal suffrage since 1887.</p> + +<p>Concerning an election in which women voted, the “Women’s Rights Movement” +reports the following: “Almost all the women (about one third of the +population) in Wyoming, voted” (7000 votes out of 23,000).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> “In Boise, +Idaho, it was one of the quietest election days in the annals of the city. +Everywhere the women came to the polls in the early part of the day.” “In +Salt Lake City, Utah, there was no interruption of traffic, no disturbance +of any kind ... the women came alone without having their husbands +accompany them to the ballot-box during the noon-hour.”</p> + +<p>Because of the unsatisfactory experiences which America has had with +universal suffrage<small><a name="f13.1" id="f13.1" href="#f13">[13]</a></small> as such, the woman’s rights movement had suffered +also and has been retarded; but owing to the proceedings of the English +suffragettes during the past three years it has been given a new impetus. +In the state legislatures throughout the various parts of the country, +legislative bills have, during this time, been introduced; on these +occasions the women presented their demands in the so-called “hearings” +(which take place before the legislature). This took place in 1908 in +Rhode Island, Wisconsin, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, New York, Illinois, +South Dakota, Kansas, Oklahoma<small><a name="f14.1" id="f14.1" href="#f14">[14]</a></small>, Maine, Massachusetts, California, +Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Washington. In the latter state the House +has just passed a woman’s suffrage amendment; if the Senate passes it, the +amendment will be submitted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> popular vote.<small><a name="f15.1" id="f15.1" href="#f15">[15]</a></small> A very active woman’s +suffrage campaign in the State of Oregon (1906) failed, owing to the +opposition of the friends of the liquor interests and the brothels.<small><a name="f16.1" id="f16.1" href="#f16">[16]</a></small> It +is both significant and gratifying that the woman’s suffrage movement is +spreading to the Eastern States; an example of this is the great +demonstration of February 22, 1909, in Boston.</p> + +<p>The woman’s suffrage societies of the various states are formed into a +national league: the National Woman’s Suffrage Association, with about +100,000 members. The President is the Reverend Anna Shaw. This Association +has recently drawn up an enormous petition to Congress in order to secure +woman’s suffrage through federal law, and has established headquarters in +Washington, the federal capital. During eleven weeks 6000 letters and 1000 +postal cards were written, and 100,000 petition-blanks were distributed.</p> + +<p>To the present time only a small number of women have sought state +legislative offices; women members of city councils are rather numerous. +At the present time there is a woman representative in the legislature of +Colorado. The former governor, Mr. Alva Adams, alluded to her as “a +bright, efficient woman,” who has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> introduced many bills and secured their +passage. For, says the governor, “it must be a pretty miserable law which +a tactful woman cannot have enacted, since the male legislators are +usually courteous and kindly disposed, and disregard party interests in +order to accept the measure of their female colleague.” From which we +conclude that the women legislators strive especially for measures which +are for the general good.<small><a name="f17.1" id="f17.1" href="#f17">[17]</a></small></p> + +<p>In the United States there is also an “Association Opposed to Woman’s +Suffrage.” Its chief supporters are found among the saloon-keepers, the +habitual drunkards, and the women of the upper classes. But the American +women believe “that if every prayer, every tear can be supported by the +power of the ballot, mothers will no longer shed powerless tears over the +misfortunes of their children.”<small><a name="f18.1" id="f18.1" href="#f18">[18]</a></small></p> + +<p>The American women had to struggle not only for their rights as citizens, +but they encountered great difficulty in securing an education. At the +beginning of the nineteenth century the education of girls in the United +States was entirely neglected; the secondary as well as the higher +institutions of learning were as good as closed to them. Woman’s “physical +and intellectual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> inferiority” was referred to, just as with us [in +Germany]; woman’s “loss of her feminine nature” was feared, and it was +declared “that within a short time the country would be full of the wrecks +of women who had overtaxed themselves with studies.” To all these fears +the American women gave this answer: Women, you say, are foolish? God +created them so they would harmonize with man. As for the rest they +awaited developments. As early as 1821 the first institution for the +higher education of women, Troy Seminary, was founded with hopes for state +aid. In 1833, Oberlin College, the first coeducational college, was opened +with the express purpose “of giving all the privileges of higher education +to the unjustly condemned and neglected sex.” Among the first women +students was the youthful woman’s rights advocate, Lucy Stone. She wished +to learn Greek and Hebrew, for she was convinced that the Biblical +passage, “<i>and he shall rule over thee</i>,” had not been correctly +translated by the men. In 1865 with the founding of Vassar College, the +first woman’s college was established. To-day both sexes have the same +educational opportunities in the United States. The four oldest +universities (Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and Johns Hopkins), established on +the English model, still exclude women, and do not grant them academic +degrees. However, the latter point is of comparatively minor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> importance +in its relation to the <i>educational</i> opportunities of women. Most of the +western universities are coeducational; in the East there are special +woman’s colleges. In the colleges and universities the number of women +students is a little over one-third of the number of men students, but in +the high schools the girl students outnumber the boys. The removal of all +restrictions to woman’s instruction in the secondary and higher +institutions of learning is furthering the activity of the American women +in the professions. As teachers, they are employed chiefly in the public +schools, in which they constitute 70 per cent of the total staff. So the +majority of the “freest citizens” in the world are educated by women. The +number of women teachers in the public schools is 327,151. In the higher +institutions of learning there is nothing to prevent their appointment. +Among university teachers (professors and those of lower rank) there are +about 1000 women. Their salaries are equal to those of the men, which is +not always the case in the elementary schools, since the tendency is to +restrict women to the subordinate positions.<small><a name="f19.1" id="f19.1" href="#f19">[19]</a></small></p> + +<p>The women who teach in the woman’s colleges must, in every case, possess a +superior individuality. Thus a woman president of a college must possess +academic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> training in order to control her teaching force; she must +possess a deep insight into human nature in order that her educational +relations with the public may be successful; she must have a knowledge of +business in order to administer the property of her institution +satisfactorily and command the respect of the financiers of her governing +board.</p> + +<p>Fifteen thousand American women are students in woman’s colleges, and +twenty thousand in coeducational colleges and universities. In the latter, +the women have distinguished themselves through application and ability so +that frequently they have taken all the academic honors and prizes to the +exclusion of the men. Since they can no longer be excluded on the ground +of their inferiority, their superiority is now the pretext for their +exclusion. But a suspension of coeducation in the United States is not to +be considered. The state universities, supported with public funds, are +all coeducational. The existence of non-coeducational colleges and +universities in addition to state institutions is regarded as a guarantee +of personal freedom in matters pertaining to higher education.</p> + +<p>Since the public school system in the United States is in great part +coeducational, the exclusion of women from conferences pertaining to +school affairs and their administration would indicate that an especially +great injustice were being committed. This was indeed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> recognized, and +women were given the right to vote on school affairs not only in the five +woman’s suffrage states [Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, Idaho, and Kansas], but +also in twenty-three other states, in which women are without political +rights in other respects. The famous deaf-blind woman, Helen Keller, was +appointed to serve on the state committee on the education of the blind. +In Boston trained nurses are employed to make visits to the homes of the +school children. An agitation is on foot to have women inspectors of +schools.</p> + +<p>In all woman’s suffrage states special attention is devoted to educational +matters. Thus the State of Idaho appropriated $2500 for the establishment +of a lectureship in domestic science. From 1872 to 1900 the number of +women students has increased 148.7 per cent (while the number of men +students increased 60.6 per cent). Among women there are also fewer +illiterates, drunkards, and criminals; in other words, women are the more +moral and better educated part of the American population; and it is these +who are excluded from active participation in political affairs.</p> + +<p>The number of women lawyers is estimated at one thousand; in twenty-three +states they may plead in the Supreme Court. Women lawyers have their own +professional organizations.</p> + +<p>In Ohio, women are employed in the police service; in Pennsylvania they +are appointed as tax-collectors;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> in the city of Portland a woman was +appointed as inspector of markets with police power. Women justices of the +peace are as numerous as women mayors. In Oregon a woman is secretary to +the governor, for whom she acts with full authority.</p> + +<p>In all woman’s suffrage states women act as jurors. Besides these states +only Illinois permits women to serve as jurors—and then only in a +juvenile court.</p> + +<p>There are said to be about 2000 women journalists. Their writings are +often sensational, but in the United States sensationalism is +characteristic of the profession.</p> + +<p>Of women preachers there are 3,500, belonging to 158 different +denominations. Among these women preachers there are also negresses. The +women study in theological seminaries, are ordained and devote themselves +either to the real calling of the ministry, social rescue work, or to the +woman’s rights propaganda, as does the excellent speaker, the Reverend +Anna Shaw. The women preachers who devote themselves to social rescue work +usually study medicine also, so that they can first secure confidence as +persons skilled in the cure of the body, and then later the cure of the +soul is less difficult.</p> + +<p>There are 7000 women in the medical profession,—more than in any other +profession. The first women who studied medicine were American, Elizabeth +Blackwell having done so as early as 1846. Only the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>University of Geneva +(New York) would admit her; in 1848 she graduated there. Then she +continued her studies in Paris and London, returning in 1851 to New York, +in order to practice. Her first patients were Quakers. Elizabeth Blackwell +and her sister Emily (Blackwell) then founded in New York the “Hospital +for Indigent Women,” to which the medical schools in Boston and +Philadelphia sent their graduates to obtain practical work.<small><a name="f20.1" id="f20.1" href="#f20">[20]</a></small> A large +number of women lawyers, preachers, and doctors are married. In 1900 the +total number of women in the professions (exclusive of teaching) was +16,000. In 1900, 14.3 per cent of the female population were engaged in +industries; since 1880 the number of women engaged in the professions and +industries increased 128 per cent (while that of the men increased 76 per +cent).<small><a name="f21.1" id="f21.1" href="#f21">[21]</a></small></p> + +<p>Most of the technical schools admit women. There are fifty-three women +architects. The Woman’s Building of the World’s Exposition in Chicago +(1893) was designed by Sophia Haydn and erected under her supervision. It +is not unusual for women who are owners of business enterprises to take +technical courses. Thus Miss Jones, as her father’s heir, became, after a +careful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> education, manageress of her large steel works in Chicago. The +Cincinnati pottery [Rookwood], founded by women, is also managed by them. +There are five women captains of ships, four women pilots, and twenty-four +women engineers.</p> + +<p>During twenty-five years, women have had 4000 inventions patented. The +women of the South produced fewest inventions. But in these fields women +still meet with prejudice and difficulties. In increasing numbers women +are becoming bankers, merchants, contractors, owners or managers of +factories, shareholders, stock-brokers, and commercial travelers. About +1000 women are now engaged in these occupations. As office clerks women +have stood the test well in the United States. They are esteemed for their +discretion and willingness to work. They are paid $12 to $20 a week. +According to the most recent statistics on the trades and professions +(1900) there were 1271 women bank clerks, 27,712 women bookkeepers, and +86,118 women stenographers.</p> + +<p>In the civil service we find fewer women (they are not voters): in 1890 +there were 14,692, of whom 8474 were postal, telephone, and telegraph +clerks, and 300 were police officials. In 1900, the total number of women +engaged in commerce was 503,574.</p> + + +<p>The prejudice against the women of the lower classes is still evident. +Here at the very outset there is a great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> difference between the wages of +men and women, the wages of the latter being from one third to one half +lower. This is caused partly by the fact that women are given the +disagreeable, tiresome, and unimportant work, which they <i>must</i> accept, +not being given an opportunity to do the better class of work,—frequently +because they have not learned their trade thoroughly. A further cause for +the lower wages of women is that they are working for “pocket-money” and +“incidentals,” and thus spoil the market for those who must pay their +whole living expenses with what they earn. Among the women workers of the +United States there are two classes,—the industrial class and the +amateurs. The latter make the existence of the former almost impossible. +Such a competition is unknown to men in industrial work. Mrs. v. Vorst<small><a name="f22.1" id="f22.1" href="#f22">[22]</a></small> +proposes a solution—to make the industrial amateurs become special +artisans by means of a longer apprenticeship, thus relieving the +industrial slaves from injurious competition.</p> + +<p>Office work and work in the factories enables the American women of the +middle and lower classes to satisfy their desire for independence; those +who are not obliged to provide for themselves wish at least to have money +at their disposal. That is a thoroughly sound aspiration. These girls +become factory <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>employees and not domestic servants, (1) because work in +their own home is not paid for (the general disregard of housework drives +the women striving for independence away from the house); (2) because of +the absence of regularity in housework; (3) because the domestic servants +are not free on Sundays; (4) because they must live with the employers. +These facts are established by answer to inquiries made by Miss Jackson, +factory inspector of Wisconsin.</p> + +<p>The women employed in the stores and factories are in general paid about +the same wages, $4 to $6 a week. A saleswoman, upon whom greater demands +are made as to dress and personal appearance, finds it more difficult to +live on these wages than would the woman employed in the factory. As +pocket-money, however, this sum is a very good remuneration, and this +explains why the girls of these classes, in imitation of the bad example +set them by the members of the upper ranks of society, manifest such an +extraordinary taste for costly clothes and expensive pleasures. In 1888, +an official inquiry showed that 95 per cent of the women laborers lived at +home; in 1891 another official inquiry showed that one third of the women +laborers earned $5 a week; two thirds from $5 to $7, and only 1.8 per cent +earned more than $12, while the men laborers earned on the average $12 to +$15 a week. Women laborers are organized as yet only to a small extent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> (1 +per cent, while 10 per cent of the men are organized). There are separate +social-democratic organizations of women, formed through the Federation of +Labor.</p> + +<p>The workingwomen especially will be helped by the right to vote. In the +“Political Equality Series” appears a pamphlet entitled <i>Why does the +Working-woman need the Right to Vote?</i> In the first place she needs the +right to vote in order to secure higher wages. Just suppose that the +members of the typographical union were to-morrow deprived of their right +to vote. Only their full political emancipation could again restore them +to their former position of prestige among the working classes. This is +exactly the case with the women, and they have not even reached the +highly-developed organization of the typographers. A politically unfree +laboring class is also unable to maintain its vocation against a laboring +class possessing political rights; <i>if the vocation is remunerative the +unfree class will be deprived of it or be kept from it altogether</i>. The +oppression of the workingwomen has its effect also on men through its +tendency to lower wages. Therefore at the present time the trades-unions +have recognized that to organize women is <i>in the interests of all +workingmen</i>, and while the women were refused organization forty years +ago, the Federation of Labor is to-day paying trades-union organizers to +induce women to become members of trades-unions. The introduction of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> a +low rate of wages in one branch of a trade (pursued by both men <i>and</i> +women) is always a menace to the branches that survive the reduction. The +number of women engaged in the industries in 1900 was 1,315,890. The +number of married women engaged in industrial pursuits is small; in 1895, +an official investigation showed that in 1067 factories 7,000 workingwomen +out of 71,000 were married. The chief industries in which women are +employed are the textile industry (cotton), laundering, the manufacture of +ready-made clothing, corsets, carpets, millinery, and fancy-goods. Women +work alongside the men in wool-spinning, in bookbinding, and in the +manufacture of shoes, mittens, tobacco, and confectionery.</p> + +<p>The inability of workingwomen to exercise political rights makes minors of +them when compared with workingmen, and this decreases their importance as +human beings. Women cannot protect themselves against injustice, and these +things put them at a great disadvantage.</p> + +<p>The American women became involved in a lively conflict with President +Roosevelt (otherwise favoring woman’s rights) concerning his gift to a +father and mother for bringing twenty children into the world. The women +declared in the <i>Woman’s Journal</i> that it is wrong to encourage an +immoderate procreation of children among a population 70 per cent of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +which possesses no property.<small><a name="f23.1" id="f23.1" href="#f23">[23]</a></small> Above all, this encouragement is not only +a menace to the overworked and oppressed workingwomen, but it is inhuman, +and really lowers woman to the position of a machine for bearing children.</p> + +<p>The institution of factory inspection does not as yet exist in the whole +Union. According to the report of Mrs. v. Vorst<small><a name="f24.1" id="f24.1" href="#f24">[24]</a></small> the factories and the +homes of laborers in the Southern States are extremely unsatisfactory. +Child labor is exploited there, a matter which is now being dealt with by +the National Child Labor Committee. According to this same work (the +inquiry of Mrs. v. Vorst) the living conditions in the North and Central +States are better, and the moral menaces to the young girl are +inconsiderable. The women of the property-holding classes are attempting +to do their duty toward the women of the factories and stores by founding +clubs, vacation colonies, and homes for them. Within recent years the +great department stores have appointed “social secretaries,” who look +after the weal and woe of the employees. It would be well to have such +secretaries in the factories and mills also. Since 1874 the working week +of sixty hours for women in industry and commerce has spread from +Massachusetts to almost the entire Union. Since 1890,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> night labor has +been prohibited by law. The working girls have been provided with seats +while at work, partly as a result of legislation and partly by the +voluntary act of the employers.</p> + +<p>In agriculture women find a profitable field of activity. Of course they +are never field hands, but are employers and laborers in the dairy +business, in poultry farming, and in the raising of vegetables and fruit. +Women have introduced the growing of cress, cranberries, and cucumbers in +various regions, and have cultivated the famous asparagus of Oyster Bay +and the “Improved New York Strawberries.” In 1900, there were 980,025 +women engaged in agriculture (as compared with 9,458,194 men). The number +of women domestic servants in the United States amounts to 2,099,165; +fifty per cent of the families dispense with servants, since they cannot +afford to pay $15 to $20 a month for a servant, or $30 for a cook. +Educated women, called visiting housekeepers, undertake the supervision of +some of the households of the better class, aided, of course, by help in +the house.</p> + +<p>The legal status of the American women is regulated by 52 sets of laws, +corresponding to the number of states and territories. The civil code is +unfavorable to woman in most of the states. In the National Trade Union +League (New York) the Reverend Anna Shaw declared recently that in 38 +states the property laws<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> made “joint property holding” legal, as a result +of which the wife has no independent control of her personal earnings or +her personal effects, <i>e.g.</i> her clothes. In 38 states the wife also has +no legal authority over her children. For full particulars the reader is +referred to Volume IV of the <i>History of Woman’s Suffrage</i>. To an +increasing extent the women are using their right to administer their +property independently, and the men are usually proud of the business +ability and success of their wives.</p> + +<p>A <i>legal</i> regulation of prostitution (such as prevailed formerly in +England and as prevails now in Germany) does not exist in the United +States. Cincinnati is the only city which in the European sense has police +control of prostitution. Public opinion has successfully resisted all +similar attempts. (<i>Woman’s Journal</i>, July, 1904.) The American +Commission, which went to Europe to study the regulation of prostitution, +declared that the American woman cannot be expected to sanction such an +arrangement, and that, moreover, the system had not stood the test. In the +police stations, police matrons are employed. The law protects the woman +in the street against the man and not, as in Europe, the man against the +woman.</p> + +<p>In order to combat the double standard of morals the “Social Purity +League” was formed. The membership is composed of those men and women who +are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> thoroughly convinced that there is only one standard of morality for +both sexes, since they have the same obligations to their offspring. +Founded in 1886, this organization has spread since 1889 throughout the +entire Union.</p> + +<p>The “World’s Woman’s Christian Temperance Union,” the second largest +international woman’s organization, originated in America. It was founded +in 1883 by Frances E. Willard (her father was Hilgard, from the +Palatinate). The Union has 300,000 members in the United States at the +present time, and 450,000 members in the whole world. In 1906 it met in +Boston. It is the determined enemy of alcohol, and gives proof of its +convictions through the work of its soldier’s and sailor’s department, its +committees on railroads, tramways, police stations, cab drivers, etc. This +Union, as well as the “Social Purity League,” is a firm advocate of +woman’s suffrage.</p> + +<p>The emancipation of the American women is promoted through sports. If on +the one hand they appreciate an elaborate toilette, on the other hand they +recognize the advantages of bloomers, the walking skirt, and the divided +skirt. In these costumes they play basketball, polo, tennis, and take +gymnastic exercise, fence, and row. The woman’s colleges are centers of +athletic life. There the girls now play football in male costume, the +public being excluded. In all large cities there are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> athletic clubs for +women, some extremely sumptuous (with a hundred-dollar fee) as well as +very simple clubs for workingwomen of sedentary life.</p> + +<p>We have seen that the legal status of women in many states is still in +need of reform. All the more instructive is the survey of laws concerning +women and children in the <i>woman’s suffrage states</i>, published by Mrs. C. +Waugh McCullock, a woman lawyer, of Chicago. The wife disposes of her +wages and her dowry (in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Idaho). Men and women +receive equal pay for the same work. All professions and public offices +are open to women. Women act as jurors. They have the same right of +inheritance as men. Divorce is granted to either party under the same +circumstances. The claims of the wife and the children under age are given +a decided preference over those of creditors. Education from the +kindergarten to the university is free and is open to women. The labor of +women in mines is prohibited. The maximum working-day for women is eight +hours. All houses of correction and institutions for the protection of +women and children must have women physicians and overseers. The age of +consent is 18 years. Gambling and prostitution are prohibited. Both father +and mother exercise parental authority. The surviving husband is guardian +of the children. The sale of alcoholic liquors and tobacco to children is +prohibited. No child<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> under 14 years of age may work in the mines. +Pornographic literature and pictures are prohibited.</p> + +<p>In conclusion I shall take several points from the lecture which Professor +F. Laurie Poster held before the Political Equality League in Chicago, +after the women of Chicago had waged a vigorous campaign for the right to +vote in municipal affairs.</p> + +<p>Why is the value of woman placed so low? Merely because she is more +helpless than man. Children are valued even less than women because they +surpass the women in helplessness. Only animals have less power of +defense; therefore they have the lowest value placed on them. In the +United States it has now been demonstrated that whoever possesses the +right to vote is esteemed more highly than he who does not have that +right. We see this in the woman’s suffrage states; here the women have +made provisions not only for themselves, but for the children as well, for +it is one of the fundamental instincts of woman to protect her little +ones. In most of the states of the Union, however, women can help directly +neither themselves nor their children. That women should be forced to +struggle for these ends against the opposition of man is one of the most +unfortunate phases of the whole movement.</p> + +<p>When woman became property, a possession, the overestimation of her sexual +value began. Her sex was her weapon, and her capabilities became stunted.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +This over emphasis of the sexual causes a great part of the most flagrant +evils among civilized peoples. To-day we have reached a stage where we +despise him who sells his vote. Unfortunately it is still permitted to +sell one’s sex. In this roundabout way woman attains most of the good +things in life. Her economic successes depend almost entirely on the +resources of the man to whom she belongs. Both sexes suffer as a result of +this attitude of society. Woman’s uncertain feeling, that she must +concentrate her interests and responsibilities in the one who provides for +the family, has created exceedingly peculiar customs and a wholly absurd +code of honor for both man and woman. Thereby woman is directed to a +<i>roundabout way</i> for everything she wishes to obtain. Whatever she wishes +for herself must appear as a domestic virtue, if possible as a sacrifice +for the family. Man thinks it very natural that he should do what he +desires, that he should pursue his pleasures and gratify his passions, for +he is indeed the one who possesses authority and does not need first to +stamp his wishes as virtues. But it seems just as natural to him that the +women of the family should be endowed with a double portion of piety, +economy and willingness to make sacrifices,—virtues in which he is so +lacking. Women are created especially for that. By nature they are better, +and indeed they make great efforts to cover the faults of the offending<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +one and forgivingly accept him again. In fact they do it gladly; it gives +them pleasure, and man certainly does not wish to deprive them of the +opportunity for such great joys. Therefore man is instantly at hand to +warn woman when she shows any inclination toward adopting “masculine” +habits. But he certainly would be more conscientious and more moral if +woman no longer assumed these virtues vicariously for him. Woman must make +her demands of man. For that she must be <i>free</i>.<small><a name="f25.1" id="f25.1" href="#f25">[25]</a></small></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">AUSTRALIA<small><a name="f26.1" id="f26.1" href="#f26">[26]</a></small></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>4,555,662.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>2,166,318.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>2,389,344.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>An association of women’s clubs in each of five colonies.<br /> +The Australian Women’s Political Association, embracing six colonies.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />It is a rare thing for Europeans to have a definite conception of the +Australian Commonwealth. This is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> the more to be regretted since this +federation of republics is among the countries that have made the greatest +progress in the woman’s rights movement. In no other part of the world has +such a radical change in the status of woman been effected in so short a +time and with such comparatively insignificant struggles.</p> + +<p>Till 1840, Australia had been a penal colony. Since then,—after the +discovery of the first gold fields,—a multitude of fortune-seekers, +gold-miners, and adventurers joined the population of deported convicts. +The good middle-class element for a long time remained in the minority. +Certainly nobody would have believed that there existed at that time in +Australia all the conditions necessary for the growth of a flourishing and +highly civilized commonwealth. Nevertheless, such was the case. There were +formed seven democratic states, whose people were not bound by any +traditionalism or excessive fondness for time-honored, inherited customs; +these people wished to have elbowroom and were determined to establish +themselves on their own soil in their own way. This all took place the +more easily since England gave the growing commonwealth in general an +exceedingly free hand, and because the inhabitants were by nature +independent. Australia was colonized by those who, having come into +conflict with the laws of the old world, found their sphere of life narrow +and restricted.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>Because Australia to-day has only about five million inhabitants, the +country is confronted only in a limited way with the problem of dealing +with congested masses of people, a condition which is favorable to all +social experimentation. Those in authority believe they can direct and +eventually mold the development of the Commonwealth.</p> + +<p>Sixty-five per cent of the population are Protestant; the Germanic element +predominates. The women constitute not quite 50 per cent of the +population. Thus in many respects the Australian colonies possess +conditions similar to those prevailing in the western states of the +American Union, and the results of the woman’s rights movement are in both +regions approximately the same. Mrs. M. Donohue, one of the delegates from +Australia, declared at the London Woman’s Suffrage Congress that her +country had brought about “the greatest happiness for the greatest +number.”</p> + +<p>Naturally, the Australian governments had originally a series of material +problems to solve, real problems of existence, as, for example, to find a +satisfactory agricultural policy in a predominantly farming and +cattle-raising country. When the economic basis of the country seemed +sufficiently secure, the intellectual interests were given attention. A +country which never had slavery or a feudal regime, a Salic Law, or a Code +Napoleon; a country which has no divine right of kings,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> and is not +oppressed with militarism; a country which judges a man by his personal +ability and esteems him for what he is, such a country certainly could not +tolerate the dogma of woman’s inferiority. Between 1871 and 1880, the +school systems of the various colonies were regulated by a series of laws. +Elementary instruction, which is free and obligatory, is given in public +schools to children of both sexes between the ages of five and fifteen, +but in most cases the sexes are segregated. In the public schools of the +whole continent about 20,000 teachers are employed (9,000 men and 11,000 +women). The men predominate in the leading well-paid positions. The +secondary school system (as in England) is composed largely of private +schools, and is to a great extent in the hands of the Protestant +denominations and the Catholic orders. The governments subsidize these +institutions. Girls and boys enjoy the same educational opportunities in +the schools, part of which are coeducational.</p> + +<p>The four Australian universities—Sidney (New South Wales), Melbourne +(Victoria), Adelaide (South Australia), and Aukland (New Zealand)—are +to-day open to women, who can secure all academic degrees granted by the +philosophical, law, and medical faculties.<small><a name="f27.1" id="f27.1" href="#f27">[27]</a></small></p> + +<p>The number of students in the universities is as follows: in Sidney, 1054 +(of whom 142 are women);<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> in New Zealand University, 1332 (of whom 369 are +women); in Melbourne, 853 (of whom 128 are women). The total number of +students in Adelaide and Hobart is 626 and 62 respectively, but the number +of women students is not given. The educational problem is thus solved for +the Australian woman in a favorable manner: she has equal and full +privileges in the universities.</p> + +<p>What are the conditions in the occupations? “All occupations are open to +women,” is stated in a report which I have used.<small><a name="f28.1" id="f28.1" href="#f28">[28]</a></small> But that is not +entirely correct. Women are teachers, but they are not lecturers and +professors in the universities. As preachers they are admitted only among +the Nonconformists. There are women doctors and dentists, and in four +colonies (New Zealand, Tasmania, West Australia, and Victoria) women are +permitted to practice law, but they are confronted with a certain popular +prejudice when they attempt to enter medicine, law, technical science, and +a teaching career in the universities. The state employs women in the +elementary schools; in the postal and telegraph service; as registrars +(permitting them to perform marriage ceremonies); and as factory +inspectors. But the salaries and wages in Australia are not always the +same for both sexes. Thus, for <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>example, in South Australia the male head +masters of the public schools draw salaries of 110 to 450 pounds sterling, +while the women draw 80 to 156 pounds sterling. Since school affairs are +not affairs under the control of the Commonwealth, the federal law (equal +wages for equal work) cannot be applied in this particular. In +Tasmania<small><a name="f29.1" id="f29.1" href="#f29">[29]</a></small> (where the women have voted since 1903) women are teachers in +the public schools, employees in the postal, telegraph, and telephone +systems, supervisors of health in the public schools, and assistants to +the quarantine and sanitary boards; they are registrars in the parishes, +superintendents of hospitals, asylums, prisons, etc. Public offices in the +army, the navy, and the church alone remain closed to them.</p> + +<p>It is to be noted here that Mrs. Dobson, of Tasmania, was the official +representative of the Australian government at the International Woman’s +Suffrage Congress held in Amsterdam in 1908.</p> + +<p>The official yearbook of the Australian Federation gives the following +industrial statistics for 1901: state and municipal office holders, 41,235 +women (69,399 men); domestic servants, 150,201 women (50,335 men); +commerce, 34,514 women (188,144 men); transportation, 3429 women (118,730 +men); industry, 75,570 women (350,596 men); agriculture and forestry,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +fisheries, and mining, 38,944 women (494,163 men). In all fields, with the +exception of domestic service, the men are in a numerical superiority; +therefore the matrimonial opportunities of the Australian woman are +favorable. For every 100 girls 105.99 boys were born in 1906; the +statistics for 1906 showed a greater number of marriages than ever before +(30,410). The difference in the ages of the married men and women is 4.5 +years on the average; the number of children per family is about 4 (3.77).</p> + +<p>Five Australian colonies (New Zealand, Victoria, Queensland, South +Australia, and New South Wales) have enacted the following laws for the +protection of workingwomen:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Maximum working time—48 hours a week.</p> + +<p>2. The prohibition of night work (except in Queensland).</p> + +<p>3. Higher wages for overtime.</p></div> + +<p>The eight-hour day is necessitated throughout Australia by the climate. +The other provisions are perhaps not stringently enforced. Children under +thirteen years cannot be employed in the factories. Socialistic +regulations, such as fixing the minimum wages in certain industries, and +the establishment of obligatory courts of arbitration, have been +instituted in several colonies (Victoria, New South Wales, etc.).</p> + +<p>In the beginning the English Common Law regulated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> the legal status of the +Australian women. During the past fifty years this law has undergone many +modifications. Each colony acted independently in the matter, and +therefore there is no longer uniformity. In all cases separate ownership +of property is legal. However, joint parental authority is legally +established only in New Zealand. The divorce laws are prejudicial to women +in almost all respects.</p> + +<p>In the field of legislation the influence of woman’s suffrage has already +made itself definitely felt. Each colony has its state legislature which +consists of a Lower House and a Senate. Every Australian who is twenty-one +years old is a voter in both state and municipal elections. (There is a +property qualification only for those voting for the Senate.) In 1869 the +woman’s suffrage movement began in Australia (in Victoria). The right to +vote in school and municipal affairs was given to women as a matter of +course.<small><a name="f30.1" id="f30.1" href="#f30">[30]</a></small> The right to vote in state affairs was granted to women first +in New Zealand in 1893, in South Australia in 1895, in West Australia in +1899, in New South Wales in 1903, in Queensland in 1905, and in Victoria +in 1908.</p> + +<p>When the six Australian colonies (excluding New Zealand) formed themselves +into a federation in 1900, an Australian Federal Parliament was +established. The women of <i>all of the six colonies</i> voted for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>parliamentary officers on an equality with men. Here was a curious +thing—the women of the four conservative colonies voted for the members +of the Federal Parliament but could not vote for the state legislature.</p> + +<p>On the basis of the documents dealing with Victoria I shall give a more +detailed account of the history of woman’s suffrage in this colony. The +greatest statesman of Victoria, George Higinbotham, in 1873 introduced the +first woman’s suffrage bill before Parliament. This met with no success. A +number of similar attempts were made until 1884. In this year there was +founded the first “Woman’s Suffrage Society” in Victoria. The movement +then spread rapidly, and in 1891 thirty thousand women petitioned +Parliament for the suffrage in state affairs. For the time being this +attempt likewise met with failure. But the political organization of the +women was strengthened through the formation of the “United Council for +Woman’s Suffrage.” Every year after 1895 this Council gave advice to the +Lower House concerning the framing of woman’s suffrage bills, and thus +enlarged its influence. Hitherto the passing of the suffrage bill had been +prevented by the opposition of the Upper House (which was not chosen by +universal suffrage). On November 18, 1908, the bill was finally passed by +the <i>House of Obstruction</i>, and thus the women, who had worked for the +suffrage, were finally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> emancipated. Since 1893, the year of the +emancipation of women in New Zealand, the opponents of woman’s suffrage +put off the women with the request to wait and see how the plan worked in +New Zealand; in 1896 the women were asked to wait and see how the plan +worked in New South Wales; in 1902 they were asked to see how woman’s +suffrage worked in the federal elections. In 1908 it was possible to +secure only 3500 signatures <i>against</i> woman’s suffrage.</p> + +<p>In New Zealand the women have exercised active suffrage since 1893. There +also, the gloomiest predictions were made when this “unprecedented” +measure was adopted. There were, of course, women opponents of woman’s +suffrage. Such, for example, was Mrs. Seddon, the wife of the Prime +Minister of New Zealand. She said: “It seemed to me that the women ought +to remain away from the tumult and riotous scenes of the polling booths. +But I gave up this view. With us, the women benefited the suffrage and the +suffrage benefited the women. The elections have taken place more quietly +and women have indicated a lively interest in public affairs.</p> + +<p>“Woman’s suffrage has not caused family dissensions. It has frequently +happened that whole families have voted for the same candidate. In other +cases different members of one family voted for different candidates. But +this has not disturbed domestic <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>tranquillity, for nowhere have family +feuds been engendered by one member or another of the family boasting of +the success of his candidate. The fear that the women would vote largely +for Conservative candidates, through the influence of the clergy, was not +realized. Already the women have twice contributed to the reëlection of a +Liberal minister. Neither the Protestant nor the Catholic clergy +endeavored to influence the votes of the women anywhere.” The Countess +Wachtmeister, a Californian traveling in Australia, confirms this opinion, +“Thanks to woman’s suffrage the respectable elements that formerly often +remained away from the political arena have now again stepped to the +front; they have presented successful candidates, and have begun to play +an important part in the political life of the country.”</p> + +<p>Since women have exercised the right to vote in New Zealand the following +legal reforms have been enacted:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang">1. Divorces are granted to the wife and to the husband upon the same grounds.</p> + +<p class="hang">2. The husband can no longer deprive the wife and children of their inheritances by means of a will.</p> + +<p class="hang">3. The conditions of suffrage in municipal elections were made the same for both women and men.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> +<p class="hang">4. The saloons are closed on election days.</p> + +<p class="hang">5. Women are admitted to the practice of law.</p> + +<p class="hang">6. The age of consent for girls was raised to 17.</p></div> + +<p>Similar reforms were enacted in South Australia. There Mrs. Mary Lee is +the leader in the woman’s suffrage movement, and founder of the “Women’s +Suffrage Society.” When the woman’s suffrage bill was passed in 1895 the +Prime Minister, the Minister of Public Instruction, and the Lord Mayor +gave Mrs. Lee an impressive reception in the town hall; they thanked her +for the untiring efforts which she had devoted to the cause, and the Prime +Minister said, “Mrs. Lee is the originator of the greatest reforms in the +constitutional history of Australia.” What enlightened views the ministers +in the antipodal countries do have! Are they really our antiscians to such +a degree?</p> + +<p>Since 1896, the following reforms have been effected by the South +Australian Parliament:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang">1. A modification of the marriage law (the husband must provide for +the wife and children if his brutality leads to a divorce). An +enlargement of woman’s sphere in the business world. Separate property rights.</p> + +<p class="hang">2. Greater strength was given to the law compelling the father of illicit children to fulfill his pecuniary duties.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p> +<p class="hang">3. A severer penalty for trafficking in girls.</p> + +<p class="hang">4. The increasing of the age of consent to 17.</p> + +<p class="hang">5. Improved laws providing for the care of dependent children.</p> + +<p class="hang">6. A maximum working week of 52 hours for children engaged in industry.</p> + +<p class="hang">7. Laws suppressing pornography.</p> + +<p class="hang">8. Laws prohibiting the sale of liquor and tobacco to children.</p> + +<p class="hang">9. Women were appointed to the positions of inspectors of schools, prisons, hospitals, etc.</p></div> + +<p>In West Australia, where women have voted since 1899, the women were +admitted to the practice of law; the age of consent was raised to 17 +years; and the conditions on which divorce are granted were made the same +for man and woman. In Europe people still question the practical value of +woman’s suffrage.</p> + +<p>Following the establishment of woman’s suffrage in New South Wales and +Tasmania, juvenile courts were introduced; New South Wales adopted a very +stringent law regulating the sale of liquor (local option; no barmaids +under 21 years could be employed; the sale of liquors to children under 14 +years was prohibited).</p> + +<p>Since women have voted in the elections for the Federal Parliament they +have formed the Australian Woman’s Political Association. The President is +Miss Vida Goldstein, of Victoria. To the Association<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> belong woman’s +suffrage leagues, woman’s trade-unions, temperance societies, woman’s +church clubs, and other organizations. For the present the women will not +ally themselves with any of the existing parties, since the principles of +none of them correspond exactly to the programme which the women have set +up. The “Political Equality League” is satisfactory in one respect (equal +rights for both sexes), but goes too far in its socialistic demands.</p> + +<p>The women have succeeded in having federal laws enacted providing that all +state employees be paid the same wages for the same work, and that the +legal provisions for naturalization permit woman to retain her right of +self-government and her individuality. The government will propose a +federal law securing uniformity in the marriage laws (laws in regard to +marriage, property, divorce, and parental authority).</p> + +<p>In all the Australian colonies women have active suffrage, but not in all +cases the passive. Wherever they possess the latter they have laid little +claim to it:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang">1. because a part of the capable women believe they can work more +effectively and achieve more if they are not attached to a political party;</p> + +<p class="hang">2. because the established party programmes very frequently embody the demands of the women;</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p> +<p class="hang">3. because for this reason the political parties expect no special +advantage from the women, and it is difficult to secure the support +of the great party papers for the women candidates;</p> + +<p class="hang">4. because the Australian elections also cost money, and the capable women are not always well-to-do.</p></div> + +<p>In 1903, Miss Vida Goldstein announced her candidature for the Federal +Parliament and was defeated. In the federal elections of 1906 on an +average 58.36 per cent of the registered men and 43.30 per cent of the +registered women voted (against 53.09 and 30.96 per cent in 1903).</p> + +<p>In two pamphlets,—<i>Woman’s Suffrage in New Zealand</i>, and <i>Woman’s +Suffrage in Australia</i>,<small><a name="f31.1" id="f31.1" href="#f31">[31]</a></small>—the leading men of the youngest region of the +world have given their written testimony on the practical workings of +woman’s suffrage. These men are prime ministers of the colonies, public +prosecutors, the ministers of the various state departments, members of +the lower houses in the parliaments, high dignitaries of the Church, the +editors of large political newspapers. They all make the most favorable +statements concerning woman’s suffrage.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>“The women have demanded nothing unreasonable from their representatives, +and have always placed themselves on the side of clean politics and clean +politicians.” “Woman’s suffrage has brought about neither the millennium +nor pandemonium,” and the New Zealanders do not understand why it is that +in other countries people “can still become agitated over anything so +inherently reasonable as woman’s suffrage.”</p> + +<p>All who wish to have the right to participate in a discussion on woman’s +suffrage must first study these two books of testimonials. A mere +knowledge of these facts will cause much insipid discussion to cease in +public meetings.</p> + +<p>From the French consul in Dantzig, Count Jouffroy d’Abbans, one familiar +with Australian conditions, I learned the following isolated facts +concerning woman’s suffrage. It has a salutary influence throughout. Women +show a lively interest in political and municipal questions; for the sake +of their political rights they neglect their “specifically feminine” +duties so little that they come to the parliamentary sessions with +knitting, embroidery, and sewing. They also engage in these feminine +activities while attending the night sessions. On election days there is +certainly often a cold dinner or supper. But that occurs on washing days, +too, and no one has yet wished to deny women the privilege of doing the +washing. It is safe to say<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> that the Australian woman’s rights movement +will not fail because of this obstacle.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">GREAT BRITAIN</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>41,605,220.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>21,441,911.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>20,163,309.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>English Federation of Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage League.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />“England is the storm center of our movement,” declared the President of +the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance in the Amsterdam Congress. +This was the conviction of the Congress, which therefore resolved to hold +the next International Woman’s Suffrage Congress in London (in April, +1909). The fact is undisputed that the English suffragettes—whether one +favors or opposes their actions—have made Great Britain the center of the +modern woman’s rights movement. England is a European country, an old +country with rigid traditions, which, nevertheless, are the freest +political traditions that we have in Europe to-day. For fifty years the +English women have struggled for the right to vote. In spite of the fact +that their country has neither Salic Law nor continental militarism (two +of the greatest obstacles to all woman’s rights movements), the English +women have not as yet <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>attained their ends. This is an indication of the +tenacity of the prejudices against women in the countries of older +civilizations.</p> + +<p>The opposition offered to the political emancipation of women in England +is all the more remarkable since the English women were able to exercise +the right to vote on an equality with men in national elections till 1832, +and in municipal elections till 1835.<small><a name="f32.1" id="f32.1" href="#f32">[32]</a></small> To that time we find the same +conditions prevailing in England as prevailed in the nine American +commonwealths previous to 1783. This parity of circumstances is explained +by the English principle of representation: <i>no taxation without +representation</i>. In 1832 and 1835, however, the English women, who as +taxpayers were qualified to vote, had the right to vote in national and +municipal affairs taken from them; for the word “persons” the expression +“<i>male</i> persons” was substituted in the election law. When this +disfranchisement took place none of those concerned cried out against it. +For two hundred years the women had made no use worth mentioning of the +right to vote. But a part of the women, especially those of the liberal +and cultured circles, saw the significance of this retrograde step.</p> + +<p>The political struggles of general concern during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> following period +(such as the antislavery movement and the anticorn-law movement) furnished +these women an opportunity to educate themselves in political affairs, +and, like the American women of that time, they in many cases learned +their political ABC by means of the same questions. Such men as Cobden, +Pease, Biggs, Knight, and others were the advance guard of the political +women in England. The earliest pamphlet on women’s suffrage preserved to +us appeared in 1847. It is a small leaflet and says among other things, +“As long as both sexes and all parties are not given a just +representation, good government is impossible” (which is a paraphrase of +the American principle—every just government derives its powers from the +consent of the governed). The contrary view had been stated in the +<i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> as early as 1842 by the father of John Stuart +Mill: “It is self-evident that all persons whose interests are identical +with those of a different class are excluded from political representation +without injury.” Certainly from such an arrangement the “representatives” +will suffer no injury. That select group of intellectual women who trained +themselves politically during the antislavery movement and the struggle +for free trade consisted of the mothers, the sisters, and daughters of +liberal politicians and academically trained men. Many of these women were +themselves students and teachers. No antagonism<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> ever existed in England +between the woman’s suffrage movement and the movement favoring the +education of woman.</p> + +<p>Such were the conditions in 1866. A new election law was to be introduced +in Parliament; a new class of men was to be granted the right of suffrage +by the lowering of the property qualification. The women decided to +present a petition to the House of Commons requesting the right to vote in +national elections. The women had decided to act thus publicly because of +the presence of John Stuart Mill in the House of Commons, and because of +an utterance of Disraeli’s, “In a country in which a woman can be ruler, +peer, church trustee, owner of estates, and guardian of the poor, I do not +see in the name of what principle the right to vote can be withheld from +her.” Four petitions (one signed by 1499 women, one by 1605 taxpaying +women, and two more signed by 3559 and 3000 men and women) were sent to +the House of Commons; and on May 20, 1867, John Stuart Mill, after he had +presented the petitions, moved that the right to vote be given to the +qualified women taxpayers. His motion was rejected by a vote of 196 to 73. +Thereupon there were formed for systematic propaganda, woman’s suffrage +societies in London, Edinburgh, Manchester, Birmingham, and Bristol; these +cities are still the center of the movement. The new election law gave +women a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> further advantage—the expression <i>male</i> person was replaced with +the generic word “man.”<small><a name="f33.1" id="f33.1" href="#f33">[33]</a></small> Since an Act of Parliament (13 and 14 Vict., +c. 21) declares that in all laws the masculine expression also includes +the feminine, <i>unless the contrary is expressly stated</i>, the friends of +woman’s suffrage believed they could interpret this expression in favor of +women. The attempt to do this was now made. A number of qualified women +demanded that they be registered with the voters; they were determined to +have recourse to the law if the government commission refused to register +their votes. At this time the first public meeting of women in England was +held in the famous “Free Trade Hall” in Manchester. But the courts and the +Supreme Court interpreted the law <i>against</i> the women,—“they are +disqualified neither intellectually nor morally, but <i>legally</i>.” Then a +methodical propaganda by means of public meetings was begun; the first +victory was won as early as 1869,—the women taxpayers were given the +right to vote in municipal affairs in England, Scotland, and Wales.</p> + +<p>Between 1870 and 1884, the political organization of the women was +strengthened; the women of the aristocracy (Lady Amberly, Lady Anne +Gore-Langton,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> and others) were won over to the cause of woman’s suffrage. +A “Central Committee for Woman’s Suffrage” was formed, and a number of +excellent women speakers (Biggs, Maclaren, Becker, Fawcett, Craigen, +Kingsley, Tod, and others) spoke throughout the country. A further success +was achieved when the Parliament of the Isle of Man<small><a name="f34.1" id="f34.1" href="#f34">[34]</a></small> (House of Keys) +gave qualified women the right to vote.</p> + +<p>In 1884, the property qualification was again reduced through a new +election law; the friends of woman’s suffrage took advantage of this +opportunity to present a motion in Parliament favoring woman’s suffrage, +in support of which the following statements were made: “Two million men, +many of whom are ignorant and uneducated, and possess only a small plot of +ground, are to be given political rights. On what principle is the same +right withheld from 300,000 women who are educated and who are +landowners?” This motion was lost also. In 1885 the English women, in +order to make their influence felt in political affairs, formed the +“Primrose League,” which supported the Conservative candidates in the +election campaigns; and in 1887 was formed the “Women’s Liberal +Federation,” which supported the Liberals in a similar manner. The next +attempt to secure woman’s suffrage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> was made in 1897, but it was +unsuccessful. During the Boer War woman’s suffrage receded into the +background, and not until March 14, 1904, was a woman’s suffrage bill +again introduced; this bill did not become law. At that time the woman’s +suffrage movement was lifeless, and in a thoroughly hopeless condition. +All the usual means of propaganda had been exhausted,—meetings, +petitions, and personal work during campaigns made no impressions either +on the members of Parliament, the government, or on public opinion. It was +no longer possible to educe arguments <i>against</i> the right of <i>qualified</i> +women to vote (it was not a question of universal suffrage, but, just as +in the case of the men, it was a matter of granting the franchise to women +holding property in their own name and earning their own living). +Governments, however, wish to be <i>coerced</i> into granting the franchise, +and the representatives of the woman’s suffrage movement were not +determined enough to exercise the necessary coercion. Therefore, the +National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies transferred the leadership of +the movement to the National Women’s Social and Political Union, whose +members are known by the name of suffragettes. This transference of +leadership took place during the autumn of 1905.</p> + +<p>The suffragettes then adopted militant tactics, making the government +their point of attack. This was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> a good stroke, for since 1905 England has +had a Liberal Cabinet, and several of the ministers and over 400 of the +600 members of the House of Commons have declared themselves as friends of +woman’s suffrage. “Then why don’t you grant us our political freedom?” +asked the suffragettes.</p> + +<p>The women are heads of families, they pay rent and taxes, just as the men. +All their conditions of livelihood are as dependent upon the laws as are +those of the men. A <i>liberal</i> government and <i>liberal</i> members of +Parliament ought to be liberal towards women and grant them the suffrage. +Many of these ministers and many members of Parliament owe their political +careers, their election, and their influence to the practical campaign +activities of women or to the woman’s suffrage movement, which they +supported in order to enlarge their political influence. They have made +use of the woman’s suffrage movement and now wish to do nothing in return. +The fate of all woman’s suffrage bills introduced since 1870 (13 in +number) proves that it is hopeless to have such bills introduced by +private members. <i>Women must turn their hopes to a bill introduced by the +government.</i> The present Liberal government needs only to treat the matter +seriously; then a woman’s suffrage bill will be passed.</p> + +<p>But the government has not treated the matter seriously; hence the +suffragettes have declared war.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> It is their determination to fight every +ministry which is not kindly disposed toward the suffrage movement.</p> + +<p>The struggle is carried on by the following means: organization of +societies; meetings throughout the country; street parades and open air +meetings (especially significant are those of June 13 and 21, 1908); the +employment of first-class speakers, who make concise, clear, ingenious, +and stirring speeches; the raising of large sums of money (20,000 pounds, +<i>i.e.</i> $100,000 annually; there is a reserve fund of 50,000 pounds, <i>i.e.</i> +$250,000); the publication of a well-managed periodical, <i>Votes for +Women</i>.<small><a name="f35.1" id="f35.1" href="#f35">[35]</a></small></p> + +<p>The leaders are Mrs. and Miss Pankhurst, Mrs. Drummond, Annie Kenney, Mr. +and Mrs. Pethick Lawrence. These and the most determined of their +associates undertake to send deputations to the Liberal Prime Minister, +Mr. Asquith, and to ask the question in all public meetings in which +members of the Cabinet speak,—when will you give women the right to vote?</p> + +<p>The deputations go to Parliament <i>because women, as taxpayers, have the +right to speak to the Prime Minister</i>, who continually receives +deputations of men. Since the Prime Minister does not wish to grant women +the right to vote, the deputations of women are prevented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> from entering +the Houses of Parliament by strong squads of police, both mounted and on +foot; and if the women do not desist from their attempt to make known to +the Prime Minister the resolutions of their meeting, they are arrested for +the disturbance of the peace, the interruption of traffic, or the +instigation of tumult and riot; they are arraigned in the <i>police court</i> +and are sentenced to imprisonment in the ordinary prisons. The Liberal +government stubbornly refuses to regard these women as political offenders +and to punish them as such.</p> + +<p>The woman’s suffrage advocates, who ask the Cabinet members questions in +public meetings, direct their questions to both friends and opponents of +woman’s suffrage. For, they inquire, of what use are our friends to us if +they do nothing for us? The members of the English Cabinet have a joint +responsibility for their political programme. If the friends of woman’s +suffrage treat the matter seriously, they must either convert their +colleagues or resign. As long as they do not do that, they are merely +playing with woman’s suffrage and the women think it necessary to “heckle” +them. The women who ask the questions are often ejected from the meetings +in a very rough way.<small><a name="f36.1" id="f36.1" href="#f36">[36]</a></small></p> + +<p>The suffragettes give the government conclusive proof of their political +power when they oppose Liberal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> candidates at all by-elections and +contribute to the defeat of the candidates or cause a reduction of their +votes. To the present this has occurred in fourteen cases. It is due to +the success of these tactics that the whole world is to-day speaking about +woman’s suffrage, which has become a burning political question in +England. All along the people and the press are giving greater support to +the suffragettes who have the courage to brave the horrors of the London +prison, and there become acquainted with the distress of the poor, the +destitute, and the helpless.</p> + +<p>During the last three or four years of the activity of the suffragettes a +great number of woman’s suffrage organizations were founded: The Woman’s +Freedom League (Mrs. Despard), The Men’s League for Woman’s Suffrage, The +Artists’ Suffrage League, The Conservative and Unionist Women’s Franchise +Association, The Actresses’ Franchise League, The Writers’ League, etc. +Scotland and Ireland have their own woman’s suffrage associations.</p> + +<p>In opposition there have been formed the National Women’s Antisuffrage +Association and a Men’s League for Opposing Woman’s Suffrage (those are +supported chiefly by the aristocratic circles). They declare that woman +does not need the right to vote since she exercises an “enormous indirect +influence”; that woman does not <i>wish</i> the right to vote; that her +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>subordination is based on natural law since brute force rules the world; +woman’s suffrage would result in England’s destruction, if a majority of +women voters (England has a majority of women) were permitted to decide +questions concerning the army and navy.</p> + +<p>The leader of the suffragettes, Mrs. Fawcett, recently established the +fact that the newly formed Association has a considerably smaller number +of prominent names among its members <i>than the organization formed two +years ago</i>, which soon came to an inglorious end. She emphasized the fact +that the two important women, who at that time still favored the +antisuffrage movement,—Mrs. Louise Creighton and Mrs. Sidney Webb,—have +since gone over to the suffrage advocates. On the occasion of Mrs. +Fawcett’s public debate with Mrs. Humphry Ward, the leader of the +antisuffragists (in February, 1909), it happened that 235 of those present +favored woman’s suffrage and 74 were opposed.</p> + +<p>The argument against the brute force statement was treated in three +excellent articles in <i>Votes for Women</i> under the title “The Physical +Force Fallacy.”<small><a name="f37.1" id="f37.1" href="#f37">[37]</a></small> The most influential of the English women, together +with the women in the industries, the students of both sexes, the +workingwomen,—in short, the intellectual and professional women are in +favor of the suffragettes;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> and the woman’s suffrage advocates have “the +spiritual certainty” that moves mountains. Let no one believe that the +appeals made on the streets, the parades of the women as sandwich-men, or +the noisy publicity of their tactics are gladly indulged in by the women. +These actions are entirely opposed to woman’s nature. But the women have +recognized that these tactics are necessary and they act accordingly +because it is their duty. Such movements have always been successful.</p> + +<p>Women do not possess the right to vote in parliamentary elections; but, if +taxpayers, they can vote in municipal affairs in the whole of Great +Britain and Ireland. The <i>married</i> women of England and Wales have a +restricted right of suffrage, however: they are “persons” and therefore +voters in parochial elections, in the election of poor-law administrators, +and of urban and rural district councillors; but they are not regarded as +“persons” and are not voters in elections for the borough and county +councils. In one single case, in the County of London, by the law of 1900, +married women were given almost the same rights as those exercised by +married women in Scotland and Ireland.<small><a name="f38.1" id="f38.1" href="#f38">[38]</a></small> The right of single or married +women to hold office (passive suffrage)<small><a name="f39.1" id="f39.1" href="#f39">[39]</a></small> has prevailed in England and +Wales<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> since 1869 in respect to the offices of guardians of the poor, +overseers, waywardens, churchwardens,—and since 1870 (Education Act) in +respect to school boards.<small><a name="f40.1" id="f40.1" href="#f40">[40]</a></small> At the very first school elections women +were elected, which induced women to have themselves presented also as +candidates for the offices of poor-law administrators. In 1875 the first +unmarried woman was elected to that office, the first married woman in +1881. In the discharge of their duties in both classes of offices the +women have acted admirably. Nevertheless, the reactionary Education Act of +June, 1903, took away from the women the right to hold office as members +of school boards in the County of London. They can still secure +administrative offices by governmental appointment, but no longer by an +election. In 1888 were created the county councils for England and Wales; +the county councils were at the same time organs for the self-governing +municipalities. Since this law, like those of 1869 and 1870, did not +specially exclude women from the right to hold office, two women, Mrs. +Cobden and Lady Sandhurst, presented themselves as candidates for the +office of county councillors of London. They were elected. Thereupon Mrs. +Beresford-Hope, whom Lady Sandhurst had defeated, contested the legality +of the election. In 1889, the Court of Appeals declared that women were +eligible to public office only <i>when this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> is expressly stated</i>.<small><a name="f41.1" id="f41.1" href="#f41">[41]</a></small> This +decision of the Court, which was in conflict with the English +Constitution, also brought about the loss of the right of the women of +Scotland and Ireland to hold office as county councillors.</p> + +<p>As a result of this judicial decision, when the new Local Self-government +Act for England and Wales was enacted (1894), it was necessary expressly +to state the eligibility of women (unmarried and married) to hold the +minor local offices (parish, urban, rural district councillors, poor-law +guardians, etc.). Article 22, however (in spite of historical precedents), +excluded women from the office of justice of the peace. In 1894 the same +thing occurred in Scotland, and in 1898 in Ireland.</p> + +<p>In 1899, the attempt to secure the eligibility of women to the +metropolitan borough councils (for London only)<small><a name="f42.1" id="f42.1" href="#f42">[42]</a></small> failed, owing to the +opposition of the House of Lords.</p> + +<p>The law of 1907,<small><a name="f43.1" id="f43.1" href="#f43">[43]</a></small> known as the <i>Qualification of Women Act</i>, grants +unmarried women the right to hold office in the borough and county +councils (councillor, alderman, mayor). Married women have this right only +in the County of London; elsewhere they can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> merely vote for these +officers.<small><a name="f44.1" id="f44.1" href="#f44">[44]</a></small> On the occasion of the first elections under this act twelve +women presented themselves as candidates; six were elected (one as mayor); +hitherto the women had been elected only in small places, and then owing +to exceptional circumstances. Whoever investigates the struggle of the +women to secure their rights in the local government and studies the +attitude of the men toward these exceedingly just demands will comprehend +the exasperating circumstances under which the women are to-day struggling +for the right to vote in the English parliamentary elections. In questions +of power and of gaining a livelihood [<i>Macht- und Brotfragen</i>] the +nobility of man can really not be depended upon.</p> + +<p>The woman’s suffrage movement has led to the consummation of a number of +legal reforms: the property laws now legalize the separation of the +property of husband and wife<small><a name="f45.1" id="f45.1" href="#f45">[45]</a></small>; in the United Kingdom the wife +administers her own property and disposes of it, and has full control over +her earnings. The remainder of the laws regulating marriage are still +rather rigorous,—in England at least; the wife has no <i>hereditary right</i> +to her husband’s property. If she economizes in the administration of the +household, the savings belong to the husband. The wife cannot demand any +pay in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> money for performing her domestic duties; the mere expenses of +maintenance are sufficient remuneration, etc. In normal cases the <i>father</i> +alone has authority over the children. It is made very difficult for a +woman to secure a divorce, etc.<small><a name="f46.1" id="f46.1" href="#f46">[46]</a></small></p> + +<p>The women that have labored so untiringly in political affairs have very +naturally made it a point to promote the educational opportunities of +their sex. Since 1870, the elementary school system has been regulated by +the school boards, which have introduced obligatory public instruction. In +these institutions the boys and girls are segregated (except in the rural +districts). On an average there is one male teacher to every three women +teachers in these institutions. The secondary schools are private, as in +Australia. Hence it was not necessary for the English women to wrest every +concession from a reluctant government (as was the case in Germany); but +private initiative, combined with the devotion of private individuals, +made possible in a few years the full reorganization of England’s +institutions of learning for girls. This reorganization began in 1868 and +led to the following results: the establishment of higher institutions of +learning in all English cities (these are called girls’ public day +schools, most of them being day schools. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> are governed by committees +consisting of the founders, the principals, and the qualified advisers). +Latin and mathematics are obligatory studies in the curriculum. The +schools are in close relationship with Oxford and Cambridge universities, +the universities inspecting the schools and supervising the various +examinations (including the examinations of the students upon leaving the +schools). In England these schools are for girls only; in Scotland, girls +attend similar schools which are coeducational. The number of women +teachers is estimated at 8000.</p> + +<p>Admission to the universities was secured with difficulty by the women. At +first a number of women requested the privilege of attending lectures in +the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Since these universities are +resident colleges, it was necessary to provide boarding places for women. +This was done in 1869 and 1870 in both places, through the work of Miss +Emily Davies and Miss Anna Clough. Both of these beginnings developed into +the women’s colleges of Girton and Newnham. Since then, St. Margaret’s +Hall, Somersville Hall, and Holloway College have been established for +women. These institutions correspond to the German philosophical faculties +[the colleges of literature and liberal arts in the United States]. An +entrance examination is necessary for admission. The course of study is +three years. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> final examination, called “tripos,” embraces three +subjects; it corresponds to the German <i>Oberlehrerexamen</i>,—examinations +given to candidates for the position of teachers in the <i>Gymnasiums</i>, the +<i>Realgymnasiums</i>, <i>Oberrealgymnasiums</i>, etc. Theology, medicine, and law +cannot be studied in these woman’s colleges (any more than in the American +woman’s colleges). Part of the teachers live in the woman’s college +buildings; part of them belong to the faculties of Oxford and Cambridge. +The former are women tutors and professors.</p> + +<p>The English colleges for women are maintained by private funds. Many women +not wishing to take the “tripos” examination or to become teachers attend +the university to acquire a higher education. Others prepare themselves +for the degree of Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, or Doctor of +Philosophy. These examinations are accepted by Oxford and Cambridge +universities, but the women are not granted the corresponding titles, +because the use of such titles would make the women <i>Fellows</i> of the +University, which would entitle them to the use of the university gardens +and parks, and to live in one of the colleges. All other universities in +England, Scotland, and Ireland, with the exception of Trinity College, +Dublin, admit women to all departments, accepting their examinations and +granting them academic degrees.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>The women’s colleges are centers of sport,—incidentally they possess +their own fire department. To arouse an interest in political affairs and +to develop facility in speaking, debating clubs have been organized. More +than 1300 women have graduated from Cambridge, and more than 1200 from the +University of London. When Mary Putnam wished to study medicine in 1868, +she had to go to Paris. Jex Blake, who attempted the same thing in +Edinburgh in 1869, was driven out by the students. She went to London and +was there at first given instruction by the noble Dr. Anstie. As early as +1870 there was formed in London a special School of Medicine for women, to +which a hospital for women was later attached, being directed and +supported entirely by women physicians. To-day, 553 women doctors are +practicing in Great Britain. Of these 538 have expressed themselves in +favor of, and 15 against, woman’s suffrage. In England, women were first +permitted to take the public examination in dental surgery as late as +1908; while the Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Irish Royal Colleges of Surgeons +had admitted them long before. Women can study law in England, but as yet +they have not been admitted to the bar. If this privilege were granted to +women, they would have to affiliate with the London lawyers’ associations, +such as the <i>Inner Temple</i>, the <i>Middle Temple</i>, <i>Gray’s Inn</i>, etc. +Members of these organizations must several times a month<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> attend the +dinners or banquets of the lawyers. These corporate customs of the English +Bar are said to exclude women from the legal profession just as similar +customs have excluded them from tutorships and professorships in Oxford +and Cambridge.</p> + +<p>In spite of this, Miss Cave recently sought admission to <i>Gray’s Inn</i>, but +was refused <i>because she was a woman</i>. She appealed her case to the Lords +of Appeal in Ordinary, but they declared that they had no jurisdiction; +the matter will be pursued further. The first woman preacher in England, a +native of Germany, Miss v. Petzold, studied theology in Germany and +graduated there. After her trial sermon in Leicester she was elected in +preference to her male competitors. Later she accepted a call to Chicago. +The Congregationalists have four women preachers; the Salvation Army over +3000. Except in those callings where personal ability is determinative, +the salaries of English women are lower than those of the men. The women +have a large field for their efforts in the public schools (where there +are three women teachers to one man teacher). In the secondary schools for +girls, instruction and control are entirely in the hands of women; their +salaries are quite sufficient (the minimum being 100 pounds sterling, +about $500). As we have seen, the higher institutions of learning also +offer the women well-paid positions (the tutors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> being paid $2000, with +board and lodging; the principals $2500).</p> + +<p>The <i>well-paid</i> civil offices are reserved for the men. Although there are +more women teachers and more female students in the schools than males, +there are 244 male inspectors of public schools and 18 women inspectors; +the male inspector-general is paid 1000 pounds sterling annually, the +woman inspector-general 500 pounds. In the secondary schools there are 20 +male inspectors and 3 women inspectors with annual salaries of 400 to 800 +pounds, and 300 pounds respectively. The women teachers of the elementary +schools (of whom there are approximately 111,000) draw on an average two +thirds the salary of the men teachers, though they have the same training +and do the same amount of work.</p> + +<p>In spite of the fact that there are two million women engaged in industry, +there are 900 male factory inspectors and hardly 60 female factory +inspectors. Here again the men are paid 1000 pounds and the women only 500 +pounds a year. In the postal and telegraph service the same injustice +exists: the men begin with a minimum wage of 20 shillings a week, while +the women are paid 14 shillings; the men increase their salaries to 62 +shillings a week; the women to 30 shillings. The male telegraph operator +begins with 18 shillings and is finally given 65 shillings a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> week; the +woman telegraph operator begins with 16 and reaches 40 shillings. The male +clerks of the second division of the civil service are paid 250 pounds and +the women 100 annually. In 1908, the number of women employees in the +postal and telegraph service of Great Britain was 13,259; the number of +women supernumeraries, 30,476: total number, 43,735. The highest positions +(heads of departments, staff officers) have been attained by 4 women and +by 178 men.</p> + +<p>In recent years many new callings have been opened to women living in the +cities. They are engaged in the manufacture of confectionery. Prominent +and wealthy women have established businesses of their own, in which fine +confections are produced,—in many cases by destitute, nervous, and +overworked women music teachers. Women are active as bookbinders, +stockbrokers, bills of exchange agents, auditors, teachers of domestic +economy, instructors in gymnastics, ladies’ guides, wardrobe dealers (the +costly robes of the women of fashion are sold on commission through +agents), paperers and decorators, etc.</p> + +<p>The Woman’s Institute<small><a name="f47.1" id="f47.1" href="#f47">[47]</a></small> has published a complete handbook on the +occupations of women. This book does not omit the occupation of explorer, +in which Mrs. French Sheldon has distinguished herself (by exploration in +the interior of Africa). In London, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> number of women engaged in +gainful pursuits is naturally very large, many of the women being alone in +the world. The women journalists and authoresses in London have been +numerous enough to organize a club of their own,—the Writers’ Club, in +the Strand. The number of women employed in commercial houses is very +large,—450,000. The weekly wages, especially the wages of the saleswomen +in the shops, are often quite moderate, 20 to 25 shillings where +exceptional demands are made as to attractive dress and appearance. The +women have organized the Shop Assistants’ Union. For women with this +weekly wage the securing of good rooms and board at a reasonable price is +a vital question. There are three apartment houses for workingwomen,—the +<i>Sloane Garden Houses</i>, and the apartments for women in Chenies Street and +in York Street. Women teachers, designers, artists, bookkeepers, cashiers, +secretaries and stenographers obtain room and board here at varying rates. +There are bedrooms (with two beds) for 4½ to 5 shillings a week for +each person, furnished rooms for 10 to 14 shillings. The dining room is a +restaurant. Only the evening meal, dinner (served from 6 to 7), is served +to all at once. This meal costs 10 pence (20 cents). In Chenies Street +living expenses are somewhat higher: 6 pence for breakfast, 9 pence for +luncheon, 1 shilling for dinner; which is about 55<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> cents a day for board. +For suites of two to four rooms $15 to $30 a month is charged. The +<i>Alexandra House</i> in Kensington offers women artists similar privileges; +the <i>Brabanzon House</i> (under the protection of the Countess of Meath) +accommodates employees of the shops only. Since the English women +are—fortunately—independent in spirit, these institutions lack the +scholastic, monastic, or tutelary characteristics that are unfortunately +found in many similar institutions on the continent.</p> + +<p>Very few of the English women have become industrial entrepreneurs. +However, they have directed their attention to agriculture as a means of +earning a livelihood and have organized agricultural schools for women. +Here the women engage especially in poultry raising, vegetable and fruit +growing, which in England are very lucrative; England annually imports 41 +million pounds’ worth of milk, eggs, poultry, vegetables, and fruits. The +councils of London, Berkshire, Essex, and Kent counties support the +Horticultural College for women in Swanley, Kent, which was founded +privately by wealthy and influential persons. In England 100,000 women are +engaged in agriculture. The demand for trained women gardeners to-day +still exceeds the supply. Trained women gardeners are frequently engaged +for a long term of years to teach untrained gardeners. Women are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>employed +in the Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew and in Edinburgh. Holloway College +has a woman gardener. In 1898 a model farm for women was founded by Lady +Warwick in Reading. The institution began with twelve women students, who +cultivated two acres of land. Within a year the number of students was +quadrupled; and then eleven acres were cultivated instead of two.</p> + +<p>The woman that wishes to learn stock feeding and dairying is sent to a +special farm. The course requires two years. The <i>Agricultural Association +for Women</i>, founded by Lady Warwick, aids the women agriculturists and +finds positions for the pupils. In Great Britain there are eight public +schools in which women can learn agriculture and gardening. Many county +councils have established courses in gardening, to which women are +admitted.</p> + +<p>Agriculture is encouraged in England because the migration from the +country to the city has increased extraordinarily. Agriculture is +restricted in favor of stock raising, which gives employment to fewer +laborers than agriculture. In spite of the great increase in population, +the number of agriculturists has steadily decreased since 1851. On the +other hand, the industrial population (and it is predominantly urban) has +increased significantly. Every industrialization means a pauperization to +a certain extent. It produces the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> army of unskilled laborers, the victims +of the sweating system, who in a destitute condition are left to eke out +their wretched existence in the “East Ends” of the large cities. There is +no corresponding misery in the country districts. A marked +industrialization therefore causes a degree of general pauperism such as +is unknown in the agricultural regions of western Europe. The pursuit of +gardening among women has a social-political significance. The English +laboring population is estimated at 4,000,000 people, among whom the +trade-union movement has made considerable progress. The English +trade-union statistics of 1904 show 148 trade-unions having women members. +There are all together 125,094 female members, <i>i.e.</i> 6.7 per cent of all +organized laborers. The greatest number of these are in the textile +industries (almost 100,000). The total number of women laborers in this +industry is 800,000.</p> + +<p> </p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span class="smcap">Men</span><br /><small>(SHIL. A WEEK)</small></td> + <td class="bt" align="center"><span class="smcap">Women</span><br /><small>(SHIL. A WEEK)</small></td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Cotton Industry</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">29.6</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">18.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Woolen Industry</td> + <td class="br" align="center">26.1</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">13.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Lace Industry</td> + <td class="br" align="center">39.6</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">13.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Woven Goods Industry</td> + <td class="br" align="center">31.5</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">14.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Linen Industry</td> + <td class="br" align="center">22.4</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">10.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr">Jute Industry</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">21.7</td> + <td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">13.5<small><a name="f48.1" id="f48.1" href="#f48">[48]</a></small></span></td></tr></table> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>In the textile industry, in which women are better organized than +elsewhere (there being 96,000), there existed in 1906 the preceding +difference between the wages of men and women (see table, p. 84).</p> + +<p>The organization of women laborers was first advocated by Mrs. Paterson +and Miss Simcox at the trade-union congress held in Glasgow in 1875. But +this organization is confronted with the same difficulties as exist +elsewhere: the women believe that they are engaged in non-domestic work +only temporarily; therefore they are interested in the improvement of +labor only to a slight degree, and in addition are burdened with +housework; while the male laborer is free when the factory closes. In +almost all industries women are paid lower wages than men,—partly because +those who are poorly equipped are given the lower grades of work and are +not given an opportunity to do the more difficult work; partly, too, +because <i>they are women, i.e.</i> people of the second order. Weekly wages of +5 to 7 shillings are common. Naturally, the workingwoman who is all alone +in the world cannot exist on such a sum. In <i>one</i> industry only the women +are given the same pay as the men for doing the same work,—this is the +textile industry in Lancashire. Since 1847 this industry has been +protected by a law prohibiting night work for women. In this industry men +and women laborers are organized<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> in the same trade-union. The standard of +living of the whole body of workers is very high. There can be no doubt +that the legislation for the protection of the laborers of this industry, +in which the exploitation of women and children had been carried to the +extreme previous to 1847, has caused the raising of the general standard +of living. Without the intervention of law, exploitation would have been +pursued further in this industry. So the English women have before them an +example of the salutary effect of legislation for the protection of the +laborers in the textile industries. Nevertheless, there is in England a +faction among the woman’s rights advocates which vigorously resists every +movement for the protection of women laborers; it has organized itself +into the “League for Freedom of Labor Defense.” It acts on the principle +that every law for the protection of women laborers signifies an +unjustifiable tutelage; that the workingwomen should defend themselves +through the organization of trade-unions; that the laws for the protection +of women laborers decrease women’s opportunities for work and drive them +from their positions, which are filled by men (who can work at night).</p> + +<p>These fears are based purely on theory. In practice they are realized only +in entirely isolated cases. The truth is that legislation for the +protection of women laborers (prohibition of night work and the fixing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> of +a maximum number of work hours a day) is entirely favorable to an +overwhelming majority of workingwomen. It protects them against a degree +of exploitation that they could not resist unaided because <i>the majority +of them are not organized</i>, and have no power to organize themselves; they +will secure this power only through laws protecting women laborers. A +comparative international study of laws for the protection of women +laborers, published by the Belgian department of labor,<small><a name="f49.1" id="f49.1" href="#f49">[49]</a></small> shows that the +number of women laborers has nowhere decreased, and that wages have not +declined as a result.</p> + +<p>Concerning this point Mrs. Sidney Webb says: “In most cases women <i>cannot</i> +be replaced by men, either because the men are not sufficiently dextrous +or because their labor is too expensive. What employer will pay a man 20 +to 30 shillings a week when a woman can accomplish just as much for 5 to +12 shillings a week?” We shall return to this subject in discussing +France.</p> + +<p>Those women that are members of trade-unions persistently demand the right +to vote; many of them intimate that through this right they expect to +secure an increase in wages. Naturally the wishes of women laborers +possessing the franchise will be considered very differently from the +wishes of those not possessing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> this right. Proof of this has been given +by the American woman’s suffrage states. Previous to the debates on +woman’s suffrage in Parliament in 1904, a deputation of workingwomen from +the potteries in Staffordshire presented the members of Parliament from +that district with a petition having 4000 signatures, requesting the +introduction of a woman’s suffrage bill, so that women might not continue +to be excluded from all well-paid positions on account of their political +inferiority. On this occasion the Hon. Mr. A. L. Emmott (member of +Parliament from the Oldham district) declared that the salary of the women +employees in the postal savings banks had been reduced from 65 pounds +(with an annual increase of 3 pounds) to 55 pounds (with an annual +increase of 2 pounds, 10 shillings). <i>This would have been impossible if +women had had the right to vote.</i> Domestic servants are as yet organized +only to a small extent, but they are well trained; they number 1,331,000.</p> + +<p>In none of the Anglo-Saxon countries of the world is there a schism +between the woman’s rights movements of the middle class and the +Social-Democrats, such as is found in Germany. In each of the Anglo-Saxon +countries there is a Socialist, and even an Anarchist party, but these +parties do not antagonize the woman’s rights movement. The republican +constitutions in America,—the more democratic institutions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> of +society,—in general moderate the acute opposition. The absence of +historical obstacles has a conciliating influence everywhere in these +countries. In England, where history, monarchy, and traditional class +antagonism seem to give socialism favorable conditions of growth, +socialism has for a long time been hampered by the trade-unions. In other +words, the English workingmen, the first to organize in Europe, had +already improved their condition greatly when the socialistic propaganda +commenced in England. In their trade-unions they confined themselves to +the economic field; they avoided mixing economics with politics; they +worked with both parties, they steered clear of class hatred, and it was +difficult to influence them with the speculative ultimate aims of social +democracy. It has been only in the last decade that social-democracy has +made any progress in England; therefore in the woman’s rights movement +middle-class women and workingwomen work together peaceably.</p> + +<p>Of all the women in Europe the English women first became conscious of +their duty toward the lower classes. In this atmosphere,—clubs and homes +for working girls, and the London “College for Working +Women,”—institutions such as we on the continent know only in isolated +cases flourished readily. These institutions devote their attention to the +girls of the lower ranks of society.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>The oldest club is the “Soho Club and Home for Working Girls” in Soho +Square, London, founded in 1880 by the Hon. Maude Stanley. It is open from +seven in the morning to ten at night and <i>also on Sunday</i>. Tea can be +obtained for 2½ pence (5 cents), and dinner for 6½ pence (13 cents). +The admission fee is 1 shilling, the annual dues are 8 shillings. The +members have a library at their disposal, and they publish a club +magazine, <i>The London Girls’ Club Union Magazine</i>. Members of such clubs +(including those outside London) have formed themselves into a union. The +members of the committee—composed of wealthy and influential +women—concern themselves personally with the affairs of the clubs, giving +not only their money, but their time and influence. The “College for +Working Women” has existed in Fitzroy Square for more than 25 years. Here +are taught English, French, history, geography, drawing, arithmetic, +reading, writing, singing, cooking, sewing, wood turning, and other +subjects. The quarterly fee is 1 shilling (for use of the library, +attending lectures, etc.), the fees for the courses range from 1 shilling +and 3 pence to 2 shillings and 6 pence (31 to 62 cents) quarterly. A +commission gives examinations. The institution grants scholarships and +gives prizes. The number of such clubs in the whole of Great Britain is +estimated at 800.</p> + +<p>The English woman is developing a considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> activity in the +sociological field. Florence Nightingale, who organized a regular hospital +service on the field of battle during the Crimean War (1854), upon her +return to England took steps to secure the training of educated women for +the nursing profession, in which the English nurse has been the model. The +most important Training College for nurses not connected with religious +orders is in Henrietta Street, in London. Still this distinguished +profession, which is represented in the International Red Cross Society, +has not yet attained state registration of nurses,—<i>i.e.</i> an officially +prescribed course of study concluding with a state examination.</p> + +<p>The English midwives are vehemently complaining because the new Midwives +Act will be deliberated on by a commission having no midwife as a member. +The superintendent of the London Institute for Midwives has protested +against this on behalf of 26,000 midwives.</p> + +<p>Another woman, Octavia Hill, participated in the official inquiry of the +living conditions of the London East End, which led to a systematic +campaign against the slums. This work is at present continued in London by +31 or more women sanitary officers. They supplement the work of the +factory inspectors, since they inspect the conditions under which women +home-workers live. In the whole country there are more than 80 such women +sanitary officers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>The home-workers are mostly women. Half of the 900,000 or more English +women engaged in the manufacture of ready-made clothing are permitted to +work at home. Their wages are wretchedly low. The government, which pays +the <i>men</i> of the Woolwich Arsenal trade-union wages, is one of the worst +exploiters of women (who do not have the right to vote); in the Army +Clothing Works the government employs women either directly or indirectly +(as home-workers through sweaters).<small><a name="f50.1" id="f50.1" href="#f50">[50]</a></small></p> + +<p>The urgent need of widening woman’s field of labor and improving her +conditions of labor is clearly stated in a lecture which Miss B. L. +Hutchins delivered before the Royal Statistical Society. According to the +census of 1901 there were 1,070,000 more women than men in Great Britain. +In 1901, of every 1000 persons 516 were women (in 1841, only 511 were +women). The longevity of women is higher than that of men (47.77 to +44.13). When the old age pensions were introduced, 135 women to every 100 +men applied for aid. Only half of the adult women (5,700,000) are provided +for through marriage, and then only for 20 to 30 years of their lives. +Previous to marriage, and afterward, most of the women are dependent on +their own work for a living. Because English women know from experience +that their conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> of labor can be improved only through the exercise +of the suffrage, they have adopted their “militant tactics.”</p> + +<p>In the field of poor-relief England again has taken the lead, inasmuch as +she has permitted women to fill honorary posts in the municipal +administration of the poor-law. At the present time 1162 women are engaged +in this work, 147 of whom are rural district councillors.</p> + +<p>The chief reform efforts of the women were directed to the care of +children and to the workhouses, through which channels private aid reaches +the recipient. Still, among 22,000 guardians of the poor the number of +women hardly reaches 1000. The old prejudice against women asserted itself +even in this field. A “Society for Promoting the Return of Women as +Poor-law Guardians” is endeavoring to hasten reform.<small><a name="f51.1" id="f51.1" href="#f51">[51]</a></small></p> + +<p>The Englishman has the valuable characteristic of forming organizations +that strive to achieve very definite, though often temporary, ends, thus +giving private initiative great flexibility. Such an organization, with a +limited purpose, is the “Woman’s Coöperative Gild,” founded in 1883. Its +purpose is to promote the coöperative movement (as far as consumption is +concerned) among women, and to show them their enormous social and +economic power as <i>consumers</i>. Women are the chief purchasers, as they +purchase the housekeeping<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> supplies. It is to their interest to purchase +through the coöperative associations that exclude the middlemen, and at +the end of the year pay a dividend to the members of the associations. +These associations can exercise an important social influence inasmuch as +they create model conditions of labor for their employees (short working +day, high wages, early closing of the shops, no work on Sundays or +holidays, opportunity to sit down during working hours, insurance against +sickness, old age insurance, sanitary conditions of labor, etc.). The Gild +organizes women into coöperative societies, and by theoretical as well as +practical studies informs the women of the advantages of the coöperative +system. The movement to-day numbers 26,000 members.</p> + +<p>In England a marked increase in the use of alcoholic liquors among women +was noticed; whereupon legal and medical measures were taken to curb the +evil. The most effective measure would be an attack on the drunkenness of +the husband, which destroys the home.</p> + +<p>The official report of the first English school for mothers, located in +St. Pancras, London, has just appeared. This report shows that the +experiment has been entirely successful. Of all measures to decrease the +death rate among children, the establishment of schools for mothers is the +best. During the course of instruction the young married women were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>recommended to organize mothers’ clubs in order to secure the necessaries +of life more cheaply. The school for mothers also attempts to give the +young mothers nourishing meals, which can be furnished for the low sum of +2¾ pence (about 6 cents).</p> + +<p>In the field of morals English women have achieved a success which might +well excite the envy of other countries; viz. the repeal of the law of +1869 concerning the state regulation of prostitution. The law had hardly +been accepted by an accidental majority when public opinion, under the +leadership of members of Parliament, doctors, and preachers, protested +against the measure. Nothing made such an impression as the public +appearance of a woman on behalf of the repeal of this measure concerning +women. In spite of all scorn, all feigned and frequently malicious +pretensions not to comprehend her, in spite of all attempts, frequently +brutal, to browbeat her,—Josephine Butler from 1870 to 1886 unswervingly +supported the view that the regulation was to be condemned from the legal, +sanitary, and moral viewpoint. Through the tireless work of Mrs. Butler +and her faithful associates, Parliament in 1886 repealed the act providing +for the regulation of prostitution. Since 1875, Mrs. Butler has organized +internationally the struggle against the official regulation of +prostitution. On December 30, 1906, death came to the noble woman.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>Conditions in England are an evidence of how much more difficult it is for +the woman’s rights movement to make progress in <i>old</i> countries than in +new. Traditions are deeply rooted, customs are firmly established, the +whole weight of the past is blocking the wheels of progress. In countries +with older civilization the woman’s question is entirely a question of +force.<small><a name="f52.1" id="f52.1" href="#f52">[52]</a></small></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">CANADA</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>5,372,600.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>2,619,578.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>2,751,473.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Canadian Federation of Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Canadian Woman’s Suffrage Association.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Politically Canada belongs to England, geographically it is a part of +North America. The Canadian women take a keen interest in the woman’s +rights movement of the United States, which is setting them an excellent +example. The last congress of the “International Council of Women” met in +Toronto, Canada, under the presidency of Lady Aberdeen, the present +president and the wife of the former governor-general of Canada. Canada is +a large, young, agricultural country with large families and primitive +needs. Therefore the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> progress of the woman’s rights movement is less +marked in Canada than in the United States and England. Throughout Canada +the workingwoman is paid less than the workingman, partly because she is +more poorly trained, partly because she is kept in subordinate positions, +partly because, in order to find work at all, she must offer her services +for less money. Even when teaching, or doing piecework, woman is paid less +than man. In Canada there is as yet no political woman’s rights movement +strong enough to rectify this injustice by means of organizations and laws +as has been done in Australia. As yet there are no women preachers in +Canada. Women lawyers are confronted both with popular prejudice and legal +obstacles. The study and practice of medicine is made very difficult for +women, especially in Quebec and Montreal. In New Brunswick and Ontario as +well as in the northwest provinces there is a more liberal attitude toward +women’s pursuit of higher education. No Canadian university excludes women +entirely, but not a few of the higher institutions of learning refuse +women admission to certain courses and refuse to grant certain degrees. +The prevailing property laws in the eastern part of Canada legalize joint +property holding (and we know what that means for woman); in the western +part there is separation of property rights or at least separate control +over earnings, the wife having full control of her wages. The male<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +Canadian, when twenty-one years old, becomes a voter and has full +political rights.<small><a name="f53.1" id="f53.1" href="#f53">[53]</a></small> But the Canadian woman has only restricted suffrage +rights. Unmarried women that are taxpayers exercise only active suffrage +in <i>municipal and school elections</i>. Each province has its own laws +regulating these conditions of suffrage.</p> + +<p>The Copenhagen Congress (1906) of the International Woman’s Suffrage +Alliance promoted the cause of woman’s suffrage in Canada very +considerably. At a public meeting in which the Canadian delegate, Mrs. +MacDonald Denison, gave a report of the work of the International +Congress, a resolution favoring woman’s suffrage was adopted, and this was +used very effectively in propaganda. This propaganda was carried on among +women’s clubs, students’ clubs, debating clubs, etc. The intellectual +élite is to-day in favor of woman’s suffrage. In 1907 the Canadian Woman’s +Suffrage Association, supported by the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, +the Women Teachers, the Medical Alumnæ, the Progressive Thought +Association, the Toronto Local Council of Women, and the Progressive Club, +sent a delegation to the Mayor and Council of the city of Toronto to +express their support of a resolution which the Council had drawn up +favoring the right of married women to vote in municipal elections.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> Thus +supported, the resolution was presented to the authorized commission, but +here it was weakened by an amendment (granting the suffrage only to +married women <i>owning property</i>). The author of this amendment, a member +of the Toronto City Council, received his reward for this kindness to the +women in the form of a defeat at the next election.</p> + +<p>Organizations favoring woman’s suffrage have been founded throughout the +country (Halifax, Nova Scotia; St. John, New Brunswick). Woman’s suffrage +advocates speak in mass meetings and in men’s clubs, etc.<small><a name="f54.1" id="f54.1" href="#f54">[54]</a></small></p> + +<p>A demand for woman’s suffrage, made by the Woman’s Christian Temperance +Union, was answered evasively by the Prime Minister, Sir Wilfred +Laurier,—the provincial parliaments must take the matter up first, then +the Dominion Parliament can consider it. In the spring of 1909 the City +Council of Toronto sent a petition favoring woman’s suffrage to the +Canadian Parliament, and at the same time 1000 woman’s suffrage advocates +called on the Prime Minister. The 1909 Congress of the International +Woman’s Suffrage Alliance will undoubtedly help the Canadian woman’s +suffrage movement.</p> + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">SOUTH AFRICA</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td><i>Natal and Cape Colony</i><small><a name="f55.1" id="f55.1" href="#f55">[55]</a></small></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Total population:</span></td><td>1,830,063.</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Transvaal</i></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Total population:</span></td><td>1,354,200.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Woman’s Suffrage Association for all three countries.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />In South Africa, Natal was the leader in the woman’s rights movement. In +1902, through the work of Mr. and Mrs. Ancketill, the Woman’s Equal +Suffrage League was organized, which endeavored primarily to interest and +educate its members. Later, in 1904, public propaganda was begun. In June +a petition was presented to the Lower House by Mr. Ancketill. When he +presented the matter in the form of a motion, it was not put to a vote, +owing to the newness of the subject. The agricultural population opposes +woman’s suffrage; the urban population favors it. The woman’s rights +movement is made difficult in South Africa by the following circumstances: +An enervating climate “that makes people languidly content with things as +they are.” The lack of educated and independent women (women teachers are +state employees); the lack of a numerous class of workingwomen; difficult +housekeeping, owing to the untrustworthiness of the natives as domestic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +servants; the peculiar position of men as taxpayers (men only pay a poll +tax) and as arms bearers (all men must serve in the army).<small><a name="f56.1" id="f56.1" href="#f56">[56]</a></small></p> + +<p>In Cape Colony similar conditions prevail. The Women’s Enfranchisement +League was formed in 1907; and in July, 1907, there took place the first +woman’s suffrage debate in Parliament. The woman’s suffrage societies of +Natal, Cape Colony, and the Transvaal have formed an association and have +joined the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance. In Natal and Cape +Colony women taxpayers exercise the right to vote in municipal affairs. +The regulation of the suffrage qualifications for the Federal Parliament +is being considered. The South African delegates in London (1909) +expressed the fear that women would not be given the federal suffrage.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td><i>Sweden</i></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Total population:</span></td><td>5,377,713.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Women:</span></td><td>2,751,257.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Men:</span></td><td>2,626,456.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Finland</i></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Total population:</span></td><td>2,712,562.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Women:</span></td><td>1,370,480.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Men:</span></td><td>1,342,082.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Norway</i></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Total population:</span></td><td>2,240,860.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Women:</span></td><td>1,155,169.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Men:</span></td><td>1,085,691.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Denmark</i></td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Total population:</span></td><td>2,588,919.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Women:</span></td><td>1,331,154.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Men:</span></td><td>1,257,765.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Denmark will be grouped together since they +are so closely connected by race and culture; repetition will thereby be +avoided, and clearness promoted.</p> + +<p>All four countries have the advantage of having a population largely +agricultural,—a population scattered in small groups. Clearly, the +problem of dealing with congested masses of people is here absent. +Everywhere there is an eagerness for education. The educational average is +high. The position of woman is one of freedom, for here have been kept +alive the old Germanic traditions which we [the Germans] know only from +reading Cæsar or Tacitus. An external factor in hastening the solution of +the question of woman’s rights was the very unusual numerical superiority +of women. The foreign wars, which took the majority of the men away from +home for long periods of time,—first in the Middle Ages, and then again +in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,—and the fact that the +Scandinavian countries themselves were afflicted with wars only to a small +extent, explain the freedom of the Scandinavian women. Like the English +women, they had for centuries not known the significance of war for woman. +In the absence of the men, women continued the transaction of business and +industrial enterprises. In the name of the feudal law and as heads of +families they administered affairs, exercising rights that were elsewhere +denied to women.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">SWEDEN</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>5,377,213.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>2,751,257.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>2,626,456.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Swedish Association of Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage Society.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />In Sweden the woman’s rights movement is closely connected with that of +the United States. The founder of the Swedish woman’s rights movement was +Frederika Bremer, who in 1845 visited the United States, studying the +conditions of the women there. Upon her return she encouraged the Swedish +women through her novel <i>Hertha</i> to emancipate themselves. This took place +in 1856. The government, being unable to disregard the free traditions of +the past, was thoroughly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> in favor of the demands of the woman’s rights +movement. As early as 1700, women owning property exercised the right of +voting in the election of ministers. In 1843 this right had been extended +to all women taxpayers. In 1845 the daughter’s right of inheritance had +been made equal to that of the son’s. In 1853 was begun the custom of +appointing women teachers in the small rural schools; in 1859 women were +admitted as teachers in all public institutions of learning. Since 1861 +women have been eligible as dentists, regimental surgeons, and organists +(but not as preachers). In 1862 every unmarried woman or widow over +twenty-one years of age, and paying a tax of 500 crowns (about $135), was +granted active suffrage in municipal affairs. The municipal electors, +inasmuch as they elect the members of the <i>Landsthing</i> (county council) +and the members of the town councils, exercise a political influence, for +the members of the <i>Landsthing</i> and the town councils elect the members of +the two Chambers of the <i>Riksdag</i>, the national legislative body. On +February 10, 1909, all taxpaying women (unmarried, widowed, and married) +were granted the <i>passive</i> suffrage (except for the office of county +councillor). Here is a curious fact,—married women that do <i>not</i> possess +the right to vote in municipal affairs can still hold office!</p> + +<p>In 1866 the art academies were opened to women, in 1870, the universities; +later women were permitted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> enter the postal and telegraph service. In +peculiar contrast to these reforms are the old regulations concerning the +guardianship of women,<small><a name="f57.1" id="f57.1" href="#f57">[57]</a></small> which has been especially supported by the +nobility and conservatives, and has been used chiefly to maintain the +subordination of married women.</p> + +<p>Against this condition the “Association to Advocate the Right of Married +Women to Possess Property” has struggled since 1873. It secured, in 1874, +the right of women to make a marriage contract providing for the +separation of property.<small><a name="f58.1" id="f58.1" href="#f58">[58]</a></small> This association now undertook the political +education of the women voters in municipal elections; hitherto they had +made little use of their right to vote (in 1887, of 62,362 women having +the right to vote only 4844 voted). Thanks to the propaganda of this +association, participation in elections is to-day quite general. The +introduction of coeducation in the secondary schools is also due to the +activity of this association, supported by Professor Wallis, who had +investigated coeducation in the United States. But in the field of +secondary education there is still much to be done for Swedish +women,—their salaries as teachers are lower than those of men; in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +matters of advancement and pensions women are discriminated against, +though they are expected to possess professional training and ability +equal to that of the men.</p> + +<p>In 1889 the Baroness of Adlersparre succeeded, through untiring +propaganda, in securing for women admission to school and poor-law +administration. To the baroness is due also the revival of needlework as +an applied art, as well as the revival of agricultural instruction for +women. All of these ideas she had expressed since 1859 in her magazine +<i>For the Home</i> (<i>Fürs Heim</i>).</p> + +<p>Since 1884 the center of the Swedish woman’s rights movement has been the +“Frederika Bremer League,” founded by the Baroness of Adlersparre. This is +a sort of “Woman’s Institute,” and undertakes inquiries, collects data, +secures employment, organizes members of trades and professions, fixes +minimum wages, organizes petitions, gives advice, offers leadership, gives +stipends; in short, in various ways it centralizes the Swedish Women’s +rights movement. In 1896 the “Association to Advocate the Right of Married +Women to Possess Property” affiliated with the “Frederika Bremer League.”</p> + +<p>The following are the facts concerning the work of educated women in +Sweden: The number of elementary school teachers is about double that of +the men (in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> 1899 there were 9950 women as compared with 5322 men). The +salaries of the women are everywhere lower than those of the men. In 1908 +there were 12,000 women teachers in the elementary schools, their annual +salary being 1400 crowns ($375) or more.</p> + +<p>There are 35 women doctors in Sweden, most of whom practice in Stockholm. +The Swedish midwives are well trained. Nursing is a respected calling for +educated women; also kinesiatrics (hygienic gymnastics), the latter being +lucrative as well.</p> + +<p>The first woman Doctor of Philosophy was Ellen Fries, who received the +degree in 1883. Sonja Kowalewska was a professor in mathematics in the +free University of Stockholm. Ellen Key is also a teacher, her field being +sociology.</p> + +<p>In Sweden there are two women university lecturers; one in law, the other +in physics. As yet there are no women lawyers and preachers. The +legislative act of February, 1909, which secures for women their +appointment in all <i>state</i> institutions (educational, scientific, +artistic, and industrial), will greatly improve woman’s professional +prospects.</p> + +<p>Sweden is not a land of large manufactories; hence there is no problem +arising from the presence of large masses of industrial laborers. Since +1865 the wages of the agricultural laborers have risen 85 per cent for +women and 65 per cent for men. There are 242,914<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> women engaged in +agriculture, 57,053 in industry,—3400 of the latter being organized. +There are 15,376 women employed in commerce; they are throughout paid +lower wages than the men (400 to 1200 crowns, <i>i.e.</i> $107 to $321).</p> + +<p>The organization of the workingwomen is not connected with the woman’s +rights movement; it is affiliated with the workingmen’s movement. In this +field Ellen Key has been quite active as a national educator. She is a +supporter of the laws for the protection of women laborers, and on this +point she has frequently met opposition among the woman’s rights advocates +of Sweden (an opposition similar to that offered by the English Federation +for Freedom of Labor Defense). In 1907 an exposition of home-work was held +in Stockholm, similar to the German expositions.</p> + +<p>The right to vote in national elections<small><a name="f59.1" id="f59.1" href="#f59">[59]</a></small> in Sweden is exercised by +landowners and taxpayers; however, only by men. Therefore there is a +Swedish National Woman’s Suffrage Society, which in recent years has grown +very considerably, having over 10,000 members. In the autumn of 1906 a +delegation from the society was received by the Prime Minister and the +King, who, however, could hold out no promise of a government measure +favoring woman’s suffrage. The society then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> tried to influence the +Parliament with an enormous petition having 142,188 signatures. This +petition was presented February 6, 1907.</p> + +<p>In 1906 and 1907 the Labor party and the Liberal party inserted woman’s +suffrage into their platforms and presented bills favoring the measure. +Twice (in 1907 and 1908) Parliament rejected the clause providing for +woman’s suffrage. On February 13, 1909, the Swedish males were granted +universal suffrage (active and passive) in national elections; at the same +time Parliament tried to appease the women by granting them the passive +suffrage in municipal elections. In the spring of 1909 the bill concerning +woman’s right to vote in national elections (Staaf Bill) was accepted by +the Constitutional Commission by a vote of 11 to 9; the Lower House also +accepted it, but it was rejected by the Upper House.</p> + +<p>The political successes of the Norwegian women have a stimulating effect +on Sweden.</p> + +<p>Prohibition has influential advocates in Sweden, and supporters in +Parliament. At the request of the Swedish women’s clubs, police matrons +were appointed to coöperate with the police regulating prostitution in +Stockholm, Helsingborg, Trelleborg, and Malmö. At the present time a +commission is considering future plans for police regulation of +prostitution in Sweden.</p> + +<p>In Sweden, where there are about half a million organized<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> adherents to +the cause of temperance, there are 77 daily papers that consistently print +matter pertaining to temperance. Not only these 77 papers, most of whose +editors are Good Templars, but at least 13 other dailies refuse all +advertisements of alcoholic liquors.<small><a name="f60.1" id="f60.1" href="#f60">[60]</a></small> In Norway, where similar +conditions prevail, there are a quarter of a million temperance advocates, +and about 40 daily papers that favor the cause.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">FINLAND</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>2,712,562.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>1,370,480.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>1,342,082.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>No league of Finnish women’s clubs.<br /> +No woman’s suffrage league.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />The discussion of the Finnish woman’s rights movement will follow that of +Sweden, for Finland was till 1809 politically a part of Sweden; the +cultural tie still exists.</p> + +<p>In Finland also, the woman’s rights movement is of literary +origin,—Adelaide Enrooth and Frederika Runeburg preached the gospel of +woman’s emancipation to an intellectual élite. Through the influence of +Björnson, Ibsen, and Strindberg the discussion of the “social lie” +(<i>Gesellschaftslüge</i>) became general. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> the eighties of the last +century, the ideas and criticisms were turned into deeds and reforms. +Above all a thorough education for woman was demanded. Since 1883, +coeducational schools have been established through private funds in all +cities of the country. These institutions have received state aid since +1891. They are secondary schools, having the curriculums of German +<i>Realschulen</i> and <i>Gymnasiums</i>.<small><a name="f61.1" id="f61.1" href="#f61">[61]</a></small> Not only is the student body composed +of <i>boys</i> and <i>girls</i>, but the direction and instruction in these schools +are divided equally between <i>women</i> and <i>men</i>; thereby the predominance of +the men is counteracted. Even before the establishment of these schools +women had privately prepared themselves for the <i>Abiturientenexamen</i> +(examinations taken when leaving the secondary schools), and had entered +the University of Helsingfors. In 1870 the first woman entered the +University; in 1873 the second; in 1885 two more followed. To-day, 478 +women are registered in Helsingfors. Most of these women are devoting +themselves to the teaching profession, which is more favorable to women in +Finland than in Sweden. The first woman doctor, Rosina Hickel, has been +practicing in Helsingfors since 1879. The number of women doctors has +since risen to 20.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>In Finland any reputable person can plead before the court; but there are +no professional women lawyers and no women preachers. However, there are +women architects and women factory inspectors. Since 1864, women have been +employed in the postal service; since 1869, in the telegraph service and +in the railway offices. Here they draw the same salary as the men, when +acting in the same capacity. Commercial callings have been opened to +women, and there is a demand for women as office clerks.</p> + +<p>The statistical yearbook for Finland does not give separate statistics +concerning workingwomen. The total number of laborers in 1906 was 113,578. +Perhaps one tenth of these were women,—engaged chiefly in the textile and +paper industries, and in the manufacture of provisions and ready-made +clothing. There are few married women engaged in industrial work. Women +are admitted to membership in the trade-unions.</p> + +<p>In a monograph on women engaged in the ready-made clothing industry<small><a name="f62.1" id="f62.1" href="#f62">[62]</a></small> +are found the following facts (established by official investigation of +621 establishments employing 3205 women laborers): 97.7 per cent of the +women were unmarried, and 2.3 per cent married; the minimum wages were 10 +cents a day; the maximum, $1.50; the women laborers living with their +parents or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> relatives numbered 1358; the sanitary conditions were bad.</p> + +<p>Home industry in Finland (as well as in Sweden and Norway) has recently +shown a striking growth. It was on the point of succumbing to the cheap +factory products. In order to perpetuate the industry, schools for +housewives were established in connection with the public high schools in +the rural districts. In these schools were taught, in addition to domestic +science and agriculture, various domestic handicrafts that offered the +women a pleasant and useful activity during the long winters. Not being +carried on intensively, these handicrafts could never lead to exploitation +and overwork.</p> + +<p>In 1864 the guardianship of men over unmarried women was abolished. +Married women are still under the guardianship of their husbands. Since +1889, the wife has been able to secure a separation of property by means +of a contract. She has control of her earnings when joint property holding +prevails. The unmarried women taxpayers and landowners have been voters in +municipal elections since 1865. In the rural districts they have also had +the right to hold local administrative offices. Just as in Sweden, they +have the right to participate in the election of ministers; and since 1891 +and 1893 they have had active and passive suffrage in regard to school +boards and poor-law administration.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>Taking advantage of the collapse of Russia in the Far East, Finland—in +May, 1906—established universal active and passive suffrage for all male +and female citizens over twenty-four years of age. She was the first +European country to take this step. On March 15, 1907, the Finnish women +exercised for the first time the right of suffrage in state elections. +Nineteen women were elected to the Parliament (comprising 200 +representatives). The women belonged to all parties, but most of them were +adherents of the Old-Finnish party (having 6 representatives) and of the +Socialist party (having 9 representatives). Ten of the women +representatives were either married or were widows. They belonged quite as +much to the cultured, property-owning class as to the masses. This +Parliament was dissolved in April, 1908. In the new elections of July, 25 +women were elected as representatives. Here again most of the elected +women belonged to the Old-Finnish party (with 6 representatives) and to +the Socialists (with 13 representatives). Nine of the women +representatives are married. Of the husbands of these women one is a +doctor, one a clergyman, one a workingman, two are farmers, etc. Of the +unmarried women representatives six are teachers, two are tailors, two are +editors of women’s newspapers, four are traveling lecturers, one is a +factory inspector, and there is one Doctor of Philosophy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>In both parliaments the women presented numerous measures, some of general +concern, others bearing on woman’s rights.<small><a name="f63.1" id="f63.1" href="#f63">[63]</a></small> Some of the measures +provided for: the improvement of the legal status of illicit children, +parental authority, the protection of maternity, the abolition of the +husband’s guardianship over the wife, the better protection of children, +the protection of the woman on the street, the abolition of the regulation +of prostitution, and the raising of the age of consent.</p> + +<p>This list of measures indicates that the Finnish laws regulating marriage +are still antiquated, and that the political emancipation of woman did not +immediately effect her release from legal bondage. One of the Finnish +woman’s advocates said, “Our short experience has taught us that we may +still have a hard fight for equal rights.”</p> + +<p>Not only the antiquated marriage laws are inconsistent with the national +political rights of women; in the municipal election laws, too, woman is +treated unjustly. Married women do not exercise the right of suffrage, and +widows and unmarried women possess the passive suffrage only in the +election of poor-law administrators and school boards. Two woman’s +suffrage organizations—<i>Unionen</i> and <i>Finsk <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>Kvinnoforening</i>—have +existed since 1906; they have no party affiliations. Two new woman’s +suffrage societies—<i>Swenska Kinnoforbundet</i> and <i>Naitlütto</i> +(Young-Finnish)—are party organizations.</p> + +<p>The bill concerning the abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution has meanwhile become law, replacing the former +unsatisfactory, and for Finland, exceptional law. The law corresponding to +the English Vagrancy Act (supplement to paragraph 45 of the Finnish Civil +Code) provides that “whoever accosts a woman in public places for immoral +purposes shall pay a fine of $50.”</p> + +<p>On October 31, 1907, the manufacture, importation, sale, or storing of +alcoholic liquors in any form whatever was prohibited by law. In recent +years the Finnish woman temperance lecturer, Trigg Helenius, has carried +on a successful international propaganda.</p> + +<p>External and internal difficulties have to the present made impossible the +formation of Finnish women’s clubs and a federation of the women voters.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">NORWAY</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>2,240,860.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>1,155,169.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>1,085,691.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>League of Norwegian Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage Association.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>In recent years the Norwegian woman’s rights movement has made marked +progress. Just as in the other Scandinavian countries, women were freed as +early as the middle of the nineteenth century from the most burdensome +legal restrictions by a liberal majority in Parliament. In 1854 the +daughters were given the same right of inheritance as the sons, and male +guardianship for unmarried women was abolished. However, the real woman’s +rights movement, like that of Sweden and Finland, began in the eighties of +the last century. Aasta Hansteen, Clara Collett, Björnson, and Ibsen had +prepared public opinion for the emancipation of women. Like Frederika +Bremer, Aasta Hansteen had emigrated to America owing to the prejudices of +her countrymen; and, again like Frederika Bremer, she returned to her +native land and could rejoice over the progress of the movement which she +had instigated. In 1884 the Norwegian Woman’s League was founded. It has +since 1886 published a semimonthly woman’s suffrage magazine, <i>Nylaende</i>. +In 1887 the Norwegian woman’s rights movement won the same victory that +Mrs. Butler had won in England in 1886: the official regulation of +prostitution was abolished (neither in Sweden nor in Denmark has a similar +reform been secured thus far). As early as 1882 several university +faculties had admitted women, and in 1884 women were given the legal +right<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> to secure an academic training, and they were declared eligible to +receive all scholarships and all academic degrees. In 1904 a law was +enacted admitting women to a number of public offices. Paragraph 12 of the +Constitution excludes them from the office of minister in the Cabinet; +they are excluded from consulships on international grounds, from military +offices by the nature of the offices, and from the theological field +through the backwardness of the Norwegian clergy. But they were admitted +to the teaching and legal professions, and to some of the administrative +departments of the government. The law made no discrimination between +married and unmarried women. It is believed that the women can decide best +for themselves whether or not they can combine the work of an +administrative office with their domestic duties.</p> + +<p>Hitherto the teaching profession had presented difficulties for women. +Fewer women than men were appointed; the women were given the subordinate +positions and paid lower salaries. The women had energetically protested +against these conditions since the passing of the law of 1904; in 1908 +they succeeded in having the magistrate of Christiania raise the initial +salary of women teachers in the elementary schools from 900 crowns ($241) +to 1100 crowns ($295), and the maximum salary from 1500 crowns ($402) to +1700<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> crowns ($455). In Christiania the women also demanded that women +teachers be given the position of head master; there were many women in +the profession,—2900 in the elementary schools, and 736 in the secondary +schools.</p> + +<p>The women shop assistants’ trade-union in an open meeting in Christiania +has demanded equal pay for equal work.</p> + +<p>By a law passed in May, 1908, women employees in the postal service were +given the same pay as the men employees. As a result of this the women +telegraph operators, supported by the Norwegian Woman’s Suffrage +Association, drew up a petition requesting the same concession as was made +the women postal employees, and presented the petition to the government +and the Storthing. This movement favoring an increase of wages was +strongly supported by the woman’s suffrage movement.</p> + +<p>The women taxpayers (including married women) have possessed active and +passive suffrage in municipal affairs since 1901. The property +qualification requires that a tax of 300 crowns ($80) must be paid in the +rural districts, and 400 crowns ($107) in cities. In 1902 women exercised +the suffrage in municipal affairs for the first time; in Christiania 6 +women were elected to municipal offices.</p> + +<p>The Norwegian League of Women’s Clubs and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> woman’s suffrage +associations protested to the government and to the Parliament because +suffrage in the national elections had been withheld from the women. The +separation of Sweden and Norway (1906), which concerned the women greatly, +but in which they could exercise no voice, was a striking proof of woman’s +powerlessness in civil affairs. Hence the Norwegian Woman’s Suffrage +League instituted a woman’s ballot, in which 19,000 votes were cast in +favor of separation, none being cast against it.</p> + +<p>In 1907 six election bills favorable to woman’s suffrage were presented to +the Storthing; and June 10, 1907, <i>women taxpayers were granted active and +passive suffrage in municipal elections</i> (affecting about 300,000 women; +200,000 are still not enfranchised). This right of suffrage is accorded to +married women. The next general elections will take place in 1909.</p> + +<p>Since the Norwegian men have active and passive suffrage in parliamentary +elections, the women also made their demands to the Storthing. The +Ministry resolved, in pursuance of this demand, to present the Storthing +with the requisite constitutional amendment (Article 52). The Storthing +requested that before the next municipal elections (1910) the Ministry +present a satisfactory bill providing for woman’s suffrage in municipal +elections. At the present time 142 women are city councilors (122 in the +cities).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> In the autumn of 1909 women will for the first time participate +in the parliamentary elections.</p> + +<p>At two congresses of the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance +(Amsterdam, in 1908; and London, in 1909), Norway was officially +represented by the wife of the Minister of State, Qvam.</p> + +<p>The emancipation of women legally and in the professions had preceded +their political emancipation. Norwegian women first practiced as dentists +in 1872; since 1884, women have been druggists and have practiced +medicine. They practice in all large cities. There are 38 women engaged as +physicians for the courts, as school physicians, as university assistants +in museums and laboratories, and as sanitary officers. Since 1904 there +have been two women lawyers. <i>Cand. jur.</i> Elisa Sam was the first woman to +profit by this reform. The first woman university professor was Mrs. +Matilda Schjott in Christiania; to-day there are three such professors. +There are 37 women architects. In 1888 married women were given the right +to make marriage contracts providing for separate property holding. Even +where there is joint property holding, the wife controls her earnings.</p> + +<p>In Norway the law protects the illegitimate mother and her child better +than elsewhere. The Norwegian law regards and punishes as accomplices in +infanticide all those that drive a woman to such a step,—the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> illicit +father, the parents, the guardians, and employers, who desert a woman in +such circumstances and put her out into the street. Since 1891, women have +been eligible to hold office as poor-law administrators; since 1899 they +can be members of school boards. The number of workingwomen is 67,000. Of +these 2000 are organized.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">DENMARK</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>2,588,919.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>1,331,154.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>1,257,765.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of Danish Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage League.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />The origin of the woman’s rights movement in Denmark is also literary,—to +Frederika Bremer in Sweden, Aasta Hansteen and Clara Collett in Norway, +must be added as emancipators, Mathilda Fibiger and Pauline Worm in +Denmark. The writings of both of these women in favor of +emancipation,—“Clara Raphael’s Letters” and “Sensible People,”—date back +as far as 1848; they were inspired by the liberal ideas prevailing in +Germany previous to the “March Revolution.” An <i>organized</i> woman’s rights +movement did not come into being until twenty-five years later. A liberal +parliamentary majority in Denmark abolished, in 1857, male guardianship +over unmarried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> women; and in 1859 established the equal inheritance +rights of daughters, thus following the example of Sweden and Norway. It +was necessary first to secure the support of public opinion through a +literary discussion of woman’s rights. This was carried on between 1868 +and 1880 by Georg Brandes, who translated John Stuart Mill’s <i>The +Subjection of Women</i>, and by Björnson and Ibsen. In 1871 Representative +Bajer and his wife organized the first woman’s rights society, the “Danish +Woman’s Club,” which rapidly spread throughout Denmark. At first the Club +endeavored to secure a more thorough education for women, and therefore +labored for the improvement of the girls’ high schools, and for the +institution of coeducational schools. In 1876 it secured the admission of +women to the University of Copenhagen.</p> + +<p>In the teaching profession women are employed in greater numbers, and are +better paid than in Sweden at the present time. There are 3003 women +elementary school teachers and 2240 women teachers in the high schools. As +yet there are no women lecturers or professors in the university.<small><a name="f64.1" id="f64.1" href="#f64">[64]</a></small> +Since 1860, women have filled subordinate positions in the postal and +telegraph services, and since 1889 they have also filled the higher +positions; there are in all 1500 women employees.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> The subordinate +positions in the national and local administrations are to a certain +extent open to them. The number of women engaged in industrial pursuits is +47,617; the number of domestic servants, 89,000. The domestic servants are +organized only to a limited extent (800 being organized). The women in the +industries are better organized,—chiefly in the same trade-unions as the +men. In 1899 the women comprised one fifth of the total number of +organized laborers; since then this proportion has increased considerably. +The average wages of the women domestic servants are 20 crowns ($5.36) a +month; the average wages of the workingwomen are from 2 to 2.5 crowns (53 +to 67 cents) a day.</p> + +<p>Since 1880 the wife can secure separate property holding rights through a +marriage contract. Where joint property holding prevails, the wife +controls her own earnings and savings. In 1888 municipal suffrage was +demanded by the “Danish Woman’s Club,” but the <i>Rigsdag</i> rejected the +measure. Since then the question has occupied much attention. In 1906 the +Congress of the Woman’s International Suffrage Alliance performed +excellent propaganda work. New woman’s suffrage societies were organized, +and the older societies were enlarged.<small><a name="f65.1" id="f65.1" href="#f65">[65]</a></small> In the meantime the bill +concerning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> municipal suffrage was being sent from one House to the other. +Finally, on February 26, 1908, it was adopted by the Upper House, on April +14 by the Lower House, and on April 20 signed by the King. All taxpayers, +twenty-five years of age, were permitted to vote. All classes of +women—widows, unmarried, and married women—were enfranchised. They have +active and passive suffrage. In March, 1909, they exercised both rights +for the first time. The participation in the election was general; six +women were elected in Copenhagen. The women are now demanding the suffrage +in national affairs. Immediately after the victory of 1908 the Woman’s +Suffrage League organized strong demonstrations in forty cities in favor +of this demand.</p> + +<p>Here it must be mentioned that the women in Iceland were granted, in the +autumn of 1907, active and passive suffrage in municipal affairs. In +January, 1908, they participated in the elections for the first time. In +Reikiavik, the capital, 2850 people voted, 1220 of whom were women. Four +women were elected to the city council, one polling the highest number of +votes. In 1909, the Icelandic Woman’s Suffrage League joined the +International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance. A number of Icelandic woman’s +suffrage societies in Canada have affiliated with the Canadian Woman’s +Suffrage League.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>On March 30, 1906, official regulation of prostitution was abolished in +Denmark; but a new law of similar character was enacted providing for +stringent measures.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">THE NETHERLANDS</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>5,673,237.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>2,583,535.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men</td><td>2,520,602.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of the Netherlands Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage League.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Although women are in a numerical superiority in the Netherlands, it is +much less difficult for them to find non-domestic employment than it is +for the German women, for instance. The Netherlands has large colonies and +therefore a good market for its male workers. The educated Dutchman is +kindly disposed toward the woman’s rights movement, and in the educated +circles the wife really enjoys rights equal to those of the husband, which +is less frequently the case among the lower classes. The marriage laws are +based on the Code Napoleon, which, however, was considerably altered in +1838. The guardianship of the husband over the wife still prevails. +According to paragraph 160 of the Civil Code the husband controls the +personal property that the wife acquires; but he administers her real +estate only with the wife’s consent. According<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> to paragraph 163 of the +Civil Code the wife cannot give away, sell, mortgage, or acquire anything +independently. She can do those things only with her husband’s written +consent. No marriage contract can annul <i>this</i> requirement; but the wife +can stipulate the independent control of her income. According to +paragraph 1637 of the Civil Code the wife is permitted to control for <i>the +benefit of the family</i> the money that she earns while fulfilling a labor +contract. Affiliation cases, it is true, are recognized by law, but under +considerable restrictions.</p> + +<p>The first sign of the woman’s rights movement manifested itself in the +Netherlands in 1846. At that time a woman appeared in public for the first +time as a speaker. She was the Countess Mahrenholtz-Bülow, who introduced +kindergartens (<i>Fröbelsystem</i>) into the Netherlands.</p> + +<p>In 1857 elementary education was made compulsory in the Netherlands. At +that time this instruction was free, undenominational, and under the +control of the state; but in 1889 it was partly given over into +denominational and private hands. The secondary schools for girls are +partly municipal, partly private. Most of the elementary schools are +coeducational; in the secondary schools the sexes are segregated; in the +higher institutions of learning coeducation prevails, the right of girls +to attend being granted as a matter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> of course. Girls were admitted to the +high schools also without any opposition. These measures were due to +Minister Thorbecke. Thirty years ago the first woman registered at the +University of Leyden. Women study and are granted degrees in all +departments of the universities of Leyden, Utrecht, Gröningen, and +Amsterdam. In the elementary, secondary, and higher institutions of +learning, there are fewer women teachers than men, and the salary of the +women teachers is lower. Women are now being appointed as science teachers +in boys’ schools also. The government is planning measures opposed to +having married women as teachers and as employees in the postal service. +The women’s clubs are vigorously protesting against this. Women serve as +examination commissioners and as members of school boards, though in small +numbers. The city school boards rely almost entirely upon women for +supervising the instruction in needlework. Since 1904 two women were +appointed as state school inspectors, with salaries only sufficient for +maintenance.</p> + +<p>In the Netherlands there are 20 women doctors (31 including those in the +colonies), 57 women druggists, 5 women lawyers, and one woman lecturer in +the University of Gröningen. There are three women preachers in the +Liberal “League of Protestants.” Since 1899 4 women have been factory +inspectors;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> 2, prison superintendents; 2, superintendents of rural +schools. Thirty-four are in the courts for the protection of wards. Women +participate in the care of the poor and the care of dependent children. +The care of dependent children is in the hands of a national society, <i>Pro +juventute</i>, which aided in securing juvenile courts in the Netherlands. +Especially useful in the education and support of workingwomen has been +the Tessel Benefit Society (<i>Tessel Schadeverein</i>), which is national in +its organization.</p> + +<p>It will be well to state here that the appointment of women factory +inspectors was secured in a rather original manner. In 1898 a national +exhibition of commodities produced by women was held in the Hague. In a +conspicuous place the women placed an empty picture frame with this +inscription: “The Women Inspectors of all These Commodities Produced by +Women.” This hastened results.</p> + +<p>The shop assistants of both sexes organized themselves conjointly in +Amsterdam in 1898. There are two organizations of domestic servants. The +Dutch woman’s rights advocates proved by investigation that for the same +work the workingwomen—because they were women—were paid 50 per cent less +than men. The “Workingwomen’s Information Bureau,” which was made into a +permanent institution as a result of the exhibition of 1898, has been +concerning itself with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> the protection of workingwomen and with their +organization. The women organizers belong to the middle class. The +Socialist party in the Netherlands has been organizing workingwomen into +trade-unions. In this the party has encountered the same difficulties as +exist elsewhere; to the present time it can point only to small successes. +Two of the Socialist woman’s rights advocates are Henrietta Roland and +Roosje Vos. Henrietta Roland is of middle-class parentage, being the +daughter of a lawyer; she is the wife of an artist of repute. Roosje Vos, +on the contrary, comes from the lower classes. Both of these women played +an important part in the strike of 1903. They organized the “United +Garment Workers’ Union.”</p> + +<p>In spite of the fact that a woman can be ruler of the Netherlands, the +Dutch women possess only an insignificant right of suffrage. In the dike +associations they have a right to vote if they are taxpayers or own +property adjoining the dikes. In June, 1908, the Lutheran Synod gave women +the same right to vote in church affairs as the men possess. The +Evangelical Synod, on the other hand, rejected a similar measure as well +as one providing for the ordaining of women preachers. An attempt to +secure municipal suffrage for women failed, and resulted in the enactment +of reactionary laws.</p> + +<p>In 1883 Dr. Aletta Jacobs (the first woman doctor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> in the Netherlands), +acting on the advice of the well-known jurist—and later Minister—van +Houten, requested an Amsterdam magistrate to enter her name on the list of +municipal electors. As a taxpayer she was entitled to this right. At the +same time she requested Parliament to grant her the suffrage in national +elections. Both requests were summarily refused. In order to make such +requests impossible in the future, parliament inserted the word “male” in +the election law.<small><a name="f66.1" id="f66.1" href="#f66">[66]</a></small> These occurrences aroused in the Dutch women an +interest in political affairs; and in 1894 they organized a “Woman’s +Suffrage Society,” which soon spread to all parts of the country. The +Liberals, Radicals, Liberal Democrats, and Socialists admitted women +members to their political clubs and frequently consulted the women +concerning the selection of candidates. The clubs of the Conservative and +Clerical parties have refused to admit women. At the general meeting in +1906 a part of the members of the “Woman’s Suffrage Society” separated +from the organization and formed the “Woman’s Suffrage League” (the <i>Bond +voor Vrouwenkiesrecht</i>,—the older organization was called <i>Vereeniging +voor Vrouenkiesrecht</i>). Both carry on an energetic propaganda in the +entire country, the older organization being the more radical. In 1908 the +older organization made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> all necessary preparations for the Amsterdam +Congress of the Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, which resulted in a large +increase in its membership (from 3500 to 6000), and resulted, furthermore, +in the founding of a Men’s League for Woman’s Suffrage (modeled after the +English organization). The question of woman’s suffrage has aroused a +lively interest throughout the Netherlands; even the <i>Bond</i> increased its +membership during the winter of 1908 and 1909 from 1500 to 3500.</p> + +<p>In September, 1908, there were two great demonstrations in the Hague in +favor of <i>universal</i> suffrage for both men and women. The right to vote in +Holland is based on the payment of a property tax or ground rent; +therefore numerous proposals in favor of widening the suffrage had been +made previously. When a liberal ministry came into power in 1905, it +undertook a reform of the suffrage laws; in 1907 the Committee on the +Constitution, by a vote of six out of seven, recommended that Parliament +grant active and passive suffrage to men and women. But with the fall of +the Liberal ministry fell the hope of having this measure enacted, for +there is nothing to be expected from the present government, composed of +Catholic and Protestant Conservatives. As has already been stated, +propaganda is in the meantime being carried on with increasing vigor, and +in Java a woman’s suffrage society has also been organized. A noted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +jurist, who is a member of the Dutch <i>Bond voor Vrouwenkiesrecht</i>, has +just issued a pamphlet in which he proves the necessity of granting +woman’s suffrage: “Man makes the laws. Wherever the interests of the +unmarried or the married woman are in conflict with the interests of man, +the rights of the woman will be set aside. This is injurious to man, +woman, and child, and it blocks progress. The remedy is to be found only +in woman’s suffrage. The granting of woman’s suffrage is an urgent demand +of justice.”</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">SWITZERLAND<small><a name="f67.1" id="f67.1" href="#f67">[67]</a></small></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>3,313,817.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women: about</td><td>1,700,000.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men: about</td><td>1,616,000.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of Swiss Women’s <ins class="correction" title="original: Cubs">Clubs</ins>.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage League.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Switzerland’s existence and welfare depend on the harmony of the German, +the French, and the Italian elements of the population. Switzerland is +accustomed to considering three racial elements; out of three different +demands it produces one acceptable compromise. Naturally the Swiss woman’s +rights movement has steadily developed in the most peaceful<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> manner. No +literary manifesto, no declaration of principles of freedom is at the root +of this movement. It is supported by public opinion, which is gradually +being educated to the level of the demands of the movement. The woman’s +rights movement began in Switzerland as late as 1880; in 1885 the Swiss +woman’s club movement was started. The Federation of Women’s Clubs is made +up of cantonal women’s clubs in Zurich, Berne, Geneva, St. Gallen, Basel, +Lausanne, Neuchâtel, and in other cities, as well as of intercantonal +clubs, such as the “Swiss Public Utility Woman’s Club” (<i>Schweizer +Gemeinnütziger Verein</i>), “la Fraternité,” the “Intercantonal Committee of +Federated Women,” etc. Recently a Catholic woman’s league was formed. +Since 50 per cent of the Swiss women remain unmarried, the woman’s rights +movement is a social necessity. In the field of education the authorities +have been favorable to women in every way. In nine cantons the elementary +schools are coeducational. There are public institutions for higher +learning for girls in all cities. In German Switzerland (Zurich, +Winterthur, St. Gallen, Berne) girls are admitted to the higher +institutions of learning for boys, or they can prepare themselves in the +girls’ schools for the examination required for entrance to the +universities (<i>Matura</i>). There are 18 seminaries that admit girls only; +the seminaries in Küssnacht, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>Rorshach, and Croie are coeducational. +Women teachers are not appointed in the elementary schools of the cantons +of Glarus and Appenzell-Outer-Rhodes. On the other hand in the cantons of +Geneva, Neuchâtel, and Ticino 59 to 66 per cent of the teachers in the +elementary schools are women. They are given lower salaries than the men. +The canton of Zurich pays (by law) equal wages to its men and women +teachers, but the additional salary paid by the municipalities and rural +districts to the men teachers is greater than that paid to the women. In +its elementary schools the canton of Vaud employs 500 women teachers, some +of whom are married. The Swiss universities have been open to women since +the early sixties of the nineteenth century. As in France, the native +women use this right far less than foreign women, especially Russians and +Germans. The total number of women studying in the Swiss universities is +about 700. Most of the Swiss women that have studied in the universities +enter the teaching profession. Women are frequently employed as teachers +in high schools, as clerks, and as librarians. Sometimes these positions +are filled by foreign women.</p> + +<p>The first woman lecturer in a university in which German is the language +used has been employed in Berne since 1898. She is Dr. Anna Tumarkin, a +native Russian, having the right to teach in universities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> æsthetics and +the history of modern philosophy. In 1909 she was appointed professor. In +each of the universities of Zurich, Berne, and Geneva, a woman has been +appointed as university lecturer. Women doctors practice in all of the +larger cities. There are twelve in Zurich. The city council of Zurich has +decided to furnish free assistance to women during confinement, and to +establish a municipal maternity hospital. In Zurich there has been +established for women a hospital entirely under the control of women; the +chief physician is Frau Dr. Heim. The practice of law has been open to +women in the canton of Zurich since 1899, and in the canton of Geneva +since 1904. Miss Anna Mackenroth, <i>Dr. jur.</i>, a native German, was the +first Swiss woman lawyer. Miss Nelly Favre was the second. Miss Dr. +Brüstlein was refused admission to the bar in Berne. Miss Favre was the +first woman to plead before the Federal Court in Berne, the capital. As +yet there are no women preachers in Switzerland. In Lausanne there is a +woman engineer. In the field of technical schools for Swiss women, much +remains to be done. The commercial education of women is also neglected by +the state, while the professional training of men is everywhere promoted. +Women are employed in the postal and telegraph service. The Swiss hotel +system offers remunerative positions and thoroughly respectable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> callings +to women of good family. In 1900 the number of women laborers was 233,912; +they are engaged chiefly in the textile and ready-made clothing +industries, in lacemaking, cabinetmaking, and the manufacture of food +products, pottery, perfumes, watches and clocks, jewelry, embroidery, and +brushes.<small><a name="f68.1" id="f68.1" href="#f68">[68]</a></small> Owing to French influence, laws for the protection of women +laborers are opposed, especially in Geneva. The inspection of factories is +largely in the hands of men. Home industry is a blessing in certain +regions, a curse in others. This depends on the intensity of the work and +on the degree of industrialism. The trade-union movement is still very +weak among women laborers. According to the canton the movement has a +purely economic or a socialist-political character. Only a few +organizations of workingwomen belong to the Swiss Federation of Women’s +Clubs. Since 1891 the men’s trade-unions have admitted women. The first +women factory inspectors were appointed in 1908. According to the census +of August 9, 1905, 92,136 persons in Switzerland are engaged in home +industry; this number is 28.3 per cent of the total number of persons +(325,022) engaged in these industries. The foremost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> of the home +industries is the manufacture of embroidery, engaging a total of 65,595 +persons, of whom 53.5 per cent work at home. The next important home +industries are silk-cloth weaving, engaging 12,478 persons (41 per cent of +the total employed); watch making, engaging 12,071 persons in home +industry (or 23.7 per cent of the total); silk-ribbon weaving, engaging +7557 persons (or 51.9 per cent of the total). The highest percentage of +home workers is found among the straw plaiters (78.8 per cent); then +follow the military uniform tailors (60.1 per cent), the embroidery makers +(53.5 per cent), the wood carvers and ivory carvers (52 per cent), the +silk-ribbon weavers (51.9 per cent), and the ready-made clothing workers +(49.3 per cent). The International Association for Labor Legislation, as +everybody knows, is trying to ascertain whether an international +regulation of labor conditions is possible in the embroidery-making +industry. The statistics just given indicate the importance of this +investigation for Switzerland. The statistics of the home industries of +Switzerland will be found in the ninth issue of the second volume of the +Swiss Statistical Review (<i>Zeitschrift für Schweizerische Statistik</i>).</p> + +<p>The new Swiss law for the protection of women laborers has produced a +number of genuine improvements for the workingwomen. A maximum working<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +day of 10 hours and a working week of 60 hours have been established. +Women can work overtime not more than 60 days a year; they are then paid +at least 25 per cent extra. The most significant innovation is the legal +regulation of <i>vacations</i>. Every laborer that is not doing piecework or +being paid by the hour must, after one year of continuous service for the +same firm, be granted six consecutive days of vacation with full pay; +after two years of continuous service for the same firm the laborer must +be given eight days; after three years of service ten days; and after the +fourth year twelve days annually. A violation of this law renders the +offending employer liable to a fine of 200 to 300 francs ($40 to $60).</p> + +<p>In 1912 a new civil code will come into force. Its composition has been +influenced by the German Civil Code. The government, however, regarded the +“Swiss Federation of Women’s Clubs” as the representative of the women, +and charged a member of the code commission to put himself into +communication with the executive committee of the Federation and to +express the wishes of the Federation at the deliberations of the +committee. This is better than nothing, but still insufficient. When the +civil code had been adopted, every male elector was given a copy; the +women’s clubs secured copies only after prolonged effort.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>The property laws in the new Swiss Civil Code provide for joint property +holding,—not separation of property rights. However, even with joint +property holding the wife’s earnings and savings belong to her (a +provision which the German cantons opposed). On the other hand, +affiliation cases are admissible (the French cantons opposed them). The +wife has the full status of a legal person before the law and full civil +ability, and <i>shares parental authority with the father</i>. French +Switzerland (through the influence of the Code Napoleon) opposes the +pecuniary responsibility of the illegal father toward the mother and +child. Official regulation of prostitution has been abolished in all the +cantons except Geneva; several years ago a measure to introduce it again +was rejected by the people of the Canton Zurich by a vote of 40,000 to +18,000. Geneva is the headquarters of the International Federation for the +Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution. In 1909 the +abolition of the official regulation of prostitution was again demanded in +the city council.</p> + +<p>By a vote of the people the Canton Vaud accepted a measure prohibiting the +manufacture, storage, and sale of absinthe.</p> + +<p>Recently the Swiss women have presented a petition requesting that an +illicit mother be granted the right to call herself “Frau” and use this +designation (Mrs.)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> before her name. The benevolent purpose of this +movement is self-evident. Through this measure the illicit mother is +placed in a position enabling her openly to devote herself to the rearing +of her child. With this purpose in view, not less than 10,000 women have +signed a petition to the Swiss Federal Council, requesting that a law be +enacted compelling registrars to use the title “Frau” (Mrs.) when +requested to do so by the person concerned. Thirty-four women’s clubs have +collectively declared in favor of this petition.</p> + +<p>Women exercise the right of municipal suffrage only in those localities +whose male population is absent at work during a large part of the year +(as in Russia). Women can be elected as members of school boards and as +poor-law administrators in the Canton Zurich; as members of school boards +in the Canton Neuchâtel. The question of granting women the right to vote +in church affairs has long been advocated in the Canton Geneva by the +Reverend Thomas Müller, a member of the Consistory of the National +Protestant Church, and by Herr Locher, Chief of the Department of Public +Instruction of the Canton Zurich. In the Canton Geneva, where there is +separation of church and state, agitation in favor of the reform is being +carried on. The women in the Canton Vaud have exercised the right to vote +in the <i>Église libre</i> since 1899, and in the <i>Église nationale</i> since +1908.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> Since 1909, women have exercised the right to vote in the <i>Église +évangélique libre</i> of Geneva. The woman’s suffrage movement was really +started by the renowned Professor Hilty, of Berne, who declared himself +(in the Swiss Year Book of 1897) in <i>favor</i> of woman’s suffrage. The first +society concerning itself exclusively with woman’s suffrage originated in +Geneva (<i>Association pour le suffrage feminin</i>). Later other organizations +were formed in Lausanne, Chaux de Fonds, Neuenburg, and Olten. The Woman’s +Reading Circle of Berne had, since 1906, demanded political rights for +women, and the Zurich Society for the Reform of Education for Girls had +worked in favor of woman’s suffrage. On May 12, 1908, these seven +societies organized themselves into the National Woman’s Suffrage League, +and in June affiliated with the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance. +The Report of the International Woman’s Suffrage Congress, Amsterdam, +1908, explains in a very lucid manner the political backwardness of the +Swiss women: Switzerland regards itself as the model democracy; time has +been required to make it clear that politically the women of this model +state still have everything to achieve. The meeting of the Committee of +the International Council of Women in Geneva (September, 1908) +accomplished much for the movement.</p> + +<p>The Swiss Woman’s Public Utility Association,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> which had refused to join +the Swiss Federation of Women’s Clubs because the Federation concerned +itself with political affairs (the Public Utility Association wishing to +restrict itself to public utilities only), was given this instructive +answer by Professor Hilty: “Public utility and politics are not mutually +exclusive; an educated woman that wishes to make a living without +troubling herself about politics is incomprehensible to me. The women +ought to take Carlyle’s words to heart: ‘We are not here to submit to +everything, but also to oppose, carefully to watch, and to win.’”</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">GERMANY</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>61,720,529.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>31,259,429.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>30,461,100.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>German Federation of Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage League.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />In no European country has the woman’s rights movement been confronted +with more unfavorable conditions; nowhere has it been more persistently +opposed. In recent times the women of no other country have lived through +conditions of war such as the German women underwent during the Thirty +Years’ War and from 1807 to 1812. Such violence leaves a deep imprint on +the character of a nation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>Moreover, it has been the fate of no other civilized nation to owe its +political existence to a war triumphantly fought out in less than one +generation. Every war, every accentuation and promotion of militarism is a +weakening of the forces of civilization and of woman’s influence. “German +masculinity is still so young,” I once heard somebody say.</p> + +<p>A reinforcement of the woman’s rights movement by a large Liberal majority +in the national assemblies, such as we find in England, France, and Italy, +is not to be thought of in Germany. The theories of the rights of man and +of citizens were never applied by German Liberalism to woman in a broad +sense, and the Socialist party is not yet in the majority. The political +training of the German man has in many respects not yet been extended to +include the principles of the American Declaration of Independence or the +French Declaration of the Rights of Man; his respect for individual +liberty has not yet been developed as in England; therefore he is much +harder to win over to the cause of “woman’s rights.”</p> + +<p>Hence the struggle against the official regulation of prostitution has +been left chiefly to the German women; whereas in England and in France +the physicians, lawyers, and members of Parliament have been the chief +supporters of abolition. I am reminded also of the inexpressibly long and +difficult struggle that we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> women had to carry on in order to secure the +admission of women to the universities; the establishment of high schools +for girls; and the improvement of the opportunities given to women +teachers. In no other country were women teachers for girls wronged to +such an extent as in Germany. The results of the last industrial census +(1907) give to the demands of the woman’s rights movement an invaluable +support: <i>Germany has nine and a half million married women, i.e.</i> only +one half of all adult women (over 18 years of age) are married. In +Germany, too, marriage is not a lifelong “means of support” for woman, or +a “means of support” for the whole number of women. Therefore the demands +of woman for a complete professional and industrial training and freedom +to choose her calling appear in the history of our time with a tremendous +weight, a weight that the founders of the movement hardly anticipated.</p> + +<p>The German woman’s rights movement originated during the troublous times +immediately preceding the Revolution of 1848. The founders—Augusta +Schmidt, Louise Otto-Peters, Henrietta Goldschmidt, Ottilie v. Steyber, +Lina Morgenstern—were “forty-eighters”; they believed in the right of +woman to an education, to work, and to choose her calling, and as a +citizen to participate directly in public life. Only the first three of +these demands are contained in the programme of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> the “German General +Woman’s Club” (founded in 1865 by four of these women, natives of Leipzig, +on the anniversary of the battle of Leipzig). At that time woman’s right +to vote was put aside as something utopian. The founders of the woman’s +rights movement, however, from the very first included in their programme +the question of women industrial laborers, and attacked the question in a +practical way by organizing a society for the education of workingwomen. +The energies of the middle-class women were at this time very naturally +absorbed by their own affairs. They suffered want, material as well as +intellectual. Therefore it was a matter of securing a livelihood for +middle-class women no longer provided for at home. This was the first duty +of a woman’s rights movement originating with the middle class.</p> + +<p>Of special service in the field of education and the liberal +professions<small><a name="f69.1" id="f69.1" href="#f69">[69]</a></small> were the efforts of Augusta Schmidt, Henrietta +Goldschmidt, Marie Loeper-Housselle, Helena Lang, Maria Lischnewska, and +Mrs. Kettler. Kindergartens were established; also courses for the +instruction of adult women, for women principals of high schools, for +women in the <i>Gymnasiums</i> and <i>Realgymnasiums</i>. Moreover, the admission of +women to the universities was secured; the General Association<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> of German +Women Teachers was founded, also the Prussian Association of Women Public +School Teachers, and high schools for girls. The Prussian law of 1908 for +the reform of girls’ high schools (providing for the education of girls +over 12 years,—<i>Realgymnasiums</i> or <i>Gymnasiums</i> for girls from 12 to 16 +years, women’s colleges for women from 16 to 18 years) was enacted under +pressure from the German woman’s rights movement. Both the state and city +must now do more for the education of girls. The academically trained +women teachers in the high schools are given consideration when the +appointments of principals and teachers for the advanced classes are made. +The women teachers have organized themselves and are demanding salaries +equal to those of the men teachers. At the present time girls are admitted +to the boys’ schools (<i>Gymnasiums</i>, <i>Realgymnasiums</i>, etc.) in Baden, +Hessen, the Imperial Provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, Oldenburg, and +Wurttemberg. The German Federation of Women’s Clubs and the convention of +the delegates of the Rhenish cities and towns have made the same demands +for Prussia.</p> + +<p>The Prussian Association of Women Public School Teachers is demanding that +women teachers be appointed as principals, and is resisting with all its +power the threatened injustice to women in the adjustment of salaries. The +universities in Baden and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> Wurttemberg were the first to admit women; then +followed the universities in Hessen, Bavaria, Saxony, the Imperial +Provinces, and finally,—in 1908,—Prussia. The number of women enrolled +in Berlin University is 400.</p> + +<p>About 50 women doctors are practicing in Germany; as yet there are no +women preachers, but there are 5 women lawyers, one of whom in 1908 +pleaded the case of an indicted youth before the Altona juvenile court. +Although there are only a few women lawyers in Germany, women are now +permitted to act as counsel for the defendant, there being 60 such women +counselors in Bavaria. Recently (1908) even Bavaria refused women +admission to the civil service.</p> + +<p>In the autumn there was appointed the first woman lecturer in a higher +institution of learning,—this taking place in the Mannheim School of +Commerce. Within the last five years many new callings have been opened to +women: they are librarians (of municipal, club, and private libraries) and +have organized themselves into the Association of Women Librarians; they +are assistants in laboratories, clinics, and hospitals; they make +scientific drawings, and some have specialized in microscopic drawing; +during the season for the manufacture of beet sugar, women are employed as +chemists in the sugar factories; there is a woman architect in Berlin, and +a woman engineer in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>Hamburg. Women factory inspectors have performed +satisfactory service in all the states of the Empire. But the future field +of work for the German women is the sociological field. State, municipal, +and private aid is demanded by the prevailing destitution. At the present +time women work in the sociological field without pay. In the future much +of this work must be performed by the <i>professional</i> sociological women +workers. In about 100 cities women are guardians of the poor. There are +103 women superintendents of orphan asylums; women are sought by the +authorities as guardians. Women’s coöperation as members of school +committees and deputations promotes the organized woman’s rights movement. +The first woman inspector of dwellings has been appointed in Hessen. +Nurses are demanding that state examinations be made requisite for those +wishing to become nurses; some cities of Germany have appointed women as +nurses for infant children. In Hessen and Ostmark [the eastern part of +Prussia], women are district administrators. There is an especially great +demand for women to care for dependent children and to work in the +juvenile courts; this will lead to the appointment of paid probation +officers. In southern Germany, women police matrons are employed; in +Prussia there are women doctors employed in the police courts. There are +also women school <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>physicians. Since 1908, trained women have entered the +midwives’ profession.</p> + +<p>When the German General Woman’s Club was formed in 1865, there was no +German Empire; Berlin had not yet become the capital of the Empire. But +since Berlin has become the seat of the Imperial Parliament, Berlin very +naturally has become the center of the woman’s rights movement. This +occurred through the establishment of the magazine <i>Frauenwohl</i> [<i>Woman’s +Welfare</i>] in 1888, by Mrs. Cauer. In this manner the younger and more +radical woman’s rights movement was begun. The women that organized the +movement had interested themselves in the educational field. The radicals +now entered the sociological and political fields. Women making radical +demands allied themselves with Mrs. Cauer; they befriended her, and +coöperated with her. This is an undisputed fact, though some of these +women later left Mrs. Cauer and allied themselves with either the +“Conservatives” or the “Socialists.”</p> + +<p>In the organization of trade-unions for women not exclusively of the +middle class, Minna Cauer led the way. In 1889, with the aid of Mr. Julius +Meyer and Mr. Silberstein, she organized the “Commercial and Industrial +Benevolent Society for Women Employees.” The society has now 24,000 +members. State insurance for private employees is now (1909) a question of +the day.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>Jeannette Schwerin founded the information bureau of the Ethical Culture +Society, which furnished girls and women assistants for social work. At +the same time Jeannette Schwerin demanded that women be permitted to act +as poor-law guardians. The agitation in public meetings and legislative +assemblies against the Civil Code was instituted by Dr. Anita Augsburg and +Mrs. Stritt.</p> + +<p>The opposition to state regulation of prostitution was begun by the +“radical” Hanna Bieber-Böhm and Anna Pappritz. Lily v. Gikycki was the +first to speak publicly concerning the civic duty of women. The Woman’s +Suffrage Society was organized in 1901 by Mrs. Cauer, Dr. Augsburg, Miss +Heymann, and Dr. Schirmacher.</p> + +<p>In 1894 the radical section of the “German Federation of Women’s Clubs” +proposed that women’s trade-unions be admitted to the Federation. This +radical section had often given offense to the “Conservatives”—in the +Federation, for instance—by the proposal of this measure; but the +radicals in this way have stimulated the movement. As early as 1904 the +Berlin Congress of the International Council of Women had shown that the +Federation, being composed chiefly of conservative elements, should adopt +in its programme all the demands of the radicals, including woman’s +suffrage. The differences between the Radicals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> and the Conservatives are +differences of personality rather than of principles. The radicals move to +the time of <i>allegro</i>; the conservatives to the time of <i>andante</i>. In all +public movements there is usually the same antagonism; it occurred also in +the English and the American woman’s rights movements.</p> + +<p>In no other country (with the exception of Belgium and Hungary) is the +schism between the woman’s rights movement of the middle class and the +woman’s rights movement of the Socialists so marked as in Germany. At the +International Woman’s Congress of 1896 (which was held through the +influence of Mrs. Lina Morgenstern and Mrs. Cauer) two Social Democrats, +Lily Braun and Clara Zetkin, declared that they never would coöperate with +the middle-class women. This attitude of the Social Democrats is the +result of historical circumstances. The law against the German Socialists +has increased their antagonism to the middle class. Nevertheless, this +harsh statement by Lily Braun and Clara Zetkin was unnecessary. It has +just been stated that the founders of the German woman’s rights movement +had included the demands of the workingwomen in their programme, and that +the Radicals (by whom the congress of 1896 had been called, and who for +years had been engaged in politics and in the organization of +trade-unions) had in 1894 demanded the admission of women’s labor +organizations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> to the Federation of Women’s Clubs. Hence an alignment of +the two movements would have been exceedingly fortunate. However, a part +of the Socialists, laying stress on ultimate aims, regard “class hatred” +as their chief means of agitation, and are therefore on principle opposed +to any peaceful coöperation with the middle class. A part of the women +Socialist leaders are devoting themselves to the organization of +workingwomen,—a task that is as difficult in Germany as elsewhere. Almost +everywhere in Germany women laborers are paid less than men laborers. The +average daily wage is 2 marks (50 cents), but there are many workingwomen +that receive less. In the ready-made clothing industry there are weekly +wages of 6 to 9 marks ($1.50 to $2.25). At the last congress of home +workers, held at Berlin, further evidence of starvation in the home +industries was educed. But for these wages the German woman’s rights +movement is not to be held responsible.</p> + +<p>In the social-political field the woman’s rights advocates hold many +advanced views. Almost without exception they are advocating legislation +for the protection of the workingwomen; they have stimulated the +organization of the “Home-workers’ Association” in Berlin; they urged the +workingwomen to seek admission to the Hirsch-Duncker Trades Unions (the +German national association of trade-unions); they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> have established a +magazine for workingwomen, and have organized a league for the +consideration of the interests of workingwomen. In 1907 Germany had +137,000 organized workingwomen and female domestic servants.<small><a name="f70.1" id="f70.1" href="#f70">[70]</a></small> Most of +these belong to the socialistic trade-unions. The maximum workday for +women is fixed at ten hours. The protection of maternity is promoted by +the state as well as by women’s clubs.</p> + +<p>Peculiar to Germany is the denominational schism in the woman’s rights +movement. The precedent for this was established by the “German +Evangelical Woman’s League,” founded in 1899, with Paula Müller, of +Hanover, as President. The organization of the League was due to the +feeling that “it is a sin to witness with indifference how women that wish +to know nothing of Biblical Christianity represent all the German women.” +The organization opposes equality of rights between man and woman; but in +1908 it joined the Federation of Women’s Clubs. In 1903 a “Catholic +Woman’s League” was formed, but it has not joined the Federation. There +has also been formed a “Society of Jewish Women.” We representatives of +the interdenominational woman’s rights movement deplore this +denominational disunion. These organizations are important because they +make accessible groups of people that otherwise could not be reached by us.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>Another characteristic of the German woman’s rights movement is its +extensive and thorough organization. The smallest cities are to-day +visited by women speakers. Our “unity of spirit,”—praised so frequently, +and now and then ridiculed,—is our chief power in the midst of specially +difficult conditions in which we must work. With tenacity and patience we +have slowly overcome unusual difficulties,—to the present without any +help worth mentioning from the men.</p> + +<p>In the Civil Code of 1900 the most important demands of the women were not +given just consideration. To be sure, woman is legally competent, but the +property laws make joint property holding legal (wives control their +earnings and savings), and the mother has no parental authority. Relative +to the impending revision of the criminal law, the women made their +demands as early as 1908 in a general meeting of the Federation of Women’s +Clubs, when a three days’ discussion took place. Since 1897 the women have +progressed considerably in their knowledge of law. The German women +strongly advocate the establishment of juvenile courts such as the United +States are now introducing. The Federation also demands that women be +permitted to act as magistrates, jurors, lawyers, and judges.</p> + +<p>In the struggle against official regulation of prostitution the women were +supported in the Prussian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> Landtag by Deputy Münsterberg, of Dantzig. +Prussia established a more humane regulation of prostitution, but as yet +has not appointed the extraparliamentary commission for the study of the +control of prostitution, a measure that was demanded by the women. The +most significant recent event is the admission of women to political +organizations and meetings by the Imperial Law of May 15, 1908. Thereby +the German women were admitted to political life. The Woman’s Suffrage +Society—founded in 1902, and in 1904 converted into a League—was able +previous to 1908 to expand only in the South German states (excluding +Bavaria). By this Imperial Law the northern states of the Empire were +opened, and a National Woman’s Suffrage Society was formed in Prussia, in +Bavaria, and in Mecklenburg. As early as 1906, after the dissolution of +the Reichstag, the women took an active part in the campaign, a right +granted them by the <i>Vereinsrecht</i> (Law of Association). In Prussia, +Saxony, and Oldenburg the women worked for universal suffrage for women in +Landtag elections. Since 1908 the political woman’s rights movement has +been of first importance in Germany. As the women taxpayers in a number of +states can exercise municipal suffrage by proxy, and the women owners of +large estates in Saxony and Prussia can exercise the suffrage in elections +for the Diet of the Circle (<i>Kreistag</i>) by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> proxy, an effort is being made +to attract these women to the cause of woman’s suffrage.</p> + +<p>In 1908 the Protestant women of the Imperial Provinces (Alsace and +Lorraine) were granted the right to vote in church elections, a right that +had been granted to the women of the German congregations in Paris as +early as 1907<small><a name="f71.1" id="f71.1" href="#f71">[71]</a></small>.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">LUXEMBURG</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>246,455.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>120,235.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>126,220.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>No federation of women’s clubs.<br /> +No woman’s suffrage league.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />The woman’s rights movement in Luxemburg originated in December, 1905, +with the organization of the “Society for Women’s Interests” (<i>Verein für +Fraueninteressen</i>), which has worked admirably. The society has 300 +members, and is in good financial condition. Throughout the country it is +now carrying on successful propaganda in the interest of higher education +for girls and in the interest of women in the industries. In Luxemburg, +after girls have graduated from a convent, they have no further +educational <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>facilities. The society has established a department for +legal protection, and an employment agency; it has published an inquiry +into the living conditions in the capital.</p> + +<p>In the capital city there is a woman member of the poor-law commission; +ten women are guardians of the poor; one woman is a school commissioner; +and there is a woman inspector of the municipal hospital. The society is +well supported by the liberal elements of the government and the public. +Its chief object must be the establishment of a secular school that will +prepare women for entrance to the universities.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">GERMAN AUSTRIA</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population: about</td><td>7,000,000.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women: about</td><td>3,750,000.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men: about</td><td>3,250,000.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of Austrian Women’s Clubs.<br /> +No woman’s suffrage league.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />The Austrian woman’s rights movement is based primarily on economic +conditions. More than 50 per cent of the women in Austria are engaged in +non-domestic callings. This percentage is a strong argument against the +theory that woman’s sphere is merely domestic. Unfortunately this +non-domestic service of the Austrian women is seldom very remunerative.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> +Austria itself is a country of low wages. This condition is due to a +continuous influx of Slavic workers, to large agricultural provinces, to +the tenacious survivals of feudalism, etc. Therefore women’s wages and +salaries are lower than in western Europe, and low living expenses do not +prevail everywhere (Vienna is one of the most expensive cities to live +in). The “Women’s Industrial School Society,” founded in 1851, attempted +to raise the industrial ability of the girls of the middle class. In +accordance with the views of the time, needlework was taught. Free schools +for the instruction of adults were established in Vienna. The economic +misery following the war of 1866 led to the organization of the “Woman’s +Industrial Society,” which enlarged woman’s sphere of activity as did the +Lette-Society in Berlin. Since 1868 the woman’s rights movement has +secured adherents from the best educated middle-class women,—namely, +women teachers. In that year the Catholic women teachers organized a +“Catholic Women Teachers’ Society.” In 1869 was organized the +interdenominational “Austrian Women Teachers’ Society.” This society has +performed excellent service. The women teachers, who since 1869 had been +given positions in the public schools, were paid less than the men +teachers having the same training and doing the same work. Therefore the +women teachers presented themselves to the provincial legislatures, +demanded an increase<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> in salary, and, in spite of the opposition of the +male teachers, secured the increase by the law of 1891. In 1876 a society +devoted its efforts to the improvement of the girls’ high schools, which +had been greatly neglected. In 1885 the women writers and the women +artists organized, their male colleagues having refused to admit women to +the existing professional societies. In 1888 the women music teachers +likewise organized themselves. At the same time the question of higher +education for women was agitated. In Vienna a “lyceum” class—the first of +its kind—was opened to prepare girls for entrance to the universities +(<i>Abiturientenexamen</i>). Admission to the boys’ high schools was refused to +girls in Vienna, but was granted in the provinces (Troppau, and +Mährisch-Schönberg). Girls were at all times admitted as outsiders +(<i>Extraneae</i>) to the examinations held on leaving college +(<i>Abiturientenexamen</i>). In this way many girls passed the “leaving” +examination before they began their studies in Switzerland. Until 1896 the +Austrian universities remained closed to women. The law faculties do not +as yet admit women. The women’s clubs are striving to secure this reform. +Those women that had studied medicine in Switzerland previous to 1896, and +wished to practice in Austria, required special imperial permission, which +was never withheld from them in their noble struggle.</p> + +<p>In this way Dr. Kerschbaumer began her practice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> as an oculist in +Salzburg. However, the Countess Possanner, M.D., after passing the Swiss +state examination, also took the Austrian examination. She is now +practicing in Vienna.</p> + +<p>As the Austrian doctors have active and passive suffrage in the election +to the Board of Physicians (<i>Ärztekammer</i>)<small><a name="f72.1" id="f72.1" href="#f72">[72]</a></small> Dr. Possanner also +requested this right. Her request was refused by the magistrate in Vienna +because, <i>as a woman</i>, she did not have the suffrage in municipal +elections, and the suffrage for the Board of Physicians could be exercised +only by those doctors that were municipal electors.<small><a name="f73.1" id="f73.1" href="#f73">[73]</a></small> Thereupon Dr. +Possanner appealed her case to the government, to the Minister of the +Interior, and finally to the administrative court. The court decided in +favor of the petition. It must be emphasized, however, that the Board of +Physicians favored the request from the beginning.</p> + +<p>Women preachers and women lawyers are as yet unknown in Austria. As in +former times, the teaching profession is still the chief sphere of +activity for the middle-class women of German Austria. According to the +law of 1869 they can be appointed not only as teachers in the elementary +schools for girls, but also as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> teachers of the lower classes in the boys’ +schools. Their not being municipal voters has two results: if the +municipality is seeking votes, it appoints men teachers that are +“favorably disposed”; if the municipality is politically opposed to the +male teachers, it appoints women teachers in preference. But to be the +plaything of political whims is not a very worthy condition to be in. If +women teachers marry, they need not withdraw from the service (except in +the province of Styria). More than 10 per cent of the women teachers in +the whole of Austria are married, more than 2 per cent are widows. The +women comprise about one fourth of the total number of elementary school +teachers, of whom there are 9000. Their annual salaries vary from 200 to +1600 guldens ($96.40 to $771.20). The ordinary salary of 200 guldens is so +insufficient that many elementary school teachers actually starve. The +competition of the nuns is feared by the whole body of secular school +teachers. In Tyrol instruction in the elementary schools is still almost +wholly in the hands of the religious orders. The sisters work for little +pay; they have a community life and consume the resources of the dead +hand.</p> + +<p>Of the secondary schools for girls some are ecclesiastic, some are +municipal, and some private. The lyceums give a very good education +(mathematics is obligatory), but as yet there are no ordinary secondary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +schools whose leaving examinations are equivalent to the +<i>Abiturientenexamen</i> of the <i>Gymnasiums</i>. The “Academic Woman’s Club” in +Vienna is demanding this reform, and the Federation of Austrian Women’s +Clubs is demanding the development of the municipal girls’ schools into +<i>Realschulen</i>. The state subsidizes various institutions. The girls’ +<i>Gymnasiums</i> were privately founded. Dr. Cecilia Wendt, upon whom the +degree of Doctor of Philosophy was conferred by Vienna University, and who +took the state examination for secondary school teachers in mathematics, +physics, and German, was the first woman appointed as teacher in a +<i>Gymnasium</i>, being appointed in the Vienna <i>Gymnasium</i> for girls. Since +1871, women have been appointed in the postal and telegraph service. Like +most of the subordinate state officials, they receive poor pay, and dare +not marry. The women telegraph operators in the central office in Vienna +are paid 30 guldens ($14.46) a month. “The woman telegraph operator can +lay no claims to the pleasures of existence.” “These girls starve +spiritually as well as physically.”<small><a name="f74.1" id="f74.1" href="#f74">[74]</a></small> During the past twenty-eight years +salaries have not been increased. Every two years a two-week vacation is +granted. Since 1876 there has existed a relief society for women postal +and telegraph employees.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>The woman stenographer, to-day so much sought after in business offices, +was in 1842 <i>absolutely excluded</i> from the courses in Gabelsberger +stenography<small><a name="f75.1" id="f75.1" href="#f75">[75]</a></small> by the Ministry of Public Instruction. In the courts of +chancery (<i>Advokatenkanzleien</i>) women stenographers are paid 20 to 30 +guldens ($9.64 to $14.46) a month. They are given the same pay in the +stores and offices where they are expected to use typewriters. They are +regarded as subordinates, though frequently they are thorough specialists +and masters of languages. In the governmental service the women +subordinates that work by the day (1.50 guldens,—73 cents) have no hope +for advancement or pension. The first woman chief of a government office +has been appointed to the sanitary department of the Ministry of the Labor +Department, in which there is also a woman librarian.</p> + +<p>It is not easy to imagine the deplorable condition of workingwomen when +women public school teachers and women office clerks are expected to live +on a monthly salary of $9.64 to $14.46. The Vienna inquiry into the +condition of workingwomen in 1896 disclosed frightfully miserable +conditions among workingwomen. Since then, especially through the efforts +of the Socialists, the conditions have been somewhat improved.</p> + +<p>In Vienna, efforts to organize women into trade-unions have been +made,—especially among the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>bookbinders, hat makers, and tailors. Outside +Vienna, organization has been effected chiefly among the women textile +workers in Silesia, as well as among the women employees of the state +tobacco factories. The most thorough organization of women laborers is +found in northern and western Bohemia among the glassworkers and bead +makers. In Styria, Salzburg, Tyrol, and Carinthia the organization of +women is found only in isolated cases. Everywhere the organization of +women is made difficult by domestic misery, which consumes the energy, +time, and interest of the women. The organized Social-Democratic women +laborers of German Austria have a permanent representation in the “Women’s +Imperial Committee.” Of the 50,000 women organized in trade-unions, 5000 +belong to the Social-Democratic party. The <i>Magazine for Workingwomen</i> +(<i>Arbeiterinnenzeitung</i>) has 13,400 subscribers. Women industrial +inspectors have proved themselves efficient.</p> + +<p>It is to be expected as a result of the wretched economic conditions of +the workingwomen that prostitution with its incidental earnings should be +widespread in German Austria. Vienna is the refuge of those seeking work +and seclusion (<i>Verschwiegenheit</i>). The number of illicit births in Vienna +is, as in Paris, one third of the total number of births. For these and +other reasons the “General Woman’s Club of Austria” (<i>Allgemeine +Österreiche Frauenverein</i>), founded in 1893<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> under the leadership of Miss +Augusta Fickert, has frequently concerned itself with the question of +prostitution, of woman’s wages, and of the official regulation of +prostitution,—always being opposed to the last. The International +Federation for the Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution +(<i>internationale abolinistische Föderation</i>) was, however, not represented +in German Austria before 1903; the Austrian branch of this organization +being established in 1907 in Vienna.</p> + +<p>The middle-class women are doing much as leaders of the charitable, +industrial, educational, and woman’s suffrage societies to raise the +status of woman in Austria. The most prominent members of these societies +are: Augusta Fickert, Marianne Hainisch, Mrs. v. Sprung, Miss Herzfelder, +v. Wolfring, Mrs. v. Listrow, Rosa Maireder, Maria Lang (editor of the +excellent <i>Dokumente der Frauen</i>, which, unfortunately, were discontinued +in 1902), Mrs. Schwietland, Elsie Federn (the superintendent of the +settlement in the laborers’ district in North Vienna), Mrs. Jella Hertzka, +(Mrs.) Dr. Goldmann, superintendent of the Cottage Lyceum, and others.</p> + +<p>These women frequently coöperate with the leaders of the Socialistic +woman’s rights movement, Mrs. Schlesinger, Mrs. Popp, and others. The +disunion of the two forces of the movement is much less marked in Austria +than in Germany, the circumstances much more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> resembling those in Italy. +In these lands it is expected that the woman’s rights movement will profit +greatly through the growth of Socialism. This is explained by the fact +that the Austrian Liberals are not equal to the assaults of the +Conservatives. Universal equal suffrage, which does not as yet exist in +Austria, has its most enthusiastic advocates among the Socialists. With +the Austrian Socialists, universal suffrage means woman’s suffrage +also.<small><a name="f76.1" id="f76.1" href="#f76">[76]</a></small></p> + +<p>During the Liberal era two rights were granted to the Austrian women: +since 1849 the women taxpayers vote by proxy in municipal elections, and +since 1861 for the local legislatures (<i>Provinciallandtagen</i>).<small><a name="f77.1" id="f77.1" href="#f77">[77]</a></small> In +Lower Austria the <i>Landtag</i> in 1888 deprived them of this right, and in +1889 an attempt was made to deprive them of their municipal suffrage. But +the women concerned successfully petitioned that they be left in +possession of their active municipal suffrage. Since 1873 the Austrian +women owners of large estates vote also for the Imperial Parliament +through proxy. The Austrian women, supported by the Socialist deputies, +Pernerstorfer, Kronawetter, Adler, and others, have on several occasions +demanded the passive suffrage in the election of school boards and +poor-law guardians; they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> have also demanded a reform of the law of +organization, so that women can be admitted to political organizations. To +the present these efforts have been fruitless. When universal suffrage was +granted in 1906 (creating the fifth class of voters), the women were +disregarded. In the previous year a Woman’s Suffrage Committee had been +established with headquarters in Vienna. It is endeavoring especially to +secure the repeal of paragraph 30 of the law regulating organizations and +public meetings. This law (like that of Prussia and Bavaria previous to +1908) excludes women from political organization, thus making the forming +of a woman’s suffrage society impossible. For this reason Austria cannot +join the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance.</p> + +<p>During the consideration of the new municipal election laws in Troppau +(Austrian Silesia), it was proposed to withdraw the right of suffrage from +the women taxpayers. They resisted the proposal energetically. At present +the matter is before the supreme court. In Voralberg the unmarried women +taxpayers were also given the right to vote in elections of the <i>Landtag</i>. +The legal status of the Austrian woman is similar to that of the French +woman: the wife is under the guardianship of her husband; the property law +provides for the amalgamation of property (not joint property holding, as +in France). But the wife does not have control of her earnings and +savings, as in Germany under the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> Civil Code. The father alone has legal +authority over the children.</p> + +<p>Here the names of two women must be mentioned: Bertha v. Suttner, one of +the founders of the peace movement, and Marie v. Ebner-Eschenbach, the +greatest living woman writer in the German language. Both are Austrians; +and their country may well be proud of them.</p> + +<p>In Austria the authorities are more favorably disposed toward the woman’s +rights movement than in Germany, for example.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">HUNGARY<small><a name="f78.1" id="f78.1" href="#f78">[78]</a></small></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>19,254,559.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>9,672,407.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>9,582,152.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of Hungarian Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage League.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />At first the Hungarian woman’s rights movement was restricted to the +advancement of girls’ education. The attainment of national independence +gave the women greater ambition; since 1867 they have striven for the +establishment of higher institutions of learning for girls. In 1868 Mrs. +v. Veres with twenty-two other women founded the “Society for the +Advancement of Girls’<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> Education.” In 1869, the first class in a high +school for girls was formed in Budapest. An esteemed scholar, P. Gyulai, +undertook the superintendence of the institution. Similar schools were +founded in the provinces. In 1876 the Budapest model school was completed; +in 1878 it was turned over to a woman superintendent, Mrs. v. Janisch. A +seminary for women teachers was established, a special building being +erected for the purpose. Then the admission of women to the university was +agitated. A special committee for this purpose was formed with Dr. Coloman +v. Csicky as chairman. In the meantime the “Society” gave domestic economy +courses and courses of instruction to adults (in its girls’ high school). +The Minister of Public Instruction, v. Wlassics, secured the imperial +decree of November 18, 1895, by which women were admitted to the +universities of Klausenburg and Budapest (to the philosophical and medical +faculties). It was now necessary to prepare women for the entrance +examinations (<i>Abiturientenexamen</i>). This was undertaken by the “General +Hungarian Woman’s Club” (<i>Allgemeine ungarische Frauenverein</i>). With the +aid of Dr. Béothy, a lecturer at the University of Budapest, the club +formulated a programme that was accepted by the Minister of Public +Instruction. By the rescript of July 18, 1896, he authorized the +establishment of a girls’ gymnasium in Budapest. It is evident that such +reforms, when in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> the hands of <i>intelligent</i> authorities, are put into +working order as easily as a letter passes through the mails.</p> + +<p>In the professional callings we find 15 women druggists, 10 women doctors, +and one woman architect. Erica Paulus, who has chosen the calling of +architect (which elsewhere in Europe has hardly been opened to women), is +a Transylvanian. Among other things she has been given the supervision of +the masonry, the glasswork, the roofing, and the interior decoration of +the buildings of the Evangelical-Reformed College in Klausenburg. A second +woman architect, trained in the Budapest technical school, is a builder in +Besztercze.</p> + +<p>Higher education of women was promoted in the cities, the home industries +of the Hungarian rural districts were fostered. This was taken up by the +“Rural Woman’s Industry Society” (<i>Landes-Frauenindustrieverein</i>). Aprons, +carpets, textile fabrics, slippers, tobacco pouches, whip handles, and +ornamental chests are made artistically according to antique models (this +movement is analogous to that in Scandinavia). Large expositions aroused +the interest of the public in favor of the national products, for the +disposal of which the women of the society have labored with enthusiasm. +These home industries give employment to about 750,000 women (and 40,000 +men).</p> + +<p>Hungary is preëminently an agricultural country and its wages are low. The +promotion of home industry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> therefore had a great economic importance, for +Hungary is a center of traffic in girls. A great number of these poor +ignorant country girls, reared in oriental stupor, congregate in Budapest +from all parts of Hungary and the Balkan States, to be bartered to the +brothels of South America as “Madjarli and Hungara.”<small><a name="f79.1" id="f79.1" href="#f79">[79]</a></small> An address that +Miss Coote of the “International Vigilance Society” delivered in Budapest +resulted in the founding of the “Society for Combating the White Slave +Trade.” The committee was composed of Countess Czaky, Baroness Wenckheim, +Dr. Ludwig Gruber (royal public prosecutor), Professor Vambéry, and +others. The recent Draconic regulation of prostitution in Pest (1906) +caused the Federation of Hungarian Women’s Clubs to oppose the official +regulation of prostitution, and to form a department of morals, which is +to be regarded as the Hungarian branch of the International Federation for +the Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution. Since then, +public opinion concerning the question has been aroused; the laws against +the white slave traffic have been made more stringent and are being more +rigidly enforced.</p> + +<p>A new development in Hungary is the woman’s suffrage movement (since +1904), represented in the “Feminist Society” (<i>Feministenverein</i>). During +the past five years the society has carried on a vigorous propaganda<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> in +Budapest and various cities in the provinces (in Budapest also with the +aid of foreign women speakers); recently the society has also roused the +countrywomen in favor of the movement. Woman’s suffrage is opposed by the +Clericals and the <i>Social-Democrats</i>, who favor only male suffrage in the +impending introduction of universal suffrage<small><a name="f80.1" id="f80.1" href="#f80">[80]</a></small>. On March 10, 1908, a +delegation of woman’s suffrage advocates went to the Parliament. During +the suffrage debates the women held public meetings.</p> + +<p>From the work of A. v. Maclay, <i>Le droit des femmes au travail</i>, I take +the following statements: According to the industrial statistics of 1900 +there were 1,819,517 women in Hungary engaged in agriculture. Industry, +mining, and transportation engaged 242,951; state and municipal service, +and the liberal callings engaged 36,870 women. There were 109,739 women +day laborers; 350,693 domestic servants; 24,476 women pursued undefined or +unknown callings; 83,537 women lived on incomes from their property. Since +1890 the number of women engaged in all the callings has increased more +rapidly than the number of men (26.3 to 27.9 per cent being the average +increase of the women engaged in gainful pursuits). In 1900 the women +formed 21 per cent of the industrial population. They were engaged chiefly +in the manufacture of pottery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> (29 per cent), bent-wood furniture (46 per +cent), matches (58 per cent), clothing (59 per cent), textiles (60 per +cent). In paper making and bookbinding 68 per cent of the laborers are +women. In the state mints 25 per cent of the employees are women; the +state tobacco factories employ 16,720 women, these being 94 per cent of +the total number of employees. Of those engaged in commerce 23 per cent +are women.</p> + +<p>The number of women engaged in the civil service (as private secretaries) +and in the liberal callings has increased even more than the number of +women engaged in industry. The women engaged in office work have +organized. In 1901 the number of women public school teachers was 6529 +(there being 22,840 men), <i>i.e.</i> 22.22 per cent were women. In the best +public schools there are more women teachers than men, the proportion +being 62 to 48; in the girls’ high schools there are 273 women teachers to +145 men teachers. In 1903 the railroads employed 511 women; in 1898 the +postal service employed 4516 women; in 1899 the telephone system employed +207 women (and 81 men). These women employees, unlike those of Austria, +are permitted to marry.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> +<h3>THE ROMANCE COUNTRIES</h3> + +<p>In the Romance countries the woman’s rights movement is hampered by +Romance customs and by the Catholic religion. The number of women in these +countries is in many cases smaller than the number of men. In general, the +girls are married at an early age, almost always through the negotiations +of the parents. The education of women is in some respects very deficient.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">FRANCE</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>38,466,924.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>19,346,369.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>18,922,651.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of French Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage League.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />The European woman’s rights movement was born in France; it is a child of +the Revolution of 1789. When a whole country enjoys freedom, equality, and +fraternity, woman can no longer remain in bondage. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> Declaration of the +Rights of Man apply to Woman also. The European woman’s rights movement is +based on purely logical principles; not, as in the United States, on the +practical exercise of woman’s right to vote. This purely theoretical +origin is not denied by the advocates of the woman’s rights movement in +France. It ought to be mentioned that the principles of the woman’s rights +movement were brought from France to England by Mary Wollstonecraft, and +were stated in her pamphlet, <i>A Vindication of the Rights of Women</i>. But +enthusiastic Mary Wollstonecraft did not form a school in England, and the +organized English woman’s rights movement did not cast its lot with this +revolutionist. What Mary Wollstonecraft did for England, Olympe de Gouges +did for France in 1789; at that time she dedicated to the Queen her little +book, <i>The Declaration of the Rights of Women</i> (<i>La declaration des droits +des femmes</i>). It happened that The Declaration of the Rights of Man (<i>La +declaration des droits de l’homme</i>) of 1789 referred only to the men. The +National Assembly recognized only male voters, and refused the petition of +October 28, 1789, in which a number of Parisian women demanded universal +suffrage in the election of national representatives. Nothing is more +peculiar than the attitude of the men advocates of liberty toward the +women advocates of liberty. At that time woman’s struggle for liberty had +representatives in all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> social groups. In the aristocratic circles there +was Madame de Stael, who as a republican (her father was Swiss) never +doubted the equality of the sexes; but by her actions showed her belief in +woman’s right to secure the highest culture and to have political +influence. Madame de Stael’s social position and her wealth enabled her to +spread these views of woman’s rights; she was never dependent on the men +advocates of freedom. Madame Roland was typical of the educated republican +bourgeoisie. She participated in the revolutionary drama and was a +“political woman.” On the basis of historical documents it can be asserted +that the men advocates of freedom have not forgiven her.</p> + +<p>The intelligent people of the lower classes are represented by Olympe de +Gouges and Théroīgne de Mericourt. Both played a political rôle; both +were woman’s rights advocates; of both it was said that they had forgotten +the virtues of their sex,—modesty and submissiveness. The men of freedom +still thought that the home offered their wives all the freedom they +needed. The populace finally made demonstrations through woman’s clubs. +These clubs were closed in 1793 by the Committee of Public Safety because +the clubs disturbed “public peace.” The public peace of 1793! What an +idyl! In short, the régime of liberty, equality, and fraternity regarded +woman as unfree, unequal, and treated her very unfraternally. What harmony +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>between theory and practice! In fact, the Revolution even withdrew rights +that the women formerly possessed. For example, the old régime gave a +noblewoman, as a landowner, all the rights of a feudal lord. She levied +troops, raised taxes, and administered justice. During the old régime in +France there were women peers; women were now and then active in +diplomacy. The abbesses exercised the same feudal power as the abbots; +they had unlimited power over their convents. The women owners of large +feudal lands met with the <i>provincial estates</i>,—for instance, Madame de +Sévigné in the <i>Estates General</i> of Brittany, where there was autonomy in +the provincial administration. In the gilds the women masters exercised +their professional right as voters. All of these rights ended with the old +régime; beside the politically free man stood the politically unfree +woman. Napoleon confirmed this lack of freedom in the Civil and Criminal +Codes. Napoleon’s attitude toward all women (excepting his mother, <i>Madame +Mère</i>) was such as we still find among the men in Southern Italy, in +Spain, and in the Orient. His sisters and Josephine Beauharnais, the +creole, could not give him a more just opinion of women. His fierce hatred +for Madame de Stael indicates his attitude toward the woman’s rights +representatives. The great Napoleon did not like intellectual women.</p> + +<p>The Code Napoleon places the wife completely under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> the guardianship of +the husband. Without him she can undertake no legal transaction. The +property law requires joint property holding, excepting real estate (but +most of the women are neither landowners nor owners of houses). The +married woman has had independent control of her earnings and savings only +since the enactment of the law of July 13, 1907. Only the husband has +legal authority over the children. Such a legal status of woman is found +in other codes. But the following provisions are peculiar to the Code +Napoleon: If a husband kills his wife for committing adultery, the murder +is “excusable.” An illicit mother cannot file a paternity suit. In +practice, however, the courts in a roundabout way give the illicit mother +an opportunity to file an action for damages.</p> + +<p>No other code, above all no other Germanic or Slavic code,<small><a name="f81.1" id="f81.1" href="#f81">[81]</a></small> has been +disgraced by such paragraphs. In the first of the designated paragraphs we +hear the Corsican, a cousin of the Moor of Venice; in the second we hear +the military emperor, and general of an unbridled, undisciplined troop of +soldiers. No one will be astonished to learn that this same lawgiver in +1801 supplemented the Code with a despotic state regulation of +prostitution. What became of the woman’s rights movement during this +arbitrary military régime? Full of fear and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>anxiety, the woman’s rights +advocates concealed their views. The Restoration was scarcely a better +time for advocating woman’s rights. The philosopher of the epoch, de +Bonald, spoke very pompously against the equality of the sexes, “Man and +woman are not and never will be equal.” It was not until the July +Revolution of 1830 and the February Revolution of 1848 that the question +of woman’s rights could gain a favorable hearing. The Saint Simonians, the +Fourierists, and George Sand preached the rights of man and the rights of +woman. During the February Revolution the women were found, just as in +1789, in the front ranks of the Socialists. The French woman’s rights +movement is closely connected with both political movements. Every time a +sacrifice of Republicans and Democrats was demanded, women were among the +banished and deported: Jeanne Deroin in 1848, Louise Michel, in 1851 and +1871.</p> + +<p>Marie Deraismes, belonging to the wealthy Parisian middle class, appeared +in the sixties as a public speaker. She was a woman’s rights advocate. +However, in a still greater degree she was a tribune of the people, a +republican and a politician. Marie Deraismes and her excellent political +adherent, Léon Richer, were the founders of the organized French woman’s +rights movement. As early as 1876 they organized the “Society for the +Amelioration of the Condition of Woman and for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> Demanding Woman’s Rights”; +in 1878 they called the first French woman’s rights congress.</p> + +<p>The following features characterize the modern French woman’s rights +movement: It is largely restricted to Paris; in the provinces there are +only weak and isolated beginnings; even the Parisian woman’s rights +organizations are not numerous, the greatest having 400 members. Thanks to +the republican and socialist movements, which for thirty years have +controlled France, the woman’s rights movement is for political reasons +supported by the men to a degree not noticeable in any other country. The +republican majority in the Chamber of Deputies, the republican press, and +republican literature effectively promote the woman’s rights movement. The +Federation of French Women’s Clubs, founded in 1901, and reputed to have +73,000 members, is at present promoting the movement by the systematic +organization of provincial divisions. Less kindly disposed—sometimes +indifferent and hostile—are the Church, the Catholic circles, the +nobility, society, and the “liberal” capitalistic bourgeoisie. A sharp +division between the woman’s rights movements of the middle class and the +movement of the Socialists, such as exists, for example, in Germany, does +not exist in France. A large part of the bourgeoisie (not the great +capitalists) are socialistically inclined. On the basis of principle the +Republicans and Socialists cannot deny<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> the justice of the woman’s rights +movement. Hence everything now depends on the <i>opportuneness</i> of the +demands of the women.</p> + +<p>The French woman has still much to demand. However enlightened, however +advanced the Frenchman may regard himself, he has not yet reached the +point where he will favor woman’s suffrage; what the National Assembly +denied in 1789, the Republic of 1870 has also withheld. Nevertheless +conditions have improved, in so far as measures in favor of woman’s +suffrage and the reform of the civil rights of woman have since 1848 been +repeatedly introduced and supported by petitions.<small><a name="f82.1" id="f82.1" href="#f82">[82]</a></small> As for the civil +rights of woman,—the principles of the Code Napoleon, the minority of the +wife, and the husband’s authority over her are still unchanged. However, a +few minor concessions have been made: To-day a woman can be a witness to a +civil transaction, <i>e.g.</i> a marriage contract. A married woman can open a +savings bank account in her maiden name; and, as in Belgium, her husband +can make it impossible for her to withdraw the money! A wife’s earnings +now belong to her. The severe law concerning adultery by the wife still +exists, and affiliation cases are still prohibited. That is not exactly +liberal.</p> + +<p>Attempts to secure reforms of the civil law are being made by various +women’s clubs, the Group of Women<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> Students (<i>Le groupe d’études +féministes</i>) (Madame Oddo Deflou), and by the committee on legal matters +of the Federation of French Women’s Clubs (Madame d’Abbadie).</p> + +<p>In both the legal and the political fields the French women have hitherto +(in spite of the Republic) achieved very little. In educational matters, +however, the republican government has decidedly favored the women. Here +the wishes of the women harmonized with the republican hatred for the +priests. What was done perhaps not for the women, was done to spite the +Church.</p> + +<p>Elementary education has been obligatory since 1882. In 1904-1905 there +were 2,715,452 girls in the elementary schools, and 2,726,944 boys. State +high schools, or <i>lycées</i>, for girls have existed since 1880. The +programme of these schools is not that of the German <i>Gymnasiums</i>, but +that of a German high school for girls (foreign languages, however, are +elective). In the last two years (in which the ages of the girls are 16 to +18 years) the curriculum is that of a seminary for women teachers. In +1904-1905 these institutions were attended by 22,000 girls, as compared +with 100,000 boys. The French woman’s rights movement has as yet not +succeeded in establishing <i>Gymnasiums</i> for girls; at present, efforts are +being made to introduce <i>Gymnasium</i> courses in the girls’ <i>lycées</i>. The +admission of girls to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> the boys’ <i>lycées</i>, which has occurred in Germany +and in Italy, has not even been suggested in France. To the present, the +preparation of girls for the universities has been carried on privately.</p> + +<p>The right to study in the universities has never been withheld from women. +From the beginning, women could take the <i>Abiturientenexamen</i> (the +university entrance examinations) with the young men before an examination +commission. All departments are open to women. The number of women +university students in France is 3609; the male students number 38,288. +Women school teachers control the whole public school system for girls. In +the French schools for girls most of the teachers are women; the +superintendents are also women. The ecclesiastical educational +system,—which still exists in secular guise,—is naturally, so far as the +education of girls is concerned, entirely in the hands of women. The +salaries of the secular women teachers in the first three <ins class="correction" title="original: classses">classes</ins> of the +elementary schools are equal to those of the men. The women teachers in +the <i>lycées</i> (<i>agrégées</i>) are trained in the Seminary of Sèvres and in the +universities. Their salaries are lower than those of the men. In 1907 the +first woman teacher in the French higher institutions of learning was +appointed,—Madame Curie, who holds the chair of physics in the Sorbonne, +in Paris. In the provincial universities women are lecturers on modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +languages. There are no women preachers in France. <i>Dr. jur.</i> Jeanne +Chauvin was the first woman lawyer, being admitted to the bar in 1899. +To-day women lawyers are practicing in Paris and in Toulouse.</p> + +<p>In the government service there are women postal clerks, telegraph clerks, +and telephone clerks,—with an average daily wage of 3 francs (60 cents). +Only the subordinate positions are open to women. The same is true of the +women employed in the railroad offices. Women have been admitted as clerks +in some of the administrative departments of the government and in the +public poor-law administration. Women are employed as inspectors of +schools, as factory inspectors, and as poor-law administrators. There is a +woman member of each of the following councils: the Superior Council of +Education, the Superior Council of Labor, and the Superior Council of +Public Assistance (<i>Conseil Superior d’Education</i>, <i>Conseil Superior du +Travail</i>, <i>Conseil Superior de l’Assistance Publique</i>). The first woman +court interpreter was appointed in the Parisian Court of Appeals in 1909.</p> + +<p>The French woman is an excellent business woman. However, the women +employed in commercial establishments, being organized as yet to a small +extent, earn no more than women laborers,—70 to 80 francs ($14 to $16) a +month. In general, greater demands are made of them in regard to personal +appearance and dress.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> There is a law requiring that chairs be furnished +during working hours. There is a consumers’ league in Paris which probably +will effect reforms in the laboring conditions of women. The women in the +industries, of whom there are about 900,000, have an average wage of 2 +francs (50 cents) a day. Hardly 30,000 are organized into trade-unions; +all women tobacco workers are organized. As elsewhere, the French +ready-made clothing industry is the most wretched home industry. A part of +the French middle-class women oppose legislation for the protection of +women workers on the ground of “equality of rights for the sexes.”<small><a name="f83.1" id="f83.1" href="#f83">[83]</a></small> +This attitude has been occasioned by the contrast between the typographers +and the women typesetters; the men being aided in the struggle by the +prohibition of night work for women. It is easy to explain the rash and +unjustifiable generalization made on the basis of this exceptional case. +The women that made the generalization and oppose legislation for the +protection of women laborers belong to the bourgeois class. There are +about 1,500,000 women engaged in agriculture, the average wage being 1 +franc 50 (about 37 cents). Many of these women earn 1 franc to 1 franc 20 +(20 to 24 cents) a day. In Paris, women have been cab drivers and +chauffeurs since 1907. In 1901 women formed 35 per cent of the population +engaged in the professions and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> industries (6,805,000 women; +12,911,000 men: total, 19,716,000).</p> + +<p>There are three parties in the French woman’s rights movement. The +Catholic (<i>le féminisme chrétien</i>), the moderate (predominantly +Protestant), and the radical (almost entirely socialistic). The Catholic +party works entirely independently; the two others often coöperate, and +are represented in the National Council of Women (<i>Conseil national des +femmes</i>), while the <i>féminisme chrétien</i> is not represented. The views of +the Catholic party are as follows: “No one denies that man is stronger +than woman. But this means merely a physical superiority. On the basis of +this superiority man dare not despise woman and regard her as morally +inferior to him. But from the Christian point of view God gave man +authority over woman. This does not signify any intellectual superiority, +but is simply a fact of hierarchy.”<small><a name="f84.1" id="f84.1" href="#f84">[84]</a></small> The <i>féminisme chrétien</i> +advocates: A thorough education for girls according to Catholic +principles; a reform of the marriage law (the wife should control her +earnings, separate property holding should be established); the same moral +standard for both sexes (abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution); the same penalty for adultery for both sexes (however, +there should be no divorce); the authority of the mother (<i>autorité +maritale</i>) should be maintained,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> for only in this way can peace prevail +in the family. “A high-minded woman will never wish to rule. It is her +wish to sacrifice herself, to admire, to lean on the arm of a strong man +that protects her.”<small><a name="f85.1" id="f85.1" href="#f85">[85]</a></small></p> + +<p>In the moderate group (President, Miss Sara Monod), these ideas have few +advocates. Protestantism, which is strongly represented in this party, has +a natural inclination toward the development of individuality. This party +is more concerned with the woman that does not find the arm of the “strong +man” to lean on, or who detected him leaning upon her. This party is +entirely opposed to the husband’s authority over the wife and to the dogma +of obligatory admiration and sacrifice. The leaders of the party are +Madame Bonnevial, Madame Auclert, and others. During the five years’ +leadership of Madame Marguerite Durand, the “Fronde” was the meeting place +of the party.</p> + +<p>The radicals demand: absolute coeducation; anti-military instruction in +history; schools that prepare girls for motherhood; the admission of women +to government positions; equal pay for both sexes; official regulation of +the work of domestic servants; the abolition of the husband’s authority; +municipal and national suffrage for women. A member of the radical party +presented herself in 1908 as a candidate in the Parisian elections. In +November, 1908, women were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> granted passive suffrage for the arbitration +courts for trade disputes (they already possessed active suffrage).</p> + +<p>The founding of the National Council of French Women (<i>Conseil national +des femmes française</i>) has aided the woman’s rights movement considerably. +Stimulated by the progress made in other countries, the French women have +systematically begun their work. They have organized two sections in the +provinces (Touraine and Normandy); they have promoted the organization of +women into trade-unions; they have studied the marriage laws; and have +organized a woman’s suffrage department. Since 1907 the woman’s magazine, +<i>La Française</i>, published weekly, has done effective work for the cause. +The place of publication (49 rue Laffite, Paris) is also a public meeting +place for the leaders of the woman’s rights movements. <i>La Française</i> +arouses interest in the cause of woman’s rights among women teachers and +office clerks in the provinces. Recently the management of the magazine +has been converted to the cause of woman’s suffrage. In the spring of 1909 +the French Woman’s Suffrage Society (<i>Union française pour le souffrage +des femmes</i>) was organized under the presidency of Madame Schmall (a +native of England). Madame Schmall is also to be regarded as the +originator of the law of July 13, 1907, which pertains to the earnings of +the wife. The <i>Union</i> has joined the International Woman’s Suffrage +Alliance. In the House of Deputies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> there is a group in favor of woman’s +rights. The French woman’s rights movement seems to be spreading rapidly.</p> + +<p>Émile de Morsier organized the French movement favoring the abolition of +the official regulation of prostitution. Through this movement an +extraparliamentary commission (1903-1907) was induced to recognize the +evil of the existing official regulation of prostitution. This is the +first step toward abolition.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">BELGIUM</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>6,815,054.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>3,416,057.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>3,398,997.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of Belgian Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage League.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />It is very difficult for the woman’s rights movement to thrive in Belgium. +Not that the movement is unnecessary there; on the contrary, the legal +status of woman is regulated by the Code Napoleon, hence there is decided +need for reform. The number of women exceeds that of the men; hence part +of the girls cannot marry. Industry is highly developed. The question of +wages is a vital question for women laborers. Accordingly there are +reasons enough for instituting an organized woman’s rights movement in +Belgium. But every agitation for this purpose is hampered by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +following social factors: Catholicism (Belgium is 99 per cent Catholic), +Clericalism in Parliament, and the indifference of the rich bourgeoisie.</p> + +<p>The woman’s rights movement has very few adherents in the third estate, +and it is exactly the women of this estate that ought to be the natural +supporters of the movement. In the fourth estate, in which there are a +great many Socialists, the woman’s rights movement is identical with +Socialism.</p> + +<p>Since the legal status of woman is determined by the Code Napoleon, we +need not comment upon it here. By a law of 1900, the wife is empowered to +deposit money in a savings bank without the consent of her husband; the +limit of her deposit being 3000 francs ($600). The wife also controls her +earnings. If, however, <i>she draws more than 100 francs</i> (<i>$20</i>) <i>a month +from the savings bank, the husband may protest</i>. Women are now admitted to +family councils; they can act as guardians; they can act as witnesses to a +marriage. Affiliation cases were made legal in 1906. On December 19, 1908, +women were given active and passive suffrage in arbitration courts for +labor disputes.</p> + +<p>The Belgium secondary school system is exceptional because the government +has established a rather large number of girls’ high schools. However, +these schools do not prepare for the university entrance examinations +(<i>Abiturientenexamen</i>). Women contemplating entering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> the university, must +prepare for these examinations privately. This was done by Miss Marie +Popelin, of Brussels, who wished to study law. The universities of +Brussels, Ghent, and Liège have been open to women since 1886. Hence Miss +Popelin could execute her plans; in 1888 she received the degree of Doctor +of Laws. She made an attempt in 1888-1889 to secure admission to the bar +as a practicing lawyer, but the Brussels Court of Appeals decided the case +against her.<small><a name="f86.1" id="f86.1" href="#f86">[86]</a></small></p> + +<p>Miss Marie Popelin is the leader of the middle-class woman’s rights +movement in Belgium. She is in charge of the Woman’s Rights League (<i>Ligue +du droit des femmes</i>), founded in 1890. With the support of Mrs. Denis, +Mrs. Parent, and Mrs. Fontaine, Miss Popelin organized, in 1897, an +international woman’s congress in Brussels. Many representatives of +foreign countries attended. One of the German representatives, Mrs. Anna +Simpson, was astonished by the indifference of the people of Brussels. In +her report she says: “Where were the women of Brussels during the days of +the Congress? They did not attend, for the middle class is not much +interested in our cause. It was especially for this class that the +Congress was held.” Dr. Popelin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> is also president of the league that has +since 1908 taken up the struggle against the official regulation of +prostitution.</p> + +<p>The schools and convents are the chief fields of activity for the +middle-class Belgian women engaged in non-domestic callings. As yet there +are only a few women doctors. One of these, Mrs. Derscheid-Delcour, has +been appointed as chief physician at the Brussels Orphans’ Home. Mrs. +Delcour graduated in 1893 at the University of Berlin <i>summa cum laude</i>; +in 1895 she was awarded the gold medal in the surgical sciences in a prize +contest for the students of the Belgian universities.</p> + +<p>In Belgium 268,337 women are engaged in the industries. The Socialist +party has recognized the organizations of these women; it was instrumental +in organizing 250,000 women into trade-unions. Elsewhere this would be +impossible.<small><a name="f87.1" id="f87.1" href="#f87">[87]</a></small></p> + +<p>Madame Vandervelde, the wife of the Socialist member of Parliament, and +Madame Gatti de Gammond, the publisher of the <i>Cahiers feministes</i>, were +the leaders of the Socialist woman’s rights movement, which is organized +throughout the country in committees, councils, and societies. Madame +Gatti de Gammond died in 1905, and her publication, the <i>Cahiers +feministes</i>, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> discontinued. The secretary of the Federation of +Socialist Women (<i>Fédération de femmes socialistes</i>) is Madame Tilmans. +Vooruit, of Ghent, publishes a woman’s magazine: <i>De Stem der Vrouw</i>.</p> + +<p>The women are demanding the right to vote. The Belgian women possessed +municipal suffrage till 1830. They were deprived of this right by the +Constitution of 1831. A measure favoring universal suffrage (for men and +women) was introduced into Parliament in 1894. This bill, however, +provided also for plural voting, by which the property-owning and the +educated classes were given one or two additional votes. The Socialists +opposed this, and demanded that each person have one vote (<i>un homme, un +vote</i>). The Clerical majority then replied that it would not bring the +bill to a vote. In this way the Clericals remained assured of a majority.</p> + +<p>For tactical purposes the Socialists adopted the expression—<i>un homme, un +vote</i>. It harmonized with their principles and ideals. At a meeting of the +party in which the matter was discussed, it was shown that universal +suffrage would be detrimental to the party’s interests; for the Socialists +were convinced that woman’s suffrage would certainly insure a majority for +the Clericals. Hence, in meeting, the women were persuaded to withdraw +their demand for woman’s suffrage on the grounds of opportuneness, and <i>in +the meantime to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> work for the inauguration of universal male suffrage +without the plural vote</i>.<small><a name="f88.1" id="f88.1" href="#f88">[88]</a></small></p> + +<p>In the <i>Fronde</i>, Audrée Téry summarized the situation in the following +dialogue:—</p> + +<p><i>The man.</i> Emancipate yourself and I will enfranchise you.</p> + +<p><i>The woman.</i> Give me the franchise and I shall emancipate myself.</p> + +<p><i>The man.</i> Be free, and you shall have freedom.</p> + +<p>In this manner, concludes Audrée Téry, this dialogue can be continued +indefinitely.</p> + +<p>Recently the middle-class women have begun to show an interest in woman’s +suffrage. A woman’s suffrage organization was formed in Brussels in 1908; +one in Ghent, in 1909. Together they have organized the Woman’s Suffrage +League, which has affiliated with the International Woman’s Suffrage +Alliance.</p> + +<p>Woman’s lack of rights and her powerlessness in public life are shown by +the fact that in Antwerp, in 1908, public aid to the unemployed was +granted only to men,—to unmarried as well as to married men. As for the +unmarried women, they were left to shift for themselves.</p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">ITALY</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>32,449,754.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women: about</td><td>16,190,000.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men: about</td><td>16,260,000.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of Italian Women’s Clubs.<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage League.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />National unification raised Italy to the rank of a great power. Italy’s +political position as a great power, her modern parliamentary life, and +the Liberal and Socialist majority in her Parliament give Italy a position +that Spain, for example, does not possess in any way. Catholicism, +Clericalism, and Roman custom are no match for these modern liberal +powers, and are therefore unable to hinder the woman’s rights movement in +the same degree as do these influences in Spain. However, the Italian +woman in general is still entirely dependent on the man (see the +discussion in Alaremo’s <i>Una Donna</i>), and in the unenlightened classes +woman’s feeling of inferiority is impressed upon her by the Church, the +law, the family, and by custom. Naturally the woman attempts, as in Spain, +to take revenge in the sexual field.</p> + +<p>In Italy there is no strict morality among married men. Moreover, the +opposition to divorce in Italy comes largely from the women, who, +accustomed to being deceived in matrimony, fear that if they are divorced +they <i>will be left without means of support</i>. “Boys<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> make love to +girls,—to mere unguided children without any will of their own,—and when +these boys marry, be they ever so young, they have already had a wealth of +experience that has taught them to regard woman disdainfully—with a sort +of cynical authority. Even love and respect for the innocent young wife is +unable to eradicate from the young husband the impressions of immorality +and bad examples. The wife suffers from a hardly perceptible, but +unceasing depression of mind. Innocently, without suspicion, uninformed as +to her husband’s past, the wife persists in her belief in his manly +superiority until this belief has become a fixed habit of thought, and +then even a cruel revelation cannot take him from her.”<small><a name="f89.1" id="f89.1" href="#f89">[89]</a></small></p> + +<p>In southern Italy,—especially in Sicily,—Arabian oriental conceptions of +woman still prevail. During her whole life woman is a grown-up child. No +woman, not even the most insignificant woman laborer, can be on the street +without an escort. On the other hand, the boys are emancipated very early. +With pity and arrogance the sons look down on the mother, who must be +accompanied in the street by her sons.</p> + +<p>“Close intellectual relations between man and woman cannot as yet be +developed, owing to the generally low education of woman, to her +subordination, and to her intellectual bondage. While still in the +schools<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> the boy is trained for political life. The average Italian woman +participates in politics even less than the German woman; her influence is +purely moral. If the Italian woman wishes to accept any office in a +society, she must have the consent of her husband attested by a notary. +Just as in ancient times, the non-professional interests of the husband +are, in great part, elsewhere than at home. The opportunity daily to +discuss political and other current questions with men companions is found +by the German man in the smaller cities while taking his evening pint of +beer. The Italian man finds this opportunity sometimes in the café, +sometimes in the public places, where every evening the men congregate for +hours. So the educated man in Italy (even more than in Germany) has no +need of the intellectual qualities of his wife. Moreover, his need for an +educated wife is the less because his misguided precocity prevents him +from acquiring anything but an essentially general education. The +restricted intellectual relationship between husband and wife is explained +partly by the fact that the <i>cicisbeo</i><small><a name="f90.1" id="f90.1" href="#f90">[90]</a></small> still exists. This relation +ought to be, and generally is, Platonic and publicly known. The wife +permits her friend (the <i>cicisbeo</i>) to escort her to the theater and +elsewhere in a carriage; the husband also escorts a woman friend. So +husband and wife share the inwardly moral unsoundness of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> medieval +service of love (<i>Minnedienst</i>). At any rate this custom reveals the fact +that after the honeymoon the husband and wife do not have overmuch to say +to each other. In this way there takes place, to a certain extent, an open +relinquishment of the postulate that, in accordance with the external +indissolubility of married life, there ought to be permanent intellectual +bonds between man and wife,—a postulate that is the source of the most +serious conscience struggles, but which has caused the great moral +development of the northern woman.”<small><a name="f91.1" id="f91.1" href="#f91">[91]</a></small></p> + +<p>Naturally, under such circumstances, the woman’s rights movement has done +practically nothing for the masses. In the circles of the nobility the +movement, with the consent of the clergy, has until recently confined +itself to philanthropy (the forming of associations and insurance +societies, the founding of homes, asylums, etc.) and to the higher +education of girls.<small><a name="f92.1" id="f92.1" href="#f92">[92]</a></small> In a private audience the Pope has expressed +himself in <i>favor</i> of women’s engaging in university studies (except +theology), but he was <i>opposed</i> to woman’s suffrage. The daughters of the +educated, liberal (but often poor) bourgeoisie are driven by want and +conviction to acquire a higher education and to engage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> in academic +callings. The material difficulties are not great. As in France, the +government has during the past thirty-five years promoted all educational +measures that would take from the clergy its power over youth.</p> + +<p>Elementary education is public and obligatory. The laws are enforced +rather strictly. Coeducation nowhere exists. The number of women teachers +is 62,643.</p> + +<p>The secondary school system is still largely in the hands of the Catholic +religious orders. There are about 100,000 girls and nuns enrolled in these +church schools; only 25,000 girls are in the secondary state and private +schools (other than the Catholic schools), which cannot give instruction +as <i>cheaply</i> as the religious schools. The efforts of the state in this +field are not to be criticized: it has given women every educational +opportunity. Girls wishing to study in the universities are admitted to +the boys’ classical schools (<i>ginnasii</i>) and to the boys’ technical +schools. This experiment in coeducation during the plastic age of youth +has not even been undertaken by France. To be sure, at present the girls +sit together on the front seats, and when entering and leaving class they +have the school porter as bodyguard. In spite of all fears to the +contrary, coeducation has been a success in northern Italy (Milan), as +well as in southern Italy (Naples).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>The universities have never been closed to women. In recent years 300 +women have attended the universities and have graduated. During the +Renaissance there were many women teachers in Italy. This tradition has +been revived; at present there are 10 women university teachers. <i>Dr. +jur.</i> Therese Labriola (whose mother is a German) is a lecturer in the +philosophy of law at Rome. <i>Dr. med.</i> Rina Monti is a university lecturer +in anatomy at Pavia.</p> + +<p>There are many practicing women doctors in Italy. <i>Dr. med.</i> Maria +Montessori (a delegate to the International Congress of Women in Berlin in +1896) is a physician in the Roman hospitals. The Minister of Public +Instruction has authorized her to deliver a course of lectures on the +treatment of imbecile children to a class of women teachers in the +elementary schools. The legal profession still remains closed to women, +although <i>Dr. jur.</i> Laidi Poët has succeeded in being admitted to the bar +in Turin.</p> + +<p>In government service (in 1901) there were 1000 women telephone employees, +183 women telegraph clerks, and 161 women office clerks. These positions +are much sought after by men. The number of women employed in commerce is +18,000; the total number of persons employed in commerce being 57,087. +Recently women have been appointed as factory inspectors.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>The beginnings of the modern woman’s rights movement coincide with the +political upheavals that occurred between 1859 and 1870. When the Kingdom +of Italy had been established, Jessie White Mario demanded a reform of the +legal, political, and economic status of woman. Whatever legal concessions +have been made to women are due, as in France, to the Liberal +parliamentary majority.</p> + +<p>Since 1877, women have been able to act as witnesses in civil suits. Women +(even married women) can be guardians. The property laws provide for +separation of property. Even in cases of joint property holding, the wife +controls her earnings and savings. The husband can give her a general +authorization (<i>allgemeinautorisation</i>), thus giving her the full status +of a legal person before the law. These laws are the most radical reforms +to which the Code Napoleon has ever been subjected,—reforms which the +French did not venture to enact.</p> + +<p>The Liberal majority made an attempt in 1877 to emancipate the women +politically. But the attempt failed. Bills providing for municipal woman’s +suffrage were introduced and rejected in 1880, 1883, and 1888. However, +since 1890, women have been eligible as poor-law guardians. The élite +among the Italian men loyally supported the women in their struggle for +emancipation. Since 1881 the women have organized<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> clubs. At first these +were unsuccessful. Free and courageous women were in the minority. In Rome +the woman’s rights movement was at first exclusively benevolent. In Milan +and Turin, on the other hand, there were woman’s rights advocates (under +the leadership of <i>Dr. med.</i> Paoline Schiff and Emilia Mariani). The +leadership of the national movement fell to the more active, more +educated, and economically stronger northern Italy. Here also the movement +of the workingwomen had progressed to the stage of organization, as, for +example, in the case of the Lombard women workers in the rice fields.</p> + +<p>There are 1,371,426 women laborers in Italy. Their condition is wretched. +In agriculture, as well as in the industries, they are given the rough, +<i>poorly paid</i> work to do. They are exploited to the extreme. Women straw +plaiters have been offered 20 centimes, even as little as 10 centimes (4 +to 2 cents), for twelve hours’ work. The average daily wage for women is +80 centimes to 1 franc (16 to 20 cents). The maximum is 1 franc 50 +centimes (30 cents). The law has fixed the maximum working day for women +at twelve hours, and prohibits women under twenty years of age from +engaging in work that is dangerous and injurious to health. There are +maternity funds for women in confinement, financial aid being given them +for four weeks after the birth of the child. Under all these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +circumstances the organization of women is exceedingly difficult. Even the +Socialists have neglected the organization of workingwomen.</p> + +<p>Socialist propaganda among women agricultural laborers was begun in 1901. +In Bologna, in the autumn of 1902, there was held a meeting of the +representatives of 800 agricultural organizations (having a total +membership of 150,000 men and women agricultural laborers). The +constitution of the society is characteristic; many of its clauses are +primitive and pathetic. This society is intended to be an educational and +moral organization. Women members are exhorted “to live rightly, and to be +virtuous and kind-hearted mothers, women, and daughters.”<small><a name="f93.1" id="f93.1" href="#f93">[93]</a></small> It is to be +hoped that the task of the women will be made easier through the efforts +of the society’s male members to make themselves virtuous and kind-hearted +fathers, husbands, and sons. Or are moral duties, in this case also, meant +only for woman?</p> + +<p>The movement favoring the abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution was introduced into Italy by Mrs. Butler. A congress in favor +of abolition was held in 1898 in Genoa. Recently, thanks to the efforts of +Dr. Agnes MacLaren and Miss Buchner, the movement has been revived, and +urged upon the Catholic clergy. The Italian branch of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>International +Federation for the Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution +was founded in 1908. In the same year was held in Rome the successful +Congress of the Federation of Women’s Clubs. This Congress, representing +the nobility, the middle class, and workingwomen, brought the woman’s +suffrage question to the attention of the public. A number of woman’s +suffrage societies had been organized previously, in Rome as well as in +the provinces. They formed the National Woman’s Suffrage League, which, in +1906, joined the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance. Through the +discussions in the women’s clubs, woman’s suffrage became a topic of +public interest. The Amsterdam Report [of the Congress of the +International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance] says: “The women of the +aristocracy wish to vote because they are intelligent; they feel +humiliated because their coachman or chauffeur is able to vote. The +workingwomen demand the right to vote, that they may improve their +conditions of labor and be able to support their children better.” A +parliamentary commission for the consideration of woman’s suffrage was +established in 1908. In the meantime the existence of this commission +enables the President of the Ministry to dispose of the various proposed +measures with the explanation that such matters will not be considered +<i>until the commission has expressed itself on the whole question</i>. Women +have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> active and passive suffrage for the arbitration courts for labor +disputes.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">SPAIN<small><a name="f94.1" id="f94.1" href="#f94">[94]</a></small></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>18,813,493.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>9,558,896.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>9,272,597.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>No federation of women’s clubs.<br /> +No woman’s suffrage league.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Whoever has traveled in Spain knows that it is a country still living, as +it were, in the seventeenth century,—nay in the Middle Ages. The fact has +manifold consequences for woman. In all cases progress is hindered. Woman +is under the yoke of the priesthood, and of a Catholicism generally +bigoted. The Church teaches woman that she is regarded as the cause of +carnal desire and of the fall of man. By law, woman is under the +guardianship of man. Custom forbids the “respectable” woman to walk on the +street without a man escort. The Spanish woman regards herself as a person +of the second order, a necessary adjunct to man. Such a fundamental +humiliation and subordination is opposed to human nature. As the Spanish +woman has no power of open opposition, she resorts to cunning. By instinct +she is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> conscious of the power of her sex; this she uses and abuses. A +woman’s rights advocate is filled with horror, quite as much as with pity, +when she sees this mixture of bigotry, coquetry, submissiveness, cunning, +and hate that is engendered in woman by such tyranny and lack of progress.</p> + +<p>The Spanish woman of the lower classes receives no training for any +special calling; she is a mediocre laborer. She acts as beast of burden, +carries heavy burdens on her shoulders, carries water, tills the fields, +and splits wood. She is employed as an industrial laborer chiefly in the +manufacture of cigars and lace. “The wages of women,” says Professor +Posada,<small><a name="f95.1" id="f95.1" href="#f95">[95]</a></small> “are incredibly low,” being but 10 cents a day. As tailors, +women make a scanty living, for many of the Spanish women do their own +tailoring. The mantilla makes the work of milliners in general +superfluous. In commercial callings women are still novices. Recently +there has been talk of beginning the organization of women into +trade-unions.</p> + +<p>Women are employed in large numbers as teachers; teaching being their sole +non-domestic calling. Elementary instruction has been obligatory since +1870, however, only in theory. In 1889 28 per cent of the women were +illiterate. In many cases the girls of the lower classes do not attend +school at all. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> they do attend, they learn very little; for owing to +the lack of seminaries the training of women teachers is generally quite +inadequate. A reform of the central seminary of women teachers, in Madrid, +took place in 1884; this reform was also a model for the seminaries in the +provinces. The secondary schools for girls are convent schools. In France +there are complaints that these schools are inadequate. What, then, can be +expected of the Spanish schools! The curriculum includes only French, +singing, dancing, drawing, and needlework. But the “Society for Female +Education” is striving to secure a reform of the education for girls.</p> + +<p>Preparation for entrance to the university must be secured privately. The +number of women seeking entrance to universities is small. Most of them, +so far as I know, are medical students. However, the Spanish women have a +brilliant past in the field of higher education. Donna Galinda was the +Latin professor of Queen Isabella. Isabella Losa and Sigea Aloisia of +Toledo were renowned for their knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew; +Sigea Aloisia corresponded with the Pope in Arabic and Syriac. Isabel de +Rosores even preached in the Cathedral of Barcelona.</p> + +<p>In the literature of the present time Spanish women are renowned. Of first +rank is Emilia Pardo Bazan, who is called the “Spanish Zola.” She is a +countess and an only daughter, two circumstances that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>facilitated her +emancipation and, together with her talent, assured her success. She +characterizes herself as “a mixture of mysticism and liberalism.” At the +age of seven she wrote her first verses. Her best book portrayed a +“liberal monk,” Father Fequë. <i>Pascual Loper</i>, a novel, was a great +success. She then went to Paris to study naturalism. Here she became +acquainted with Zola, Goncourt, Daudet, and others. A study of Francis of +Assisi led her again to the study of mysticism. In her recent novels +liberalism is mingled with idealism.</p> + +<p>Emilia Pardo Bazan is by conviction a woman’s rights advocate. In the +Madrid Atheneum she filled with great success the position of Professor of +French Literature. At the pedagogical congress in Madrid, in 1899, she +gave a report on <i>Woman, her Education, and her Rights</i>.</p> + +<p>In Spain there are a number of well-known women journalists, authors, and +poets. Dr. Posada enumerates a number of woman’s rights publications on +pages 200-202 of his book, <i>El Feminismo</i>.</p> + +<p>Concepcion Arenal was a prominent Spanish woman and woman’s rights +advocate. She devoted herself to work among prisoners, and wrote a +valuable handbook dealing with her work. She felt the oppression of her +sex very keenly. Concerning woman’s status, which man has forced upon her, +Concepcion Arenal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> expressed herself as follows: “Man despises all women +that do not belong to his family; he oppresses every woman that he does +not love or protect. As a laborer, he takes from her the best paid +positions; as a thinker, he forbids the mental training of woman; as a +lover, he can be faithless to her without being punished by law; as a +husband, he can leave her without being guilty before the law.”</p> + +<p>The wife is legally under the guardianship of her husband; she has no +authority over her children. The property laws provide for joint property +holding.</p> + +<p>In spite of these conditions Concepcion Arenal did not give up all hope. +“Women,” said she, “are beginning to take interest in education, and have +organized a society for the higher education of girls.” The pedagogical +congresses in Madrid (1882 and 1889) promoted the intellectual +emancipation of women. Catalina d’Alcala, delegate to the International +Congress of Women in Chicago in 1893, closed her report with the words, +“We are emerging from the period of darkness.” However, he who has +wandered through Spanish cathedrals knows that this darkness is still very +dense! Nevertheless, the woman’s suffrage movement has begun: the women +laborers are agitating in favor of a new law of association. A number of +women teachers and women authors have petitioned for the right to vote. In +March, 1908, during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> discussion of a new law concerning municipal +administration, an amendment in favor of woman’s suffrage was introduced, +but was rejected by a vote of 65 to 35. The Senate is said to be more +favorable to woman’s suffrage than is the Chamber of Deputies.</p> + +<p>The fact that women of the aristocracy have opposed divorce, and that +women of all classes have opposed the enactment of laws restricting +religious orders, is made to operate against the political emancipation of +women. A deputy in the Cortez, Senor Pi y Arsuaga, who introduced the +measure in favor of the right of women taxpayers to vote in municipal +elections, argued that the suffrage of a woman who is the head of a family +seems more reasonable to him than the suffrage of a young man, twenty-five +years old, who represents no corresponding interests.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">PORTUGAL</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>5,672,237.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>2,583,535.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>2,520,602.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>No federation of women’s clubs.<br /> +No woman’s suffrage league.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Portugal is smaller than Spain; its finances are in better condition; +therefore the compulsory education law (introduced in 1896) is better +enforced. As yet<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> there are no public high schools for girls; but there +are a number of private schools that prepare girls for the university +entrance examinations (<i>Abiturientenexamen</i>). The universities admit +women. Women doctors practice in the larger cities. The women laborers are +engaged chiefly in the textile industry; their wages are about two thirds +of those of the men.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">THE LATIN-AMERICAN REPUBLICS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA</p> +<p class="center"><br />MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA<small><a name="f96.1" id="f96.1" href="#f96">[96]</a></small></p> + +<p><br />The condition prevailing in Mexico and Central America is one of +patriarchal family life, the husband being the “master” of the wife. There +are large families of ten or twelve children. The life of most of the +women without property consists of “endless routine and domestic tyranny”; +the life of the property-owning women is one of frivolous coquetry and +indolence. There is no higher education for women; there are no high +ideals. The education of girls is generally regarded as unnecessary.</p> + +<p>There are public elementary schools for girls,—with women teachers. The +higher education of girls is carried on by convent schools, and comprises +domestic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> science, sewing, dancing, and singing. In the Mexican public +high schools for girls, modern subjects and literature are taught; the +work is chiefly memorizing. Technical schools for girls are unknown. Women +do not attend the universities. Women teachers in Mexico are paid good +salaries,—250 francs ($50) a month.</p> + +<p>Women are engaged in commerce only in their own business establishments; +and then in small retail businesses. The rest of the workingwomen are +engaged in agriculture, domestic service, washing, and sewing. Their wages +are from 40 to 50 per cent lower than those of men. The legal status of +women is similar to that of the French women. In Mexico only does the wife +control her earnings. Divorce is not recognized by law, though separation +is. By means of foreign teachers the initiative of the people has been +slightly aroused. It will take long for this stimulus to reach the +majority of the people.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">SOUTH AMERICA<small><a name="f97.1" id="f97.1" href="#f97">[97]</a></small></p> + +<p><br />In South America there are the same “patriarchal” forms of family life, +the same external restrictions for woman. She must have an escort on the +streets, even though the escort be only a small boy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>Just as in Central America, the occupations of the women of the lower and +middle class are agriculture, domestic service, washing, sewing, and +retail business. But woman’s educational opportunities in South America +are greater, although through public opinion everything possible is done +to prevent women from desiring an education and admission to a liberal +calling. Elementary education is compulsory (often in coeducational +schools). Secondary education is in the hands of convents. In Brazil, +Chili, Venezuela, Argentine Republic, Paraguay, and Colombia, the +universities have been opened to women. As yet there are no women +preachers or lawyers, although several women have studied law. Women +practice as physicians, obstetrics still being their special field.</p> + +<p>The beginnings of a woman’s rights movement exist in Chili. The Chilean +women learn readily and willingly. They have proved their worth in +business and in the liberal callings. They have competed successfully for +government positions; they have founded trade-unions and coöperative +societies; many women are tramway conductors, etc. In all the South +American republics women have distinguished themselves as poets and +authors. In the Argentine Republic there is a Federation of Woman’s Clubs, +which, in 1901, joined the International Council of Women.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> +<h3>THE SLAVIC AND BALKAN STATES</h3> + +<p>In the Slavic countries there is a lack of an ancient, deeply rooted +culture like that of western Europe. Everywhere the oriental viewpoint has +had its effect on the status of woman. In general the standards of life +are low; therefore, the wages of the women are especially wretched. +Political conditions are in part very unstable,—in some cases wholly +antique. All of these circumstances greatly impede the progress of the +woman’s rights movement.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">RUSSIA</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>94,206,195.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>47,772,455.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>46,433,740.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of Russian Women’s Clubs.<small><a name="f98.1" id="f98.1" href="#f98">[98]</a></small><br /> +National woman’s Suffrage League.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />The Russian woman’s rights movement is forced by circumstances to concern +itself chiefly with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>educational and industrial problems. All efforts +beyond these limits are, as a matter of course, regarded as revolutionary. +Such efforts are a part of the forbidden “political movement”; therefore +they are dangerous and practically hopeless. Some peculiarities of the +Russian woman’s rights movement are: its individuality, its independence +of the momentary tendencies of the government, and the companionable +coöperation of men and women. All three characteristics are accounted for +by the absolute government that prevails in Russia, in spite of its Duma.</p> + +<p>Under this régime the organization of societies and the holding of +meetings are made exceedingly difficult, if not impossible. Individual +initiative therefore works in solitude; discussion or the expression of +opinions is not very feasible. When individual initiative ceases, progress +usually ceases also. Corporate activity, such as educates women adherents, +did not exist formerly in Russia. The lack of united action wastes much +force, time, and money. Unconsciously people compete with each other. +Without wishing to do so, people neglect important fields. The absolute +régime regards all striving for an education as revolutionary. The +educational institutions for women are wholly in the hands of the +government. These institutions are tolerated; but a mere frown from above +puts an end to their existence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>It is the absolute régime that makes comrades of men and women struggling +for emancipation. The oppression endured by both sexes is in fact the same.</p> + +<p>The government has not always been an enemy of enlightenment, as it is +to-day. The first steps of the woman’s rights movement were made through +the influence of the rulers. Although polygamy did not exist in Russia, +the country could not free itself from certain oriental influences. Hence +the women of the property-owning class formerly lived in the harem (called +<i>terem</i>). The women were shut off from the world; they had no education, +often no rearing whatever; they were the victims of deadly ennui, ecstatic +piety, lingering diseases, and drunkenness.</p> + +<p>With a strong hand Peter the Great reformed the condition of Russian +women. The <i>terem</i> was abolished; the Russian woman was permitted to see +the world. In rough, uncivilized surroundings, in the midst of a brutal, +sensuous people, woman’s release was not in all cases a gain for morality. +It is impossible to become a woman of western Europe upon demand.</p> + +<p>Catherine II saw that there must be a preparation for this emancipation. +She created the <i>Institute de demoiselles</i> for girls of the upper classes. +The instruction, borrowed from France, remained superficial enough; the +women acquired a knowledge of French, a few <i>accomplishments</i>, polished +manners, and an aristocratic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> bearing. For all that, it was then an +achievement to educate young Russian women according to the standards of +western Europe. The superficiality of the <i>Institutka</i> was recognized in +the middle of the nineteenth century. Alexander II, the Tsarina, and her +aunt, Helene Pavlovna, favored reforms. The emancipator of the serfs could +also liberate women from their intellectual bondage.</p> + +<p>Thus with the protection of the highest power, the first public lyceum for +girls was established in 1857 in Russia. This was a day school for girls +of <i>all</i> classes. What an innovation! To-day there are 350 of these +lyceums, having over 10,000 women students. The curriculums resemble those +of the German high schools for girls. None of these lyceums (except the +humanistic lyceum for girls in Moscow), are equivalent to the German +<i>Gymnasiums</i> or <i>Realgymnasiums</i>, nor even to the <i>Oberrealschulen</i> or +<i>Realschulen</i>. This explains and justifies the refusal of the German +universities to regard the leaving certificates of the Russian lyceums as +equivalent to the <i>Abiturienten</i> certificate of the German schools. The +compulsory studies in the girls’ lyceums are: Russian, French, religion, +history, geography, geometry, algebra, a few natural sciences, dancing, +and singing. The optional studies are German, English, Latin, music, and +sewing. The lyceums of the large cities make foreign languages compulsory +also; but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> these institutions are in the minority. In the natural sciences +and in mathematics “much depends on the teacher.” A Russian woman wishing +to study in the university must pass an entrance examination in Latin.</p> + +<p>The first efforts to secure the higher education of women were made by a +number of professors of the University of St. Petersburg in 1861. They +opened courses for the instruction of adult women in the town hall. +Simultaneously the Minister of War admitted a number of women to the St. +Petersburg School of Medicine, this school being under his control.</p> + +<p>However, the reaction began already in 1862. Instruction in the School of +Medicine, as well as in the town hall, was discontinued. Then began the +first exodus of Russian women students to Germany and Switzerland. But in +St. Petersburg, in 1867, there was formed a society, under the presidency +of Mrs. Conradi, to secure the reopening of the course for adult women. +The society appealed to the first congress of Russian naturalists and +physicians. This congress sent a petition, with the signatures of +influential men, to the Minister of Public Instruction. In two years Mrs. +Conradi was informed that the Minister would grant a two-year course for +men and women in Russian literature and the natural sciences. The society +accepted what was offered. It was little enough. Moreover, the society had +to defray the cost of instruction;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> but it was denied the right to give +examinations and confer degrees. All the teachers, however, taught without +pay. In 1885 the society erected its own building in which to give its +courses. The instruction was again discontinued in 1886. Once more the +Russian women flocked to foreign countries. In 1889 the courses were again +opened (Swiss influence on Russian youth was feared). The number of those +enrolled in the courses was limited to 600 (of these only 3 per cent could +be unorthodox, <i>i.e.</i> Jewish). These courses are still given in St. +Petersburg. Recently the Council of Ministers empowered the Minister of +Public Instruction to forbid women to attend university lectures; but +those who have already been admitted, and find it impossible to attend +other higher institutions of learning for girls, have been allowed to +complete their course in the university. The present number of women +hearers in Russian universities is 2130. A Russian woman doctor was +admitted as a lecturer by the University of Moscow, but her appointment +was not confirmed by the Minister of Public Instruction. She appealed +thereupon to the Senate, declaring that the Russian laws nowhere +prohibited women from acting as teachers in the universities; moreover, +her medical degree gave her full power to do so. The decision of the +Senate is still pending.</p> + +<p>A recent law opens to women the calling of architect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> and of engineer. The +work done on the Trans-Siberian Railroad by the woman engineer has given +better satisfaction than any of the other work. A bill providing for the +admission of women to the legal profession has been introduced but has not +yet become law.</p> + +<p>The Russian women medical students shared the vicissitudes of Russian +university life for women. After 1862 they studied in Switzerland, where +Miss Suslowa, in 1867, was the first woman to be given the doctor’s degree +in Zurich. However, since the lack of doctors is very marked on the vast +Russian plains, the government in 1872 opened special courses for women +medical students in St. Petersburg. (In another institution courses were +given for midwives and for women regimental surgeons.) The women +completing the courses in St. Petersburg were not granted the doctor’s +degree, however. The Russian women earned the doctor’s degree in the +Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878); for ten years after this war women +graduates of the St. Petersburg medical courses were granted degrees. Then +these courses were closed in 1887. They were opened again in 1898. Under +these difficult circumstances the Russian women secured their higher +education.</p> + +<p>In the elementary schools, for every 1000 women inhabitants there are only +13.1 women public school teachers. Of the 2,000,000 public school +children, only 650,000 are girls. The number of illiterates in Russia<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +varies from 70 to 80 per cent. The elementary school course in the country +is only three years (it is five years in the cities).</p> + +<p>The number of women public school teachers is 27,000 (as compared with +40,000 men teachers). An attempt has been made by the women village school +teachers to arouse the women agricultural laborers from their stupor. +Organization of women laborers has been attempted in the cities. For the +present the task seems superhuman.<small><a name="f99.1" id="f99.1" href="#f99">[99]</a></small></p> + +<p>When graduating from the lyceum the young girl is given her <i>teaching +diploma</i>, which permits her to teach in the four lower classes in the +girls’ lyceums. Those wishing to teach in the higher classes must take a +special examination in a university. The higher classes in the girls’ +lyceums are taught chiefly by men teachers. When a Russian woman teacher +marries she need not relinquish her position.</p> + +<p>In Russia the women doctors have a vast field of work. For every 200,000 +inhabitants there is only one doctor! However, in St. Petersburg there is +one <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>doctor for every 10,000 inhabitants. According to the most recent +statistics there are 545 women doctors in Russia. Of these, 8 have ceased +to practice, 245 have official positions, and 292 have a private practice. +Of the 132 women doctors in St. Petersburg, 35 are employed in hospitals, +14 in the sanitary department of the city; 7 are school physicians, 5 are +assistants in clinics and laboratories, 2 are superintendents of maternity +hospitals, 2 have charge of foundling asylums, 5 have private hospitals, +and the rest engage in private practice. Of the 413 women doctors not in +St. Petersburg, 173 have official positions, the others have a private +practice.</p> + +<p>The local governments (<i>zemstvos</i>) have appointed 26 women doctors in the +larger cities, 21 in the smaller, and 55 in the rural districts. There are +18 women doctors employed in private hospitals on country estates, 8 in +hospitals for Mohammedan women, 16 in schools, 9 in factories, 4 are +employed by railroads, 4 by the Red Cross Society, etc. The practice of +the woman doctor in the country is naturally the most difficult and the +least remunerative. Therefore, it is willingly given over to the women. +Thanks to individual ability, the Russian woman doctor is highly +respected.</p> + +<p>There are 400 women druggists in Russia. Their training for the calling is +received by practical work (this is true of the men druggists also). +According to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> the last statistics (1897), there were 126,016 women engaged +in the liberal professions. There are a number of women professors in the +state universities.</p> + +<p>Women engage in commercial callings. The schools of commerce for women +were favored by Witte in his capacity of Minister of Finance. They have +since been placed under the control of the Minister of Instruction and +Religion. This will restrict the freedom of instruction. Instruction in +agriculture for women has not yet been established. Commerce engages +299,403 women; agriculture and fisheries, 2,086,169.</p> + +<p>Women have been appointed as factory inspectors since 1900. The Ministry +of Justice and the Ministry of Communication employ women in limited +numbers, without entitling them to pensions. The government of the +province of Moscow has appointed women to municipal offices, and has +appointed them as fire insurance agents. The <i>zemstvo</i> of Kiew had done +this previously; but suddenly it discharged them from the municipal +offices. For the past nine years an institution founded by the Princes +Liwin has trained women as managers of prisons.<small><a name="f100.1" id="f100.1" href="#f100">[100]</a></small></p> + +<p>The names of two prominent Russian women must be mentioned: Sonja +Kowalewska, the winner of a contest in mathematics, and Madame +Sklodowska-Curie, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> discoverer of radium. Both prove that women can +excel in scientific work. It must be emphasized that the woman student in +Russia must often struggle against terrible want. Whoever has studied in +Swiss, German, or French universities knows the Russian-Polish students +who in many cases must get along for the whole year with a couple of ten +ruble bills (about ten dollars). They are wonderfully unassuming; they +possess inexhaustible enthusiasm.</p> + +<p>Many Russian women begin their university careers poorly prepared. To +unfortunate, divorced, widowed, or destitute women the “University” +appears to be a golden goal, a promised land. Of the privations that these +women endure the people of western Europe have no conception. In Russia +the facts are better known. Wealthy women endow all educational +institutions for girls with relief funds and with loan and stipend funds. +Restaurants and homes for university women have been established. The +“Society for the Support of University Women” in Moscow has done its +utmost to relieve the misery of the women students.<small><a name="f101.1" id="f101.1" href="#f101">[101]</a></small></p> + +<p>The economic misery of the industrial and agricultural women (who are +almost wholly unorganized) is somewhat worse than that of the university +women. The statements concerning women’s wages in Vienna might give some +idea of the misery of the Russian women. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> Bialystock, which has the +best socialistic organization of women, the women textile workers earn +about 18 cents a day; under favorable circumstances $1.25 to $1.50 a week. +A skillful woman tobacco worker will earn 32½ cents a day. The average +daily wages for Russian women laborers are 18 to 20 cents.</p> + +<p>Hence it is not astonishing that in the South American houses of ill-fame +there are so many Russian girls. The agents in the white slave trade need +not make very extravagant promises of “good wages” to find willing +followers.<small><a name="f102.1" id="f102.1" href="#f102">[102]</a></small> A workingwomen’s club has existed since 1897 in St. +Petersburg. There are 982,098 women engaged in industry and mining; +1,673,605 in domestic service (there being 1,586,450 men domestic +servants). Of the women domestic servants 53,283 are illiterate (of the +men only 2172!). In 1885 the women formed 30 per cent of the laboring +population; in 1900 the number had increased to 44 per cent. Of the total +number of criminals in Russia 10 per cent are women.</p> + +<p>The legal status of the Russian woman is favorable in so far as the +property law provides for property rights. The Russian married woman +controls not only her property, but also her earnings and her savings. As +survival of village communism and the feudal system, the right to vote is +restricted to taxpayers and to landowners.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> In the rural districts the +wife votes as “head of the family,” if her husband is absent or dead. Then +she is also given her share of the village land. She votes in person. In +the cities the women that own houses and pay taxes vote by proxy. The +women owners of large estates (as in Austria) vote also for the provincial +assemblies. Although constitutional liberties have a precarious existence +in Russia, they have now and then been beneficial to women.</p> + +<p>With great effort, and in the face of great dangers, woman’s suffrage +societies were formed in various parts of the Empire. They united into a +national Woman’s Suffrage League. The brave Russian delegates were present +in Copenhagen and in Amsterdam. They belonged to all ranks of society and +were adherents to the progressive political parties. Since the dissolution +of the first Duma (June 9, 1906) the work of the woman’s suffrage +advocates has been made very difficult; in the rural districts especially +all initiative has been crippled. In Moscow and St. Petersburg the work is +continued by organizations having about 1000 members; 10,000 pamphlets +have been distributed, lectures have been held, a newspaper has been +established, and a committee has been organized which maintains a +continuous communication with the Duma.</p> + +<p>The best established center of the Russian woman’s rights movement is the +Woman’s Club in St. Petersburg.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> Through the tenacious efforts of the +leading women of the club,—Mrs. v. Philosophow, (Mrs.) <i>Dr. med.</i> +Schabanoff, and others,—the government granted them, in the latter part +of December, 1908, the right to hold the first national congress of women. +(The stipulation was made that foreign women should not participate, and +that a federation of women’s clubs should not be formed.) The discussions +concerned education, labor problems, and politics. Publicity was much +restricted; police surveillance was rigid; addresses on the foreign +woman’s suffrage movement were prohibited. Nevertheless, this progressive +declaration was made: Only the right to vote can secure for the Russian +women a thorough education and the right to work. Moreover, the Congress +favored: better marriage laws (a wife cannot secure a passport without the +consent of her husband), the abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution, the abolition of the death penalty, the struggle against +drunkenness, etc. The Congress was opened by the Lord Mayor of St. +Petersburg and was held in the St. Petersburg town hall. This was done in +a sense of obligation to the women school teachers of St. Petersburg and +to those women who had endeared themselves to the people through their +activity in hospitals and asylums. The Lord Mayor stated that these +activities were appreciated by the municipal officers and by all municipal +institutions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>Although the Congress was opened with praise for the women, it ended with +an intentional insult to the highly talented and deserving leader, Mrs. v. +Philosophow. Mr. Purischkewitch, the reactionary deputy of the Duma, wrote +a letter in which he expressed his pleasure at the adjournment of her +“congress of prostitutes” (<i>Bordellkongress</i>). Mrs. v. Philosophow +surrendered this letter and another to the courts, which sentenced the +offender to a month’s imprisonment, against which he appealed. After this +Congress has worked over the whole field of the woman’s rights movement, a +special congress on the education of women will be held in the autumn of +1909.<small><a name="f103.1" id="f103.1" href="#f103">[103]</a></small></p> + +<p>Since the Revolution of 1905 the women of the provinces have been astir. +It has been reported that the Mohammedan women of the Caucasus are +discarding their veils, that the Russian women in the rural districts are +petitioning for greater privileges, etc. An organized woman’s rights +movement has originated in the Baltic Provinces; its organ is the <i>Baltic +Women’s Review</i> (<i>Baltische Frauenrundschau</i>), the publisher being a woman, E. Schütze, Riga.</p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">CZECHISH BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population: about 5,500,000.<br /> +The women predominate numerically.<br /> +<br /> +No federation of women’s clubs.<br /> +No woman’s suffrage league.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />The woman’s rights movement is strongly supported among the Czechs. Woman +is the best apostle of nationalism; the educated woman is the most +valuable ally. In the national propaganda woman takes her place beside the +man. The names of the Czechish women patriots are on the lips of +everybody. Had the Liberals of German Austria known equally well how to +inspire their women with liberalism and Germanism, their cause would +to-day be more firmly rooted.</p> + +<p>In inexpensive but well-organized boarding schools the Czechish girls +(especially country girls, the daughters of landowners and tenants) are +being educated along national lines. An institute such as the +“<i>Wesna</i>”<small><a name="f104.1" id="f104.1" href="#f104">[104]</a></small> in Brünn is a center of national propaganda. Prague, like +Brünn, has a Czechish <i>Gymnasium</i> for girls as well as the German +<i>Gymnasium</i>. There is also a Czechish University besides the German +University. The first woman to be given the degree of Doctor of Philosophy +at the Czechish university was Fräulein Babor.</p> + +<p>The industrial conditions in Czechish Bohemia and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> in Moravia differ very +little from those in Galicia. The lot of the workingwomen, especially in +the coal mining districts, is wretched. According to a local club doctor +(<i>Kassenarzt</i>),<small><a name="f105.1" id="f105.1" href="#f105">[105]</a></small> life is made up of hunger, whiskey, and lashes.</p> + +<p>Although paragraph 30, of the Austrian law of association +(<i>Vereinsgesetz</i>) prevents the Czechish women from forming political +associations, the women of Bohemia, especially of Prague, show the most +active political interest. The women owners of large estates in Bohemia +voted until 1906 for members of the imperial Parliament. When universal +suffrage was granted to the Austrian men, the voting rights of this +privileged minority were withdrawn. The government’s resolution, providing +for an early introduction of a woman’s suffrage measure, has not yet been +carried out.</p> + +<p>The suffrage conditions for the Bohemian <i>Landtag</i> (provincial +legislature) are different. Taxpayers, office-holders, doctors, and +teachers vote for this body; the women, of course, voting by proxy. The +same is true in the Bohemian municipal elections. In Prague only are the +women deprived of the suffrage. The Prague woman’s suffrage committee, +organized in 1905, has proved irrefutably that the women in Prague are +legally entitled to the suffrage for the Bohemian <i>Landtag</i>. In the +<i>Landtag</i> election of 1907 the women presented a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> candidate, Miss Tumova, +who received a considerable number of votes, but was defeated by the most +prominent candidate (the mayor). However, this campaign aroused an active +interest in woman’s suffrage. In 1909 Miss Tumova was again a candidate. +The proposed reform of the election laws for the Bohemian <i>Landtag</i> (1908) +(which provides for universal suffrage, although not equal suffrage) would +disfranchise the women outside Prague. The women are opposing the law by +indignation meetings and deputations.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">GALICIA<small><a name="f106.1" id="f106.1" href="#f106">[106]</a></small></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population: about</td><td>7,000,000.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Poles: about</td><td>3,500,000.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ruthenians: about</td><td>3,500,000.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>The women predominate numerically.<br /> +<br /> +No federation of women’s clubs.<br /> +No woman’s suffrage league.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />The conditions prevailing in Galicia are unspeakably pathetic,—medieval, +oriental, and atrocious. Whoever has read Emil Franzo’s works is familiar +with these conditions. The Vienna official inquiry into the industrial +conditions of women led to a similar inquiry in Lemberg. This showed that +most of the women <i>cannot</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> live on their earnings. The lowest wages are +those of the women engaged in the ready-made clothing industry,—2 to +2½ guldens ($.96 to $1.10) a <i>month</i> as beginners; 8 to 10 guldens +($3.85 to $4.82) later. The wages (including board and room) of servant +girls living with their employers are 20 to 25 cents a day. The skilled +seamstress that sews linen garments can earn 40 cents a day if she works +sixteen hours.</p> + +<p>As a beginner, a milliner earns 2 to 4 guldens ($.96 to $1.93) a <i>month</i>, +later 10 guldens ($4.82). In the mitten industry (a home industry) a +week’s hard work brings 6 to 8 guldens ($2.89 to $3.88). In laundries +women working 14 hours earn 80 kreuzer (30 cents) a day without board. In +printing works and in bookbinderies women are employed as assistants; for +9½ hours’ work a day they are paid a <i>monthly</i> wage of from 2 to 14 and +15 guldens ($.96 to $7.23). In the bookbinderies women sometimes receive +16 guldens ($7.71) a month.</p> + +<p>In Lemberg, as in Vienna, women are employed as brickmakers and as +bricklayers’ assistants, working 10 to 11 hours a day; their wages are 40 +to 60 kreuzer (19 to 29 cents) a day. No attempt to improve these +conditions through organizations has yet been made. The official inquiry +thus far has confined itself to the Christian women laborers. What +miseries might not be concealed in the ghettos!</p> + +<p>An industrial women’s movement in Galicia is not to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> be thought of as yet. +There is a migration of the women from the flat rural districts to the +cities; <i>i.e.</i> into the nets of the white slave agents. Women earning 10, +15, or 20 cents a day are easily lured by promises of higher wages. The +ignorance of the lower classes (Ruthenians and Poles) is, according to the +ideas of western Europe, immeasurable. In 1897 336,000 children between +six and twelve years (in a total of about 923,000) had <i>never attended +school</i>. Of 4164 men teachers, 139 had no qualifications whatever! Of the +4159 women teachers 974 had no qualifications! The minimum salary is 500 +kronen ($101.50). The women teachers in 1909 demanded that they be +regarded on an equality with the men teachers by the provincial school +board. There are <i>Gymnasiums</i> for girls in Cracow, Lemberg, and Przemysl. +Women are admitted to the universities of Cracow and Lemberg. In one of +the universities (Mrs.) Dr. Dazynska is a lecturer on political economy. +In Cracow there is a woman’s club. Propaganda is being organized +throughout the land.</p> + +<p>A society to oppose the official regulation of prostitution and to improve +moral conditions was organized in 1908. The Galician woman taxpayer votes +in municipal affairs; the women owners of large estates vote for members +of the <i>Landtag</i>. (Mrs.) Dr. Dazynska and Mrs. Kutschalska-Reinschmidt of +Cracow are champions of the woman’s rights movement in Galicia.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> Mrs. +Kutschalska lives during parts of the year in Warsaw. She publishes the +magazine <i>Ster</i>. In Russian Poland her activities are more restricted +because the forming of organizations is made difficult. In spite of this +the “Equal Rights Society of Polish Women” has organized local societies +in Kiew, Radom, Lublin, and other cities. The formation of a federation of +Polish women’s clubs has been planned. In Warsaw the Polish branch of the +International Federation for the Abolition of Prostitution was organized +in 1907. An asylum for women teachers, a loan-fund for women teachers, and +a commission for industrial women are the external evidences of the +activities of the Polish woman’s rights movement in Warsaw.</p> + +<p>The field of labor for the educated woman is especially limited in Poland. +Excluded from government service, many educated Polish women flock into +the teaching profession; there they have restricted advantages. The +University of Warsaw has been opened to women.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">THE SLOVENE WOMAN’S RIGHTS MOVEMENT<small><a name="f107.1" id="f107.1" href="#f107">[107]</a></small></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population: 1,176,672.<br /> +The women preponderate numerically.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Slovene woman’s rights movement is still incipient; it was stimulated +by Zofka Kveder’s “The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> Mystery of Woman” (<i>Mysterium der Frau</i>). Zofka +Kveder’s motto is: “To see, to know, to understand.—Woman is a human +being.” Zofka Kveder hopes to transform the magazine <i>Slovenka</i> into a +woman’s rights review. A South Slavic Social-Democratic movement is +attempting to organize trade-unions among the women. The women lace makers +have been organized. Seventy per cent of all women laborers cannot live on +their earnings. In agricultural work they earn 70 hellers (14 cents) a +day. In the ready-made clothing industry they are paid 30 hellers (6 +cents) for making 36 buttonholes, 1 krone 20 hellers (25 cents) for making +one dozen shirts.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">SERVIA</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population: 2,850,000.<br /> +The number of women is somewhat greater than that of the men.<br /> +<br /> +Servian Federation of Women’s Clubs.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Servia has been free from Turkish control hardly forty-five years. Among +the people the oriental conception of woman prevails along with +patriarchal family conditions. The woman’s rights movement is well +organized; it is predominantly national, philanthropic, and educational.</p> + +<p>Elementary education is obligatory, and is supported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> by the “National +Society for Public Education” (<i>Nationalen Verein für Volksbildung</i>). The +girls and women of the lower classes are engaged chiefly with domestic +duties; in addition they work in the fields or work at excellent home +industries. These home industries were developed as a means of livelihood +by the efforts of Mrs. E. Subotisch, the organizer of the Servian woman’s +rights movement. The Servian women are rarely domestic servants (under +Turkish rule they were not permitted to serve the enemy); most of the +domestic servants are Hungarians and Austrians.</p> + +<p>All educational opportunities are open to the women of the middle class. +In all of the more important cities there are public as well as private +high schools for girls. The boys’ <i>Gymnasiums</i> admit girls. The university +has been open to women for twenty-one years; women are enrolled in all +departments; recently law has attracted many. For medical training the +women, like the men, go to foreign countries (France, Switzerland).</p> + +<p>Servia has 1020 women teachers in the elementary schools (the salary being +720 to 2000 francs—$144 to $500—a year, with lodging); there are 65 +women teachers in the secondary schools (the salary being 1500 to 3000 +francs,—$300 to $600). To the present no woman has been appointed as a +university professor. There are six women doctors, the first having +entered the profession 30 years ago; there are two women dentists;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> but as +yet there are no women druggists. There are no women lawyers. There is a +woman engineer in the service of the government. In the liberal arts there +are three well-known women artists, seven women authors, and ten women +poets.</p> + +<p>There are many women engaged in commercial callings, as office clerks, +cashiers, bookkeepers, and saleswomen. Women are also employed by banks +and insurance companies. “A woman merchant is given extensive credit,” is +stated in the report of the secretary of the Federation.</p> + +<p>In the postal and telegraph service 108 women are employed (the salaries +varying from 700 to 1260 francs,—$140 to $252). There are 127 women in +the telephone service (the salaries varying from 360 to 960 francs,—$72 +to $192). Servia is just establishing large factories; the number of women +laborers is still small; 1604 are organized.</p> + +<p>Prostitution is officially regulated in Servia; its recruits are chiefly +foreign women. Each vaudeville singer, barmaid, etc., is <i>ex officio</i> +placed under control.</p> + +<p>The oldest woman’s club is the “Belgrade Woman’s Club,” founded in 1875; +it has 34 branches. It maintains a school for poor girls, a school for +weavers in Pirot, and a students’ kitchen (<i>studentenküche</i>). The “Society +of Servian Sisters” and the “Society of Queen Lubitza” are patriotic +societies for maintaining and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> strengthening the Servian element in +Turkey, Old Servia, and Macedonia. The “Society of Mothers” takes care of +abandoned children. The “Housekeeping Society” trains domestic servants. +The Servian women’s clubs within the Kingdom have 5000 members; in the +Servian colonies without the Kingdom they have 14,000 members.</p> + +<p>The property laws provide for joint property holding. The wife controls +her earnings and savings only when this is stipulated in the marriage +contract.</p> + +<p>In 1909, the Federation of Servian Women’s Clubs inserted woman’s suffrage +in its programme, and joined the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance.</p> + +<p>In the struggle for national existence the Servian woman demonstrated her +worth, and effected a recognition of her right to an education.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">BULGARIA</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>4,035,586.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>1,978,457.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>2,057,111.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of Bulgarian Women’s Clubs.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Like Servia, Bulgaria was freed from Turkish control about forty years +ago. The liberation caused very little change in the life of the peasant +women. But it opened new educational opportunities for the middle +classes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> The elementary schools naturally provide for the girls also. (In +1905-1906 there were 1800 men teachers and 800 women teachers in the +villages; in the cities 415 men and 355 women.) High schools for girls +have been established, but not all of them prepare for the +<i>Abiturientenexamen</i>. The first women entered the university of Sofia in +1900. There are now about 100 women students. Since 1907, through the work +of a reactionary ministry, the university has excluded women; married +women teachers have been discharged. Women attend the schools of commerce, +the technical schools, and the agricultural schools. Women are active as +doctors (there being 56), midwives, journalists, and authors.</p> + +<p>The men and women teachers are organized jointly. Women are employed by +the state in the postal and telegraph service. The wages of these women, +like those of the women laborers, are lower than those of the men. There +is a factory law that protects women laborers and children working in the +factories. The trade-unions are socialistic and have men and women +members. The laws regulating the legal status of woman have been +influenced by German laws. The wife controls her earnings. Politically the +Bulgarian woman has no rights.</p> + +<p>The Federation of Bulgarian Women’s Clubs was organized in 1899; in 1908 +it joined the International Council of Women. Woman’s suffrage occupies +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> first place on the programme of the Federation; in 1908 it joined the +International Woman’s Suffrage Affiance.</p> + +<p>The Bulgarian women, too, have recognized woman’s suffrage as the key to +all other woman’s rights. To the present time their demands have been +supported by radicals and democrats (who are not very influential).</p> + +<p>A meeting of the Federation in 1908 demanded:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang">1. Active and passive suffrage for women in school administration and municipal councils.</p> + +<p class="hang">2. The reopening of the University to women. (This has been granted.)</p> + +<p class="hang">3. The increase of the salaries of women teachers. (They are paid 10 per cent less than the men teachers.)</p> + +<p class="hang">4. The same curriculums for the boys’ and girls’ schools.</p> + +<p class="hang">5. An enlargement of woman’s field of labor.</p> + +<p class="hang">6. Better protection to women and children working in factories.</p></div> + +<p>The President of the Federation is the wife of the President of the +Ministry, Malinoff. Because the Federation, led by Mrs. Malinoff, did not +oppose the reactionary measures of the Ministry (of Stambolavitch), Mrs. +Anna Carima, who had been President of the Federation to 1906, organized +the “League of Progressive Women.” This League demands equal rights for +the sexes. It admits only confirmed woman’s rights<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> advocates (men and +women). It will request the political emancipation of women in a petition +which it intends to present to the National Parliament, which must be +called after Bulgaria has been converted into a kingdom. In July (1909) +the Progressive League will hold a meeting to draft its constitution.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">RUMANIA</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population: 6,585,534.<br /> +<br /> +No federation of women’s clubs.<br /> +No woman’s suffrage league.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />The status of the Rumanian women is similar to that of the Servian and +Bulgarian women; but the legal profession has been opened to the Bulgarian +women. A discussion of Rumania must be omitted, since my efforts to secure +reliable information have been unsuccessful.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">GREECE<small><a name="f108.1" id="f108.1" href="#f108">[108]</a></small></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>2,433,806.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>1,166,990.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>1,266,816.</td></tr></table> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Federation of Greek Women.<br /> +No woman’s suffrage league.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />The Greek woman’s rights movement concerns itself for the time being with +philanthropy and education.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> Its guiding spirit is Madame Kallirhoe Parren +(who acted as delegate in Chicago in 1893, and in Paris in 1900). Madame +Parren succeeded in 1896 in organizing a Federation of Greek Women, which +has belonged to the International Council of Women since 1908. The +presidency of the Federation was accepted by Queen Olga.</p> + +<p>The Federation has five sections:</p> + +<p>1. The national section. This acts as a patriotic woman’s club. In 1897 it +rendered invaluable assistance in the Turco-Greek War, erecting four +hospitals on the border and one in Athens. The nurses belonged to the best +families; the work was superintended by <i>Dr. med.</i> Marie Kalapothaki and +<i>Dr. med.</i> Bassiliades.</p> + +<p>2. The educational section. This section establishes kindergartens; it has +opened a seminary for kindergartners, and courses for women teachers of +gymnastics.<small><a name="f109.1" id="f109.1" href="#f109">[109]</a></small></p> + +<p>3. The section for the establishment of domestic economy schools and +continuation schools. This section is attempting to enlarge the +non-domestic field of women and at the same time to prepare women better +for their domestic calling. The efforts of this section are quite in +harmony with the spirit of the times. The Greek woman’s struggle for +existence is exceedingly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> difficult; she must face a backwardness of +public opinion such as was overcome in northern Europe long ago. This +section has also founded a home for workingwomen.</p> + +<p>4. The hygiene section. Under the leadership of Dr. Kalapothaki this +section has organized an orthopedic and gynecological clinic. The section +also gives courses on the care of children, and provides for the care of +women in confinement.</p> + +<p>5. The philanthropic section. This provides respectable but needy girls +with trousseaus (<i>Austeuern</i>).</p> + +<p>Mrs. Parren has for eighteen years been editor of a woman’s magazine in +Athens. (Miss) <i>Dr. med.</i> Panajotatu has since 1908 been a lecturer in +bacteriology at Athens University. At her inaugural lecture the students +made a hostile demonstration. Miss Bassiliades acts as physician in the +women’s penitentiary. Miss Lascaridis and Miss Ionidis are respected +artists; Mrs. v. Kapnist represents woman in literature, especially in +poetry. Mrs. Parren has written several dramatic works (some advocating +woman’s rights), which have been presented in Athens, Smyrna, +Constantinople, and Alexandria. Mrs. Parren is a director of the society +of dramatists.</p> + +<p>Government positions are still closed to women. As late as 1909, after +great difficulties, the first women telephone clerks were appointed.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> +<h3>THE ORIENT AND THE FAR EAST</h3> + +<p>In the Orient and the Far East woman is almost without exception a +plaything or a beast of burden; and to a degree that would incense us +Europeans. In the uncivilized countries, and in the countries of +non-European civilization, the majority of the women are insufficiently +nourished; in all cases more poorly than the men. Early marriages enervate +the women. They are old at thirty; this is especially true of the lower +classes. Among us, to be sure, such cases occur also; unfortunately +without sufficient censure being given when necessary. But we have +abolished polygamy and the harem. Both still exist almost undisturbed in +the Orient and the Far East.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">TURKEY AND EGYPT</p> +<p class="center">Total population: 34,000,000.</p> +<p class="center">A federation of women’s clubs has just been founded in each country.</p> + +<p><br />In all the Mohammedan countries the wealthy woman lives in the harem with +her slaves. The woman of the lower classes, however, is guarded or +restricted no more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> than with us. Apparently the Turkish and the Arabian +women of the lower classes have an unrestrained existence. But because +they are subject to the absolute authority of their husbands, their life +is in most cases that of a beast of burden. They work hard and +incessantly. For the Mohammedan of the lower classes polygamy is +economically a useful institution: four women are four laborers that earn +more than they consume.</p> + +<p>Domestic service offers workingwomen in the Orient the broadest field of +labor. The women slaves in the harems<small><a name="f110.1" id="f110.1" href="#f110">[110]</a></small> are usually well treated, and +they have sufficient to live on. They associate with women shopkeepers, +women dancers, midwives, hairdressers, manicurists, pedicures, etc. These +are in the pay of the wives of the wealthy. Thanks to this army of spies, +a Turkish woman is informed, without leaving her harem, of every step of +her husband.</p> + +<p>The oppression that all women must endure, and the general fear of the +infidelity of husbands, have created among oriental women an <i>esprit de +corps</i> that is unknown to European women. Among the upper classes polygamy +is being abolished because the country is impoverished and the large +estates have been squandered; moreover, each wife is now demanding her own +household, whereas formerly the wives all lived together.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>Through the influence of the European women educators, an emancipation +movement has been started among the younger generation of women in +Constantinople. Many fathers, often through vanity, have given their +daughters a European education. Elementary schools, secondary schools, and +technical schools have existed in Turkey and Egypt since 1839. The women +graduates of these schools are now opposing oriental marriage and life in +the harem. At present this is causing tragic conflicts.<small><a name="f111.1" id="f111.1" href="#f111">[111]</a></small></p> + +<p>To the present, two Turkish women have spoken publicly at international +congresses of women. Selma Riza, sister of the “Young Turkish” General, +Ahmed Riza, spoke in Paris in 1900, and Mrs. Haïrie Ben-Aid spoke in +Berlin in 1904.</p> + +<p>The Mohammedan women have a legal supporter of their demands in Kassim +Amin Bey, counselor of the Court of Appeals in Cairo. In his pamphlet on +the woman’s rights question he proposes the following programme:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang">Legal prohibition of polygamy.</p> + +<p class="hang">Woman’s right to file a divorce suit. (Hitherto a woman is divorced +if her husband, even without cause, says thee times consecutively “You are divorced.”)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span></p> +<p class="hang">Woman’s freedom to choose her husband.</p> + +<p class="hang">The training of women in independent thought and action.</p> + +<p class="hang">A thorough education for woman.</p></div> + +<p>In 1910 a congress of Mohammedan women will be held in Cairo.</p> + +<p>I may add that the Koran, the Mohammedan code of laws, gives a married +woman the full status of a legal person before the law, and full civil +ability. It recognizes separation of property as legal, and grants the +wife the right to control and to dispose of her property. Hence the Koran +is more liberal than the Code Napoleon or the German Civil Code. Whether +the restrictions of the harem make the exercise of these rights impossible +in practice, I am unable to say.</p> + +<p>European schools, as well as the newly founded <i>Universités populaires</i>, +are in Turkey and in Egypt the centers of enlightenment among the +Mohammedans. The European women doctors in Constantinople, Alexandria, and +Cairo are all disseminators of modern culture. A woman lawyer practices in +the Cairo court, and has been admitted to the lawyers’ society.</p> + +<p>The Young Turk movement and the reform of Turkey on a constitutional basis +found hearty support among the women. They expressed themselves orally and +in writing in favor of the liberal ideas; they spoke in public and held +public meetings; they attempted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> appear in public without veils, and to +attend the theater in order to see a patriotic play; they sent a +delegation to the Young Turk committee requesting the right to occupy the +spectators’ gallery in Parliament; and, finally, they organized the +Women’s Progress Society, which comprises women of all nationalities but +concerns itself only with philanthropy and education. As a consequence, +the government is said to have resolved to erect a humanistic <i>Gymnasium</i> +for girls in Constantinople. The leader of the Young Turks, the present +President of the Chamber of Deputies, is, as a result of his long stay in +Paris, naturally convinced of the superiority of harem life and legal +polygamy (when compared with occidental practices).<small><a name="f112.1" id="f112.1" href="#f112">[112]</a></small> The freedom of +action of the Mohammedan women, especially in the provinces, might be much +hampered by traditional obstacles. Nevertheless, the restrictions placed +on the Mohammedan woman have been abolished, as is proved by the +following:—</p> + +<p>In Constantinople there has been founded a “Young Turkish Woman’s League” +that proposes to bring about the same great revolutionary changes in the +intellectual life of woman that have already been introduced into the +political life of man. Knowledge and its benefits must in the future be +made accessible to the Turkish women. This is to be done openly. Formerly +all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> strivings of the Turkish women were carried on in secret. The women +revolutionists were anxiously guarded; as far as possible, information +concerning their movements was secured before they left their homes. The +Turkish women wish to prove that they, as well as the women of other +countries, have human rights. When the constitution of the “Young Turkish +Woman’s League” was being drawn up, Enver Bey was present. He was +thoroughly in favor of the demands of the new woman’s rights movement. The +“Young Turkish Woman’s League” is under the protection of Princess Refià +Sultana, daughter of the Sultan. Princess Refià, a young woman of +twenty-one years of age, has striven since her eighteenth year to acquire +a knowledge of the sciences. She speaks several languages. The enthusiasm +of the Young Turkish women is great. Many of them appear on the streets +without veils,—a thing that no prominent Turkish woman could do formerly. +Women of all classes have joined the League. The committee daily receives +requests for <ins class="correction" title="original: admisson">admission</ins> to membership.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA</p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population: 1,591,036.<br /><br /> +The men preponderate numerically.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Bosnia and Herzegovina, being Mohammedan countries, have harems and the +restricted views of harem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> life. Naturally, a woman’s rights movement is +not to be thought of. Polygamy and patriarchal life are characteristic.</p> + +<p>Into this Mohammedan country the Austrian government has sent women +disseminators of the culture of western Europe,<small><a name="f113.1" id="f113.1" href="#f113">[113]</a></small>—the Bosnian district +women doctors. The first of these was Dr. Feodora Krajevska in Dolna +Tuszla, now in Serajewo. Now she has several women colleagues. The women +doctors wear uniforms,—a black coat, a black overcoat with crimson +facings and with two stars on the collar.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">PERSIA</p> +<p class="center">Total population: about 9,500,000.</p> + +<p><br />In Persia hardly a beginning of the woman’s rights movement exists. The +Report<small><a name="f114.1" id="f114.1" href="#f114">[114]</a></small> that I have before me closes thus: “The Persian woman lives, +as it were, a negative life, but does not seem to strive for a change in +her condition.” Certainly not. Like the Turkish and the Arabian woman, she +is bound by the Koran. Her educational opportunities are even less (there +are very few European schools, governesses, and women doctors in Persia). +Her field of activity is restricted to agriculture, domestic service, +tailoring, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>occasionally, teaching. However, she is said to be quite +skillful in the management of her financial affairs. As far as I know, the +Persian woman took no part in the constitutional struggle of 1908-1909.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">INDIA</p> +<p class="center">Total population: 300,000,000.</p> + +<p><br />The Indian woman’s rights movement originated through the efforts of the +English. The movement is as necessary and as difficult as the movement in +China. The Indian religions teach that woman should be despised. “A cow is +worth more than a thousand women.” The birth of a girl is a misfortune: +“May the tree grow in the forest, but may no daughter be born to me.”<small><a name="f115.1" id="f115.1" href="#f115">[115]</a></small></p> + +<p>Formerly it was permissible to drown newborn girls; the English government +had to abolish this barbarity (as it abolished the suttee). The Indian +woman lives in her apartment, the zenana; here the mother-in-law wields +the scepter over the daughters-in-law, the grandchildren, and the women +servants. The small girl learns to cook and to embroider; anything beyond +that is iniquitous: woman has no brain. The girls that are educated in +England must upon their return<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> again don the veil and adjust themselves +to native conditions. At the age of five or six the little girls are +engaged, sometimes to young men of ten or twelve years, sometimes to men +of forty or fifty. The marriage takes place several years later. Sometimes +a man has more than one wife. The wife waits on her husband while he is +eating; she eats what remains.</p> + +<p>If the wife bears a son, she is reinstated. If she is widowed, she must +fast and constantly offer apologies for existing. The widows and orphans +were the first natives to become interested in the higher education of +women. This was due to economic and social conditions.</p> + +<p>India was the cradle of mankind. Even the highest civilizations still bear +indelible marks of the dreadful barbarities that have just been mentioned. +The Indian woman has rebelled against her miserable condition. The English +women considered it possible to bring health, hope, and legal aid to the +women of the zenana, through women doctors, women missionaries, and women +lawyers. Hence in 1866 zenana missions were organized by English women +doctors and missionaries. Native women were soon studying medicine in +order to bring an end to the superstitions of the zenana. Dr. Clara Swain +came to India in 1869 as the first woman medical missionary. As early as +1872-1873 the first hospital for women was founded; in 1885, through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> the +work of Lady Dufferin, there originated the Indian National League for +Giving Medical Aid to Women (<i>Nationalverband für ärztliche Frauenhilfe in +Indien</i>).</p> + +<p>Native women have studied law in order to represent their sex in the +courts. Their chief motive was to secure an opportunity of conferring with +the women in the zenana, a privilege not granted the male lawyer. The +first Indian woman lawyer, Cornelia Sorabija, was admitted to the bar in +Poona. Even in England the women have not yet been granted this privilege. +This is easily explained. The Indian women cannot be clients of men +lawyers; what men lawyers cannot take, they generously leave to the women +lawyers.</p> + +<p>India has 300,000,000 people; hence these meager beginnings of a woman’s +rights movement are infinitesimal when compared with the vast work that +remains undone.<small><a name="f116.1" id="f116.1" href="#f116">[116]</a></small> The educated Indian woman is participating in the +nationalist movement that is now being directed against English rule. +Brahmanism hinders the Indian woman in making use of the educational +opportunities offered by the English government. Brahmanism and its +priests nourish in woman a feeling of humility and the fear that she will +lose her caste through contact with Europeans and infidels. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> Parsee +women and the Mohammedan women do not have this fear. The Parsee women +(Pundita Ramabai, for example) have played a leading part in the +emancipation of their sex in India. But the Mohammedan women of India are +reached by the movement only with difficulty. By the Hindoo of the old +régime, woman is kept in great ignorance and superstition; her education +is limited to a small stock of aphorisms and rules of etiquette; her life +in the zenana is largely one of idleness. “Ennui almost causes them to +lose their minds” is a statement based on the reports of missionaries.</p> + +<p>There are modern schools for girls in all large cities (Calcutta, Madras, +Bombay, etc.). The status of the native woman has been Europeanized to the +greatest extent in Bengal. The best educated of the native women of all +classes are the dancing girls (<i>bayadères</i>); unfortunately they are not +“virtuous women” (<i>honnêtes femmes</i>), hence education among women has been +in ill repute.</p> + +<p>A congress of women was held in Calcutta in 1906 with a woman as chairman; +this congress discussed the condition of Indian women. At the medical +congress of 1909, in Bombay, Hindoo women doctors spoke effectively. The +women doctors have formed the Association of Medical Women in India. In +Madras there is published the <i>Indian Ladies’ Magazine</i>.<small><a name="f117.1" id="f117.1" href="#f117">[117]</a></small></p> + + +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p> +<p class="center">CHINA<small><a name="f118.1" id="f118.1" href="#f118">[118]</a></small></p> +<p class="center">Total population: 426,000,000.</p> + +<p><br />The Chinese woman of the lower classes has the same status as the +Mohammedan woman,—ostensible freedom of movement, and hard work. The +women of the property owning classes, however, must remain in the house; +here, entertaining one another, they live and eat, apart from the men. As +woman is not considered in the Chinese worship of ancestors, her birth is +as unwished for as that of the Indian woman. Among the poor the birth of a +daughter is an economic misfortune. Who will provide for her? Hence in the +three most densely populated provinces the murder of girl babies is quite +common. In many cases mothers kill their little girls to deliver them from +the misery of later life. The father, husband, and the mother-in-law are +the masters of the Chinese woman. She can possess property only when she +is a widow (see the much more liberal provisions of the Koran).</p> + +<p>The earnings of the Chinese wife belong to her husband. But in case of a +dispute in this matter, no court would decide in the husband’s favor, for +he is supposed to be “the bread winner” of the family. Polygamy is +customary; but the Chinese may have only <i>one</i> legitimate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> wife (while the +Mohammedan may have four). The concubine has the status of a <i>hetaera</i>; +she travels with the man, keeps his accounts, etc. The Chinese woman of +the property owning class lives, in contrast to the Hindoo woman, a life +filled with domestic duties. She makes all the clothes for the family; +even the most wealthy women embroider. Frequently the wife succeeds in +becoming the adviser of the husband. A widow is not despised; she can +remarry. The women of the lower classes engage in agriculture, domestic +service, the retail business, all kinds of agencies and commission +businesses, factory work (to a small extent), medical science (practiced +in a purely experimental way), and midwifery; they carry burdens and +assist in the loading and unloading of ships. Women’s wages are one half +or three fourths of those of the men.</p> + +<p>The lives of the Chinese women, especially among the lower classes, are so +wretched that mothers believe they are doing a good deed when they +strangle their little girls, or place them on the doorstep where they will +be gathered up by the wagon that collects the corpses of children. Many +married women commit suicide. “The suffering of the women in this dark +land is indescribable,” says an American woman missionary. Those Chinese +women that believe in the transmigration of souls hope “in the next world +to be anything but a woman.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>Foreign women doctors, like the women missionaries, are bringing a little +cheer into these sad places. Most of these women are English or American. +The beginning of a real woman’s rights movement is the work of the +Anti-Foot-Binding societies, which are opposing the binding of women’s +feet. This reform is securing supporters among men and women.</p> + +<p>For seventeen years there has existed a school for Chinese women. This was +founded by Kang You Wei, the first Chinese to demand that both sexes +should have the same rights. The women that have devoted themselves during +these seventeen years to the emancipation of their sex must often face +martyrdom. Tsin King, the founder of a semimonthly magazine for women, and +of a modern school for girls, met death on the scaffold in 1907 during a +political persecution directed against all progressive elements.</p> + +<p>Another woman’s rights advocate, Miss Sin Peng Sie, donated 200,000 taëls +(a taël is equivalent to 72.9 cents) for the erection of a <i>Gymnasium</i> for +girls in her native city, 100,000 taëls to endow a pedagogical magazine, +and 50,000 taëls for the support of minor schools for girls. Still another +woman’s rights advocate, Wu Fang Lan, resisted every attempt to bind her +feet in the traditional manner. There exists a woman’s league, through +whose efforts the government, in 1908, prohibited the binding of the feet +of little girls.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>In recent years the <i>women’s magazines</i> have increased in number. Four +large publications, devoted solely to women’s interests, are published in +Canton; five are published in Shanghai, and about as many in every other +large city. The new system of education (adopted in 1905) grants women +freedom. Girls’ schools have been opened everywhere; in the large cities +there are girls’ secondary schools in which the Chinese classics, foreign +languages, and other cultural subjects are taught. In Tien Tsin there is a +seminary for women teachers.</p> + +<p>Sie Tou Fa, a prominent Chinese administrative official (who is also a +governor and a lawyer), recently delivered a lecture in Paris on the +status of the Chinese woman. This lecture contradicts the statements made +above. Among other things he declared that China has produced too many +distinguished women (in the political as well as in other fields) for law +and public opinion to restrict the freedom of woman. “The Chinese admits +superiority, with all its consequences, as soon as he sees it; and this, +whether it is shown by man or woman.”<small><a name="f119.1" id="f119.1" href="#f119">[119]</a></small> According to him there can be +no woman’s rights movement in China, because man does not oppress woman! +He declares that the progress of women in China since 1905 is a +manifestation of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>patriotism, not of feminism. According to our +experiences the opinions of Sie Tou Fa are attributable to a peculiarly +masculine way of observing things.</p> + + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">JAPAN AND KOREA<small><a name="f120.1" id="f120.1" href="#f120">[120]</a></small></p> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Total population:</td><td>46,732,876.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Women:</td><td>23,131,236.</td></tr> +<tr><td>Men:</td><td>23,601,640.</td></tr></table> + +<p><br />Previous to the thirteenth century the Japanese woman, when compared with +the other women of the Far East, occupied a specially favored +position,—as wife and mother, as scholar, author, and counselor in +business and political affairs. All these rights were lost during the +civil wars waged in the period between the thirteenth and seventeenth +centuries. War and militarism are the sworn enemies of woman’s rights. A +further cause of the Japanese woman’s loss of rights was the strong +influence of Chinese civilization, embodied in the teachings of Confucius.</p> + +<p>The Japanese woman was expected to be obedient; her virtues became passive +and negative. In the seaports and chief cities, European influence has +during the last fifty years caused changes in the dress, general bearing, +and social customs of the Japanese. During the past thirty years these +changes have been furthered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> by the government. While Japan was rising to +the rank of a great world power, she was also providing an excellent +educational system for women. The movement began with the erection of +girls’ schools. The Empress is the patroness of an “Imperial Educational +Society,” a “Secondary School for Girls,” and “Educational Institute for +the Daughters of Nobles,” and of a “Seminary for Women Teachers.” All of +these institutions are in Tokio. Women formed in 1898 13 per cent of the +total number of teachers.</p> + +<p>Japanese women of wealth and women of the nobility support these +educational efforts; they also support the “Charity Bazaar Society,” the +Orphans’ Home, and the Red Cross Society. The Red Cross Society trained an +excellent corps of nurses, as the Russo-Japanese War demonstrated.</p> + +<p>Women are employed as government officials in the railroad offices; they +are also employed in banks. Japanese women study medicine, pharmacy, and +midwifery in special institutions,<small><a name="f121.1" id="f121.1" href="#f121">[121]</a></small> which have hundreds of women +enrolled. Many women attend commercial and technical schools. Women are +engaged in industry,—at very low wages, to be sure; but this fact enables +Japan to compete successfully for markets. The number of women in industry +exceeds that of the men; in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> 1900 there were 181,692 women and 100,962 men +industrially engaged. In the textile industry 95 per cent of the laborers +are women. Women also outnumber the men in home industries. Women’s +average daily wages are 12½ cents. Women remain active in commerce and +industry, for the workers are recruited from the lower classes, and they +have been better able to withstand Chinese influence. Chinese law (based +on the teachings of Confucius) still prevails with all its harshness for +the Japanese woman.</p> + +<p>The taxpaying Japanese becomes a voter at the age of twenty-five. The +Japanese woman has no political rights. Hence a petition has been +presented to Parliament requesting that women be granted the right to form +organizations and to hold meetings. Parliament favored the measure. But +the government is still hesitating, hence a new petition has been sent to +Parliament.</p> + +<p>The modern woman’s rights movement in Japan is supported by the following +organizations: two societies favoring woman’s education, the associations +for hygiene, and the society favoring dress reform. The <i>Women’s Union</i> +and the <i>League of Women</i> can be regarded as political organizations. +There are Japanese women authors and journalists.</p> + +<p>Since Korea has belonged to Japan, changes have begun there also. The +Korean women have neither a first name nor a family name. According to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>circumstances they are called daughter of A. B., wife of A., etc. It is a +sign of the time and also of the awakening of woman’s self-reliance that +the government of Korea has been presented with a petition, signed by many +women, requesting that these conditions be abolished and that women be +granted the right to have their own names.</p> + +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<p>We have completed our journey round the world,—from Japan to the United +States is only a short distance, and the intellectual relations between +the two countries are quite intimate. Few oriental people seem more +susceptible to European culture than the Japanese. But whatever woman’s +rights movement there is in non-European countries, it owes its origin +almost without exception to the activity of educated occidentals,—to the +men and women teachers, educators, doctors, and missionaries. Here is an +excellent field for our activities; here is a duty that we dare not forget +in the midst of our own struggles. For we cannot estimate the noble work +and uplifting power that the world loses in those countries where women +are merely playthings and beasts of burden.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">CONCLUSION</p> + +<p>In the greater part of the world woman is a slave and a beast of burden. +In these countries she rules<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> only in exceptional cases—and then through +cunning. Equality of rights is not recognized; neither is the right of +woman to act on her own responsibility. Even in most countries of European +civilization woman is not free or of age. In these countries, too, she +exists merely as a sexual being. Woman is free and is regarded as a human +being only in a very small part of the civilized world. Even in these +places we see daily tenacious survivals of the old barbarity and tyranny. +Hence it is not true that woman is the “weaker,” the “protected,” the +“loved,” and the “revered” sex. In most cases she is the overworked, +exploited, and (even when living in luxury) the oppressed sex. These +circumstances dwarf woman’s humanity, and limit the development of her +individuality, her freedom, and her responsibility. These conditions are +opposed by the woman’s rights movement. The movement hopes to secure the +happiness of woman, of man, of the child, and of the world by establishing +the equal rights of the sexes. These rights are based on the recognition +of equality of merit; they provide for responsibility of action. Most men +do not understand this ideal; they oppose it with unconscious egotism.</p> + +<p>This book has given an accurate account of the <i>means</i> by which men oppose +woman’s rights: scoffing, ridicule, insinuation; and finally, when +prejudice, stubbornness, and selfishness can no longer resist the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> force +of truth, the argument that they do not wish to grant us our rights. There +is little encouragement in this; but it shall not perplex us. Man, by +opposing woman, caused the struggle between the sexes. Only equality of +rights can bring peace. <i>Woman</i> is already certain of her equality. <i>Man</i> +will learn by experience that renunciation can be “manly,” that business +can be “feminine,” and that all “privilege” is obnoxious. The emancipation +of woman is synonymous with the education of man.</p> + +<p>Educating is always a slow process; but it inspires limitless hope. When +“ideas” have once seized the masses, these ideas become an irresistible +force. This is irrefutably proved by the strong growth of our movement +since 1904 in all countries of European civilization, and by the awakening +of women even in the depths of oriental civilization. The events of the +past five years justify us in entertaining great hopes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<div class="index"> +<p> +Abbans, Count Jouffroy d’, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Aberdeen, Lady, <a href="#Page_xi">xi, note 1</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Actresses’ Franchise League, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adams, Mr. Alva, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adler, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adlersparre, Baroness of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Age of consent, in woman’s suffrage states of the United States, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Agricultural Association for Women, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="agriculturists" id="agriculturists"></a> +Agriculturists, women,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_82">82-84</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Alcala, Catalina d’, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Alexander II, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Alexandra House, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Aloisia, Sigea, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Amberly, Lady, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> +<br /> +American Commission, report on European prostitution, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br /> +<br /> +American Federation of Labor, favors woman’s suffrage, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms organizations of workingwomen, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +American Woman’s Suffrage Association, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="american_women" id="american_women"></a> +American women,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">activities of, at Constitutional Convention (1787), <a href="#Page_2">2-4</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">means of agitation used by, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and political life, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the protection of youth, <a href="#Page_18">18 and note 1</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and state legislative offices, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23 and note 1</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">members of city councils, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Colorado legislature, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23 and note 1</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and education, <a href="#Page_23">23-27</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excluded by certain universities, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the teaching profession, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">students in higher institutions of learning, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suffrage of, in school affairs, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">increase of women students, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">admitted to technical schools, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legal status of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and sports, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ancketill, Mr., <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ancketill, Mrs., <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Anstie, Dr., <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Anthony, Susan B., the Napoleon of the woman’s suffrage movement, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">various facts concerning, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joint author of a <i>History of Woman’s Suffrage</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23, note 2</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Anti-Foot-Binding Societies, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Anti-Slavery Congress, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Arenal, Concepcion, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Argentine Republic, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Arsuaga, Pi y, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Artists’ Suffrage League, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Asquith, Mr., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Association Opposed to Woman’s Suffrage (in the United States), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Auclert, Madame, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Augsburg, Dr. Anita, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span><br /><a name="australia" id="australia"></a> +Australia, member of the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_42">42 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Australian universities, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Australian Women’s Political Association, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Austria, represented in The International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#german_aus">German Austria</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Austrian Women Teachers’ Society, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Bajer, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Baltic Women’s Review</i>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bassiliades, Dr., <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Bayadères</i>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bazan, Emilia Pardo, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Beauharnais, Josephine, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Becker, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Belgium, represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Ben-Aid, Mrs. Haïrie, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Béothy, Dr., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Beresford-Hope, Mrs., <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bey, Kassim Amin, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bieber-Böhm, Hanna, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Biggs, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Birmingham, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Björnson, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blackburn, Helen, <a href="#Page_59">59, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blackwell, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blackwell, Emily, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blake, Jex, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Boer War, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bohemia, conditions in, <a href="#Page_230">230-232</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Boise, Idaho, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bonald, de, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bonnevial, Madame, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="bosnia" id="bosnia"></a> +Bosnia, conditions in, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Boston, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brabanzon House, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brahmanism, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brandes, George, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Braun, Lily, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bremer, Frederika, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#fredericka">Fredericka Bremer League</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bristol, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brüstlein, Miss Dr., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Buchner, Miss, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bulgaria, represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_239">239-242</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Butler, Mrs. Josephine, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Cabinet, British, and woman’s suffrage, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Cahiers feministes</i>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /> +<br /> +California, woman’s suffrage amendment adopted by, <a href="#Page_17">17, note 1</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">efforts of women of, to secure the suffrage, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cambridge University, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Canada, represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">woman’s rights movement in, <a href="#Page_96">96 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Carima, Mrs., <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Carinthia, <i>see</i> <a href="#slovene">Slovene Woman’s Rights Movement</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Carniola, <i>see</i> <a href="#slovene">Slovene Woman’s Rights Movement</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Catharine II, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Catholic Woman’s League, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Catholic Women Teachers’ Society, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Catt, Mrs. Carrie Chapman, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cauer, Mrs., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cave, Miss, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Central America, conditions in, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Central Committee for Woman’s Suffrage (England), <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span><br /> +Central states (of the United States), <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chauvin, Jeanne, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chicago, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Child labor, in United States, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Children,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“Conference on the Care of Dependent Children,” <a href="#Page_18">18 and note 1</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">National Child Labor Committee, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">laws protecting, in Australia, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#laws_protect">Laws protecting women and children</a>.</span><br /> +<br /><a name="children_authority" id="children_authority"></a> +Children, authority over,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Colorado, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in thirty-eight of the United States, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spain, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Chili, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> +<br /> +China, conditions in, <a href="#Page_256">256-260</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cincinnati, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Clergy, English, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cleveland, President, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Clough, Anne, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cobden, Mrs., <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="code_napoleon" id="code_napoleon"></a> +Code Napoleon, absence of, in Australia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Belgium, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span><br /> +<br /><a name="coeducation" id="coeducation"></a> +Coeducation,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Scotland, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +College Equal Suffrage League, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Collett, Clara, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Colorado,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">woman’s suffrage in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">activities and rights of women in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vote of immoral women in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women in legislature of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23 and note 1</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions of women and children in, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Columbia University, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +“Conference on the Care of Dependent Children,” <a href="#Page_28">18 and note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Confucius, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Conradi, Mrs., <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Conservative and Unionist Women’s Franchise Association, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Convert, The</i> (novel), <a href="#Page_67">67, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Coote, Miss, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Court of Appeals, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Craigen, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Creighton, Mrs. Louise, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Curie, Madame, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Czaky, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Davies, Emily, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dazynska, Dr., <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>De Stem der Vrouw</i>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Declaration of Independence, Woman’s, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">“The Declaration of the Rights of Women,” <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Deflou, Madame Oddo, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Denison, Mrs. Macdonald, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Denmark, represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_122">122-126</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dennis, Mrs., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Denver, Colorado, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Deraismes, Marie, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Deroin, Jeanne, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span><br /> +Derscheid-Delcour, Mrs., <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Despard, Mrs., <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Disraeli, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="divorce" id="divorce"></a> +Divorce laws,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in woman’s suffrage states, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Turkey and Egypt, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dobson, Mrs., <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="doctors" id="doctors"></a> +Doctors, women,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hungary, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Belgium, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Portugal, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Servia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Rumania, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bosnia, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Persia, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in India, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Dokumente der Frauen</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Donohue, Mrs. M., <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Do You Know?</i> (pamphlet), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Drummond, Mrs., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dufferin, Lady, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Durand, Madame Marguerite, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Ebner-Eschenbach, Marie v., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="education" id="education"></a> +Education, women and,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_23">23-27</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_74">74 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Canada, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway, <a href="#Page_117">117-119</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Denmark, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_134">134-136</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_146">146-148</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Luxemburg, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-163</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hungary, <a href="#Page_169">169-171</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Belgium, <a href="#Page_191">191-193</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_199">199-201</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spain, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Portugal, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in South America, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_217">217-222</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Czechish Bohemia and Moravia,230.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Servia, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Greece, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Turkey and Egypt, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in India, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in China, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Japan, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Education Act, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="egypt" id="egypt"></a> +Egypt, conditions in, <a href="#Page_245">245-250</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>El Feminismo</i>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Elmy, E. C. Wolstenholme, <a href="#Page_70">70, notes 1 and 2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +England, represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see</i> <a href="#great_britain">Great Britain</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +English Constitution, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Enrooth, Adelaide, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Eudokimoff, Mrs., <a href="#Page_229">229, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /><a name="factory_inspect" id="factory_inspect"></a> +Factory inspectors, women,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Far East, conditions in the, <a href="#Page_245">245-265</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Favre, Miss Nellie, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fawcett, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +February Revolution (1848), <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Federal Child’s Bureau, proposed in the United States, <a href="#Page_18">18 and note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Federation of French Women’s Clubs, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Federation of Labor, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Federn, Elsie, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Féminisme chrétien, le</i>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.<br /> +<br /> +“Feminist Society,” <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fibiger, Matilda, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fickert, Augusta, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fifteenth Amendment, women and the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Finland,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_110">110-116</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Fontaine, Mrs., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fourierists, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +France,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_175">175 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Frauenwohl</i> (magazine), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="fredericka" id="fredericka"></a> +“Frederika Bremer League,” <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> +<br /> +French Revolution, and the woman’s rights movement, <a href="#Page_175">175-178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +French Woman’s Suffrage Society, the, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fries, Ellen, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> +<br /> +“Fronde,” the, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Galicia, conditions in, <a href="#Page_232">232-235</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Galinda, Donna, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gammond, Madame Gatti de, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Garfield, President, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Garrison, William Lloyd, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Geneva, University of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="german_aus" id="german_aus"></a> +German Austria, conditions in, <a href="#Page_158">158 and ff.</a><br /> +<br /> +German Evangelical Woman’s League, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Germanic countries, modern woman’s rights movement in, <a href="#Page_1">1-174</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Germany,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_143">143-145</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Gikycki, Lily v., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Girton College, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Goldmann, (Mrs.) Dr., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Goldschmidt, Henrietta, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Goldstein, Vida, <a href="#Page_49">49, note 1</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gore-Langton, Lady Anne, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gouges, Olympe de, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="great_britain" id="great_britain"></a> +Great Britain,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_58">58 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Greece, conditions in, <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Grimke, Angelina, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Group of Women Students, the, in France, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gruber, Dr. Ludwig, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gyulai, P., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Hainisch, Marianne, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hansteen, Aasta, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Harem, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Harper, Ida Husted, <a href="#Page_23">23, note 2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Harvard University, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hayden, Sophia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hayes, President, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hein, Frau Dr., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Helenius, Trigg, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hertzka, Mrs. Jella, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="herzegov" id="herzegov"></a> +Herzegovina, conditions in, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Herzfelder, Miss, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Heymann, Miss, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hickel, Rosina, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span><br /> +Higinbotham, George, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hill, Octavia, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hirsch-Duncker Trades Union, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>History of Woman’s Suffrage</i>, by Harper and Anthony, <a href="#Page_23">23, note 1</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">referred to, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Holloway College, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br /> +<br /> +House of Commons, attitude toward woman’s suffrage, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Housmann, Lawrence, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hungarian Woman’s Club, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hungary,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_169">169 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Hutchins, Mrs. B. L., <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Ibsen, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Iceland, represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Idaho,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">woman’s suffrage in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">activities and influence of women in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">establishes lectureship in domestic science, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition of women and children in, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Illinois,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and woman’s suffrage, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women jurors in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +India, conditions in, <a href="#Page_252">252-255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Indian Ladies’ Magazine</i>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Inspectors of schools, <i>see</i> <a href="#school_inspectors">School inspectors (women)</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Institute de demoiselles, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> +<br /> +International Council of Women, <a href="#Page_x">x-xii</a>.<br /> +<br /> +International Federation for the Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">headquarters of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Austrian branch of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hungarian branch of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian branch of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Polish branch of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +International Vigilance Society, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="international" id="international"></a> +International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, the, various facts concerning, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ionades, Miss, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Iowa, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ireland, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>; <i>see</i> <a href="#great_britain">Great Britain</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Isle of Man, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Italy,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_196">196-199</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Jackson, Miss, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jacobs, Dr. Aletta, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Japan, conditions in, <a href="#Page_260">260-262</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Java, woman’s suffrage society in, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Johns Hopkins University, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jones, Miss, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="journalists" id="journalists"></a> +Journalists, women,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spain, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +July Revolution (1830), <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Juvenile courts,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advocated in Germany, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Kalapothaki, Marie, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kang You Wei, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kansas,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">municipal woman’s suffrage in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">efforts of women of, to secure full suffrage rights, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Kapnist, Mrs. v., <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Keller, Helen, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kelly, Abby, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kenney, Annie, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kerschbaumer, Dr., <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kettler, Mrs., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Key, Ellen, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span><br /> +Kingsley, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Koran, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Korea, conditions in, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kowalewska, Sonja, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Krajevska, Feodora, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kronauwetter, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kutschalska-Reinschmidt, Mrs., <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kveder, Zofka, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Labriola, Therese, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>La Française</i>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lang, Helena, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lang, Maria, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lascaridis, Miss, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lawrence, Mr. Pethick, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74, note 1</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lawrence, Mrs., Pethick, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="laws_protect" id="laws_protect"></a> +Laws protecting women and children,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52-54</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lack of, in France, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span><br /> +<br /><a name="lawyers" id="lawyers"></a> +Lawyers, women,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_65">54</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">absence of, in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Canada, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Belgium, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in India, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +League for Freedom of Labor Defense, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lee, Mrs. Mary, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lincoln, Abraham, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lindsey, Judge, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lischnewska, Maria, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Listrow, Mrs. v., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Local Self-government Act for England and Wales, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Loeper-Houselle, Marie, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> +<br /> +London, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> +<br /> +London, University of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> +<br /> +London College for Workingwomen, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>London Girls’ Club Union Magazine</i>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lords, House of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Losa, Isabella, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Luxemburg, conditions in, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +McCullock, Mrs. C. Waugh, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> +<br /> +McGee, Miss, <a href="#Page_29">29, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mackenroth, Miss Anna, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> +<br /> +MacLaren, Agnes, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br /> +<br /> +MacLaren, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Maclay, A. v., <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Madame Mère</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mahrenholtz-Bülow, Countess, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Maine, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Maireder, Rosa, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Malinoff, Mrs., <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Manchester, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mariani, Emilia, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mario, Jessie White, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Meath, Countess of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Men’s League for Woman’s Suffrage, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Men’s League Opposing Woman’s Suffrage, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mericourt, Théroīgne de, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mexico, conditions in, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Meyer, Mr. Julius, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Michel, Louise, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mill, John Stuart, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Miller, Paula, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Minnesota, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mohammedan countries, <i>see</i> <a href="#turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="#egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="#persia">Persia</a>,<a href="#bosnia"> Bosnia</a>, and <a href="#herzegov">Herzegovina</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Monod, Miss Sara, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span><br /> +Montessori, Maria, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Monti, Rina, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Moravia, conditions in, <a href="#Page_230">230-232</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Morgenstern, Lina, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Morsier, Emile de, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mothers, school for, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mothers’ congresses, in the United States, <a href="#Page_20">20, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mott, Lucretia, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Münsterberg, Deputy, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Mystery of Woman, The</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Napoleon, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Napoleonic Code, <i>see</i> <a href="#code_napoleon">Code Napoleon</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National American Woman’s Suffrage Association, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National Anti-slavery Society, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National Child Labor Committee, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National Council, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National Council of French Women, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National Council of Women (in Australia), <a href="#Page_47">47, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National Trades Union League, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National Union of Woman’s Suffrage Societies, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National Woman’s Antisuffrage Association, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +National Woman’s Social and Political Union, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nebraska, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Netherlands, the,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +New Hampshire, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Newnham College, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +New York, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +New Zealand, 42, note 2; <i>see</i> <a href="#australia">Australia</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nightingale, Florence, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Night labor, of women, in the United States, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> +<br /> +North America, the cradle of the woman’s rights movement, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Northern states (of the United States), <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Oberlin College, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ohio, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oklahoma, <a href="#Page_21">21, and note 2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Olga, Queen of Greece, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oregon,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">outlook for woman’s suffrage in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">woman’s suffrage amendment (1910) defeated in, <a href="#Page_16">16, note 2</a>; <a href="#Page_22">22, note 2</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to woman’s suffrage in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">failure of woman’s suffrage campaign (1906) in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Orient, the, conditions in, <a href="#Page_245">245-265</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Otto-Peters, Louise, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oxford University, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Panajuta, Miss, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pankhurst, Miss, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pankhurst, Mrs., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pappritz, Anna, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parent, Mrs., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parental authority, <i>see</i> <a href="#children_authority">Children, authority over</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parliament,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">act of, bearing on woman’s suffrage, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">obligation of members of, to the woman’s suffrage movement, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women deputations and, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Parren, Madame Killirhoe, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parsee women, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="patents" id="patents"></a> +Patents, taken out by women in the United States, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Paterson, Mrs., <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Paulus, Erica, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pavlovna, Helene, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pease, Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Perhaps</i> (pamphlet), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span><br /> +Pernerstorfer, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="persia" id="persia"></a> +Persia, conditions in, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Peter the Great, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Petzold, Miss v., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Philosophow, Mrs. v., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> +<br /> +“Physical Force Fallacy, The,” <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Poët, Laidi, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Police matrons, in the United States, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Political Equality League, in Australia, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Political Equality League (Chicago), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<br /> +“Political Equality Series,” <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Popelin, Miss Marie, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Popp, Mrs., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pornography,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prohibited in woman’s suffrage states of the United States, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suppressed in Australia, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Portland, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Portugal, conditions in, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Posada, Professor, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Possauer, Dr., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Poster, F. Laurie, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="preachers" id="preachers"></a> +Preachers, women,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Canada, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +“Primrose League,” <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Prohibition movement,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Progress</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Prostitution, laws concerning,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in woman’s suffrage states, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Denmark, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hungary, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Galicia, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Servia, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in India, <a href="#Page_254">254, note 1</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Purischkewitch, Mr., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Putnam, Mary, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Quakers, in the United States, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Qualification of Women Act, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Qvam, Mrs., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Ramabai, Pundita, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Red Cross Society, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Refia, Princess, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rhode Island, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Richer, Leon, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Riza, Selma, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Robin, E., <a href="#Page_67">67, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Roland, Henrietta, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Roland, Madame, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Romance countries, conditions in, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rookwood pottery, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Roosevelt, Theodore,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and woman’s suffrage, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">calls “Conference on the Care of Dependent Children,” <a href="#Page_18">18, note 1</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">involved in conflict with American women, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Rose, Ernestine, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rosores, Isabel de, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rumania, conditions in, <a href="#Page_242">242-244</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Runeburg, Frederika, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rural Woman’s Industrial Society, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Russia,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_215">215 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Saint Simonians, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="salaries" id="salaries"></a> +Salaries, women’s compared with men’s,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_25">25 and note 1</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in woman’s suffrage states, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_78">78-80</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Canada, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Portugal, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Salic Law, absence of,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Salt Lake City, Utah, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sand, George, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sandhurst, Lady, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Scandinavian countries, conditions in, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schabanoff, Mrs., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schiff, Paoline, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schirmacher, Dr., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schlesinger, Mrs., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schmall, Madame, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schmidt, Augusta, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="school_inspectors" id="school_inspectors"></a> +School inspectors, women,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appointment of, agitated in the United States, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Schütze, E., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schwerin, Jeanette, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schwietland, Mrs., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Scotland, 68; <i>see also</i> <a href="#great_britain">Great Britain</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Seddon, Mrs., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Servia,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Sévigné, Madame de, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sewall, Mrs. Wright, <a href="#Page_xi">xi, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="sex" id="sex"></a> +Sex, the sexes,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relationship of the sexes, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">woman’s use of her sex, as a weapon, <a href="#Page_40">40-42</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Shaw, Rev. Anna Howard,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">challenges Mrs. Humphrey Ward, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Denver elections investigated by, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">president of the National Woman’s Suffrage Association, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a woman’s rights advocate with theological training, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the legal status of woman, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Sheldon, Mrs. French, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Siam, <a href="#Page_255">255, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sie, Tou Fa, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Silberstein, Mr., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Simcox, Miss, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Simpson, Mrs. Anna, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sin, Miss Peng Sie, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Slavic countries, conditions in, <a href="#Page_215">215 and ff.</a><br /> +<br /> +Sloane Garden Houses, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="slovene" id="slovene"></a> +Slovene Woman’s rights movement, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Slovenka</i>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> +<br /> +“Social Purity League,” <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Social secretaries, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Society for Jewish Women, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Society for the Amelioration of the Condition of Woman and for Demanding Woman’s Rights, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Soho Club and Home for Working Girls, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Somersville Hall, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sorabija, Cornelia, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /> +<br /> +South Africa,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span><br /> +South America, conditions in, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> +<br /> +South Dakota, <a href="#Page_16">16 and note 2</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Southern States, conditions in, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spain, conditions in, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sprung, Mrs. v., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stael, Madame de, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stanley, Hon. Maude, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stanton, Elizabeth Cady,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">refused admission to anti-slavery congress, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">introduces woman’s suffrage resolution, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Steyber, Ottilie v., <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stone, Lucy, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stopes, Mrs. C. C., <a href="#Page_62">62, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Strindberg, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stritt, Mrs., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Styria, <i>see</i> <a href="#slovene">Slovene woman’s rights movement</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Suffragettes, English,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of, in the United States, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importance of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tactics, influence, and activities of, <a href="#Page_65">65-70</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">support given to, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Suslowa, Miss, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Suttner, Bertha v., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Swain, Dr. Clara, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sweden,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, 103-110.</span><br /> +<br /> +Switzerland,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_133">133-134</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Tasmania, <i>see</i> <a href="#australia">Australia</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="teachers" id="teachers"></a> +Teachers, women,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Denmark, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hungary, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spain, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Galicia, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Servia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Persia, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Terem</i>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Téry, Audrée, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tessel Benefit Society (<i>Schadeverein</i>), <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thorbecke, Minister, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tilmans, Madame, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tod, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="trade_unions" id="trade_unions"></a> +Trade-unions, women in,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_84">84-88</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Belgium, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Slovene countries, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Trinity College, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Troy Seminary, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tsin King, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tumova, Miss, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="turkey" id="turkey"></a> +Turkey, conditions in, <a href="#Page_245">245-250</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span><br /> +Turmarkin, Dr. Anna, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tuszla, Dolna, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +United States,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions in, <a href="#Page_2">2-42</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#american_women">American Women</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +United States, Constitution of,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves suffrage matters to the various states, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not opposed to woman’s suffrage, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">preamble to, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +United States, women in,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaders in modern woman’s rights movement, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppose slavery, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward negro suffrage, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">methods of obtaining the franchise, <a href="#Page_13">13-15</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Universities, state, in the United States, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Utah,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">woman’s suffrage in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">work of women in, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition of women and children in, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Vambéry, Professor, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vandervelde, Madame, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vassar College, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Veres, Mrs. v., <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Victoria, represented in the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#australia">Australia</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Vooruit, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vorst, Mrs. v., her book referred to, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vos, Roosje, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Votes for Women</i>, English woman’s suffrage organ, referred to, <a href="#Page_62">62, note 1</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Wachtmeister, Countess, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wales, <i>see</i> <a href="#great_britain">Great Britain</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wallis, Professor, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> +<br /> +War of Independence (1774-1783), relation of, to woman’s rights movement, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ward, Mrs. Humphry,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposed to woman’s suffrage, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in debate, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Warren, Ohio, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Warwick, Lady, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Washington, State of, woman’s suffrage secured in, <a href="#Page_16">16, note 1</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22, and note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Webb, Mrs. Sidney, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wenckheim, Baroness, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wendt, Dr, Cecilia, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> +<br /> +West Australia, <i>see</i> <a href="#australia">Australia</a>.<br /> +<br /> +White slave trade,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hungary, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Why does the Working-woman need the Right to Vote?</i> (pamphlet), <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Willard, Frances E., <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wisconsin, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wolfring, v., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wollstonecraft, Mary, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Woman’s Coöperative Gild, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Woman’s Equal Suffrage League (Natal), <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Woman’s Freedom League, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Woman’s Industrial Society, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Woman’s Institute, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Woman’s Journal</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Woman’s rights movement, the modern,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition, leadership in, origins, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">international organization of, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chief demands of, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics, in Germanic and Romance countries compared, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germanic-Protestant countries, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the cradle of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">and American War of Independence, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of, in the United States, <a href="#Page_4">4 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_42">42 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_58">58 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Canada, <a href="#Page_96">96 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in South Africa, <a href="#Page_100">100 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Scandinavian countries, <a href="#Page_103">103 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_126">126 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_133">133 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_144">144 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_158">158 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Europe, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_176">176 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Belgium, <a href="#Page_191">191 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_199">199 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spain, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in South America, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_215">215 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bohemia, <a href="#Page_230">230-232</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Servia, <a href="#Page_236">236-239</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_240">240-242</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Turkey and Egypt, <a href="#Page_247">247-250</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Persia, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in India, <a href="#Page_252">252-255</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in China, <a href="#Page_258">258-260</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Japan, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Korea, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See also</i> <a href="#suffrage_move">woman’s suffrage movement</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Woman’s Rights Movement (periodical), <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, <i>see</i> <a href="#international">International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i> Suffrage in Australia</i> (pamphlet), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Woman’s Suffrage in New Zealand</i>, (pamphlet), <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="suffrage_move" id="suffrage_move"></a> +Woman’s suffrage movement,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">organized internationally, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_2">2-23</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_49">49-58</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#Page_58">58-74</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Canada, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in South Africa, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_114">114-116</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Denmark, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Iceland, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_130">130-133</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_141">141-143</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_153">153-157</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_166">166-169</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hungary, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_188">188 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Belgium, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_202">202 and ff.</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_227">227-229</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Czechish Bohemia and Moravia, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Japan, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Woman’s suffrage states (United States),<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and educational matters, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">women jurors in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">laws concerning women and children in, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Women, <i>see also</i> <a href="#agriculturists">Agriculturists</a>, <a href="#american_women">American women</a>, <a href="#coeducation">Coeducation</a>, <a href="#divorce">Divorce laws</a>, <a href="#doctors">Doctors</a>, <a href="#children_authority">Children (authority over)</a>, <a href="#education">Education</a>, <a href="#factory_inspect">Factory inspectors</a>, <a href="#journalists">Journalists</a>, <a href="#laws_protect">Laws protecting women and children</a>, <a href="#lawyers">Lawyers</a>, <a href="#patents">Patents</a>, <a href="#preachers">Preachers</a>, <a href="#salaries">Salaries</a>, <a href="#sex">Sex</a>, <a href="#teachers">Teachers</a>, <a href="#trade_unions">Trade-unions</a>, <a href="#working">Working-day</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Women in the professions and the industries,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_25">25-36</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_46">46-48</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_77">77-95</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Canada, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_104">104-108</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_111">111-113</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Norway, <a href="#Page_117">117-121</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Denmark, <a href="#Page_123">123-124</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_128">128-131</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_135">135-139</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_147">147-150</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Luxemburg, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hungary, <a href="#Page_171">171-174</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_185">185-187</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Belgium, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_200">200-204</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Portugal, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in South America, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_220">220-226</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Czechish Bohemia and Moravia, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Galicia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Slovene countries, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Servia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Greece, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Persia, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Japan, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Women, legal status of,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in England, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Canada, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sweden, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Finland, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Denmark, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in German Austria, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in France, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Belgium, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Spain, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mexico and Central America, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Russia, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Servia, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">according to the Koran, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in China, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Women’s Charter of Rights and Liberties, the, <a href="#Page_96">96, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Women’s clubs, <i>see under</i> the woman’s rights movement of the various countries.<br /> +<br /> +Women’s colleges,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_75">75-77</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Women’s Enfranchisement League (in Cape Colony), <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Women’s Franchise, the Need of the Hour</i>, <a href="#Page_70">70, note 1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Women’s Liberal Federation, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="working" id="working"></a> +Working-day for women,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the United States, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in woman’s suffrage states, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Australia, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Germany, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Workingwoman’s movement, not antagonistic to woman’s rights movement, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>.<br /> +<br /> +World’s Woman’s Christian Temperance Union,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">formation of, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">facts concerning, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advocates woman’s suffrage, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Worm, Pauline, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Writers’ League, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wu, Fang Lan, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wyoming,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">woman’s suffrage in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">elections in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">legal status of women in, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Yale University, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Young Turkish Woman’s League, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Young Turk movement, women and, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Zenana, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Zetkin, Clara, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> + +<div class="adverts"> +<p class="note">The following pages contain advertisements of Macmillan books of related interest.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">Miss</span> JANE ADDAMS, Hull-House, Chicago</p> +<p><big>The Newer Ideals of Peace</big></p> +<p class="right"><i>12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p> + +<p>“A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as against +the waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of standards that +must ensue when labor and the spirit of militarism are relegated to their +right places in the minds of men.”—<i>Chicago Tribune.</i></p> + +<p>“It is given to but few people to have the rare combination of power of +insight and of interpretation possessed by Miss Addams. The present book +shows the same fresh virile thought, and the happy expression which has +characterized her work ... There is nothing of namby-pamby sentimentalism +in Miss Addams’s idea of the peace movement. The volume is most inspiring +and deserves wide recognition.”—<i>Annals of the American Academy.</i></p> + +<p>“No brief summary can do justice to Miss Addams’s grasp of the facts, her +insight into their meaning, her incisive estimate of the strength and +weakness alike of practical politicians and spasmodic reformers, her +sensible suggestions as to woman’s place in our municipal housekeeping, +her buoyant yet practical optimism.”—<i>Examiner.</i></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><big>Democracy and Social Ethics</big></p> +<p class="right"><i>12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p> + +<p>“Its pages are remarkably—we were about to say refreshingly—free from +the customary academic limitations...; in fact, are the result of actual +experience in hand-to-hand contact with social problems.</p> + +<p>“The result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social +problems ... No more truthful description, for example, of the ‘boss’ as he +thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is contained +in Miss Addams’s chapter on ‘Political Reform.’... The same thing may be +said of the book in regard to the presentation of social and economic +facts.”—<i>Review of Reviews.</i></p> + +<p>“The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent”—<i>Philadelphia Ledger.</i></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><i>An Unusually Interesting Book</i></p> +<p><big>The Book of Woman’s Power</big></p> +<p class="center">With an Introduction by IDA M. TARBELL</p> +<p class="right"><i>Decorated cloth, 16mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35<br /> +Also in limp leather, $1.75 net; by mail, $1.85</i></p> + +<p>“Whether the reader favors votes for women or not, ‘The Book of Woman’s +Power’ will make a particular appeal to all interested in that +subject.”—<i>Ohio State Journal.</i></p> + +<p>“It is a well-made book; the purpose of it is uplifting, and the contents +are certainly of the highest class. It is a book good to read, and full of +instruction for every one who wishes to pursue this theme.”—<i>Salt Lake +Tribune.</i></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Miss</span> MOLLY ELLIOT SEAWELL’S</p> +<p><big>The Ladies’ Battle</big></p> +<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net; by mail $1.10</i></p> + +<p>“Her reasoning is clear and the arguments she presents are forcibly put +... a racy little book, logical and convincing.”—<i>Boston Globe.</i></p> + +<p>“The book is one which every woman, whatever her views, ought to read. It +has no dull pages.”—<i>Record-Herald, Chicago.</i></p> + +<p>“Miss Seawell treats a subject of universal interest soberly and +intelligently. She deserves to be widely read.”—<i>Boston Daily +Advertiser.</i></p> + +<p>“The clearest and the most thorough little treatise on the theme of woman +suffrage.”—<i>Chicago Inter-Ocean.</i></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><big>Wage-Earning Women</big></p> +<p class="center">By ANNIE MARION <span class="smcap">MacLEAN</span><br />Professor of Sociology in Adelphi College.</p> +<p class="right"><i>Cloth, leather back, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail $1.35</i></p> + +<p>“The chapters give glimpses of women wage-earners as they toil in +different parts of the country. The author visited the shoeshops, and the +paper, cotton, and woollen mills of New England, the department stores of +Chicago, the garment-makers’ homes in New York, the silk mills and +potteries of New Jersey, the fruit farms of California, the coal fields of +Pennsylvania, and the hop industries of Oregon. The author calls for +legislation regardless of constitutional quibble, for a shorter work-day, +a higher wage, the establishment of residential clubs, the closer +coöperation between existing organizations for industrial +betterment.”—<i>Boston Advertiser.</i></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><big>Making Both Ends Meet: The Income and Outlay of New York Working Girls</big></p> +<p class="center">By SUE AINSLIE CLARK AND EDITH WYATT</p> +<p class="right"><i>Illustrated, cloth, gilt top, 12mo, 270 pp., $1.50 net; by mail, $1.60</i></p> + +<p>“Gives a vivid picture of the way the ‘other half’ lives, the half that is +ground down by overwork, lack of home comfort and of recreation. So +powerful are the facts presented that the very simplicity of their +narration rouses the reader to the desperate need of safeguarding the girl +workers in our cities against exhausting mental and physical +demands.”—<i>Continent.</i></p> + +<p>“The point of view of the book is constructive throughout, and it is safe +to say that it will be for a long time, both for the practical worker and +for the scientific student, the authoritative work in this +field.”—<i>Detroit News.</i></p> + +<p>“It is a recital of facts that makes one’s heart and soul shrink up and +grow small for pity and helplessness to help.”—<i>Lexington Herald.</i></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><big>Some Ethical Gains through Legislation</big></p> +<p class="center">By FLORENCE KELLEY<br />Secretary of the National Consumers’ League.</p> +<p class="right"><i>Cloth, leather back, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35</i></p> + +<p>This interesting volume has grown out of the author’s experience in +philanthropic work in Chicago and New York, and her service for the State +of Illinois and for the Federal Government in investigating the +circumstances of the poorer classes, and conditions in various trades.</p> + +<p>The value of the work lies in information gathered at close range in a +long association with, and effort to improve the condition of, the very +poor.</p> + +<p>The author is not only a lawyer of large experience in Chicago, but has +served that city, the State of Illinois, and the Federal Government in +many investigations of conditions among various trades, and in reference +to the circumstances of the poorer classes.</p> + +<p>Among the topics here treated are:</p> + +<p class="note">The Right to Childhood.<br /> +Interpretations of the Right to Leisure.<br /> +The Right of Women to the Ballot.<br /> +The Rights of Purchasers and the Courts.</p> + +<p> </p> +<p><big>The Women of America</big></p> +<p class="center">By ELIZABETH McCRACKEN</p> +<p class="right"><i>Cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net; by mail, $1.61</i></p> + +<p>“A work the immediate need of which is felt everywhere. It treats of the +American woman’s economic condition and of women workers in various +fields. It can be recommended to every one who is interested in the grave +problems involved by the new and untoward conditions of women’s +work.”—<i>N. Y. Evening Sun.</i></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> +Publishers<span class="spacer"> </span>64-66 Fifth Avenue<span class="spacer"> </span>New York</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><b>Footnotes:</b></p> + +<p><a name="f1" id="f1" href="#f1.1">[1]</a> I have discussed the theoretical side in a pamphlet of “The German +Public Utility Association” (<i>Deutscher Gemeinnütziger Verein</i>), Prague, +1918 Palackykai.</p> + +<p><a name="f2" id="f2" href="#f2.1">[2]</a> The presiding officers of the International Council to the present +time were: Mrs. Wright Sewall and Lady Aberdeen. This year, June, 1909, +Lady Aberdeen was reëlected.</p> + +<p><a name="f3" id="f3" href="#f3.1">[3]</a> The report of the International Woman’s Suffrage Congress, London, +May, 1909, had not yet appeared, and the reader is therefore referred to +it.</p> + +<p><a name="f4" id="f4" href="#f4.1">[4]</a> Their inferiority in numbers (in Australia and in the western states +of the United States) has, however, often served their cause in just the +same way.</p> + +<p><a name="f5" id="f5" href="#f5.1">[5]</a> “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be +denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of +race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”</p> + +<p><a name="f6" id="f6" href="#f6.1">[6]</a> Composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate.</p> + +<p><a name="f7" id="f7" href="#f7.1">[7]</a> In many states by two consecutive legislatures.</p> + +<p><a name="f8" id="f8" href="#f8.1">[8]</a> On November 8, 1910, an amendment providing for woman’s suffrage was +adopted by the voters of Washington. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f9" id="f9" href="#f9.1">[9]</a> On November 8, 1910, both South Dakota and Oregon rejected amendments +providing for woman’s suffrage. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f10" id="f10" href="#f10.1">[10]</a> In October, 1911, California adopted woman’s suffrage by popular vote. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f11" id="f11" href="#f11.1">[11]</a> This “Conference on the Care of Dependent Children” was called by +President Roosevelt, and met, January 25 and 26, 1909, in the White House. +Two hundred and twenty men and women,—experts in the care of children, +from every state in the Union,—met, and proposed, among other things, the +establishment of a Federal Child’s Bureau. Thus far Congress has done +nothing to carry out the proposal. (<i>Charities and the Commons</i>, Vol. XXI, +643, 644; 766-768; 968-990.) [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f12" id="f12" href="#f12.1">[12]</a> The “mothers” hold special congresses in the United States to discuss +educational and public questions. (Mothers’ Congresses.)</p> + +<p><a name="f13" id="f13" href="#f13.1">[13]</a> Here universal male suffrage is meant. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f14" id="f14" href="#f14.1">[14]</a> In November, 1910, an amendment in favor of woman’s suffrage was +defeated by a referendum vote in Oklahoma. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f15" id="f15" href="#f15.1">[15]</a> The amendment passed the Senate and was adopted in November, 1910, by +popular vote. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f16" id="f16" href="#f16.1">[16]</a> In November, 1910, a woman’s suffrage amendment was again defeated, +as was the amendment prohibiting the sale of liquor. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f17" id="f17" href="#f17.1">[17]</a> In November, 1910, four women were elected to the House of +Representatives of the Colorado legislature. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f18" id="f18" href="#f18.1">[18]</a> Mrs. Ida Husted Harper, in collaboration with Susan B. Anthony, has +written a <i>History of W Suffrage</i> which deals with the subject so +far as the United States are concerned. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f19" id="f19" href="#f19.1">[19]</a> Equal pay has been established by law in the states having woman’s +suffrage.</p> + +<p><a name="f20" id="f20" href="#f20.1">[20]</a> It is worth mentioning that in the Spanish-American War Miss McGee +filled the position of assistant surgeon in the medical department, doing +so with distinction.</p> + +<p><a name="f21" id="f21" href="#f21.1">[21]</a> A. v. Máday, <i>Le droit des femmes au travail</i>, Paris, Giardet et +Briere.</p> + +<p><a name="f22" id="f22" href="#f22.1">[22]</a> In her book, <i>L’ouvrière aux États-Unis</i>, Paris, Juven, 1904.</p> + +<p><a name="f23" id="f23" href="#f23.1">[23]</a> Those who cannot pay an annual tax of two dollars.</p> + +<p><a name="f24" id="f24" href="#f24.1">[24]</a> In <i>L’ouvrière aux États-Unis</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f25" id="f25" href="#f25.1">[25]</a> The organ of the National American Woman’s Suffrage Association is +<i>Progress</i> and is published in Warren, Ohio. There, one can also secure +<i>Perhaps</i> and <i>Do you Know</i>, two valuable propaganda pamphlets written by +Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt. Other literature on woman’s suffrage can be +obtained from the same source.</p> + +<p><a name="f26" id="f26" href="#f26.1">[26]</a> Although New Zealand is not politically a part of the Australian +Federation, it will for convenience be treated here as such.</p> + +<p><a name="f27" id="f27" href="#f27.1">[27]</a> The theological degrees are granted only in England.</p> + +<p><a name="f28" id="f28" href="#f28.1">[28]</a> Report of the International Woman’s Suffrage Conference, Washington, +1902.</p> + +<p><a name="f29" id="f29" href="#f29.1">[29]</a> Report of the National Council of Women, 1908.</p> + +<p><a name="f30" id="f30" href="#f30.1">[30]</a> <i>Woman Suffrage in Australia</i>, by Vida Goldstein.</p> + +<p><a name="f31" id="f31" href="#f31.1">[31]</a> Both published in Rotterdam, 92 Kruiskade, International Woman’s +Suffrage Alliance.</p> + +<p><a name="f32" id="f32" href="#f32.1">[32]</a> Consult Helen Blackburn, <i>History of Woman’s Suffrage in England</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f33" id="f33" href="#f33.1">[33]</a> See the excellent little work of Mrs. C. C. Stopes, “The Sphere of +‘Man’ in the British Constitution,” <i>Votes for Women</i>, London, 4 Clement’s +Inn.</p> + +<p><a name="f34" id="f34" href="#f34.1">[34]</a> In the Irish Sea, between Ireland and Scotland, having a population +of 29,272 women and 25,486 men.</p> + +<p><a name="f35" id="f35" href="#f35.1">[35]</a> 4 Clement’s Inn, Strand, London, W.C.</p> + +<p><a name="f36" id="f36" href="#f36.1">[36]</a> See E. Robin’s novel, <i>The Convert</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f37" id="f37" href="#f37.1">[37]</a> By Lawrence Housman, Feb. 11, 18, and 26, 1909.</p> + +<p><a name="f38" id="f38" href="#f38.1">[38]</a> See E. C. Wolstenholme Elmy, <i>Women’s Franchise, the Need of the +Hour</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f39" id="f39" href="#f39.1">[39]</a> Wolstenholme Elmy, <i>ibid.</i></p> + +<p><a name="f40" id="f40" href="#f40.1">[40]</a> This right is possessed by women in Scotland and Ireland also.</p> + +<p><a name="f41" id="f41" href="#f41.1">[41]</a> This is in direct conflict with the statute (13 Vict., c. 21, sec. 4) +providing that women enjoy all those rights from which they are not +expressly excluded.</p> + +<p><a name="f42" id="f42" href="#f42.1">[42]</a> London, like other capital cities, is regulated by a separate set of +laws.</p> + +<p><a name="f43" id="f43" href="#f43.1">[43]</a> Applying to England and Wales.</p> + +<p><a name="f44" id="f44" href="#f44.1">[44]</a> The right to vote is a condition necessary for the holding of office.</p> + +<p><a name="f45" id="f45" href="#f45.1">[45]</a> See the Married Women’s Property Acts of 1870 and 1883.</p> + +<p><a name="f46" id="f46" href="#f46.1">[46]</a> See the article by Mr. Pethick Lawrence in <i>Votes for Women</i>, March +3, 1909.</p> + +<p><a name="f47" id="f47" href="#f47.1">[47]</a> London, S.W., 92 Victoria Street.</p> + +<p><a name="f48" id="f48" href="#f48.1">[48]</a> Valuable information concerning women in the industries is given in +the programme of April 4, 1909, of the London Congress of the +International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance.</p> + +<p><a name="f49" id="f49" href="#f49.1">[49]</a> Ansiaux, <i>La réglementation du travail des femmes</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f50" id="f50" href="#f50.1">[50]</a> See Mrs. Pethick Lawrence, “Women and Administration,” <i>Votes for +Women</i>, March 12, 1909.</p> + +<p><a name="f51" id="f51" href="#f51.1">[51]</a> See the article of Alice Salmon, <i>Zentralblatt</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f52" id="f52" href="#f52.1">[52]</a> For a survey of English conditions affecting women we recommend <i>The +Women’s Charter of Rights and Liberties</i>, by Lady McLaren, 1909, London.</p> + +<p><a name="f53" id="f53" href="#f53.1">[53]</a> In Canada there are municipal elections, provincial parliamentary +elections, and elections for the Dominion Parliament.</p> + +<p><a name="f54" id="f54" href="#f54.1">[54]</a> See the Report of the Woman’s Suffrage Alliance Congress, Amsterdam, +1908.</p> + +<p><a name="f55" id="f55" href="#f55.1">[55]</a> See the Report of the International Women’s Suffrage Alliance, +Amsterdam, 1908.</p> + +<p><a name="f56" id="f56" href="#f56.1">[56]</a> The last two arguments are easily refuted.</p> + +<p><a name="f57" id="f57" href="#f57.1">[57]</a> Woman never reaches her majority; she must always have a male +representative.</p> + +<p><a name="f58" id="f58" href="#f58.1">[58]</a> The husband still remains the guardian of the wife. To-day the wife +controls her personal earnings, but merely as long as they are in cash; +whatever she <i>buys</i> with them falls into the control of the husband.</p> + +<p><a name="f59" id="f59" href="#f59.1">[59]</a> See the Report of the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance +Congress, Amsterdam, 1908.</p> + +<p><a name="f60" id="f60" href="#f60.1">[60]</a> See the supplement, “Opposed to Alcoholism,” in <i>One People, One +School</i>, for April, 1909.</p> + +<p><a name="f61" id="f61" href="#f61.1">[61]</a> A <i>Realschule</i> teaches no classics, but is a scientific school +emphasizing manual training. A <i>Gymnasium</i> prepares for the university, +making the classics an essential part of the curriculum. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f62" id="f62" href="#f62.1">[62]</a> By Vera Hillt, <i>Statistics of Labor</i>, VI, Helsingfors, 1908.</p> + +<p><a name="f63" id="f63" href="#f63.1">[63]</a> See the complete list of measures in <i>Jus Suffragi</i>, September 15, +1908. This is the organ of the International Woman’s Suffrage Alliance.</p> + +<p><a name="f64" id="f64" href="#f64.1">[64]</a> In 1904 women were declared eligible by an official ordinance to hold +university offices.</p> + +<p><a name="f65" id="f65" href="#f65.1">[65]</a> It might be well to mention <i>Dansk Kvindesamfund, Politisk +Kvindeforening, Landsforbund, Valgretsforeningen of 1908</i> (a Christian +association of men and women).</p> + +<p><a name="f66" id="f66" href="#f66.1">[66]</a> Compare similar proceedings in the United States and England.</p> + +<p><a name="f67" id="f67" href="#f67.1">[67]</a> Since Switzerland contains a preponderance of the Germanic element, +it will be considered with the Germanic countries.</p> + +<p><a name="f68" id="f68" href="#f68.1">[68]</a> In Geneva and Lausanne the men exerted every effort to exclude women +from the typographical trade. The prohibition of night work made this +easy. The same result will follow in the railroad and postal service. +Therefore in the Swiss woman’s rights movement there are some that are +opposed to laws for the protection of women laborers.</p> + +<p><a name="f69" id="f69" href="#f69.1">[69]</a> Industrial training was promoted chiefly by the “Lette-House,” +founded in Berlin in 1865 by President Lette and his wife.</p> + +<p><a name="f70" id="f70" href="#f70.1">[70]</a> In Germany there are one million domestic servants.</p> + +<p><a name="f71" id="f71" href="#f71.1">[71]</a> For information concerning the German woman’s rights movement we +recommend <i>The Memorandum-book of the Woman’s Rights Movement</i> (<i>Das +Merkbuch der Frauenbewegung</i>), B. G. Teubner, Leipzig.</p> + +<p><a name="f72" id="f72" href="#f72.1">[72]</a> A body having advisory powers in matters relating to the medical +profession and to sanitary measures. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f73" id="f73" href="#f73.1">[73]</a> The question was decided by the administrative court in <i>one</i> special +case. Compare the case of Jacobs, Amsterdam.</p> + +<p><a name="f74" id="f74" href="#f74.1">[74]</a> See <i>Dokumente der Frauen</i> (<i>Documents concerning Women</i>); November +15, 1899.</p> + +<p><a name="f75" id="f75" href="#f75.1">[75]</a> The German system of stenography. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f76" id="f76" href="#f76.1">[76]</a> See the resolutions of the party sessions in Graz, 1900; in Vienna, +1903; and of the first, second, and third conferences of the International +Woman’s Suffrage Alliance, in 1904, 1906, and 1908.</p> + +<p><a name="f77" id="f77" href="#f77.1">[77]</a> Except in Illyria, Carinthia, and Lower Austria.</p> + +<p><a name="f78" id="f78" href="#f78.1">[78]</a> For political and practical reasons Hungary will be discussed at this +point.</p> + +<p><a name="f79" id="f79" href="#f79.1">[79]</a> <i>Dokumente der Frauen</i>, June 1, 1901.</p> + +<p><a name="f80" id="f80" href="#f80.1">[80]</a> The proposed law grants the suffrage even to male illiterates.</p> + +<p><a name="f81" id="f81" href="#f81.1">[81]</a> Later the Code Napoleon infected other countries, but such horrors +originated spontaneously nowhere else.</p> + +<p><a name="f82" id="f82" href="#f82.1">[82]</a> In the years 1848, 1851, 1871, 1874, 1882, 1885.</p> + +<p><a name="f83" id="f83" href="#f83.1">[83]</a> See the resolutions of the two women’s congresses, Paris, 1900.</p> + +<p><a name="f84" id="f84" href="#f84.1">[84]</a> <i>Le mouvement féministe</i>, Countess Marie de Villermont.</p> + +<p><a name="f85" id="f85" href="#f85.1">[85]</a> <i>Le féminisme</i>, Emile Ollivier.</p> + +<p><a name="f86" id="f86" href="#f86.1">[86]</a> Miss Chauvin made a similar request of the French Chamber of +Deputies; as we have seen, her request was granted. Dr. Popelin did not +make her request of the Belgian Chamber of Deputies, which had not a +Republican majority. Dr. Popelin may have considered such a step hopeless.</p> + +<p><a name="f87" id="f87" href="#f87.1">[87]</a> Since 1899 special socialistic workingwomen’s congresses have been +held.</p> + +<p><a name="f88" id="f88" href="#f88.1">[88]</a> See the action of the Socialists in Sweden and in Hungary.</p> + +<p><a name="f89" id="f89" href="#f89.1">[89]</a> Else Hasse, <i>Neue Bahnen</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f90" id="f90" href="#f90.1">[90]</a> The recognized gallant of a married woman. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f91" id="f91" href="#f91.1">[91]</a> Marianne Weber, <i>Zentralblatt</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f92" id="f92" href="#f92.1">[92]</a> But only the enlightened clergy—those living in Rome—consent to the +higher education of girls.</p> + +<p><a name="f93" id="f93" href="#f93.1">[93]</a> <i>Dokumente der Frauen</i>, June 1, 1901.</p> + +<p><a name="f94" id="f94" href="#f94.1">[94]</a> See Stanton, <i>The Woman’s Rights Movement in Europe</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f95" id="f95" href="#f95.1">[95]</a> <i>El Feminismo</i>, 1899.</p> + +<p><a name="f96" id="f96" href="#f96.1">[96]</a> See the Report of the International Suffrage Congress, Washington, 1902.</p> + +<p><a name="f97" id="f97" href="#f97.1">[97]</a> See the Report of the International Suffrage Congress, Washington, +1902.</p> + +<p><a name="f98" id="f98" href="#f98.1">[98]</a> This has just been organized.</p> + +<p><a name="f99" id="f99" href="#f99.1">[99]</a> The following statistics are significant: Between January 1 and July +1, 1908, Russia showed an increase in the consumption of alcoholic +liquors. The total amount of spirits consumed was 40,887,509 <i>vedros</i> (1 +<i>vedro</i> is 3.25 gallons), which is an increase of 600,185 <i>vedros</i> over +the amount consumed during the same months of the preceding year. These +figures correspond also to the government’s income from its monopoly on +spirits; this was 327,795,312 rubles (a ruble is worth 51.5 cents), an +increase of 3,745,836 rubles over the same months of the preceding year.</p> + +<p><a name="f100" id="f100" href="#f100.1">[100]</a> See the very interesting article <i>Frauenbewegung</i> (<i>The Woman’s +Rights Movement</i>), by Berta Kes, Moscow.</p> + +<p><a name="f101" id="f101" href="#f101.1">[101]</a> See Berta Kes, <i>Frauenbewegung</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f102" id="f102" href="#f102.1">[102]</a> See <i>Documents Concerning Women</i> (<i>Dokumente der Frauen</i>), April 15, +1900.</p> + +<p><a name="f103" id="f103" href="#f103.1">[103]</a> I am indebted to Mrs. Eudokimoff, of St. Petersburg, for an English +translation of the resolutions, the address of the Lord Mayor, and the +proceedings against the deputy of the Duma; also for a biography of Mrs. +v. Philosophow.</p> + +<p><a name="f104" id="f104" href="#f104.1">[104]</a> Springtime.</p> + +<p><a name="f105" id="f105" href="#f105.1">[105]</a> A doctor employed by a workingmen’s association. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f106" id="f106" href="#f106.1">[106]</a> Dr. Schirmacher treats Russian Poland here with Galicia, which is +Austrian Poland. [Tr.]</p> + +<p><a name="f107" id="f107" href="#f107.1">[107]</a> <i>Dokumente der Frauen</i>, November, 15, 1901.</p> + +<p><a name="f108" id="f108" href="#f108.1">[108]</a> Greek conditions are analogous to conditions prevailing in Slavic +countries; hence Greece will be treated here. Greece was liberated from +Turkish control in 1827.</p> + +<p><a name="f109" id="f109" href="#f109.1">[109]</a> There are elementary schools for boys and girls. The secondary +schools for girls are private. The first of these was founded by Dr. Hill +and his wife, who were Americans. Preparation for entrance to the +university is optional and is carried on privately. Athens University has +admitted women since 1891.</p> + +<p><a name="f110" id="f110" href="#f110.1">[110]</a> The English have abolished slavery in Egypt.</p> + +<p><a name="f111" id="f111" href="#f111.1">[111]</a> See <i>Conseil des Femmes</i>, October, 1902, for the romantic +“Désenchantées” of P. Loti, and Hussein Rachimi’s “Verliebter Bey.”</p> + +<p><a name="f112" id="f112" href="#f112.1">[112]</a> Compare <i>La crise de l’orient</i>, by Ahmed Riza.</p> + +<p><a name="f113" id="f113" href="#f113.1">[113]</a> See the analogous action of the English in India.</p> + +<p><a name="f114" id="f114" href="#f114.1">[114]</a> Report of the International Suffrage Congress, Washington, 1902.</p> + +<p><a name="f115" id="f115" href="#f115.1">[115]</a></p> + +<p class="poem"><i>Mag der Baum wohl wachsen in dem Walde,<br /> +Aber keine Tochter mir geboren werden.</i></p> + +<p><a name="f116" id="f116" href="#f116.1">[116]</a> India still retains the official regulation of prostitution (which +was abolished in England in 1886). Here again, militarism is playing a +decisive part in blocking this reform.</p> + +<p><a name="f117" id="f117" href="#f117.1">[117]</a> In Bangkok, in Farther India (Siam), there is a woman’s club with +the Siamese Princess as President.</p> + +<p><a name="f118" id="f118" href="#f118.1">[118]</a> Report of the International Suffrage Conference, Washington, 1902.</p> + +<p><a name="f119" id="f119" href="#f119.1">[119]</a> “<i>Le Chinois admet la supériorité, avec toutes ses conséquences, dès +qu’il la constate, qu’elle se révèle chez un homme ou chez une femme.</i>”</p> + +<p><a name="f120" id="f120" href="#f120.1">[120]</a> Report of the International Suffrage Conference, Washington, 1902.</p> + +<p><a name="f121" id="f121" href="#f121.1">[121]</a> The University of Tokio is still closed to women. Women attend the +Woman’s University, founded in 1901 by N. Naruse.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></p> + +<p>Punctuation has been corrected without note.</p> + +<p>Other than the corrections noted by hover information, inconsistencies in +spelling and hyphenation have been retained from the original.</p> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Modern Woman's Rights Movement, by +Kaethe Schirmacher + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT *** + +***** This file should be named 33700-h.htm or 33700-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/7/0/33700/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/33700-h/images/publisher.png b/33700-h/images/publisher.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1ba3803 --- /dev/null +++ b/33700-h/images/publisher.png diff --git a/33700.txt b/33700.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..89e0f4c --- /dev/null +++ b/33700.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8660 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Modern Woman's Rights Movement, by Kaethe Schirmacher + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Modern Woman's Rights Movement + A Historical Survey + +Author: Kaethe Schirmacher + +Translator: Carl Conrad Eckhardt + +Release Date: September 10, 2010 [EBook #33700] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT + + + + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO + SAN FRANCISCO + + MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED + LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA + MELBOURNE + + THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. + TORONTO + + + + + THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT + + _A HISTORICAL SURVEY_ + + + BY DR. KAETHE SCHIRMACHER + + + TRANSLATED FROM THE + SECOND GERMAN EDITION + BY CARL CONRAD ECKHARDT, PH.D. + INSTRUCTOR IN HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO + + + New York + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + 1912 + _All rights reserved_ + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1912, + BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. + + Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1912. + + Norwood Press + J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. + Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. + + + + + "Unterdrueckung ist gegen die menschliche Natur" + + "Oppression is opposed to human nature" + + + + +TRANSLATOR'S NOTE + + +Hitherto there has been no English book giving a history of the woman's +rights movement in all countries of the world. English and American +readers will therefore welcome the appearance of an English edition of Dr. +Schirmacher's "Die moderne Frauenbewegung." Since Dr. Schirmacher is a +German woman's rights advocate, actively engaged in propaganda, her book +is not merely a history, but a political pamphlet as well. Although the +reader may at times disagree with the authoress, he will be interested in +her point of view. + +In the chapter on the United States I have added, with Dr. Schirmacher's +consent, a number of translator's footnotes, showing what bearings the +elections of November, 1910, and October, 1911, have had on the woman's +rights question. An index, also, has been added. + + BOULDER, COLORADO, + November, 1911. + + + + +PREFACE + + +The first edition of this book appeared in 1905. That edition is +exhausted,--an evidence of the great present-day interest in the woman's +rights movement. This new edition takes into account the developments +since 1905, contains the recent statistical data, and gives an account of +the woman's suffrage movement which has been especially characteristic of +these later years. Wherever the statistical data have been left unchanged, +either there have been no new censuses or the new results were not +available. + +The facts contained in this volume do not require of me any prefatory +observations on the theoretical justification of the woman's rights +movement.[1] From the remotest time man has tried to rule her who ought to +be comrade and colleague to him. By virtue of the law of might he +generally succeeded. Every protest against this law of might was a +"woman's rights movement." + +History contains many such protests. The _modern_ woman's rights movement +is the first organized and international protest of this kind. Therefore +it is a movement full of success and promise. Leadership in this movement +has fallen to the women of the Caucasian race, among whom the women of the +United States have been foremost. At their instigation were formed the +World's Christian Temperance Union, the International Council of Women, +and the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +In many lands, even in those inhabited by the white race, there are, +however, only very feeble beginnings of the woman's rights movement. In +the Orient, the Far East, and in Africa, woman's condition of bondage is +still almost entirely unbroken. Nevertheless, in these regions of the +world, too, woman's day is dawning in such a way that we look for +developments more confidently than ever before. + +In all countries the woman's rights movement originated with the middle +classes. This is a purely historical fact which in itself in no way +implies any antagonism between the woman's rights movement and the +workingwomen's movement. There is no such antagonism either in Australia, +or in England, or in the United States. On the contrary, the middle class +and non-middle class movements are sharply separated in those countries +whose social democracy uses class-hatred as propaganda. Whether the +woman's rights movement is also a workingwomen's movement, or whether the +workingwomen's movement is also a woman's rights movement or socialism, +depends therefore in every particular case on national and historical +circumstances. + +The international organization of the woman's rights movement is as +follows: the International Council of Women consists of the presiding +officers of the various National Councils of Women. Of these latter there +are to-day twenty-seven; but the Servian League of Woman's Clubs has not +yet joined.[2] To a National Council may belong all those woman's clubs of +a country which unite in carrying out a certain general programme. The +programmes as well as the organizations are national in their nature, but +they all agree in their general characteristics, since the woman's rights +movement is indeed an international movement and arose in all countries +from the same general conditions. The first National Council was organized +in the United States in 1888. This was followed by organizations in +Canada, Germany, Sweden, England, Denmark, the Netherlands, Australia +(with five councils), Switzerland, Italy, France, Austria, Norway, +Hungary, etc. + +As yet there are no statistics of the women represented in the +International Council. Its membership is estimated at seven or eight +millions. The National Council admits only clubs,--not individuals,--the +chairmen of the various National Councils forming the International +Council of Women solely in their capacity of presiding officers. + +This International Council of Women is the permanent body promoting the +organized international woman's rights movement. It was organized in +Washington in 1888. + +The woman's suffrage movement, a separate phase of the woman's rights +movement, has likewise organized itself internationally,--though +independently. Woman's suffrage is the most radical demand made by +organized women, and is hence advocated in all countries by the "radical" +woman's rights advocates. The greater part of the membership of the +National Councils have therefore not been able in all cases to insert +woman's suffrage in their programmes. The International Council did +sanction this point, however, June 9, 1904, in Berlin. + +A few days previously there had been organized as the International +Woman's Suffrage Alliance, likewise in Berlin, woman's suffrage leagues +representing eight different countries. The leagues which joined the +Alliance represented the United States, Victoria, England, Germany, +Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Since then the woman's +suffrage movement has been the most flourishing part of the woman's rights +movement. The International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, which was pledged +to hold a second congress only at the end of five years, has already held +three congresses between 1905 and 1909 (1906, Copenhagen; 1908, Amsterdam; +1909, London), and has extended its membership to twenty-one countries +(the United States, Australia, South Africa, Canada, Great Britain, +Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, Russia, +Hungary, Austria, Bulgaria, Italy, Switzerland, France, Belgium, Servia, +and Iceland). The first president is Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt. + +The chief demands of the woman's rights movement are the same in all +countries. These demands are four in number. + +1. In the field of education and instruction: to enjoy the same +educational opportunities as those of man. + +2. In the field of labor: freedom to choose any occupation, and equal pay +for the same work. + +3. In the field of civil law: the wife should be given the full status of +a legal person before the law, and full civil ability. In criminal law: +the repeal of all regulations discriminating against women. The legal +responsibility of man in sexual matters. In public law: woman's suffrage. + +4. In the social field: recognition of the high value of woman's domestic +and social work, and the incompleteness, harshness, and one-sidedness of +every circle of man's activity (_Maennerwelt_) from which woman is +excluded. + +A just and happy relationship of the sexes is dependent upon mutuality, +coordination, and the complementary relations of man and woman,--not upon +the subordination of woman and the predominance of man. Woman, in her +peculiar sphere, is entirely the equal of man in his. The origin of the +international woman's rights movement is found in the world-wide disregard +of this elementary truth. + +The subject which I have treated in this book is a very broad one, the +material much scattered and daily changing. It is therefore hardly +possible that my statements should not have deficiencies on the one hand, +and errors on the other. I shall indeed welcome any corrections and +authoritative information of a supplementary nature.[3] + +THE AUTHORESS. + +PARIS, JUNE 3, 1909. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + TRANSLATOR'S NOTE vii + + PREFACE ix-xiv + + + I. THE GERMANIC COUNTRIES + THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 2 + AUSTRALIA 42 + GREAT BRITAIN 58 + CANADA 96 + SOUTH AFRICA 100 + THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES 101-126 + SWEDEN 103 + FINLAND 110 + NORWAY 116 + DENMARK 122 + THE NETHERLANDS 126 + SWITZERLAND 133 + GERMANY 143 + LUXEMBURG 157 + GERMAN AUSTRIA 158 + HUNGARY 169 + + II. THE ROMANCE COUNTRIES + FRANCE 175 + BELGIUM 190 + ITALY 196 + SPAIN 206 + PORTUGAL 211 + THE LATIN-AMERICAN REPUBLICS OF CENTRAL + AND SOUTH AMERICA 212 + + III. THE SLAVIC AND BALKAN STATES + RUSSIA 215 + CZECHISH BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA 230 + GALICIA 232 + THE SLOVENE WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT 235 + SERVIA 236 + BULGARIA 239 + RUMANIA 242 + GREECE 242 + + IV. THE ORIENT AND THE FAR EAST + TURKEY AND EGYPT 245 + BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 250 + PERSIA 251 + INDIA 252 + CHINA 256 + JAPAN AND KOREA 260 + + CONCLUSION 263 + + INDEX 267 + + + + +THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE GERMANIC COUNTRIES + + +The woman's rights movement is more strongly organized and has penetrated +society more thoroughly in all the Germanic countries than in the Romance +countries. There are many causes for this: woman's greater freedom of +activity in the Germanic countries; the predominance of the Protestant +religion, which does not oppose the demands of the woman's rights movement +with the same united organization as does the Catholic Church; the more +vigorous training in self-reliance and responsibility which is customarily +given to women in Germanic-Protestant countries; the more significant +superiority in numbers of women in Germanic countries, which has forced +women to adopt business or professional callings other than domestic.[4] +The woman's rights movement in the Germanic-Protestant countries has been +promoted by _moral_ and _economic_ factors. + + +THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA + + Total population: 91,972,267. + Women: about 45,000,000. + Men: about 47,000,000. + + The General Federation of Women's Clubs. + The National American Woman's Suffrage Association. + +North America is the cradle of the woman's rights movement. It was the War +of Independence of the colonies against England (1774-1783) that matured +the woman's rights movement. In the name of "freedom" our cause entered +the history of the world. + +In these troubled times the American women had by energetic activities and +unyielding suffering entirely fulfilled their duty as citizens, and at the +Convention in Philadelphia, in 1787, they demanded as citizens the right +to vote. The Constitution of the United States was being drawn up at that +time, and by 1789 had been ratified by the thirteen states then existing. +In nine of these states (Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, New +Jersey, North and South Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island) the +right to vote in municipal and state affairs had hitherto been exercised +by all "free-born citizens" or all "taxpayers" and "heads of families," +the state constitutions being based on the principle: _no taxation without +representation_. + +Among these "free-born citizens," "taxpayers," and "heads of families" +there were naturally many women who were consequently both voters and +active citizens. So woman's right to vote in the above-named states was +practically established _before_ 1783. Only the states of Virginia and New +York had restricted the suffrage to males in 1699 and 1777, Massachusetts +and New Hampshire following their example in 1780 and 1784. + +In view of this retrograde movement American women attempted at the +Convention in Philadelphia to secure a recognition of their civil rights +through the Constitution of the whole federation of states. But the +Convention refused this request; just as before, it left the conditions of +suffrage to be determined by the individual states. To be sure, in the +draft of the Constitution the Convention _in no way opposed_ woman's +suffrage. But the nine states which formerly, as colonies, had practically +given women the right to vote, had in the meantime abrogated this right +through the insertion of the word "man" in their election laws, and the +first attempt of the American women to secure an expressed constitutional +recognition of their rights as citizens failed. + +These proceedings gave to the woman's rights movement of the United States +a political character from the very beginning. Since then the American +women have labored untiringly for their political emancipation. The +anti-slavery movement gave them an excellent opportunity to participate in +public affairs. + +Since the women had had experience of oppression and slavery, and since +they, like negroes, were struggling for the recognition of their "human +rights," they were amongst the most zealous opponents of "slavery," and +belonged to the most enthusiastic defenders of "freedom" and "justice." + +Among the Quakers, who played a very prominent part in the anti-slavery +movement, man and woman had the same rights in all respects in the home +and church. When the first anti-slavery society was formed in Boston in +1832, twelve women immediately became members. + +The principle of the equality of the sexes, which the Quakers held, was +opposed by the majority of the population, who held to the Puritanic +principle of woman's subordination to man. In consequence of this +principle it was at that time considered "monstrous" that a woman should +speak from a public platform. Against Abby Kelly, who at that time was +one of the best anti-slavery speakers, a sermon was preached from the +pulpit from the text: "This Jezebel has come into the midst of us." She +was called a "hyena"; it was related that she had been intoxicated in a +saloon, etc. When her political associate, Angelina Grimke, held an +anti-slavery meeting in Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia) in 1837, the hall +was set on fire, and in 1838 in the chamber of the House of +Representatives in Massachusetts a mob threatened to take her life. "The +mob howled, the press hissed, and the pulpit thundered," thus the +proceedings were described by Lucy Stone, the woman's rights advocate. + +Even the educated classes shared the prejudice against woman. To them she +was a "human being of the second order." The following is an illustration +of this: + +In 1840 Abby Kelly was elected to a committee. She was urged, however, to +decline the election. "If you regard me as incompetent, then I shall +leave." "Oh, no, not exactly that," was the answer. "Well, what is it +then?" "But you are a woman...." "That is no reason; therefore I remain." + +In the same year an anti-slavery congress was held in England. A number of +American champions of the cause went to London,--among them three women, +Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Elizabeth Pease. They were +accompanied by their husbands and came as delegates of the "National +Anti-slavery Society." Since the Congress was dominated by the English +clergy, who persisted in their belief in the "inferiority" of woman, the +three American women, being creatures without political rights, were not +permitted to perform their duties as delegates, but were directed to leave +the convention hall and to occupy places in the spectators' gallery. But +the noble William Lloyd Garrison silently registered a protest by sitting +with the women in the gallery. + +This procedure clearly indicated to the American women what their next +duty should be, and once when Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton +came from the gallery to the hotel Mrs. Stanton said, "The first thing +which we must do upon our return is to call a convention to discuss the +slavery of woman." + +This plan, however, was not executed till eight years later. At that time +Elizabeth Cady Stanton, on the occasion of a visit from Lucretia Mott, +summoned a number of acquaintances to her home in Seneca Falls, New York. +In giving an account of the meeting at Washington, in 1888, at the +Conference of Pioneers of the International Council of Women (see Report, +pp. 323, 324), she states that she and Lucretia Mott had drawn up the +grievances of woman under eighteen headings with the American Declaration +of Independence as a model, and that it was her wish to submit a suffrage +resolution to the meeting, but that Lucretia Mott herself refused to have +it presented. + +Nevertheless, in the meeting Elizabeth Cady Stanton herself, burning with +enthusiasm, introduced her resolution concerning woman's right to vote, +and, as she reports, the resolution _was adopted unanimously_. A few days +later the newspaper reports appeared. "There was," relates Elizabeth Cady +Stanton, "not a single paper from Maine to Louisiana which did not contain +our Declaration of Independence and present the matter as ludicrous. My +good father came from New York on the night train to see whether I had +lost my mind. I was overwhelmed with ridicule. A great number of women who +signed the Declaration withdrew their signatures. I felt very much +humiliated, so much the more, since I knew _that I was right_.... For all +that I should probably have allowed myself to be subdued if I had not soon +afterward met Susan B. Anthony, whom we call the Napoleon of our woman's +suffrage movement." + +Susan B. Anthony, the brave old lady, who in spite of her eighty-three +years did not dread the long journey from the United States to Berlin, and +in June, 1904, attended the meetings of the International Council of Women +and the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, was in early life a +teacher in Rochester, New York, and participated in the temperance +movement. She had assisted in securing twenty-eight thousand signatures to +a petition, providing for the regulation of the sale of alcohol, which was +presented to the New York State Legislature. Susan B. Anthony was in the +gallery during the discussion of the petition, and as she saw how one +speaker scornfully threw the petition to the floor and exclaimed, "Who is +it that demands such laws? They are only women and children...," she vowed +to herself that she would not rest content until a woman's signature to a +petition should have the same weight as that of a man. And she faithfully +kept her word. After a life of unceasing and unselfish work, Susan B. +Anthony died March 13, 1906, loved and esteemed by all who knew her. At +the commemoration services in 1907, twenty-four thousand dollars were +subscribed for the Susan B. Anthony Memorial Fund (to be used for woman's +suffrage propaganda). Susan B. Anthony was honorary president of the +International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +It is to be noted that a number of European women (such as Ernestine Rose +of Westphalia), imbued with the ideas of the February Revolution of 1848, +were compelled to seek new homes in America. These newcomers gave an +impetus to the woman's suffrage movement among American women. They were +greatly surprised to find that in republics also political freedom was +withheld from women. + +This was strikingly impressed upon the women of the United States in 1870. +At that time the negroes, who had been emancipated in 1863, were given +political rights throughout the Union by the addition of the Fifteenth +Amendment to the Federal Constitution.[5] In this way all power of the +individual states to abridge the political rights of the negro was taken +away. + +The American women felt very keenly that in the eyes of their legislators +a member of an inferior race, _if only a man_, should be ranked superior +to any woman, be she ever so highly educated; and they expressed their +indignation in a picture portraying the American woman and her political +associates. This represented the Indian, the idiot, the lunatic, the +criminal,--_and woman_. In the United States they are all without +political rights. + +Since 1848 an energetic suffrage movement has been carried on by the +American women. To-day there is a "Woman's Suffrage Society" in every +state, and all these organizations belong to a national woman's suffrage +league. In recent years there has arisen a vigorous woman's suffrage +movement within the numerous and influential woman's clubs (with almost a +million members) and among college women the College Equal Suffrage +League, the movement extending even into the secondary schools. The +National Trades Union League, the American Federation of Labor, and +nineteen state Federations of Labor have declared themselves in favor of +woman's suffrage. The leaders of the movement have now established the +fact that "the Constitution of the United States does not contain a word +or a line, which, if interpreted in the spirit of the 'Declaration of +Independence,' denies woman the right to vote in state and national +elections." + +The preamble to the Constitution of the United States reads as follows: +"We, the people of the United States ... do ordain and establish this +Constitution for the United States of America." Women are doubtlessly +people. All the articles of the Constitution repeat this expression. The +objects of the Constitution are: + + 1. The establishment of a more perfect union of the states among + themselves, + 2. The establishment of justice, + 3. The insurance of domestic tranquillity, + 4. The provision of common defense, + 5. The promotion of the general welfare, + 6. The securing of the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our + posterity. + +All of these six points concern and interest women as much as men. +Supplementary to this is the "Declaration of Independence." Here are +stated as self-evident truths: + + 1. "That all men are created equal," + + 2. "That they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable + Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of + Happiness," + + 3. "That to secure [not to grant] these rights, Governments are + instituted among men, _deriving their just powers from the consent + of the governed_." + +On this last passage the Americans comment with especial emphasis: they +say the right to vote is their right as human beings,--_they possess it as +a natural right_; the government cannot justly take it from them, cannot +even grant it to them justly. So long as the government does not ask the +women for their consent, it is acting _illegally_ according to the +Declaration of Independence. For it is nowhere stated that the consent of +one half, the male half, will suffice to make a government _legal_. + +On the basis of this declaration of principles the American women have +made it a point to oppose every individual argument against woman's +suffrage. For this purpose they frequently use small four-page pamphlets, +which are issued as the "Political Equality Series" by the American +Woman's Suffrage Association. They say "It is generally held that: + + 1. "Every woman is married, loved, and provided for. + + 2. "Every man stays at home every evening. + + 3. "Every woman has small children. + + 4. "All women, when they have once secured political rights, will + plunge into politics and neglect their households." + + "What is the exact state of affairs in these matters? + + 1. "A great many women are not married; many are widows who must + educate their children and seek a means of livelihood. Thousands + have no other home than the one they create for themselves, and + they must often support relatives in addition to themselves. Many + of the married women are neither loved, provided for, nor + protected. + + 2. "Many men are at home so seldom in the evening that their wives + could quietly concern themselves with political matters without + being missed at all. And such men, seconded by bachelors, clamor + most about the 'dissolution of the family' through politics. + + 3. "The children do not remain small indefinitely; they grow up and + hence leave the mother. It may be true that the mother, instead of + participating in political affairs, prefers to sew flannel shirts + for the heathen, or prefers to read novels, but one ought at least + to permit her the freedom of making the choice. + + 4. "The right to vote will not change the nature of woman. If she + wished to leave the home as her sphere of activity, she would have + found other opportunities long ago." + +Further fears are the following: 1. _The majority of women do not wish the +right to vote at all._ To this we must answer that we cannot yet come to a +conclusion concerning the wish of the majority in this respect. The +petitions for woman's suffrage always have a greater number of signatures +than any other petitions to Congress. 2. _Women will use the right to vote +only to a limited extent._ The statistics in Wyoming and Colorado prove +the contrary. 3. _Only women "of ill repute" will vote._ Thus far this has +been nowhere the case. The men guard against attracting these elements. +Moreover, the right to vote is not restricted to the men "of good repute" +either, etc., etc. + +The American women can obtain the political franchise by two methods: 1. +At the hands of every individual legislature (which would occasion 52 +separate legislative acts,--48 states and 4 territories). 2. Through the +adoption of a sixteenth amendment to the national Constitution by +Congress.[6] Let us consider the first method. The franchise +qualifications in the United States are generally the following: male sex, +twenty-one years of age, American citizenship (through birth, or by +naturalization after five years' residence). + +Amendments to the state constitution must be accepted by the state +legislature (consisting of the lower house and the senate),[7] and then be +accepted in a referendum vote by the (male) electorate. To secure the +adoption of such an amendment in a state legislature is no easy task. In +the first place the presentation of a woman's suffrage bill is not +received favorably; the Republicans and Democrats struggle for control of +the legislature, the majority one way or the other never being large. +Therefore the party leaders usually consider woman's suffrage not on the +basis of party politics. Matters are decided on the basis of +opportuneness. Especially is this the case in those states where the bill +must be passed by two successive legislatures. In this case, between the +time of the first passing of a bill and the referendum, there is a new +election, and the opponents of woman's suffrage can defeat the adherents +of the measure at the polls before the women themselves can exercise the +right of suffrage. + +Changing the national Constitution through the adoption of a sixteenth +amendment has difficulties equally great; the amendment must pass the +House of Representatives and the Senate by a two-thirds vote and then be +ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures or specially called +conventions. + +To the present time only two of the Presidents of the Union have publicly +expressed themselves in favor of woman's suffrage,--Abraham Lincoln and +Theodore Roosevelt. In 1836 Lincoln addressed an open letter to the voters +in New Salem, Illinois, in which he said: "I go for all sharing the +privileges of the government who assist in bearing its burdens"; and he +was in favor of "admitting all whites to the right of suffrage who pay +taxes or bear arms (_by no means excluding females_)." Garfield, Hayes, +and Cleveland gave their attention to the question of woman's suffrage; +the last two supporting motions in favor of the movement. Theodore +Roosevelt, in 1899, as Assemblyman in the New York State Legislature, +spoke in favor of woman's suffrage: "I call the attention of the Assembly +to the advantages which a general extension of woman's right to vote must +bring about." + +In order to attain their end,--political emancipation,--the American women +use the following means of agitation: petitions, the submission of +legislative bills, meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of +pamphlets, deputations to the legislatures of the individual states and to +the Congressional House of Representatives, the organization of +workingwomen, requests to teachers and preachers to comment on patriotic +memorial days on woman's worth, and to preach at least once during the +year in favor of woman's suffrage. + +To the present time four states of the Union have granted full municipal +and political suffrage to women (active suffrage, the right to vote; +passive suffrage, eligibility to office). The states in question are +Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and Idaho. Wyoming and Utah inaugurated woman's +suffrage in 1869 and 1870, respectively, when they were still territories; +and in 1890 and 1895, when they were given statehood, they retained +woman's suffrage. Colorado granted it in 1893 and Idaho in 1896. The +political emancipation of woman in the State of Washington is close at +hand,[8] in South Dakota,[9] Oregon,[9] and Nebraska it seems assured. In +Kansas, since 1887, women have possessed active and passive suffrage in +municipal elections. In the State of Illinois they are about to secure +it.[10] All of these are western states with a new civilization and a +numerical superiority of men. + +Practical experience with woman's suffrage shows the following: everywhere +the elections have become quieter and more respectable. _The wages and +salaries of women have been generally raised_, partly through the +enactment of laws, such as laws regulating the salaries of women teachers, +etc., partly through the better professional and industrial organization +of workingwomen, who are now trained in political affairs. A comparison of +the salaries of women teachers having woman's suffrage with salaries in +states not having woman's suffrage shows the value of the ballot. The +public finances have been more economically administered, intemperance and +immorality have been more energetically combated, candidates with immoral +records have been removed from the political arena. Inasmuch as women have +full political rights in the four states named (six, including Washington +and California), they also vote for presidential electors, and thus +exercise an influence in the national presidential elections. It is the +woman with good average abilities that is most frequently the successful +candidate in political campaigns. + +But as yet the number of women who devote themselves to a political life +is not large. The women in Colorado seem to have a special ability for +this. Without any consideration for party affiliations they secured the +reelection of Judge Lindsey of the Juvenile Court. Generally speaking, +they have devoted their efforts everywhere to the protection of youth. At +the present time the establishment of a special bureau for the protection +of youth is being advocated, and a national conference to discuss the +welfare of children is to be held in Washington, D.C.[11] + +Because the English anti-woman's suffrage advocate, Mrs. Humphry Ward, +expressed the familiar fear that "the immoral vote would drown the moral +vote," the Reverend Anna Shaw declared at the Woman's Suffrage Congress at +London (May, 1909), that she openly challenges Mrs. Humphry Ward to +produce one convincing proof for her assertion. She herself had carefully +investigated the recent elections in Denver, Colorado, to ascertain how +many, if any, of the "immoral" women voted, and received as answer that +these women, who naturally are in a minority, generally do not vote at +all; first, because they pursue their trade under false names, secondly, +because most of them are not permanently domiciled and for both reasons +are not entered on the voting lists; these women vote only when an +influence is exerted on them from above or by persons around them. + +In the State of Utah, where woman's suffrage has existed since 1870, "the +women have quietly begun and continued without a break the exercise of +that power, which from the remotest time had been their right. They have +concerned themselves with political and economic questions, and if they +have committed any errors, these have not yet come to light. They have +been delegates to county and state conventions, they have represented the +richest and most populous electoral districts in the state legislature, +and they serve as heads of various state departments" (state treasurer, +supervisor of the poor, superintendent of education, etc.). In Colorado +(with woman's suffrage since 1893) the women have organized clubs in all +cities, even in the lonely mining towns (Colorado is in the Rocky +Mountains), and have informed themselves in political affairs to the best +of their ability. In the capital city, Denver, a club has been formed in +which busy women can meet weekly to inform themselves on political +affairs. In Colorado _parental_ authority over children prevails now (in +place of the exclusively paternal). In Idaho (with woman's suffrage since +1896) the women voters exerted a strong influence against gambling. The +enfranchised women, who had a right to vote in the little town of +Caldwell, had supported a mayor who was determined to take measures +against gambling. The barkeepers, topers, gamblers, and ne'er-do-wells +were against him. The women presented the magistrate with a petition, +which was read together with the signatures. "During the reading of the +names of the unobtrusive housewives who were rarely seen beyond their own +thresholds, the countenances of the men became serious. For the first time +they seemed to grasp what it really meant for a city to have woman's +suffrage." The barkeepers and the gamblers got the worst of it and +disappeared from the town hall. An old municipal judge said, "When have +our mothers ever _demanded_ anything before?"[12] In the same way the +women of Kansas have employed their municipal suffrage since 1887. + +Concerning an election in which women voted, the "Women's Rights Movement" +reports the following: "Almost all the women (about one third of the +population) in Wyoming, voted" (7000 votes out of 23,000). "In Boise, +Idaho, it was one of the quietest election days in the annals of the city. +Everywhere the women came to the polls in the early part of the day." "In +Salt Lake City, Utah, there was no interruption of traffic, no disturbance +of any kind ... the women came alone without having their husbands +accompany them to the ballot-box during the noon-hour." + +Because of the unsatisfactory experiences which America has had with +universal suffrage[13] as such, the woman's rights movement had suffered +also and has been retarded; but owing to the proceedings of the English +suffragettes during the past three years it has been given a new impetus. +In the state legislatures throughout the various parts of the country, +legislative bills have, during this time, been introduced; on these +occasions the women presented their demands in the so-called "hearings" +(which take place before the legislature). This took place in 1908 in +Rhode Island, Wisconsin, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, New York, Illinois, +South Dakota, Kansas, Oklahoma[14], Maine, Massachusetts, California, +Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Washington. In the latter state the House +has just passed a woman's suffrage amendment; if the Senate passes it, the +amendment will be submitted to popular vote.[15] A very active woman's +suffrage campaign in the State of Oregon (1906) failed, owing to the +opposition of the friends of the liquor interests and the brothels.[16] It +is both significant and gratifying that the woman's suffrage movement is +spreading to the Eastern States; an example of this is the great +demonstration of February 22, 1909, in Boston. + +The woman's suffrage societies of the various states are formed into a +national league: the National Woman's Suffrage Association, with about +100,000 members. The President is the Reverend Anna Shaw. This Association +has recently drawn up an enormous petition to Congress in order to secure +woman's suffrage through federal law, and has established headquarters in +Washington, the federal capital. During eleven weeks 6000 letters and 1000 +postal cards were written, and 100,000 petition-blanks were distributed. + +To the present time only a small number of women have sought state +legislative offices; women members of city councils are rather numerous. +At the present time there is a woman representative in the legislature of +Colorado. The former governor, Mr. Alva Adams, alluded to her as "a +bright, efficient woman," who has introduced many bills and secured their +passage. For, says the governor, "it must be a pretty miserable law which +a tactful woman cannot have enacted, since the male legislators are +usually courteous and kindly disposed, and disregard party interests in +order to accept the measure of their female colleague." From which we +conclude that the women legislators strive especially for measures which +are for the general good.[17] + +In the United States there is also an "Association Opposed to Woman's +Suffrage." Its chief supporters are found among the saloon-keepers, the +habitual drunkards, and the women of the upper classes. But the American +women believe "that if every prayer, every tear can be supported by the +power of the ballot, mothers will no longer shed powerless tears over the +misfortunes of their children."[18] + +The American women had to struggle not only for their rights as citizens, +but they encountered great difficulty in securing an education. At the +beginning of the nineteenth century the education of girls in the United +States was entirely neglected; the secondary as well as the higher +institutions of learning were as good as closed to them. Woman's "physical +and intellectual inferiority" was referred to, just as with us [in +Germany]; woman's "loss of her feminine nature" was feared, and it was +declared "that within a short time the country would be full of the wrecks +of women who had overtaxed themselves with studies." To all these fears +the American women gave this answer: Women, you say, are foolish? God +created them so they would harmonize with man. As for the rest they +awaited developments. As early as 1821 the first institution for the +higher education of women, Troy Seminary, was founded with hopes for state +aid. In 1833, Oberlin College, the first coeducational college, was opened +with the express purpose "of giving all the privileges of higher education +to the unjustly condemned and neglected sex." Among the first women +students was the youthful woman's rights advocate, Lucy Stone. She wished +to learn Greek and Hebrew, for she was convinced that the Biblical +passage, "_and he shall rule over thee_," had not been correctly +translated by the men. In 1865 with the founding of Vassar College, the +first woman's college was established. To-day both sexes have the same +educational opportunities in the United States. The four oldest +universities (Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and Johns Hopkins), established on +the English model, still exclude women, and do not grant them academic +degrees. However, the latter point is of comparatively minor importance +in its relation to the _educational_ opportunities of women. Most of the +western universities are coeducational; in the East there are special +woman's colleges. In the colleges and universities the number of women +students is a little over one-third of the number of men students, but in +the high schools the girl students outnumber the boys. The removal of all +restrictions to woman's instruction in the secondary and higher +institutions of learning is furthering the activity of the American women +in the professions. As teachers, they are employed chiefly in the public +schools, in which they constitute 70 per cent of the total staff. So the +majority of the "freest citizens" in the world are educated by women. The +number of women teachers in the public schools is 327,151. In the higher +institutions of learning there is nothing to prevent their appointment. +Among university teachers (professors and those of lower rank) there are +about 1000 women. Their salaries are equal to those of the men, which is +not always the case in the elementary schools, since the tendency is to +restrict women to the subordinate positions.[19] + +The women who teach in the woman's colleges must, in every case, possess a +superior individuality. Thus a woman president of a college must possess +academic training in order to control her teaching force; she must +possess a deep insight into human nature in order that her educational +relations with the public may be successful; she must have a knowledge of +business in order to administer the property of her institution +satisfactorily and command the respect of the financiers of her governing +board. + +Fifteen thousand American women are students in woman's colleges, and +twenty thousand in coeducational colleges and universities. In the latter, +the women have distinguished themselves through application and ability so +that frequently they have taken all the academic honors and prizes to the +exclusion of the men. Since they can no longer be excluded on the ground +of their inferiority, their superiority is now the pretext for their +exclusion. But a suspension of coeducation in the United States is not to +be considered. The state universities, supported with public funds, are +all coeducational. The existence of non-coeducational colleges and +universities in addition to state institutions is regarded as a guarantee +of personal freedom in matters pertaining to higher education. + +Since the public school system in the United States is in great part +coeducational, the exclusion of women from conferences pertaining to +school affairs and their administration would indicate that an especially +great injustice were being committed. This was indeed recognized, and +women were given the right to vote on school affairs not only in the five +woman's suffrage states [Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, Idaho, and Kansas], but +also in twenty-three other states, in which women are without political +rights in other respects. The famous deaf-blind woman, Helen Keller, was +appointed to serve on the state committee on the education of the blind. +In Boston trained nurses are employed to make visits to the homes of the +school children. An agitation is on foot to have women inspectors of +schools. + +In all woman's suffrage states special attention is devoted to educational +matters. Thus the State of Idaho appropriated $2500 for the establishment +of a lectureship in domestic science. From 1872 to 1900 the number of +women students has increased 148.7 per cent (while the number of men +students increased 60.6 per cent). Among women there are also fewer +illiterates, drunkards, and criminals; in other words, women are the more +moral and better educated part of the American population; and it is these +who are excluded from active participation in political affairs. + +The number of women lawyers is estimated at one thousand; in twenty-three +states they may plead in the Supreme Court. Women lawyers have their own +professional organizations. + +In Ohio, women are employed in the police service; in Pennsylvania they +are appointed as tax-collectors; in the city of Portland a woman was +appointed as inspector of markets with police power. Women justices of the +peace are as numerous as women mayors. In Oregon a woman is secretary to +the governor, for whom she acts with full authority. + +In all woman's suffrage states women act as jurors. Besides these states +only Illinois permits women to serve as jurors--and then only in a +juvenile court. + +There are said to be about 2000 women journalists. Their writings are +often sensational, but in the United States sensationalism is +characteristic of the profession. + +Of women preachers there are 3,500, belonging to 158 different +denominations. Among these women preachers there are also negresses. The +women study in theological seminaries, are ordained and devote themselves +either to the real calling of the ministry, social rescue work, or to the +woman's rights propaganda, as does the excellent speaker, the Reverend +Anna Shaw. The women preachers who devote themselves to social rescue work +usually study medicine also, so that they can first secure confidence as +persons skilled in the cure of the body, and then later the cure of the +soul is less difficult. + +There are 7000 women in the medical profession,--more than in any other +profession. The first women who studied medicine were American, Elizabeth +Blackwell having done so as early as 1846. Only the University of Geneva +(New York) would admit her; in 1848 she graduated there. Then she +continued her studies in Paris and London, returning in 1851 to New York, +in order to practice. Her first patients were Quakers. Elizabeth Blackwell +and her sister Emily (Blackwell) then founded in New York the "Hospital +for Indigent Women," to which the medical schools in Boston and +Philadelphia sent their graduates to obtain practical work.[20] A large +number of women lawyers, preachers, and doctors are married. In 1900 the +total number of women in the professions (exclusive of teaching) was +16,000. In 1900, 14.3 per cent of the female population were engaged in +industries; since 1880 the number of women engaged in the professions and +industries increased 128 per cent (while that of the men increased 76 per +cent).[21] + +Most of the technical schools admit women. There are fifty-three women +architects. The Woman's Building of the World's Exposition in Chicago +(1893) was designed by Sophia Haydn and erected under her supervision. It +is not unusual for women who are owners of business enterprises to take +technical courses. Thus Miss Jones, as her father's heir, became, after a +careful education, manageress of her large steel works in Chicago. The +Cincinnati pottery [Rookwood], founded by women, is also managed by them. +There are five women captains of ships, four women pilots, and twenty-four +women engineers. + +During twenty-five years, women have had 4000 inventions patented. The +women of the South produced fewest inventions. But in these fields women +still meet with prejudice and difficulties. In increasing numbers women +are becoming bankers, merchants, contractors, owners or managers of +factories, shareholders, stock-brokers, and commercial travelers. About +1000 women are now engaged in these occupations. As office clerks women +have stood the test well in the United States. They are esteemed for their +discretion and willingness to work. They are paid $12 to $20 a week. +According to the most recent statistics on the trades and professions +(1900) there were 1271 women bank clerks, 27,712 women bookkeepers, and +86,118 women stenographers. + +In the civil service we find fewer women (they are not voters): in 1890 +there were 14,692, of whom 8474 were postal, telephone, and telegraph +clerks, and 300 were police officials. In 1900, the total number of women +engaged in commerce was 503,574. + +The prejudice against the women of the lower classes is still evident. +Here at the very outset there is a great difference between the wages of +men and women, the wages of the latter being from one third to one half +lower. This is caused partly by the fact that women are given the +disagreeable, tiresome, and unimportant work, which they _must_ accept, +not being given an opportunity to do the better class of work,--frequently +because they have not learned their trade thoroughly. A further cause for +the lower wages of women is that they are working for "pocket-money" and +"incidentals," and thus spoil the market for those who must pay their +whole living expenses with what they earn. Among the women workers of the +United States there are two classes,--the industrial class and the +amateurs. The latter make the existence of the former almost impossible. +Such a competition is unknown to men in industrial work. Mrs. v. Vorst[22] +proposes a solution--to make the industrial amateurs become special +artisans by means of a longer apprenticeship, thus relieving the +industrial slaves from injurious competition. + +Office work and work in the factories enables the American women of the +middle and lower classes to satisfy their desire for independence; those +who are not obliged to provide for themselves wish at least to have money +at their disposal. That is a thoroughly sound aspiration. These girls +become factory employees and not domestic servants, (1) because work in +their own home is not paid for (the general disregard of housework drives +the women striving for independence away from the house); (2) because of +the absence of regularity in housework; (3) because the domestic servants +are not free on Sundays; (4) because they must live with the employers. +These facts are established by answer to inquiries made by Miss Jackson, +factory inspector of Wisconsin. + +The women employed in the stores and factories are in general paid about +the same wages, $4 to $6 a week. A saleswoman, upon whom greater demands +are made as to dress and personal appearance, finds it more difficult to +live on these wages than would the woman employed in the factory. As +pocket-money, however, this sum is a very good remuneration, and this +explains why the girls of these classes, in imitation of the bad example +set them by the members of the upper ranks of society, manifest such an +extraordinary taste for costly clothes and expensive pleasures. In 1888, +an official inquiry showed that 95 per cent of the women laborers lived at +home; in 1891 another official inquiry showed that one third of the women +laborers earned $5 a week; two thirds from $5 to $7, and only 1.8 per cent +earned more than $12, while the men laborers earned on the average $12 to +$15 a week. Women laborers are organized as yet only to a small extent (1 +per cent, while 10 per cent of the men are organized). There are separate +social-democratic organizations of women, formed through the Federation of +Labor. + +The workingwomen especially will be helped by the right to vote. In the +"Political Equality Series" appears a pamphlet entitled _Why does the +Working-woman need the Right to Vote?_ In the first place she needs the +right to vote in order to secure higher wages. Just suppose that the +members of the typographical union were to-morrow deprived of their right +to vote. Only their full political emancipation could again restore them +to their former position of prestige among the working classes. This is +exactly the case with the women, and they have not even reached the +highly-developed organization of the typographers. A politically unfree +laboring class is also unable to maintain its vocation against a laboring +class possessing political rights; _if the vocation is remunerative the +unfree class will be deprived of it or be kept from it altogether_. The +oppression of the workingwomen has its effect also on men through its +tendency to lower wages. Therefore at the present time the trades-unions +have recognized that to organize women is _in the interests of all +workingmen_, and while the women were refused organization forty years +ago, the Federation of Labor is to-day paying trades-union organizers to +induce women to become members of trades-unions. The introduction of a +low rate of wages in one branch of a trade (pursued by both men _and_ +women) is always a menace to the branches that survive the reduction. The +number of women engaged in the industries in 1900 was 1,315,890. The +number of married women engaged in industrial pursuits is small; in 1895, +an official investigation showed that in 1067 factories 7,000 workingwomen +out of 71,000 were married. The chief industries in which women are +employed are the textile industry (cotton), laundering, the manufacture of +ready-made clothing, corsets, carpets, millinery, and fancy-goods. Women +work alongside the men in wool-spinning, in bookbinding, and in the +manufacture of shoes, mittens, tobacco, and confectionery. + +The inability of workingwomen to exercise political rights makes minors of +them when compared with workingmen, and this decreases their importance as +human beings. Women cannot protect themselves against injustice, and these +things put them at a great disadvantage. + +The American women became involved in a lively conflict with President +Roosevelt (otherwise favoring woman's rights) concerning his gift to a +father and mother for bringing twenty children into the world. The women +declared in the _Woman's Journal_ that it is wrong to encourage an +immoderate procreation of children among a population 70 per cent of +which possesses no property.[23] Above all, this encouragement is not only +a menace to the overworked and oppressed workingwomen, but it is inhuman, +and really lowers woman to the position of a machine for bearing children. + +The institution of factory inspection does not as yet exist in the whole +Union. According to the report of Mrs. v. Vorst[24] the factories and the +homes of laborers in the Southern States are extremely unsatisfactory. +Child labor is exploited there, a matter which is now being dealt with by +the National Child Labor Committee. According to this same work (the +inquiry of Mrs. v. Vorst) the living conditions in the North and Central +States are better, and the moral menaces to the young girl are +inconsiderable. The women of the property-holding classes are attempting +to do their duty toward the women of the factories and stores by founding +clubs, vacation colonies, and homes for them. Within recent years the +great department stores have appointed "social secretaries," who look +after the weal and woe of the employees. It would be well to have such +secretaries in the factories and mills also. Since 1874 the working week +of sixty hours for women in industry and commerce has spread from +Massachusetts to almost the entire Union. Since 1890, night labor has +been prohibited by law. The working girls have been provided with seats +while at work, partly as a result of legislation and partly by the +voluntary act of the employers. + +In agriculture women find a profitable field of activity. Of course they +are never field hands, but are employers and laborers in the dairy +business, in poultry farming, and in the raising of vegetables and fruit. +Women have introduced the growing of cress, cranberries, and cucumbers in +various regions, and have cultivated the famous asparagus of Oyster Bay +and the "Improved New York Strawberries." In 1900, there were 980,025 +women engaged in agriculture (as compared with 9,458,194 men). The number +of women domestic servants in the United States amounts to 2,099,165; +fifty per cent of the families dispense with servants, since they cannot +afford to pay $15 to $20 a month for a servant, or $30 for a cook. +Educated women, called visiting housekeepers, undertake the supervision of +some of the households of the better class, aided, of course, by help in +the house. + +The legal status of the American women is regulated by 52 sets of laws, +corresponding to the number of states and territories. The civil code is +unfavorable to woman in most of the states. In the National Trade Union +League (New York) the Reverend Anna Shaw declared recently that in 38 +states the property laws made "joint property holding" legal, as a result +of which the wife has no independent control of her personal earnings or +her personal effects, _e.g._ her clothes. In 38 states the wife also has +no legal authority over her children. For full particulars the reader is +referred to Volume IV of the _History of Woman's Suffrage_. To an +increasing extent the women are using their right to administer their +property independently, and the men are usually proud of the business +ability and success of their wives. + +A _legal_ regulation of prostitution (such as prevailed formerly in +England and as prevails now in Germany) does not exist in the United +States. Cincinnati is the only city which in the European sense has police +control of prostitution. Public opinion has successfully resisted all +similar attempts. (_Woman's Journal_, July, 1904.) The American +Commission, which went to Europe to study the regulation of prostitution, +declared that the American woman cannot be expected to sanction such an +arrangement, and that, moreover, the system had not stood the test. In the +police stations, police matrons are employed. The law protects the woman +in the street against the man and not, as in Europe, the man against the +woman. + +In order to combat the double standard of morals the "Social Purity +League" was formed. The membership is composed of those men and women who +are thoroughly convinced that there is only one standard of morality for +both sexes, since they have the same obligations to their offspring. +Founded in 1886, this organization has spread since 1889 throughout the +entire Union. + +The "World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union," the second largest +international woman's organization, originated in America. It was founded +in 1883 by Frances E. Willard (her father was Hilgard, from the +Palatinate). The Union has 300,000 members in the United States at the +present time, and 450,000 members in the whole world. In 1906 it met in +Boston. It is the determined enemy of alcohol, and gives proof of its +convictions through the work of its soldier's and sailor's department, its +committees on railroads, tramways, police stations, cab drivers, etc. This +Union, as well as the "Social Purity League," is a firm advocate of +woman's suffrage. + +The emancipation of the American women is promoted through sports. If on +the one hand they appreciate an elaborate toilette, on the other hand they +recognize the advantages of bloomers, the walking skirt, and the divided +skirt. In these costumes they play basketball, polo, tennis, and take +gymnastic exercise, fence, and row. The woman's colleges are centers of +athletic life. There the girls now play football in male costume, the +public being excluded. In all large cities there are athletic clubs for +women, some extremely sumptuous (with a hundred-dollar fee) as well as +very simple clubs for workingwomen of sedentary life. + +We have seen that the legal status of women in many states is still in +need of reform. All the more instructive is the survey of laws concerning +women and children in the _woman's suffrage states_, published by Mrs. C. +Waugh McCullock, a woman lawyer, of Chicago. The wife disposes of her +wages and her dowry (in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and Idaho). Men and women +receive equal pay for the same work. All professions and public offices +are open to women. Women act as jurors. They have the same right of +inheritance as men. Divorce is granted to either party under the same +circumstances. The claims of the wife and the children under age are given +a decided preference over those of creditors. Education from the +kindergarten to the university is free and is open to women. The labor of +women in mines is prohibited. The maximum working-day for women is eight +hours. All houses of correction and institutions for the protection of +women and children must have women physicians and overseers. The age of +consent is 18 years. Gambling and prostitution are prohibited. Both father +and mother exercise parental authority. The surviving husband is guardian +of the children. The sale of alcoholic liquors and tobacco to children is +prohibited. No child under 14 years of age may work in the mines. +Pornographic literature and pictures are prohibited. + +In conclusion I shall take several points from the lecture which Professor +F. Laurie Poster held before the Political Equality League in Chicago, +after the women of Chicago had waged a vigorous campaign for the right to +vote in municipal affairs. + +Why is the value of woman placed so low? Merely because she is more +helpless than man. Children are valued even less than women because they +surpass the women in helplessness. Only animals have less power of +defense; therefore they have the lowest value placed on them. In the +United States it has now been demonstrated that whoever possesses the +right to vote is esteemed more highly than he who does not have that +right. We see this in the woman's suffrage states; here the women have +made provisions not only for themselves, but for the children as well, for +it is one of the fundamental instincts of woman to protect her little +ones. In most of the states of the Union, however, women can help directly +neither themselves nor their children. That women should be forced to +struggle for these ends against the opposition of man is one of the most +unfortunate phases of the whole movement. + +When woman became property, a possession, the overestimation of her sexual +value began. Her sex was her weapon, and her capabilities became stunted. +This over emphasis of the sexual causes a great part of the most flagrant +evils among civilized peoples. To-day we have reached a stage where we +despise him who sells his vote. Unfortunately it is still permitted to +sell one's sex. In this roundabout way woman attains most of the good +things in life. Her economic successes depend almost entirely on the +resources of the man to whom she belongs. Both sexes suffer as a result of +this attitude of society. Woman's uncertain feeling, that she must +concentrate her interests and responsibilities in the one who provides for +the family, has created exceedingly peculiar customs and a wholly absurd +code of honor for both man and woman. Thereby woman is directed to a +_roundabout way_ for everything she wishes to obtain. Whatever she wishes +for herself must appear as a domestic virtue, if possible as a sacrifice +for the family. Man thinks it very natural that he should do what he +desires, that he should pursue his pleasures and gratify his passions, for +he is indeed the one who possesses authority and does not need first to +stamp his wishes as virtues. But it seems just as natural to him that the +women of the family should be endowed with a double portion of piety, +economy and willingness to make sacrifices,--virtues in which he is so +lacking. Women are created especially for that. By nature they are better, +and indeed they make great efforts to cover the faults of the offending +one and forgivingly accept him again. In fact they do it gladly; it gives +them pleasure, and man certainly does not wish to deprive them of the +opportunity for such great joys. Therefore man is instantly at hand to +warn woman when she shows any inclination toward adopting "masculine" +habits. But he certainly would be more conscientious and more moral if +woman no longer assumed these virtues vicariously for him. Woman must make +her demands of man. For that she must be _free_.[25] + + +AUSTRALIA[26] + + Total population: 4,555,662. + Women: 2,166,318. + Men: 2,389,344. + + An association of women's clubs in each of five colonies. + The Australian Women's Political Association, embracing six colonies. + +It is a rare thing for Europeans to have a definite conception of the +Australian Commonwealth. This is the more to be regretted since this +federation of republics is among the countries that have made the greatest +progress in the woman's rights movement. In no other part of the world has +such a radical change in the status of woman been effected in so short a +time and with such comparatively insignificant struggles. + +Till 1840, Australia had been a penal colony. Since then,--after the +discovery of the first gold fields,--a multitude of fortune-seekers, +gold-miners, and adventurers joined the population of deported convicts. +The good middle-class element for a long time remained in the minority. +Certainly nobody would have believed that there existed at that time in +Australia all the conditions necessary for the growth of a flourishing and +highly civilized commonwealth. Nevertheless, such was the case. There were +formed seven democratic states, whose people were not bound by any +traditionalism or excessive fondness for time-honored, inherited customs; +these people wished to have elbowroom and were determined to establish +themselves on their own soil in their own way. This all took place the +more easily since England gave the growing commonwealth in general an +exceedingly free hand, and because the inhabitants were by nature +independent. Australia was colonized by those who, having come into +conflict with the laws of the old world, found their sphere of life narrow +and restricted. + +Because Australia to-day has only about five million inhabitants, the +country is confronted only in a limited way with the problem of dealing +with congested masses of people, a condition which is favorable to all +social experimentation. Those in authority believe they can direct and +eventually mold the development of the Commonwealth. + +Sixty-five per cent of the population are Protestant; the Germanic element +predominates. The women constitute not quite 50 per cent of the +population. Thus in many respects the Australian colonies possess +conditions similar to those prevailing in the western states of the +American Union, and the results of the woman's rights movement are in both +regions approximately the same. Mrs. M. Donohue, one of the delegates from +Australia, declared at the London Woman's Suffrage Congress that her +country had brought about "the greatest happiness for the greatest +number." + +Naturally, the Australian governments had originally a series of material +problems to solve, real problems of existence, as, for example, to find a +satisfactory agricultural policy in a predominantly farming and +cattle-raising country. When the economic basis of the country seemed +sufficiently secure, the intellectual interests were given attention. A +country which never had slavery or a feudal regime, a Salic Law, or a Code +Napoleon; a country which has no divine right of kings, and is not +oppressed with militarism; a country which judges a man by his personal +ability and esteems him for what he is, such a country certainly could not +tolerate the dogma of woman's inferiority. Between 1871 and 1880, the +school systems of the various colonies were regulated by a series of laws. +Elementary instruction, which is free and obligatory, is given in public +schools to children of both sexes between the ages of five and fifteen, +but in most cases the sexes are segregated. In the public schools of the +whole continent about 20,000 teachers are employed (9,000 men and 11,000 +women). The men predominate in the leading well-paid positions. The +secondary school system (as in England) is composed largely of private +schools, and is to a great extent in the hands of the Protestant +denominations and the Catholic orders. The governments subsidize these +institutions. Girls and boys enjoy the same educational opportunities in +the schools, part of which are coeducational. + +The four Australian universities--Sidney (New South Wales), Melbourne +(Victoria), Adelaide (South Australia), and Aukland (New Zealand)--are +to-day open to women, who can secure all academic degrees granted by the +philosophical, law, and medical faculties.[27] + +The number of students in the universities is as follows: in Sidney, 1054 +(of whom 142 are women); in New Zealand University, 1332 (of whom 369 are +women); in Melbourne, 853 (of whom 128 are women). The total number of +students in Adelaide and Hobart is 626 and 62 respectively, but the number +of women students is not given. The educational problem is thus solved for +the Australian woman in a favorable manner: she has equal and full +privileges in the universities. + +What are the conditions in the occupations? "All occupations are open to +women," is stated in a report which I have used.[28] But that is not +entirely correct. Women are teachers, but they are not lecturers and +professors in the universities. As preachers they are admitted only among +the Nonconformists. There are women doctors and dentists, and in four +colonies (New Zealand, Tasmania, West Australia, and Victoria) women are +permitted to practice law, but they are confronted with a certain popular +prejudice when they attempt to enter medicine, law, technical science, and +a teaching career in the universities. The state employs women in the +elementary schools; in the postal and telegraph service; as registrars +(permitting them to perform marriage ceremonies); and as factory +inspectors. But the salaries and wages in Australia are not always the +same for both sexes. Thus, for example, in South Australia the male head +masters of the public schools draw salaries of 110 to 450 pounds sterling, +while the women draw 80 to 156 pounds sterling. Since school affairs are +not affairs under the control of the Commonwealth, the federal law (equal +wages for equal work) cannot be applied in this particular. In +Tasmania[29] (where the women have voted since 1903) women are teachers in +the public schools, employees in the postal, telegraph, and telephone +systems, supervisors of health in the public schools, and assistants to +the quarantine and sanitary boards; they are registrars in the parishes, +superintendents of hospitals, asylums, prisons, etc. Public offices in the +army, the navy, and the church alone remain closed to them. + +It is to be noted here that Mrs. Dobson, of Tasmania, was the official +representative of the Australian government at the International Woman's +Suffrage Congress held in Amsterdam in 1908. + +The official yearbook of the Australian Federation gives the following +industrial statistics for 1901: state and municipal office holders, 41,235 +women (69,399 men); domestic servants, 150,201 women (50,335 men); +commerce, 34,514 women (188,144 men); transportation, 3429 women (118,730 +men); industry, 75,570 women (350,596 men); agriculture and forestry, +fisheries, and mining, 38,944 women (494,163 men). In all fields, with the +exception of domestic service, the men are in a numerical superiority; +therefore the matrimonial opportunities of the Australian woman are +favorable. For every 100 girls 105.99 boys were born in 1906; the +statistics for 1906 showed a greater number of marriages than ever before +(30,410). The difference in the ages of the married men and women is 4.5 +years on the average; the number of children per family is about 4 (3.77). + +Five Australian colonies (New Zealand, Victoria, Queensland, South +Australia, and New South Wales) have enacted the following laws for the +protection of workingwomen: + + 1. Maximum working time--48 hours a week. + + 2. The prohibition of night work (except in Queensland). + + 3. Higher wages for overtime. + +The eight-hour day is necessitated throughout Australia by the climate. +The other provisions are perhaps not stringently enforced. Children under +thirteen years cannot be employed in the factories. Socialistic +regulations, such as fixing the minimum wages in certain industries, and +the establishment of obligatory courts of arbitration, have been +instituted in several colonies (Victoria, New South Wales, etc.). + +In the beginning the English Common Law regulated the legal status of the +Australian women. During the past fifty years this law has undergone many +modifications. Each colony acted independently in the matter, and +therefore there is no longer uniformity. In all cases separate ownership +of property is legal. However, joint parental authority is legally +established only in New Zealand. The divorce laws are prejudicial to women +in almost all respects. + +In the field of legislation the influence of woman's suffrage has already +made itself definitely felt. Each colony has its state legislature which +consists of a Lower House and a Senate. Every Australian who is twenty-one +years old is a voter in both state and municipal elections. (There is a +property qualification only for those voting for the Senate.) In 1869 the +woman's suffrage movement began in Australia (in Victoria). The right to +vote in school and municipal affairs was given to women as a matter of +course.[30] The right to vote in state affairs was granted to women first +in New Zealand in 1893, in South Australia in 1895, in West Australia in +1899, in New South Wales in 1903, in Queensland in 1905, and in Victoria +in 1908. + +When the six Australian colonies (excluding New Zealand) formed themselves +into a federation in 1900, an Australian Federal Parliament was +established. The women of _all of the six colonies_ voted for the +parliamentary officers on an equality with men. Here was a curious +thing--the women of the four conservative colonies voted for the members +of the Federal Parliament but could not vote for the state legislature. + +On the basis of the documents dealing with Victoria I shall give a more +detailed account of the history of woman's suffrage in this colony. The +greatest statesman of Victoria, George Higinbotham, in 1873 introduced the +first woman's suffrage bill before Parliament. This met with no success. A +number of similar attempts were made until 1884. In this year there was +founded the first "Woman's Suffrage Society" in Victoria. The movement +then spread rapidly, and in 1891 thirty thousand women petitioned +Parliament for the suffrage in state affairs. For the time being this +attempt likewise met with failure. But the political organization of the +women was strengthened through the formation of the "United Council for +Woman's Suffrage." Every year after 1895 this Council gave advice to the +Lower House concerning the framing of woman's suffrage bills, and thus +enlarged its influence. Hitherto the passing of the suffrage bill had been +prevented by the opposition of the Upper House (which was not chosen by +universal suffrage). On November 18, 1908, the bill was finally passed by +the _House of Obstruction_, and thus the women, who had worked for the +suffrage, were finally emancipated. Since 1893, the year of the +emancipation of women in New Zealand, the opponents of woman's suffrage +put off the women with the request to wait and see how the plan worked in +New Zealand; in 1896 the women were asked to wait and see how the plan +worked in New South Wales; in 1902 they were asked to see how woman's +suffrage worked in the federal elections. In 1908 it was possible to +secure only 3500 signatures _against_ woman's suffrage. + +In New Zealand the women have exercised active suffrage since 1893. There +also, the gloomiest predictions were made when this "unprecedented" +measure was adopted. There were, of course, women opponents of woman's +suffrage. Such, for example, was Mrs. Seddon, the wife of the Prime +Minister of New Zealand. She said: "It seemed to me that the women ought +to remain away from the tumult and riotous scenes of the polling booths. +But I gave up this view. With us, the women benefited the suffrage and the +suffrage benefited the women. The elections have taken place more quietly +and women have indicated a lively interest in public affairs. + +"Woman's suffrage has not caused family dissensions. It has frequently +happened that whole families have voted for the same candidate. In other +cases different members of one family voted for different candidates. But +this has not disturbed domestic tranquillity, for nowhere have family +feuds been engendered by one member or another of the family boasting of +the success of his candidate. The fear that the women would vote largely +for Conservative candidates, through the influence of the clergy, was not +realized. Already the women have twice contributed to the reelection of a +Liberal minister. Neither the Protestant nor the Catholic clergy +endeavored to influence the votes of the women anywhere." The Countess +Wachtmeister, a Californian traveling in Australia, confirms this opinion, +"Thanks to woman's suffrage the respectable elements that formerly often +remained away from the political arena have now again stepped to the +front; they have presented successful candidates, and have begun to play +an important part in the political life of the country." + +Since women have exercised the right to vote in New Zealand the following +legal reforms have been enacted: + + 1. Divorces are granted to the wife and to the husband upon the same + grounds. + + 2. The husband can no longer deprive the wife and children of their + inheritances by means of a will. + + 3. The conditions of suffrage in municipal elections were made the + same for both women and men. + + 4. The saloons are closed on election days. + + 5. Women are admitted to the practice of law. + + 6. The age of consent for girls was raised to 17. + +Similar reforms were enacted in South Australia. There Mrs. Mary Lee is +the leader in the woman's suffrage movement, and founder of the "Women's +Suffrage Society." When the woman's suffrage bill was passed in 1895 the +Prime Minister, the Minister of Public Instruction, and the Lord Mayor +gave Mrs. Lee an impressive reception in the town hall; they thanked her +for the untiring efforts which she had devoted to the cause, and the Prime +Minister said, "Mrs. Lee is the originator of the greatest reforms in the +constitutional history of Australia." What enlightened views the ministers +in the antipodal countries do have! Are they really our antiscians to such +a degree? + +Since 1896, the following reforms have been effected by the South +Australian Parliament: + + 1. A modification of the marriage law (the husband must provide for + the wife and children if his brutality leads to a divorce). An + enlargement of woman's sphere in the business world. Separate + property rights. + + 2. Greater strength was given to the law compelling the father of + illicit children to fulfill his pecuniary duties. + + 3. A severer penalty for trafficking in girls. + + 4. The increasing of the age of consent to 17. + + 5. Improved laws providing for the care of dependent children. + + 6. A maximum working week of 52 hours for children engaged in + industry. + + 7. Laws suppressing pornography. + + 8. Laws prohibiting the sale of liquor and tobacco to children. + + 9. Women were appointed to the positions of inspectors of schools, + prisons, hospitals, etc. + +In West Australia, where women have voted since 1899, the women were +admitted to the practice of law; the age of consent was raised to 17 +years; and the conditions on which divorce are granted were made the same +for man and woman. In Europe people still question the practical value of +woman's suffrage. + +Following the establishment of woman's suffrage in New South Wales and +Tasmania, juvenile courts were introduced; New South Wales adopted a very +stringent law regulating the sale of liquor (local option; no barmaids +under 21 years could be employed; the sale of liquors to children under 14 +years was prohibited). + +Since women have voted in the elections for the Federal Parliament they +have formed the Australian Woman's Political Association. The President is +Miss Vida Goldstein, of Victoria. To the Association belong woman's +suffrage leagues, woman's trade-unions, temperance societies, woman's +church clubs, and other organizations. For the present the women will not +ally themselves with any of the existing parties, since the principles of +none of them correspond exactly to the programme which the women have set +up. The "Political Equality League" is satisfactory in one respect (equal +rights for both sexes), but goes too far in its socialistic demands. + +The women have succeeded in having federal laws enacted providing that all +state employees be paid the same wages for the same work, and that the +legal provisions for naturalization permit woman to retain her right of +self-government and her individuality. The government will propose a +federal law securing uniformity in the marriage laws (laws in regard to +marriage, property, divorce, and parental authority). + +In all the Australian colonies women have active suffrage, but not in all +cases the passive. Wherever they possess the latter they have laid little +claim to it: + + 1. because a part of the capable women believe they can work more + effectively and achieve more if they are not attached to a + political party; + + 2. because the established party programmes very frequently embody + the demands of the women; + + 3. because for this reason the political parties expect no special + advantage from the women, and it is difficult to secure the + support of the great party papers for the women candidates; + + 4. because the Australian elections also cost money, and the capable + women are not always well-to-do. + +In 1903, Miss Vida Goldstein announced her candidature for the Federal +Parliament and was defeated. In the federal elections of 1906 on an +average 58.36 per cent of the registered men and 43.30 per cent of the +registered women voted (against 53.09 and 30.96 per cent in 1903). + +In two pamphlets,--_Woman's Suffrage in New Zealand_, and _Woman's +Suffrage in Australia_,[31]--the leading men of the youngest region of the +world have given their written testimony on the practical workings of +woman's suffrage. These men are prime ministers of the colonies, public +prosecutors, the ministers of the various state departments, members of +the lower houses in the parliaments, high dignitaries of the Church, the +editors of large political newspapers. They all make the most favorable +statements concerning woman's suffrage. + +"The women have demanded nothing unreasonable from their representatives, +and have always placed themselves on the side of clean politics and clean +politicians." "Woman's suffrage has brought about neither the millennium +nor pandemonium," and the New Zealanders do not understand why it is that +in other countries people "can still become agitated over anything so +inherently reasonable as woman's suffrage." + +All who wish to have the right to participate in a discussion on woman's +suffrage must first study these two books of testimonials. A mere +knowledge of these facts will cause much insipid discussion to cease in +public meetings. + +From the French consul in Dantzig, Count Jouffroy d'Abbans, one familiar +with Australian conditions, I learned the following isolated facts +concerning woman's suffrage. It has a salutary influence throughout. Women +show a lively interest in political and municipal questions; for the sake +of their political rights they neglect their "specifically feminine" +duties so little that they come to the parliamentary sessions with +knitting, embroidery, and sewing. They also engage in these feminine +activities while attending the night sessions. On election days there is +certainly often a cold dinner or supper. But that occurs on washing days, +too, and no one has yet wished to deny women the privilege of doing the +washing. It is safe to say that the Australian woman's rights movement +will not fail because of this obstacle. + + +GREAT BRITAIN + + Total population: 41,605,220. + Women: 21,441,911. + Men: 20,163,309. + + English Federation of Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +"England is the storm center of our movement," declared the President of +the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance in the Amsterdam Congress. +This was the conviction of the Congress, which therefore resolved to hold +the next International Woman's Suffrage Congress in London (in April, +1909). The fact is undisputed that the English suffragettes--whether one +favors or opposes their actions--have made Great Britain the center of the +modern woman's rights movement. England is a European country, an old +country with rigid traditions, which, nevertheless, are the freest +political traditions that we have in Europe to-day. For fifty years the +English women have struggled for the right to vote. In spite of the fact +that their country has neither Salic Law nor continental militarism (two +of the greatest obstacles to all woman's rights movements), the English +women have not as yet attained their ends. This is an indication of the +tenacity of the prejudices against women in the countries of older +civilizations. + +The opposition offered to the political emancipation of women in England +is all the more remarkable since the English women were able to exercise +the right to vote on an equality with men in national elections till 1832, +and in municipal elections till 1835.[32] To that time we find the same +conditions prevailing in England as prevailed in the nine American +commonwealths previous to 1783. This parity of circumstances is explained +by the English principle of representation: _no taxation without +representation_. In 1832 and 1835, however, the English women, who as +taxpayers were qualified to vote, had the right to vote in national and +municipal affairs taken from them; for the word "persons" the expression +"_male_ persons" was substituted in the election law. When this +disfranchisement took place none of those concerned cried out against it. +For two hundred years the women had made no use worth mentioning of the +right to vote. But a part of the women, especially those of the liberal +and cultured circles, saw the significance of this retrograde step. + +The political struggles of general concern during the following period +(such as the antislavery movement and the anticorn-law movement) furnished +these women an opportunity to educate themselves in political affairs, +and, like the American women of that time, they in many cases learned +their political ABC by means of the same questions. Such men as Cobden, +Pease, Biggs, Knight, and others were the advance guard of the political +women in England. The earliest pamphlet on women's suffrage preserved to +us appeared in 1847. It is a small leaflet and says among other things, +"As long as both sexes and all parties are not given a just +representation, good government is impossible" (which is a paraphrase of +the American principle--every just government derives its powers from the +consent of the governed). The contrary view had been stated in the +_Encyclopaedia Britannica_ as early as 1842 by the father of John Stuart +Mill: "It is self-evident that all persons whose interests are identical +with those of a different class are excluded from political representation +without injury." Certainly from such an arrangement the "representatives" +will suffer no injury. That select group of intellectual women who trained +themselves politically during the antislavery movement and the struggle +for free trade consisted of the mothers, the sisters, and daughters of +liberal politicians and academically trained men. Many of these women were +themselves students and teachers. No antagonism ever existed in England +between the woman's suffrage movement and the movement favoring the +education of woman. + +Such were the conditions in 1866. A new election law was to be introduced +in Parliament; a new class of men was to be granted the right of suffrage +by the lowering of the property qualification. The women decided to +present a petition to the House of Commons requesting the right to vote in +national elections. The women had decided to act thus publicly because of +the presence of John Stuart Mill in the House of Commons, and because of +an utterance of Disraeli's, "In a country in which a woman can be ruler, +peer, church trustee, owner of estates, and guardian of the poor, I do not +see in the name of what principle the right to vote can be withheld from +her." Four petitions (one signed by 1499 women, one by 1605 taxpaying +women, and two more signed by 3559 and 3000 men and women) were sent to +the House of Commons; and on May 20, 1867, John Stuart Mill, after he had +presented the petitions, moved that the right to vote be given to the +qualified women taxpayers. His motion was rejected by a vote of 196 to 73. +Thereupon there were formed for systematic propaganda, woman's suffrage +societies in London, Edinburgh, Manchester, Birmingham, and Bristol; these +cities are still the center of the movement. The new election law gave +women a further advantage--the expression _male_ person was replaced with +the generic word "man."[33] Since an Act of Parliament (13 and 14 Vict., +c. 21) declares that in all laws the masculine expression also includes +the feminine, _unless the contrary is expressly stated_, the friends of +woman's suffrage believed they could interpret this expression in favor of +women. The attempt to do this was now made. A number of qualified women +demanded that they be registered with the voters; they were determined to +have recourse to the law if the government commission refused to register +their votes. At this time the first public meeting of women in England was +held in the famous "Free Trade Hall" in Manchester. But the courts and the +Supreme Court interpreted the law _against_ the women,--"they are +disqualified neither intellectually nor morally, but _legally_." Then a +methodical propaganda by means of public meetings was begun; the first +victory was won as early as 1869,--the women taxpayers were given the +right to vote in municipal affairs in England, Scotland, and Wales. + +Between 1870 and 1884, the political organization of the women was +strengthened; the women of the aristocracy (Lady Amberly, Lady Anne +Gore-Langton, and others) were won over to the cause of woman's suffrage. +A "Central Committee for Woman's Suffrage" was formed, and a number of +excellent women speakers (Biggs, Maclaren, Becker, Fawcett, Craigen, +Kingsley, Tod, and others) spoke throughout the country. A further success +was achieved when the Parliament of the Isle of Man[34] (House of Keys) +gave qualified women the right to vote. + +In 1884, the property qualification was again reduced through a new +election law; the friends of woman's suffrage took advantage of this +opportunity to present a motion in Parliament favoring woman's suffrage, +in support of which the following statements were made: "Two million men, +many of whom are ignorant and uneducated, and possess only a small plot of +ground, are to be given political rights. On what principle is the same +right withheld from 300,000 women who are educated and who are +landowners?" This motion was lost also. In 1885 the English women, in +order to make their influence felt in political affairs, formed the +"Primrose League," which supported the Conservative candidates in the +election campaigns; and in 1887 was formed the "Women's Liberal +Federation," which supported the Liberals in a similar manner. The next +attempt to secure woman's suffrage was made in 1897, but it was +unsuccessful. During the Boer War woman's suffrage receded into the +background, and not until March 14, 1904, was a woman's suffrage bill +again introduced; this bill did not become law. At that time the woman's +suffrage movement was lifeless, and in a thoroughly hopeless condition. +All the usual means of propaganda had been exhausted,--meetings, +petitions, and personal work during campaigns made no impressions either +on the members of Parliament, the government, or on public opinion. It was +no longer possible to educe arguments _against_ the right of _qualified_ +women to vote (it was not a question of universal suffrage, but, just as +in the case of the men, it was a matter of granting the franchise to women +holding property in their own name and earning their own living). +Governments, however, wish to be _coerced_ into granting the franchise, +and the representatives of the woman's suffrage movement were not +determined enough to exercise the necessary coercion. Therefore, the +National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies transferred the leadership of +the movement to the National Women's Social and Political Union, whose +members are known by the name of suffragettes. This transference of +leadership took place during the autumn of 1905. + +The suffragettes then adopted militant tactics, making the government +their point of attack. This was a good stroke, for since 1905 England has +had a Liberal Cabinet, and several of the ministers and over 400 of the +600 members of the House of Commons have declared themselves as friends of +woman's suffrage. "Then why don't you grant us our political freedom?" +asked the suffragettes. + +The women are heads of families, they pay rent and taxes, just as the men. +All their conditions of livelihood are as dependent upon the laws as are +those of the men. A _liberal_ government and _liberal_ members of +Parliament ought to be liberal towards women and grant them the suffrage. +Many of these ministers and many members of Parliament owe their political +careers, their election, and their influence to the practical campaign +activities of women or to the woman's suffrage movement, which they +supported in order to enlarge their political influence. They have made +use of the woman's suffrage movement and now wish to do nothing in return. +The fate of all woman's suffrage bills introduced since 1870 (13 in +number) proves that it is hopeless to have such bills introduced by +private members. _Women must turn their hopes to a bill introduced by the +government._ The present Liberal government needs only to treat the matter +seriously; then a woman's suffrage bill will be passed. + +But the government has not treated the matter seriously; hence the +suffragettes have declared war. It is their determination to fight every +ministry which is not kindly disposed toward the suffrage movement. + +The struggle is carried on by the following means: organization of +societies; meetings throughout the country; street parades and open air +meetings (especially significant are those of June 13 and 21, 1908); the +employment of first-class speakers, who make concise, clear, ingenious, +and stirring speeches; the raising of large sums of money (20,000 pounds, +_i.e._ $100,000 annually; there is a reserve fund of 50,000 pounds, _i.e._ +$250,000); the publication of a well-managed periodical, _Votes for +Women_.[35] + +The leaders are Mrs. and Miss Pankhurst, Mrs. Drummond, Annie Kenney, Mr. +and Mrs. Pethick Lawrence. These and the most determined of their +associates undertake to send deputations to the Liberal Prime Minister, +Mr. Asquith, and to ask the question in all public meetings in which +members of the Cabinet speak,--when will you give women the right to vote? + +The deputations go to Parliament _because women, as taxpayers, have the +right to speak to the Prime Minister_, who continually receives +deputations of men. Since the Prime Minister does not wish to grant women +the right to vote, the deputations of women are prevented from entering +the Houses of Parliament by strong squads of police, both mounted and on +foot; and if the women do not desist from their attempt to make known to +the Prime Minister the resolutions of their meeting, they are arrested for +the disturbance of the peace, the interruption of traffic, or the +instigation of tumult and riot; they are arraigned in the _police court_ +and are sentenced to imprisonment in the ordinary prisons. The Liberal +government stubbornly refuses to regard these women as political offenders +and to punish them as such. + +The woman's suffrage advocates, who ask the Cabinet members questions in +public meetings, direct their questions to both friends and opponents of +woman's suffrage. For, they inquire, of what use are our friends to us if +they do nothing for us? The members of the English Cabinet have a joint +responsibility for their political programme. If the friends of woman's +suffrage treat the matter seriously, they must either convert their +colleagues or resign. As long as they do not do that, they are merely +playing with woman's suffrage and the women think it necessary to "heckle" +them. The women who ask the questions are often ejected from the meetings +in a very rough way.[36] + +The suffragettes give the government conclusive proof of their political +power when they oppose Liberal candidates at all by-elections and +contribute to the defeat of the candidates or cause a reduction of their +votes. To the present this has occurred in fourteen cases. It is due to +the success of these tactics that the whole world is to-day speaking about +woman's suffrage, which has become a burning political question in +England. All along the people and the press are giving greater support to +the suffragettes who have the courage to brave the horrors of the London +prison, and there become acquainted with the distress of the poor, the +destitute, and the helpless. + +During the last three or four years of the activity of the suffragettes a +great number of woman's suffrage organizations were founded: The Woman's +Freedom League (Mrs. Despard), The Men's League for Woman's Suffrage, The +Artists' Suffrage League, The Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise +Association, The Actresses' Franchise League, The Writers' League, etc. +Scotland and Ireland have their own woman's suffrage associations. + +In opposition there have been formed the National Women's Antisuffrage +Association and a Men's League for Opposing Woman's Suffrage (those are +supported chiefly by the aristocratic circles). They declare that woman +does not need the right to vote since she exercises an "enormous indirect +influence"; that woman does not _wish_ the right to vote; that her +subordination is based on natural law since brute force rules the world; +woman's suffrage would result in England's destruction, if a majority of +women voters (England has a majority of women) were permitted to decide +questions concerning the army and navy. + +The leader of the suffragettes, Mrs. Fawcett, recently established the +fact that the newly formed Association has a considerably smaller number +of prominent names among its members _than the organization formed two +years ago_, which soon came to an inglorious end. She emphasized the fact +that the two important women, who at that time still favored the +antisuffrage movement,--Mrs. Louise Creighton and Mrs. Sidney Webb,--have +since gone over to the suffrage advocates. On the occasion of Mrs. +Fawcett's public debate with Mrs. Humphry Ward, the leader of the +antisuffragists (in February, 1909), it happened that 235 of those present +favored woman's suffrage and 74 were opposed. + +The argument against the brute force statement was treated in three +excellent articles in _Votes for Women_ under the title "The Physical +Force Fallacy."[37] The most influential of the English women, together +with the women in the industries, the students of both sexes, the +workingwomen,--in short, the intellectual and professional women are in +favor of the suffragettes; and the woman's suffrage advocates have "the +spiritual certainty" that moves mountains. Let no one believe that the +appeals made on the streets, the parades of the women as sandwich-men, or +the noisy publicity of their tactics are gladly indulged in by the women. +These actions are entirely opposed to woman's nature. But the women have +recognized that these tactics are necessary and they act accordingly +because it is their duty. Such movements have always been successful. + +Women do not possess the right to vote in parliamentary elections; but, if +taxpayers, they can vote in municipal affairs in the whole of Great +Britain and Ireland. The _married_ women of England and Wales have a +restricted right of suffrage, however: they are "persons" and therefore +voters in parochial elections, in the election of poor-law administrators, +and of urban and rural district councillors; but they are not regarded as +"persons" and are not voters in elections for the borough and county +councils. In one single case, in the County of London, by the law of 1900, +married women were given almost the same rights as those exercised by +married women in Scotland and Ireland.[38] The right of single or married +women to hold office (passive suffrage)[39] has prevailed in England and +Wales since 1869 in respect to the offices of guardians of the poor, +overseers, waywardens, churchwardens,--and since 1870 (Education Act) in +respect to school boards.[40] At the very first school elections women +were elected, which induced women to have themselves presented also as +candidates for the offices of poor-law administrators. In 1875 the first +unmarried woman was elected to that office, the first married woman in +1881. In the discharge of their duties in both classes of offices the +women have acted admirably. Nevertheless, the reactionary Education Act of +June, 1903, took away from the women the right to hold office as members +of school boards in the County of London. They can still secure +administrative offices by governmental appointment, but no longer by an +election. In 1888 were created the county councils for England and Wales; +the county councils were at the same time organs for the self-governing +municipalities. Since this law, like those of 1869 and 1870, did not +specially exclude women from the right to hold office, two women, Mrs. +Cobden and Lady Sandhurst, presented themselves as candidates for the +office of county councillors of London. They were elected. Thereupon Mrs. +Beresford-Hope, whom Lady Sandhurst had defeated, contested the legality +of the election. In 1889, the Court of Appeals declared that women were +eligible to public office only _when this is expressly stated_.[41] This +decision of the Court, which was in conflict with the English +Constitution, also brought about the loss of the right of the women of +Scotland and Ireland to hold office as county councillors. + +As a result of this judicial decision, when the new Local Self-government +Act for England and Wales was enacted (1894), it was necessary expressly +to state the eligibility of women (unmarried and married) to hold the +minor local offices (parish, urban, rural district councillors, poor-law +guardians, etc.). Article 22, however (in spite of historical precedents), +excluded women from the office of justice of the peace. In 1894 the same +thing occurred in Scotland, and in 1898 in Ireland. + +In 1899, the attempt to secure the eligibility of women to the +metropolitan borough councils (for London only)[42] failed, owing to the +opposition of the House of Lords. + +The law of 1907,[43] known as the _Qualification of Women Act_, grants +unmarried women the right to hold office in the borough and county +councils (councillor, alderman, mayor). Married women have this right only +in the County of London; elsewhere they can merely vote for these +officers.[44] On the occasion of the first elections under this act twelve +women presented themselves as candidates; six were elected (one as mayor); +hitherto the women had been elected only in small places, and then owing +to exceptional circumstances. Whoever investigates the struggle of the +women to secure their rights in the local government and studies the +attitude of the men toward these exceedingly just demands will comprehend +the exasperating circumstances under which the women are to-day struggling +for the right to vote in the English parliamentary elections. In questions +of power and of gaining a livelihood [_Macht- und Brotfragen_] the +nobility of man can really not be depended upon. + +The woman's suffrage movement has led to the consummation of a number of +legal reforms: the property laws now legalize the separation of the +property of husband and wife[45]; in the United Kingdom the wife +administers her own property and disposes of it, and has full control over +her earnings. The remainder of the laws regulating marriage are still +rather rigorous,--in England at least; the wife has no _hereditary right_ +to her husband's property. If she economizes in the administration of the +household, the savings belong to the husband. The wife cannot demand any +pay in money for performing her domestic duties; the mere expenses of +maintenance are sufficient remuneration, etc. In normal cases the _father_ +alone has authority over the children. It is made very difficult for a +woman to secure a divorce, etc.[46] + +The women that have labored so untiringly in political affairs have very +naturally made it a point to promote the educational opportunities of +their sex. Since 1870, the elementary school system has been regulated by +the school boards, which have introduced obligatory public instruction. In +these institutions the boys and girls are segregated (except in the rural +districts). On an average there is one male teacher to every three women +teachers in these institutions. The secondary schools are private, as in +Australia. Hence it was not necessary for the English women to wrest every +concession from a reluctant government (as was the case in Germany); but +private initiative, combined with the devotion of private individuals, +made possible in a few years the full reorganization of England's +institutions of learning for girls. This reorganization began in 1868 and +led to the following results: the establishment of higher institutions of +learning in all English cities (these are called girls' public day +schools, most of them being day schools. They are governed by committees +consisting of the founders, the principals, and the qualified advisers). +Latin and mathematics are obligatory studies in the curriculum. The +schools are in close relationship with Oxford and Cambridge universities, +the universities inspecting the schools and supervising the various +examinations (including the examinations of the students upon leaving the +schools). In England these schools are for girls only; in Scotland, girls +attend similar schools which are coeducational. The number of women +teachers is estimated at 8000. + +Admission to the universities was secured with difficulty by the women. At +first a number of women requested the privilege of attending lectures in +the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Since these universities are +resident colleges, it was necessary to provide boarding places for women. +This was done in 1869 and 1870 in both places, through the work of Miss +Emily Davies and Miss Anna Clough. Both of these beginnings developed into +the women's colleges of Girton and Newnham. Since then, St. Margaret's +Hall, Somersville Hall, and Holloway College have been established for +women. These institutions correspond to the German philosophical faculties +[the colleges of literature and liberal arts in the United States]. An +entrance examination is necessary for admission. The course of study is +three years. The final examination, called "tripos," embraces three +subjects; it corresponds to the German _Oberlehrerexamen_,--examinations +given to candidates for the position of teachers in the _Gymnasiums_, the +_Realgymnasiums_, _Oberrealgymnasiums_, etc. Theology, medicine, and law +cannot be studied in these woman's colleges (any more than in the American +woman's colleges). Part of the teachers live in the woman's college +buildings; part of them belong to the faculties of Oxford and Cambridge. +The former are women tutors and professors. + +The English colleges for women are maintained by private funds. Many women +not wishing to take the "tripos" examination or to become teachers attend +the university to acquire a higher education. Others prepare themselves +for the degree of Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, or Doctor of +Philosophy. These examinations are accepted by Oxford and Cambridge +universities, but the women are not granted the corresponding titles, +because the use of such titles would make the women _Fellows_ of the +University, which would entitle them to the use of the university gardens +and parks, and to live in one of the colleges. All other universities in +England, Scotland, and Ireland, with the exception of Trinity College, +Dublin, admit women to all departments, accepting their examinations and +granting them academic degrees. + +The women's colleges are centers of sport,--incidentally they possess +their own fire department. To arouse an interest in political affairs and +to develop facility in speaking, debating clubs have been organized. More +than 1300 women have graduated from Cambridge, and more than 1200 from the +University of London. When Mary Putnam wished to study medicine in 1868, +she had to go to Paris. Jex Blake, who attempted the same thing in +Edinburgh in 1869, was driven out by the students. She went to London and +was there at first given instruction by the noble Dr. Anstie. As early as +1870 there was formed in London a special School of Medicine for women, to +which a hospital for women was later attached, being directed and +supported entirely by women physicians. To-day, 553 women doctors are +practicing in Great Britain. Of these 538 have expressed themselves in +favor of, and 15 against, woman's suffrage. In England, women were first +permitted to take the public examination in dental surgery as late as +1908; while the Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Irish Royal Colleges of Surgeons +had admitted them long before. Women can study law in England, but as yet +they have not been admitted to the bar. If this privilege were granted to +women, they would have to affiliate with the London lawyers' associations, +such as the _Inner Temple_, the _Middle Temple_, _Gray's Inn_, etc. +Members of these organizations must several times a month attend the +dinners or banquets of the lawyers. These corporate customs of the English +Bar are said to exclude women from the legal profession just as similar +customs have excluded them from tutorships and professorships in Oxford +and Cambridge. + +In spite of this, Miss Cave recently sought admission to _Gray's Inn_, but +was refused _because she was a woman_. She appealed her case to the Lords +of Appeal in Ordinary, but they declared that they had no jurisdiction; +the matter will be pursued further. The first woman preacher in England, a +native of Germany, Miss v. Petzold, studied theology in Germany and +graduated there. After her trial sermon in Leicester she was elected in +preference to her male competitors. Later she accepted a call to Chicago. +The Congregationalists have four women preachers; the Salvation Army over +3000. Except in those callings where personal ability is determinative, +the salaries of English women are lower than those of the men. The women +have a large field for their efforts in the public schools (where there +are three women teachers to one man teacher). In the secondary schools for +girls, instruction and control are entirely in the hands of women; their +salaries are quite sufficient (the minimum being 100 pounds sterling, +about $500). As we have seen, the higher institutions of learning also +offer the women well-paid positions (the tutors being paid $2000, with +board and lodging; the principals $2500). + +The _well-paid_ civil offices are reserved for the men. Although there are +more women teachers and more female students in the schools than males, +there are 244 male inspectors of public schools and 18 women inspectors; +the male inspector-general is paid 1000 pounds sterling annually, the +woman inspector-general 500 pounds. In the secondary schools there are 20 +male inspectors and 3 women inspectors with annual salaries of 400 to 800 +pounds, and 300 pounds respectively. The women teachers of the elementary +schools (of whom there are approximately 111,000) draw on an average two +thirds the salary of the men teachers, though they have the same training +and do the same amount of work. + +In spite of the fact that there are two million women engaged in industry, +there are 900 male factory inspectors and hardly 60 female factory +inspectors. Here again the men are paid 1000 pounds and the women only 500 +pounds a year. In the postal and telegraph service the same injustice +exists: the men begin with a minimum wage of 20 shillings a week, while +the women are paid 14 shillings; the men increase their salaries to 62 +shillings a week; the women to 30 shillings. The male telegraph operator +begins with 18 shillings and is finally given 65 shillings a week; the +woman telegraph operator begins with 16 and reaches 40 shillings. The male +clerks of the second division of the civil service are paid 250 pounds and +the women 100 annually. In 1908, the number of women employees in the +postal and telegraph service of Great Britain was 13,259; the number of +women supernumeraries, 30,476: total number, 43,735. The highest positions +(heads of departments, staff officers) have been attained by 4 women and +by 178 men. + +In recent years many new callings have been opened to women living in the +cities. They are engaged in the manufacture of confectionery. Prominent +and wealthy women have established businesses of their own, in which fine +confections are produced,--in many cases by destitute, nervous, and +overworked women music teachers. Women are active as bookbinders, +stockbrokers, bills of exchange agents, auditors, teachers of domestic +economy, instructors in gymnastics, ladies' guides, wardrobe dealers (the +costly robes of the women of fashion are sold on commission through +agents), paperers and decorators, etc. + +The Woman's Institute[47] has published a complete handbook on the +occupations of women. This book does not omit the occupation of explorer, +in which Mrs. French Sheldon has distinguished herself (by exploration in +the interior of Africa). In London, the number of women engaged in +gainful pursuits is naturally very large, many of the women being alone in +the world. The women journalists and authoresses in London have been +numerous enough to organize a club of their own,--the Writers' Club, in +the Strand. The number of women employed in commercial houses is very +large,--450,000. The weekly wages, especially the wages of the saleswomen +in the shops, are often quite moderate, 20 to 25 shillings where +exceptional demands are made as to attractive dress and appearance. The +women have organized the Shop Assistants' Union. For women with this +weekly wage the securing of good rooms and board at a reasonable price is +a vital question. There are three apartment houses for workingwomen,--the +_Sloane Garden Houses_, and the apartments for women in Chenies Street and +in York Street. Women teachers, designers, artists, bookkeepers, cashiers, +secretaries and stenographers obtain room and board here at varying rates. +There are bedrooms (with two beds) for 4-1/2 to 5 shillings a week for +each person, furnished rooms for 10 to 14 shillings. The dining room is a +restaurant. Only the evening meal, dinner (served from 6 to 7), is served +to all at once. This meal costs 10 pence (20 cents). In Chenies Street +living expenses are somewhat higher: 6 pence for breakfast, 9 pence for +luncheon, 1 shilling for dinner; which is about 55 cents a day for board. +For suites of two to four rooms $15 to $30 a month is charged. The +_Alexandra House_ in Kensington offers women artists similar privileges; +the _Brabanzon House_ (under the protection of the Countess of Meath) +accommodates employees of the shops only. Since the English women +are--fortunately--independent in spirit, these institutions lack the +scholastic, monastic, or tutelary characteristics that are unfortunately +found in many similar institutions on the continent. + +Very few of the English women have become industrial entrepreneurs. +However, they have directed their attention to agriculture as a means of +earning a livelihood and have organized agricultural schools for women. +Here the women engage especially in poultry raising, vegetable and fruit +growing, which in England are very lucrative; England annually imports 41 +million pounds' worth of milk, eggs, poultry, vegetables, and fruits. The +councils of London, Berkshire, Essex, and Kent counties support the +Horticultural College for women in Swanley, Kent, which was founded +privately by wealthy and influential persons. In England 100,000 women are +engaged in agriculture. The demand for trained women gardeners to-day +still exceeds the supply. Trained women gardeners are frequently engaged +for a long term of years to teach untrained gardeners. Women are employed +in the Royal Botanical Gardens in Kew and in Edinburgh. Holloway College +has a woman gardener. In 1898 a model farm for women was founded by Lady +Warwick in Reading. The institution began with twelve women students, who +cultivated two acres of land. Within a year the number of students was +quadrupled; and then eleven acres were cultivated instead of two. + +The woman that wishes to learn stock feeding and dairying is sent to a +special farm. The course requires two years. The _Agricultural Association +for Women_, founded by Lady Warwick, aids the women agriculturists and +finds positions for the pupils. In Great Britain there are eight public +schools in which women can learn agriculture and gardening. Many county +councils have established courses in gardening, to which women are +admitted. + +Agriculture is encouraged in England because the migration from the +country to the city has increased extraordinarily. Agriculture is +restricted in favor of stock raising, which gives employment to fewer +laborers than agriculture. In spite of the great increase in population, +the number of agriculturists has steadily decreased since 1851. On the +other hand, the industrial population (and it is predominantly urban) has +increased significantly. Every industrialization means a pauperization to +a certain extent. It produces the army of unskilled laborers, the victims +of the sweating system, who in a destitute condition are left to eke out +their wretched existence in the "East Ends" of the large cities. There is +no corresponding misery in the country districts. A marked +industrialization therefore causes a degree of general pauperism such as +is unknown in the agricultural regions of western Europe. The pursuit of +gardening among women has a social-political significance. The English +laboring population is estimated at 4,000,000 people, among whom the +trade-union movement has made considerable progress. The English +trade-union statistics of 1904 show 148 trade-unions having women members. +There are all together 125,094 female members, _i.e._ 6.7 per cent of all +organized laborers. The greatest number of these are in the textile +industries (almost 100,000). The total number of women laborers in this +industry is 800,000. + + MEN WOMEN + (SHIL. A WEEK) (SHIL. A WEEK) + + Cotton Industry 29.6 18.8 + Woolen Industry 26.1 13.1 + Lace Industry 39.6 13.5 + Woven Goods Industry 31.5 14.3 + Linen Industry 22.4 10.9 + Jute Industry 21.7 13.5[48] + +In the textile industry, in which women are better organized than +elsewhere (there being 96,000), there existed in 1906 the preceding +difference between the wages of men and women (see table, p. 84). + +The organization of women laborers was first advocated by Mrs. Paterson +and Miss Simcox at the trade-union congress held in Glasgow in 1875. But +this organization is confronted with the same difficulties as exist +elsewhere: the women believe that they are engaged in non-domestic work +only temporarily; therefore they are interested in the improvement of +labor only to a slight degree, and in addition are burdened with +housework; while the male laborer is free when the factory closes. In +almost all industries women are paid lower wages than men,--partly because +those who are poorly equipped are given the lower grades of work and are +not given an opportunity to do the more difficult work; partly, too, +because _they are women, i.e._ people of the second order. Weekly wages of +5 to 7 shillings are common. Naturally, the workingwoman who is all alone +in the world cannot exist on such a sum. In _one_ industry only the women +are given the same pay as the men for doing the same work,--this is the +textile industry in Lancashire. Since 1847 this industry has been +protected by a law prohibiting night work for women. In this industry men +and women laborers are organized in the same trade-union. The standard of +living of the whole body of workers is very high. There can be no doubt +that the legislation for the protection of the laborers of this industry, +in which the exploitation of women and children had been carried to the +extreme previous to 1847, has caused the raising of the general standard +of living. Without the intervention of law, exploitation would have been +pursued further in this industry. So the English women have before them an +example of the salutary effect of legislation for the protection of the +laborers in the textile industries. Nevertheless, there is in England a +faction among the woman's rights advocates which vigorously resists every +movement for the protection of women laborers; it has organized itself +into the "League for Freedom of Labor Defense." It acts on the principle +that every law for the protection of women laborers signifies an +unjustifiable tutelage; that the workingwomen should defend themselves +through the organization of trade-unions; that the laws for the protection +of women laborers decrease women's opportunities for work and drive them +from their positions, which are filled by men (who can work at night). + +These fears are based purely on theory. In practice they are realized only +in entirely isolated cases. The truth is that legislation for the +protection of women laborers (prohibition of night work and the fixing of +a maximum number of work hours a day) is entirely favorable to an +overwhelming majority of workingwomen. It protects them against a degree +of exploitation that they could not resist unaided because _the majority +of them are not organized_, and have no power to organize themselves; they +will secure this power only through laws protecting women laborers. A +comparative international study of laws for the protection of women +laborers, published by the Belgian department of labor,[49] shows that the +number of women laborers has nowhere decreased, and that wages have not +declined as a result. + +Concerning this point Mrs. Sidney Webb says: "In most cases women _cannot_ +be replaced by men, either because the men are not sufficiently dextrous +or because their labor is too expensive. What employer will pay a man 20 +to 30 shillings a week when a woman can accomplish just as much for 5 to +12 shillings a week?" We shall return to this subject in discussing +France. + +Those women that are members of trade-unions persistently demand the right +to vote; many of them intimate that through this right they expect to +secure an increase in wages. Naturally the wishes of women laborers +possessing the franchise will be considered very differently from the +wishes of those not possessing this right. Proof of this has been given +by the American woman's suffrage states. Previous to the debates on +woman's suffrage in Parliament in 1904, a deputation of workingwomen from +the potteries in Staffordshire presented the members of Parliament from +that district with a petition having 4000 signatures, requesting the +introduction of a woman's suffrage bill, so that women might not continue +to be excluded from all well-paid positions on account of their political +inferiority. On this occasion the Hon. Mr. A. L. Emmott (member of +Parliament from the Oldham district) declared that the salary of the women +employees in the postal savings banks had been reduced from 65 pounds +(with an annual increase of 3 pounds) to 55 pounds (with an annual +increase of 2 pounds, 10 shillings). _This would have been impossible if +women had had the right to vote._ Domestic servants are as yet organized +only to a small extent, but they are well trained; they number 1,331,000. + +In none of the Anglo-Saxon countries of the world is there a schism +between the woman's rights movements of the middle class and the +Social-Democrats, such as is found in Germany. In each of the Anglo-Saxon +countries there is a Socialist, and even an Anarchist party, but these +parties do not antagonize the woman's rights movement. The republican +constitutions in America,--the more democratic institutions of +society,--in general moderate the acute opposition. The absence of +historical obstacles has a conciliating influence everywhere in these +countries. In England, where history, monarchy, and traditional class +antagonism seem to give socialism favorable conditions of growth, +socialism has for a long time been hampered by the trade-unions. In other +words, the English workingmen, the first to organize in Europe, had +already improved their condition greatly when the socialistic propaganda +commenced in England. In their trade-unions they confined themselves to +the economic field; they avoided mixing economics with politics; they +worked with both parties, they steered clear of class hatred, and it was +difficult to influence them with the speculative ultimate aims of social +democracy. It has been only in the last decade that social-democracy has +made any progress in England; therefore in the woman's rights movement +middle-class women and workingwomen work together peaceably. + +Of all the women in Europe the English women first became conscious of +their duty toward the lower classes. In this atmosphere,--clubs and homes +for working girls, and the London "College for Working +Women,"--institutions such as we on the continent know only in isolated +cases flourished readily. These institutions devote their attention to the +girls of the lower ranks of society. + +The oldest club is the "Soho Club and Home for Working Girls" in Soho +Square, London, founded in 1880 by the Hon. Maude Stanley. It is open from +seven in the morning to ten at night and _also on Sunday_. Tea can be +obtained for 2-1/2 pence (5 cents), and dinner for 6-1/2 pence (13 cents). +The admission fee is 1 shilling, the annual dues are 8 shillings. The +members have a library at their disposal, and they publish a club +magazine, _The London Girls' Club Union Magazine_. Members of such clubs +(including those outside London) have formed themselves into a union. The +members of the committee--composed of wealthy and influential +women--concern themselves personally with the affairs of the clubs, giving +not only their money, but their time and influence. The "College for +Working Women" has existed in Fitzroy Square for more than 25 years. Here +are taught English, French, history, geography, drawing, arithmetic, +reading, writing, singing, cooking, sewing, wood turning, and other +subjects. The quarterly fee is 1 shilling (for use of the library, +attending lectures, etc.), the fees for the courses range from 1 shilling +and 3 pence to 2 shillings and 6 pence (31 to 62 cents) quarterly. A +commission gives examinations. The institution grants scholarships and +gives prizes. The number of such clubs in the whole of Great Britain is +estimated at 800. + +The English woman is developing a considerable activity in the +sociological field. Florence Nightingale, who organized a regular hospital +service on the field of battle during the Crimean War (1854), upon her +return to England took steps to secure the training of educated women for +the nursing profession, in which the English nurse has been the model. The +most important Training College for nurses not connected with religious +orders is in Henrietta Street, in London. Still this distinguished +profession, which is represented in the International Red Cross Society, +has not yet attained state registration of nurses,--_i.e._ an officially +prescribed course of study concluding with a state examination. + +The English midwives are vehemently complaining because the new Midwives +Act will be deliberated on by a commission having no midwife as a member. +The superintendent of the London Institute for Midwives has protested +against this on behalf of 26,000 midwives. + +Another woman, Octavia Hill, participated in the official inquiry of the +living conditions of the London East End, which led to a systematic +campaign against the slums. This work is at present continued in London by +31 or more women sanitary officers. They supplement the work of the +factory inspectors, since they inspect the conditions under which women +home-workers live. In the whole country there are more than 80 such women +sanitary officers. + +The home-workers are mostly women. Half of the 900,000 or more English +women engaged in the manufacture of ready-made clothing are permitted to +work at home. Their wages are wretchedly low. The government, which pays +the _men_ of the Woolwich Arsenal trade-union wages, is one of the worst +exploiters of women (who do not have the right to vote); in the Army +Clothing Works the government employs women either directly or indirectly +(as home-workers through sweaters).[50] + +The urgent need of widening woman's field of labor and improving her +conditions of labor is clearly stated in a lecture which Miss B. L. +Hutchins delivered before the Royal Statistical Society. According to the +census of 1901 there were 1,070,000 more women than men in Great Britain. +In 1901, of every 1000 persons 516 were women (in 1841, only 511 were +women). The longevity of women is higher than that of men (47.77 to +44.13). When the old age pensions were introduced, 135 women to every 100 +men applied for aid. Only half of the adult women (5,700,000) are provided +for through marriage, and then only for 20 to 30 years of their lives. +Previous to marriage, and afterward, most of the women are dependent on +their own work for a living. Because English women know from experience +that their conditions of labor can be improved only through the exercise +of the suffrage, they have adopted their "militant tactics." + +In the field of poor-relief England again has taken the lead, inasmuch as +she has permitted women to fill honorary posts in the municipal +administration of the poor-law. At the present time 1162 women are engaged +in this work, 147 of whom are rural district councillors. + +The chief reform efforts of the women were directed to the care of +children and to the workhouses, through which channels private aid reaches +the recipient. Still, among 22,000 guardians of the poor the number of +women hardly reaches 1000. The old prejudice against women asserted itself +even in this field. A "Society for Promoting the Return of Women as +Poor-law Guardians" is endeavoring to hasten reform.[51] + +The Englishman has the valuable characteristic of forming organizations +that strive to achieve very definite, though often temporary, ends, thus +giving private initiative great flexibility. Such an organization, with a +limited purpose, is the "Woman's Cooperative Gild," founded in 1883. Its +purpose is to promote the cooperative movement (as far as consumption is +concerned) among women, and to show them their enormous social and +economic power as _consumers_. Women are the chief purchasers, as they +purchase the housekeeping supplies. It is to their interest to purchase +through the cooperative associations that exclude the middlemen, and at +the end of the year pay a dividend to the members of the associations. +These associations can exercise an important social influence inasmuch as +they create model conditions of labor for their employees (short working +day, high wages, early closing of the shops, no work on Sundays or +holidays, opportunity to sit down during working hours, insurance against +sickness, old age insurance, sanitary conditions of labor, etc.). The Gild +organizes women into cooperative societies, and by theoretical as well as +practical studies informs the women of the advantages of the cooperative +system. The movement to-day numbers 26,000 members. + +In England a marked increase in the use of alcoholic liquors among women +was noticed; whereupon legal and medical measures were taken to curb the +evil. The most effective measure would be an attack on the drunkenness of +the husband, which destroys the home. + +The official report of the first English school for mothers, located in +St. Pancras, London, has just appeared. This report shows that the +experiment has been entirely successful. Of all measures to decrease the +death rate among children, the establishment of schools for mothers is the +best. During the course of instruction the young married women were +recommended to organize mothers' clubs in order to secure the necessaries +of life more cheaply. The school for mothers also attempts to give the +young mothers nourishing meals, which can be furnished for the low sum of +2-3/4 pence (about 6 cents). + +In the field of morals English women have achieved a success which might +well excite the envy of other countries; viz. the repeal of the law of +1869 concerning the state regulation of prostitution. The law had hardly +been accepted by an accidental majority when public opinion, under the +leadership of members of Parliament, doctors, and preachers, protested +against the measure. Nothing made such an impression as the public +appearance of a woman on behalf of the repeal of this measure concerning +women. In spite of all scorn, all feigned and frequently malicious +pretensions not to comprehend her, in spite of all attempts, frequently +brutal, to browbeat her,--Josephine Butler from 1870 to 1886 unswervingly +supported the view that the regulation was to be condemned from the legal, +sanitary, and moral viewpoint. Through the tireless work of Mrs. Butler +and her faithful associates, Parliament in 1886 repealed the act providing +for the regulation of prostitution. Since 1875, Mrs. Butler has organized +internationally the struggle against the official regulation of +prostitution. On December 30, 1906, death came to the noble woman. + +Conditions in England are an evidence of how much more difficult it is for +the woman's rights movement to make progress in _old_ countries than in +new. Traditions are deeply rooted, customs are firmly established, the +whole weight of the past is blocking the wheels of progress. In countries +with older civilization the woman's question is entirely a question of +force.[52] + + +CANADA + + Total population: 5,372,600. + Women: 2,619,578. + Men: 2,751,473. + + Canadian Federation of Women's Clubs. + Canadian Woman's Suffrage Association. + +Politically Canada belongs to England, geographically it is a part of +North America. The Canadian women take a keen interest in the woman's +rights movement of the United States, which is setting them an excellent +example. The last congress of the "International Council of Women" met in +Toronto, Canada, under the presidency of Lady Aberdeen, the present +president and the wife of the former governor-general of Canada. Canada is +a large, young, agricultural country with large families and primitive +needs. Therefore the progress of the woman's rights movement is less +marked in Canada than in the United States and England. Throughout Canada +the workingwoman is paid less than the workingman, partly because she is +more poorly trained, partly because she is kept in subordinate positions, +partly because, in order to find work at all, she must offer her services +for less money. Even when teaching, or doing piecework, woman is paid less +than man. In Canada there is as yet no political woman's rights movement +strong enough to rectify this injustice by means of organizations and laws +as has been done in Australia. As yet there are no women preachers in +Canada. Women lawyers are confronted both with popular prejudice and legal +obstacles. The study and practice of medicine is made very difficult for +women, especially in Quebec and Montreal. In New Brunswick and Ontario as +well as in the northwest provinces there is a more liberal attitude toward +women's pursuit of higher education. No Canadian university excludes women +entirely, but not a few of the higher institutions of learning refuse +women admission to certain courses and refuse to grant certain degrees. +The prevailing property laws in the eastern part of Canada legalize joint +property holding (and we know what that means for woman); in the western +part there is separation of property rights or at least separate control +over earnings, the wife having full control of her wages. The male +Canadian, when twenty-one years old, becomes a voter and has full +political rights.[53] But the Canadian woman has only restricted suffrage +rights. Unmarried women that are taxpayers exercise only active suffrage +in _municipal and school elections_. Each province has its own laws +regulating these conditions of suffrage. + +The Copenhagen Congress (1906) of the International Woman's Suffrage +Alliance promoted the cause of woman's suffrage in Canada very +considerably. At a public meeting in which the Canadian delegate, Mrs. +MacDonald Denison, gave a report of the work of the International +Congress, a resolution favoring woman's suffrage was adopted, and this was +used very effectively in propaganda. This propaganda was carried on among +women's clubs, students' clubs, debating clubs, etc. The intellectual +elite is to-day in favor of woman's suffrage. In 1907 the Canadian Woman's +Suffrage Association, supported by the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, +the Women Teachers, the Medical Alumnae, the Progressive Thought +Association, the Toronto Local Council of Women, and the Progressive Club, +sent a delegation to the Mayor and Council of the city of Toronto to +express their support of a resolution which the Council had drawn up +favoring the right of married women to vote in municipal elections. Thus +supported, the resolution was presented to the authorized commission, but +here it was weakened by an amendment (granting the suffrage only to +married women _owning property_). The author of this amendment, a member +of the Toronto City Council, received his reward for this kindness to the +women in the form of a defeat at the next election. + +Organizations favoring woman's suffrage have been founded throughout the +country (Halifax, Nova Scotia; St. John, New Brunswick). Woman's suffrage +advocates speak in mass meetings and in men's clubs, etc.[54] + +A demand for woman's suffrage, made by the Woman's Christian Temperance +Union, was answered evasively by the Prime Minister, Sir Wilfred +Laurier,--the provincial parliaments must take the matter up first, then +the Dominion Parliament can consider it. In the spring of 1909 the City +Council of Toronto sent a petition favoring woman's suffrage to the +Canadian Parliament, and at the same time 1000 woman's suffrage advocates +called on the Prime Minister. The 1909 Congress of the International +Woman's Suffrage Alliance will undoubtedly help the Canadian woman's +suffrage movement. + + +SOUTH AFRICA + + _Natal and Cape Colony_[55] + Total population: 1,830,063. + _Transvaal_ + Total population: 1,354,200. + + Woman's Suffrage Association for all three countries. + +In South Africa, Natal was the leader in the woman's rights movement. In +1902, through the work of Mr. and Mrs. Ancketill, the Woman's Equal +Suffrage League was organized, which endeavored primarily to interest and +educate its members. Later, in 1904, public propaganda was begun. In June +a petition was presented to the Lower House by Mr. Ancketill. When he +presented the matter in the form of a motion, it was not put to a vote, +owing to the newness of the subject. The agricultural population opposes +woman's suffrage; the urban population favors it. The woman's rights +movement is made difficult in South Africa by the following circumstances: +An enervating climate "that makes people languidly content with things as +they are." The lack of educated and independent women (women teachers are +state employees); the lack of a numerous class of workingwomen; difficult +housekeeping, owing to the untrustworthiness of the natives as domestic +servants; the peculiar position of men as taxpayers (men only pay a poll +tax) and as arms bearers (all men must serve in the army).[56] + +In Cape Colony similar conditions prevail. The Women's Enfranchisement +League was formed in 1907; and in July, 1907, there took place the first +woman's suffrage debate in Parliament. The woman's suffrage societies of +Natal, Cape Colony, and the Transvaal have formed an association and have +joined the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. In Natal and Cape +Colony women taxpayers exercise the right to vote in municipal affairs. +The regulation of the suffrage qualifications for the Federal Parliament +is being considered. The South African delegates in London (1909) +expressed the fear that women would not be given the federal suffrage. + + +THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES + + _Sweden_ + Total population: 5,377,713. + Women: 2,751,257. + Men: 2,626,456. + + _Finland_ + Total population: 2,712,562. + Women: 1,370,480. + Men: 1,342,082. + + _Norway_ + Total population: 2,240,860. + Women: 1,155,169. + Men: 1,085,691. + + _Denmark_ + Total population: 2,588,919. + Women: 1,331,154. + Men: 1,257,765. + +Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Denmark will be grouped together since they +are so closely connected by race and culture; repetition will thereby be +avoided, and clearness promoted. + +All four countries have the advantage of having a population largely +agricultural,--a population scattered in small groups. Clearly, the +problem of dealing with congested masses of people is here absent. +Everywhere there is an eagerness for education. The educational average is +high. The position of woman is one of freedom, for here have been kept +alive the old Germanic traditions which we [the Germans] know only from +reading Caesar or Tacitus. An external factor in hastening the solution of +the question of woman's rights was the very unusual numerical superiority +of women. The foreign wars, which took the majority of the men away from +home for long periods of time,--first in the Middle Ages, and then again +in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,--and the fact that the +Scandinavian countries themselves were afflicted with wars only to a small +extent, explain the freedom of the Scandinavian women. Like the English +women, they had for centuries not known the significance of war for woman. +In the absence of the men, women continued the transaction of business and +industrial enterprises. In the name of the feudal law and as heads of +families they administered affairs, exercising rights that were elsewhere +denied to women. + + +SWEDEN + + Total population: 5,377,213. + Women: 2,751,257. + Men: 2,626,456. + + Swedish Association of Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage Society. + +In Sweden the woman's rights movement is closely connected with that of +the United States. The founder of the Swedish woman's rights movement was +Frederika Bremer, who in 1845 visited the United States, studying the +conditions of the women there. Upon her return she encouraged the Swedish +women through her novel _Hertha_ to emancipate themselves. This took place +in 1856. The government, being unable to disregard the free traditions of +the past, was thoroughly in favor of the demands of the woman's rights +movement. As early as 1700, women owning property exercised the right of +voting in the election of ministers. In 1843 this right had been extended +to all women taxpayers. In 1845 the daughter's right of inheritance had +been made equal to that of the son's. In 1853 was begun the custom of +appointing women teachers in the small rural schools; in 1859 women were +admitted as teachers in all public institutions of learning. Since 1861 +women have been eligible as dentists, regimental surgeons, and organists +(but not as preachers). In 1862 every unmarried woman or widow over +twenty-one years of age, and paying a tax of 500 crowns (about $135), was +granted active suffrage in municipal affairs. The municipal electors, +inasmuch as they elect the members of the _Landsthing_ (county council) +and the members of the town councils, exercise a political influence, for +the members of the _Landsthing_ and the town councils elect the members of +the two Chambers of the _Riksdag_, the national legislative body. On +February 10, 1909, all taxpaying women (unmarried, widowed, and married) +were granted the _passive_ suffrage (except for the office of county +councillor). Here is a curious fact,--married women that do _not_ possess +the right to vote in municipal affairs can still hold office! + +In 1866 the art academies were opened to women, in 1870, the universities; +later women were permitted to enter the postal and telegraph service. In +peculiar contrast to these reforms are the old regulations concerning the +guardianship of women,[57] which has been especially supported by the +nobility and conservatives, and has been used chiefly to maintain the +subordination of married women. + +Against this condition the "Association to Advocate the Right of Married +Women to Possess Property" has struggled since 1873. It secured, in 1874, +the right of women to make a marriage contract providing for the +separation of property.[58] This association now undertook the political +education of the women voters in municipal elections; hitherto they had +made little use of their right to vote (in 1887, of 62,362 women having +the right to vote only 4844 voted). Thanks to the propaganda of this +association, participation in elections is to-day quite general. The +introduction of coeducation in the secondary schools is also due to the +activity of this association, supported by Professor Wallis, who had +investigated coeducation in the United States. But in the field of +secondary education there is still much to be done for Swedish +women,--their salaries as teachers are lower than those of men; in +matters of advancement and pensions women are discriminated against, +though they are expected to possess professional training and ability +equal to that of the men. + +In 1889 the Baroness of Adlersparre succeeded, through untiring +propaganda, in securing for women admission to school and poor-law +administration. To the baroness is due also the revival of needlework as +an applied art, as well as the revival of agricultural instruction for +women. All of these ideas she had expressed since 1859 in her magazine +_For the Home_ (_Fuers Heim_). + +Since 1884 the center of the Swedish woman's rights movement has been the +"Frederika Bremer League," founded by the Baroness of Adlersparre. This is +a sort of "Woman's Institute," and undertakes inquiries, collects data, +secures employment, organizes members of trades and professions, fixes +minimum wages, organizes petitions, gives advice, offers leadership, gives +stipends; in short, in various ways it centralizes the Swedish women's +rights movement. In 1896 the "Association to Advocate the Right of Married +Women to Possess Property" affiliated with the "Frederika Bremer League." + +The following are the facts concerning the work of educated women in +Sweden: The number of elementary school teachers is about double that of +the men (in 1899 there were 9950 women as compared with 5322 men). The +salaries of the women are everywhere lower than those of the men. In 1908 +there were 12,000 women teachers in the elementary schools, their annual +salary being 1400 crowns ($375) or more. + +There are 35 women doctors in Sweden, most of whom practice in Stockholm. +The Swedish midwives are well trained. Nursing is a respected calling for +educated women; also kinesiatrics (hygienic gymnastics), the latter being +lucrative as well. + +The first woman Doctor of Philosophy was Ellen Fries, who received the +degree in 1883. Sonja Kowalewska was a professor in mathematics in the +free University of Stockholm. Ellen Key is also a teacher, her field being +sociology. + +In Sweden there are two women university lecturers; one in law, the other +in physics. As yet there are no women lawyers and preachers. The +legislative act of February, 1909, which secures for women their +appointment in all _state_ institutions (educational, scientific, +artistic, and industrial), will greatly improve woman's professional +prospects. + +Sweden is not a land of large manufactories; hence there is no problem +arising from the presence of large masses of industrial laborers. Since +1865 the wages of the agricultural laborers have risen 85 per cent for +women and 65 per cent for men. There are 242,914 women engaged in +agriculture, 57,053 in industry,--3400 of the latter being organized. +There are 15,376 women employed in commerce; they are throughout paid +lower wages than the men (400 to 1200 crowns, _i.e._ $107 to $321). + +The organization of the workingwomen is not connected with the woman's +rights movement; it is affiliated with the workingmen's movement. In this +field Ellen Key has been quite active as a national educator. She is a +supporter of the laws for the protection of women laborers, and on this +point she has frequently met opposition among the woman's rights advocates +of Sweden (an opposition similar to that offered by the English Federation +for Freedom of Labor Defense). In 1907 an exposition of home-work was held +in Stockholm, similar to the German expositions. + +The right to vote in national elections[59] in Sweden is exercised by +landowners and taxpayers; however, only by men. Therefore there is a +Swedish National Woman's Suffrage Society, which in recent years has grown +very considerably, having over 10,000 members. In the autumn of 1906 a +delegation from the society was received by the Prime Minister and the +King, who, however, could hold out no promise of a government measure +favoring woman's suffrage. The society then tried to influence the +Parliament with an enormous petition having 142,188 signatures. This +petition was presented February 6, 1907. + +In 1906 and 1907 the Labor party and the Liberal party inserted woman's +suffrage into their platforms and presented bills favoring the measure. +Twice (in 1907 and 1908) Parliament rejected the clause providing for +woman's suffrage. On February 13, 1909, the Swedish males were granted +universal suffrage (active and passive) in national elections; at the same +time Parliament tried to appease the women by granting them the passive +suffrage in municipal elections. In the spring of 1909 the bill concerning +woman's right to vote in national elections (Staaf Bill) was accepted by +the Constitutional Commission by a vote of 11 to 9; the Lower House also +accepted it, but it was rejected by the Upper House. + +The political successes of the Norwegian women have a stimulating effect +on Sweden. + +Prohibition has influential advocates in Sweden, and supporters in +Parliament. At the request of the Swedish women's clubs, police matrons +were appointed to cooperate with the police regulating prostitution in +Stockholm, Helsingborg, Trelleborg, and Malmoe. At the present time a +commission is considering future plans for police regulation of +prostitution in Sweden. + +In Sweden, where there are about half a million organized adherents to +the cause of temperance, there are 77 daily papers that consistently print +matter pertaining to temperance. Not only these 77 papers, most of whose +editors are Good Templars, but at least 13 other dailies refuse all +advertisements of alcoholic liquors.[60] In Norway, where similar +conditions prevail, there are a quarter of a million temperance advocates, +and about 40 daily papers that favor the cause. + + +FINLAND + + Total population: 2,712,562. + Women: 1,370,480. + Men: 1,342,082. + + No league of Finnish women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The discussion of the Finnish woman's rights movement will follow that of +Sweden, for Finland was till 1809 politically a part of Sweden; the +cultural tie still exists. + +In Finland also, the woman's rights movement is of literary +origin,--Adelaide Enrooth and Frederika Runeburg preached the gospel of +woman's emancipation to an intellectual elite. Through the influence of +Bjoernson, Ibsen, and Strindberg the discussion of the "social lie" +(_Gesellschaftsluege_) became general. In the eighties of the last +century, the ideas and criticisms were turned into deeds and reforms. +Above all a thorough education for woman was demanded. Since 1883, +coeducational schools have been established through private funds in all +cities of the country. These institutions have received state aid since +1891. They are secondary schools, having the curriculums of German +_Realschulen_ and _Gymnasiums_.[61] Not only is the student body composed +of _boys_ and _girls_, but the direction and instruction in these schools +are divided equally between _women_ and _men_; thereby the predominance of +the men is counteracted. Even before the establishment of these schools +women had privately prepared themselves for the _Abiturientenexamen_ +(examinations taken when leaving the secondary schools), and had entered +the University of Helsingfors. In 1870 the first woman entered the +University; in 1873 the second; in 1885 two more followed. To-day, 478 +women are registered in Helsingfors. Most of these women are devoting +themselves to the teaching profession, which is more favorable to women in +Finland than in Sweden. The first woman doctor, Rosina Hickel, has been +practicing in Helsingfors since 1879. The number of women doctors has +since risen to 20. + +In Finland any reputable person can plead before the court; but there are +no professional women lawyers and no women preachers. However, there are +women architects and women factory inspectors. Since 1864, women have been +employed in the postal service; since 1869, in the telegraph service and +in the railway offices. Here they draw the same salary as the men, when +acting in the same capacity. Commercial callings have been opened to +women, and there is a demand for women as office clerks. + +The statistical yearbook for Finland does not give separate statistics +concerning workingwomen. The total number of laborers in 1906 was 113,578. +Perhaps one tenth of these were women,--engaged chiefly in the textile and +paper industries, and in the manufacture of provisions and ready-made +clothing. There are few married women engaged in industrial work. Women +are admitted to membership in the trade-unions. + +In a monograph on women engaged in the ready-made clothing industry[62] +are found the following facts (established by official investigation of +621 establishments employing 3205 women laborers): 97.7 per cent of the +women were unmarried, and 2.3 per cent married; the minimum wages were 10 +cents a day; the maximum, $1.50; the women laborers living with their +parents or relatives numbered 1358; the sanitary conditions were bad. + +Home industry in Finland (as well as in Sweden and Norway) has recently +shown a striking growth. It was on the point of succumbing to the cheap +factory products. In order to perpetuate the industry, schools for +housewives were established in connection with the public high schools in +the rural districts. In these schools were taught, in addition to domestic +science and agriculture, various domestic handicrafts that offered the +women a pleasant and useful activity during the long winters. Not being +carried on intensively, these handicrafts could never lead to exploitation +and overwork. + +In 1864 the guardianship of men over unmarried women was abolished. +Married women are still under the guardianship of their husbands. Since +1889, the wife has been able to secure a separation of property by means +of a contract. She has control of her earnings when joint property holding +prevails. The unmarried women taxpayers and landowners have been voters in +municipal elections since 1865. In the rural districts they have also had +the right to hold local administrative offices. Just as in Sweden, they +have the right to participate in the election of ministers; and since 1891 +and 1893 they have had active and passive suffrage in regard to school +boards and poor-law administration. + +Taking advantage of the collapse of Russia in the Far East, Finland--in +May, 1906--established universal active and passive suffrage for all male +and female citizens over twenty-four years of age. She was the first +European country to take this step. On March 15, 1907, the Finnish women +exercised for the first time the right of suffrage in state elections. +Nineteen women were elected to the Parliament (comprising 200 +representatives). The women belonged to all parties, but most of them were +adherents of the Old-Finnish party (having 6 representatives) and of the +Socialist party (having 9 representatives). Ten of the women +representatives were either married or were widows. They belonged quite as +much to the cultured, property-owning class as to the masses. This +Parliament was dissolved in April, 1908. In the new elections of July, 25 +women were elected as representatives. Here again most of the elected +women belonged to the Old-Finnish party (with 6 representatives) and to +the Socialists (with 13 representatives). Nine of the women +representatives are married. Of the husbands of these women one is a +doctor, one a clergyman, one a workingman, two are farmers, etc. Of the +unmarried women representatives six are teachers, two are tailors, two are +editors of women's newspapers, four are traveling lecturers, one is a +factory inspector, and there is one Doctor of Philosophy. + +In both parliaments the women presented numerous measures, some of general +concern, others bearing on woman's rights.[63] Some of the measures +provided for: the improvement of the legal status of illicit children, +parental authority, the protection of maternity, the abolition of the +husband's guardianship over the wife, the better protection of children, +the protection of the woman on the street, the abolition of the regulation +of prostitution, and the raising of the age of consent. + +This list of measures indicates that the Finnish laws regulating marriage +are still antiquated, and that the political emancipation of woman did not +immediately effect her release from legal bondage. One of the Finnish +woman's advocates said, "Our short experience has taught us that we may +still have a hard fight for equal rights." + +Not only the antiquated marriage laws are inconsistent with the national +political rights of women; in the municipal election laws, too, woman is +treated unjustly. Married women do not exercise the right of suffrage, and +widows and unmarried women possess the passive suffrage only in the +election of poor-law administrators and school boards. Two woman's +suffrage organizations--_Unionen_ and _Finsk Kvinnoforening_--have +existed since 1906; they have no party affiliations. Two new woman's +suffrage societies--_Swenska Kinnoforbundet_ and _Naitluetto_ +(Young-Finnish)--are party organizations. + +The bill concerning the abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution has meanwhile become law, replacing the former +unsatisfactory, and for Finland, exceptional law. The law corresponding to +the English Vagrancy Act (supplement to paragraph 45 of the Finnish Civil +Code) provides that "whoever accosts a woman in public places for immoral +purposes shall pay a fine of $50." + +On October 31, 1907, the manufacture, importation, sale, or storing of +alcoholic liquors in any form whatever was prohibited by law. In recent +years the Finnish woman temperance lecturer, Trigg Helenius, has carried +on a successful international propaganda. + +External and internal difficulties have to the present made impossible the +formation of Finnish women's clubs and a federation of the women voters. + + +NORWAY + + Total population: 2,240,860. + Women: 1,155,169. + Men: 1,085,691. + + League of Norwegian Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage Association. + +In recent years the Norwegian woman's rights movement has made marked +progress. Just as in the other Scandinavian countries, women were freed as +early as the middle of the nineteenth century from the most burdensome +legal restrictions by a liberal majority in Parliament. In 1854 the +daughters were given the same right of inheritance as the sons, and male +guardianship for unmarried women was abolished. However, the real woman's +rights movement, like that of Sweden and Finland, began in the eighties of +the last century. Aasta Hansteen, Clara Collett, Bjoernson, and Ibsen had +prepared public opinion for the emancipation of women. Like Frederika +Bremer, Aasta Hansteen had emigrated to America owing to the prejudices of +her countrymen; and, again like Frederika Bremer, she returned to her +native land and could rejoice over the progress of the movement which she +had instigated. In 1884 the Norwegian Woman's League was founded. It has +since 1886 published a semimonthly woman's suffrage magazine, _Nylaende_. +In 1887 the Norwegian woman's rights movement won the same victory that +Mrs. Butler had won in England in 1886: the official regulation of +prostitution was abolished (neither in Sweden nor in Denmark has a similar +reform been secured thus far). As early as 1882 several university +faculties had admitted women, and in 1884 women were given the legal +right to secure an academic training, and they were declared eligible to +receive all scholarships and all academic degrees. In 1904 a law was +enacted admitting women to a number of public offices. Paragraph 12 of the +Constitution excludes them from the office of minister in the Cabinet; +they are excluded from consulships on international grounds, from military +offices by the nature of the offices, and from the theological field +through the backwardness of the Norwegian clergy. But they were admitted +to the teaching and legal professions, and to some of the administrative +departments of the government. The law made no discrimination between +married and unmarried women. It is believed that the women can decide best +for themselves whether or not they can combine the work of an +administrative office with their domestic duties. + +Hitherto the teaching profession had presented difficulties for women. +Fewer women than men were appointed; the women were given the subordinate +positions and paid lower salaries. The women had energetically protested +against these conditions since the passing of the law of 1904; in 1908 +they succeeded in having the magistrate of Christiania raise the initial +salary of women teachers in the elementary schools from 900 crowns ($241) +to 1100 crowns ($295), and the maximum salary from 1500 crowns ($402) to +1700 crowns ($455). In Christiania the women also demanded that women +teachers be given the position of head master; there were many women in +the profession,--2900 in the elementary schools, and 736 in the secondary +schools. + +The women shop assistants' trade-union in an open meeting in Christiania +has demanded equal pay for equal work. + +By a law passed in May, 1908, women employees in the postal service were +given the same pay as the men employees. As a result of this the women +telegraph operators, supported by the Norwegian Woman's Suffrage +Association, drew up a petition requesting the same concession as was made +the women postal employees, and presented the petition to the government +and the Storthing. This movement favoring an increase of wages was +strongly supported by the woman's suffrage movement. + +The women taxpayers (including married women) have possessed active and +passive suffrage in municipal affairs since 1901. The property +qualification requires that a tax of 300 crowns ($80) must be paid in the +rural districts, and 400 crowns ($107) in cities. In 1902 women exercised +the suffrage in municipal affairs for the first time; in Christiania 6 +women were elected to municipal offices. + +The Norwegian League of Women's Clubs and the woman's suffrage +associations protested to the government and to the Parliament because +suffrage in the national elections had been withheld from the women. The +separation of Sweden and Norway (1906), which concerned the women greatly, +but in which they could exercise no voice, was a striking proof of woman's +powerlessness in civil affairs. Hence the Norwegian Woman's Suffrage +League instituted a woman's ballot, in which 19,000 votes were cast in +favor of separation, none being cast against it. + +In 1907 six election bills favorable to woman's suffrage were presented to +the Storthing; and June 10, 1907, _women taxpayers were granted active and +passive suffrage in municipal elections_ (affecting about 300,000 women; +200,000 are still not enfranchised). This right of suffrage is accorded to +married women. The next general elections will take place in 1909. + +Since the Norwegian men have active and passive suffrage in parliamentary +elections, the women also made their demands to the Storthing. The +Ministry resolved, in pursuance of this demand, to present the Storthing +with the requisite constitutional amendment (Article 52). The Storthing +requested that before the next municipal elections (1910) the Ministry +present a satisfactory bill providing for woman's suffrage in municipal +elections. At the present time 142 women are city councilors (122 in the +cities). In the autumn of 1909 women will for the first time participate +in the parliamentary elections. + +At two congresses of the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance +(Amsterdam, in 1908; and London, in 1909), Norway was officially +represented by the wife of the Minister of State, Qvam. + +The emancipation of women legally and in the professions had preceded +their political emancipation. Norwegian women first practiced as dentists +in 1872; since 1884, women have been druggists and have practiced +medicine. They practice in all large cities. There are 38 women engaged as +physicians for the courts, as school physicians, as university assistants +in museums and laboratories, and as sanitary officers. Since 1904 there +have been two women lawyers. _Cand. jur._ Elisa Sam was the first woman to +profit by this reform. The first woman university professor was Mrs. +Matilda Schjott in Christiania; to-day there are three such professors. +There are 37 women architects. In 1888 married women were given the right +to make marriage contracts providing for separate property holding. Even +where there is joint property holding, the wife controls her earnings. + +In Norway the law protects the illegitimate mother and her child better +than elsewhere. The Norwegian law regards and punishes as accomplices in +infanticide all those that drive a woman to such a step,--the illicit +father, the parents, the guardians, and employers, who desert a woman in +such circumstances and put her out into the street. Since 1891, women have +been eligible to hold office as poor-law administrators; since 1899 they +can be members of school boards. The number of workingwomen is 67,000. Of +these 2000 are organized. + + +DENMARK + + Total population: 2,588,919. + Women: 1,331,154. + Men: 1,257,765. + + Federation of Danish Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +The origin of the woman's rights movement in Denmark is also literary,--to +Frederika Bremer in Sweden, Aasta Hansteen and Clara Collett in Norway, +must be added as emancipators, Mathilda Fibiger and Pauline Worm in +Denmark. The writings of both of these women in favor of +emancipation,--"Clara Raphael's Letters" and "Sensible People,"--date back +as far as 1848; they were inspired by the liberal ideas prevailing in +Germany previous to the "March Revolution." An _organized_ woman's rights +movement did not come into being until twenty-five years later. A liberal +parliamentary majority in Denmark abolished, in 1857, male guardianship +over unmarried women; and in 1859 established the equal inheritance +rights of daughters, thus following the example of Sweden and Norway. It +was necessary first to secure the support of public opinion through a +literary discussion of woman's rights. This was carried on between 1868 +and 1880 by Georg Brandes, who translated John Stuart Mill's _The +Subjection of Women_, and by Bjoernson and Ibsen. In 1871 Representative +Bajer and his wife organized the first woman's rights society, the "Danish +Woman's Club," which rapidly spread throughout Denmark. At first the Club +endeavored to secure a more thorough education for women, and therefore +labored for the improvement of the girls' high schools, and for the +institution of coeducational schools. In 1876 it secured the admission of +women to the University of Copenhagen. + +In the teaching profession women are employed in greater numbers, and are +better paid than in Sweden at the present time. There are 3003 women +elementary school teachers and 2240 women teachers in the high schools. As +yet there are no women lecturers or professors in the university.[64] +Since 1860, women have filled subordinate positions in the postal and +telegraph services, and since 1889 they have also filled the higher +positions; there are in all 1500 women employees. The subordinate +positions in the national and local administrations are to a certain +extent open to them. The number of women engaged in industrial pursuits is +47,617; the number of domestic servants, 89,000. The domestic servants are +organized only to a limited extent (800 being organized). The women in the +industries are better organized,--chiefly in the same trade-unions as the +men. In 1899 the women comprised one fifth of the total number of +organized laborers; since then this proportion has increased considerably. +The average wages of the women domestic servants are 20 crowns ($5.36) a +month; the average wages of the workingwomen are from 2 to 2.5 crowns (53 +to 67 cents) a day. + +Since 1880 the wife can secure separate property holding rights through a +marriage contract. Where joint property holding prevails, the wife +controls her own earnings and savings. In 1888 municipal suffrage was +demanded by the "Danish Woman's Club," but the _Rigsdag_ rejected the +measure. Since then the question has occupied much attention. In 1906 the +Congress of the Woman's International Suffrage Alliance performed +excellent propaganda work. New woman's suffrage societies were organized, +and the older societies were enlarged.[65] In the meantime the bill +concerning municipal suffrage was being sent from one House to the other. +Finally, on February 26, 1908, it was adopted by the Upper House, on April +14 by the Lower House, and on April 20 signed by the King. All taxpayers, +twenty-five years of age, were permitted to vote. All classes of +women--widows, unmarried, and married women--were enfranchised. They have +active and passive suffrage. In March, 1909, they exercised both rights +for the first time. The participation in the election was general; six +women were elected in Copenhagen. The women are now demanding the suffrage +in national affairs. Immediately after the victory of 1908 the Woman's +Suffrage League organized strong demonstrations in forty cities in favor +of this demand. + +Here it must be mentioned that the women in Iceland were granted, in the +autumn of 1907, active and passive suffrage in municipal affairs. In +January, 1908, they participated in the elections for the first time. In +Reikiavik, the capital, 2850 people voted, 1220 of whom were women. Four +women were elected to the city council, one polling the highest number of +votes. In 1909, the Icelandic Woman's Suffrage League joined the +International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. A number of Icelandic woman's +suffrage societies in Canada have affiliated with the Canadian Woman's +Suffrage League. + +On March 30, 1906, official regulation of prostitution was abolished in +Denmark; but a new law of similar character was enacted providing for +stringent measures. + + +THE NETHERLANDS + + Total population: 5,673,237. + Women: 2,583,535. + Men 2,520,602. + + Federation of the Netherlands Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +Although women are in a numerical superiority in the Netherlands, it is +much less difficult for them to find non-domestic employment than it is +for the German women, for instance. The Netherlands has large colonies and +therefore a good market for its male workers. The educated Dutchman is +kindly disposed toward the woman's rights movement, and in the educated +circles the wife really enjoys rights equal to those of the husband, which +is less frequently the case among the lower classes. The marriage laws are +based on the Code Napoleon, which, however, was considerably altered in +1838. The guardianship of the husband over the wife still prevails. +According to paragraph 160 of the Civil Code the husband controls the +personal property that the wife acquires; but he administers her real +estate only with the wife's consent. According to paragraph 163 of the +Civil Code the wife cannot give away, sell, mortgage, or acquire anything +independently. She can do those things only with her husband's written +consent. No marriage contract can annul _this_ requirement; but the wife +can stipulate the independent control of her income. According to +paragraph 1637 of the Civil Code the wife is permitted to control for _the +benefit of the family_ the money that she earns while fulfilling a labor +contract. Affiliation cases, it is true, are recognized by law, but under +considerable restrictions. + +The first sign of the woman's rights movement manifested itself in the +Netherlands in 1846. At that time a woman appeared in public for the first +time as a speaker. She was the Countess Mahrenholtz-Buelow, who introduced +kindergartens (_Froebelsystem_) into the Netherlands. + +In 1857 elementary education was made compulsory in the Netherlands. At +that time this instruction was free, undenominational, and under the +control of the state; but in 1889 it was partly given over into +denominational and private hands. The secondary schools for girls are +partly municipal, partly private. Most of the elementary schools are +coeducational; in the secondary schools the sexes are segregated; in the +higher institutions of learning coeducation prevails, the right of girls +to attend being granted as a matter of course. Girls were admitted to the +high schools also without any opposition. These measures were due to +Minister Thorbecke. Thirty years ago the first woman registered at the +University of Leyden. Women study and are granted degrees in all +departments of the universities of Leyden, Utrecht, Groeningen, and +Amsterdam. In the elementary, secondary, and higher institutions of +learning, there are fewer women teachers than men, and the salary of the +women teachers is lower. Women are now being appointed as science teachers +in boys' schools also. The government is planning measures opposed to +having married women as teachers and as employees in the postal service. +The women's clubs are vigorously protesting against this. Women serve as +examination commissioners and as members of school boards, though in small +numbers. The city school boards rely almost entirely upon women for +supervising the instruction in needlework. Since 1904 two women were +appointed as state school inspectors, with salaries only sufficient for +maintenance. + +In the Netherlands there are 20 women doctors (31 including those in the +colonies), 57 women druggists, 5 women lawyers, and one woman lecturer in +the University of Groeningen. There are three women preachers in the +Liberal "League of Protestants." Since 1899 4 women have been factory +inspectors; 2, prison superintendents; 2, superintendents of rural +schools. Thirty-four are in the courts for the protection of wards. Women +participate in the care of the poor and the care of dependent children. +The care of dependent children is in the hands of a national society, _Pro +juventute_, which aided in securing juvenile courts in the Netherlands. +Especially useful in the education and support of workingwomen has been +the Tessel Benefit Society (_Tessel Schadeverein_), which is national in +its organization. + +It will be well to state here that the appointment of women factory +inspectors was secured in a rather original manner. In 1898 a national +exhibition of commodities produced by women was held in the Hague. In a +conspicuous place the women placed an empty picture frame with this +inscription: "The Women Inspectors of all These Commodities Produced by +Women." This hastened results. + +The shop assistants of both sexes organized themselves conjointly in +Amsterdam in 1898. There are two organizations of domestic servants. The +Dutch woman's rights advocates proved by investigation that for the same +work the workingwomen--because they were women--were paid 50 per cent less +than men. The "Workingwomen's Information Bureau," which was made into a +permanent institution as a result of the exhibition of 1898, has been +concerning itself with the protection of workingwomen and with their +organization. The women organizers belong to the middle class. The +Socialist party in the Netherlands has been organizing workingwomen into +trade-unions. In this the party has encountered the same difficulties as +exist elsewhere; to the present time it can point only to small successes. +Two of the Socialist woman's rights advocates are Henrietta Roland and +Roosje Vos. Henrietta Roland is of middle-class parentage, being the +daughter of a lawyer; she is the wife of an artist of repute. Roosje Vos, +on the contrary, comes from the lower classes. Both of these women played +an important part in the strike of 1903. They organized the "United +Garment Workers' Union." + +In spite of the fact that a woman can be ruler of the Netherlands, the +Dutch women possess only an insignificant right of suffrage. In the dike +associations they have a right to vote if they are taxpayers or own +property adjoining the dikes. In June, 1908, the Lutheran Synod gave women +the same right to vote in church affairs as the men possess. The +Evangelical Synod, on the other hand, rejected a similar measure as well +as one providing for the ordaining of women preachers. An attempt to +secure municipal suffrage for women failed, and resulted in the enactment +of reactionary laws. + +In 1883 Dr. Aletta Jacobs (the first woman doctor in the Netherlands), +acting on the advice of the well-known jurist--and later Minister--van +Houten, requested an Amsterdam magistrate to enter her name on the list of +municipal electors. As a taxpayer she was entitled to this right. At the +same time she requested Parliament to grant her the suffrage in national +elections. Both requests were summarily refused. In order to make such +requests impossible in the future, parliament inserted the word "male" in +the election law.[66] These occurrences aroused in the Dutch women an +interest in political affairs; and in 1894 they organized a "Woman's +Suffrage Society," which soon spread to all parts of the country. The +Liberals, Radicals, Liberal Democrats, and Socialists admitted women +members to their political clubs and frequently consulted the women +concerning the selection of candidates. The clubs of the Conservative and +Clerical parties have refused to admit women. At the general meeting in +1906 a part of the members of the "Woman's Suffrage Society" separated +from the organization and formed the "Woman's Suffrage League" (the _Bond +voor Vrouwenkiesrecht_,--the older organization was called _Vereeniging +voor Vrouenkiesrecht_). Both carry on an energetic propaganda in the +entire country, the older organization being the more radical. In 1908 the +older organization made all necessary preparations for the Amsterdam +Congress of the Woman's Suffrage Alliance, which resulted in a large +increase in its membership (from 3500 to 6000), and resulted, furthermore, +in the founding of a Men's League for Woman's Suffrage (modeled after the +English organization). The question of woman's suffrage has aroused a +lively interest throughout the Netherlands; even the _Bond_ increased its +membership during the winter of 1908 and 1909 from 1500 to 3500. + +In September, 1908, there were two great demonstrations in the Hague in +favor of _universal_ suffrage for both men and women. The right to vote in +Holland is based on the payment of a property tax or ground rent; +therefore numerous proposals in favor of widening the suffrage had been +made previously. When a liberal ministry came into power in 1905, it +undertook a reform of the suffrage laws; in 1907 the Committee on the +Constitution, by a vote of six out of seven, recommended that Parliament +grant active and passive suffrage to men and women. But with the fall of +the Liberal ministry fell the hope of having this measure enacted, for +there is nothing to be expected from the present government, composed of +Catholic and Protestant Conservatives. As has already been stated, +propaganda is in the meantime being carried on with increasing vigor, and +in Java a woman's suffrage society has also been organized. A noted +jurist, who is a member of the Dutch _Bond voor Vrouwenkiesrecht_, has +just issued a pamphlet in which he proves the necessity of granting +woman's suffrage: "Man makes the laws. Wherever the interests of the +unmarried or the married woman are in conflict with the interests of man, +the rights of the woman will be set aside. This is injurious to man, +woman, and child, and it blocks progress. The remedy is to be found only +in woman's suffrage. The granting of woman's suffrage is an urgent demand +of justice." + + +SWITZERLAND[67] + + Total population: 3,313,817. + Women: about 1,700,000. + Men: about 1,616,000. + + Federation of Swiss Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +Switzerland's existence and welfare depend on the harmony of the German, +the French, and the Italian elements of the population. Switzerland is +accustomed to considering three racial elements; out of three different +demands it produces one acceptable compromise. Naturally the Swiss woman's +rights movement has steadily developed in the most peaceful manner. No +literary manifesto, no declaration of principles of freedom is at the root +of this movement. It is supported by public opinion, which is gradually +being educated to the level of the demands of the movement. The woman's +rights movement began in Switzerland as late as 1880; in 1885 the Swiss +woman's club movement was started. The Federation of Women's Clubs is made +up of cantonal women's clubs in Zurich, Berne, Geneva, St. Gallen, Basel, +Lausanne, Neuchatel, and in other cities, as well as of intercantonal +clubs, such as the "Swiss Public Utility Woman's Club" (_Schweizer +Gemeinnuetziger Verein_), "la Fraternite," the "Intercantonal Committee of +Federated Women," etc. Recently a Catholic woman's league was formed. +Since 50 per cent of the Swiss women remain unmarried, the woman's rights +movement is a social necessity. In the field of education the authorities +have been favorable to women in every way. In nine cantons the elementary +schools are coeducational. There are public institutions for higher +learning for girls in all cities. In German Switzerland (Zurich, +Winterthur, St. Gallen, Berne) girls are admitted to the higher +institutions of learning for boys, or they can prepare themselves in the +girls' schools for the examination required for entrance to the +universities (_Matura_). There are 18 seminaries that admit girls only; +the seminaries in Kuessnacht, Rorschach, and Croie are coeducational. +Women teachers are not appointed in the elementary schools of the cantons +of Glarus and Appenzell-Outer-Rhodes. On the other hand in the cantons of +Geneva, Neuchatel, and Ticino 59 to 66 per cent of the teachers in the +elementary schools are women. They are given lower salaries than the men. +The canton of Zurich pays (by law) equal wages to its men and women +teachers, but the additional salary paid by the municipalities and rural +districts to the men teachers is greater than that paid to the women. In +its elementary schools the canton of Vaud employs 500 women teachers, some +of whom are married. The Swiss universities have been open to women since +the early sixties of the nineteenth century. As in France, the native +women use this right far less than foreign women, especially Russians and +Germans. The total number of women studying in the Swiss universities is +about 700. Most of the Swiss women that have studied in the universities +enter the teaching profession. Women are frequently employed as teachers +in high schools, as clerks, and as librarians. Sometimes these positions +are filled by foreign women. + +The first woman lecturer in a university in which German is the language +used has been employed in Berne since 1898. She is Dr. Anna Tumarkin, a +native Russian, having the right to teach in universities aesthetics and +the history of modern philosophy. In 1909 she was appointed professor. In +each of the universities of Zurich, Berne, and Geneva, a woman has been +appointed as university lecturer. Women doctors practice in all of the +larger cities. There are twelve in Zurich. The city council of Zurich has +decided to furnish free assistance to women during confinement, and to +establish a municipal maternity hospital. In Zurich there has been +established for women a hospital entirely under the control of women; the +chief physician is Frau Dr. Heim. The practice of law has been open to +women in the canton of Zurich since 1899, and in the canton of Geneva +since 1904. Miss Anna Mackenroth, _Dr. jur._, a native German, was the +first Swiss woman lawyer. Miss Nelly Favre was the second. Miss Dr. +Bruestlein was refused admission to the bar in Berne. Miss Favre was the +first woman to plead before the Federal Court in Berne, the capital. As +yet there are no women preachers in Switzerland. In Lausanne there is a +woman engineer. In the field of technical schools for Swiss women, much +remains to be done. The commercial education of women is also neglected by +the state, while the professional training of men is everywhere promoted. +Women are employed in the postal and telegraph service. The Swiss hotel +system offers remunerative positions and thoroughly respectable callings +to women of good family. In 1900 the number of women laborers was 233,912; +they are engaged chiefly in the textile and ready-made clothing +industries, in lacemaking, cabinetmaking, and the manufacture of food +products, pottery, perfumes, watches and clocks, jewelry, embroidery, and +brushes.[68] Owing to French influence, laws for the protection of women +laborers are opposed, especially in Geneva. The inspection of factories is +largely in the hands of men. Home industry is a blessing in certain +regions, a curse in others. This depends on the intensity of the work and +on the degree of industrialism. The trade-union movement is still very +weak among women laborers. According to the canton the movement has a +purely economic or a socialist-political character. Only a few +organizations of workingwomen belong to the Swiss Federation of Women's +Clubs. Since 1891 the men's trade-unions have admitted women. The first +women factory inspectors were appointed in 1908. According to the census +of August 9, 1905, 92,136 persons in Switzerland are engaged in home +industry; this number is 28.3 per cent of the total number of persons +(325,022) engaged in these industries. The foremost of the home +industries is the manufacture of embroidery, engaging a total of 65,595 +persons, of whom 53.5 per cent work at home. The next important home +industries are silk-cloth weaving, engaging 12,478 persons (41 per cent of +the total employed); watch making, engaging 12,071 persons in home +industry (or 23.7 per cent of the total); silk-ribbon weaving, engaging +7557 persons (or 51.9 per cent of the total). The highest percentage of +home workers is found among the straw plaiters (78.8 per cent); then +follow the military uniform tailors (60.1 per cent), the embroidery makers +(53.5 per cent), the wood carvers and ivory carvers (52 per cent), the +silk-ribbon weavers (51.9 per cent), and the ready-made clothing workers +(49.3 per cent). The International Association for Labor Legislation, as +everybody knows, is trying to ascertain whether an international +regulation of labor conditions is possible in the embroidery-making +industry. The statistics just given indicate the importance of this +investigation for Switzerland. The statistics of the home industries of +Switzerland will be found in the ninth issue of the second volume of the +Swiss Statistical Review (_Zeitschrift fuer Schweizerische Statistik_). + +The new Swiss law for the protection of women laborers has produced a +number of genuine improvements for the workingwomen. A maximum working +day of 10 hours and a working week of 60 hours have been established. +Women can work overtime not more than 60 days a year; they are then paid +at least 25 per cent extra. The most significant innovation is the legal +regulation of _vacations_. Every laborer that is not doing piecework or +being paid by the hour must, after one year of continuous service for the +same firm, be granted six consecutive days of vacation with full pay; +after two years of continuous service for the same firm the laborer must +be given eight days; after three years of service ten days; and after the +fourth year twelve days annually. A violation of this law renders the +offending employer liable to a fine of 200 to 300 francs ($40 to $60). + +In 1912 a new civil code will come into force. Its composition has been +influenced by the German Civil Code. The government, however, regarded the +"Swiss Federation of Women's Clubs" as the representative of the women, +and charged a member of the code commission to put himself into +communication with the executive committee of the Federation and to +express the wishes of the Federation at the deliberations of the +committee. This is better than nothing, but still insufficient. When the +civil code had been adopted, every male elector was given a copy; the +women's clubs secured copies only after prolonged effort. + +The property laws in the new Swiss Civil Code provide for joint property +holding,--not separation of property rights. However, even with joint +property holding the wife's earnings and savings belong to her (a +provision which the German cantons opposed). On the other hand, +affiliation cases are admissible (the French cantons opposed them). The +wife has the full status of a legal person before the law and full civil +ability, and _shares parental authority with the father_. French +Switzerland (through the influence of the Code Napoleon) opposes the +pecuniary responsibility of the illegal father toward the mother and +child. Official regulation of prostitution has been abolished in all the +cantons except Geneva; several years ago a measure to introduce it again +was rejected by the people of the Canton Zurich by a vote of 40,000 to +18,000. Geneva is the headquarters of the International Federation for the +Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution. In 1909 the +abolition of the official regulation of prostitution was again demanded in +the city council. + +By a vote of the people the Canton Vaud accepted a measure prohibiting the +manufacture, storage, and sale of absinthe. + +Recently the Swiss women have presented a petition requesting that an +illicit mother be granted the right to call herself "Frau" and use this +designation (Mrs.) before her name. The benevolent purpose of this +movement is self-evident. Through this measure the illicit mother is +placed in a position enabling her openly to devote herself to the rearing +of her child. With this purpose in view, not less than 10,000 women have +signed a petition to the Swiss Federal Council, requesting that a law be +enacted compelling registrars to use the title "Frau" (Mrs.) when +requested to do so by the person concerned. Thirty-four women's clubs have +collectively declared in favor of this petition. + +Women exercise the right of municipal suffrage only in those localities +whose male population is absent at work during a large part of the year +(as in Russia). Women can be elected as members of school boards and as +poor-law administrators in the Canton Zurich; as members of school boards +in the Canton Neuchatel. The question of granting women the right to vote +in church affairs has long been advocated in the Canton Geneva by the +Reverend Thomas Mueller, a member of the Consistory of the National +Protestant Church, and by Herr Locher, Chief of the Department of Public +Instruction of the Canton Zurich. In the Canton Geneva, where there is +separation of church and state, agitation in favor of the reform is being +carried on. The women in the Canton Vaud have exercised the right to vote +in the _Eglise libre_ since 1899, and in the _Eglise nationale_ since +1908. Since 1909, women have exercised the right to vote in the _Eglise +evangelique libre_ of Geneva. The woman's suffrage movement was really +started by the renowned Professor Hilty, of Berne, who declared himself +(in the Swiss Year Book of 1897) in _favor_ of woman's suffrage. The first +society concerning itself exclusively with woman's suffrage originated in +Geneva (_Association pour le suffrage feminin_). Later other organizations +were formed in Lausanne, Chaux de Fonds, Neuenburg, and Olten. The Woman's +Reading Circle of Berne had, since 1906, demanded political rights for +women, and the Zurich Society for the Reform of Education for Girls had +worked in favor of woman's suffrage. On May 12, 1908, these seven +societies organized themselves into the National Woman's Suffrage League, +and in June affiliated with the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. +The Report of the International Woman's Suffrage Congress, Amsterdam, +1908, explains in a very lucid manner the political backwardness of the +Swiss women: Switzerland regards itself as the model democracy; time has +been required to make it clear that politically the women of this model +state still have everything to achieve. The meeting of the Committee of +the International Council of Women in Geneva (September, 1908) +accomplished much for the movement. + +The Swiss Woman's Public Utility Association, which had refused to join +the Swiss Federation of Women's Clubs because the Federation concerned +itself with political affairs (the Public Utility Association wishing to +restrict itself to public utilities only), was given this instructive +answer by Professor Hilty: "Public utility and politics are not mutually +exclusive; an educated woman that wishes to make a living without +troubling herself about politics is incomprehensible to me. The women +ought to take Carlyle's words to heart: 'We are not here to submit to +everything, but also to oppose, carefully to watch, and to win.'" + + +GERMANY + + Total population: 61,720,529. + Women: 31,259,429. + Men: 30,461,100. + + German Federation of Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +In no European country has the woman's rights movement been confronted +with more unfavorable conditions; nowhere has it been more persistently +opposed. In recent times the women of no other country have lived through +conditions of war such as the German women underwent during the Thirty +Years' War and from 1807 to 1812. Such violence leaves a deep imprint on +the character of a nation. + +Moreover, it has been the fate of no other civilized nation to owe its +political existence to a war triumphantly fought out in less than one +generation. Every war, every accentuation and promotion of militarism is a +weakening of the forces of civilization and of woman's influence. "German +masculinity is still so young," I once heard somebody say. + +A reinforcement of the woman's rights movement by a large Liberal majority +in the national assemblies, such as we find in England, France, and Italy, +is not to be thought of in Germany. The theories of the rights of man and +of citizens were never applied by German Liberalism to woman in a broad +sense, and the Socialist party is not yet in the majority. The political +training of the German man has in many respects not yet been extended to +include the principles of the American Declaration of Independence or the +French Declaration of the Rights of Man; his respect for individual +liberty has not yet been developed as in England; therefore he is much +harder to win over to the cause of "woman's rights." + +Hence the struggle against the official regulation of prostitution has +been left chiefly to the German women; whereas in England and in France +the physicians, lawyers, and members of Parliament have been the chief +supporters of abolition. I am reminded also of the inexpressibly long and +difficult struggle that we women had to carry on in order to secure the +admission of women to the universities; the establishment of high schools +for girls; and the improvement of the opportunities given to women +teachers. In no other country were women teachers for girls wronged to +such an extent as in Germany. The results of the last industrial census +(1907) give to the demands of the woman's rights movement an invaluable +support: _Germany has nine and a half million married women, i.e._ only +one half of all adult women (over 18 years of age) are married. In +Germany, too, marriage is not a lifelong "means of support" for woman, or +a "means of support" for the whole number of women. Therefore the demands +of woman for a complete professional and industrial training and freedom +to choose her calling appear in the history of our time with a tremendous +weight, a weight that the founders of the movement hardly anticipated. + +The German woman's rights movement originated during the troublous times +immediately preceding the Revolution of 1848. The founders--Augusta +Schmidt, Louise Otto-Peters, Henrietta Goldschmidt, Ottilie v. Steyber, +Lina Morgenstern--were "forty-eighters"; they believed in the right of +woman to an education, to work, and to choose her calling, and as a +citizen to participate directly in public life. Only the first three of +these demands are contained in the programme of the "German General +Woman's Club" (founded in 1865 by four of these women, natives of Leipzig, +on the anniversary of the battle of Leipzig). At that time woman's right +to vote was put aside as something utopian. The founders of the woman's +rights movement, however, from the very first included in their programme +the question of women industrial laborers, and attacked the question in a +practical way by organizing a society for the education of workingwomen. +The energies of the middle-class women were at this time very naturally +absorbed by their own affairs. They suffered want, material as well as +intellectual. Therefore it was a matter of securing a livelihood for +middle-class women no longer provided for at home. This was the first duty +of a woman's rights movement originating with the middle class. + +Of special service in the field of education and the liberal +professions[69] were the efforts of Augusta Schmidt, Henrietta +Goldschmidt, Marie Loeper-Housselle, Helena Lang, Maria Lischnewska, and +Mrs. Kettler. Kindergartens were established; also courses for the +instruction of adult women, for women principals of high schools, for +women in the _Gymnasiums_ and _Realgymnasiums_. Moreover, the admission of +women to the universities was secured; the General Association of German +Women Teachers was founded, also the Prussian Association of Women Public +School Teachers, and high schools for girls. The Prussian law of 1908 for +the reform of girls' high schools (providing for the education of girls +over 12 years,--_Realgymnasiums_ or _Gymnasiums_ for girls from 12 to 16 +years, women's colleges for women from 16 to 18 years) was enacted under +pressure from the German woman's rights movement. Both the state and city +must now do more for the education of girls. The academically trained +women teachers in the high schools are given consideration when the +appointments of principals and teachers for the advanced classes are made. +The women teachers have organized themselves and are demanding salaries +equal to those of the men teachers. At the present time girls are admitted +to the boys' schools (_Gymnasiums_, _Realgymnasiums_, etc.) in Baden, +Hessen, the Imperial Provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, Oldenburg, and +Wurttemberg. The German Federation of Women's Clubs and the convention of +the delegates of the Rhenish cities and towns have made the same demands +for Prussia. + +The Prussian Association of Women Public School Teachers is demanding that +women teachers be appointed as principals, and is resisting with all its +power the threatened injustice to women in the adjustment of salaries. The +universities in Baden and Wurttemberg were the first to admit women; then +followed the universities in Hessen, Bavaria, Saxony, the Imperial +Provinces, and finally,--in 1908,--Prussia. The number of women enrolled +in Berlin University is 400. + +About 50 women doctors are practicing in Germany; as yet there are no +women preachers, but there are 5 women lawyers, one of whom in 1908 +pleaded the case of an indicted youth before the Altona juvenile court. +Although there are only a few women lawyers in Germany, women are now +permitted to act as counsel for the defendant, there being 60 such women +counselors in Bavaria. Recently (1908) even Bavaria refused women +admission to the civil service. + +In the autumn there was appointed the first woman lecturer in a higher +institution of learning,--this taking place in the Mannheim School of +Commerce. Within the last five years many new callings have been opened to +women: they are librarians (of municipal, club, and private libraries) and +have organized themselves into the Association of Women Librarians; they +are assistants in laboratories, clinics, and hospitals; they make +scientific drawings, and some have specialized in microscopic drawing; +during the season for the manufacture of beet sugar, women are employed as +chemists in the sugar factories; there is a woman architect in Berlin, and +a woman engineer in Hamburg. Women factory inspectors have performed +satisfactory service in all the states of the Empire. But the future field +of work for the German women is the sociological field. State, municipal, +and private aid is demanded by the prevailing destitution. At the present +time women work in the sociological field without pay. In the future much +of this work must be performed by the _professional_ sociological women +workers. In about 100 cities women are guardians of the poor. There are +103 women superintendents of orphan asylums; women are sought by the +authorities as guardians. Women's cooperation as members of school +committees and deputations promotes the organized woman's rights movement. +The first woman inspector of dwellings has been appointed in Hessen. +Nurses are demanding that state examinations be made requisite for those +wishing to become nurses; some cities of Germany have appointed women as +nurses for infant children. In Hessen and Ostmark [the eastern part of +Prussia], women are district administrators. There is an especially great +demand for women to care for dependent children and to work in the +juvenile courts; this will lead to the appointment of paid probation +officers. In southern Germany, women police matrons are employed; in +Prussia there are women doctors employed in the police courts. There are +also women school physicians. Since 1908, trained women have entered the +midwives' profession. + +When the German General Woman's Club was formed in 1865, there was no +German Empire; Berlin had not yet become the capital of the Empire. But +since Berlin has become the seat of the Imperial Parliament, Berlin very +naturally has become the center of the woman's rights movement. This +occurred through the establishment of the magazine _Frauenwohl_ [_Woman's +Welfare_] in 1888, by Mrs. Cauer. In this manner the younger and more +radical woman's rights movement was begun. The women that organized the +movement had interested themselves in the educational field. The radicals +now entered the sociological and political fields. Women making radical +demands allied themselves with Mrs. Cauer; they befriended her, and +cooperated with her. This is an undisputed fact, though some of these +women later left Mrs. Cauer and allied themselves with either the +"Conservatives" or the "Socialists." + +In the organization of trade-unions for women not exclusively of the +middle class, Minna Cauer led the way. In 1889, with the aid of Mr. Julius +Meyer and Mr. Silberstein, she organized the "Commercial and Industrial +Benevolent Society for Women Employees." The society has now 24,000 +members. State insurance for private employees is now (1909) a question of +the day. + +Jeannette Schwerin founded the information bureau of the Ethical Culture +Society, which furnished girls and women assistants for social work. At +the same time Jeannette Schwerin demanded that women be permitted to act +as poor-law guardians. The agitation in public meetings and legislative +assemblies against the Civil Code was instituted by Dr. Anita Augsburg and +Mrs. Stritt. + +The opposition to state regulation of prostitution was begun by the +"radical" Hanna Bieber-Boehm and Anna Pappritz. Lily v. Gikycki was the +first to speak publicly concerning the civic duty of women. The Woman's +Suffrage Society was organized in 1901 by Mrs. Cauer, Dr. Augsburg, Miss +Heymann, and Dr. Schirmacher. + +In 1894 the radical section of the "German Federation of Women's Clubs" +proposed that women's trade-unions be admitted to the Federation. This +radical section had often given offense to the "Conservatives"--in the +Federation, for instance--by the proposal of this measure; but the +radicals in this way have stimulated the movement. As early as 1904 the +Berlin Congress of the International Council of Women had shown that the +Federation, being composed chiefly of conservative elements, should adopt +in its programme all the demands of the radicals, including woman's +suffrage. The differences between the Radicals and the Conservatives are +differences of personality rather than of principles. The radicals move to +the time of _allegro_; the conservatives to the time of _andante_. In all +public movements there is usually the same antagonism; it occurred also in +the English and the American woman's rights movements. + +In no other country (with the exception of Belgium and Hungary) is the +schism between the woman's rights movement of the middle class and the +woman's rights movement of the Socialists so marked as in Germany. At the +International Woman's Congress of 1896 (which was held through the +influence of Mrs. Lina Morgenstern and Mrs. Cauer) two Social Democrats, +Lily Braun and Clara Zetkin, declared that they never would cooperate with +the middle-class women. This attitude of the Social Democrats is the +result of historical circumstances. The law against the German Socialists +has increased their antagonism to the middle class. Nevertheless, this +harsh statement by Lily Braun and Clara Zetkin was unnecessary. It has +just been stated that the founders of the German woman's rights movement +had included the demands of the workingwomen in their programme, and that +the Radicals (by whom the congress of 1896 had been called, and who for +years had been engaged in politics and in the organization of +trade-unions) had in 1894 demanded the admission of women's labor +organizations to the Federation of Women's Clubs. Hence an alignment of +the two movements would have been exceedingly fortunate. However, a part +of the Socialists, laying stress on ultimate aims, regard "class hatred" +as their chief means of agitation, and are therefore on principle opposed +to any peaceful cooperation with the middle class. A part of the women +Socialist leaders are devoting themselves to the organization of +workingwomen,--a task that is as difficult in Germany as elsewhere. Almost +everywhere in Germany women laborers are paid less than men laborers. The +average daily wage is 2 marks (50 cents), but there are many workingwomen +that receive less. In the ready-made clothing industry there are weekly +wages of 6 to 9 marks ($1.50 to $2.25). At the last congress of home +workers, held at Berlin, further evidence of starvation in the home +industries was educed. But for these wages the German woman's rights +movement is not to be held responsible. + +In the social-political field the woman's rights advocates hold many +advanced views. Almost without exception they are advocating legislation +for the protection of the workingwomen; they have stimulated the +organization of the "Home-workers' Association" in Berlin; they urged the +workingwomen to seek admission to the Hirsch-Duncker Trades Unions (the +German national association of trade-unions); they have established a +magazine for workingwomen, and have organized a league for the +consideration of the interests of workingwomen. In 1907 Germany had +137,000 organized workingwomen and female domestic servants.[70] Most of +these belong to the socialistic trade-unions. The maximum workday for +women is fixed at ten hours. The protection of maternity is promoted by +the state as well as by women's clubs. + +Peculiar to Germany is the denominational schism in the woman's rights +movement. The precedent for this was established by the "German +Evangelical Woman's League," founded in 1899, with Paula Mueller, of +Hanover, as President. The organization of the League was due to the +feeling that "it is a sin to witness with indifference how women that wish +to know nothing of Biblical Christianity represent all the German women." +The organization opposes equality of rights between man and woman; but in +1908 it joined the Federation of Women's Clubs. In 1903 a "Catholic +Woman's League" was formed, but it has not joined the Federation. There +has also been formed a "Society of Jewish Women." We representatives of +the interdenominational woman's rights movement deplore this +denominational disunion. These organizations are important because they +make accessible groups of people that otherwise could not be reached by +us. + +Another characteristic of the German woman's rights movement is its +extensive and thorough organization. The smallest cities are to-day +visited by women speakers. Our "unity of spirit,"--praised so frequently, +and now and then ridiculed,--is our chief power in the midst of specially +difficult conditions in which we must work. With tenacity and patience we +have slowly overcome unusual difficulties,--to the present without any +help worth mentioning from the men. + +In the Civil Code of 1900 the most important demands of the women were not +given just consideration. To be sure, woman is legally competent, but the +property laws make joint property holding legal (wives control their +earnings and savings), and the mother has no parental authority. Relative +to the impending revision of the criminal law, the women made their +demands as early as 1908 in a general meeting of the Federation of Women's +Clubs, when a three days' discussion took place. Since 1897 the women have +progressed considerably in their knowledge of law. The German women +strongly advocate the establishment of juvenile courts such as the United +States are now introducing. The Federation also demands that women be +permitted to act as magistrates, jurors, lawyers, and judges. + +In the struggle against official regulation of prostitution the women were +supported in the Prussian Landtag by Deputy Muensterberg, of Dantzig. +Prussia established a more humane regulation of prostitution, but as yet +has not appointed the extraparliamentary commission for the study of the +control of prostitution, a measure that was demanded by the women. The +most significant recent event is the admission of women to political +organizations and meetings by the Imperial Law of May 15, 1908. Thereby +the German women were admitted to political life. The Woman's Suffrage +Society--founded in 1902, and in 1904 converted into a League--was able +previous to 1908 to expand only in the South German states (excluding +Bavaria). By this Imperial Law the northern states of the Empire were +opened, and a National Woman's Suffrage Society was formed in Prussia, in +Bavaria, and in Mecklenburg. As early as 1906, after the dissolution of +the Reichstag, the women took an active part in the campaign, a right +granted them by the _Vereinsrecht_ (Law of Association). In Prussia, +Saxony, and Oldenburg the women worked for universal suffrage for women in +Landtag elections. Since 1908 the political woman's rights movement has +been of first importance in Germany. As the women taxpayers in a number of +states can exercise municipal suffrage by proxy, and the women owners of +large estates in Saxony and Prussia can exercise the suffrage in elections +for the Diet of the Circle (_Kreistag_) by proxy, an effort is being made +to attract these women to the cause of woman's suffrage. + +In 1908 the Protestant women of the Imperial Provinces (Alsace and +Lorraine) were granted the right to vote in church elections, a right that +had been granted to the women of the German congregations in Paris as +early as 1907[71]. + + +LUXEMBURG + + Total population: 246,455. + Women: 120,235. + Men: 126,220. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The woman's rights movement in Luxemburg originated in December, 1905, +with the organization of the "Society for Women's Interests" (_Verein fuer +Fraueninteressen_), which has worked admirably. The society has 300 +members, and is in good financial condition. Throughout the country it is +now carrying on successful propaganda in the interest of higher education +for girls and in the interest of women in the industries. In Luxemburg, +after girls have graduated from a convent, they have no further +educational facilities. The society has established a department for +legal protection, and an employment agency; it has published an inquiry +into the living conditions in the capital. + +In the capital city there is a woman member of the poor-law commission; +ten women are guardians of the poor; one woman is a school commissioner; +and there is a woman inspector of the municipal hospital. The society is +well supported by the liberal elements of the government and the public. +Its chief object must be the establishment of a secular school that will +prepare women for entrance to the universities. + + +GERMAN AUSTRIA + + Total population: about 7,000,000. + Women: about 3,750,000. + Men: about 3,250,000. + + Federation of Austrian Women's Clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The Austrian woman's rights movement is based primarily on economic +conditions. More than 50 per cent of the women in Austria are engaged in +non-domestic callings. This percentage is a strong argument against the +theory that woman's sphere is merely domestic. Unfortunately this +non-domestic service of the Austrian women is seldom very remunerative. +Austria itself is a country of low wages. This condition is due to a +continuous influx of Slavic workers, to large agricultural provinces, to +the tenacious survivals of feudalism, etc. Therefore women's wages and +salaries are lower than in western Europe, and low living expenses do not +prevail everywhere (Vienna is one of the most expensive cities to live +in). The "Women's Industrial School Society," founded in 1851, attempted +to raise the industrial ability of the girls of the middle class. In +accordance with the views of the time, needlework was taught. Free schools +for the instruction of adults were established in Vienna. The economic +misery following the war of 1866 led to the organization of the "Woman's +Industrial Society," which enlarged woman's sphere of activity as did the +Lette-Society in Berlin. Since 1868 the woman's rights movement has +secured adherents from the best educated middle-class women,--namely, +women teachers. In that year the Catholic women teachers organized a +"Catholic Women Teachers' Society." In 1869 was organized the +interdenominational "Austrian Women Teachers' Society." This society has +performed excellent service. The women teachers, who since 1869 had been +given positions in the public schools, were paid less than the men +teachers having the same training and doing the same work. Therefore the +women teachers presented themselves to the provincial legislatures, +demanded an increase in salary, and, in spite of the opposition of the +male teachers, secured the increase by the law of 1891. In 1876 a society +devoted its efforts to the improvement of the girls' high schools, which +had been greatly neglected. In 1885 the women writers and the women +artists organized, their male colleagues having refused to admit women to +the existing professional societies. In 1888 the women music teachers +likewise organized themselves. At the same time the question of higher +education for women was agitated. In Vienna a "lyceum" class--the first of +its kind--was opened to prepare girls for entrance to the universities +(_Abiturientenexamen_). Admission to the boys' high schools was refused to +girls in Vienna, but was granted in the provinces (Troppau, and +Maehrisch-Schoenberg). Girls were at all times admitted as outsiders +(_Extraneae_) to the examinations held on leaving college +(_Abiturientenexamen_). In this way many girls passed the "leaving" +examination before they began their studies in Switzerland. Until 1896 the +Austrian universities remained closed to women. The law faculties do not +as yet admit women. The women's clubs are striving to secure this reform. +Those women that had studied medicine in Switzerland previous to 1896, and +wished to practice in Austria, required special imperial permission, which +was never withheld from them in their noble struggle. + +In this way Dr. Kerschbaumer began her practice as an oculist in +Salzburg. However, the Countess Possanner, M.D., after passing the Swiss +state examination, also took the Austrian examination. She is now +practicing in Vienna. + +As the Austrian doctors have active and passive suffrage in the election +to the Board of Physicians (_Aerztekammer_)[72] Dr. Possanner also +requested this right. Her request was refused by the magistrate in Vienna +because, _as a woman_, she did not have the suffrage in municipal +elections, and the suffrage for the Board of Physicians could be exercised +only by those doctors that were municipal electors.[73] Thereupon Dr. +Possanner appealed her case to the government, to the Minister of the +Interior, and finally to the administrative court. The court decided in +favor of the petition. It must be emphasized, however, that the Board of +Physicians favored the request from the beginning. + +Women preachers and women lawyers are as yet unknown in Austria. As in +former times, the teaching profession is still the chief sphere of +activity for the middle-class women of German Austria. According to the +law of 1869 they can be appointed not only as teachers in the elementary +schools for girls, but also as teachers of the lower classes in the boys' +schools. Their not being municipal voters has two results: if the +municipality is seeking votes, it appoints men teachers that are +"favorably disposed"; if the municipality is politically opposed to the +male teachers, it appoints women teachers in preference. But to be the +plaything of political whims is not a very worthy condition to be in. If +women teachers marry, they need not withdraw from the service (except in +the province of Styria). More than 10 per cent of the women teachers in +the whole of Austria are married, more than 2 per cent are widows. The +women comprise about one fourth of the total number of elementary school +teachers, of whom there are 9000. Their annual salaries vary from 200 to +1600 guldens ($96.40 to $771.20). The ordinary salary of 200 guldens is so +insufficient that many elementary school teachers actually starve. The +competition of the nuns is feared by the whole body of secular school +teachers. In Tyrol instruction in the elementary schools is still almost +wholly in the hands of the religious orders. The sisters work for little +pay; they have a community life and consume the resources of the dead +hand. + +Of the secondary schools for girls some are ecclesiastic, some are +municipal, and some private. The lyceums give a very good education +(mathematics is obligatory), but as yet there are no ordinary secondary +schools whose leaving examinations are equivalent to the +_Abiturientenexamen_ of the _Gymnasiums_. The "Academic Woman's Club" in +Vienna is demanding this reform, and the Federation of Austrian Women's +Clubs is demanding the development of the municipal girls' schools into +_Realschulen_. The state subsidizes various institutions. The girls' +_Gymnasiums_ were privately founded. Dr. Cecilia Wendt, upon whom the +degree of Doctor of Philosophy was conferred by Vienna University, and who +took the state examination for secondary school teachers in mathematics, +physics, and German, was the first woman appointed as teacher in a +_Gymnasium_, being appointed in the Vienna _Gymnasium_ for girls. Since +1871, women have been appointed in the postal and telegraph service. Like +most of the subordinate state officials, they receive poor pay, and dare +not marry. The women telegraph operators in the central office in Vienna +are paid 30 guldens ($14.46) a month. "The woman telegraph operator can +lay no claims to the pleasures of existence." "These girls starve +spiritually as well as physically."[74] During the past twenty-eight years +salaries have not been increased. Every two years a two-week vacation is +granted. Since 1876 there has existed a relief society for women postal +and telegraph employees. + +The woman stenographer, to-day so much sought after in business offices, +was in 1842 _absolutely excluded_ from the courses in Gabelsberger +stenography[75] by the Ministry of Public Instruction. In the courts of +chancery (_Advokatenkanzleien_) women stenographers are paid 20 to 30 +guldens ($9.64 to $14.46) a month. They are given the same pay in the +stores and offices where they are expected to use typewriters. They are +regarded as subordinates, though frequently they are thorough specialists +and masters of languages. In the governmental service the women +subordinates that work by the day (1.50 guldens,--73 cents) have no hope +for advancement or pension. The first woman chief of a government office +has been appointed to the sanitary department of the Ministry of the Labor +Department, in which there is also a woman librarian. + +It is not easy to imagine the deplorable condition of workingwomen when +women public school teachers and women office clerks are expected to live +on a monthly salary of $9.64 to $14.46. The Vienna inquiry into the +condition of workingwomen in 1896 disclosed frightfully miserable +conditions among workingwomen. Since then, especially through the efforts +of the Socialists, the conditions have been somewhat improved. + +In Vienna, efforts to organize women into trade-unions have been +made,--especially among the bookbinders, hat makers, and tailors. Outside +Vienna, organization has been effected chiefly among the women textile +workers in Silesia, as well as among the women employees of the state +tobacco factories. The most thorough organization of women laborers is +found in northern and western Bohemia among the glassworkers and bead +makers. In Styria, Salzburg, Tyrol, and Carinthia the organization of +women is found only in isolated cases. Everywhere the organization of +women is made difficult by domestic misery, which consumes the energy, +time, and interest of the women. The organized Social-Democratic women +laborers of German Austria have a permanent representation in the "Women's +Imperial Committee." Of the 50,000 women organized in trade-unions, 5000 +belong to the Social-Democratic party. The _Magazine for Workingwomen_ +(_Arbeiterinnenzeitung_) has 13,400 subscribers. Women industrial +inspectors have proved themselves efficient. + +It is to be expected as a result of the wretched economic conditions of +the workingwomen that prostitution with its incidental earnings should be +widespread in German Austria. Vienna is the refuge of those seeking work +and seclusion (_Verschwiegenheit_). The number of illicit births in Vienna +is, as in Paris, one third of the total number of births. For these and +other reasons the "General Woman's Club of Austria" (_Allgemeine +Oesterreiche Frauenverein_), founded in 1893 under the leadership of Miss +Augusta Fickert, has frequently concerned itself with the question of +prostitution, of woman's wages, and of the official regulation of +prostitution,--always being opposed to the last. The International +Federation for the Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution +(_internationale abolinistische Foederation_) was, however, not represented +in German Austria before 1903; the Austrian branch of this organization +being established in 1907 in Vienna. + +The middle-class women are doing much as leaders of the charitable, +industrial, educational, and woman's suffrage societies to raise the +status of woman in Austria. The most prominent members of these societies +are: Augusta Fickert, Marianne Hainisch, Mrs. v. Sprung, Miss Herzfelder, +v. Wolfring, Mrs. v. Listrow, Rosa Maireder, Maria Lang (editor of the +excellent _Dokumente der Frauen_, which, unfortunately, were discontinued +in 1902), Mrs. Schwietland, Elsie Federn (the superintendent of the +settlement in the laborers' district in North Vienna), Mrs. Jella Hertzka, +(Mrs.) Dr. Goldmann, superintendent of the Cottage Lyceum, and others. + +These women frequently cooperate with the leaders of the Socialistic +woman's rights movement, Mrs. Schlesinger, Mrs. Popp, and others. The +disunion of the two forces of the movement is much less marked in Austria +than in Germany, the circumstances much more resembling those in Italy. +In these lands it is expected that the woman's rights movement will profit +greatly through the growth of Socialism. This is explained by the fact +that the Austrian Liberals are not equal to the assaults of the +Conservatives. Universal equal suffrage, which does not as yet exist in +Austria, has its most enthusiastic advocates among the Socialists. With +the Austrian Socialists, universal suffrage means woman's suffrage +also.[76] + +During the Liberal era two rights were granted to the Austrian women: +since 1849 the women taxpayers vote by proxy in municipal elections, and +since 1861 for the local legislatures (_Provinciallandtagen_).[77] In +Lower Austria the _Landtag_ in 1888 deprived them of this right, and in +1889 an attempt was made to deprive them of their municipal suffrage. But +the women concerned successfully petitioned that they be left in +possession of their active municipal suffrage. Since 1873 the Austrian +women owners of large estates vote also for the Imperial Parliament +through proxy. The Austrian women, supported by the Socialist deputies, +Pernerstorfer, Kronawetter, Adler, and others, have on several occasions +demanded the passive suffrage in the election of school boards and +poor-law guardians; they have also demanded a reform of the law of +organization, so that women can be admitted to political organizations. To +the present these efforts have been fruitless. When universal suffrage was +granted in 1906 (creating the fifth class of voters), the women were +disregarded. In the previous year a Woman's Suffrage Committee had been +established with headquarters in Vienna. It is endeavoring especially to +secure the repeal of paragraph 30 of the law regulating organizations and +public meetings. This law (like that of Prussia and Bavaria previous to +1908) excludes women from political organization, thus making the forming +of a woman's suffrage society impossible. For this reason Austria cannot +join the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +During the consideration of the new municipal election laws in Troppau +(Austrian Silesia), it was proposed to withdraw the right of suffrage from +the women taxpayers. They resisted the proposal energetically. At present +the matter is before the supreme court. In Voralberg the unmarried women +taxpayers were also given the right to vote in elections of the _Landtag_. +The legal status of the Austrian woman is similar to that of the French +woman: the wife is under the guardianship of her husband; the property law +provides for the amalgamation of property (not joint property holding, as +in France). But the wife does not have control of her earnings and +savings, as in Germany under the Civil Code. The father alone has legal +authority over the children. + +Here the names of two women must be mentioned: Bertha v. Suttner, one of +the founders of the peace movement, and Marie v. Ebner-Eschenbach, the +greatest living woman writer in the German language. Both are Austrians; +and their country may well be proud of them. + +In Austria the authorities are more favorably disposed toward the woman's +rights movement than in Germany, for example. + + +HUNGARY[78] + + Total population: 19,254,559. + Women: 9,672,407. + Men: 9,582,152. + + Federation of Hungarian Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +At first the Hungarian woman's rights movement was restricted to the +advancement of girls' education. The attainment of national independence +gave the women greater ambition; since 1867 they have striven for the +establishment of higher institutions of learning for girls. In 1868 Mrs. +v. Veres with twenty-two other women founded the "Society for the +Advancement of Girls' Education." In 1869, the first class in a high +school for girls was formed in Budapest. An esteemed scholar, P. Gyulai, +undertook the superintendence of the institution. Similar schools were +founded in the provinces. In 1876 the Budapest model school was completed; +in 1878 it was turned over to a woman superintendent, Mrs. v. Janisch. A +seminary for women teachers was established, a special building being +erected for the purpose. Then the admission of women to the university was +agitated. A special committee for this purpose was formed with Dr. Coloman +v. Csicky as chairman. In the meantime the "Society" gave domestic economy +courses and courses of instruction to adults (in its girls' high school). +The Minister of Public Instruction, v. Wlassics, secured the imperial +decree of November 18, 1895, by which women were admitted to the +universities of Klausenburg and Budapest (to the philosophical and medical +faculties). It was now necessary to prepare women for the entrance +examinations (_Abiturientenexamen_). This was undertaken by the "General +Hungarian Woman's Club" (_Allgemeine ungarische Frauenverein_). With the +aid of Dr. Beothy, a lecturer at the University of Budapest, the club +formulated a programme that was accepted by the Minister of Public +Instruction. By the rescript of July 18, 1896, he authorized the +establishment of a girls' gymnasium in Budapest. It is evident that such +reforms, when in the hands of _intelligent_ authorities, are put into +working order as easily as a letter passes through the mails. + +In the professional callings we find 15 women druggists, 10 women doctors, +and one woman architect. Erica Paulus, who has chosen the calling of +architect (which elsewhere in Europe has hardly been opened to women), is +a Transylvanian. Among other things she has been given the supervision of +the masonry, the glasswork, the roofing, and the interior decoration of +the buildings of the Evangelical-Reformed College in Klausenburg. A second +woman architect, trained in the Budapest technical school, is a builder in +Besztercze. + +Higher education of women was promoted in the cities, the home industries +of the Hungarian rural districts were fostered. This was taken up by the +"Rural Woman's Industry Society" (_Landes-Frauenindustrieverein_). Aprons, +carpets, textile fabrics, slippers, tobacco pouches, whip handles, and +ornamental chests are made artistically according to antique models (this +movement is analogous to that in Scandinavia). Large expositions aroused +the interest of the public in favor of the national products, for the +disposal of which the women of the society have labored with enthusiasm. +These home industries give employment to about 750,000 women (and 40,000 +men). + +Hungary is preeminently an agricultural country and its wages are low. The +promotion of home industry therefore had a great economic importance, for +Hungary is a center of traffic in girls. A great number of these poor +ignorant country girls, reared in oriental stupor, congregate in Budapest +from all parts of Hungary and the Balkan States, to be bartered to the +brothels of South America as "Madjarli and Hungara."[79] An address that +Miss Coote of the "International Vigilance Society" delivered in Budapest +resulted in the founding of the "Society for Combating the White Slave +Trade." The committee was composed of Countess Czaky, Baroness Wenckheim, +Dr. Ludwig Gruber (royal public prosecutor), Professor Vambery, and +others. The recent Draconic regulation of prostitution in Pest (1906) +caused the Federation of Hungarian Women's Clubs to oppose the official +regulation of prostitution, and to form a department of morals, which is +to be regarded as the Hungarian branch of the International Federation for +the Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution. Since then, +public opinion concerning the question has been aroused; the laws against +the white slave traffic have been made more stringent and are being more +rigidly enforced. + +A new development in Hungary is the woman's suffrage movement (since +1904), represented in the "Feminist Society" (_Feministenverein_). During +the past five years the society has carried on a vigorous propaganda in +Budapest and various cities in the provinces (in Budapest also with the +aid of foreign women speakers); recently the society has also roused the +countrywomen in favor of the movement. Woman's suffrage is opposed by the +Clericals and the _Social-Democrats_, who favor only male suffrage in the +impending introduction of universal suffrage[80]. On March 10, 1908, a +delegation of woman's suffrage advocates went to the Parliament. During +the suffrage debates the women held public meetings. + +From the work of A. v. Maclay, _Le droit des femmes au travail_, I take +the following statements: According to the industrial statistics of 1900 +there were 1,819,517 women in Hungary engaged in agriculture. Industry, +mining, and transportation engaged 242,951; state and municipal service, +and the liberal callings engaged 36,870 women. There were 109,739 women +day laborers; 350,693 domestic servants; 24,476 women pursued undefined or +unknown callings; 83,537 women lived on incomes from their property. Since +1890 the number of women engaged in all the callings has increased more +rapidly than the number of men (26.3 to 27.9 per cent being the average +increase of the women engaged in gainful pursuits). In 1900 the women +formed 21 per cent of the industrial population. They were engaged chiefly +in the manufacture of pottery (29 per cent), bent-wood furniture (46 per +cent), matches (58 per cent), clothing (59 per cent), textiles (60 per +cent). In paper making and bookbinding 68 per cent of the laborers are +women. In the state mints 25 per cent of the employees are women; the +state tobacco factories employ 16,720 women, these being 94 per cent of +the total number of employees. Of those engaged in commerce 23 per cent +are women. + +The number of women engaged in the civil service (as private secretaries) +and in the liberal callings has increased even more than the number of +women engaged in industry. The women engaged in office work have +organized. In 1901 the number of women public school teachers was 6529 +(there being 22,840 men), _i.e._ 22.22 per cent were women. In the best +public schools there are more women teachers than men, the proportion +being 62 to 48; in the girls' high schools there are 273 women teachers to +145 men teachers. In 1903 the railroads employed 511 women; in 1898 the +postal service employed 4516 women; in 1899 the telephone system employed +207 women (and 81 men). These women employees, unlike those of Austria, +are permitted to marry. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE ROMANCE COUNTRIES + + +In the Romance countries the woman's rights movement is hampered by +Romance customs and by the Catholic religion. The number of women in these +countries is in many cases smaller than the number of men. In general, the +girls are married at an early age, almost always through the negotiations +of the parents. The education of women is in some respects very deficient. + + +FRANCE + + Total population: 38,466,924. + Women: 19,346,369. + Men: 18,922,651. + + Federation of French Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +The European woman's rights movement was born in France; it is a child of +the Revolution of 1789. When a whole country enjoys freedom, equality, and +fraternity, woman can no longer remain in bondage. The Declaration of the +Rights of Man apply to Woman also. The European woman's rights movement is +based on purely logical principles; not, as in the United States, on the +practical exercise of woman's right to vote. This purely theoretical +origin is not denied by the advocates of the woman's rights movement in +France. It ought to be mentioned that the principles of the woman's rights +movement were brought from France to England by Mary Wollstonecraft, and +were stated in her pamphlet, _A Vindication of the Rights of Women_. But +enthusiastic Mary Wollstonecraft did not form a school in England, and the +organized English woman's rights movement did not cast its lot with this +revolutionist. What Mary Wollstonecraft did for England, Olympe de Gouges +did for France in 1789; at that time she dedicated to the Queen her little +book, _The Declaration of the Rights of Women_ (_La declaration des droits +des femmes_). It happened that The Declaration of the Rights of Man (_La +declaration des droits de l'homme_) of 1789 referred only to the men. The +National Assembly recognized only male voters, and refused the petition of +October 28, 1789, in which a number of Parisian women demanded universal +suffrage in the election of national representatives. Nothing is more +peculiar than the attitude of the men advocates of liberty toward the +women advocates of liberty. At that time woman's struggle for liberty had +representatives in all social groups. In the aristocratic circles there +was Madame de Stael, who as a republican (her father was Swiss) never +doubted the equality of the sexes; but by her actions showed her belief in +woman's right to secure the highest culture and to have political +influence. Madame de Stael's social position and her wealth enabled her to +spread these views of woman's rights; she was never dependent on the men +advocates of freedom. Madame Roland was typical of the educated republican +bourgeoisie. She participated in the revolutionary drama and was a +"political woman." On the basis of historical documents it can be asserted +that the men advocates of freedom have not forgiven her. + +The intelligent people of the lower classes are represented by Olympe de +Gouges and Theroigne de Mericourt. Both played a political role; both +were woman's rights advocates; of both it was said that they had forgotten +the virtues of their sex,--modesty and submissiveness. The men of freedom +still thought that the home offered their wives all the freedom they +needed. The populace finally made demonstrations through woman's clubs. +These clubs were closed in 1793 by the Committee of Public Safety because +the clubs disturbed "public peace." The public peace of 1793! What an +idyl! In short, the regime of liberty, equality, and fraternity regarded +woman as unfree, unequal, and treated her very unfraternally. What harmony +between theory and practice! In fact, the Revolution even withdrew rights +that the women formerly possessed. For example, the old regime gave a +noblewoman, as a landowner, all the rights of a feudal lord. She levied +troops, raised taxes, and administered justice. During the old regime in +France there were women peers; women were now and then active in +diplomacy. The abbesses exercised the same feudal power as the abbots; +they had unlimited power over their convents. The women owners of large +feudal lands met with the _provincial estates_,--for instance, Madame de +Sevigne in the _Estates General_ of Brittany, where there was autonomy in +the provincial administration. In the gilds the women masters exercised +their professional right as voters. All of these rights ended with the old +regime; beside the politically free man stood the politically unfree +woman. Napoleon confirmed this lack of freedom in the Civil and Criminal +Codes. Napoleon's attitude toward all women (excepting his mother, _Madame +Mere_) was such as we still find among the men in Southern Italy, in +Spain, and in the Orient. His sisters and Josephine Beauharnais, the +creole, could not give him a more just opinion of women. His fierce hatred +for Madame de Stael indicates his attitude toward the woman's rights +representatives. The great Napoleon did not like intellectual women. + +The Code Napoleon places the wife completely under the guardianship of +the husband. Without him she can undertake no legal transaction. The +property law requires joint property holding, excepting real estate (but +most of the women are neither landowners nor owners of houses). The +married woman has had independent control of her earnings and savings only +since the enactment of the law of July 13, 1907. Only the husband has +legal authority over the children. Such a legal status of woman is found +in other codes. But the following provisions are peculiar to the Code +Napoleon: If a husband kills his wife for committing adultery, the murder +is "excusable." An illicit mother cannot file a paternity suit. In +practice, however, the courts in a roundabout way give the illicit mother +an opportunity to file an action for damages. + +No other code, above all no other Germanic or Slavic code,[81] has been +disgraced by such paragraphs. In the first of the designated paragraphs we +hear the Corsican, a cousin of the Moor of Venice; in the second we hear +the military emperor, and general of an unbridled, undisciplined troop of +soldiers. No one will be astonished to learn that this same lawgiver in +1801 supplemented the Code with a despotic state regulation of +prostitution. What became of the woman's rights movement during this +arbitrary military regime? Full of fear and anxiety, the woman's rights +advocates concealed their views. The Restoration was scarcely a better +time for advocating woman's rights. The philosopher of the epoch, de +Bonald, spoke very pompously against the equality of the sexes, "Man and +woman are not and never will be equal." It was not until the July +Revolution of 1830 and the February Revolution of 1848 that the question +of woman's rights could gain a favorable hearing. The Saint Simonians, the +Fourierists, and George Sand preached the rights of man and the rights of +woman. During the February Revolution the women were found, just as in +1789, in the front ranks of the Socialists. The French woman's rights +movement is closely connected with both political movements. Every time a +sacrifice of Republicans and Democrats was demanded, women were among the +banished and deported: Jeanne Deroin in 1848, Louise Michel, in 1851 and +1871. + +Marie Deraismes, belonging to the wealthy Parisian middle class, appeared +in the sixties as a public speaker. She was a woman's rights advocate. +However, in a still greater degree she was a tribune of the people, a +republican and a politician. Marie Deraismes and her excellent political +adherent, Leon Richer, were the founders of the organized French woman's +rights movement. As early as 1876 they organized the "Society for the +Amelioration of the Condition of Woman and for Demanding Woman's Rights"; +in 1878 they called the first French woman's rights congress. + +The following features characterize the modern French woman's rights +movement: It is largely restricted to Paris; in the provinces there are +only weak and isolated beginnings; even the Parisian woman's rights +organizations are not numerous, the greatest having 400 members. Thanks to +the republican and socialist movements, which for thirty years have +controlled France, the woman's rights movement is for political reasons +supported by the men to a degree not noticeable in any other country. The +republican majority in the Chamber of Deputies, the republican press, and +republican literature effectively promote the woman's rights movement. The +Federation of French Women's Clubs, founded in 1901, and reputed to have +73,000 members, is at present promoting the movement by the systematic +organization of provincial divisions. Less kindly disposed--sometimes +indifferent and hostile--are the Church, the Catholic circles, the +nobility, society, and the "liberal" capitalistic bourgeoisie. A sharp +division between the woman's rights movements of the middle class and the +movement of the Socialists, such as exists, for example, in Germany, does +not exist in France. A large part of the bourgeoisie (not the great +capitalists) are socialistically inclined. On the basis of principle the +Republicans and Socialists cannot deny the justice of the woman's rights +movement. Hence everything now depends on the _opportuneness_ of the +demands of the women. + +The French woman has still much to demand. However enlightened, however +advanced the Frenchman may regard himself, he has not yet reached the +point where he will favor woman's suffrage; what the National Assembly +denied in 1789, the Republic of 1870 has also withheld. Nevertheless +conditions have improved, in so far as measures in favor of woman's +suffrage and the reform of the civil rights of woman have since 1848 been +repeatedly introduced and supported by petitions.[82] As for the civil +rights of woman,--the principles of the Code Napoleon, the minority of the +wife, and the husband's authority over her are still unchanged. However, a +few minor concessions have been made: To-day a woman can be a witness to a +civil transaction, _e.g._ a marriage contract. A married woman can open a +savings bank account in her maiden name; and, as in Belgium, her husband +can make it impossible for her to withdraw the money! A wife's earnings +now belong to her. The severe law concerning adultery by the wife still +exists, and affiliation cases are still prohibited. That is not exactly +liberal. + +Attempts to secure reforms of the civil law are being made by various +women's clubs, the Group of Women Students (_Le groupe d'etudes +feministes_) (Madame Oddo Deflou), and by the committee on legal matters +of the Federation of French Women's Clubs (Madame d'Abbadie). + +In both the legal and the political fields the French women have hitherto +(in spite of the Republic) achieved very little. In educational matters, +however, the republican government has decidedly favored the women. Here +the wishes of the women harmonized with the republican hatred for the +priests. What was done perhaps not for the women, was done to spite the +Church. + +Elementary education has been obligatory since 1882. In 1904-1905 there +were 2,715,452 girls in the elementary schools, and 2,726,944 boys. State +high schools, or _lycees_, for girls have existed since 1880. The +programme of these schools is not that of the German _Gymnasiums_, but +that of a German high school for girls (foreign languages, however, are +elective). In the last two years (in which the ages of the girls are 16 to +18 years) the curriculum is that of a seminary for women teachers. In +1904-1905 these institutions were attended by 22,000 girls, as compared +with 100,000 boys. The French woman's rights movement has as yet not +succeeded in establishing _Gymnasiums_ for girls; at present, efforts are +being made to introduce _Gymnasium_ courses in the girls' _lycees_. The +admission of girls to the boys' _lycees_, which has occurred in Germany +and in Italy, has not even been suggested in France. To the present, the +preparation of girls for the universities has been carried on privately. + +The right to study in the universities has never been withheld from women. +From the beginning, women could take the _Abiturientenexamen_ (the +university entrance examinations) with the young men before an examination +commission. All departments are open to women. The number of women +university students in France is 3609; the male students number 38,288. +Women school teachers control the whole public school system for girls. In +the French schools for girls most of the teachers are women; the +superintendents are also women. The ecclesiastical educational +system,--which still exists in secular guise,--is naturally, so far as the +education of girls is concerned, entirely in the hands of women. The +salaries of the secular women teachers in the first three classes of the +elementary schools are equal to those of the men. The women teachers in +the _lycees_ (_agregees_) are trained in the Seminary of Sevres and in the +universities. Their salaries are lower than those of the men. In 1907 the +first woman teacher in the French higher institutions of learning was +appointed,--Madame Curie, who holds the chair of physics in the Sorbonne, +in Paris. In the provincial universities women are lecturers on modern +languages. There are no women preachers in France. _Dr. jur._ Jeanne +Chauvin was the first woman lawyer, being admitted to the bar in 1899. +To-day women lawyers are practicing in Paris and in Toulouse. + +In the government service there are women postal clerks, telegraph clerks, +and telephone clerks,--with an average daily wage of 3 francs (60 cents). +Only the subordinate positions are open to women. The same is true of the +women employed in the railroad offices. Women have been admitted as clerks +in some of the administrative departments of the government and in the +public poor-law administration. Women are employed as inspectors of +schools, as factory inspectors, and as poor-law administrators. There is a +woman member of each of the following councils: the Superior Council of +Education, the Superior Council of Labor, and the Superior Council of +Public Assistance (_Conseil Superior d'Education_, _Conseil Superior du +Travail_, _Conseil Superior de l'Assistance Publique_). The first woman +court interpreter was appointed in the Parisian Court of Appeals in 1909. + +The French woman is an excellent business woman. However, the women +employed in commercial establishments, being organized as yet to a small +extent, earn no more than women laborers,--70 to 80 francs ($14 to $16) a +month. In general, greater demands are made of them in regard to personal +appearance and dress. There is a law requiring that chairs be furnished +during working hours. There is a consumers' league in Paris which probably +will effect reforms in the laboring conditions of women. The women in the +industries, of whom there are about 900,000, have an average wage of 2 +francs (50 cents) a day. Hardly 30,000 are organized into trade-unions; +all women tobacco workers are organized. As elsewhere, the French +ready-made clothing industry is the most wretched home industry. A part of +the French middle-class women oppose legislation for the protection of +women workers on the ground of "equality of rights for the sexes."[83] +This attitude has been occasioned by the contrast between the typographers +and the women typesetters; the men being aided in the struggle by the +prohibition of night work for women. It is easy to explain the rash and +unjustifiable generalization made on the basis of this exceptional case. +The women that made the generalization and oppose legislation for the +protection of women laborers belong to the bourgeois class. There are +about 1,500,000 women engaged in agriculture, the average wage being 1 +franc 50 (about 37 cents). Many of these women earn 1 franc to 1 franc 20 +(20 to 24 cents) a day. In Paris, women have been cab drivers and +chauffeurs since 1907. In 1901 women formed 35 per cent of the population +engaged in the professions and the industries (6,805,000 women; +12,911,000 men: total, 19,716,000). + +There are three parties in the French woman's rights movement. The +Catholic (_le feminisme chretien_), the moderate (predominantly +Protestant), and the radical (almost entirely socialistic). The Catholic +party works entirely independently; the two others often cooperate, and +are represented in the National Council of Women (_Conseil national des +femmes_), while the _feminisme chretien_ is not represented. The views of +the Catholic party are as follows: "No one denies that man is stronger +than woman. But this means merely a physical superiority. On the basis of +this superiority man dare not despise woman and regard her as morally +inferior to him. But from the Christian point of view God gave man +authority over woman. This does not signify any intellectual superiority, +but is simply a fact of hierarchy."[84] The _feminisme chretien_ +advocates: A thorough education for girls according to Catholic +principles; a reform of the marriage law (the wife should control her +earnings, separate property holding should be established); the same moral +standard for both sexes (abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution); the same penalty for adultery for both sexes (however, +there should be no divorce); the authority of the mother (_autorite +maritale_) should be maintained, for only in this way can peace prevail +in the family. "A high-minded woman will never wish to rule. It is her +wish to sacrifice herself, to admire, to lean on the arm of a strong man +that protects her."[85] + +In the moderate group (President, Miss Sara Monod), these ideas have few +advocates. Protestantism, which is strongly represented in this party, has +a natural inclination toward the development of individuality. This party +is more concerned with the woman that does not find the arm of the "strong +man" to lean on, or who detected him leaning upon her. This party is +entirely opposed to the husband's authority over the wife and to the dogma +of obligatory admiration and sacrifice. The leaders of the party are +Madame Bonnevial, Madame Auclert, and others. During the five years' +leadership of Madame Marguerite Durand, the "Fronde" was the meeting place +of the party. + +The radicals demand: absolute coeducation; anti-military instruction in +history; schools that prepare girls for motherhood; the admission of women +to government positions; equal pay for both sexes; official regulation of +the work of domestic servants; the abolition of the husband's authority; +municipal and national suffrage for women. A member of the radical party +presented herself in 1908 as a candidate in the Parisian elections. In +November, 1908, women were granted passive suffrage for the arbitration +courts for trade disputes (they already possessed active suffrage). + +The founding of the National Council of French Women (_Conseil national +des femmes francaise_) has aided the woman's rights movement considerably. +Stimulated by the progress made in other countries, the French women have +systematically begun their work. They have organized two sections in the +provinces (Touraine and Normandy); they have promoted the organization of +women into trade-unions; they have studied the marriage laws; and have +organized a woman's suffrage department. Since 1907 the woman's magazine, +_La Francaise_, published weekly, has done effective work for the cause. +The place of publication (49 rue Laffite, Paris) is also a public meeting +place for the leaders of the woman's rights movements. _La Francaise_ +arouses interest in the cause of woman's rights among women teachers and +office clerks in the provinces. Recently the management of the magazine +has been converted to the cause of woman's suffrage. In the spring of 1909 +the French Woman's Suffrage Society (_Union francaise pour le souffrage +des femmes_) was organized under the presidency of Madame Schmall (a +native of England). Madame Schmall is also to be regarded as the +originator of the law of July 13, 1907, which pertains to the earnings of +the wife. The _Union_ has joined the International Woman's Suffrage +Alliance. In the House of Deputies there is a group in favor of woman's +rights. The French woman's rights movement seems to be spreading rapidly. + +Emile de Morsier organized the French movement favoring the abolition of +the official regulation of prostitution. Through this movement an +extraparliamentary commission (1903-1907) was induced to recognize the +evil of the existing official regulation of prostitution. This is the +first step toward abolition. + + +BELGIUM + + Total population: 6,815,054. + Women: 3,416,057. + Men: 3,398,997. + + Federation of Belgian Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +It is very difficult for the woman's rights movement to thrive in Belgium. +Not that the movement is unnecessary there; on the contrary, the legal +status of woman is regulated by the Code Napoleon, hence there is decided +need for reform. The number of women exceeds that of the men; hence part +of the girls cannot marry. Industry is highly developed. The question of +wages is a vital question for women laborers. Accordingly there are +reasons enough for instituting an organized woman's rights movement in +Belgium. But every agitation for this purpose is hampered by the +following social factors: Catholicism (Belgium is 99 per cent Catholic), +Clericalism in Parliament, and the indifference of the rich bourgeoisie. + +The woman's rights movement has very few adherents in the third estate, +and it is exactly the women of this estate that ought to be the natural +supporters of the movement. In the fourth estate, in which there are a +great many Socialists, the woman's rights movement is identical with +Socialism. + +Since the legal status of woman is determined by the Code Napoleon, we +need not comment upon it here. By a law of 1900, the wife is empowered to +deposit money in a savings bank without the consent of her husband; the +limit of her deposit being 3000 francs ($600). The wife also controls her +earnings. If, however, _she draws more than 100 francs_ (_$20_) _a month +from the savings bank, the husband may protest_. Women are now admitted to +family councils; they can act as guardians; they can act as witnesses to a +marriage. Affiliation cases were made legal in 1906. On December 19, 1908, +women were given active and passive suffrage in arbitration courts for +labor disputes. + +The Belgium secondary school system is exceptional because the government +has established a rather large number of girls' high schools. However, +these schools do not prepare for the university entrance examinations +(_Abiturientenexamen_). Women contemplating entering the university, must +prepare for these examinations privately. This was done by Miss Marie +Popelin, of Brussels, who wished to study law. The universities of +Brussels, Ghent, and Liege have been open to women since 1886. Hence Miss +Popelin could execute her plans; in 1888 she received the degree of Doctor +of Laws. She made an attempt in 1888-1889 to secure admission to the bar +as a practicing lawyer, but the Brussels Court of Appeals decided the case +against her.[86] + +Miss Marie Popelin is the leader of the middle-class woman's rights +movement in Belgium. She is in charge of the Woman's Rights League (_Ligue +du droit des femmes_), founded in 1890. With the support of Mrs. Denis, +Mrs. Parent, and Mrs. Fontaine, Miss Popelin organized, in 1897, an +international woman's congress in Brussels. Many representatives of +foreign countries attended. One of the German representatives, Mrs. Anna +Simpson, was astonished by the indifference of the people of Brussels. In +her report she says: "Where were the women of Brussels during the days of +the Congress? They did not attend, for the middle class is not much +interested in our cause. It was especially for this class that the +Congress was held." Dr. Popelin is also president of the league that has +since 1908 taken up the struggle against the official regulation of +prostitution. + +The schools and convents are the chief fields of activity for the +middle-class Belgian women engaged in non-domestic callings. As yet there +are only a few women doctors. One of these, Mrs. Derscheid-Delcour, has +been appointed as chief physician at the Brussels Orphans' Home. Mrs. +Delcour graduated in 1893 at the University of Berlin _summa cum laude_; +in 1895 she was awarded the gold medal in the surgical sciences in a prize +contest for the students of the Belgian universities. + +In Belgium 268,337 women are engaged in the industries. The Socialist +party has recognized the organizations of these women; it was instrumental +in organizing 250,000 women into trade-unions. Elsewhere this would be +impossible.[87] + +Madame Vandervelde, the wife of the Socialist member of Parliament, and +Madame Gatti de Gammond, the publisher of the _Cahiers feministes_, were +the leaders of the Socialist woman's rights movement, which is organized +throughout the country in committees, councils, and societies. Madame +Gatti de Gammond died in 1905, and her publication, the _Cahiers +feministes_, was discontinued. The secretary of the Federation of +Socialist Women (_Federation de femmes socialistes_) is Madame Tilmans. +Vooruit, of Ghent, publishes a woman's magazine: _De Stem der Vrouw_. + +The women are demanding the right to vote. The Belgian women possessed +municipal suffrage till 1830. They were deprived of this right by the +Constitution of 1831. A measure favoring universal suffrage (for men and +women) was introduced into Parliament in 1894. This bill, however, +provided also for plural voting, by which the property-owning and the +educated classes were given one or two additional votes. The Socialists +opposed this, and demanded that each person have one vote (_un homme, un +vote_). The Clerical majority then replied that it would not bring the +bill to a vote. In this way the Clericals remained assured of a majority. + +For tactical purposes the Socialists adopted the expression--_un homme, un +vote_. It harmonized with their principles and ideals. At a meeting of the +party in which the matter was discussed, it was shown that universal +suffrage would be detrimental to the party's interests; for the Socialists +were convinced that woman's suffrage would certainly insure a majority for +the Clericals. Hence, in meeting, the women were persuaded to withdraw +their demand for woman's suffrage on the grounds of opportuneness, and _in +the meantime to work for the inauguration of universal male suffrage +without the plural vote_.[88] + +In the _Fronde_, Audree Tery summarized the situation in the following +dialogue:-- + + _The man._ Emancipate yourself and I will enfranchise you. + + _The woman._ Give me the franchise and I shall emancipate myself. + + _The man._ Be free, and you shall have freedom. + +In this manner, concludes Audree Tery, this dialogue can be continued +indefinitely. + +Recently the middle-class women have begun to show an interest in woman's +suffrage. A woman's suffrage organization was formed in Brussels in 1908; +one in Ghent, in 1909. Together they have organized the Woman's Suffrage +League, which has affiliated with the International Woman's Suffrage +Alliance. + +Woman's lack of rights and her powerlessness in public life are shown by +the fact that in Antwerp, in 1908, public aid to the unemployed was +granted only to men,--to unmarried as well as to married men. As for the +unmarried women, they were left to shift for themselves. + + +ITALY + + Total population: 32,449,754. + Women: about 16,190,000. + Men: about 16,260,000. + + Federation of Italian Women's Clubs. + Woman's Suffrage League. + +National unification raised Italy to the rank of a great power. Italy's +political position as a great power, her modern parliamentary life, and +the Liberal and Socialist majority in her Parliament give Italy a position +that Spain, for example, does not possess in any way. Catholicism, +Clericalism, and Roman custom are no match for these modern liberal +powers, and are therefore unable to hinder the woman's rights movement in +the same degree as do these influences in Spain. However, the Italian +woman in general is still entirely dependent on the man (see the +discussion in Alaremo's _Una Donna_), and in the unenlightened classes +woman's feeling of inferiority is impressed upon her by the Church, the +law, the family, and by custom. Naturally the woman attempts, as in Spain, +to take revenge in the sexual field. + +In Italy there is no strict morality among married men. Moreover, the +opposition to divorce in Italy comes largely from the women, who, +accustomed to being deceived in matrimony, fear that if they are divorced +they _will be left without means of support_. "Boys make love to +girls,--to mere unguided children without any will of their own,--and when +these boys marry, be they ever so young, they have already had a wealth of +experience that has taught them to regard woman disdainfully--with a sort +of cynical authority. Even love and respect for the innocent young wife is +unable to eradicate from the young husband the impressions of immorality +and bad examples. The wife suffers from a hardly perceptible, but +unceasing depression of mind. Innocently, without suspicion, uninformed as +to her husband's past, the wife persists in her belief in his manly +superiority until this belief has become a fixed habit of thought, and +then even a cruel revelation cannot take him from her."[89] + +In southern Italy,--especially in Sicily,--Arabian oriental conceptions of +woman still prevail. During her whole life woman is a grown-up child. No +woman, not even the most insignificant woman laborer, can be on the street +without an escort. On the other hand, the boys are emancipated very early. +With pity and arrogance the sons look down on the mother, who must be +accompanied in the street by her sons. + +"Close intellectual relations between man and woman cannot as yet be +developed, owing to the generally low education of woman, to her +subordination, and to her intellectual bondage. While still in the +schools the boy is trained for political life. The average Italian woman +participates in politics even less than the German woman; her influence is +purely moral. If the Italian woman wishes to accept any office in a +society, she must have the consent of her husband attested by a notary. +Just as in ancient times, the non-professional interests of the husband +are, in great part, elsewhere than at home. The opportunity daily to +discuss political and other current questions with men companions is found +by the German man in the smaller cities while taking his evening pint of +beer. The Italian man finds this opportunity sometimes in the cafe, +sometimes in the public places, where every evening the men congregate for +hours. So the educated man in Italy (even more than in Germany) has no +need of the intellectual qualities of his wife. Moreover, his need for an +educated wife is the less because his misguided precocity prevents him +from acquiring anything but an essentially general education. The +restricted intellectual relationship between husband and wife is explained +partly by the fact that the _cicisbeo_[90] still exists. This relation +ought to be, and generally is, Platonic and publicly known. The wife +permits her friend (the _cicisbeo_) to escort her to the theater and +elsewhere in a carriage; the husband also escorts a woman friend. So +husband and wife share the inwardly moral unsoundness of the medieval +service of love (_Minnedienst_). At any rate this custom reveals the fact +that after the honeymoon the husband and wife do not have overmuch to say +to each other. In this way there takes place, to a certain extent, an open +relinquishment of the postulate that, in accordance with the external +indissolubility of married life, there ought to be permanent intellectual +bonds between man and wife,--a postulate that is the source of the most +serious conscience struggles, but which has caused the great moral +development of the northern woman."[91] + +Naturally, under such circumstances, the woman's rights movement has done +practically nothing for the masses. In the circles of the nobility the +movement, with the consent of the clergy, has until recently confined +itself to philanthropy (the forming of associations and insurance +societies, the founding of homes, asylums, etc.) and to the higher +education of girls.[92] In a private audience the Pope has expressed +himself in _favor_ of women's engaging in university studies (except +theology), but he was _opposed_ to woman's suffrage. The daughters of the +educated, liberal (but often poor) bourgeoisie are driven by want and +conviction to acquire a higher education and to engage in academic +callings. The material difficulties are not great. As in France, the +government has during the past thirty-five years promoted all educational +measures that would take from the clergy its power over youth. + +Elementary education is public and obligatory. The laws are enforced +rather strictly. Coeducation nowhere exists. The number of women teachers +is 62,643. + +The secondary school system is still largely in the hands of the Catholic +religious orders. There are about 100,000 girls and nuns enrolled in these +church schools; only 25,000 girls are in the secondary state and private +schools (other than the Catholic schools), which cannot give instruction +as _cheaply_ as the religious schools. The efforts of the state in this +field are not to be criticized: it has given women every educational +opportunity. Girls wishing to study in the universities are admitted to +the boys' classical schools (_ginnasii_) and to the boys' technical +schools. This experiment in coeducation during the plastic age of youth +has not even been undertaken by France. To be sure, at present the girls +sit together on the front seats, and when entering and leaving class they +have the school porter as bodyguard. In spite of all fears to the +contrary, coeducation has been a success in northern Italy (Milan), as +well as in southern Italy (Naples). + +The universities have never been closed to women. In recent years 300 +women have attended the universities and have graduated. During the +Renaissance there were many women teachers in Italy. This tradition has +been revived; at present there are 10 women university teachers. _Dr. +jur._ Therese Labriola (whose mother is a German) is a lecturer in the +philosophy of law at Rome. _Dr. med._ Rina Monti is a university lecturer +in anatomy at Pavia. + +There are many practicing women doctors in Italy. _Dr. med._ Maria +Montessori (a delegate to the International Congress of Women in Berlin in +1896) is a physician in the Roman hospitals. The Minister of Public +Instruction has authorized her to deliver a course of lectures on the +treatment of imbecile children to a class of women teachers in the +elementary schools. The legal profession still remains closed to women, +although _Dr. jur._ Laidi Poet has succeeded in being admitted to the bar +in Turin. + +In government service (in 1901) there were 1000 women telephone employees, +183 women telegraph clerks, and 161 women office clerks. These positions +are much sought after by men. The number of women employed in commerce is +18,000; the total number of persons employed in commerce being 57,087. +Recently women have been appointed as factory inspectors. + +The beginnings of the modern woman's rights movement coincide with the +political upheavals that occurred between 1859 and 1870. When the Kingdom +of Italy had been established, Jessie White Mario demanded a reform of the +legal, political, and economic status of woman. Whatever legal concessions +have been made to women are due, as in France, to the Liberal +parliamentary majority. + +Since 1877, women have been able to act as witnesses in civil suits. Women +(even married women) can be guardians. The property laws provide for +separation of property. Even in cases of joint property holding, the wife +controls her earnings and savings. The husband can give her a general +authorization (_allgemeinautorisation_), thus giving her the full status +of a legal person before the law. These laws are the most radical reforms +to which the Code Napoleon has ever been subjected,--reforms which the +French did not venture to enact. + +The Liberal majority made an attempt in 1877 to emancipate the women +politically. But the attempt failed. Bills providing for municipal woman's +suffrage were introduced and rejected in 1880, 1883, and 1888. However, +since 1890, women have been eligible as poor-law guardians. The elite +among the Italian men loyally supported the women in their struggle for +emancipation. Since 1881 the women have organized clubs. At first these +were unsuccessful. Free and courageous women were in the minority. In Rome +the woman's rights movement was at first exclusively benevolent. In Milan +and Turin, on the other hand, there were woman's rights advocates (under +the leadership of _Dr. med._ Paoline Schiff and Emilia Mariani). The +leadership of the national movement fell to the more active, more +educated, and economically stronger northern Italy. Here also the movement +of the workingwomen had progressed to the stage of organization, as, for +example, in the case of the Lombard women workers in the rice fields. + +There are 1,371,426 women laborers in Italy. Their condition is wretched. +In agriculture, as well as in the industries, they are given the rough, +_poorly paid_ work to do. They are exploited to the extreme. Women straw +plaiters have been offered 20 centimes, even as little as 10 centimes (4 +to 2 cents), for twelve hours' work. The average daily wage for women is +80 centimes to 1 franc (16 to 20 cents). The maximum is 1 franc 50 +centimes (30 cents). The law has fixed the maximum working day for women +at twelve hours, and prohibits women under twenty years of age from +engaging in work that is dangerous and injurious to health. There are +maternity funds for women in confinement, financial aid being given them +for four weeks after the birth of the child. Under all these +circumstances the organization of women is exceedingly difficult. Even the +Socialists have neglected the organization of workingwomen. + +Socialist propaganda among women agricultural laborers was begun in 1901. +In Bologna, in the autumn of 1902, there was held a meeting of the +representatives of 800 agricultural organizations (having a total +membership of 150,000 men and women agricultural laborers). The +constitution of the society is characteristic; many of its clauses are +primitive and pathetic. This society is intended to be an educational and +moral organization. Women members are exhorted "to live rightly, and to be +virtuous and kind-hearted mothers, women, and daughters."[93] It is to be +hoped that the task of the women will be made easier through the efforts +of the society's male members to make themselves virtuous and kind-hearted +fathers, husbands, and sons. Or are moral duties, in this case also, meant +only for woman? + +The movement favoring the abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution was introduced into Italy by Mrs. Butler. A congress in favor +of abolition was held in 1898 in Genoa. Recently, thanks to the efforts of +Dr. Agnes MacLaren and Miss Buchner, the movement has been revived, and +urged upon the Catholic clergy. The Italian branch of the International +Federation for the Abolition of the Official Regulation of Prostitution +was founded in 1908. In the same year was held in Rome the successful +Congress of the Federation of Women's Clubs. This Congress, representing +the nobility, the middle class, and workingwomen, brought the woman's +suffrage question to the attention of the public. A number of woman's +suffrage societies had been organized previously, in Rome as well as in +the provinces. They formed the National Woman's Suffrage League, which, in +1906, joined the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. Through the +discussions in the women's clubs, woman's suffrage became a topic of +public interest. The Amsterdam Report [of the Congress of the +International Woman's Suffrage Alliance] says: "The women of the +aristocracy wish to vote because they are intelligent; they feel +humiliated because their coachman or chauffeur is able to vote. The +workingwomen demand the right to vote, that they may improve their +conditions of labor and be able to support their children better." A +parliamentary commission for the consideration of woman's suffrage was +established in 1908. In the meantime the existence of this commission +enables the President of the Ministry to dispose of the various proposed +measures with the explanation that such matters will not be considered +_until the commission has expressed itself on the whole question_. Women +have active and passive suffrage for the arbitration courts for labor +disputes. + + +SPAIN[94] + + Total population: 18,813,493. + Women: 9,558,896. + Men: 9,272,597. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +Whoever has traveled in Spain knows that it is a country still living, as +it were, in the seventeenth century,--nay in the Middle Ages. The fact has +manifold consequences for woman. In all cases progress is hindered. Woman +is under the yoke of the priesthood, and of a Catholicism generally +bigoted. The Church teaches woman that she is regarded as the cause of +carnal desire and of the fall of man. By law, woman is under the +guardianship of man. Custom forbids the "respectable" woman to walk on the +street without a man escort. The Spanish woman regards herself as a person +of the second order, a necessary adjunct to man. Such a fundamental +humiliation and subordination is opposed to human nature. As the Spanish +woman has no power of open opposition, she resorts to cunning. By instinct +she is conscious of the power of her sex; this she uses and abuses. A +woman's rights advocate is filled with horror, quite as much as with pity, +when she sees this mixture of bigotry, coquetry, submissiveness, cunning, +and hate that is engendered in woman by such tyranny and lack of progress. + +The Spanish woman of the lower classes receives no training for any +special calling; she is a mediocre laborer. She acts as beast of burden, +carries heavy burdens on her shoulders, carries water, tills the fields, +and splits wood. She is employed as an industrial laborer chiefly in the +manufacture of cigars and lace. "The wages of women," says Professor +Posada,[95] "are incredibly low," being but 10 cents a day. As tailors, +women make a scanty living, for many of the Spanish women do their own +tailoring. The mantilla makes the work of milliners in general +superfluous. In commercial callings women are still novices. Recently +there has been talk of beginning the organization of women into +trade-unions. + +Women are employed in large numbers as teachers; teaching being their sole +non-domestic calling. Elementary instruction has been obligatory since +1870, however, only in theory. In 1889 28 per cent of the women were +illiterate. In many cases the girls of the lower classes do not attend +school at all. When they do attend, they learn very little; for owing to +the lack of seminaries the training of women teachers is generally quite +inadequate. A reform of the central seminary of women teachers, in Madrid, +took place in 1884; this reform was also a model for the seminaries in the +provinces. The secondary schools for girls are convent schools. In France +there are complaints that these schools are inadequate. What, then, can be +expected of the Spanish schools! The curriculum includes only French, +singing, dancing, drawing, and needlework. But the "Society for Female +Education" is striving to secure a reform of the education for girls. + +Preparation for entrance to the university must be secured privately. The +number of women seeking entrance to universities is small. Most of them, +so far as I know, are medical students. However, the Spanish women have a +brilliant past in the field of higher education. Donna Galinda was the +Latin professor of Queen Isabella. Isabella Losa and Sigea Aloisia of +Toledo were renowned for their knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew; +Sigea Aloisia corresponded with the Pope in Arabic and Syriac. Isabel de +Rosores even preached in the Cathedral of Barcelona. + +In the literature of the present time Spanish women are renowned. Of first +rank is Emilia Pardo Bazan, who is called the "Spanish Zola." She is a +countess and an only daughter, two circumstances that facilitated her +emancipation and, together with her talent, assured her success. She +characterizes herself as "a mixture of mysticism and liberalism." At the +age of seven she wrote her first verses. Her best book portrayed a +"liberal monk," Father Feque. _Pascual Loper_, a novel, was a great +success. She then went to Paris to study naturalism. Here she became +acquainted with Zola, Goncourt, Daudet, and others. A study of Francis of +Assisi led her again to the study of mysticism. In her recent novels +liberalism is mingled with idealism. + +Emilia Pardo Bazan is by conviction a woman's rights advocate. In the +Madrid Atheneum she filled with great success the position of Professor of +French Literature. At the pedagogical congress in Madrid, in 1899, she +gave a report on _Woman, her Education, and her Rights_. + +In Spain there are a number of well-known women journalists, authors, and +poets. Dr. Posada enumerates a number of woman's rights publications on +pages 200-202 of his book, _El Feminismo_. + +Concepcion Arenal was a prominent Spanish woman and woman's rights +advocate. She devoted herself to work among prisoners, and wrote a +valuable handbook dealing with her work. She felt the oppression of her +sex very keenly. Concerning woman's status, which man has forced upon her, +Concepcion Arenal expressed herself as follows: "Man despises all women +that do not belong to his family; he oppresses every woman that he does +not love or protect. As a laborer, he takes from her the best paid +positions; as a thinker, he forbids the mental training of woman; as a +lover, he can be faithless to her without being punished by law; as a +husband, he can leave her without being guilty before the law." + +The wife is legally under the guardianship of her husband; she has no +authority over her children. The property laws provide for joint property +holding. + +In spite of these conditions Concepcion Arenal did not give up all hope. +"Women," said she, "are beginning to take interest in education, and have +organized a society for the higher education of girls." The pedagogical +congresses in Madrid (1882 and 1889) promoted the intellectual +emancipation of women. Catalina d'Alcala, delegate to the International +Congress of Women in Chicago in 1893, closed her report with the words, +"We are emerging from the period of darkness." However, he who has +wandered through Spanish cathedrals knows that this darkness is still very +dense! Nevertheless, the woman's suffrage movement has begun: the women +laborers are agitating in favor of a new law of association. A number of +women teachers and women authors have petitioned for the right to vote. In +March, 1908, during the discussion of a new law concerning municipal +administration, an amendment in favor of woman's suffrage was introduced, +but was rejected by a vote of 65 to 35. The Senate is said to be more +favorable to woman's suffrage than is the Chamber of Deputies. + +The fact that women of the aristocracy have opposed divorce, and that +women of all classes have opposed the enactment of laws restricting +religious orders, is made to operate against the political emancipation of +women. A deputy in the Cortez, Senor Pi y Arsuaga, who introduced the +measure in favor of the right of women taxpayers to vote in municipal +elections, argued that the suffrage of a woman who is the head of a family +seems more reasonable to him than the suffrage of a young man, twenty-five +years old, who represents no corresponding interests. + + +PORTUGAL + + Total population: 5,672,237. + Women: 2,583,535. + Men: 2,520,602. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +Portugal is smaller than Spain; its finances are in better condition; +therefore the compulsory education law (introduced in 1896) is better +enforced. As yet there are no public high schools for girls; but there +are a number of private schools that prepare girls for the university +entrance examinations (_Abiturientenexamen_). The universities admit +women. Women doctors practice in the larger cities. The women laborers are +engaged chiefly in the textile industry; their wages are about two thirds +of those of the men. + + +THE LATIN-AMERICAN REPUBLICS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA + +MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA[96] + +The condition prevailing in Mexico and Central America is one of +patriarchal family life, the husband being the "master" of the wife. There +are large families of ten or twelve children. The life of most of the +women without property consists of "endless routine and domestic tyranny"; +the life of the property-owning women is one of frivolous coquetry and +indolence. There is no higher education for women; there are no high +ideals. The education of girls is generally regarded as unnecessary. + +There are public elementary schools for girls,--with women teachers. The +higher education of girls is carried on by convent schools, and comprises +domestic science, sewing, dancing, and singing. In the Mexican public +high schools for girls, modern subjects and literature are taught; the +work is chiefly memorizing. Technical schools for girls are unknown. Women +do not attend the universities. Women teachers in Mexico are paid good +salaries,--250 francs ($50) a month. + +Women are engaged in commerce only in their own business establishments; +and then in small retail businesses. The rest of the workingwomen are +engaged in agriculture, domestic service, washing, and sewing. Their wages +are from 40 to 50 per cent lower than those of men. The legal status of +women is similar to that of the French women. In Mexico only does the wife +control her earnings. Divorce is not recognized by law, though separation +is. By means of foreign teachers the initiative of the people has been +slightly aroused. It will take long for this stimulus to reach the +majority of the people. + + +SOUTH AMERICA[97] + +In South America there are the same "patriarchal" forms of family life, +the same external restrictions for woman. She must have an escort on the +streets, even though the escort be only a small boy. + +Just as in Central America, the occupations of the women of the lower and +middle class are agriculture, domestic service, washing, sewing, and +retail business. But woman's educational opportunities in South America +are greater, although through public opinion everything possible is done +to prevent women from desiring an education and admission to a liberal +calling. Elementary education is compulsory (often in coeducational +schools). Secondary education is in the hands of convents. In Brazil, +Chili, Venezuela, Argentine Republic, Paraguay, and Colombia, the +universities have been opened to women. As yet there are no women +preachers or lawyers, although several women have studied law. Women +practice as physicians, obstetrics still being their special field. + +The beginnings of a woman's rights movement exist in Chili. The Chilean +women learn readily and willingly. They have proved their worth in +business and in the liberal callings. They have competed successfully for +government positions; they have founded trade-unions and cooperative +societies; many women are tramway conductors, etc. In all the South +American republics women have distinguished themselves as poets and +authors. In the Argentine Republic there is a Federation of Woman's Clubs, +which, in 1901, joined the International Council of Women. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE SLAVIC AND BALKAN STATES + + +In the Slavic countries there is a lack of an ancient, deeply rooted +culture like that of western Europe. Everywhere the oriental viewpoint has +had its effect on the status of woman. In general the standards of life +are low; therefore, the wages of the women are especially wretched. +Political conditions are in part very unstable,--in some cases wholly +antique. All of these circumstances greatly impede the progress of the +woman's rights movement. + + +RUSSIA + + Total population: 94,206,195. + Women: 47,772,455. + Men: 46,433,740. + + Federation of Russian Women's Clubs.[98] + National Woman's Suffrage League. + +The Russian woman's rights movement is forced by circumstances to concern +itself chiefly with educational and industrial problems. All efforts +beyond these limits are, as a matter of course, regarded as revolutionary. +Such efforts are a part of the forbidden "political movement"; therefore +they are dangerous and practically hopeless. Some peculiarities of the +Russian woman's rights movement are: its individuality, its independence +of the momentary tendencies of the government, and the companionable +cooperation of men and women. All three characteristics are accounted for +by the absolute government that prevails in Russia, in spite of its Duma. + +Under this regime the organization of societies and the holding of +meetings are made exceedingly difficult, if not impossible. Individual +initiative therefore works in solitude; discussion or the expression of +opinions is not very feasible. When individual initiative ceases, progress +usually ceases also. Corporate activity, such as educates women adherents, +did not exist formerly in Russia. The lack of united action wastes much +force, time, and money. Unconsciously people compete with each other. +Without wishing to do so, people neglect important fields. The absolute +regime regards all striving for an education as revolutionary. The +educational institutions for women are wholly in the hands of the +government. These institutions are tolerated; but a mere frown from above +puts an end to their existence. + +It is the absolute regime that makes comrades of men and women struggling +for emancipation. The oppression endured by both sexes is in fact the +same. + +The government has not always been an enemy of enlightenment, as it is +to-day. The first steps of the woman's rights movement were made through +the influence of the rulers. Although polygamy did not exist in Russia, +the country could not free itself from certain oriental influences. Hence +the women of the property-owning class formerly lived in the harem (called +_terem_). The women were shut off from the world; they had no education, +often no rearing whatever; they were the victims of deadly ennui, ecstatic +piety, lingering diseases, and drunkenness. + +With a strong hand Peter the Great reformed the condition of Russian +women. The _terem_ was abolished; the Russian woman was permitted to see +the world. In rough, uncivilized surroundings, in the midst of a brutal, +sensuous people, woman's release was not in all cases a gain for morality. +It is impossible to become a woman of western Europe upon demand. + +Catherine II saw that there must be a preparation for this emancipation. +She created the _Institute de demoiselles_ for girls of the upper classes. +The instruction, borrowed from France, remained superficial enough; the +women acquired a knowledge of French, a few _accomplishments_, polished +manners, and an aristocratic bearing. For all that, it was then an +achievement to educate young Russian women according to the standards of +western Europe. The superficiality of the _Institutka_ was recognized in +the middle of the nineteenth century. Alexander II, the Tsarina, and her +aunt, Helene Pavlovna, favored reforms. The emancipator of the serfs could +also liberate women from their intellectual bondage. + +Thus with the protection of the highest power, the first public lyceum for +girls was established in 1857 in Russia. This was a day school for girls +of _all_ classes. What an innovation! To-day there are 350 of these +lyceums, having over 10,000 women students. The curriculums resemble those +of the German high schools for girls. None of these lyceums (except the +humanistic lyceum for girls in Moscow), are equivalent to the German +_Gymnasiums_ or _Realgymnasiums_, nor even to the _Oberrealschulen_ or +_Realschulen_. This explains and justifies the refusal of the German +universities to regard the leaving certificates of the Russian lyceums as +equivalent to the _Abiturienten_ certificate of the German schools. The +compulsory studies in the girls' lyceums are: Russian, French, religion, +history, geography, geometry, algebra, a few natural sciences, dancing, +and singing. The optional studies are German, English, Latin, music, and +sewing. The lyceums of the large cities make foreign languages compulsory +also; but these institutions are in the minority. In the natural sciences +and in mathematics "much depends on the teacher." A Russian woman wishing +to study in the university must pass an entrance examination in Latin. + +The first efforts to secure the higher education of women were made by a +number of professors of the University of St. Petersburg in 1861. They +opened courses for the instruction of adult women in the town hall. +Simultaneously the Minister of War admitted a number of women to the St. +Petersburg School of Medicine, this school being under his control. + +However, the reaction began already in 1862. Instruction in the School of +Medicine, as well as in the town hall, was discontinued. Then began the +first exodus of Russian women students to Germany and Switzerland. But in +St. Petersburg, in 1867, there was formed a society, under the presidency +of Mrs. Conradi, to secure the reopening of the course for adult women. +The society appealed to the first congress of Russian naturalists and +physicians. This congress sent a petition, with the signatures of +influential men, to the Minister of Public Instruction. In two years Mrs. +Conradi was informed that the Minister would grant a two-year course for +men and women in Russian literature and the natural sciences. The society +accepted what was offered. It was little enough. Moreover, the society had +to defray the cost of instruction; but it was denied the right to give +examinations and confer degrees. All the teachers, however, taught without +pay. In 1885 the society erected its own building in which to give its +courses. The instruction was again discontinued in 1886. Once more the +Russian women flocked to foreign countries. In 1889 the courses were again +opened (Swiss influence on Russian youth was feared). The number of those +enrolled in the courses was limited to 600 (of these only 3 per cent could +be unorthodox, _i.e._ Jewish). These courses are still given in St. +Petersburg. Recently the Council of Ministers empowered the Minister of +Public Instruction to forbid women to attend university lectures; but +those who have already been admitted, and find it impossible to attend +other higher institutions of learning for girls, have been allowed to +complete their course in the university. The present number of women +hearers in Russian universities is 2130. A Russian woman doctor was +admitted as a lecturer by the University of Moscow, but her appointment +was not confirmed by the Minister of Public Instruction. She appealed +thereupon to the Senate, declaring that the Russian laws nowhere +prohibited women from acting as teachers in the universities; moreover, +her medical degree gave her full power to do so. The decision of the +Senate is still pending. + +A recent law opens to women the calling of architect and of engineer. The +work done on the Trans-Siberian Railroad by the woman engineer has given +better satisfaction than any of the other work. A bill providing for the +admission of women to the legal profession has been introduced but has not +yet become law. + +The Russian women medical students shared the vicissitudes of Russian +university life for women. After 1862 they studied in Switzerland, where +Miss Suslowa, in 1867, was the first woman to be given the doctor's degree +in Zurich. However, since the lack of doctors is very marked on the vast +Russian plains, the government in 1872 opened special courses for women +medical students in St. Petersburg. (In another institution courses were +given for midwives and for women regimental surgeons.) The women +completing the courses in St. Petersburg were not granted the doctor's +degree, however. The Russian women earned the doctor's degree in the +Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878); for ten years after this war women +graduates of the St. Petersburg medical courses were granted degrees. Then +these courses were closed in 1887. They were opened again in 1898. Under +these difficult circumstances the Russian women secured their higher +education. + +In the elementary schools, for every 1000 women inhabitants there are only +13.1 women public school teachers. Of the 2,000,000 public school +children, only 650,000 are girls. The number of illiterates in Russia +varies from 70 to 80 per cent. The elementary school course in the country +is only three years (it is five years in the cities). + +The number of women public school teachers is 27,000 (as compared with +40,000 men teachers). An attempt has been made by the women village school +teachers to arouse the women agricultural laborers from their stupor. +Organization of women laborers has been attempted in the cities. For the +present the task seems superhuman.[99] + +When graduating from the lyceum the young girl is given her _teaching +diploma_, which permits her to teach in the four lower classes in the +girls' lyceums. Those wishing to teach in the higher classes must take a +special examination in a university. The higher classes in the girls' +lyceums are taught chiefly by men teachers. When a Russian woman teacher +marries she need not relinquish her position. + +In Russia the women doctors have a vast field of work. For every 200,000 +inhabitants there is only one doctor! However, in St. Petersburg there is +one doctor for every 10,000 inhabitants. According to the most recent +statistics there are 545 women doctors in Russia. Of these, 8 have ceased +to practice, 245 have official positions, and 292 have a private practice. +Of the 132 women doctors in St. Petersburg, 35 are employed in hospitals, +14 in the sanitary department of the city; 7 are school physicians, 5 are +assistants in clinics and laboratories, 2 are superintendents of maternity +hospitals, 2 have charge of foundling asylums, 5 have private hospitals, +and the rest engage in private practice. Of the 413 women doctors not in +St. Petersburg, 173 have official positions, the others have a private +practice. + +The local governments (_zemstvos_) have appointed 26 women doctors in the +larger cities, 21 in the smaller, and 55 in the rural districts. There are +18 women doctors employed in private hospitals on country estates, 8 in +hospitals for Mohammedan women, 16 in schools, 9 in factories, 4 are +employed by railroads, 4 by the Red Cross Society, etc. The practice of +the woman doctor in the country is naturally the most difficult and the +least remunerative. Therefore, it is willingly given over to the women. +Thanks to individual ability, the Russian woman doctor is highly +respected. + +There are 400 women druggists in Russia. Their training for the calling is +received by practical work (this is true of the men druggists also). +According to the last statistics (1897), there were 126,016 women engaged +in the liberal professions. There are a number of women professors in the +state universities. + +Women engage in commercial callings. The schools of commerce for women +were favored by Witte in his capacity of Minister of Finance. They have +since been placed under the control of the Minister of Instruction and +Religion. This will restrict the freedom of instruction. Instruction in +agriculture for women has not yet been established. Commerce engages +299,403 women; agriculture and fisheries, 2,086,169. + +Women have been appointed as factory inspectors since 1900. The Ministry +of Justice and the Ministry of Communication employ women in limited +numbers, without entitling them to pensions. The government of the +province of Moscow has appointed women to municipal offices, and has +appointed them as fire insurance agents. The _zemstvo_ of Kiew had done +this previously; but suddenly it discharged them from the municipal +offices. For the past nine years an institution founded by the Princes +Liwin has trained women as managers of prisons.[100] + +The names of two prominent Russian women must be mentioned: Sonja +Kowalewska, the winner of a contest in mathematics, and Madame +Sklodowska-Curie, the discoverer of radium. Both prove that women can +excel in scientific work. It must be emphasized that the woman student in +Russia must often struggle against terrible want. Whoever has studied in +Swiss, German, or French universities knows the Russian-Polish students +who in many cases must get along for the whole year with a couple of ten +ruble bills (about ten dollars). They are wonderfully unassuming; they +possess inexhaustible enthusiasm. + +Many Russian women begin their university careers poorly prepared. To +unfortunate, divorced, widowed, or destitute women the "University" +appears to be a golden goal, a promised land. Of the privations that these +women endure the people of western Europe have no conception. In Russia +the facts are better known. Wealthy women endow all educational +institutions for girls with relief funds and with loan and stipend funds. +Restaurants and homes for university women have been established. The +"Society for the Support of University Women" in Moscow has done its +utmost to relieve the misery of the women students.[101] + +The economic misery of the industrial and agricultural women (who are +almost wholly unorganized) is somewhat worse than that of the university +women. The statements concerning women's wages in Vienna might give some +idea of the misery of the Russian women. In Bialystock, which has the +best socialistic organization of women, the women textile workers earn +about 18 cents a day; under favorable circumstances $1.25 to $1.50 a week. +A skillful woman tobacco worker will earn 32-1/2 cents a day. The average +daily wages for Russian women laborers are 18 to 20 cents. + +Hence it is not astonishing that in the South American houses of ill-fame +there are so many Russian girls. The agents in the white slave trade need +not make very extravagant promises of "good wages" to find willing +followers.[102] A workingwomen's club has existed since 1897 in St. +Petersburg. There are 982,098 women engaged in industry and mining; +1,673,605 in domestic service (there being 1,586,450 men domestic +servants). Of the women domestic servants 53,283 are illiterate (of the +men only 2172!). In 1885 the women formed 30 per cent of the laboring +population; in 1900 the number had increased to 44 per cent. Of the total +number of criminals in Russia 10 per cent are women. + +The legal status of the Russian woman is favorable in so far as the +property law provides for property rights. The Russian married woman +controls not only her property, but also her earnings and her savings. As +survival of village communism and the feudal system, the right to vote is +restricted to taxpayers and to landowners. In the rural districts the +wife votes as "head of the family," if her husband is absent or dead. Then +she is also given her share of the village land. She votes in person. In +the cities the women that own houses and pay taxes vote by proxy. The +women owners of large estates (as in Austria) vote also for the provincial +assemblies. Although constitutional liberties have a precarious existence +in Russia, they have now and then been beneficial to women. + +With great effort, and in the face of great dangers, woman's suffrage +societies were formed in various parts of the Empire. They united into a +national Woman's Suffrage League. The brave Russian delegates were present +in Copenhagen and in Amsterdam. They belonged to all ranks of society and +were adherents to the progressive political parties. Since the dissolution +of the first Duma (June 9, 1906) the work of the woman's suffrage +advocates has been made very difficult; in the rural districts especially +all initiative has been crippled. In Moscow and St. Petersburg the work is +continued by organizations having about 1000 members; 10,000 pamphlets +have been distributed, lectures have been held, a newspaper has been +established, and a committee has been organized which maintains a +continuous communication with the Duma. + +The best established center of the Russian woman's rights movement is the +Woman's Club in St. Petersburg. Through the tenacious efforts of the +leading women of the club,--Mrs. v. Philosophow, (Mrs.) _Dr. med._ +Schabanoff, and others,--the government granted them, in the latter part +of December, 1908, the right to hold the first national congress of women. +(The stipulation was made that foreign women should not participate, and +that a federation of women's clubs should not be formed.) The discussions +concerned education, labor problems, and politics. Publicity was much +restricted; police surveillance was rigid; addresses on the foreign +woman's suffrage movement were prohibited. Nevertheless, this progressive +declaration was made: Only the right to vote can secure for the Russian +women a thorough education and the right to work. Moreover, the Congress +favored: better marriage laws (a wife cannot secure a passport without the +consent of her husband), the abolition of the official regulation of +prostitution, the abolition of the death penalty, the struggle against +drunkenness, etc. The Congress was opened by the Lord Mayor of St. +Petersburg and was held in the St. Petersburg town hall. This was done in +a sense of obligation to the women school teachers of St. Petersburg and +to those women who had endeared themselves to the people through their +activity in hospitals and asylums. The Lord Mayor stated that these +activities were appreciated by the municipal officers and by all municipal +institutions. + +Although the Congress was opened with praise for the women, it ended with +an intentional insult to the highly talented and deserving leader, Mrs. v. +Philosophow. Mr. Purischkewitch, the reactionary deputy of the Duma, wrote +a letter in which he expressed his pleasure at the adjournment of her +"congress of prostitutes" (_Bordellkongress_). Mrs. v. Philosophow +surrendered this letter and another to the courts, which sentenced the +offender to a month's imprisonment, against which he appealed. After this +Congress has worked over the whole field of the woman's rights movement, a +special congress on the education of women will be held in the autumn of +1909.[103] + +Since the Revolution of 1905 the women of the provinces have been astir. +It has been reported that the Mohammedan women of the Caucasus are +discarding their veils, that the Russian women in the rural districts are +petitioning for greater privileges, etc. An organized woman's rights +movement has originated in the Baltic Provinces; its organ is the _Baltic +Women's Review_ (_Baltische Frauenrundschau_), the publisher being a +woman, E. Schuetze, Riga. + + +CZECHISH BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA + + Total population: about 5,500,000. + + The women predominate numerically. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The woman's rights movement is strongly supported among the Czechs. Woman +is the best apostle of nationalism; the educated woman is the most +valuable ally. In the national propaganda woman takes her place beside the +man. The names of the Czechish women patriots are on the lips of +everybody. Had the Liberals of German Austria known equally well how to +inspire their women with liberalism and Germanism, their cause would +to-day be more firmly rooted. + +In inexpensive but well-organized boarding schools the Czechish girls +(especially country girls, the daughters of landowners and tenants) are +being educated along national lines. An institute such as the +"_Wesna_"[104] in Bruenn is a center of national propaganda. Prague, like +Bruenn, has a Czechish _Gymnasium_ for girls as well as the German +_Gymnasium_. There is also a Czechish University besides the German +University. The first woman to be given the degree of Doctor of Philosophy +at the Czechish university was Fraeulein Babor. + +The industrial conditions in Czechish Bohemia and in Moravia differ very +little from those in Galicia. The lot of the workingwomen, especially in +the coal mining districts, is wretched. According to a local club doctor +(_Kassenarzt_),[105] life is made up of hunger, whiskey, and lashes. + +Although paragraph 30, of the Austrian law of association +(_Vereinsgesetz_) prevents the Czechish women from forming political +associations, the women of Bohemia, especially of Prague, show the most +active political interest. The women owners of large estates in Bohemia +voted until 1906 for members of the imperial Parliament. When universal +suffrage was granted to the Austrian men, the voting rights of this +privileged minority were withdrawn. The government's resolution, providing +for an early introduction of a woman's suffrage measure, has not yet been +carried out. + +The suffrage conditions for the Bohemian _Landtag_ (provincial +legislature) are different. Taxpayers, office-holders, doctors, and +teachers vote for this body; the women, of course, voting by proxy. The +same is true in the Bohemian municipal elections. In Prague only are the +women deprived of the suffrage. The Prague woman's suffrage committee, +organized in 1905, has proved irrefutably that the women in Prague are +legally entitled to the suffrage for the Bohemian _Landtag_. In the +_Landtag_ election of 1907 the women presented a candidate, Miss Tumova, +who received a considerable number of votes, but was defeated by the most +prominent candidate (the mayor). However, this campaign aroused an active +interest in woman's suffrage. In 1909 Miss Tumova was again a candidate. +The proposed reform of the election laws for the Bohemian _Landtag_ (1908) +(which provides for universal suffrage, although not equal suffrage) would +disfranchise the women outside Prague. The women are opposing the law by +indignation meetings and deputations. + + +GALICIA[106] + + Total population: about 7,000,000. + Poles: about 3,500,000. + Ruthenians: about 3,500,000. + + The women predominate numerically. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The conditions prevailing in Galicia are unspeakably pathetic,--medieval, +oriental, and atrocious. Whoever has read Emil Franzo's works is familiar +with these conditions. The Vienna official inquiry into the industrial +conditions of women led to a similar inquiry in Lemberg. This showed that +most of the women _cannot_ live on their earnings. The lowest wages are +those of the women engaged in the ready-made clothing industry,--2 to +2-1/2 guldens ($.96 to $1.10) a _month_ as beginners; 8 to 10 guldens +($3.85 to $4.82) later. The wages (including board and room) of servant +girls living with their employers are 20 to 25 cents a day. The skilled +seamstress that sews linen garments can earn 40 cents a day if she works +sixteen hours. + +As a beginner, a milliner earns 2 to 4 guldens ($.96 to $1.93) a _month_, +later 10 guldens ($4.82). In the mitten industry (a home industry) a +week's hard work brings 6 to 8 guldens ($2.89 to $3.88). In laundries +women working 14 hours earn 80 kreuzer (30 cents) a day without board. In +printing works and in bookbinderies women are employed as assistants; for +9-1/2 hours' work a day they are paid a _monthly_ wage of from 2 to 14 and +15 guldens ($.96 to $7.23). In the bookbinderies women sometimes receive +16 guldens ($7.71) a month. + +In Lemberg, as in Vienna, women are employed as brickmakers and as +bricklayers' assistants, working 10 to 11 hours a day; their wages are 40 +to 60 kreuzer (19 to 29 cents) a day. No attempt to improve these +conditions through organizations has yet been made. The official inquiry +thus far has confined itself to the Christian women laborers. What +miseries might not be concealed in the ghettos! + +An industrial women's movement in Galicia is not to be thought of as yet. +There is a migration of the women from the flat rural districts to the +cities; _i.e._ into the nets of the white slave agents. Women earning 10, +15, or 20 cents a day are easily lured by promises of higher wages. The +ignorance of the lower classes (Ruthenians and Poles) is, according to the +ideas of western Europe, immeasurable. In 1897 336,000 children between +six and twelve years (in a total of about 923,000) had _never attended +school_. Of 4164 men teachers, 139 had no qualifications whatever! Of the +4159 women teachers 974 had no qualifications! The minimum salary is 500 +kronen ($101.50). The women teachers in 1909 demanded that they be +regarded on an equality with the men teachers by the provincial school +board. There are _Gymnasiums_ for girls in Cracow, Lemberg, and Przemysl. +Women are admitted to the universities of Cracow and Lemberg. In one of +the universities (Mrs.) Dr. Dazynska is a lecturer on political economy. +In Cracow there is a woman's club. Propaganda is being organized +throughout the land. + +A society to oppose the official regulation of prostitution and to improve +moral conditions was organized in 1908. The Galician woman taxpayer votes +in municipal affairs; the women owners of large estates vote for members +of the _Landtag_. (Mrs.) Dr. Dazynska and Mrs. Kutschalska-Reinschmidt of +Cracow are champions of the woman's rights movement in Galicia. Mrs. +Kutschalska lives during parts of the year in Warsaw. She publishes the +magazine _Ster_. In Russian Poland her activities are more restricted +because the forming of organizations is made difficult. In spite of this +the "Equal Rights Society of Polish Women" has organized local societies +in Kiew, Radom, Lublin, and other cities. The formation of a federation of +Polish women's clubs has been planned. In Warsaw the Polish branch of the +International Federation for the Abolition of Prostitution was organized +in 1907. An asylum for women teachers, a loan-fund for women teachers, and +a commission for industrial women are the external evidences of the +activities of the Polish woman's rights movement in Warsaw. + +The field of labor for the educated woman is especially limited in Poland. +Excluded from government service, many educated Polish women flock into +the teaching profession; there they have restricted advantages. The +University of Warsaw has been opened to women. + + +THE SLOVENE WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT[107] + + Total population: 1,176,672. + + The women preponderate numerically. + +The Slovene woman's rights movement is still incipient; it was stimulated +by Zofka Kveder's "The Mystery of Woman" (_Mysterium der Frau_). Zofka +Kveder's motto is: "To see, to know, to understand.--Woman is a human +being." Zofka Kveder hopes to transform the magazine _Slovenka_ into a +woman's rights review. A South Slavic Social-Democratic movement is +attempting to organize trade-unions among the women. The women lace makers +have been organized. Seventy per cent of all women laborers cannot live on +their earnings. In agricultural work they earn 70 hellers (14 cents) a +day. In the ready-made clothing industry they are paid 30 hellers (6 +cents) for making 36 buttonholes, 1 krone 20 hellers (25 cents) for making +one dozen shirts. + + +SERVIA + + Total population: 2,850,000. + + The number of women is somewhat greater than that of the men. + + Servian Federation of Women's Clubs. + +Servia has been free from Turkish control hardly forty-five years. Among +the people the oriental conception of woman prevails along with +patriarchal family conditions. The woman's rights movement is well +organized; it is predominantly national, philanthropic, and educational. + +Elementary education is obligatory, and is supported by the "National +Society for Public Education" (_Nationalen Verein fuer Volksbildung_). The +girls and women of the lower classes are engaged chiefly with domestic +duties; in addition they work in the fields or work at excellent home +industries. These home industries were developed as a means of livelihood +by the efforts of Mrs. E. Subotisch, the organizer of the Servian woman's +rights movement. The Servian women are rarely domestic servants (under +Turkish rule they were not permitted to serve the enemy); most of the +domestic servants are Hungarians and Austrians. + +All educational opportunities are open to the women of the middle class. +In all of the more important cities there are public as well as private +high schools for girls. The boys' _Gymnasiums_ admit girls. The university +has been open to women for twenty-one years; women are enrolled in all +departments; recently law has attracted many. For medical training the +women, like the men, go to foreign countries (France, Switzerland). + +Servia has 1020 women teachers in the elementary schools (the salary being +720 to 2000 francs--$144 to $500--a year, with lodging); there are 65 +women teachers in the secondary schools (the salary being 1500 to 3000 +francs,--$300 to $600). To the present no woman has been appointed as a +university professor. There are six women doctors, the first having +entered the profession 30 years ago; there are two women dentists; but as +yet there are no women druggists. There are no women lawyers. There is a +woman engineer in the service of the government. In the liberal arts there +are three well-known women artists, seven women authors, and ten women +poets. + +There are many women engaged in commercial callings, as office clerks, +cashiers, bookkeepers, and saleswomen. Women are also employed by banks +and insurance companies. "A woman merchant is given extensive credit," is +stated in the report of the secretary of the Federation. + +In the postal and telegraph service 108 women are employed (the salaries +varying from 700 to 1260 francs,--$140 to $252). There are 127 women in +the telephone service (the salaries varying from 360 to 960 francs,--$72 +to $192). Servia is just establishing large factories; the number of women +laborers is still small; 1604 are organized. + +Prostitution is officially regulated in Servia; its recruits are chiefly +foreign women. Each vaudeville singer, barmaid, etc., is _ex officio_ +placed under control. + +The oldest woman's club is the "Belgrade Woman's Club," founded in 1875; +it has 34 branches. It maintains a school for poor girls, a school for +weavers in Pirot, and a students' kitchen (_studentenkueche_). The "Society +of Servian Sisters" and the "Society of Queen Lubitza" are patriotic +societies for maintaining and strengthening the Servian element in +Turkey, Old Servia, and Macedonia. The "Society of Mothers" takes care of +abandoned children. The "Housekeeping Society" trains domestic servants. +The Servian women's clubs within the Kingdom have 5000 members; in the +Servian colonies without the Kingdom they have 14,000 members. + +The property laws provide for joint property holding. The wife controls +her earnings and savings only when this is stipulated in the marriage +contract. + +In 1909, the Federation of Servian Women's Clubs inserted woman's suffrage +in its programme, and joined the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +In the struggle for national existence the Servian woman demonstrated her +worth, and effected a recognition of her right to an education. + + +BULGARIA + + Total population: 4,035,586. + Women: 1,978,457. + Men: 2,057,111. + + Federation of Bulgarian Women's Clubs. + +Like Servia, Bulgaria was freed from Turkish control about forty years +ago. The liberation caused very little change in the life of the peasant +women. But it opened new educational opportunities for the middle +classes. The elementary schools naturally provide for the girls also. (In +1905-1906 there were 1800 men teachers and 800 women teachers in the +villages; in the cities 415 men and 355 women.) High schools for girls +have been established, but not all of them prepare for the +_Abiturientenexamen_. The first women entered the university of Sofia in +1900. There are now about 100 women students. Since 1907, through the work +of a reactionary ministry, the university has excluded women; married +women teachers have been discharged. Women attend the schools of commerce, +the technical schools, and the agricultural schools. Women are active as +doctors (there being 56), midwives, journalists, and authors. + +The men and women teachers are organized jointly. Women are employed by +the state in the postal and telegraph service. The wages of these women, +like those of the women laborers, are lower than those of the men. There +is a factory law that protects women laborers and children working in the +factories. The trade-unions are socialistic and have men and women +members. The laws regulating the legal status of woman have been +influenced by German laws. The wife controls her earnings. Politically the +Bulgarian woman has no rights. + +The Federation of Bulgarian Women's Clubs was organized in 1899; in 1908 +it joined the International Council of Women. Woman's suffrage occupies +the first place on the programme of the Federation; in 1908 it joined the +International Woman's Suffrage Affiance. + +The Bulgarian women, too, have recognized woman's suffrage as the key to +all other woman's rights. To the present time their demands have been +supported by radicals and democrats (who are not very influential). + +A meeting of the Federation in 1908 demanded: + + 1. Active and passive suffrage for women in school administration and + municipal councils. + + 2. The reopening of the University to women. (This has been granted.) + + 3. The increase of the salaries of women teachers. (They are paid 10 + per cent less than the men teachers.) + + 4. The same curriculums for the boys' and girls' schools. + + 5. An enlargement of woman's field of labor. + + 6. Better protection to women and children working in factories. + +The President of the Federation is the wife of the President of the +Ministry, Malinoff. Because the Federation, led by Mrs. Malinoff, did not +oppose the reactionary measures of the Ministry (of Stambolavitch), Mrs. +Anna Carima, who had been President of the Federation to 1906, organized +the "League of Progressive Women." This League demands equal rights for +the sexes. It admits only confirmed woman's rights advocates (men and +women). It will request the political emancipation of women in a petition +which it intends to present to the National Parliament, which must be +called after Bulgaria has been converted into a kingdom. In July (1909) +the Progressive League will hold a meeting to draft its constitution. + + +RUMANIA + + Total population: 6,585,534. + + No federation of women's clubs. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The status of the Rumanian women is similar to that of the Servian and +Bulgarian women; but the legal profession has been opened to the Bulgarian +women. A discussion of Rumania must be omitted, since my efforts to secure +reliable information have been unsuccessful. + + +GREECE[108] + + Total population: 2,433,806. + Women: 1,166,990. + Men: 1,266,816. + + Federation of Greek Women. + No woman's suffrage league. + +The Greek woman's rights movement concerns itself for the time being with +philanthropy and education. Its guiding spirit is Madame Kallirhoe Parren +(who acted as delegate in Chicago in 1893, and in Paris in 1900). Madame +Parren succeeded in 1896 in organizing a Federation of Greek Women, which +has belonged to the International Council of Women since 1908. The +presidency of the Federation was accepted by Queen Olga. + +The Federation has five sections: + +1. The national section. This acts as a patriotic woman's club. In 1897 it +rendered invaluable assistance in the Turco-Greek War, erecting four +hospitals on the border and one in Athens. The nurses belonged to the best +families; the work was superintended by _Dr. med._ Marie Kalapothaki and +_Dr. med._ Bassiliades. + +2. The educational section. This section establishes kindergartens; it has +opened a seminary for kindergartners, and courses for women teachers of +gymnastics.[109] + +3. The section for the establishment of domestic economy schools and +continuation schools. This section is attempting to enlarge the +non-domestic field of women and at the same time to prepare women better +for their domestic calling. The efforts of this section are quite in +harmony with the spirit of the times. The Greek woman's struggle for +existence is exceedingly difficult; she must face a backwardness of +public opinion such as was overcome in northern Europe long ago. This +section has also founded a home for workingwomen. + +4. The hygiene section. Under the leadership of Dr. Kalapothaki this +section has organized an orthopedic and gynecological clinic. The section +also gives courses on the care of children, and provides for the care of +women in confinement. + +5. The philanthropic section. This provides respectable but needy girls +with trousseaus (_Austeuern_). + +Mrs. Parren has for eighteen years been editor of a woman's magazine in +Athens. (Miss) _Dr. med._ Panajotatu has since 1908 been a lecturer in +bacteriology at Athens University. At her inaugural lecture the students +made a hostile demonstration. Miss Bassiliades acts as physician in the +women's penitentiary. Miss Lascaridis and Miss Ionidis are respected +artists; Mrs. v. Kapnist represents woman in literature, especially in +poetry. Mrs. Parren has written several dramatic works (some advocating +woman's rights), which have been presented in Athens, Smyrna, +Constantinople, and Alexandria. Mrs. Parren is a director of the society +of dramatists. + +Government positions are still closed to women. As late as 1909, after +great difficulties, the first women telephone clerks were appointed. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE ORIENT AND THE FAR EAST + + +In the Orient and the Far East woman is almost without exception a +plaything or a beast of burden; and to a degree that would incense us +Europeans. In the uncivilized countries, and in the countries of +non-European civilization, the majority of the women are insufficiently +nourished; in all cases more poorly than the men. Early marriages enervate +the women. They are old at thirty; this is especially true of the lower +classes. Among us, to be sure, such cases occur also; unfortunately +without sufficient censure being given when necessary. But we have +abolished polygamy and the harem. Both still exist almost undisturbed in +the Orient and the Far East. + + +TURKEY AND EGYPT + + Total population: 34,000,000. + + A federation of women's clubs has just been founded in each country. + +In all the Mohammedan countries the wealthy woman lives in the harem with +her slaves. The woman of the lower classes, however, is guarded or +restricted no more than with us. Apparently the Turkish and the Arabian +women of the lower classes have an unrestrained existence. But because +they are subject to the absolute authority of their husbands, their life +is in most cases that of a beast of burden. They work hard and +incessantly. For the Mohammedan of the lower classes polygamy is +economically a useful institution: four women are four laborers that earn +more than they consume. + +Domestic service offers workingwomen in the Orient the broadest field of +labor. The women slaves in the harems[110] are usually well treated, and +they have sufficient to live on. They associate with women shopkeepers, +women dancers, midwives, hairdressers, manicurists, pedicures, etc. These +are in the pay of the wives of the wealthy. Thanks to this army of spies, +a Turkish woman is informed, without leaving her harem, of every step of +her husband. + +The oppression that all women must endure, and the general fear of the +infidelity of husbands, have created among oriental women an _esprit de +corps_ that is unknown to European women. Among the upper classes polygamy +is being abolished because the country is impoverished and the large +estates have been squandered; moreover, each wife is now demanding her own +household, whereas formerly the wives all lived together. + +Through the influence of the European women educators, an emancipation +movement has been started among the younger generation of women in +Constantinople. Many fathers, often through vanity, have given their +daughters a European education. Elementary schools, secondary schools, and +technical schools have existed in Turkey and Egypt since 1839. The women +graduates of these schools are now opposing oriental marriage and life in +the harem. At present this is causing tragic conflicts.[111] + +To the present, two Turkish women have spoken publicly at international +congresses of women. Selma Riza, sister of the "Young Turkish" General, +Ahmed Riza, spoke in Paris in 1900, and Mrs. Hairie Ben-Aid spoke in +Berlin in 1904. + +The Mohammedan women have a legal supporter of their demands in Kassim +Amin Bey, counselor of the Court of Appeals in Cairo. In his pamphlet on +the woman's rights question he proposes the following programme:-- + + Legal prohibition of polygamy. + + Woman's right to file a divorce suit. (Hitherto a woman is divorced + if her husband, even without cause, says thee times consecutively + "You are divorced.") + + Woman's freedom to choose her husband. + + The training of women in independent thought and action. + + A thorough education for woman. + +In 1910 a congress of Mohammedan women will be held in Cairo. + +I may add that the Koran, the Mohammedan code of laws, gives a married +woman the full status of a legal person before the law, and full civil +ability. It recognizes separation of property as legal, and grants the +wife the right to control and to dispose of her property. Hence the Koran +is more liberal than the Code Napoleon or the German Civil Code. Whether +the restrictions of the harem make the exercise of these rights impossible +in practice, I am unable to say. + +European schools, as well as the newly founded _Universites populaires_, +are in Turkey and in Egypt the centers of enlightenment among the +Mohammedans. The European women doctors in Constantinople, Alexandria, and +Cairo are all disseminators of modern culture. A woman lawyer practices in +the Cairo court, and has been admitted to the lawyers' society. + +The Young Turk movement and the reform of Turkey on a constitutional basis +found hearty support among the women. They expressed themselves orally and +in writing in favor of the liberal ideas; they spoke in public and held +public meetings; they attempted to appear in public without veils, and to +attend the theater in order to see a patriotic play; they sent a +delegation to the Young Turk committee requesting the right to occupy the +spectators' gallery in Parliament; and, finally, they organized the +Women's Progress Society, which comprises women of all nationalities but +concerns itself only with philanthropy and education. As a consequence, +the government is said to have resolved to erect a humanistic _Gymnasium_ +for girls in Constantinople. The leader of the Young Turks, the present +President of the Chamber of Deputies, is, as a result of his long stay in +Paris, naturally convinced of the superiority of harem life and legal +polygamy (when compared with occidental practices).[112] The freedom of +action of the Mohammedan women, especially in the provinces, might be much +hampered by traditional obstacles. Nevertheless, the restrictions placed +on the Mohammedan woman have been abolished, as is proved by the +following:-- + +In Constantinople there has been founded a "Young Turkish Woman's League" +that proposes to bring about the same great revolutionary changes in the +intellectual life of woman that have already been introduced into the +political life of man. Knowledge and its benefits must in the future be +made accessible to the Turkish women. This is to be done openly. Formerly +all strivings of the Turkish women were carried on in secret. The women +revolutionists were anxiously guarded; as far as possible, information +concerning their movements was secured before they left their homes. The +Turkish women wish to prove that they, as well as the women of other +countries, have human rights. When the constitution of the "Young Turkish +Woman's League" was being drawn up, Enver Bey was present. He was +thoroughly in favor of the demands of the new woman's rights movement. The +"Young Turkish Woman's League" is under the protection of Princess Refia +Sultana, daughter of the Sultan. Princess Refia, a young woman of +twenty-one years of age, has striven since her eighteenth year to acquire +a knowledge of the sciences. She speaks several languages. The enthusiasm +of the Young Turkish women is great. Many of them appear on the streets +without veils,--a thing that no prominent Turkish woman could do formerly. +Women of all classes have joined the League. The committee daily receives +requests for admission to membership. + + +BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA + + Total population: 1,591,036. + + The men preponderate numerically. + +Bosnia and Herzegovina, being Mohammedan countries, have harems and the +restricted views of harem life. Naturally, a woman's rights movement is +not to be thought of. Polygamy and patriarchal life are characteristic. + +Into this Mohammedan country the Austrian government has sent women +disseminators of the culture of western Europe,[113]--the Bosnian district +women doctors. The first of these was Dr. Feodora Krajevska in Dolna +Tuszla, now in Serajewo. Now she has several women colleagues. The women +doctors wear uniforms,--a black coat, a black overcoat with crimson +facings and with two stars on the collar. + + +PERSIA + + Total population: about 9,500,000. + +In Persia hardly a beginning of the woman's rights movement exists. The +Report[114] that I have before me closes thus: "The Persian woman lives, +as it were, a negative life, but does not seem to strive for a change in +her condition." Certainly not. Like the Turkish and the Arabian woman, she +is bound by the Koran. Her educational opportunities are even less (there +are very few European schools, governesses, and women doctors in Persia). +Her field of activity is restricted to agriculture, domestic service, +tailoring, and occasionally, teaching. However, she is said to be quite +skillful in the management of her financial affairs. As far as I know, the +Persian woman took no part in the constitutional struggle of 1908-1909. + + +INDIA + + Total population: 300,000,000. + +The Indian woman's rights movement originated through the efforts of the +English. The movement is as necessary and as difficult as the movement in +China. The Indian religions teach that woman should be despised. "A cow is +worth more than a thousand women." The birth of a girl is a misfortune: +"May the tree grow in the forest, but may no daughter be born to me."[115] + +Formerly it was permissible to drown newborn girls; the English government +had to abolish this barbarity (as it abolished the suttee). The Indian +woman lives in her apartment, the zenana; here the mother-in-law wields +the scepter over the daughters-in-law, the grandchildren, and the women +servants. The small girl learns to cook and to embroider; anything beyond +that is iniquitous: woman has no brain. The girls that are educated in +England must upon their return again don the veil and adjust themselves +to native conditions. At the age of five or six the little girls are +engaged, sometimes to young men of ten or twelve years, sometimes to men +of forty or fifty. The marriage takes place several years later. Sometimes +a man has more than one wife. The wife waits on her husband while he is +eating; she eats what remains. + +If the wife bears a son, she is reinstated. If she is widowed, she must +fast and constantly offer apologies for existing. The widows and orphans +were the first natives to become interested in the higher education of +women. This was due to economic and social conditions. + +India was the cradle of mankind. Even the highest civilizations still bear +indelible marks of the dreadful barbarities that have just been mentioned. +The Indian woman has rebelled against her miserable condition. The English +women considered it possible to bring health, hope, and legal aid to the +women of the zenana, through women doctors, women missionaries, and women +lawyers. Hence in 1866 zenana missions were organized by English women +doctors and missionaries. Native women were soon studying medicine in +order to bring an end to the superstitions of the zenana. Dr. Clara Swain +came to India in 1869 as the first woman medical missionary. As early as +1872-1873 the first hospital for women was founded; in 1885, through the +work of Lady Dufferin, there originated the Indian National League for +Giving Medical Aid to Women (_Nationalverband fuer aerztliche Frauenhilfe in +Indien_). + +Native women have studied law in order to represent their sex in the +courts. Their chief motive was to secure an opportunity of conferring with +the women in the zenana, a privilege not granted the male lawyer. The +first Indian woman lawyer, Cornelia Sorabija, was admitted to the bar in +Poona. Even in England the women have not yet been granted this privilege. +This is easily explained. The Indian women cannot be clients of men +lawyers; what men lawyers cannot take, they generously leave to the women +lawyers. + +India has 300,000,000 people; hence these meager beginnings of a woman's +rights movement are infinitesimal when compared with the vast work that +remains undone.[116] The educated Indian woman is participating in the +nationalist movement that is now being directed against English rule. +Brahmanism hinders the Indian woman in making use of the educational +opportunities offered by the English government. Brahmanism and its +priests nourish in woman a feeling of humility and the fear that she will +lose her caste through contact with Europeans and infidels. The Parsee +women and the Mohammedan women do not have this fear. The Parsee women +(Pundita Ramabai, for example) have played a leading part in the +emancipation of their sex in India. But the Mohammedan women of India are +reached by the movement only with difficulty. By the Hindoo of the old +regime, woman is kept in great ignorance and superstition; her education +is limited to a small stock of aphorisms and rules of etiquette; her life +in the zenana is largely one of idleness. "Ennui almost causes them to +lose their minds" is a statement based on the reports of missionaries. + +There are modern schools for girls in all large cities (Calcutta, Madras, +Bombay, etc.). The status of the native woman has been Europeanized to the +greatest extent in Bengal. The best educated of the native women of all +classes are the dancing girls (_bayaderes_); unfortunately they are not +"virtuous women" (_honnetes femmes_), hence education among women has been +in ill repute. + +A congress of women was held in Calcutta in 1906 with a woman as chairman; +this congress discussed the condition of Indian women. At the medical +congress of 1909, in Bombay, Hindoo women doctors spoke effectively. The +women doctors have formed the Association of Medical Women in India. In +Madras there is published the _Indian Ladies' Magazine_.[117] + + +CHINA[118] + + Total population: 426,000,000. + +The Chinese woman of the lower classes has the same status as the +Mohammedan woman,--ostensible freedom of movement, and hard work. The +women of the property owning classes, however, must remain in the house; +here, entertaining one another, they live and eat, apart from the men. As +woman is not considered in the Chinese worship of ancestors, her birth is +as unwished for as that of the Indian woman. Among the poor the birth of a +daughter is an economic misfortune. Who will provide for her? Hence in the +three most densely populated provinces the murder of girl babies is quite +common. In many cases mothers kill their little girls to deliver them from +the misery of later life. The father, husband, and the mother-in-law are +the masters of the Chinese woman. She can possess property only when she +is a widow (see the much more liberal provisions of the Koran). + +The earnings of the Chinese wife belong to her husband. But in case of a +dispute in this matter, no court would decide in the husband's favor, for +he is supposed to be "the bread winner" of the family. Polygamy is +customary; but the Chinese may have only _one_ legitimate wife (while the +Mohammedan may have four). The concubine has the status of a _hetaera_; +she travels with the man, keeps his accounts, etc. The Chinese woman of +the property owning class lives, in contrast to the Hindoo woman, a life +filled with domestic duties. She makes all the clothes for the family; +even the most wealthy women embroider. Frequently the wife succeeds in +becoming the adviser of the husband. A widow is not despised; she can +remarry. The women of the lower classes engage in agriculture, domestic +service, the retail business, all kinds of agencies and commission +businesses, factory work (to a small extent), medical science (practiced +in a purely experimental way), and midwifery; they carry burdens and +assist in the loading and unloading of ships. Women's wages are one half +or three fourths of those of the men. + +The lives of the Chinese women, especially among the lower classes, are so +wretched that mothers believe they are doing a good deed when they +strangle their little girls, or place them on the doorstep where they will +be gathered up by the wagon that collects the corpses of children. Many +married women commit suicide. "The suffering of the women in this dark +land is indescribable," says an American woman missionary. Those Chinese +women that believe in the transmigration of souls hope "in the next world +to be anything but a woman." + +Foreign women doctors, like the women missionaries, are bringing a little +cheer into these sad places. Most of these women are English or American. +The beginning of a real woman's rights movement is the work of the +Anti-Foot-Binding societies, which are opposing the binding of women's +feet. This reform is securing supporters among men and women. + +For seventeen years there has existed a school for Chinese women. This was +founded by Kang You Wei, the first Chinese to demand that both sexes +should have the same rights. The women that have devoted themselves during +these seventeen years to the emancipation of their sex must often face +martyrdom. Tsin King, the founder of a semimonthly magazine for women, and +of a modern school for girls, met death on the scaffold in 1907 during a +political persecution directed against all progressive elements. + +Another woman's rights advocate, Miss Sin Peng Sie, donated 200,000 taels +(a tael is equivalent to 72.9 cents) for the erection of a _Gymnasium_ for +girls in her native city, 100,000 taels to endow a pedagogical magazine, +and 50,000 taels for the support of minor schools for girls. Still another +woman's rights advocate, Wu Fang Lan, resisted every attempt to bind her +feet in the traditional manner. There exists a woman's league, through +whose efforts the government, in 1908, prohibited the binding of the feet +of little girls. + +In recent years the _women's magazines_ have increased in number. Four +large publications, devoted solely to women's interests, are published in +Canton; five are published in Shanghai, and about as many in every other +large city. The new system of education (adopted in 1905) grants women +freedom. Girls' schools have been opened everywhere; in the large cities +there are girls' secondary schools in which the Chinese classics, foreign +languages, and other cultural subjects are taught. In Tien Tsin there is a +seminary for women teachers. + +Sie Tou Fa, a prominent Chinese administrative official (who is also a +governor and a lawyer), recently delivered a lecture in Paris on the +status of the Chinese woman. This lecture contradicts the statements made +above. Among other things he declared that China has produced too many +distinguished women (in the political as well as in other fields) for law +and public opinion to restrict the freedom of woman. "The Chinese admits +superiority, with all its consequences, as soon as he sees it; and this, +whether it is shown by man or woman."[119] According to him there can be +no woman's rights movement in China, because man does not oppress woman! +He declares that the progress of women in China since 1905 is a +manifestation of patriotism, not of feminism. According to our +experiences the opinions of Sie Tou Fa are attributable to a peculiarly +masculine way of observing things. + + +JAPAN AND KOREA[120] + + Total population: 46,732,876. + Women: 23,131,236. + Men: 23,601,640. + +Previous to the thirteenth century the Japanese woman, when compared with +the other women of the Far East, occupied a specially favored +position,--as wife and mother, as scholar, author, and counselor in +business and political affairs. All these rights were lost during the +civil wars waged in the period between the thirteenth and seventeenth +centuries. War and militarism are the sworn enemies of woman's rights. A +further cause of the Japanese woman's loss of rights was the strong +influence of Chinese civilization, embodied in the teachings of Confucius. + +The Japanese woman was expected to be obedient; her virtues became passive +and negative. In the seaports and chief cities, European influence has +during the last fifty years caused changes in the dress, general bearing, +and social customs of the Japanese. During the past thirty years these +changes have been furthered by the government. While Japan was rising to +the rank of a great world power, she was also providing an excellent +educational system for women. The movement began with the erection of +girls' schools. The Empress is the patroness of an "Imperial Educational +Society," a "Secondary School for Girls," and "Educational Institute for +the Daughters of Nobles," and of a "Seminary for Women Teachers." All of +these institutions are in Tokio. Women formed in 1898 13 per cent of the +total number of teachers. + +Japanese women of wealth and women of the nobility support these +educational efforts; they also support the "Charity Bazaar Society," the +Orphans' Home, and the Red Cross Society. The Red Cross Society trained an +excellent corps of nurses, as the Russo-Japanese War demonstrated. + +Women are employed as government officials in the railroad offices; they +are also employed in banks. Japanese women study medicine, pharmacy, and +midwifery in special institutions,[121] which have hundreds of women +enrolled. Many women attend commercial and technical schools. Women are +engaged in industry,--at very low wages, to be sure; but this fact enables +Japan to compete successfully for markets. The number of women in industry +exceeds that of the men; in 1900 there were 181,692 women and 100,962 men +industrially engaged. In the textile industry 95 per cent of the laborers +are women. Women also outnumber the men in home industries. Women's +average daily wages are 12-1/2 cents. Women remain active in commerce and +industry, for the workers are recruited from the lower classes, and they +have been better able to withstand Chinese influence. Chinese law (based +on the teachings of Confucius) still prevails with all its harshness for +the Japanese woman. + +The taxpaying Japanese becomes a voter at the age of twenty-five. The +Japanese woman has no political rights. Hence a petition has been +presented to Parliament requesting that women be granted the right to form +organizations and to hold meetings. Parliament favored the measure. But +the government is still hesitating, hence a new petition has been sent to +Parliament. + +The modern woman's rights movement in Japan is supported by the following +organizations: two societies favoring woman's education, the associations +for hygiene, and the society favoring dress reform. The _Women's Union_ +and the _League of Women_ can be regarded as political organizations. +There are Japanese women authors and journalists. + +Since Korea has belonged to Japan, changes have begun there also. The +Korean women have neither a first name nor a family name. According to +circumstances they are called daughter of A. B., wife of A., etc. It is a +sign of the time and also of the awakening of woman's self-reliance that +the government of Korea has been presented with a petition, signed by many +women, requesting that these conditions be abolished and that women be +granted the right to have their own names. + + * * * * * + +We have completed our journey round the world,--from Japan to the United +States is only a short distance, and the intellectual relations between +the two countries are quite intimate. Few oriental people seem more +susceptible to European culture than the Japanese. But whatever woman's +rights movement there is in non-European countries, it owes its origin +almost without exception to the activity of educated occidentals,--to the +men and women teachers, educators, doctors, and missionaries. Here is an +excellent field for our activities; here is a duty that we dare not forget +in the midst of our own struggles. For we cannot estimate the noble work +and uplifting power that the world loses in those countries where women +are merely playthings and beasts of burden. + + +CONCLUSION + +In the greater part of the world woman is a slave and a beast of burden. +In these countries she rules only in exceptional cases--and then through +cunning. Equality of rights is not recognized; neither is the right of +woman to act on her own responsibility. Even in most countries of European +civilization woman is not free or of age. In these countries, too, she +exists merely as a sexual being. Woman is free and is regarded as a human +being only in a very small part of the civilized world. Even in these +places we see daily tenacious survivals of the old barbarity and tyranny. +Hence it is not true that woman is the "weaker," the "protected," the +"loved," and the "revered" sex. In most cases she is the overworked, +exploited, and (even when living in luxury) the oppressed sex. These +circumstances dwarf woman's humanity, and limit the development of her +individuality, her freedom, and her responsibility. These conditions are +opposed by the woman's rights movement. The movement hopes to secure the +happiness of woman, of man, of the child, and of the world by establishing +the equal rights of the sexes. These rights are based on the recognition +of equality of merit; they provide for responsibility of action. Most men +do not understand this ideal; they oppose it with unconscious egotism. + +This book has given an accurate account of the _means_ by which men oppose +woman's rights: scoffing, ridicule, insinuation; and finally, when +prejudice, stubbornness, and selfishness can no longer resist the force +of truth, the argument that they do not wish to grant us our rights. There +is little encouragement in this; but it shall not perplex us. Man, by +opposing woman, caused the struggle between the sexes. Only equality of +rights can bring peace. _Woman_ is already certain of her equality. _Man_ +will learn by experience that renunciation can be "manly," that business +can be "feminine," and that all "privilege" is obnoxious. The emancipation +of woman is synonymous with the education of man. + +Educating is always a slow process; but it inspires limitless hope. When +"ideas" have once seized the masses, these ideas become an irresistible +force. This is irrefutably proved by the strong growth of our movement +since 1904 in all countries of European civilization, and by the awakening +of women even in the depths of oriental civilization. The events of the +past five years justify us in entertaining great hopes. + + + + +Footnotes: + +[1] I have discussed the theoretical side in a pamphlet of "The German +Public Utility Association" (_Deutscher Gemeinnuetziger Verein_), Prague, +1918 Palackykai. + +[2] The presiding officers of the International Council to the present +time were: Mrs. Wright Sewall and Lady Aberdeen. This year, June, 1909, +Lady Aberdeen was reelected. + +[3] The report of the International Woman's Suffrage Congress, London, +May, 1909, had not yet appeared, and the reader is therefore referred to +it. + +[4] Their inferiority in numbers (in Australia and in the western states +of the United States) has, however, often served their cause in just the +same way. + +[5] "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be +denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of +race, color, or previous condition of servitude." + +[6] Composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate. + +[7] In many states by two consecutive legislatures. + +[8] On November 8, 1910, an amendment providing for woman's suffrage was +adopted by the voters of Washington. [Tr.] + +[9] On November 8, 1910, both South Dakota and Oregon rejected amendments +providing for woman's suffrage. [Tr.] + +[10] In October, 1911, California adopted woman's suffrage by popular +vote. [Tr.] + +[11] This "Conference on the Care of Dependent Children" was called by +President Roosevelt, and met, January 25 and 26, 1909, in the White House. +Two hundred and twenty men and women,--experts in the care of children, +from every state in the Union,--met, and proposed, among other things, the +establishment of a Federal Child's Bureau. Thus far Congress has done +nothing to carry out the proposal. (_Charities and the Commons_, Vol. XXI, +643, 644; 766-768; 968-990.) [Tr.] + +[12] The "mothers" hold special congresses in the United States to discuss +educational and public questions. (Mothers' Congresses.) + +[13] Here universal male suffrage is meant. [Tr.] + +[14] In November, 1910, an amendment in favor of woman's suffrage was +defeated by a referendum vote in Oklahoma. [Tr.] + +[15] The amendment passed the Senate and was adopted in November, 1910, by +popular vote. [Tr.] + +[16] In November, 1910, a woman's suffrage amendment was again defeated, +as was the amendment prohibiting the sale of liquor. [Tr.] + +[17] In November, 1910, four women were elected to the House of +Representatives of the Colorado legislature. [Tr.] + +[18] Mrs. Ida Husted Harper, in collaboration with Susan B. Anthony, has +written a _History of Woman's Suffrage_ which deals with the subject so +far as the United States are concerned. [Tr.] + +[19] Equal pay has been established by law in the states having woman's +suffrage. + +[20] It is worth mentioning that in the Spanish-American War Miss McGee +filled the position of assistant surgeon in the medical department, doing +so with distinction. + +[21] A. v. Maday, _Le droit des femmes au travail_, Paris, Giardet et +Briere. + +[22] In her book, _L'ouvriere aux Etats-Unis_, Paris, Juven, 1904. + +[23] Those who cannot pay an annual tax of two dollars. + +[24] In _L'ouvriere aux Etats-Unis_. + +[25] The organ of the National American Woman's Suffrage Association is +_Progress_ and is published in Warren, Ohio. There, one can also secure +_Perhaps_ and _Do you Know_, two valuable propaganda pamphlets written by +Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt. Other literature on woman's suffrage can be +obtained from the same source. + +[26] Although New Zealand is not politically a part of the Australian +Federation, it will for convenience be treated here as such. + +[27] The theological degrees are granted only in England. + +[28] Report of the International Woman's Suffrage Conference, Washington, +1902. + +[29] Report of the National Council of Women, 1908. + +[30] _Woman Suffrage in Australia_, by Vida Goldstein. + +[31] Both published in Rotterdam, 92 Kruiskade, International Woman's +Suffrage Alliance. + +[32] Consult Helen Blackburn, _History of Woman's Suffrage in England_. + +[33] See the excellent little work of Mrs. C. C. Stopes, "The Sphere of +'Man' in the British Constitution," _Votes for Women_, London, 4 Clement's +Inn. + +[34] In the Irish Sea, between Ireland and Scotland, having a population +of 29,272 women and 25,486 men. + +[35] 4 Clement's Inn, Strand, London, W.C. + +[36] See E. Robin's novel, _The Convert_. + +[37] By Lawrence Housman, Feb. 11, 18, and 26, 1909. + +[38] See E. C. Wolstenholme Elmy, _Women's Franchise, the Need of the +Hour_. + +[39] Wolstenholme Elmy, _ibid._ + +[40] This right is possessed by women in Scotland and Ireland also. + +[41] This is in direct conflict with the statute (13 Vict., c. 21, sec. 4) +providing that women enjoy all those rights from which they are not +expressly excluded. + +[42] London, like other capital cities, is regulated by a separate set of +laws. + +[43] Applying to England and Wales. + +[44] The right to vote is a condition necessary for the holding of office. + +[45] See the Married Women's Property Acts of 1870 and 1883. + +[46] See the article by Mr. Pethick Lawrence in _Votes for Women_, March +3, 1909. + +[47] London, S.W., 92 Victoria Street. + +[48] Valuable information concerning women in the industries is given in +the programme of April 4, 1909, of the London Congress of the +International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +[49] Ansiaux, _La reglementation du travail des femmes_. + +[50] See Mrs. Pethick Lawrence, "Women and Administration," _Votes for +Women_, March 12, 1909. + +[51] See the article of Alice Salmon, _Zentralblatt_. + +[52] For a survey of English conditions affecting women we recommend _The +Women's Charter of Rights and Liberties_, by Lady McLaren, 1909, London. + +[53] In Canada there are municipal elections, provincial parliamentary +elections, and elections for the Dominion Parliament. + +[54] See the Report of the Woman's Suffrage Alliance Congress, Amsterdam, +1908. + +[55] See the Report of the International Women's Suffrage Alliance, +Amsterdam, 1908. + +[56] The last two arguments are easily refuted. + +[57] Woman never reaches her majority; she must always have a male +representative. + +[58] The husband still remains the guardian of the wife. To-day the wife +controls her personal earnings, but merely as long as they are in cash; +whatever she _buys_ with them falls into the control of the husband. + +[59] See the Report of the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance +Congress, Amsterdam, 1908. + +[60] See the supplement, "Opposed to Alcoholism," in _One People, One +School_, for April, 1909. + +[61] A _Realschule_ teaches no classics, but is a scientific school +emphasizing manual training. A _Gymnasium_ prepares for the university, +making the classics an essential part of the curriculum. [Tr.] + +[62] By Vera Hillt, _Statistics of Labor_, VI, Helsingfors, 1908. + +[63] See the complete list of measures in _Jus Suffragi_, September 15, +1908. This is the organ of the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + +[64] In 1904 women were declared eligible by an official ordinance to hold +university offices. + +[65] It might be well to mention _Dansk Kvindesamfund, Politisk +Kvindeforening, Landsforbund, Valgretsforeningen of 1908_ (a Christian +association of men and women). + +[66] Compare similar proceedings in the United States and England. + +[67] Since Switzerland contains a preponderance of the Germanic element, +it will be considered with the Germanic countries. + +[68] In Geneva and Lausanne the men exerted every effort to exclude women +from the typographical trade. The prohibition of night work made this +easy. The same result will follow in the railroad and postal service. +Therefore in the Swiss woman's rights movement there are some that are +opposed to laws for the protection of women laborers. + +[69] Industrial training was promoted chiefly by the "Lette-House," +founded in Berlin in 1865 by President Lette and his wife. + +[70] In Germany there are one million domestic servants. + +[71] For information concerning the German woman's rights movement we +recommend _The Memorandum-book of the Woman's Rights Movement_ (_Das +Merkbuch der Frauenbewegung_), B. G. Teubner, Leipzig. + +[72] A body having advisory powers in matters relating to the medical +profession and to sanitary measures. [Tr.] + +[73] The question was decided by the administrative court in _one_ special +case. Compare the case of Jacobs, Amsterdam. + +[74] See _Dokumente der Frauen_ (_Documents concerning Women_); November +15, 1899. + +[75] The German system of stenography. [Tr.] + +[76] See the resolutions of the party sessions in Graz, 1900; in Vienna, +1903; and of the first, second, and third conferences of the International +Woman's Suffrage Alliance, in 1904, 1906, and 1908. + +[77] Except in Illyria, Carinthia, and Lower Austria. + +[78] For political and practical reasons Hungary will be discussed at this +point. + +[79] _Dokumente der Frauen_, June 1, 1901. + +[80] The proposed law grants the suffrage even to male illiterates. + +[81] Later the Code Napoleon infected other countries, but such horrors +originated spontaneously nowhere else. + +[82] In the years 1848, 1851, 1871, 1874, 1882, 1885. + +[83] See the resolutions of the two women's congresses, Paris, 1900. + +[84] _Le mouvement feministe_, Countess Marie de Villermont. + +[85] _Le feminisme_, Emile Ollivier. + +[86] Miss Chauvin made a similar request of the French Chamber of +Deputies; as we have seen, her request was granted. Dr. Popelin did not +make her request of the Belgian Chamber of Deputies, which had not a +Republican majority. Dr. Popelin may have considered such a step hopeless. + +[87] Since 1899 special socialistic workingwomen's congresses have been +held. + +[88] See the action of the Socialists in Sweden and in Hungary. + +[89] Else Hasse, _Neue Bahnen_. + +[90] The recognized gallant of a married woman. [Tr.] + +[91] Marianne Weber, _Zentralblatt_. + +[92] But only the enlightened clergy--those living in Rome--consent to the +higher education of girls. + +[93] _Dokumente der Frauen_, June 1, 1901. + +[94] See Stanton, _The Woman's Rights Movement in Europe_. + +[95] _El Feminismo_, 1899. + +[96] See the Report of the International Suffrage Congress, Washington, +1902. + +[97] See the Report of the International Suffrage Congress, Washington, +1902. + +[98] This has just been organized. + +[99] The following statistics are significant: Between January 1 and July +1, 1908, Russia showed an increase in the consumption of alcoholic +liquors. The total amount of spirits consumed was 40,887,509 _vedros_ (1 +_vedro_ is 3.25 gallons), which is an increase of 600,185 _vedros_ over +the amount consumed during the same months of the preceding year. These +figures correspond also to the government's income from its monopoly on +spirits; this was 327,795,312 rubles (a ruble is worth 51.5 cents), an +increase of 3,745,836 rubles over the same months of the preceding year. + +[100] See the very interesting article _Frauenbewegung_ (_The Woman's +Rights Movement_), by Berta Kes, Moscow. + +[101] See Berta Kes, _Frauenbewegung_. + +[102] See _Documents Concerning Women_ (_Dokumente der Frauen_), April 15, +1900. + +[103] I am indebted to Mrs. Eudokimoff, of St. Petersburg, for an English +translation of the resolutions, the address of the Lord Mayor, and the +proceedings against the deputy of the Duma; also for a biography of Mrs. +v. Philosophow. + +[104] Springtime. + +[105] A doctor employed by a workingmen's association. [Tr.] + +[106] Dr. Schirmacher treats Russian Poland here with Galicia, which is +Austrian Poland. [Tr.] + +[107] _Dokumente der Frauen_, November, 15, 1901. + +[108] Greek conditions are analogous to conditions prevailing in Slavic +countries; hence Greece will be treated here. Greece was liberated from +Turkish control in 1827. + +[109] There are elementary schools for boys and girls. The secondary +schools for girls are private. The first of these was founded by Dr. Hill +and his wife, who were Americans. Preparation for entrance to the +university is optional and is carried on privately. Athens University has +admitted women since 1891. + +[110] The English have abolished slavery in Egypt. + +[111] See _Conseil des Femmes_, October, 1902, for the romantic +"Desenchantees" of P. Loti, and Hussein Rachimi's "Verliebter Bey." + +[112] Compare _La crise de l'orient_, by Ahmed Riza. + +[113] See the analogous action of the English in India. + +[114] Report of the International Suffrage Congress, Washington, 1902. + +[115] + _Mag der Baum wohl wachsen in dem Walde, + Aber keine Tochter mir geboren werden._ + +[116] India still retains the official regulation of prostitution (which +was abolished in England in 1886). Here again, militarism is playing a +decisive part in blocking this reform. + +[117] In Bangkok, in Farther India (Siam), there is a woman's club with +the Siamese Princess as President. + +[118] Report of the International Suffrage Conference, Washington, 1902. + +[119] "_Le Chinois admet la superiorite, avec toutes ses consequences, des +qu'il la constate, qu'elle se revele chez un homme ou chez une femme._" + +[120] Report of the International Suffrage Conference, Washington, 1902. + +[121] The University of Tokio is still closed to women. Women attend the +Woman's University, founded in 1901 by N. Naruse. + + + + +INDEX + + + Abbans, Count Jouffroy d', 57. + + Aberdeen, Lady, xi, note 1, 96. + + Actresses' Franchise League, 68. + + Adams, Mr. Alva, 22, 23. + + Adler, 167. + + Adlersparre, Baroness of, 106. + + Age of consent, in woman's suffrage states of the United States, 39. + in Australia, 53, 54. + + Agricultural Association for Women, 83. + + Agriculturists, women, + in the United States, 36. + in Great Britain, 82-84. + in Sweden, 108. + in France, 186. + in Italy, 203, 204. + + Alcala, Catalina d', 210. + + Alexander II, 218. + + Alexandra House, 82. + + Aloisia, Sigea, 208. + + Amberly, Lady, 62. + + American Commission, report on European prostitution, 37. + + American Federation of Labor, favors woman's suffrage, 10. + forms organizations of workingwomen, 33. + + American Woman's Suffrage Association, 12. + + American women, + activities of, at Constitutional Convention (1787), 2-4. + means of agitation used by, 15, 16. + and political life, 18. + and the protection of youth, 18 and note 1. + and state legislative offices, 22, 23 and note 1. + members of city councils, 22. + in the Colorado legislature, 22, 23 and note 1. + and education, 23-27. + excluded by certain universities, 24. + and the teaching profession, 25. + students in higher institutions of learning, 26. + suffrage of, in school affairs, 27. + increase of women students, 27. + admitted to technical schools, 29. + legal status of, 36, 37. + and sports, 38, 39. + + Amsterdam, xiii. + + Ancketill, Mr., 100. + + Ancketill, Mrs., 100. + + Anstie, Dr., 77. + + Anthony, Susan B., the Napoleon of the woman's suffrage movement, 7. + various facts concerning, 7, 8. + joint author of a _History of Woman's Suffrage_, 23, note 2. + + Anti-Foot-Binding Societies, 258. + + Anti-Slavery Congress, 5, 6. + + Arenal, Concepcion, 209, 210. + + Argentine Republic, 214. + + Arsuaga, Pi y, 211. + + Artists' Suffrage League, 68. + + Asquith, Mr., 66. + + Association Opposed to Woman's Suffrage (in the United States), 23. + + Auclert, Madame, 188. + + Augsburg, Dr. Anita, 151. + + Australia, member of the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 42 and ff. + + Australian universities, 45, 46. + + Australian Women's Political Association, 54. + + Austria, represented in The International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii; _see also_ German Austria. + + Austrian Women Teachers' Society, 159. + + + Bajer, 123. + + _Baltic Women's Review_, 229. + + Bassiliades, Dr., 243, 244. + + _Bayaderes_, 255. + + Bazan, Emilia Pardo, 208, 209. + + Beauharnais, Josephine, 178. + + Becker, 63. + + Belgium, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii. + conditions in, 190, 191. + + Ben-Aid, Mrs. Hairie, 247. + + Beothy, Dr., 170. + + Beresford-Hope, Mrs., 71. + + Bey, Kassim Amin, 247. + + Bieber-Boehm, Hanna, 151. + + Biggs, 63. + + Birmingham, 61. + + Bjoernson, 110, 117, 123. + + Blackburn, Helen, 59, note 1. + + Blackwell, Elizabeth, 28, 29. + + Blackwell, Emily, 29. + + Blake, Jex, 77. + + Boer War, 64. + + Bohemia, conditions in, 230-232. + + Boise, Idaho, 21. + + Bonald, de, 180. + + Bonnevial, Madame, 188. + + Bosnia, conditions in, 250. + + Boston, 22, 27, 38. + + Brabanzon House, 82. + + Brahmanism, 254. + + Brandes, George, 123. + + Braun, Lily, 152. + + Bremer, Frederika, 103; + _see also_ Fredericka Bremer League. + + Bristol, 61. + + Bruestlein, Miss Dr., 136. + + Buchner, Miss, 204. + + Bulgaria, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii. + conditions in, 239-242. + + Butler, Mrs. Josephine, 95, 204. + + + Cabinet, British, and woman's suffrage, 65, 67. + + _Cahiers feministes_, 193. + + California, woman's suffrage amendment adopted by, 17, note 1. + efforts of women of, to secure the suffrage, 21. + + Cambridge University, 75, 76. + + Canada, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii. + woman's rights movement in, 96 and ff. + + Carima, Mrs., 241. + + Carinthia, _see_ Slovene Woman's Rights Movement. + + Carniola, _see_ Slovene Woman's Rights Movement. + + Catharine II, 217. + + Catholic Woman's League, 154. + + Catholic Women Teachers' Society, 159. + + Catt, Mrs. Carrie Chapman, xiii, 42. + + Cauer, Mrs., 150, 151, 152. + + Cave, Miss, 78. + + Central America, conditions in, 212, 213. + + Central Committee for Woman's Suffrage (England), 63. + + Central states (of the United States), 35. + + Chauvin, Jeanne, 185. + + Chicago, 40. + + Child labor, in United States, 35. + + Children, + "Conference on the Care of Dependent Children," 18 and note 1. + National Child Labor Committee, 35. + laws protecting, in Australia, 54. + _see also_ Laws protecting women and children. + + Children, authority over, + in Colorado, 19, 20. + in thirty-eight of the United States, 37. + in Australia, 49, 55. + in England, 74. + in Finland, 115. + in German Austria, 169. + in Switzerland, 140. + in France, 179. + in Spain, 210. + + Chili, 214. + + China, conditions in, 256-260. + + Cincinnati, 30, 37. + + Clergy, English, 6. + + Cleveland, President, 15. + + Clough, Anne, 75. + + Cobden, Mrs., 71. + + Code Napoleon, absence of, in Australia, 44. + in the Netherlands, 126. + in France, 178, 179. + in Belgium, 191. + in Italy, 202. + + Coeducation, + in the United States, 24, 25. + in Australia, 45, 46. + in Scotland, 75. + in Sweden, 105. + in the Netherlands, 127. + in Switzerland, 134, 135. + in Germany, 147. + in Italy, 200. + + College Equal Suffrage League, 10. + + Collett, Clara, 117. + + Colorado, woman's suffrage in, 16. + activities and rights of women in, 19, 20. + vote of immoral women in, 18, 19. + women in legislature of, 22, 23 and note 1. + conditions of women and children in, 39, 40. + + Columbia University, 24. + + "Conference on the Care of Dependent Children," 18 and note 1. + + Confucius, 260. + + Conradi, Mrs., 219. + + Conservative and Unionist Women's Franchise Association, 68. + + _Convert, The_ (novel), 67, note 1. + + Coote, Miss, 172. + + Copenhagen, xiii. + + Court of Appeals, 71. + + Craigen, 63. + + Creighton, Mrs. Louise, 69. + + Curie, Madame, 84, 224. + + Czaky, 172. + + + Davies, Emily, 75. + + Dazynska, Dr., 234. + + _De Stem der Vrouw_, 194. + + Declaration of Independence, Woman's, 6, 7, 11. + "The Declaration of the Rights of Women," 176. + + Deflou, Madame Oddo, 182. + + Denison, Mrs. Macdonald, 98. + + Denmark, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii. + conditions in, 122-126. + + Dennis, Mrs., 192. + + Denver, Colorado, 18, 19. + + Deraismes, Marie, 180. + + Deroin, Jeanne, 180. + + Derscheid-Delcour, Mrs., 193. + + Despard, Mrs., 68. + + Disraeli, 61. + + Divorce laws, + in woman's suffrage states, 39. + in Australia, 49, 52, 55. + in England, 74. + in Mexico and Central America, 213. + in Turkey and Egypt, 247. + + Dobson, Mrs., 47. + + Doctors, women, + in the United States, 28, 29. + in Australia, 46. + in Great Britain, 77. + in Sweden, 104, 107. + in Finland, 111. + in Norway, 121. + in the Netherlands, 128, 130, 131. + in Switzerland, 136. + in Germany, 148. + in German Austria, 160, 161. + in Hungary, 171. + in Belgium, 193. + in Italy, 201. + in Portugal, 212. + in Russia, 220, 221, 222, 223. + in Servia, 237. + in Bulgaria, 240. + in Rumania, 242. + in Bosnia, 251. + in Persia, 251. + in India, 253. + + _Dokumente der Frauen_, 166. + + Donohue, Mrs. M., 44. + + _Do You Know?_ (pamphlet), 42. + + Drummond, Mrs., 66. + + Dufferin, Lady, 254. + + Durand, Madame Marguerite, 188. + + + Ebner-Eschenbach, Marie v., 169. + + Education, women and, + in the United States, 23-27, 39. + in Australia, 45, 46. + in Great Britain, 74 and ff. + in Canada, 97. + in Sweden, 104, 106, 107. + in Finland, 111. + in Norway, 117-119. + in Denmark, 123. + in the Netherlands, 127, 128. + in Switzerland, 134-136. + in Germany, 146-148. + in Luxemburg, 157, 158. + in German Austria, 159, 160, 161-163. + in Hungary, 169-171. + in France, 183, 184. + in Belgium, 191-193. + in Italy, 199-201. + in Spain, 207, 208. + in Portugal, 212. + in Mexico and Central America, 212. + in South America, 214. + in Russia, 217-222, 225. + in Czechish Bohemia and Moravia,230. + in Servia, 236, 237. + in Bulgaria, 240. + in Greece, 243. + in Turkey and Egypt, 247, 248. + in India, 255. + in China, 259. + in Japan, 261. + + Education Act, 71. + + Egypt, conditions in, 245-250. + + _El Feminismo_, 209. + + Elmy, E. C. Wolstenholme, 70, notes 1 and 2. + + _Encyclopedia Britannica_, 60. + + England, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xii; + _see_ Great Britain. + + English Constitution, 72. + + Enrooth, Adelaide, 110. + + Eudokimoff, Mrs., 229, note 1. + + + Factory inspectors, women, + in the Netherlands, 128, 129. + in Switzerland, 137. + in Germany, 149. + in France, 185. + in Italy, 201. + in Russia, 224. + + Far East, conditions in the, 245-265. + + Favre, Miss Nellie, 136. + + Fawcett, 63, 69. + + February Revolution (1848), 180. + + Federal Child's Bureau, proposed in the United States, 18 and note 1. + + Federation of French Women's Clubs, 181, 183. + + Federation of Labor, 10. + + Federn, Elsie, 166. + + _Feminisme chretien, le_, 187. + + "Feminist Society," 172. + + Fibiger, Matilda, 122. + + Fickert, Augusta, 166. + + Fifteenth Amendment, women and the, 9. + + Finland, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 110-116. + + Fontaine, Mrs., 192. + + Fourierists, 180. + + France, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii; + conditions in, 175 and ff. + + _Frauenwohl_ (magazine), 150. + + "Frederika Bremer League," 106. + + French Revolution, and the woman's rights movement, 175-178. + + French Woman's Suffrage Society, the, 189. + + Fries, Ellen, 107. + + "Fronde," the, 188. + + + Galicia, conditions in, 232-235. + + Galinda, Donna, 208. + + Gammond, Madame Gatti de, 193. + + Garfield, President, 15. + + Garrison, William Lloyd, 6. + + Geneva, University of, 29. + + German Austria, conditions in, 158 and ff. + + German Evangelical Woman's League, 154. + + Germanic countries, modern woman's rights movement in, 1-174. + + Germany, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 143-145. + + Gikycki, Lily v., 151. + + Girton College, 75. + + Goldmann, (Mrs.) Dr., 166. + + Goldschmidt, Henrietta, 145, 146. + + Goldstein, Vida, 49, note 1, 54, 56. + + Gore-Langton, Lady Anne, 62. + + Gouges, Olympe de, 176, 177. + + Great Britain, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 58 and ff. + + Greece, conditions in, 242-244. + + Grimke, Angelina, 5. + + Group of Women Students, the, in France, 182, 183. + + Gruber, Dr. Ludwig, 172. + + Gyulai, P., 170. + + + Hainisch, Marianne, 166. + + Hansteen, Aasta, 117. + + Harem, 245. + + Harper, Ida Husted, 23, note 2. + + Harvard University, 24. + + Hayden, Sophia, 29. + + Hayes, President, 15. + + Hein, Frau Dr., 136. + + Helenius, Trigg, 116. + + Hertzka, Mrs. Jella, 166. + + Herzegovina, conditions in, 250. + + Herzfelder, Miss, 166. + + Heymann, Miss, 151. + + Hickel, Rosina, 111. + + Higinbotham, George, 50. + + Hill, Octavia, 91. + + Hirsch-Duncker Trades Union, 153. + + _History of Woman's Suffrage_, by Harper and Anthony, 23, note 1. + referred to, 37. + + Holloway College, 75, 83. + + House of Commons, attitude toward woman's suffrage, 65. + + Housmann, Lawrence, 69. + + Hungarian Woman's Club, 170. + + Hungary, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 169 and ff. + + Hutchins, Mrs. B. L., 92. + + + Ibsen, 110, 117, 123. + + Iceland, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xiii. + + Idaho, + woman's suffrage in, 16. + activities and influence of women in, 20, 21. + establishes lectureship in domestic science, 27. + condition of women and children in, 39, 40. + + Illinois, + and woman's suffrage, 6, 21. + women jurors in, 28. + + India, conditions in, 252-255. + + _Indian Ladies' Magazine_, 255. + + Inspectors of schools, _see_ School inspectors (women). + + Institute de demoiselles, 217. + + International Council of Women, x-xii. + + International Federation for the Abolition of the Official Regulation + of Prostitution, + headquarters of, 140. + Austrian branch of, 166. + Hungarian branch of, 172. + Italian branch of, 204, 205. + Polish branch of, 235. + + International Vigilance Society, 172. + + International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, the, various facts concerning, + x, xii, xiii. + + Ionades, Miss, 244. + + Iowa, 21. + + Ireland, 68; _see_ Great Britain. + + Isle of Man, 63. + + Italy, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 196-199. + + + Jackson, Miss, 32. + + Jacobs, Dr. Aletta, 130. + + Japan, conditions in, 260-262. + + Java, woman's suffrage society in, 132. + + Johns Hopkins University, 24. + + Jones, Miss, 29, 30. + + Journalists, women, + in the United States, 28. + in Great Britain, 81. + in Spain, 209. + in Bulgaria, 240. + + July Revolution (1830), 180. + + Juvenile courts, + in Australia, 54. + advocated in Germany, 155. + + + Kalapothaki, Marie, 243. + + Kang You Wei, 258. + + Kansas, + municipal woman's suffrage in, 16, 20. + efforts of women of, to secure full suffrage rights, 21. + + Kapnist, Mrs. v., 244. + + Keller, Helen, 27. + + Kelly, Abby, 4, 5. + + Kenney, Annie, 66. + + Kerschbaumer, Dr., 160, 161. + + Kettler, Mrs., 146. + + Key, Ellen, 107, 108. + + Kingsley, 63. + + Koran, 248, 251. + + Korea, conditions in, 262, 263. + + Kowalewska, Sonja, 107, 224. + + Krajevska, Feodora, 251. + + Kronauwetter, 167. + + Kutschalska-Reinschmidt, Mrs., 234, 235. + + Kveder, Zofka, 235, 236. + + + Labriola, Therese, 201. + + _La Francaise_, 189. + + Lang, Helena, 146. + + Lang, Maria, 166. + + Lascaridis, Miss, 244. + + Lawrence, Mr. Pethick, 66, 74, + note 1, 92, note 1. + + Lawrence, Mrs., Pethick, 66. + + Laws protecting women and children, + in the United States, 39, 40. + in Australia, 48, 52-54. + in Great Britain, 86, 87. + in Finland, 115. + in Norway, 121, 122. + in Switzerland, 138, 140, 141. + in Germany, 154. + lack of, in France, 179. + + Lawyers, women, + in the United States, 27. + in Australia, 54. + absence of, in Great Britain, 77. + in Canada, 97. + in Sweden, 107. + in Finland, 112. + in Norway, 121. + in Switzerland, 136. + in Germany, 148. + in German Austria, 161. + in France, 185. + in Belgium, 192. + in India, 253, 254. + + League for Freedom of Labor Defense, 86. + + Lee, Mrs. Mary, 53. + + Lincoln, Abraham, 15. + + Lindsey, Judge, 18. + + Lischnewska, Maria, 146. + + Listrow, Mrs. v., 166. + + Local Self-government Act for England and Wales, 72. + + Loeper-Houselle, Marie, 146. + + London, xiii, 61, 81. + + London, University of, 77. + + London College for Workingwomen, 89, 90. + + _London Girls' Club Union Magazine_, 90. + + Lords, House of, 72. + + Losa, Isabella, 208. + + Luxemburg, conditions in, 157. + + + McCullock, Mrs. C. Waugh, 39. + + McGee, Miss, 29, note 1. + + Mackenroth, Miss Anna, 136. + + MacLaren, Agnes, 204. + + MacLaren, 63, 96, note 1. + + Maclay, A. v., 173. + + _Madame Mere_, 178. + + Mahrenholtz-Buelow, Countess, 127. + + Maine, 21. + + Maireder, Rosa, 166. + + Malinoff, Mrs., 241. + + Manchester, 61, 62. + + Mariani, Emilia, 203. + + Mario, Jessie White, 202. + + Massachusetts, 21. + + Meath, Countess of, 82. + + Men's League for Woman's Suffrage, 68. + + Men's League Opposing Woman's Suffrage, 68. + + Mericourt, Theroigne de, 177. + + Mexico, conditions in, 212, 213. + + Meyer, Mr. Julius, 150. + + Michel, Louise, 180. + + Mill, John Stuart, 60, 61, 123. + + Miller, Paula, 154. + + Minnesota, 21. + + Mohammedan countries, _see_ Turkey, Egypt, Persia, Bosnia, and + Herzegovina. + + Monod, Miss Sara, 188. + + Montessori, Maria, 201. + + Monti, Rina, 201. + + Moravia, conditions in, 230-232. + + Morgenstern, Lina, 145, 152. + + Morsier, Emile de, 190. + + Mothers, school for, 94, 95. + + Mothers' congresses, in the United States, 20, note 1. + + Mott, Lucretia, 5, 6. + + Muensterberg, Deputy, 156. + + _Mystery of Woman, The_, 236. + + + Napoleon, 178, 179. + + Napoleonic Code, _see_ Code Napoleon. + + National American Woman's Suffrage Association, 22, 42, note 1. + + National Anti-slavery Society, 6. + + National Child Labor Committee, 35. + + National Council, xi, xii. + + National Council of French Women, 189. + + National Council of Women (in Australia), 47, note 1. + + National Trades Union League, 10. + + National Union of Woman's Suffrage Societies, 64. + + National Woman's Antisuffrage Association, 68. + + National Woman's Social and Political Union, 64. + + Nebraska, 16, 21. + + Netherlands, the, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 126. + + New Hampshire, 21. + + Newnham College, 75. + + New York, 21. + + New Zealand, 42, note 2; _see_ Australia. + + Nightingale, Florence, 91. + + Night labor, of women, in the United States, 36. + + North America, the cradle of the woman's rights movement, 2. + + Northern states (of the United States), 35. + + + Oberlin College, 24. + + Ohio, 27. + + Oklahoma, 21, and note 2. + + Olga, Queen of Greece, 243. + + Oregon, outlook for woman's suffrage in, 16. + woman's suffrage amendment (1910) defeated in, 16, note 2; 22, note 2. + opposition to woman's suffrage in, 22. + failure of woman's suffrage campaign (1906) in, 22. + + Orient, the, conditions in, 245-265. + + Otto-Peters, Louise, 145. + + Oxford University, 75, 76. + + + Panajuta, Miss, 244. + + Pankhurst, Miss, 66. + + Pankhurst, Mrs., 66. + + Pappritz, Anna, 151. + + Parent, Mrs., 192. + + Parental authority, _see_ Children, authority over. + + Parliament, + act of, bearing on woman's suffrage, 62. + obligation of members of, to the woman's suffrage movement, 65. + women deputations and, 66, 67. + + Parren, Madame Killirhoe, 243, 244. + + Parsee women, 255. + + Patents, taken out by women in the United States, 30. + + Paterson, Mrs., 85. + + Paulus, Erica, 171. + + Pavlovna, Helene, 218. + + Pease, Elizabeth, 5, 6. + + Pennsylvania, 21, 27. + + _Perhaps_ (pamphlet), 42. + + Pernerstorfer, 167. + + Persia, conditions in, 251, 252. + + Peter the Great, 217. + + Petzold, Miss v., 78. + + Philosophow, Mrs. v., 228, 229. + + "Physical Force Fallacy, The," 69. + + Poet, Laidi, 201. + + Police matrons, in the United States, 37. + + Political Equality League, in Australia, 55. + + Political Equality League (Chicago), 40. + + "Political Equality Series," 12, 33. + + Popelin, Miss Marie, 192. + + Popp, Mrs., 166. + + Pornography, + prohibited in woman's suffrage states of the United States, 40. + suppressed in Australia, 54. + + Portland, 27. + + Portugal, conditions in, 211, 212. + + Posada, Professor, 207, 208. + + Possauer, Dr., 161. + + Poster, F. Laurie, 40. + + Preachers, women, + in the United States, 28. + in Australia, 46. + in Great Britain, 78. + in Canada, 97. + in Sweden, 104, 107. + in the Netherlands, 128. + in German Austria, 161. + in France, 185. + + "Primrose League," 63. + + Prohibition movement, + in Sweden, 109, 110. + in Finland, 116. + + _Progress_, 42. + + Prostitution, laws concerning, + in the United States, 37. + in woman's suffrage states, 39. + in England, 95. + in Finland, 115, 116. + in Norway, 117. + in Denmark, 126. + in Switzerland, 140. + in Germany, 144, 155, 156. + in German Austria, 165, 166. + in Hungary, 172. + in France, 190. + in Italy, 204, 205. + in Galicia, 234. + in Servia, 238. + in India, 254, note 1. + + Purischkewitch, Mr., 229. + + Putnam, Mary, 77. + + + Quakers, in the United States, 4. + + Qualification of Women Act, 72. + + Qvam, Mrs., 121. + + + Ramabai, Pundita, 255. + + Red Cross Society, 91, 261. + + Refia, Princess, 250. + + Rhode Island, 21. + + Richer, Leon, 180. + + Riza, Selma, 247. + + Robin, E., 67, note 1. + + Roland, Henrietta, 130. + + Roland, Madame, 177. + + Romance countries, conditions in, 175. + + Rookwood pottery, 30. + + Roosevelt, Theodore, + and woman's suffrage, 15. + calls "Conference on the Care of Dependent Children," 18, note 1. + involved in conflict with American women, 34. + + Rose, Ernestine, 8. + + Rosores, Isabel de, 208. + + Rumania, conditions in, 242-244. + + Runeburg, Frederika, 110. + + Rural Woman's Industrial Society, 171. + + Russia, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 215 and ff. + + + Saint Simonians, 180. + + Salaries, women's compared with men's, + in the United States, 25 and note 1, 31. + in woman's suffrage states, 39. + in Australia, 46, 47, 55. + in Great Britain, 78-80, 85. + in Canada, 97. + in Sweden, 105, 107, 108. + in Norway, 118, 119. + in the Netherlands, 128. + in Switzerland, 135. + in Germany, 147. + in German Austria, 159. + in France, 184. + in Portugal, 212. + in Bulgaria, 240. + + Salic Law, absence of, + in Australia, 44. + in England, 58. + + Salt Lake City, Utah, 21. + + Sand, George, 180. + + Sandhurst, Lady, 71. + + Scandinavian countries, conditions in, 102, 103. + + Schabanoff, Mrs., 228. + + Schiff, Paoline, 203. + + Schirmacher, Dr., 151. + + Schlesinger, Mrs., 166. + + Schmall, Madame, 189. + + Schmidt, Augusta, 145, 146. + + School inspectors, women, + appointment of, agitated in the United States, 27. + in Great Britain, 79. + in France, 185. + + Schuetze, E., 229. + + Schwerin, Jeanette, 151. + + Schwietland, Mrs., 166. + + Scotland, 68; _see also_ Great Britain. + + Seddon, Mrs., 51, 52. + + Servia, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 236, 239. + + Sevigne, Madame de, 178. + + Sewall, Mrs. Wright, xi, note 1. + + Sex, the sexes, + relationship of the sexes, xiv. + woman's use of her sex, as a weapon, 40-42. + + Shaw, Rev. Anna Howard, + challenges Mrs. Humphrey Ward, 18. + Denver elections investigated by, 18. + president of the National Woman's Suffrage Association, 22. + a woman's rights advocate with theological training, 28. + on the legal status of woman, 36, 37. + + Sheldon, Mrs. French, 80. + + Siam, 255, note 1. + + Sie, Tou Fa, 259. + + Silberstein, Mr., 150. + + Simcox, Miss, 85. + + Simpson, Mrs. Anna, 192. + + Sin, Miss Peng Sie, 258. + + Slavic countries, conditions in, 215 and ff. + + Sloane Garden Houses, 81. + + Slovene woman's rights movement, 235, 236. + + _Slovenka_, 236. + + "Social Purity League," 37, 38. + + Social secretaries, 35. + + Society for Jewish Women, 154. + + Society for the Amelioration of the Condition of Woman and for Demanding + Woman's Rights, 180. + + Soho Club and Home for Working Girls, 90. + + Somersville Hall, 75. + + Sorabija, Cornelia, 254. + + South Africa, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 100, 101. + + South America, conditions in, 213, 214. + + South Dakota, 16 and note 2, 21. + + Southern States, conditions in, 35. + + Spain, conditions in, 206, 207. + + Sprung, Mrs. v., 166. + + Stael, Madame de, 177, 178. + + Stanley, Hon. Maude, 90. + + Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, + refused admission to anti-slavery congress, 5, 6. + introduces woman's suffrage resolution, 7. + + Steyber, Ottilie v., 145. + + Stone, Lucy, 5, 24. + + Stopes, Mrs. C. C., 62, note 1. + + Strindberg, 110. + + Stritt, Mrs., 151. + + Styria, _see_ Slovene woman's rights movement. + + Suffragettes, English, + influence of, in the United States, 21. + importance of, 58. + tactics, influence, and activities of, 65-70. + support given to, 69. + + Suslowa, Miss, 221. + + Suttner, Bertha v., 169. + + Swain, Dr. Clara, 253. + + Sweden, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 103-110. + + Switzerland, + represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xiii. + conditions in, 133-134. + + + Tasmania, _see_ Australia. + + Teachers, women, + in the United States, 25. + in Australia, 46, 47. + in Great Britain, 76, 81. + in Sweden, 104, 106, 107. + in Finland, 111. + in Norway, 118, 119. + in Denmark, 123. + in the Netherlands, 128. + in Switzerland, 135. + in Germany, 147. + in German Austria, 161, 162. + in Hungary, 174. + in France, 184. + in Italy, 200, 201. + in Spain, 207, 208. + in Mexico and Central America, 212, 213. + in Russia, 221, 222. + in Galicia, 234. + in Servia, 237. + in Bulgaria, 240. + in Persia, 251, 252. + + _Terem_, 217. + + Tery, Audree, 195. + + Tessel Benefit Society (_Schadeverein_), 129. + + Thorbecke, Minister, 138. + + Tilmans, Madame, 194. + + Tod, 63. + + Trade-unions, women in, + in the United States, 32, 33. + in Great Britain, 84-88. + in Sweden, 108. + in Finland, 112. + in Norway, 122. + in the Netherlands, 129, 130. + in Switzerland, 137. + in Germany, 150, 153, 154. + in German Austria, 159, 160, 164, 165. + in France, 185, 186. + in Belgium, 193. + in Italy, 203, 204. + in Russia, 222, 225. + in the Slovene countries, 236. + in Bulgaria, 240. + + Trinity College, 76. + + Troy Seminary, 24. + + Tsin King, 258. + + Tumova, Miss, 232. + + Turkey, conditions in, 245-250. + + Turmarkin, Dr. Anna, 135, 136. + + Tuszla, Dolna, 251. + + + United States, + Represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, xii, xiii. + conditions in, 2-42. + _See also_ American Women. + + United States, Constitution of, + leaves suffrage matters to the various states, 3. + not opposed to woman's suffrage, 10. + preamble to, 10. + + United States, women in, + leaders in modern woman's rights movement, x. + oppose slavery, 4. + attitude toward negro suffrage, 9. + methods of obtaining the franchise, 13-15. + + Universities, state, in the United States, 26. + + Utah, + woman's suffrage in, 16. + work of women in, 19. + condition of women and children in, 39, 40. + + + Vambery, Professor, 172. + + Vandervelde, Madame, 193. + + Vassar College, 24. + + Veres, Mrs. v., 169. + + Victoria, represented in the International Woman's Suffrage Alliance, + xii; + _see also_ Australia. + + Vooruit, 194. + + Vorst, Mrs. v., her book referred to, 31, 35. + + Vos, Roosje, 130. + + _Votes for Women_, English woman's suffrage organ, referred to, 62, + note 1, 66, 69. + + + Wachtmeister, Countess, 52. + + Wales, _see_ Great Britain. + + Wallis, Professor, 105. + + War of Independence (1774-1783), relation of, to woman's rights + movement, 2. + + Ward, Mrs. Humphry, + opposed to woman's suffrage, 18. + in debate, 69. + + Warren, Ohio, 42. + + Warwick, Lady, 83. + + Washington, State of, woman's suffrage secured in, 16, note 1, 21, + 22, and note 1. + + Webb, Mrs. Sidney, 69. + + Wenckheim, Baroness, 172. + + Wendt, Dr, Cecilia, 163. + + West Australia, _see_ Australia. + + White slave trade, + in Australia, 54. + in Hungary, 172. + + _Why does the Working-woman need the Right to Vote?_ (pamphlet), 33. + + Willard, Frances E., 38. + + Wisconsin, 21. + + Wolfring, v., 166. + + Wollstonecraft, Mary, 176. + + Woman's Cooperative Gild, 93, 94. + + Woman's Equal Suffrage League (Natal), 100. + + Woman's Freedom League, 68. + + Woman's Industrial Society, 159. + + Woman's Institute, 80. + + _Woman's Journal_, 34, 35. + + Woman's rights movement, the modern, + definition, leadership in, origins, ix, x. + international organization of, xi, xii. + chief demands of, xiii, xiv. + characteristics, in Germanic and Romance countries compared, 1, 2. + in Germanic-Protestant countries, 1, 2. + the cradle of, 2. + and American War of Independence, 2. + character of, in the United States, 4 and ff. + in Australia, 42 and ff. + in Great Britain, 58 and ff. + in Canada, 96 and ff. + in South Africa, 100 and ff. + in the Scandinavian countries, 103 and ff. + in the Netherlands, 126 and ff. + in Switzerland, 133 and ff. + in Germany, 144 and ff. + in German Austria, 158 and ff. + in Europe, 175. + in France, 176 and ff. + in Belgium, 191 and ff. + in Italy, 199 and ff. + in Spain, 210, 211. + in South America, 214. + in Russia, 215 and ff. + in Bohemia, 230-232. + in Servia, 236-239. + in Bulgaria, 240-242. + in Turkey and Egypt, 247-250. + in Persia, 251. + in India, 252-255. + in China, 258-260. + in Japan, 262. + in Korea, 263. + _See also_ Woman's suffrage movement. + + Woman's Rights Movement (periodical), 20, 21. + + Woman's Suffrage Alliance, _see_ International Woman's Suffrage Alliance. + + _Woman's Suffrage in Australia_ (pamphlet), 56. + + _Woman's Suffrage in New Zealand_, (pamphlet), 56. + + Woman's suffrage movement, + organized internationally, xii, xiii. + in the United States, 2-23. + in Australia, 49-58. + in England, 58-74. + in Canada, 98, 99. + in South Africa, 100, 101. + in Sweden, 104, 108, 109. + in Finland, 114-116. + in Norway, 119-121. + in Denmark, 124, 125. + in Iceland, 125. + in the Netherlands, 130-133. + in Switzerland, 141-143. + in Germany, 153-157. + in German Austria, 166-169. + in Hungary, 172, 173. + in France, 188 and ff. + in Belgium, 194, 195. + in Italy, 202 and ff. + in Russia, 227-229. + in Czechish Bohemia and Moravia, 231, 232. + in Japan, 262. + + Woman's suffrage states (United States), + and educational matters, 27. + women jurors in, 28. + laws concerning women and children in, 39, 40. + + Women, _see also_ Agriculturists, American women, Coeducation, Divorce + laws, Doctors, Children (authority over), Education, Factory + inspectors, Journalists, Laws protecting women and children, + Lawyers, Patents, Preachers, Salaries, Sex, Teachers, Trade-unions, + Working-day. + + Women in the professions and the industries, + in the United States, 25-36. + in Australia, 46-48. + in Great Britain, 77-95. + in Canada, 97. + in Sweden, 104-108. + in Finland, 111-113. + in Norway, 117-121. + in Denmark, 123-124. + in the Netherlands, 128-131. + in Switzerland, 135-139. + in Germany, 147-150. + in Luxemburg, 157, 158. + in Hungary, 171-174. + in France, 185-187. + in Belgium, 193. + in Italy, 200-204. + in Portugal, 212. + in Mexico and Central America, 212, 213. + in South America, 214. + in Russia, 220-226. + in Czechish Bohemia and Moravia, 230, 231. + in Galicia, 232, 233, 235. + in the Slovene countries, 236. + in Servia, 237, 238. + in Greece, 243, 244. + in Persia, 251, 252. + in Japan, 261, 262. + + Women, legal status of, + in the United States, 36, 37. + in Australia, 49. + in England, 73, 74. + in Canada, 97, 98. + in Sweden, 105, 106. + in Finland, 113. + in Denmark, 122, 123, 124. + in the Netherlands, 126, 127. + in Switzerland, 140. + in Germany, 155. + in German Austria, 168, 169. + in France, 178, 179, 182. + in Belgium, 191. + in Italy, 202. + in Spain, 210. + in Mexico and Central America, 213. + in Russia, 226, 227. + in Servia, 239. + in Bulgaria, 240. + according to the Koran, 248. + in China, 256, 257. + + Women's Charter of Rights and Liberties, the, 96, note 1. + + Women's clubs, _see under_ the Woman's rights movement of the various + countries. + + Women's colleges, + in the United States, 24. + in Great Britain, 75-77. + + Women's Enfranchisement League (in Cape Colony), 101. + + _Women's Franchise, the Need of the Hour_, 70, note 1. + + Women's Liberal Federation, 63. + + Working-day for women, + in the United States, 35. + in woman's suffrage states, 39. + in Australia, 48. + in Switzerland, 139. + in Germany, 154. + in Italy, 203. + + Workingwoman's movement, not antagonistic to woman's rights movement, x. + + World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union, + formation of, x. + facts concerning, 38. + advocates woman's suffrage, 38. + + Worm, Pauline, 122. + + Writers' League, 68. + + Wu, Fang Lan, 258. + + Wyoming, + woman's suffrage in, 16. + elections in, 20. + legal status of women in, 39, 40. + + + Yale University, 24. + + Young Turkish Woman's League, 249, 250. + + Young Turk movement, women and, 248, 249. + + + Zenana, 250, 253. + + Zetkin, Clara, 152. + + + + +The following pages contain advertisements of Macmillan books of related +interest. + + +By MISS JANE ADDAMS, Hull-House, Chicago + +The Newer Ideals of Peace + +_12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_ + +"A clean and consistent setting forth of the utility of labor as against +the waste of war, and an exposition of the alteration of standards that +must ensue when labor and the spirit of militarism are relegated to their +right places in the minds of men."--_Chicago Tribune._ + +"It is given to but few people to have the rare combination of power of +insight and of interpretation possessed by Miss Addams. The present book +shows the same fresh virile thought, and the happy expression which has +characterized her work ... There is nothing of namby-pamby sentimentalism +in Miss Addams's idea of the peace movement. The volume is most inspiring +and deserves wide recognition."--_Annals of the American Academy._ + +"No brief summary can do justice to Miss Addams's grasp of the facts, her +insight into their meaning, her incisive estimate of the strength and +weakness alike of practical politicians and spasmodic reformers, her +sensible suggestions as to woman's place in our municipal housekeeping, +her buoyant yet practical optimism."--_Examiner._ + + +Democracy and Social Ethics + +_12mo, cloth, leather back, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_ + +"Its pages are remarkably--we were about to say refreshingly--free from +the customary academic limitations...; in fact, are the result of actual +experience in hand-to-hand contact with social problems. + +"The result of actual experience in hand-to-hand contact with social +problems ... No more truthful description, for example, of the 'boss' as +he thrives to-day in our great cities has ever been written than is +contained in Miss Addams's chapter on 'Political Reform.'... The same +thing may be said of the book in regard to the presentation of social and +economic facts."--_Review of Reviews._ + +"The book is startling, stimulating, and intelligent"--_Philadelphia +Ledger._ + + +_An Unusually Interesting Book_ + +The Book of Woman's Power + +With an Introduction by IDA M. TARBELL + + _Decorated cloth, 16mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35 + Also in limp leather, $1.75 net; by mail, $1.85_ + +"Whether the reader favors votes for women or not, 'The Book of Woman's +Power' will make a particular appeal to all interested in that +subject."--_Ohio State Journal._ + +"It is a well-made book; the purpose of it is uplifting, and the contents +are certainly of the highest class. It is a book good to read, and full of +instruction for every one who wishes to pursue this theme."--_Salt Lake +Tribune._ + + +MISS MOLLY ELLIOT SEAWELL'S + +The Ladies' Battle + +_Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 net; by mail $1.10_ + +"Her reasoning is clear and the arguments she presents are forcibly put +... a racy little book, logical and convincing."--_Boston Globe._ + +"The book is one which every woman, whatever her views, ought to read. It +has no dull pages."--_Record-Herald, Chicago._ + +"Miss Seawell treats a subject of universal interest soberly and +intelligently. She deserves to be widely read."--_Boston Daily +Advertiser._ + +"The clearest and the most thorough little treatise on the theme of woman +suffrage."--_Chicago Inter-Ocean._ + + +Wage-Earning Women + +By ANNIE MARION MACLEAN + +Professor of Sociology in Adelphi College. + +_Cloth, leather back, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail $1.35_ + +"The chapters give glimpses of women wage-earners as they toil in +different parts of the country. The author visited the shoeshops, and the +paper, cotton, and woollen mills of New England, the department stores of +Chicago, the garment-makers' homes in New York, the silk mills and +potteries of New Jersey, the fruit farms of California, the coal fields of +Pennsylvania, and the hop industries of Oregon. The author calls for +legislation regardless of constitutional quibble, for a shorter work-day, +a higher wage, the establishment of residential clubs, the closer +cooperation between existing organizations for industrial +betterment."--_Boston Advertiser._ + + +Making Both Ends Meet: The Income and Outlay of New York Working Girls + +By SUE AINSLIE CLARK AND EDITH WYATT + +_Illustrated, cloth, gilt top, 12mo, 270 pp., $1.50 net; by mail, $1.60_ + +"Gives a vivid picture of the way the 'other half' lives, the half that is +ground down by overwork, lack of home comfort and of recreation. So +powerful are the facts presented that the very simplicity of their +narration rouses the reader to the desperate need of safeguarding the girl +workers in our cities against exhausting mental and physical +demands."--_Continent._ + +"The point of view of the book is constructive throughout, and it is safe +to say that it will be for a long time, both for the practical worker and +for the scientific student, the authoritative work in this +field."--_Detroit News._ + +"It is a recital of facts that makes one's heart and soul shrink up and +grow small for pity and helplessness to help."--_Lexington Herald._ + + +Some Ethical Gains through Legislation + +By FLORENCE KELLEY + +Secretary of the National Consumers' League. + +_Cloth, leather back, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.35_ + +This interesting volume has grown out of the author's experience in +philanthropic work in Chicago and New York, and her service for the State +of Illinois and for the Federal Government in investigating the +circumstances of the poorer classes, and conditions in various trades. + +The value of the work lies in information gathered at close range in a +long association with, and effort to improve the condition of, the very +poor. + +The author is not only a lawyer of large experience in Chicago, but has +served that city, the State of Illinois, and the Federal Government in +many investigations of conditions among various trades, and in reference +to the circumstances of the poorer classes. + +Among the topics here treated are: + + The Right to Childhood. + Interpretations of the Right to Leisure. + The Right of Women to the Ballot. + The Rights of Purchasers and the Courts. + + +The Women of America + +By ELIZABETH McCRACKEN + +_Cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net; by mail, $1.61_ + +"A work the immediate need of which is felt everywhere. It treats of the +American woman's economic condition and of women workers in various +fields. It can be recommended to every one who is interested in the grave +problems involved by the new and untoward conditions of women's +work."--_N. Y. Evening Sun._ + + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. + +Punctuation has been corrected without note. + +The following misprints have been corrected: + "Cubs" corrected to "Clubs" (page 133) + "classses" corrected to "classes" (page 184) + "admisson" corrected to "admission" (page 250) + "1 4" corrected to "184" (page 270) + +Other than the corrections listed above, inconsistencies in spelling and +hyphenation have been retained from the original. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Modern Woman's Rights Movement, by +Kaethe Schirmacher + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MODERN WOMAN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENT *** + +***** This file should be named 33700.txt or 33700.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/7/0/33700/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/33700.zip b/33700.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..808be7b --- /dev/null +++ b/33700.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..10b751f --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #33700 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33700) |
