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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Notes on Agriculture in Cyprus and Its
+Products, by William Bevan
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Notes on Agriculture in Cyprus and Its Products
+
+
+Author: William Bevan
+
+
+
+Release Date: May 15, 2010  [eBook #32392]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND
+ITS PRODUCTS***
+
+
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+
+
+NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND ITS PRODUCTS
+
+by
+
+W. BEVAN
+
+Director of Agriculture, Cyprus
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+1919
+
+All Rights Reserved
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  INTRODUCTION      1
+
+  I. GENERAL      3
+
+  Geographical Features, 3; Climate and Rainfall, 4;
+  Administration, 5; Weights, Measures and Currency,
+  5
+
+  II. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS      6
+
+  General, 6; Land Tenure and Labour, 6; Tithes and
+  Taxation, 7; Credit and Agricultural Societies, 8;
+  Irrigation, 8; Agricultural Implements, 10; The
+  Agricultural Department, 12; Fungoid Diseases and
+  Insect Pests, 14
+
+  III. LIVE STOCK      16
+
+  Cattle, 16; Sheep, 17; Goats, 18; Pigs, 19; Camels,
+  20; Horses, 20; Donkeys, 20; Jennets and Mules,
+  21; Poultry, 22; Preserved Meats, etc., 23
+
+  IV. DAIRY PRODUCE      23
+
+  Milk, 23; Cheese, 24; Butter, 27; Xynogala or
+  Yaourti, 27; Trachanas, 28; Kaimaki or Tsippa, 28
+
+  V. CROPS AND OTHER PRODUCE OF THE LAND      28
+
+  CEREALS      28
+
+  Wheat, 31; Barley, 32; Oats, 34; Rye, 35; Maize
+  (Indian Corn), 35; Dari or Millet (Sorghum
+  vulgare), 35
+
+  FRUITS      35
+
+  Vines and Wines, 36; Citrus fruits, 43; Fig (_Ficus
+  Carica_), 44; Cherries, 45; Banana, 46; Azarol
+  Hawthorn, 46; Melons, 47; Date Palm, 47
+
+  NUTS      48
+
+  Hazelnuts and Cobnuts or Filberts, 48; Walnuts,
+  49; Almonds, 49; Spanish Chestnut, 50; Pistacia
+  spp., 50
+
+  VEGETABLES      52
+
+  Beans and Peas, 53; Potatoes, 55; Kolakas (_Colocasia
+  antiquorum_), 56; Onions, 56
+
+  FODDERS AND FEEDING STUFFS      57
+
+  Carob Tree, 57; Lucerne (_Medicago sativa_), 61;
+  Vetch (_Vicia Ervilia_), 62; Chickling Vetch
+  (_Lathyrus sativus_), 62; Vetch (_Vicia sativa_), 62;
+  Tares (_Vicia tenuifolia var. stenophylla_), 63; Milk
+  Vetch (_Astragalus_), 63; Moha, Sulla (_Hedysarum_),
+  63; Teosinte (_Reana luxurians_), 64; Sudan-grass,
+  64; Teff-grass (_Eragrostis abyssinica_), 64; Mangold
+  Wurzel, 64; Prickly Pear (_Opuntia_), 65
+
+  SPICES      65
+
+  Coriander Seed, 65; Aniseed, 66; White Cumin
+  Seed, 66; Black Cumin Seed, 67
+
+  ESSENTIAL OILS AND PERFUMES      67
+
+  Origanum Oil, 67; Marjoram Oil, 69; Laurel Oil, 69;
+  Otto of Roses, 69; _Acacia Farnesiana_, 70
+
+  OILS AND OIL SEEDS      71
+
+  Olives, 71; Sesame Seed, 74; Ground Nut, Peanut
+  or Monkey Nut (_Arachis hypogæa_), 75,; Castor-oil
+  Seed, 76
+
+  FIBRES      77
+
+  Cotton, 77; Flax and Linseed, 82; Wool, 83; Hemp,
+  84; Silk, 85; Mulberry, 91; Agaves and Aloes, 91;
+  Broom Corn, 92
+
+  TOBACCO      92
+
+  TANNING MATERIALS AND DYE-STUFFS      96
+
+  Sumach, 97; Valonea, 98; Acacia Barks, 98;
+  Madder, 99
+
+  DRUGS AND OTHER PRODUCTS      99
+
+  Liquorice Root, 99; Pyrethrum, 100; Squill, 101;
+  Colocynth, 101; Asphodel, 102
+
+  VI. MINOR AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES      102
+
+  Bee-keeping, 102; Basket-making, 104; Fruit and
+  Vegetable Preserving, 104
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  SKETCH MAP OF CYPRUS, SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS AND FORESTS      2
+
+  PLATE
+
+  I. FIG. 1. PLOUGHING ON A MOUNTAIN-SIDE WITH NATIVE PLOUGH          10
+
+  I. FIG. 2. NEWLY-PREPARED BEDS IN EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS              10
+
+  II. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS                                         12
+
+  III. FIG. 1. NATIVE BULL                                            16
+
+  III.  "   2. NATIVE RAM                                             16
+
+  IV.   "   1. CYPRUS PONY                                            20
+
+  IV.   "   2. CYPRUS DONKEYS                                         20
+
+  V.    "   1. CARTING CORN                                           29
+
+  V.    "   2. THRESHING CORN WITH NATIVE THRESHING BOARD             29
+
+  VI. PRUNED OLIVE-TREES AT METOCHI OF KYKOS                          72
+
+  VII. FIG. 1. CYPRIOT EARTHENWARE BEEHIVES                          103
+
+  VII.  "   2. SHIPPING FRUIT AT LARNACA                             103
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND ITS PRODUCTS[1]
+
+BY W. BEVAN
+
+_Director of Agriculture, Cyprus_
+
+
+The intention of these notes is to make available to those interested in
+the agriculture of Cyprus some of the information scattered in various
+reports, leaflets and correspondence not readily accessible to the
+general public.
+
+It has long been a matter of regret to the writer that the valuable
+stores of information collected with so much care and ability by the
+late Mr. Panayiotis Gennadius, formerly Director of Agriculture in
+Cyprus, through having been published in Greek only, have remained
+beyond the reach of many who might otherwise have derived benefit from a
+study of his works. His writings on the general agriculture of the "Near
+East" are voluminous and comprehensive, and show an intimate knowledge
+of the subject as well as of the practices and customs of agriculturists
+in these regions. The results of his labours are mainly embodied in his
+_Helleniki Georgia_ and his _Phytologikon Lexicon_, both of which are
+works of recognised authority. During his eight years (1896-1903) spent
+in Cyprus Mr. Gennadius devoted himself specially to a study of the
+agricultural conditions and needs of the Island, and the notes and
+reports made by him have been, to a large extent, taken as the basis of
+the present Notes.
+
+During the sixteen years since he left the Island many changes have
+taken place, and the more receptive and enlightened attitude of the
+rising generation of farmers has helped to bring about various
+improvements, and a greater readiness has been shown to adopt modern
+methods. In compiling the present Notes I have drawn freely from the
+articles which have appeared for many years in the _Cyprus Agricultural
+Journal_ (formerly _Cyprus Journal_), the official publication of the
+Agricultural Department, and which I have edited; I have also taken
+advantage of the very admirable and reliable information contained in
+the _Handbook of Cyprus_, edited by Messrs. Lukach and Jardine.
+
+[Illustration: SKETCH MAP Of CYPRUS SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS &
+FORESTS]
+
+I am greatly indebted to the willing assistance of Mr. Procopios
+Symeonides, Inspector of Agriculture, whose thorough acquaintance with
+local conditions and usages has enabled him to contribute much useful
+and informative material. I have also to offer my acknowledgments to
+Messrs. M. G. Dervishian, C. Pelaghias, Z. Solomides, G. Frangos, A.
+Klokaris, A. Panaretos and others who have kindly supplied me with data
+of various kinds.
+
+It will scarcely be necessary to add that little more than a summary of
+the agricultural practice and resources of the Island has here been
+attempted, and in no sense does it pretend to be anything more. The aim
+has been to give the reader a general idea of what Cypriot agriculture
+is and, to some extent, what it is capable of doing.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Reprinted from the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE,
+1919.]
+
+
+
+
+I. GENERAL
+
+
+_Geographical Features_
+
+The Island of Cyprus is situated in the innermost basin of the
+Mediterranean Sea; about 40 miles distant from the Asia Minor coast on
+the north, and about 60 miles from Syria on the east, and 238 miles from
+Port Said to the south. It is the third largest island in the
+Mediterranean, ranking next to Sicily and Sardinia. The larger part of
+the Island is in the form of an irregular parallelogram, 100 miles long
+and from 30 to 60 miles broad; while on the north the eastern extremity
+runs out beyond this into a peninsula 40 miles long by 5 to 6 miles
+broad. The total area is 3,584 sq. miles. The main topographical
+features are the northern and southern mountain ranges running east and
+west and enclosing the great plain of the Messaoria. The mountains of
+the northern range are of an altitude ranging from 2,000 ft. to over
+3,000 ft., the highest point being Buffavento, 3,135 ft.; those of the
+southern range are more lofty and culminate in Mt. Olympus, 6,406 ft.
+above sea-level. The rivers are nearly all mountain torrents, and are
+dry from about July to November or December.
+
+The area of cultivated land is approximately 1,200,000 acres, and that
+of the uncultivated land 1,093,760 acres, of which about 450,000 are
+forest land and 320,000 are susceptible of cultivation. The Messaoria
+plain is the great corn-growing area.
+
+
+_Climate and Rainfall_
+
+There are considerable extremes of temperature in the plains. In summer
+it is very hot and dry with temperature ranging during June to September
+from 80° to 110° Fahr., while in winter slight frosts not infrequently
+occur. The climate is more equable, but also more humid, along the
+coasts. In the plains there is, during the greater part of the year, a
+marked variation between the day and night temperatures.
+
+Official records show that for a period of thirty-two years up to 1915
+the average rainfall for hill and plain for the whole Island
+approximated to 20 inches. Up to 1902 records were kept only in the six
+district towns, but since then there have been some fifty recording
+stations. The mean rainfall during the winter months for the twelve
+years ended 1914 was 18.55 inches. That for the whole year during the
+latter period was 21.18 inches.
+
+The incidence of rainfall, apart from its volume, is of importance. It
+is on the rainfall of the six winter months, October to March, that the
+prosperity of the Island depends, and any shortage during this period
+cannot be balanced by heavier summer rains, which are more liable to
+cause harm than good, by damaging the corn lying on the threshing-floors
+and by causing sudden floods.
+
+Much importance attaches to the rains in March, without which the grain
+crop, however ample the earlier rains may have been, will not be
+satisfactory, as described in a maxim which I have attempted to render
+in English.
+
+  If twice in March it chance to rain,
+    In April once, a shower in May,
+  In weight in gold of man and wain,
+    The farmer's crops are sure to pay.
+  If roads are dry at Christmas time,
+    But Epiphany finds both mud and slime,
+  And at Carnival they still hold many a pool,
+    The farmer finds his barns quite full.
+
+
+_Administration_
+
+The Island is administered by a High Commissioner. There is an Executive
+Council and a Legislative Council consisting of six official members and
+twelve elected members, of whom three are elected by the Moslem and nine
+by the non-Moslem inhabitants. The Island is divided into six districts,
+in each of which the Executive Government is represented by a
+Commissioner.
+
+
+_Weights, Measures and Currency_
+
+Nearly everything except corn, wine, oil, carobs, cotton and wool is
+sold by the oke.
+
+An oke, dry measure, equals 400 drams, or 2-4/5 lb.
+
+The liquid oke is reckoned as equivalent to a quart.
+
+Grain is measured by the kilé, regarded as equal to a bushel.
+
+Wool, cotton and oil are sold by the litre of 2-4/5 okes, but commonly
+reckoned as 2-1/2 okes.
+
+Carobs are sold by the Aleppo cantar of 180 okes. This cantar is further
+divided into 100 litres of 1 oke and 320 drams each.
+
+Wine is sold by the kartos = 4 okes, the kouza = 8 okes, and the gomari
+= 128 okes.
+
+1 kilé of wheat weighs 20 to 22 okes.
+
+1 kilé of barley weighs 14 to 18 okes.
+
+1 kilé of oats weighs 13 to 14 okes.
+
+1 kilé of vetches weighs 23 to 24 okes.
+
+1 sack of straw weighs about 40 okes.
+
+1 camel-load of straw weighs about 200 okes, consisting of 2 sacks, each
+weighing about 100 okes.
+
+
+_Measures of Length_
+
+Metron or metre.
+
+Yarda or yard.
+
+Pic = 2 ft. or two-thirds of a yard.
+
+Inch = English measure.
+
+The land measure is the donum (called by the villagers "scala"), but it
+is very uncertain, and varies in different parts of the Island. As
+recognised by law, 1 donum, called "tappoo donum," equals 60 pics = 40
+yards square = 1,600 square yards, or 14,400 sq. ft.; 3.025 of these
+donums go to the acre. There is also a farmer's, or "reshper" donum,
+which is commonly used by agriculturists and is equal to about 1-1/2
+Government donums. For general purposes a legal donum is about one-third
+and a Cypriot farmer's donum about one-half of an acre. "Stremma" is
+also a synonym for the farmer's donum, or scala, although its actual
+measure is very much less.
+
+
+_Currency_
+
+£1 = 20 shillings or 180 copper piastres.
+
+1 shilling = 9 copper piastres.
+
+1 cp. (copper piastre) = 40 paras.
+
+
+
+
+II. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS
+
+
+_General_
+
+Agriculture is the main industry of the Island, which is favourably
+situated for the markets of Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor, although the
+former is practically the only buyer of its perishable produce. During
+recent years the Cypriot agriculturist has come to realise more and more
+the value of the Egyptian market and a considerable trade with that
+country has grown up.
+
+
+_Land Tenure and Labour_
+
+The small farmer mostly cultivates his own land, whereas the large
+landowner rarely does. The metayer, or metairie, system is fairly
+common, and has much to recommend it when honourably carried out by both
+parties, but it is open to very serious abuse.
+
+Under this system the one party, or contractor, gives the seed and often
+lends the cattle. A valuation of the latter is made at the time of
+entering into the agreement, and a re-valuation is made on termination,
+any depreciation being made good by the other party, or metayer. The
+latter finds the necessary labour and feeds the animals and pays an
+agreed rate for their hire. The crops, after deduction of Government
+tithe, are usually divided equally between both parties, but the
+conditions vary according to circumstances and the nature of the crops
+grown.
+
+If cultivated land be given to the partner, such land must be returned
+to the contractor in the same state of cultivation as received, or the
+contractor, at his option, may claim the return of the seed his partner
+received with it.
+
+There are also a considerable number of leaseholders paying a fixed
+rent. The monasteries are the largest landowners, and both cultivate
+their own land and let out portions to the monks or to private farmers.
+Much land is also held by the Church, and this is frequently let out on
+a yearly lease, with the result that it is badly farmed and speedily
+worked out.
+
+The country is rather sparsely populated by about 275,000 inhabitants,
+and although the cultivators are laborious when working for themselves
+and when free from the hands of the usurers, they are still very
+backward in their methods and appliances. A less conservative attitude
+has of late been observed, and a greater readiness has been manifested
+in seeking and following the advice of the Agricultural Department.
+There is a great amount of indebtedness among the peasantry and usurious
+practices abound. This undoubtedly checks progress, as few of the
+smaller farmers are free agents. The matter has lately been the subject
+of a special Commission appointed by Government. Laws have this year
+(1919) been passed by the Legislative Council dealing with usury and
+indebtedness.
+
+
+_Tithes and Taxation_
+
+The tithe, which forms the principal source of Government revenue, is
+one-tenth of the produce of the land on wheat, barley, oats, vetches,
+rye and favetta, measured on the threshing-floors and delivered in kind
+at the Government Grain Stores. Certain allowances are made to the
+tithe-payers for transport. In the case of carobs, which are also
+subject to this tax, the tithe is taken in money from exporters at the
+Custom House at the rate of 9 cp. (1s.) per cantar from the districts of
+Nicosia, Larnaca and Limassol, and 8 cp. per cantar from the other three
+districts.
+
+There are certain export dues, in lieu of tithe, payable on the
+following commodities: Aniseed 33 cp., cotton 55 cp., linseed 18 cp.,
+mavrokokko (black cummin) 7 cp., and raisins 10 cp. per 100 okes; silk
+cocoons 6-3/4 cp., wound silk 18 cp., silk manufactured by other than
+hand looms 18 cp. per oke.
+
+An annual tax is levied of 3-3/4 cp. per head on every sheep and of 5
+cp. per head on every goat one year old and upwards, and of 4-1/2 cp.
+per head on every pig over three months old.
+
+
+_Credit and Agricultural Societies_
+
+The spirit of co-operation has hitherto been singularly lacking, but
+there are signs that a change is in progress and that, with proper
+guidance, the cultivators will ere long come to realise the advantages
+of combined effort in the production and distribution of their crops.
+
+The establishment of village co-operative Credit Societies has long been
+advocated, but although a law was passed in 1913 for this purpose, there
+has so far been little practical outcome. Co-operation in its full
+modern significance is not yet understood; but one or two little village
+co-operative banks have nevertheless been started and show encouraging
+results.
+
+There are also a few small village agricultural societies springing up,
+which, if properly conducted, may prove the pioneers of a general
+movement in this direction. The existence of such societies would
+greatly facilitate the work of the Agricultural Department, which would
+be able to influence and assist farmers through their societies, whereas
+now it is often not possible to reach them individually.
+
+
+_Irrigation_
+
+The most common method of raising water is by means of primitive
+water-wheels or "alakatia," often described as "Persian wheels" and
+resembling the "sakia" of Egypt. By these the water is carried in
+earthenware cups attached to the rim of a large vertical wooden wheel
+fixed in the mouth of a well and made to revolve by a mule or donkey by
+means of a horizontal wheel and beam, or by modern air-motor. Myrtle
+branches are mostly employed for attaching the cups to the wheels, as
+these are pliable and resist the action of water.
+
+These "alakatia" were formerly made entirely of wood, but in the
+nineties, iron ones ("noria") were introduced from Greece, and these
+have become fairly general, and are gradually supplanting the older
+types. They have the advantage of being more durable and lighter to
+work. Good iron wheel wells are now locally made. Water-wheels of this
+description cannot be used for raising water from a depth of more than
+ten fathoms below the surface of the ground.
+
+Of late years a large number of air-motors of Canadian pattern have been
+introduced and are found satisfactory.
+
+There is abundant evidence in the remains of old disused Venetian wells
+and cisterns that in pre-Turkish times, when the country was far more
+densely populated than at present, a larger quantity of underground
+water was utilised than now. Abundant subterranean water for
+agricultural and gardening purposes is to be found in almost all the
+coast lands as well as in many parts of the interior. Such waters are
+either brought to the surface along subterranean channels or by means of
+wells, and, for the most part, have their origin in the mountain ranges,
+specially in the southern range, which is the rainy region of the
+Island.
+
+Artesian well-boring experiments have been made in recent years in
+different parts of the Island, but without substantial results. In the
+Famagusta district large reservoirs were constructed several years ago
+for impounding the surplus water of the rivers of Pedias and Ialias, but
+these have only been very partially successful as the water is mostly
+lost before it reaches them.
+
+A satisfactory solution of the water problem is of supreme importance to
+the Island. There are large fertile areas which every year remain
+fallow, but which, if capable of irrigation, would grow excellent cotton
+and other summer crops, thus providing a better system of rotation.
+Vegetable growing and fruit culture could then also be very greatly
+extended.
+
+
+_Agricultural Implements_
+
+_Ploughs._--The old wooden plough of the East is still the common plough
+of the country (see Plate I, fig. 1). Efforts were made from 10 to 15
+years ago to introduce iron ploughs by selling them through the
+Agricultural Department at half the cost price and even less.
+High-water mark was reached in 1908 when 102 of these ploughs were so
+sold. These were much approved of, and the further sale was then left in
+the hands of merchants. The demand at once fell off and since then only
+a few have been introduced. For a year or two a certain number of iron
+ploughs of Russian make were imported and sold through the Jewish
+settlement at Margo.
+
+There is now a considerable demand which it may be possible to satisfy
+when normal conditions are resumed. There is some prejudice against
+English-made ploughs on the score of weight, as they are mostly heavier
+than those of French, Russian, Greek and American make.
+
+_Harrow._--The native harrow, "saraclo," is a wooden beam about 10 ft.
+long by 12 to 18 in. broad and 3 in. thick, on which the labourer stands
+as it is drawn over the newly sown land. It is ineffective inasmuch as
+it does not break the clods, but merely presses them into the ground.
+Iron-toothed harrows and spring-toothed harrows have been lent by the
+Department for demonstration purposes to different persons, and these,
+particularly the second kind, have found favour and are likely to be in
+demand for covering the sown seed. The usual method is to cover the seed
+with the native plough, but the European harrow is seen to do the work
+more effectively and with a great economy of time.
+
+Among the more common agricultural tools of native pattern are the
+following (see Plate II):
+
+_Tsappa_ (hoe).--The wider tool, 5 in. to 6 in., is mostly for garden
+use; the narrow tsappa, about 3 in. wide, is for field work.
+
+_Skalistiri._--A kind of small tsappa, 2 in. wide, having two prongs 4
+in. to 5 in. long at the opposite end. It is mostly used for hoeing
+vegetables.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+Fig. 1.--Ploughing on a Mountain-side with Native Plough.
+
+Fig. 2.--Newly-prepared Beds in Experimental Gardens.]
+
+_Xinari_ (axe or hatchet).--One end of the implement is a sort of
+hoe, and the other end is shaped like a mattock. Used for cleaning off
+weeds, shrubs, etc., from the fields; also for cutting or splitting
+wood.
+
+_Kouspos._--These are of two kinds. The larger is used like a tsappa,
+but in stony or rocky places; the smaller is the tool used by
+well-sinkers. It can be conveniently handled in a confined space.
+
+_Karetta_ or _Cart_.--This has almost entirely superseded the old
+Cypriot type of cart, but the latter may yet be seen very occasionally
+in the Karpas and possibly in the Paphos district. It is still in use in
+some parts of Anatolia. In its construction no iron nails are needed.
+
+_Doukani._--The common threshing-board (see under "Cereals," p. 29).
+This is the primitive implement handed down from classic times and
+generally seen throughout the East (see Plate V, fig. 2).
+
+_Thernatchin._--A wooden shovel used for winnowing grain. It is deeply
+serrated, or divided, into 5 or 6 triangular-shaped teeth.
+
+_Arvalin._--A corn sieve. A goat's or sheep's skin, perforated with
+holes, is stretched across a round wooden frame, 12 in. to 18 in. in
+diameter. Instead of a skin, leather thongs or gut are stretched,
+crosswise on the frame. Perforated tin is now sometimes employed. These
+sieves are used for cleaning grain after winnowing.
+
+_Arkon._--Another kind of sieve, similar to the above, but with smaller
+holes for sifting fine seeds, dust, etc. Mostly made of skin, but now
+tin is being used.
+
+_Patourin._--A similar sieve, used for still finer work.
+
+_Skala._--An iron dibber, fitted with two wooden handles, used for
+planting vine cuttings.
+
+Some advance has been made of late in cleaning the land, but foul land
+is pretty general. Squills, thistles, thorny bushes, and so forth
+abound; these are mostly deeply rooted, drought-resistant plants, and
+the labour required for uprooting them is not forthcoming.
+
+There are a fair number of reaping machines now in use, but little care
+is bestowed on them, and when slightly out of order they are often put
+aside as useless. More enlightened ideas are now prevailing, and the
+abundant crops of the last few years have created a strong desire for
+more reapers and also for threshing machines, of which there are at
+present barely half a dozen in the Island.
+
+
+_The Agricultural Department_
+
+The Agricultural Department was established on a small scale in 1896,
+under the direction of Mr. P. Gennadius. It continued much on its
+original lines until 1912, when its establishment was enlarged, and the
+Government Farm and the Veterinary Branch were attached to the
+Department, and again in 1914 it underwent a further slight extension
+which was necessarily checked by the war. There is now a staff of
+inspectors, district overseers and agricultural demonstrators who are
+occupied in continually travelling in the country, advising and giving
+practical assistance to cultivators, lecturing on village wine-making,
+poultry-keeping, bee-keeping, on the action to be taken against various
+pests and so forth.
+
+There are some eight Government Nursery Gardens in the districts from
+which large numbers of trees, plants and seeds are issued. A system of
+Model Orchards and Vineyards, newly started, is giving satisfactory
+results. These are intended to assist those engaged in the production of
+fruit and vegetables, for which an unlimited market is close at hand in
+Egypt.
+
+Seventy School Gardens are in existence throughout the Island under the
+guidance and control of the Department. By their means many young fruit
+trees and other plants and seeds are annually distributed at low rates,
+better methods of cultivation and new kinds of vegetable and fodder
+plants are being made known, and the village boys are being taught
+something about the work on which they will later depend for their
+livelihood.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+_Agricultural Implements._
+
+1, Arvalin for barley and oats. 2, Arvalin for wheat and vetches. 3,
+Shovel for winnowing. 4, Thernatchin. 5, Arkon. 6, Patourin. 7, Tsappa,
+narrow, for field use. 8, Tsappa, wide, for garden use. 9, Xinari. 10,
+Kouspos. 11, Skalistiri.]
+
+An Agricultural School for the sons of farmers was opened at Nicosia in
+1913 under the direction of the Agricultural Department. Some twenty to
+twenty-five lads between sixteen and twenty years of age, both Greeks
+and Moslems, receive a two-year course of instruction with a view to
+fitting them to cultivate their own properties later. A few of the more
+promising students have been retained as student-labourers in the
+Department, after the termination of their school course, and of
+these again a few have been given minor appointments in the Department.
+A scheme for training young Cypriots abroad, which was in abeyance
+during the war, makes it possible to give the more capable of these some
+further training in Europe in the higher branches of agriculture. It is
+hoped, by this means, to form a group of native experts from among whom
+the technical staff of the Department can be recruited.
+
+The Government Farm, Athalassa, though somewhat ill-placed for purposes
+of education and demonstration, has done good work in improving the live
+stock of the country, as evidenced at the Animal Shows held every year.
+Periodical auction sales of Athalassa stock take place in the different
+districts.
+
+During the three years 1915-18, there were reared at the Farm and
+distributed 41 cattle, 264 sheep, 8 donkeys, 332 pigs and 2 mules,
+besides a considerable head of poultry.
+
+The total value of the live and dead stock was estimated on March 31,
+1918, at £3,128.
+
+For breeding purposes there were 6 stallion horses, 8 jack donkeys, 8
+bulls and 7 boars in 1917-18 stationed either at Athalassa or at the
+stud stables which have been established in the districts. Some 30 cast
+army mares have been obtained free of cost from the Remount Department,
+Egypt, and have been lent out on contract to farmers for mule breeding.
+
+During 1917-18 the Farm produced 169 cheeses and 1,036-1/2 lb. of
+butter. In the winter of 1917-18 some 314 donums of land were under
+cultivation, the chief crops being barley, oats, wheat and gavetta
+(_Lathyrus sativus_).
+
+The Veterinary Establishment provides for 1 Veterinary Surgeon, 2 Stock
+Inspectors and 1 Veterinary Compounder. There is a good deal of endemic
+contagious disease among the flocks and herds of the Island, mainly
+anthrax and goat- and sheep-pox, and the Veterinary staff is kept busy.
+Cattle plague is unknown in the Island.
+
+Cattle breeding should become a paying industry when once the lesson of
+proper feeding and management has been learnt (hitherto sadly neglected
+by the Cypriot farmer), since Egypt provides a ready and remunerative
+market.
+
+Perhaps no work is of more importance than that of combating the
+numerous insect and other pests which every year cause heavy loss to the
+agricultural community. The addition of an Entomological Laboratory and
+the appointment of an Entomologist have enabled the Department to afford
+relief to many cultivators, and a small but active entomological staff
+are constantly engaged on various pest campaigns.
+
+The Department possesses a small but well-equipped Chemical Laboratory
+under the charge of an Agricultural Chemist. In the absence of any law,
+the Department has, in the interests of importers and agriculturists
+alike, offered its services for analysing and reporting upon samples,
+sealing bags and giving advice as to the use of the different types, and
+this action has been readily availed of. This in itself, however, is not
+enough to check malpractices or safeguard the cultivators.
+
+For the last four years the Department has had trial plots in which new
+varieties of cereals and fodder plants have been experimentally grown
+(see Plate I, fig. 2). The seed has been obtained from England, South
+Africa, India and Australia, but so far none of the varieties have been
+found in any marked degree superior to the native kinds. One or two
+varieties introduced two years ago are promising, and when fully
+acclimatised may be worth the attention of farmers. Experimental sowings
+are often made in the villages when it is desired to bring any
+particular crop to the notice of the agricultural classes.
+
+The _Cyprus Agricultural Journal_, published quarterly in English, Greek
+and Turkish, is the official organ of the Agricultural Department.
+
+
+_Fungoid Diseases and Insect Pests_
+
+The Cypriot agriculturist has to contend against the attacks of many
+species of insects and a number of fungoid pests. Little could be done
+to bring these under control until, in 1914, an Entomological Branch of
+the Agricultural Department was established. Much valuable research and
+descriptive work had been carried out by Mr. Gennadius, but no organised
+field work could be undertaken until the last three or four years.
+
+A detailed description of the numerous pests cannot here be given, but
+the more important ones are enumerated below. Happily Cyprus is one of
+the few Mediterranean countries which has not been invaded by
+Phylloxera.
+
+_Cereals._--_Æcophora temperatella_ (Limassol district only), smut and
+rust, hessian fly (occasionally), grain weevils (_Calandra granaria_),
+grain moth (_Sitotroga cerealella_).
+
+_Carobs._--_Cecidomyia ceratoniæ_, scale (_Aspidiotus ceratoniæ_)
+_Myelois ceratoniæ,_ borer (_Cossus liniperda_), _Oidium ceratoniæ_.
+
+_Olives._--_Capnodium_, scale (_Lecanium oleæ_ and _Aspidiotus oleæ_),
+aphis (_Psylla oleæ_), olive fly (_Dacus_ sp.), _Tinea oleela_ and
+various borers.
+
+_Citrus and other Fruit Trees._--Gummosis (Citrus and all stone fruits);
+scale (all); ermin moth (apples, pears and plums); downy plant louse,
+_Schizoneura lanigera_ (apples); aphides (almond, peach, plum and
+apricot); _Tingis pyri_ (pears and apples); codlin moth, _Carpocapsa
+pomonella_ (apples, pears, quinces and walnuts); peach leaf curl,
+_Exoascus deformans_ (peaches); black aphis (peaches); Mediterranean
+fruit fly, _Ceratitis capitata_ (all); mites, _Acarus_ sp. (all);
+various borers, thrips, and barkbeetle (_Scolytids_).
+
+_Vines._--_Oidium Tuckeri_, _Peronospora_, anthracnose, _Cladosporium,_
+root rot, _Zygæna ampelophaga_, thrips, _Cochylis_, _Lita solanella_.
+
+_Vegetables.--Peronospora infestans_ (potatoes), _Cladosporium_,
+_Altica_, aphides, mole crickets.
+
+Much damage is done to carobs by the large rat, _Mus Alexandrinus_.
+
+The large fruit-eating bat is a great pest. Hornets attack all kinds of
+fruits and cause much loss.
+
+The chief cotton enemies are the cotton boll worm (_Earias insulana_),
+aphides and _Capnodium_.
+
+Locusts are no longer the formidable plague they were in the eighties.
+They are limited almost to the Famagusta district, where they annually
+breed and do a certain amount of damage to early cotton and to vegetable
+crops. If not vigilantly kept under control they would quickly multiply
+and become a serious danger.
+
+
+
+
+III. LIVE STOCK
+
+
+_Cattle_
+
+The cattle of the country have been bred, until the last two or three
+years, exclusively for draught purposes. Cattle breeding as a business
+is unknown. Farmers, as a rule, aim only at raising a calf or two every
+year in order to maintain one or more yokes of oxen. Some of the draught
+animals are very fine (see Plate III, fig. 1, and Plate V, fig. 1).
+These belong mostly to the monasteries; one animal exhibited at a recent
+show measured over 17 hands. The race is presumably the result of many
+crossings with imported breeds, but has acquired a definite type. The
+cows are in colour and conformation not unlike Jerseys, but larger and
+without the udder development of that breed. The oxen have mostly a more
+or less pronounced hump, possibly acquired through many generations of
+progenitors used exclusively for draught purposes. In some of the best
+bulls this hump is particularly marked.
+
+In 1912 some Devon bulls and cows were imported and a herd of this breed
+was started at the Government Farm, Athalassa. An impetus was thus given
+to breeding dairy cows, and a number of half- and three-quarter-bred
+cows are now to be found, which command high prices for milking
+purposes. The Devon bulls, however, have never come into favour among
+farmers for raising draught cattle.
+
+There was a fair export of cattle to Egypt before the war, a good
+proportion of the animals being consigned to the Serum Institute, Cairo,
+as Cyprus cattle, alone among the cattle in this part of the Levant,
+have so far been free from plague.
+
+The number of horned cattle in 1917 is officially given as 48,761.
+
+The exports for the five years preceding the war were:
+
+  Year.  Number.  Value.
+                    £
+  1909  2,357    11,314
+  1910  4,240    20,218
+  1911  9,664    44,871
+  1912  5,751    34,303
+  1913  3,017    20,110
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.
+
+Fig. 1.--Native Bull.
+
+Fig. 2.--Native Ram.]
+
+There can be no question that if more attention were paid to growing
+fodder crops, cattle breeding could be greatly increased, and a good
+trade with Egypt might be done.
+
+The establishment of the Athalassa Stock Farm has had a most useful
+influence on the improvement of the live stock of the Island.
+
+Beef has only lately become an article of food for the country people,
+and is still so only on a small scale. The townspeople, having become
+Europeanised to a greater degree than formerly, are now becoming beef
+consumers, and the high price of beef has had a stimulating effect upon
+breeding for the butchers. Before the British occupation the killing of
+an ox for eating purposes was considered by many villagers an act of
+sacrilege.
+
+
+_Sheep_
+
+Sheep rearing is an important industry in Cyprus. The sheep are of the
+fat-tailed species and are allied, though superior to, the Afrikander
+sheep. The total number of sheep in the Island in 1917 was 255,150.
+
+They feed almost entirely by grazing, and wander, under the charge of
+shepherds, over considerable areas in search of food, frequently in
+company with goats. They are valued chiefly for their milk and meat;
+their wool, though of moderate quality, is small in quantity. (See also
+under "Dairy Produce," p. 23.)
+
+Large numbers of sheep are killed annually for local consumption, and
+there is a regular export to Egypt, as shown by the following pre-war
+figures:
+
+  Year.      Number.   Value.
+                         £
+  1904       13,923   10,544
+  1905        8,816    7,572
+  1906        5,427    5,470
+  1907        2,859    2,699
+  1908          849      835
+  1909          976      716
+  1910        3,905    3,064
+  1911       18,143   12,311
+  1912       17,611   13,731
+  1913        7,920    6,724
+
+Sheep-folding is practically unknown, and no crops are specially grown
+as food for sheep. Occasionally they may get a little rovi (vetch), rovi
+straw, lentil straw, favetta, pea-haulm or (in the hills) mavrachero
+(tares). They suffer in years of drought, but on the whole thrive
+wonderfully well on very scanty pasturage.
+
+Good work has been done of late years in the improvement of Cyprus sheep
+at the Government Athalassa Farm, and ewes and rams from the farm flock
+are much sought after by sheep-owners, many of whom are making efforts
+to ameliorate the breed. The question of providing suitable forage also
+is not being lost sight of.
+
+
+_Goats_
+
+The goat has been a cause of much controversy for many years and a
+source of discord between farmer and shepherd. Owing to the absence of
+farm boundaries the herds of goats (and sheep) continually trespass on
+the cultivated areas, and the shepherds are at little pains to restrain
+them when there is a chance of the animals getting a good meal. Large
+sums in the aggregate are paid by way of fines and damages, but the
+shepherds evidently find that even so it is profitable to continue such
+practices.
+
+In consequence of the serious harm done every year in the State forests
+by these animals, a law "For the gradual exclusion of goats from the
+Island" was passed in 1913 and came into operation on August 1 that
+year.
+
+As the subjoined table shows, the number of goats has decreased, but it
+is doubtful how far this is due to the law, and how far to the losses
+from goat-pox, which is very prevalent, and to the shipments for
+military purposes during the war:
+
+  Year.                            Head.
+  1880                             210,736
+  1890                             237,475
+  1900                             243,397
+  1910                             276,794
+  1913 (when the law was passed)   242,524
+  1918                             191,017
+
+The goat is in many respects well suited to the Island, and provides the
+villager with milk, cheese, meat, boots and manure. The animals cost
+very little to keep--even apart from their depredations--and thrive,
+especially in the hills, under conditions unsuited to sheep and cattle.
+They are, however, great enemies to agriculture and forestry, and if
+they are to be preserved in the Island, it is essential that both they
+and the shepherds be brought under strict control.
+
+In Cyprus most of the goats have very short hair, which cannot be shorn.
+From this fact, and from the external shape of the animal, one may infer
+that it is either a variety of the Anatolian breed modified by local
+influences, or a hybrid of the Numidic and Anatolian breeds (see Plate
+III, fig. 2). The Anatolian goat has long and more or less thick hair,
+especially on the shoulders, sides and thighs, which, clipped in the
+spring, yields a not insignificant income for the goat-breeder
+(Gennadius).
+
+The Cyprus goat gives on an average 150 drams of milk per day during a
+period of say 150 days, or say, 50 to 60 okes per annum.
+
+A good proportion have kids twice a year, and many give birth to twins.
+
+The price of a goat varies considerably in different districts, and
+before the war was from about 8_s._ to 20_s._ or 25_s._
+
+
+_Pigs_
+
+The Paphos district and the Karpas end of the Famagusta district are
+specially given to pig raising; but this animal is to be found fairly
+well distributed all over the Island. The native pig is of inferior
+quality, but a noticeable improvement, not only in pig breeding but in
+pig rearing, has resulted from the introduction by Government of the
+Large Black breed from England in 1907. This breed has become well
+established at the Government Farm, Athalassa, and the progeny is now
+well spread over the Island. The improvement resulting from crossing
+with Government stock has been so unmistakable that there is now great
+competition for them at all auction sales and high prices are given.
+This increase in outlay on the part of farmers has led to greater care
+in the feeding and management. They find that well-bred pigs come more
+quickly to maturity, and that it pays to feed them well and not leave
+them to forage for themselves as formerly. Excellent pork and bacon are
+now procurable during the winter, and it may be hoped that pig breeding
+in Cyprus has a good future before it.
+
+The number of pigs counted in the spring of 1914 was 38,850, the third
+highest number on record. Since then, owing to the prohibition of
+export, breeding has been checked and the number declined, but now it
+appears to be again on the upward grade.
+
+Before the war there was an average annual export of about 2,000
+animals; but there is now a better local market than formerly.
+
+
+_Camels_
+
+Camels are still used to a fair extent, and the breed is good, but owing
+to the improvement in the roads and increased facilities for more rapid
+transport, these animals are less in demand than formerly.
+
+
+_Horses_
+
+The native breed of horse is best seen in the Paphos pony, which though
+small, about 13 hands, is remarkably strong and hardy (see Plate IV,
+fig. 1). It is said that some eighty years or so ago the breed was
+improved by the introduction of two Arab stallions from Turkey. A useful
+stamp of pony mare is also to be found in the Karpas. A marked
+improvement in the quality of the local horses took place from the
+importation, some years ago, of English pony stallions; and more
+recently a further advance has resulted from the addition to the
+Government stud of the two famous English thoroughbred stallions
+"Téméraire," by Greyleg out of Tereska by Isonomy out of Violetta by
+Hermit, and "Huckle-my-buff," by Isinglass out of Snip by Donovan out of
+Isabel (dam of St. Frusquin).
+
+
+_Donkeys_
+
+The Cyprian donkey at its best is a fine animal (see Plate IV, fig. 2).
+It is the common beast of burden of the villager, and is capable of
+carrying a load of from 160 to 224 lb.
+
+A large number of donkey stallions have been exported to India,
+Uganda, South Africa, Syria and Egypt from time to time, and the local
+breed has no doubt suffered owing to the best jacks having left the
+country. Although the villagers depend so much upon these animals, very
+little care is taken by them, either in the matter of breeding, feeding
+or proper management. The animals are mostly worked far too early, and
+underfed, and the majority are consequently undersized and of poor
+quality. Where good jacks are used, the progeny is generally
+satisfactory, and at shows and fairs some fine specimens are usually
+brought in. Owing to the increasing demand for jennets, the village
+breeder is inclined to put his she-donkey to a pony stallion rather than
+to a jack-donkey. The donkey mares range from 13 to 13.2 hands, with
+girth measurement of 58 in. to 60 in. and shank 6-1/2 in. They have
+great room, and are well shaped with a straight back and good quarters.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.
+
+Fig. 1.--Cyprus Pony.
+
+Fig. 2.--Cyprus Donkeys.]
+
+It has been recommended that every encouragement should be given to the
+production of good donkeys, from which the best mares could be selected
+for mating with suitable pony stallions, such as the Exmoor and Welsh
+cob, for the breeding of jennets; and at the same time an improvement in
+the jacks would naturally follow.
+
+
+_Jennets and Mules_
+
+"Owing to the excellence of the Cyprus donkeys and the poor class of
+Cyprus horses, the superiority of the 'jennet' (the result of mating the
+pony stallion with the donkey mare) is very patent over the 'mule' (the
+product of the donkey jack and the pony mare). The jennet of from 13.1
+hands to 14.1 is doubtless the most paying animal that the Cyprus
+villager or landowner can produce, and its excellence for army or
+general pack purposes cannot be surpassed in any country in the world.
+Therefore, in my opinion, it is to this class of animal that the most
+encouragement in breeding should be given. To maintain the excellence of
+the Cyprus jennet every help should be given to the breeding of big
+donkeys, so that the plentiful supply of donkey mares of from 12.3 to
+13.3 hands is available for mating with suitable imported pony
+stallions, which should be placed by the Government at the breeders'
+disposal."[2]
+
+Both jennets and mules, indiscriminately called "mularia," are largely
+used for transport purposes throughout the Island, and perform
+practically all the carting work of the country, but, as explained, the
+jennet is regarded as greatly the superior animal.
+
+
+_Poultry_
+
+The ordinary barn-door fowl is met with in Cyprus, as everywhere else.
+The local breed is a mixture of all the various races which have been
+imported by private persons for many years past. The most general types
+met with resemble the Leghorn and Ancona breeds.
+
+The Island, owing to its climate and its corn production, is admirably
+suited to the poultry industry, and a sure and profitable market in
+Egypt can always be relied on. Something has been done of late years by
+the introduction of Wyandottes, Langshans and Orpingtons which have been
+bred by the Agricultural Department.
+
+Proper poultry management among the villagers is practically unknown,
+and until regulations can be made enforceable by law for the control of
+poultry diseases and for the disposal of diseased carcases, poultry
+keepers will continue to suffer heavy losses and the industry will not
+prosper.[3] Lectures on poultry-keeping have been instituted in the
+districts by the Agricultural Department, and it is hoped that these may
+arouse some interest and lead to improvement.
+
+Given the necessary guidance and control, the industry should have a
+good future before it.
+
+Turkeys are very plentiful and, except in the hills, are seen in nearly
+every village. There are three varieties--the bronze, by far the most
+general, the white, and a dark brown kind which is not common.
+
+Ducks and geese do well at Kythrea, but elsewhere are little seen. At
+this village, however, they are largely bred.
+
+Pigeons also are fairly abundant, and as they mostly feed on a
+neighbour's corn, they are considered profitable birds to keep.
+
+
+_Preserved Meats, etc._
+
+A good deal of meat and fat is pickled, dried and smoked for consumption
+by the native population.
+
+Hams and sausages are much eaten, the latter especially in the Karpas.
+Among the various kinds of preserved meats may be specially mentioned
+that known as "apokti." This is the salted and dried flesh of the
+he-goat, which, when cooked, is much appreciated by the villagers. The
+meat is sometimes minced, and after the addition of ground origanum
+leaves and spearmint, is placed in jars and slowly cooked. It is said
+that from 3,000 to 5,000 he-goats are annually slaughtered for making
+"apokti."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: Report by Captain Goodchild, Remount Department, E.E.F.,
+when visiting Cyprus in 1916 and 1917 to purchase mules and donkeys for
+army purposes.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Legislation in this direction has been effected during the
+session of the Legislative Council just ended. (Law No. VII of 1919.)]
+
+
+
+
+IV. DAIRY PRODUCE
+
+
+_Milk_
+
+Sheep and goats' milk is principally used for cheese and butter making.
+Fresh milk of any kind is not much consumed by the native population,
+although within the last few years the more well-to-do townspeople have
+taken to drinking cows' milk, when obtainable, and it is in growing
+demand in some country parts for invalids when prescribed by the local
+doctor.
+
+The flavour of sheep and goats' milk is a good deal affected by the
+herbage or shrubs on which they feed, and thus varies according to
+locality. A characteristic odour is imparted, for instance, by the
+alnifolia oak (_Quercus alnifolia_) and the cistus, which are common in
+many parts of the Island, and the cheese and butter produced from such
+milk are in better demand in the local markets. The places in which this
+quality of milk is chiefly produced are the Paphos District, the
+neighbourhood of Kykko and Troöditissa in the Troödos mountains, and
+Akanthou to the north-east of the Island.
+
+A considerable impetus has been given to the production and consumption
+of fresh cows' milk by the establishment of a herd of Devon dairy cows
+at the Government Farm, Athalassa. Cows of Athalassa strain fetch high
+prices, as much as £80 having been given recently for a cow and several
+others have changed hands at £50 to £60.
+
+
+_Cheese_
+
+The Cypriot is a great cheese eater. The most popular and commonly made
+cheese in Cyprus is that known as Halloumi; the next in order being the
+Paphos and Akanthou cheeses, and then, in imitation of the Greek
+cheeses, the Agrafa, Kefalotyri and Kaskaval, all of which are of a hard
+kind, while there is a small production of the Greek soft cheeses Fetta
+and Telemés.
+
+There are no statistics as to production; the export figures in recent
+years as given in the official trade returns are as follows:
+
+  Year.       Quantity.   Value.
+               _Cwts._       £
+
+  1904       5,606       8,040
+  1905       4,705       7,245
+  1906       2,511       4,238
+  1907       2,200       4,559
+  1908       2,786       5,824
+  1909       2,367       4,927
+  1910       3,345       6,564
+  1911       3,647       6,624
+  1912       3,335       7,203
+  1913       3,699       9,268
+  1914       4,582      10,132
+
+_Halloumi._--This cheese, though rather insipid, is very popular, and
+forms a large part of the dietary of every household. It is easy to
+make, needs no special appliances, and is almost entirely made by the
+shepherds themselves. It is made either from sheep's milk only, or, in
+the hills where goats are numerous, from sheep and goats' milk mixed, or
+in some places from goats' milk only; especially is this so in the
+mountains where sheep are not found. The two kinds of cheese, _i.e._
+that made from sheep's milk and that from goats' milk, are easily
+distinguished, as the former is rather soft and crumbly, while the other
+is hard and separates out into flakes.
+
+This cheese as it comes from the mould is in the form of a slab called
+"kefali." This is then divided into four or more pieces.
+
+There are two kinds of halloumi: one called "mona" (single), the other
+"dipla" (double). The latter is most in demand. It differs from the
+first in being finished off by being well hand-pressed, and then doubled
+or folded over, salt and spearmint being sprinkled between the fold.
+
+"Myzithra," or, as it is more commonly called, "anari," is a soft cheese
+produced by boiling the whey, whereby all albuminoid substances not
+previously coagulated are now coagulated and rise to the surface
+together with any pieces of curd still remaining in the whey. A good
+quantity of fat is also enclosed in the coagulated mass, which is placed
+in rush moulds or in cloths and pressed so as to squeeze out the whey.
+"Anari" thus made is specially known as "bastard," and is an excellent
+soft cheese, very popular among the European residents as well as among
+the native inhabitants.
+
+A rather finer "anari" with slightly different flavour is made by adding
+5 to 10 per cent. of pure milk. This added milk is known as "prosgalo."
+
+Both kinds are dried in the sun.
+
+From "anari" is made a kind of fat used as cooking butter, by crushing
+and rubbing it between the hands in warm water. A thin paste is thus
+formed from which a fat separates, which rises to the surface, and is
+then collected.
+
+_Paphos and Akanthou Cheeses._--These are prepared in much the same way
+as "halloumi," but are made in smaller, barrel-shaped moulds, and are
+steeped longer in the whey, which produces a rind and renders them
+tougher and less liable to crack. They are well rubbed with salt. Their
+characteristic flavour is doubtless due to some extent to the milk of
+those districts, as explained above. Owing to their small size they
+become very hard.
+
+_Kefalotyri._--The best cheeses of this type are made with sheep's milk,
+which is coagulated at its natural temperature immediately after
+milking. Rennet is added so as to produce coagulation within an hour.
+The cheeses are placed in moulds, pressed and salted. They are turned
+and salted every day for a week; and this continues for two or three
+weeks, until the cheeses cannot absorb more salt.
+
+_Fetta._--The process for making this cheese is much the same as for
+Paphos cheeses, but differs in regard to temperature. It is placed in
+bags and hung up, or left in cheese cloths on the table to drain. It is
+made up in 100 or 200 dram pieces, and turned and lightly salted for
+three days; then placed in barrels filled with brine. This cheese ripens
+in a few days. It is soft, and has a sharp, pungent flavour. It is the
+first to come on the market. It is not consumed in Cyprus, but made
+entirely for the Egyptian market, where it is much liked. Being soft, it
+does not keep well, and should always be kept covered in brine. For
+these reasons it is exported in small barrels of a gross weight of 40 to
+50 okes. If care is taken in this respect, if all leaky barrels are kept
+refilled and cool storage provided, it may be preserved for a year; but
+these conditions are rarely fulfilled in Cyprus.
+
+_Telemés._--This is another soft cheese, prepared in a similar manner to
+"fetta," but it is cut into square blocks and placed not in barrels or
+vats, but in tins which, when completely filled with cheese and brine,
+are soldered down. This cheese is also made entirely for the Egyptian
+market.
+
+_Kaskaval or Kaskavalli._--This is mostly made by cheese-makers who come
+over from Greece or Turkey during the cheese-making season.
+
+The curd, after the whey is drained off, is called "phlongos," and it is
+almost always bought from the shepherds, each shepherd preparing it in
+his own way. It is transported in baskets, sometimes a good distance, to
+the cheese factory, or "kassaria," and these drawbacks, added to lack of
+cleanliness, are the cause of much cheese of inferior quality being
+produced which has no keeping properties and must be quickly consumed.
+
+Having reached a pasty condition, the cheese is placed in reed or willow
+baskets and immersed in either boiling whey or clean water and stirred
+until the whole mass is transformed into "kossimari"; it is then cut
+into pieces weighing one or two okes, and moulded by hand into a
+globular form, leaving one slight depression called the "omphalos" or
+navel. If not properly stored, this cheese soon dries and becomes rancid
+or tasteless.
+
+_Agrafa Cheese._--This is made entirely from sheep's milk. Coagulation
+should be completed in 25 to 30 minutes. The cheese remains 20 hours in
+the press. Salting lasts from 40 to 60 days, and the cheeses ripen in
+four months. If well stored, the cheese may keep for two years.
+
+
+_Butter_
+
+Butter making is carried on to only a limited extent in Cyprus, and with
+two or three exceptions is in the hands of shepherds, who use a
+primitive conical-shaped churn, something after the Danish pattern.
+Churning consists in beating up the contents of the churn with a stick,
+to the end of which is fixed a round wooden disc 6 to 10 in. in
+diameter, not unlike a piston in its action. Sheep's milk is mostly used
+and, with a modern churn, this will yield 9 to 12 per cent. of fresh
+butter. Goats' milk gives about 5 to 6 per cent. About half the above
+quantities may be obtained with the older, native churn.
+
+In the Near East (Greece, Turkey, etc.) fresh butter is not used in
+cooking, as almost all cooked food is fried and butter containing the
+least water and casein cannot serve the purpose. The pure fat must
+therefore be extracted. Two methods are applied. The best is that of
+plunging the tins containing the fresh butter into hot water which heats
+the butter and sends the fat to the surface. It is then collected and
+slightly salted. This has a good flavour and keeps well.
+
+The second method is to place the fresh butter, or the residue from the
+former process, into tin pans and boil until the water is evaporated,
+when the albuminoids solidify at the bottom of the pans. The fat which
+is then on the surface is ladled out. This is inferior in quality, and
+has a disagreeable smell imparted by the albuminoids which come in
+contact with the hot pan.
+
+
+_Xynogala or Yaourti_
+
+The former is the Greek, the latter the Turkish name for this
+preparation of sour milk. Unlike fresh butter, it forms, in season,
+part of the diet of almost every Cypriot household. It is now made in
+England and sold as "Bulgarian milk" or "yaourti." It is in the form of
+clotted cream, but if placed in a bag of fine cloth and if the whey is
+left to drain off, it forms a thick paste, and has an excellent creamy
+flavour, and is eaten in both cases either alone or, like Devonshire
+cream, with stewed fruits, etc.
+
+
+_Trachanas_
+
+This is another favourite milk preparation, being a mixture of "yaourti"
+and ground wheat made into a thick paste. This is sun-dried and makes an
+excellent soup.
+
+
+_Kaimaki or Tsippa_
+
+This much resembles Devonshire clotted cream. It is the natural cream
+formed after boiling the milk overnight and setting it in shallow pans
+to cool. If the boiled milk is poured into the pans from a height, so as
+to make a foam, a better result is obtained.
+
+
+
+
+V. CROPS AND OTHER PRODUCE OF THE LAND
+
+
+CEREALS
+
+The Messaoria plain is the principal corn-producing area of the island.
+Wheat, barley and oats are the chief cereals grown, and they are sown
+more or less throughout the whole of Cyprus, nearly up to the summit of
+Troödos, to an altitude of about 4,500 ft. Indian corn has been
+cultivated for ten years or so, and is becoming more general both for
+green food and for seed, and rye has begun to make its appearance during
+the last few years. Dari is becoming more known.
+
+The preparation of the land for cereals is as follows: About the middle
+of January, when the land is soaked with rain, the fallow field ([Greek:
+neasma] or [Greek: neatos]) is broken up, and in some cases sown with a
+green fallow, and in March or April it is cross ploughed ([Greek:
+dibolo]). If the autumn rains are early, the field is ploughed for a
+third time ([Greek: anakomma]), after which the crop is sown; but if the
+rains are late, the sowing is done on fields which have been cross
+ploughed only. As a rule sowing begins after the autumn rains, and may
+go on until January. But if rain does not come before the end of
+October, many sow before the rain; and in many places farmers sow
+regularly before, _i.e._ without waiting for the autumn rains. This
+sowing is called [Greek: xerobola]. Lands flooded by a river or other
+running water are called [Greek: potima] (_Handbook of Cyprus_, p. 154).
+The sowing is done broadcast; the drill is not used.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V.
+
+Fig. 1.--Carting Corn.
+
+Fig. 2.--Threshing Corn with Native Threshing Board.]
+
+Often, owing to want of sufficient hands and shortness of time or other
+reasons, land which has been fallowed is sown without being first
+ploughed up. This is called [Greek: eis to prosôpon], _i.e._ on the
+surface, or face of the field. Again, a field which has had a corn crop
+is sown the next autumn without ploughing; and this is locally called
+"on the stubble."
+
+It is not uncommon for the same land to be sown year after year with a
+corn crop, with no rotation. This is especially the case with the deep
+soils in the plains, known as "kambos," as contrasted with the shallow,
+rocky soils called "trachonas."
+
+At the time of harvest numbers of labourers, men and women, usually
+arrive from Anatolia and Syria and find employment in the fields.
+
+The threshing-floors are practically identical with those of Biblical
+times. They are frequently paved with flag-stones, but as often as not
+are merely levelled pieces of ground. On these the sheaves are opened
+and spread out for the threshing. The threshing-board ([Greek: doukani]
+or [Greek: doukanais]) is that referred to by Virgil as _tribulum_
+(Georg. Bk. 1) and is merely a stout board, studded on the underside
+with sharp flint stones (see Plate V, fig. 2). This is drawn round and
+round over the spread-out sheaves by mules, donkeys or oxen, and affords
+a pastime to old and young during the summer months. During the process
+the grain is separated from the straw, and the latter is bruised and
+partly shredded, and it is the rooted belief of the Cypriot farmer that
+only in that condition will it be relished by and benefit the animals
+which feed on it. The straw is then gradually cleared away and the grain
+is winnowed by being thrown up in the wind with wooden shovels. The
+grain is then heaped up and left until measured by the tithe official.
+With the grain is also collected the sweepings of the threshing-floor,
+and the percentage of the foreign substances mixed with the grain varies
+from 5 to 15 per cent. There are a few winnowing machines and it is
+hoped that they will come into more general use as soon as they can be
+imported.
+
+At Athalassa all cereal crops are reaped and threshed by machinery.
+
+A good many reaping machines were imported by the Agricultural
+Department some years ago for resale to the farmers, and there is a very
+fair demand. This procedure has not been permitted for some years, and
+the work fell into the hands of an English merchant who has succeeded in
+placing a few machines every year. The country is ready to employ these
+and other agricultural machines, but the farmers need guidance in the
+choice of a machine and are reluctant to place orders through native
+merchants, who may not know the best types to supply and whose profits
+they fear to be exorbitant. If they could procure these through the
+medium of the Agricultural Department they would be encouraged to make
+considerable purchases. The loss of grain on the "aloni" alone may be
+gauged by the current opinion that each pair of oxen consumes, while
+threshing, one kilé of grain per day. Much damage is often caused by hot
+westerly winds at the time when the grain is just forming.
+
+In the absence of any law to prevent the adulteration of cereals,
+dishonest practices are very frequent. A common method of adulteration
+is to mix with the grain the joints of the straw which are cut during
+the process of threshing and separated when winnowing. These are often
+sprayed with water in order to increase both bulk and weight. The
+moisture is absorbed by the grain, which thereby swells and is made to
+look bigger.
+
+Under the Seed Corn Law of 1898 the Government make advances of seed
+wheat, barley, oats and vetches to cultivators under an agreement to
+repay in kind after harvest a quantity of grain equivalent to the amount
+of seed so advanced, together with an addition of one-fourth of the
+quantity so advanced, by way of interest.
+
+This benefit is very generally availed of by smaller cultivators. It has
+not, however, been found possible for Government to keep separately the
+various kinds and qualities of tithe corn, from which these advances are
+made, and farmers frequently complain that the seed, so issued
+promiscuously, is unsuitable to the land, aspect, or special conditions
+on individual farms. Weevilled grain also is a source of trouble, and
+farmers obtaining such seed advances must be prepared to run risk of
+failure from this cause.
+
+It is a well-known fact that cultivators often sell their seed corn so
+advanced them, in order to buy some other corn known to them as more
+suited to their land, and they are often justified, perhaps, in so
+doing.
+
+The issues are made by District Commissioners to selected applicants who
+are believed to be unable to buy seed for cash. The average annual
+issues, for the last five years, have been: wheat, 38,013 kilés; barley,
+31,479 kilés.
+
+
+_Wheat_
+
+In ancient times, when the population numbered about 1,100,000, the
+Island was said to be self-supporting in the matter of wheat. Taking the
+annual consumption of wheat per head of population at 8 bushels
+(Gennadius's _Report on the Agriculture of Cyprus_, Part I, p. 8) and
+after making an allowance for seed, the annual production would then
+have been about 10,000,000 bushels. From British Consular Reports it
+appears that in 1863 the average produce was reckoned at 640,000
+bushels. The average annual production of wheat for the ten years ended
+1913, as shown in Blue Book Returns, was 2,292,827 kilés. For later
+years the figures are:
+
+  Year.              Kilés.
+
+  1914             1,924,336
+  1915             1,761,501
+  1916             1,524,484
+  1917             1,782,800
+  1918             2,424,570
+
+Wheat is sown at the rate of 1 kilé per donum. The average yield per
+donum is 6 to 10 kilés, and varies between 3 to 4 kilés on dry land in a
+poor year, to 16 to 20 on the best lands in a good year. When rains are
+very late and spring weather is unfavourable, a farmer often fails to
+recover even the seed.
+
+Much might be done to increase the yield by better methods of husbandry,
+by the use of improved implements for cultivating and reaping, and by
+the use of threshing machines. An immense quantity of grain is consumed
+by birds (larks, sparrows, doves, etc.), which at times literally strip
+the fields and continue their depredations on the threshing-floors.
+
+Wheat is sown from October to December; a field which has had a winter
+crop is pastured after the harvest until January; in January and
+February it is broken up and cross ploughed and sown immediately after
+with a spring or summer crop.
+
+The crop is cut about May-June. It is cut with a sickle ([Greek:
+drepani]), tied into sheaves, and carried on donkeys or small carts to
+the threshing-floors. The sickle is larger than the European one, and is
+often provided with bells ("koudounia" or "sousounaria") to frighten the
+snakes, and the handles are ornamented with leather tassels.
+
+Several varieties of wheat are grown in the Island, mostly of the hard
+kinds, these being preferred by millers.
+
+The following English varieties have been imported and tried during the
+last four years: Improved Treasure, White Stand Up, and Improved Red
+Fife. The two former failed, being too late in maturing; the latter is
+still under trial, but it is not very attractive, being a late variety,
+and it gives a smaller yield than the native kinds. The same remarks
+apply to several wheats obtained from India and South Africa and which
+are still under trial.
+
+
+_Barley_
+
+This crop is sown about the same time as wheat, if anything slightly
+earlier; and it is ready for the sickle three or four weeks before
+wheat. When the straw is short the plant is uprooted, not cut.
+
+It is sown at the rate of 1 to 1-1/2 kilés to the donum, and may be
+expected to yield from 10 to 15 kilés; but 30 kilés is not uncommon in
+the plains, and even much larger yields have been recorded from time to
+time.
+
+There are three native varieties, viz. the common 4-row, the ordinary
+6-row and the Paphos 6-row barley, also grown around Davlos in the
+north-east of the Island. The last-named is heavier than the two former
+kinds. Little success has attended the introduction by the Agricultural
+Department of "Prize Prolific," "Gold Thorpe" and "Chevalier," which
+have been experimentally grown for the last three years. They mature
+late and have not resisted severe drought. Their yield is small compared
+with native barleys, although this may improve when they are fully
+acclimatised.
+
+Barley is the staple food for all kinds of animals, pigs and poultry in
+Cyprus, and it is often used for bread-making in years of wheat
+shortage.
+
+The tithe is mainly exported to England, where it has a good name for
+malting purposes, especially that produced in the Paphos district. It
+has failed to attain the place it deserves on the English market owing
+to the high percentage of dirt, etc., it mostly contains.
+
+A sample of Cyprus barley examined at the Imperial Institute in 1914
+proved to be of good malting quality, and similar material if marketed
+in commercial quantities would be readily saleable in the United Kingdom
+(see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xii. 1914, p. 552).
+
+A sample of naked or skinless barley from Cyprus has also been reported
+on by the Imperial Institute. This type of barley cannot be employed for
+malting for ordinary brewing purposes, but it was considered that the
+Cyprus material might be used by distillers (who only require a
+partially malted barley), and in any case the sample would rank as a
+good class feeding barley (_ibid._ vol. xiv, 1916, p. 159).
+
+The average annual production of barley, as shown by the Blue Book
+returns, for the ten years ended 1913 was 2,449,285 kilés. For later
+years the figures are:
+
+  Year.  Kilés.
+
+  1914      1,957,944
+  1915      1,912,316
+  1916      1,953,628
+  1917      2,508,880
+  1918      3,080,710
+
+These figures should be contrasted with British consular estimated
+average in the sixties of 960,000 bushels.
+
+
+_Oats_
+
+In Cyprus, oats are used on a far smaller scale than barley as food for
+cattle, and they are unknown, except to a few townsfolk, as a food for
+human beings.
+
+The cultivation of this crop is restricted, partly because it ripens
+late and needs late rains, and partly because it sheds its ripe grain
+too quickly for the ordinary easy-going farmer, who frequently finds his
+next year's crop smothered with self-sown oats. It is also commonly held
+that the crop exhausts the soil.
+
+There are two native varieties, both white. The one is grown much more
+than the other, called "anoyira," which, although incomparably superior,
+is little cultivated outside the Limassol district.
+
+The seed is sown at the rate of 2 to 2-1/2 kilés to the donum, and a
+yield of from 20 to 30 kilés is obtained. The average annual production
+for the ten years ended 1913, as shown by Blue Book returns, was 394,695
+kilés. For later years the figures are:
+
+  Year.      Kilés.
+  1914      404,917
+  1915      378,724
+  1916      446,469
+  1917      306,010
+  1918      313,260
+
+Besides "Black Tartar," which has been regularly grown at Athalassa for
+several years, the Agricultural Department has introduced of late years
+"Black Cluster," "White Cluster" and "Supreme." All these ripen late and
+need late rains, and they have not given any promise of success. A black
+variety imported from Greece some years ago has proved much superior to
+the two native varieties, but its cultivation is still limited.
+
+Reports on oats from Cyprus and on oat, straw and kyko oat plant (_Avena
+sativa_ var. _obtusata_) are given in the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL
+INSTITUTE (vol. xv. 1917, pp. 308-10).
+
+
+_Rye_
+
+Rye has only lately been introduced by the Agricultural Department, but
+already its cultivation, though very small, is extending. The dark
+colour of the rye loaf creates some prejudice against it, but its value
+in cases of diabetes, a common complaint in Cyprus, is greatly in its
+favour.
+
+The seed is sown and cultivated here in the same manner as wheat, but at
+the same time or even earlier than barley. It is harvested by being cut
+and is threshed on the threshing-floor. The straw is fed to animals, but
+when threshing machines become more general the long straw will become
+available for other purposes than cattle food, _e.g._ in the manufacture
+of the native saddles ("stratura"), native straw trays and native straw
+hats.
+
+Rye is also grown for green food, in the same way as barley grass.
+
+
+_Maize_ (_Indian Corn_)
+
+This crop was first introduced by the Agricultural Department in 1902.
+Its cultivation is governed by the water-supply. It is grown mostly for
+green food, and is met with very generally throughout the Island, being
+sown among the growing crops, _e.g._ louvi, sesame, cotton, etc., as a
+wind-break or to afford shade. There was a good demand for the grain for
+grinding during the war and the meal is found to be a useful ingredient
+in the ordinary loaf. The stems and leaves provide a welcome change of
+food for cattle when exhausted from threshing and during the dry season
+of the year. At the Government Farm at Athalassa the stems and leaves
+are made into ensilage.
+
+
+_Dari or Millet_ (_Sorghum vulgare_)
+
+This crop is little grown, and is mostly found in the Messaria and also
+at Paleochori, almost exclusively in places irrigated by river floods.
+The grain is used for making flour and the fresh stalks are fed to
+cattle.
+
+
+FRUITS
+
+Cyprus produces a considerable variety of fruits, the chief ones
+exported being raisins, pomegranates, oranges and lemons, and grapes.
+There is a considerable and expanding export trade in the fruits
+enumerated, as shown by Blue Book returns as under:
+
+  Year.    £.
+
+  1904  29,706
+  1905  29,265
+  1906  41,716
+  1907  36,009
+  1908  35,027
+  1909  29,890
+  1910  52,267
+  1911  57,393
+  1912  59,887
+  1913  69,097
+
+The pomegranate of Famagusta is famous, and the annual export of this
+fruit alone during the five years ended 1913 averaged £14,682.
+
+Among the mountain villages apples, pears, and plums are extensively
+grown; the latter specially being in good demand in Egypt.
+
+Apricots and kaisha trees are grown generally throughout the Island, and
+their fruits are particularly good and plentiful. The last-named is a
+delicious variety with a delicate flavour and externally somewhat
+resembles the nectarine. Peaches are mostly grafted on almond stocks, as
+these are hardy and good drought-resisters, but there are a fair number
+of European varieties. Almond trees abound in all parts and do extremely
+well if properly cultivated. Other fairly common fruit trees are the
+quince and loquat, or Japanese medlar.
+
+For several years choice kinds of fruit trees have been imported from
+England, and many thousands of trees of different kinds throughout the
+Island have been grafted and are now beginning to produce fruit of
+excellent quality. Good work has been done by the Perapedhi Wine
+Association, whose garden has been a centre for the dissemination of
+choice grafts.
+
+Unhappily the village growers have been very reluctant to apply proper
+cultivation or to carry out advice in treating their trees, which have
+become the hosts of all kinds of diseases and insect pests. A better
+spirit is now being shown in this direction.
+
+
+_Vines and Wines_
+
+Writing in 1896, Gennadius described the industry and perseverance of
+the peasants, who with most imperfect implements, by breaking up the
+hard rock and building up the scanty soil, formed vineyards on the steep
+mountain sides, and often up to their very summits. These vineyards, he
+says, having been mostly planted in haste in the happy days of the
+demand for wines (when French vineyards were destroyed by phylloxera),
+were formed by the personal labour of the peasant eked out by the help
+of loans. Since then the wine trade has passed through critical times
+and prices have often been greatly depreciated. The small vine-growers,
+who are also for the most part wine-producers, fell on evil times and
+became heavily indebted. They have remained so until the last year or
+two, when, owing to the large demand and the high prices of wines in
+Egypt, they have been able to free themselves.
+
+Gennadius regarded the cultivation of the vine in Cyprus as indisputably
+unprofitable, and was in favour of checking its extension, and even
+advocated the imposition of a special tax on new plantations. At the
+time he wrote there was an overproduction, and the value of wine had
+greatly fallen, and the revenue which Cypriot wine-makers could gain
+therefrom would hardly suffice to cover the expenses of its transport to
+the market, the annual interest on their debts, and the taxes they had
+to meet.
+
+The village-made wine is usually clarified by means of gypsum. It is
+carried down from the mountain villages in goat-skins (askos or ashia)
+on pack animals, and then sold to the Limassol merchants, who ship the
+greater part to Egypt.
+
+The production of wine as carried out in Cyprus leaves much to be
+desired. M. Mouillefert, who visited Cyprus in 1892 to report on the
+wine industry, says: "The vintage is often gathered too late.
+Insufficient care is given to the picking of the grapes and diseased,
+rotten, mildewy or unripe grapes are often used which detract from the
+quality of the wine.
+
+"The grapes are trodden and the fermentation takes place in jars and
+chatties of porous earth, of a capacity of 2 or 3 hectolitres, which are
+tarred inside to counteract their porosity. The houses in which the
+fermentation takes place are of almost the same temperature as the
+surrounding air, with the result that in the warmer parts of the Island
+fermentation at first is generally rapid or disturbed, and the
+temperature of the must becomes excessive. In the colder parts, on the
+contrary, the opposite takes place and the resulting wine is rough and
+sharp. The use of gypsum as a preservative is unfortunately very common.
+The tarring of the goat-skins and jars imparts a flavour which is very
+unsuited to the European taste."
+
+M. Mouillefert made the following recommendations: "Tarred jars for
+fermentation should be replaced by wooden vats, or, in the warmer parts
+of the Island, by tuns similar to those used throughout the South of
+France and in Algeria. Presses less primitive than those in use should
+be employed since these leave in the lees a very large quantity of wine.
+The wine when drawn off from the lees should be kept in tuns or in small
+wooden casks." "In short," he says, "to speak quite plainly, no good
+wine destined for ordinary consumption can be obtained with jars."
+
+Some twenty years ago an English Wine Company was established at
+Perapedhi and, until the war, carried on a successful trade and produced
+some good wines manufactured on modern lines. The factory was well
+equipped with up-to-date plant, and its wine of port type was especially
+popular. It was throughout the greater part of this time owned by the
+firm of W. H. Chaplin & Co., London, but since the war it has been
+closed down. The excellent brandy of Messrs. Hadji Pavlo & Co. has found
+for some time a steady market in England, and there are other
+well-equipped wine and spirit factories at Limassol, notably those of
+the Limassol Wine & Spirit Co., Ltd., of Mr. M. Michaelides and of Mr.
+N. Joannides.
+
+The firm of Messrs. Hadji Pavlo & Co. has carried out since 1872 the
+manufacture of spirits, and for twenty-five years they have been engaged
+in producing their "Zanatzin" brand of wines. Their V.O. cognac and
+three-star brandy are both excellent.
+
+Various liqueurs, made from local products, aniseed, kernels of apricots
+and other stone fruit, etc., are made by this and other firms, and sold
+under the name "Zucki."
+
+The principal wines, spirits, liqueurs and other alcoholic liquors
+produced are:
+
+The ordinary black wine of the country, or "krasi."
+
+The ordinary white wine of the country, or "asprokrasi."
+
+Commandaria.
+
+Brandy. First and second quality sold in barrels; one-star, two-star,
+three-star and V.O. sold in bottles.
+
+Mastic, sold in four qualities; Zucki, sold in two qualities.
+
+Rum and Amer Pigon.
+
+Alcohol. 95 C. and 36 C.
+
+Various spirits, liqueurs and syrups: whisky, vermuth, amathus, banana,
+mentha, mandarini, triantaphyllo, kitro, pergamotto, vanilla, violetta,
+anana, benedictine.
+
+Eau de Cologne.
+
+Commandaria is one of the oldest and most famous sweet dessert wines. It
+is held indeed to have been the "nectar of the gods." In the time of the
+Knights Templar it acquired great fame. Existing stocks are annually
+added to, the original vintage having in some cases a great age, so much
+so that, through evaporation, the wine becomes a syrup or pulp, which
+imparts a bouquet to the fresh commandaria which is added to it. In
+making commandaria the grapes are left on the vines until overripe and,
+after picking, are spread out in the sun for further evaporation, when
+they undergo the usual process of wine-making. In this way a sweet wine,
+rich in sugar and alcohol, and having a characteristic flavour, is
+produced. A limited quantity only is made every year, and of this a
+certain quantity is exported and fetches a high price, as a speciality,
+in England and on the Continent.
+
+A red mastic is made at the Kykko Monastery which has acquired local
+fame.
+
+The situation at the present time is generally improved, and although
+Cyprus wines can never form more than an insignificant proportion of the
+world's supply, and could not create any special market without
+considerable change of system and large expenditure in advertising, they
+may yet, by simple improved methods, by means of co-operative storage
+and the application of sound elementary principles, be able to secure a
+more recognised position and a remunerative, though perhaps limited,
+demand, at any rate for some of the special brands.
+
+For the benefit of village producers practical lectures, with the help
+of special apparatus, are now being given in the wine villages during
+the vintage season, by officials of the Agricultural Department.
+
+The export of wines (including commandaria) and spirits during the ten
+years ended 1913 were of a total value of £313,920 and £55,364
+respectively. The lowest and highest figures were £20,274 in 1909 and
+£52,351 in 1911 for wines and £3,991 in 1906 and £8,187 in 1913 for
+spirits. For the last four years the exports have been:
+
+  Year.             Wines (including        Spirits.
+                    Commandaria).
+                         £                     £
+  1914                 29,405                4,396
+  1915                 38,158                5,431
+  1916                 80,165                6,865
+  1917                 78,451               22,173
+
+There is an export duty on wine at the rate of 8 paras per gallon, on
+all spirit of 20 paras per gallon and on all vinegar of 5 paras per
+gallon.
+
+Some seventeen varieties of _Vitis vinifera_ have for a long time been
+grown in Cyprus; the most largely cultivated being the following:
+
+Mavro (black). The commonest variety, medium-sized bunch, with dark,
+large, oval-shaped grapes.
+
+Xinisteri (white). Common variety, with medium-sized bunch, white
+roundish grapes, thin skin. These are suited to a rich moist soil.
+
+Voophthalmo (ox-eye). Equally common variety. Rather small bunch, with
+black, round and rather small grapes. Suited to a dry, calcareous soil.
+
+The Muscat comes next, being mostly grown at Omodhos. It is the common
+early muscatel of the East.
+
+The remaining kinds are locally known as Bastardico (bastard),
+Maratheftico or Kraseti, Morokanali or Spourta (flabby-berried), Promari
+or Glycopromo (early or early-sweet), Xantho, Axanthi or Phinikoto,
+Kouphorrhovo or Katin-parmak, Verico, Sultana, Razaki, Corinthiaki
+(currant), Malaga (Alexandria Muscatel), Rhodities. Of these, several
+are only to be found here and there in private gardens.
+
+Five years ago several thousand Sultana vines were imported by the
+Agricultural Department from Crete, and these have now become fairly
+well distributed over the Island and the produce is beginning to appear
+in the market. These dried sultanas in 1918 sold for as much as 4_s._
+per oke.
+
+Three years ago the following varieties of table vines were imported
+from England by the Agricultural Department:
+
+  Black Hamburg
+  Alicante or Black Tokay
+  Canon Hall Muscat
+  Lady Hastings
+  Royal Muscadine
+  Muscat of Alexandria
+
+These are now being acclimatised, and it is hoped gradually to
+distribute a large number of grafts.
+
+Vine cultivation covers an area of about 140,000 donums and is in the
+hands of some 15,700 vine growers.
+
+Owing to defects of planting the vines of Cyprus do not in most cases
+begin to bear fruit before the third or fourth year, while, if modern
+methods were adopted, they would bear fruit in their second year and
+attain their full growth in their fourth year.
+
+What is known as the "willow-head" system of pruning has been very
+general, with consequently poor results. Better methods have long been
+inculcated and are now being more and more adopted. Manuring is but
+rarely practised and ploughing is confined to lightly turning the
+surface soil with a wooden plough, and this not every year. On the
+higher slopes of the mountains terracing is common and necessary.
+
+Grape mildew (_Oidium Tuckeri_) is prevalent in nearly all the vine
+areas. Other diseases and pests of the vine met with are anthracnose,
+pourridié, _Septosporium Fuckelii_, cuscute, _Cochylis_, _Zygæna
+ampelophaga_ and _Pyralis_. Happily the stringent regulations which for
+many years have been in force prohibiting the importation of any kind of
+living plant have resulted in keeping the Cypriot vineyards free from
+the scourge of phylloxera.
+
+Sulphuring has become more general of late years. The Government has
+done much to bring this about, and for fifteen years or more has
+imported sufficient sulphur from Sicily, which has been placed in the
+hands of village store-keepers and sold at a fixed price by the
+Agricultural Department. This has never more than exceeded the bare cost
+and more often has been issued at half cost and in times of distress
+even gratis.
+
+The vine-owners have been stimulated by the recent high prices for wines
+to expend more time and money on this operation. The ignorant prejudice
+against the effectiveness of sulphur as a cure for grape mildew has to a
+great extent died out. False ideas of economy alone prevent its general
+use.
+
+Fresh grapes are largely consumed locally, and considerable quantities
+are exported to Egypt, as shown by the following table:
+
+  Year.     Quantity.    Value.
+
+          _Cwts._     £
+
+  1904     12,025       1,854
+  1905     8,607        1,208
+  1906     9,563        1,487
+  1907     7,399        1,161
+  1908     6,807        1,331
+  1909     7,078        1,094
+  1910     7,588        1,216
+  1911    11,597        1,865
+  1912    12,565        2,028
+  1913    10,303        1,487
+
+The average annual export of raisins for the ten years ended 1913 was
+54,007 cwts. valued at £24,190. The lowest price was 5_s._ 4_cp._ per
+cwt. in 1909 and the highest 11_s._ 4-1/2_cp._ in 1911. During the war
+the exports have been: 1914, 16,395 cwts., £7,419; 1915, 54,189 cwts.,
+£34,467; 1916, 34,361 cwts., £38,188; and 1917, 70,624 cwts., £90,040.
+The annual prices in these years were respectively 9_s._, 12_s._
+6-1/2_cp._, 22_s._ 2_cp._ and 25_s._ 4-1/2_cp._ per cwt.
+
+Up to 1905, inclusive, by far the greatest quantity of raisins had been
+shipped every year to Austria; Rumania, Turkey and Egypt coming next in
+order. Since that date Rumania has easily taken the first place, being
+followed at a distance by Austria, Turkey and Egypt. Since the war the
+bulk has been shipped for military requirements and to France, Egypt,
+Malta and England for eating and for use in confectionery, and the
+industry has grown.
+
+A marked improvement has taken place in the preparation of the raisins;
+and specially qualified officials of the Agricultural Department every
+year give practical instruction on this subject in the vine villages.
+
+
+_Citrus Fruits_
+
+Oranges and lemons are very extensively grown in Cyprus, whilst
+mandarines, citrons ("kitria") and sweet limes ("glykolemonia") are also
+found in every part of the Island. In addition, the shaddock ("phrappa")
+and the bergamot orange are cultivated in the Island.
+
+The best and most common variety of the sweet orange is the oval
+(sometimes round) Jaffa, grown everywhere, but specially at Famagusta,
+where there are numerous orange groves. Another variety of good quality
+is grown at Lefka. The trees of both varieties produce large, firm,
+thick-fleshed fruit.
+
+Bitter oranges are largely grown from seed for stock on which the better
+kinds are grafted. Many thousands of these, and also of the grafted
+plants, are annually issued from the Government Nurseries. Much loss has
+been sustained from time to time through disease, and in 1899 whole
+orange groves at Famagusta, Lefka and Kythrea were uprooted or cut right
+back. With the expansion of the Agricultural Department and a small
+qualified staff it has become possible to bring these diseases somewhat
+under control, and the orange and lemon production has much increased,
+though gummosis and scale disease still play much havoc.
+
+In the Varosha orange groves the trees are grown in light, sandy soil,
+which is banked up round the trunk. They are irrigated by means of the
+native alakati, or noria, or more often by air-motors, which in this
+locality are much in vogue.
+
+The two most common causes of failure are the persistent planting of
+trees too close together and over-watering. Growers turn a deaf ear to
+all advice aimed at changing these two bad habits. The native
+agriculturist is convinced, beyond the reach of argument, that the
+greater the number of trees on a given area the greater will be the
+profit. In a land where water is so precious the deep-rooted opinion is
+held that the more water a plant receives the better it will thrive, and
+too frequent irrigation accounts to a large extent for the widespread
+damage caused by gummosis. Until lately pruning was scarcely practised
+at all. Thanks to a system of model orchards lately instituted by the
+Agricultural Department, better methods are at last being introduced,
+and fruit-growers are able to model their practice upon the work carried
+out on the specimen trees, alongside their own, reserved by the
+Department for such demonstrations.
+
+Lemons are largely consumed by natives with their food. The produce is
+of large size, thick-skinned and juicy. Until some twelve years or so
+ago the fruit was largely sold on the trees for shipment to Russia and
+Rumania, but those markets failed, owing to the prevalence in Cyprus of
+scale disease and partly to loss through rotting in transport. The
+export of oranges and lemons has of late years been confined almost
+entirely to Egypt.
+
+
+_Fig_ (_Ficus Carica_)
+
+This tree thrives everywhere, and is particularly cultivated at Livadhia
+and Lefkara (Larnaca district), in Paphos and at the Tylliria, where the
+small, sweet, white variety, locally called "antelounika," is grown.
+There are but few true Smyrna figs, but this variety is being multiplied
+by cuttings and also by grafting. Other good kinds are the "sarilop" and
+"bardajik," of which there are a few private specimens only, and the
+"vardika" which is more or less common, particularly at Morphou. The
+Lefkara figs somewhat resemble those of Tylliria and, like the latter,
+mature naturally; they are considered very good and are divided into two
+varieties, the "malantzana" and the "kourtziatika." The figs of Ktema in
+Paphos are the common violet-coloured variety, but are larger, and are
+mostly ripened artificially.
+
+Cyprus figs are only of moderate quality, though doubtless susceptible
+of improvement. They resist drought and generally yield good crops every
+year.
+
+The native dried fig is much eaten, and is also used as an adulterant
+of, if not a substitute for, coffee, and makes a good beverage, like the
+well-known Austrian "feigen café." Dried figs are also made into a paste
+and mixed with flour to make fig pies ("sykopitæ").
+
+The method of oiling, that is, smearing with oil the orifice on the top
+of the fig while still unripe, is applied to those varieties which ripen
+slowly. It is these varieties which are especially grown in Cyprus. The
+fruit so treated is rather tasteless and insipid, but as it comes early
+to market it fetches a good price. The reason for hastening the ripening
+process by oiling is that the fruit may become ready for picking before
+sparrows and hornets get it, as they would otherwise do at that season.
+The later crop is more or less immune from their attacks, as ripe corn
+is then abundant in the field or on the threshing-floor.
+
+Figs first appear on the market in May. This early fruit is called
+"magiles" (possibly from Maios-gilia = May production). The fruit is
+produced on the wood of the preceding year, from a bud which has
+remained dormant. The next crop appears about mid-July, and then the
+fruit is called by its proper name "syka."
+
+
+_Cherries_
+
+The principal and almost the only cherry-growing village in the Island
+is Pedoulas, in the Marathassa valley. This village is about 3,600 ft.
+above the sea-level. The trees at that village do remarkably well, and
+they bring in a good revenue. They are mostly wild trees which have been
+grafted; but there are also a small number which have been raised from
+imported Malaheb seed. From time to time good kinds of young grafted
+cherry trees have been imported from England by the Agricultural
+Department and grafts from these have been freely supplied to the
+village.
+
+There are two native varieties, one ("kerasi") which is almost
+exclusively grown at Pedoulas, the other ("vysino") which is found
+fairly well distributed over the Island. The former is pale yellow and
+pink, the latter is slightly smaller and less sweet and of a darkish-red
+colour, and is used mostly in making jam and preserves, while the
+"kerasi" is more for table purposes.
+
+More grafted trees are now coming into bearing and "White-hearts" are
+now sold in the bazaar at about 12 cps. per oke. "Black-hearts" are also
+beginning to make an appearance.
+
+Efforts are being made to introduce the cherry tree to other hill
+villages, and there seems no reason why its cultivation should not
+become general in the higher parts of the Island. This fruit travels
+well and a fine market awaits it in Egypt.
+
+Owing to the prohibition of fruit exports during the war, a small
+industry has grown up for drying the "kerasi."
+
+
+_Banana_
+
+The local name of the banana is Sykiton Adam (Adam's fig), from the
+belief that Adam made an apron of the leaves.
+
+There is some hope that the cultivation of this delicious fruit may
+become more taken up in Cyprus than has hitherto been thought possible.
+Paphos has for several years had the reputation of possessing
+fruit-yielding trees of good quality. Offshoots from some of these have
+been transplanted to Larnaca, and there are now several gardens in which
+a fair quantity of fruit ripens each year. At Kyrenia and Lapithos there
+are also a good number of trees. The fruit is of a different variety
+from that of Paphos and Larnaca, the shape being longitudinally angular,
+whereas the latter kind is longitudinally round and larger.
+
+Five years ago the Agricultural Department obtained some special
+varieties from Zanzibar. These are now beginning to yield fruit, and
+offshoots are being distributed in the Island.
+
+
+_Azarol Hawthorn_
+
+This hawthorn (_Cratægus Azarolus_), known locally as "mosphilia," grows
+wild scattered about over the country. The fruit makes an excellent
+jelly. The tree is an excellent stock on which to graft the pear tree.
+
+In the higher regions another species, _C. monogyna_, is found.
+
+
+_Melons_
+
+The western end of the Messaoria plain is noted for its water-melons and
+sweet-melons. These are grown in "postania," a corruption of the Persian
+word "bustan," a garden. They are cultivated only on irrigable land. At
+Asha, where, perhaps, the best fruits are grown, the land is flooded by
+the river and no later watering, as a rule, takes place. Through a
+well-grounded fear of theft, the grower and his family live in their
+"postania" during the season of marketing. Reed shelters are erected,
+and the rolled-up beds and bedding with their white coverlets present a
+strange appearance. There is always a big local demand and a good yield
+is generally obtained from these "postania." High prices are paid for
+suitable melonland.
+
+The local names for the water-melons are "karpousia" or "paticha," and
+for the sweet-melons "piponia" or "tamboures."
+
+The cultivation of this fruit is general throughout the Island.
+
+
+_Date Palm_
+
+This tree grows promiscuously throughout the plains, produced mostly by
+accidental seeding. Very little actual sowing takes place. The best
+groves are round about Nicosia.
+
+The trunk-wood, being very hard and fibrous, is used in the construction
+of the old type of waterwheel ("alakati") and for beams in houses. It is
+also utilised as fuel in Turkish baths as it burns slowly and gives out
+great heat. Palm leaves are in demand for making various native baskets,
+specially the "zimpilia" for holding seed when sowing broadcast. Hats
+are made from them in a few villages.
+
+The native varieties of date palm are not of high quality. They are:
+"Baltchik," the fruit of which ripens on the tree; "Phountouk"
+(hazelnut); "Kourmouzou" (red); and "Saraih" (yellow). The last three
+are artificially ripened when picked, by spraying them with a mixture of
+syrup and vinegar. The "Baltchik" produces fruits suitable for fresh
+consumption. The "Phountouk" is somewhat inferior. The other two have
+large fruits which are specially suited for preserving.
+
+Two years ago the Agricultural Department imported from Sudan the
+following varieties: "Condeila," "Bertamouta" and "Barakawi." They
+suffered much on the journey and it is doubtful if more than two or
+three specimens will survive.
+
+As a rule dates ripen well in Cyprus; gathering takes place from October
+to December. The clusters must generally be covered with sacking to
+protect them from birds.
+
+
+NUTS
+
+_Hazelnuts and Cobnuts or Filberts_
+
+These nuts are collectively known in commerce as "small nuts." They are
+all, however, the produce of a species of _Corylus_, the different kinds
+being distinguished by trade names according to their country of origin
+(see an article on "Sources of Supply of Hazelnuts" in BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xiv. 1916, pp. 261-7).
+
+In Cyprus these are grown almost exclusively around a well-defined group
+of villages of the Pitsillia, notably Alona, Palæchori, Askas,
+Platanistassa, Phterikoudi, Livadhia, Agros, Alithinou, Saranti,
+Polystipos. In this locality the plantations are thickly grown and good
+yields are obtained. It is doubtful whether there are other parts of the
+Island equally well suited to this tree.
+
+Hazelnuts, besides their use for dessert purposes and in the preparation
+of various nut foods, are employed largely as a cheap substitute for
+almonds, and in years when the latter are scarce, hazelnuts are in
+especially good demand.
+
+The Cyprus nuts are outwardly of good size and appearance and are very
+attractive in the English market, but unfortunately they are usually
+picked before reaching full maturity, and consequently the kernels are
+frequently small and soon become rancid. Being gathered when unripe they
+lose greatly in weight, which means loss of money to the exporters. The
+flavour is also impaired by premature picking and on this account Cyprus
+nuts compare unfavourably in this respect with those from Spain, and
+Trebizond and other parts on the Black Sea, with which they have to
+compete. If growers would pay more attention to this point, Cyprus
+hazelnuts would, owing to their size, hold a much better place than they
+do in the English market.
+
+The export of hazelnuts is not separately recorded, but the annual
+average production is stated to be approximately 120,000 okes.
+
+
+_Walnuts_
+
+Some fine specimens of walnut trees are to be seen in the Marathassa
+valley and in the neighbourhood of Palæochori, and near mountain streams
+in several places among the slopes of the hills. These yield excellent
+fruit and are profitable to their owners, but unfortunately many trees
+have succumbed to the attacks of the Codlin moth. Special action has
+been taken during the last two years to deal with this pest. There has
+been a marked increase of late in the planting of young walnut trees.
+
+
+_Almonds_
+
+The cultivation of this tree has greatly extended of late. Its
+drought-resisting properties enable it to withstand the climate of the
+plains and on the level slopes of both ranges it grows well. There are
+several large plantations, notably at Psevdhas, Larnaca district, where
+the famous Jordan variety is found, and as the tree seems indifferent to
+soil, and thrives particularly well on the limestone which is so general
+throughout the Island, it may be hoped that it will be greatly
+multiplied. Both the soft- and the hard-shelled varieties are grown.
+Much good work has lately been done in School Gardens, under expert
+advice, in germinating the seed in damp sand. The villagers, finding the
+seedlings already to hand for planting, have been induced to plant them
+out.
+
+Almonds are used as stocks on which to graft peaches, kaishas, apricots
+and plums ("mirabelles").
+
+
+_Spanish Chestnut_
+
+Some years ago good numbers of the edible chestnut were raised at
+Pedoulas by the Agricultural Department and distributed to villagers for
+growing in the hills. It is feared that the greater part of these trees,
+through want of attention, unsuitability of soil or climate, lack of
+moisture, and especially damage by goats, have been lost, but some
+remain and well-grown young trees may be found in certain localities and
+in moderate numbers among the mountains. As soon as adequate protection
+from goats can be given, this tree might be well worth more extensive
+cultivation. It prospers well when properly cared for, but will not
+thrive in soils containing more than about 3 per cent. of lime or at an
+elevation below about 1,000 ft.
+
+The tree has been propagated almost entirely from seed, which must be as
+fresh as possible. No doubt one reason for the lack of interest hitherto
+shown in this tree by villagers is that it does not begin to fruit, as a
+rule, until about its twentieth year.
+
+
+_Pistacia_
+
+Several species of _Pistacia_ occur in Cyprus, and although they yield
+products of different kinds, it will be convenient to deal with them
+together in the present section.
+
+The pistachio nut (_Pistacia vera_), locally called "Aleppo pistachio,"
+is a native of Persia and Arabia and it was thought, until a few years
+ago, that it would not thrive in Cyprus. That is, however, a fallacy,
+which is rather confirmed by the fact that the _P. Terebinthus_ and the
+_P. Lentiscus_ are indigenous to the Island. It is considered that the
+best method of cultivation is to bud _P. vera_ on _P. Terebinthus_.
+Though they grow more slowly, these budded trees are more robust and
+better resist drought, cold and moisture. The trees should yield fruit
+in five years from the time of grafting. A fair number of these trees
+have now been distributed from the Government Nursery Gardens.
+
+This tree provides the pistachio nuts which are now imported from Syria
+and Chios.
+
+Male trees do not usually flower at the same time as female;
+consequently there has been difficulty in getting fruit with seeds, and
+recourse must in that case be had to artificial fertilisation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Palestine or turpentine tree (_P. palæstina_), local name
+"trémithos," grows in certain parts of the Island, but is seen at its
+best in the Paphos district, especially in and around the town of Ktima.
+The fruit is eaten fresh or salted and dried. It yields 10 to 15 per
+cent. of edible oil which has a certain local demand. A medium-sized
+tree may produce up to 60 to 80 okes of fruit. After crushing and
+expression, the residue together with the seed is found to be a good
+food for pigs. A small consignment of both the dried and salted fruit
+and of the residue was sold in Egypt in 1916 and realised 5 to 6 cp. per
+oke for the former, and 3_s._ to 4_s._ per kilé for the latter.
+
+By making incisions in the trunks of both the male and the female trees
+a gum or turpentine known as "Paphos tar" is obtained, which fetches as
+much as 8_s._ to 10_s._ per oke. It is used locally for chewing.
+
+This is one of the largest trees in the Island and is of handsome shape.
+It is deciduous and some fine specimens are met with.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Pistacia Lentiscus_, locally known as shinia, or shinia bush, abounds
+all along the coasts of the Island. From the seeds of this shrub an oil
+is expressed which is used for culinary purposes, particularly for
+frying fish. The oil is also in good local demand for soap making, and a
+very fair soap is produced, especially at Akanthou, in which the oil is
+the chief ingredient.
+
+The leaves of this shrub are largely used for tanning purposes and were
+at one time regularly exported to England, though in small quantities.
+The principal market for shinia leaves is Palermo. They are employed to
+no small extent for the adulteration of sumach, for which Palermo is
+also the leading market. Shinia leaves were also in demand at Lyons as a
+dyeing material for silk stuffs.
+
+There are also a few specimens of a variety of _P. Lentiscus_ (mastic
+tree) from which in the Island of Chios the famous Chios mastic is
+obtained by incisions made in the trunks of the male stocks.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The terebinth tree (_P. Terebinthus_), locally called "tremithia," is a
+bush very widely grown throughout the higher regions. It is used as a
+stock on which to graft _P. vera_. The berries are used for extraction
+of oil which has a value for culinary purposes. They are also made into
+a cake called "tremithopites." The berries are much smaller than those
+of the _P. palæstina_.
+
+
+VEGETABLES
+
+The cultivation of vegetables has considerably extended of late. Good
+market gardens have existed in and around the principal towns for many
+years, but more attention is now being paid to this industry in the
+villages, wherever water is available, and a considerable amount of
+skill is shown in production.
+
+Among the best and most generally grown vegetables are spinach,
+cauliflowers, cabbages, egg-plants, lady's fingers, leeks, artichokes,
+broad beans (also grown as a field crop), radishes, celery, beet-root,
+pumpkins, marrows, cucumbers, lettuces, tomatoes, lentils, kohl-rabi
+("kouloumbra"), kidney beans ("phasoulia"), peas, kolokas, onions and
+potatoes.
+
+There is a considerable demand in Egypt for fresh vegetables, and to
+meet this the land around the "ports" of Famagusta, Larnaca and Limassol
+has been for some years specially devoted to their cultivation. In the
+mountain valleys a continuous series of small vegetable gardens may be
+seen flanking the sides of the river-banks. The exports of vegetables to
+Egypt in recent years are given in the following table:
+
+                              Beans and      Other
+  Year.            Onions.      Peas.      Vegetables.
+                    _Cwts._       _Cwts._        _Cwts._
+  1909              6,664       1,729          49
+  1910              3,807         858          60
+  1911              5,512       2,346         122
+  1912              3,659       2,583         135
+  1913              2,854       1,670          32
+
+
+_Beans and Peas_
+
+Beans are grown for market mainly at Marathassa and Pitsillia and
+generally in the higher regions, but only to a small extent in the
+plains.
+
+Before the war there was a comparatively large importation of beans from
+Anatolia. This having stopped, local prices rose and stimulated
+production in the Island.
+
+The Cypriot is a lover of dried vegetables, and there might well be an
+extension in the cultivation of beans, similar to that which has lately
+taken place in the case of green peas. Except in one or two places,
+these were not sown by the villagers until about four years ago, but so
+valuable have they been found, especially in recent years of scarcity
+and high cost of other foodstuffs, that now whole districts are being
+devoted to their cultivation.
+
+The French or kidney bean (_Phaseolus vulgaris_) is locally known under
+the general term "louvia." This name is applied both to _Phaseolus
+vulgaris_ and to _Dolichos melanophthalmus_ (_Vigna Catjang_ var.
+_sinensis_). To distinguish the two kinds the Cypriot describes the _P.
+vulgaris_ as "louvia gliastra" (_i.e._ lustrous, owing to its shiny
+appearance), or "louvia peratica" (_i.e._ foreign), as _D.
+melanophthalmus_ was introduced and had become acclimatised some time
+before. Gennadius, however, describes the "louvia peratica" as _Dolichos
+Lablab_ or lablab bean.
+
+Both the dwarf ("koutsoulia") and the climbing ("makrya" or
+"anarichomena") varieties of _P. vulgaris_ are grown. There are two
+white kinds, the large ("adra") and the small ("psintra").
+
+Beans of various colours are grown here and there, and one spotted
+variety ("patsaloudhia") merits greater attention than it receives at
+present, both on account of its greater productiveness and for its
+excellent flavour. Two of these are stringless, but a drawback to them
+is that they discolour the water in which they are boiled.
+
+There are several newly imported kinds which are privately grown, and
+these are gradually coming into the local markets.
+
+The lubia or cow-pea (_Dolichos melanophthalmus_ = _Vigna Catjang_ var.
+_sinensis_), being a good drought-resister, is grown more or less
+throughout the Island. It is frequently sown in mixed crop with cotton,
+sesame, Indian corn, etc.
+
+Two kinds are cultivated--the larger, "lubia melissomatia" (having the
+eye like a bee), and the smaller, "lubia mavromatoudhia" (dark-eyed).
+
+The dried pods of _Phaseolus_ and _Dolichos_ are fed to animals and are
+also used for stuffing mattresses.
+
+The broad bean (_Vicia Faba_) has been grown for some years on irrigated
+land in the plains, where it takes a recognised place in the rotation.
+Its cultivation is now spreading to the higher parts.
+
+The soy bean was introduced a few years ago by the Agricultural
+Department, but has failed hitherto to attract attention. Villagers find
+it requires different cooking from what they are accustomed to, and
+local dealers are not yet prepared to deal in it. It has been found
+resistant to disease, and further efforts are being made to bring it
+into popular favour.
+
+The Ochrus vetch (_Lathyrus Ochrus_), locally known as "louvana," is a
+fairly common spring crop, being grown for the sake of the seed which
+provides a favourite Cypriot dish. The leaves are also used as a salad.
+This crop is sown in the plains in January, but in the Karpas and some
+other parts it is sown in the autumn.
+
+Chick-peas (_Cicer arietinum_), locally called "revithia," grow well and
+are cultivated to a moderate extent. Samples examined at the Imperial
+Institute proved to be of normal composition. Two firms of produce
+brokers in London stated that if quantities of about 5 tons at a time
+could be delivered in England in as good a condition as the sample they
+could be sold for human consumption and would be worth (1917) £20 to £24
+per ton c.i.f., United Kingdom ports. If of inferior quality to the
+sample they would be fit only for cattle food and fetch considerably
+less (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 307).
+
+Chick-peas when roasted are locally called "koudames" and are eaten in
+the same way as ground-nuts, which they much resemble in flavour. They
+are little, if at all, used in Cyprus as a cattle food.
+
+
+_Potatoes_
+
+The potato-growing industry in Cyprus has developed considerably in
+recent years, as will be seen from the subjoined table of exports:
+
+  Year.        Quantity.   Value.
+                _Cwts._         £
+  1909         12,586      3,105
+  1910         14,983      3,839
+  1911         36,271      8,472
+  1912         45,336     10,348
+  1913         31,310      7,003
+  1914         54,203     11,741
+  1915         82,304     28,513
+  1916        136,027     74,632
+  1917        224,453    101,120
+
+These figures, however, are a very inadequate indication of the actual
+increase of production, inasmuch as the local consumption of this
+vegetable before the war was confined almost entirely to the well-to-do
+residents in the towns, whereas now it is rapidly becoming a staple food
+of the people. This unascertainable but large local consumption must be
+added to the latest export returns in order to arrive at an estimate of
+present production.
+
+The most favoured variety was at first, and with many growers still is,
+what is known as the French potato, the original seed having been
+brought from France. Irish potatoes (locally called "pittakoura") have
+now largely displaced these, partly, no doubt, on account of the greater
+facility of obtaining the latter seed during the war.
+
+A native variety of potato, believed to have been imported by Syrian
+Arabs in the sixteenth century, is still grown on a small scale in the
+Marathassa valley. This potato has deep-set eyes and a luxuriant growth
+above ground and possesses a characteristic sweet taste.
+
+Great progress has been made within the last few years in the matter of
+cultivation, and the old practice of planting broadcast on the flat has
+given way to ridge planting at proper distances apart. The practice
+formerly was to drop the potatoes into the plough furrow. These were
+covered over by the return plough; every third furrow was sown.
+
+The Egyptian demand and the purchases made for military purposes have
+greatly stimulated production.
+
+The good prices obtained have led, particularly in the Famagusta
+district and in what are called the "red earth" villages, to much
+activity and no small outlay in the matter of water-supply and
+distribution, and in the use of chemical manures.
+
+The custom has grown up for importers to send their seed potatoes for
+planting in the higher parts of the Island. The produce therefrom is
+exchanged with growers in the plains, who send up their plain-grown
+tubers as seed to the cultivators in the hills. Merchants often
+stipulate with the hill-growers that they shall have their crop at an
+agreed, and generally a fairly high, figure. In this manner degeneration
+of the seed has been retarded; but owing to the difficulty of obtaining
+seed from outside during the war a certain amount of degeneration has
+taken place.
+
+Only one crop can be grown in the hills during the year, but in the
+plains two crops are obtained. The one is planted in January and is dug
+in May-June; the other is planted in July and dug in November. It is
+found that the tubers lifted in the summer suffer greatly from the heat,
+and heavy losses occur from rot, whether the tubers remain in the ground
+or if they are dug and stored; and it is a question whether, when these
+losses are taken into account, the summer crop is really profitable.
+
+The average yield is sometimes put at 2,000 okes per donum, but 1,600
+okes, or 2 tons, is probably a more accurate figure.
+
+
+_Kolokas_ (_Colocasia antiquorum_)
+
+This is a favourite food of the villager, but can only be grown where
+there is an ample water-supply and on heavy land that holds the water.
+It is an exhausting crop. The root only is eaten. It is sown in
+March-April and dug about October-November.
+
+
+_Onions_
+
+These are generally grown, especially in the Paphos district; Famagusta
+and Limassol following in the order named. The Paphos onions are
+supposed to have particularly good keeping qualities. Both round
+("strongyla") and long varieties ("tolmalikia") are grown; the latter
+have less fleshy scales than the former.
+
+Onions are grown either in irrigated gardens or in "livadhia," or
+low-lying lands which retain their moisture, no irrigation being needed.
+They are propagated by means of "konari" or bulblets. Lapithos in the
+Kyrenia district makes a speciality of producing these from seed and
+supplying them to the whole Island, although onions are grown for market
+only on a limited scale in that area. The method is to plant out the
+full-grown onions (locally called "mammes") and leave them to ripen
+their seed. The seed is sown in February-March, at the rate of 20-25
+okes per donum, from which some 3,000 okes of "konari" are raised. These
+are then sold for planting out in October-November-December at the rate
+of 40-50 okes per donum.
+
+Onions are grown either in rows or broadcast. The native variety has the
+outer scales of a reddish colour, but these have largely given way to
+superior imported kinds.
+
+
+FODDERS AND FEEDING STUFFS
+
+_Carob Tree_
+
+The carob (_Ceratonia siliqua_) is indigenous in Syria, and probably
+also in the northern countries of Africa, whence it presumably spread to
+certain parts of Asia Minor, to Greece, the Greek Islands and Southern
+Italy.
+
+At the time of Christ, and for some centuries later, this tree was known
+to the Greeks by the name of keronia or keratea, being the Greek for
+horns, and is given to the locust or carob bean from its supposed
+resemblance to goats' horns. It is also known in different parts of
+Cyprus under the following names; teratsia (a corruption of keratea),
+xylokeratea, kountouroudia, koutsoupia and charoupia. The last named is
+of Arabic origin (kharroub) and the same root of the word is common all
+over Europe. Moreover, the fruit varies slightly according to locality,
+and develops local characteristics which have acquired for it
+distinctive local names; thus in Kyrenia District we have templiotiké
+and kyrionitiké, in the Karpas there is the sarakine (introduced by
+Saracens?) and elsewhere the vaklitiké and komboté. This bean or pod,
+which when ripe is of a chocolate colour, contains from 6 to 10 hard
+seeds, embedded in a sweet, pithy, honey-like substance which imparts
+the flavour so much appreciated by animals.
+
+The carob tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosæ, sub-order
+Caesalpinæ, and is the only species of the genus _Ceratonia_. It is an
+evergreen, long-lived tree, growing to a height of 30 ft. and sometimes
+even to 50 and 60 ft. It thrives in most kinds of soil, especially in
+porous, marly and even volcanic soils, but not in marshy lands. Owing to
+its long tap root it resists drought well, and is to be found growing
+well in rocky land such as is common in many of the carob areas of
+Cyprus. It is very generally found intermixed with the olive tree and up
+to about the same altitude.
+
+A succession of flowers is produced from July to September or October,
+and in favourable years up to December and even later, and in
+July-August the tree bears both flowers and ripe fruit. The collection
+of the latter commences about mid-August, the exact date being annually
+fixed separately in each district by the Commissioner. This is done in
+order to prevent the fruit from being stolen.
+
+Recent investigations made by the Agricultural Department go to prove
+that the fruit-producing carob tree of Cyprus is really hermaphrodite,
+though there yet remains much room for investigation and the point is
+not finally settled. The others are true male trees. The hermaphrodite
+carob trees which form practically the whole of the fruit-producing
+trees of the Island are cleistogamous (_i.e._ self-fertilised before the
+calyx opens) and short-stamened.
+
+There are also certain trees self-produced from seed which are superior
+to the ordinary so-called wild tree. These bear fruit which is straight
+and short but more or less marketable, and these are known as
+"kountoura" (short) or "apostoliki," as though sent by chance or by
+Providence. The word "apostoliki" is applied in Cyprus to other kinds of
+trees or fruit showing similar phenomena.
+
+There are several millions of these trees in the State forests, and yet
+more privately owned. It frequently happens that, owing to the wide
+powers of testamentary disposition, a single tree passes by inheritance
+to several heirs.
+
+Many thousands of carob plants are annually raised in the Government
+gardens and issued at a trifling charge. The common method of
+propagation has been to sow the seeds in pots, and when the plant is
+from 18 in. to 2 ft. high it is ready for transplanting. The seed, which
+is very hard, is softened by placing it in a cauldron or saucepan of
+cold water. The water is then brought to the boil. On arriving at
+boiling-point the water is cooled and should then be changed and the
+seed left to steep for twenty-four hours. Owing to the long tap root,
+sowing in ordinary nursery beds has not been satisfactory, as the
+plants, which certainly make better growth than in pots, do not
+transplant well.
+
+The foregoing methods have to a great extent been superseded by that of
+germinating the seed in damp sand and sowing direct in the field in
+properly prepared holes. Little watering is needed if the holes are deep
+and the soil kept friable. A top mulch is useful to conserve the
+moisture.
+
+Transplanting from pots or beds is best done when the plants are twelve
+months old and about 12 in. high, after that it is precarious. Grafting
+may be done as soon as the stem is thick enough to take a graft, either
+before or after transplanting.
+
+The tree is liable to attack by insects and other pests. Scale
+(_Aspidiotus ceratoniæ_) is very common; but the greatest damage of late
+years has been caused by the fly _Cecidomyia ceratoniæ_, which lays its
+eggs on the flowers or newly-set fruit, and the grub feeds on the bean,
+causing it to become stunted and of no commercial value. This stunted
+condition is locally known as "brachycarpia" and has been the subject of
+careful scientific study and practical treatment by the Agricultural
+Department during the last few years. Very satisfactory results have
+been recorded from the campaigns, which have so far been limited to the
+Kyrenia District, and these have justified the extension of compulsory
+treatment to other infected areas. This and other pests, such as
+_Myelois ceratoniæ_, _Cossus liniperda_ (a lepidopterous boring insect),
+a species of _Mycetiasis_, and a small hymenopterous fly which has
+lately appeared and is now under investigation, have, no doubt, checked
+production. The attacks of _Cecidomyia_, when serious, reduce the yield
+by 80 per cent. or over, and normally may lessen it by 40 to 50 per
+cent.
+
+Much damage is also caused by rats (_Mus alexandrinus_), which gnaw the
+bark of the branches, causing them to dry up. Their destruction is
+encouraged by Government by the payment of 1 cp. per tail.
+
+Carob gathering commences about mid-August and lasts for about a month.
+The beans are knocked down with long sticks, put into sacks and brought
+into store, or heaped up in the open air, where they often remain for
+several weeks. This is a safe procedure, as there is little rainfall at
+that season, and what might fall would not harm the beans, which would
+quickly dry again.
+
+It is not easy to estimate the yield per donum of carob trees, but
+assuming that the trees were planted 30 ft. apart, and there were 16
+medium-sized trees to the donum, the yield would average somewhere about
+1,260 okes to the donum. The yield varies from year to year, a good year
+generally being followed by a moderate year. The fruit may be destroyed
+by frost in January and February, knocked off by hail-stones in March
+and April or scorched by hot winds in May or June. A full-sized,
+well-cultivated tree can give up to 720 okes. Taking good and bad years,
+the value of the annual produce of a medium-sized tree is 5_s_.
+
+Carobs are sold by the Aleppo cantar of 180 okes, and the normal price
+may be put at from 13_s._ to 17_s._ per cantar delivered into store.
+
+Carobs are weighed on export and the tithe is taken in money from
+exporters at the Customs House.
+
+The following table shows the export of carobs during the ten years
+ending 1913-14:
+
+  Year.          Quantity.     Value.
+                    _Tons._       £
+  1904-05           31,887    104,301
+  1905-06           26,187     85,105
+  1906-07           44,965    157,452
+  1907-08           42,381    151,610
+  1908-09           57,010    188,841
+  1909-10           44,059    157,972
+  1910-11           37,485    145,590
+  1911-12           51,359    182,883
+  1912-13           63,658    251,750
+  1913-14           44,989    179,027
+
+The falling-off in 1913-14 was mainly due to the losses caused by the
+fly _Cecidomyia ceratoniæ_.
+
+The fruit of the carob is exported mostly to England, but also to France
+and Egypt, and more recently, before the war, to Germany. Gaudry
+mentions that about the middle of last century it was exported to
+Russia, Sardinia and Austria. Some is used, in Egypt and the Levant
+especially, as food for the poorer classes and for making sweets and
+sherbets. Its chief use in Western Europe is as food for animals, bovine
+and equine, for which purpose it is ground up and made into either meal
+or cattle cakes. It is also said to be employed in the manufacture of
+chocolate and spirit, and there is a demand for the seed for use in the
+manufacture of certain gums.
+
+The juice of the bean, "carob honey," locally called "mavromelos,"
+"teratsomelo" or "betmezi," is consumed as a substitute for bee-honey or
+jam and also as a flavouring for culinary purposes. From the carob honey
+is also made the sweetmeat "pastelli."
+
+At one time carobs were used in Cyprus for fattening mules and other
+animals, but, unfortunately, this practice died out. Efforts are now
+being made to revive it, and the advantages of this local product are
+again becoming recognised.
+
+The carob contains some 50 per cent. of saccharine matter and the
+interesting question has been raised in recent years as to whether the
+bean might not become a new source of sugar production.
+
+
+_Lucerne_ (_Medicago sativa_)
+
+This plant was introduced about eighteen years ago, but in spite of its
+undoubted success when properly grown on suitable soil, the Cypriot
+farmer was for many years very slow to make use of it. Every effort has
+been made of late years to encourage its cultivation and during the last
+three or four years there has been a steadily increased demand for seed.
+Irrigation is necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory yield, but
+there are many farms where it might be grown with great advantage. Its
+value for cattle food is generally recognised, and now that greater
+attention is being given to dairy cattle, lucerne would seem to have an
+assured future.
+
+
+_Vetch_ (_Vicia Ervilia_)
+
+This plant, known locally as "rovi," is undoubtedly the most widely
+grown of the fodder crops. Being a leguminous plant, it has a
+restorative action on the soil, although the average Cypriot farmer
+still considers it to be exhaustive.
+
+In the plains sowing begins in January, whereas in the Pitsillia, and
+even in the Morphou, Solea and Tylliria districts which are only at the
+foothills, it is sown in October-November, _i.e._ before the cereals.
+
+Rovi is almost the only food in the form of seed given to ploughing oxen
+throughout the East. It is regarded as heat-giving and strengthening,
+and is therefore fed specially in winter. It is sometimes given
+unthreshed with the straw. It is harvested in May, when it is uprooted,
+made into little bundles, which are stacked together in small heaps in
+the field, until they turn yellow, when they are removed to the native
+threshing-floor and threshed in the customary manner. The dry stems,
+etc., are eagerly eaten by cattle and sheep. The average yield is very
+little, from 2 to 4 or 5 kilés per donum. It is subject to tithe.
+
+
+_Chickling Vetch_ (_Lathyrus sativus_)
+
+The chickling vetch, known locally as "favetta" or "chavetta," has come
+rather more into prominence of late years, displacing the vetch (_Vicia
+Ervilia_) to some extent, as it gives a heavier yield. It is subject to
+tithe.
+
+
+_Vetch_ (_Vicia sativa_)
+
+This crop, called locally "vicos," was introduced from Crete in 1913 and
+has been found excellently suited to this country. It is most useful in
+any rotation, and has to some extent supplanted rovi (_Vicia Ervilia_)
+as it gives a larger yield. It is a most nutritious cattle food, for
+which purpose it is grown. When crushed and mixed with chopped straw it
+is readily eaten by cattle and sheep. The plant seeds itself very
+freely. It is sown about November-December and is ready for harvesting
+in about April. Seed is sown at the rate of 5 to 6 okes per donum and
+the yield is normally from 8 to 12 kilés per donum. It is a good
+drought-resister and needs no irrigation, and being a leguminous plant
+should be cut and not pulled up, as the roots left in the soil serve to
+increase the amount of nitrogenous salts. Being a vetch it is subject to
+tithe.
+
+
+_Tares_ (_Vicia tenuifolia_ var. _stenophylla_)
+
+This plant, locally called "mavracheron" or "phakacheron," grows wild
+in the Pitsillia district among the vineyards and other cultivated as
+well as uncultivated lands. It is of value in those remote localities
+where grain and straw are little grown and difficult to procure, as it
+provides a wholesome fodder for cattle. The villagers have now taken to
+cultivating the plant. It is cut before the seeds are fully matured to
+prevent loss of seed through shedding. The seeds and chaff are mixed
+together when fed to cattle.
+
+
+_Milk Vetch_ (_Astragalus_)
+
+This plant, locally called "arkokoutsia," grows wild in some abundance
+among the hills. When it appears above ground it is readily eaten by
+animals, especially sheep; but at this stage it is apt to cause hoven.
+As the plant hardens the animals do not touch it, except when fully
+ripe, and then it is greedily eaten.
+
+As soon as it blossoms, but before the fruit is set, the plant is
+gathered and tied into bundles or small sheaves and stored in a heap.
+When, after a few months, it is quite dry, and at a time when other
+foods are scarce, it forms an important part of an animal's ration.
+
+The plants are sometimes allowed to mature their seeds, and these, after
+being steeped in water for two or three days to remove acidity, are
+given to pigs, and are considered a nourishing and palatable food.
+
+
+_Moha, Sulla_ (_Hedysarum_)
+
+These have been tried for some years with success and are gradually
+becoming known and experimentally grown by farmers.
+
+
+_Teosinte_ (_Reana luxurians_)
+
+This grass is one of the most valuable fodder plants with which the New
+World has enriched the Old. It is a native of Guatemala and is also
+largely grown in Australia.
+
+Seed was first imported into Cyprus by the Agricultural Department in
+1897, and since then the plant has been continuously grown in the
+Government gardens with marked success. It is sown in March-April in the
+same manner as Indian corn, to which it is allied.
+
+If irrigated, three or four cuttings may be obtained during the summer,
+yielding 25 to 30 tons of green food per scala. It is greedily eaten by
+cattle. Some plants grown by the Department attained a height of 11 ft.
+3 in. and of others which were left to ripen their seed, one had 93
+stems and weighed 26 okes, though the leaves had begun to shrivel and
+had lost weight.
+
+This plant is gradually becoming known and may be found growing on some
+of the more progressive farms.
+
+
+_Sudan-grass_
+
+Seed of this fodder grass was imported in 1915 and very satisfactory
+crops have been obtained each year since then from the experimental
+plots. The grass seems well suited to Cyprus and gives a useful yield
+even when unirrigated. Occasional irrigation produces a valuable crop.
+Trial sowings are now being made on a few private farms.
+
+
+_Teff-grass_ (_Eragrostis abyssinica_)
+
+This has also been tried experimentally with good results and it is
+hoped that its cultivation will extend as it becomes more known.
+
+
+_Mangold Wurzel_
+
+This crop has been grown for several years at the Government Farm,
+Athalassa, where it has done well and forms an important part of the
+cows' rations. It has been grown successfully on a small scale in some
+of the Nursery Gardens.
+
+As irrigation, deep ploughing, thorough cultivation of the soil and
+special cultural operations are needed, this crop cannot be generally
+recommended to farmers, but it is being grown by a few progressive stock
+owners under Departmental advice.
+
+The wild beet (_Beta vulgaris_) is a native of the seacoasts of
+South-eastern Europe, and the garden beet-root is much grown in Cyprus
+in certain localities, so, if carefully cultivated, mangold wurzel,
+which is a variety of _B. vulgaris_, might also do well in many parts
+and be of great advantage to stock owners.
+
+
+_Prickly Pear_ (_Opuntia_)
+
+The prickly pear grows wild as a hedge plant in Cyprus. The fruit is
+eaten to some extent by villagers, but no attempt has yet been made to
+use the stems as food for animals. In Sicily very large quantities are
+so utilised, and now that milch cows are coming more into demand in
+Cyprus the value of the plant for fodder may become recognised.
+Successful experiments have been made by the Agricultural Department in
+mixing the juice of the stems with lime for giving brilliance and
+permanence to ordinary whitewash. There has been an occasional export of
+the fruit to Egypt for consumption by Arabs.
+
+
+SPICES
+
+_Coriander Seed_
+
+Coriander seed is the product of _Coriandrum sativum_, Linn., an annual
+herb belonging to the natural order Umbelliferæ. The "seed," or more
+strictly fruit, of the plant is employed in confectionery in making
+bonbons, in the preparation of certain liqueurs and as an ingredient for
+disguising the taste of medicines. In Cyprus it is commonly used as a
+flavouring in cooking.
+
+A sample sent to the Imperial Institute in 1917 was examined as a source
+of volatile oil, and the residue remaining after distillation was
+analysed as a feeding-stuff. On steam distillation the ground seed
+yielded 0.48 per cent. of an almost colourless volatile oil with the
+characteristic and pleasant odour of coriander. This yield is below that
+furnished by Russian and German coriander, but is about equal to that
+obtained from Morocco seed. The results of the examination indicate
+that the residue has a fairly high feeding-value, and it would be quite
+suitable for the ordinary use of coriander residue, _i.e._ as a cattle
+food.
+
+A sample of the seeds was submitted to brokers in London, who reported
+that they were very stalky, but that their value would be from 50_s._ to
+60_s._ per cwt. (January 1917) as compared with 10_s._ to 15_s._ per
+cwt. before the war. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv.
+1917, p. 301).
+
+
+_Aniseed_
+
+Aniseed, the fruit of an umbelliferous herb (_Pimpinella Anisum_,
+Linn.), is grown on a comparatively small scale in Cyprus, the exports
+in recent years varying from 1,000 to 2,000 cwts. per annum. In 1917,
+1,015 cwts., valued at £3,164, were exported, all of which went to
+Egypt.
+
+Seed sent for examination to the Imperial Institute was reported to
+consist of aniseed in good condition and practically free from
+extraneous matter.
+
+A sample of the seed was submitted to brokers in London, who stated that
+at that time (January 1917) stocks of aniseed were quite exhausted, and
+the prices therefore much inflated, small stocks of Spanish aniseed
+having changed hands in London at 110_s._ per cwt. Such price could not
+be secured if any quantity of aniseed were placed on the market. The
+value of the Cyprus sample before the war would have been about 27_s._
+6_d._ per cwt. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917,
+p. 300).
+
+
+White Cumin Seed
+
+White cumin is also an umbelliferous herb (_Cuminum Cyminum_, Linn.); an
+account of the cultivation and uses of this and other spices is given in
+the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 131-136.
+
+A sample of the seed sent to the Imperial Institute was submitted to
+brokers in London, who stated that it was rather small and stalky, but
+that it would probably be worth between 70_s._ and 80_s._ per cwt.
+(January 1917), although they were of opinion that its pre-war value
+would not have been much over 20_s._ per cwt. (see BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 302).
+
+
+_Black Cumin Seed_
+
+These seeds, sometimes known as fennel-flower seeds, are the product of
+_Nigella sativa_, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Ranunculaceæ). The plant is an
+annual, native to the Mediterranean region, and the seeds, which are
+used in the East for flavouring curries, etc., and in Egypt as comfits
+on cakes, have an aromatic fennel-like odour when fresh and a slightly
+acrid taste. There is a small export of black cumin seed from Cyprus.
+There is, however, but little demand for this seed (see BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 304).
+
+
+ESSENTIAL OILS AND PERFUMES
+
+_Origanum Oil_
+
+Different opinions have been held as to the botanical identification of
+the plant from which the Cyprus origanum oil is produced. An interesting
+series of articles on this subject by E. M. Holmes appears in the
+_Perfumery and Essential Oil Record_, 1913, from which it would seem
+that this oil is derived from _Origanum majoranoides_, Wild.; while Dr.
+Stapf, of Kew, regards the plant as _O. dubium_, Boiss. (see BULLETIN OF
+THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 50). Other varieties growing
+wild in Cyprus are _O. Onites_, _O. hirtum_, both of which are locally
+called "rigani," _O. Bevani_ (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE,
+vol. xv. 1917, p. 305) and _O. majorana_.
+
+In its wild state the plant from which origanum oil is distilled is a
+small perennial shrub, but, if cultivated, its size may be doubled or
+even trebled. The first crop, consisting of shoots and flowers, may give
+from 300 to 500 okes per donum; in subsequent years up to 1,000-1,500
+okes per donum. The latter quantity would produce 40 to 60 okes of
+origanum oil, which is largely used in England for perfuming soap and
+other purposes.
+
+For twenty years the distillation of origanum oil has been made under
+Government control. The industry was started in 1899 and, though not
+large, has steadily grown. It has been found that the Cyprus origanum
+oil is exceptionally rich in carvacrol (over 80 per cent.), a powerful
+antiseptic, and to this substance the oil owes mainly its characteristic
+thyme-like odour. Frequent analyses have shown that the Cyprus origanum
+oil is remarkably constant in character.
+
+This oil has the slight disadvantage of darkening considerably on
+exposure to light and air, which renders it unsuitable for use in
+light-coloured soaps, but a method has been worked out at the Imperial
+Institute of refining the oil so as to yield a product which will remain
+practically colourless for long periods.
+
+A report furnished by the Imperial Institute (BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL
+INSTITUTE, vol. iv. 1906, p. 299), after giving a detailed description
+of the oil, states:
+
+"The foregoing results show that this oil sells readily in this country
+at prices which should be fairly remunerative to producers in Cyprus. It
+should, however, be borne in mind that the demand for this oil is
+somewhat limited, and that it competes with the thyme oil produced in
+France and Spain, and with the 'origanum oil' produced in Smyrna, and
+that consequently a sudden increase in production in Cyprus might lead
+to a considerable fall in price. The Cyprus oil has, however, the
+advantage that it is very rich in the odorous and antiseptic constituent
+carvacrol, and it is probably due to its richness in this constituent,
+as revealed by the analyses made at the Imperial Institute, that the
+comparatively high prices realised for these consignments were obtained
+at a time when 'red thyme oils' were selling at lower rates. It would be
+advantageous if a refined white oil could be prepared by some simple
+method from this material, as this probably would fetch an enhanced
+price, and be applicable to other purposes for which the 'red oil' is
+unsuitable."
+
+Until 1910 the distillation was made by the Department, but since then
+it has been undertaken by private contract, permission being given to
+collect the wild plant from the forest. The annual production is now
+about 2,750 lb., and the price has steadily risen from about 3_s._ per
+lb. to 8_s._ 6_d._ per lb. at the present time. But whereas the cost of
+transport to London before the war was £8 per ton, it has risen to the
+prohibitive rate of £200 per ton, and the 1917 oil still remains in
+store at Alexandria.
+
+The supply of the wild plant is limited and its cultivation is under
+consideration.
+
+The following table shows the exports of origanum _oil_ in recent years:
+
+  Year.    Quantity.
+           _lb._
+
+  1902    2,092
+  1903    No distillation
+  1904    2,410
+  1905    1,463
+  1906    2,200
+  1907    1,745
+  1908    2,051
+  1909    1,530[4]
+  1910    2,842
+  1911    2,276
+  1912    2,230
+  1913    2,455
+  1914    3,776
+  1915    3,709
+  1916    2,756
+  1917    2,696
+  1918    2,066
+
+
+
+_Marjoram Oil_
+
+This is not yet a regular product, but samples of locally produced oil
+have been examined at the Imperial Institute and pronounced to be
+superior to European marjoram oil and about equal in value to sweet
+fennel oil (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p.
+50). It is distilled from a plant which is abundant in the forests of
+Kyrenia and Paphos, and which has been referred by Dr. Stapf to _O.
+majoranoides_, Wild., and by Mr. Holmes to _O. Maru_, Linn. The market
+is, however, restricted.
+
+
+_Laurel Oil_
+
+Samples of oil distilled from the leaves of _Laurus nobilis_ which were
+examined at the Imperial Institute were found to have an aroma inferior
+to that of the oils usually met with in commerce (see BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 430). The demand for the oil is
+said to be small.
+
+
+_Otto of Roses_
+
+This has been prepared since 1897 in a very small way with native stills
+at the village of Milikouri, where the Damask rose is abundant. The
+cultivation of this rose has now spread to other hill villages. The
+closing of the market for Bulgarian otto of roses owing to the war has
+given an impetus to the industry in Cyprus. The Agricultural Department
+has for two years sent qualified officers to superintend the work at
+Milikouri and to carry out an experimental distillation.
+
+A report from the Director, Imperial Institute, upon samples of the 1917
+distillation states that "the constants of the Cyprus oil agree closely
+with those recorded for Bulgarian otto of roses." It was found that the
+odour of the Cyprus oil was fairly good, but rather weak. The otto sold
+at 70_s._ per ounce, less 2-1/2 per cent., which "in view of the very
+small quantity must be considered satisfactory." At the time of sale
+French otto was quoted at 78_s._ to 85_s._ per ounce.
+
+
+_Acacia Farnesiana_
+
+This tree is but sparsely represented in Cyprus, but wherever found it
+is vigorous and healthy. It belongs to the Mimosa tribe of the order
+Leguminosæ and, as other species are common in the Island and thrive
+remarkably well, there would seem no reason why this species also should
+not become more general.
+
+It is known elsewhere under different names; that of "sweet briar" (in
+Barbados) on account of its numerous thorns and the exquisite scent of
+its flowers, and "stinking cossie" (in Antigua) owing to the highly
+disagreeable smell of its wood. The word "cossie" may be a corruption of
+acacia.
+
+Its flowers are largely used in perfumery, and the annual crop of the
+flowers of this plant in France is stated to be worth thousands of
+francs, and a particularly delicate fragrant perfume is extracted from
+them. The pods are said to yield a fair amount of tannin, while from the
+cracks in the bark of the trunk and branches there exudes a gum very
+like the true gum arabic and is utilised for the same purpose. The wood
+makes good charcoal.
+
+It is locally known as "skouroupathos" or "skouroupathia," and is
+closely allied to the extremely common weed of that name which is found
+abundantly in nearly every field in the plains during summer, but which,
+owing to its deep-rooted system, the natives do not trouble to
+eradicate. It is also allied to _Prosopis juliflora_ or algaroba tree,
+of which there are a few specimens in the Island.
+
+
+OILS AND OIL SEEDS
+
+_Olives_
+
+The olive tree grows wild in Cyprus, but the wild fruit is small and
+bitter and yields an inferior oil. The cultivated trees are those which
+have been grafted. Owing to the stringent regulations which have
+prohibited the introduction of living plants from abroad, it has not
+been possible to obtain from elsewhere good grafts of new varieties.
+These regulations have lately been modified to allow of importations by
+the Agricultural Department under special restrictions, and now that the
+war has ended it is hoped to obtain these much-needed olive grafts.
+
+This tree thrives well, almost all over the Island, up to an altitude of
+about 2,300 ft., and numbers of vigorous wild olive trees are to be met
+with, which only need cleaning and grafting in order to bear fruit.
+
+Cyprus olives are divided into two classes, locally known as (_a_)
+"adrouppes" or "drouppes," which are eaten in the green or black stage,
+and (_b_) "ladoelies," which are suitable both for eating and for oil
+extraction.
+
+Of the former, or "adrouppes," one kind is rather large, with rough
+skin, having a rough, big stone, the other is longer but of less
+diameter, and has a very thin, smooth skin and the stone is smooth,
+curved and smaller. The latter has a better taste and resembles the
+well-known Greek olive of Calamata. Both these "adrouppes" are prepared
+for the table while still green, and are known as "kolymbates," or
+sometimes they are called "tsakkistes," owing to the stone being
+slightly crushed in the process of preparation.
+
+The "ladoelies" are of two distinct varieties, the larger of which is
+mostly regarded as an edible olive, and contains a less percentage of
+oil, while the other, or smaller kind, is richer in oil contents, and is
+mainly used for oil production, though it is sometimes eaten.
+
+A few imported varieties, including one or two specimens of Spanish and
+Greek olive trees, are to be found here and there in private gardens.
+
+If the land were manured and ploughed the trees would, especially on the
+chalky soils, yield abundant fruit and oil of excellent quality.
+Unfortunately this is not done, and it has been found very difficult to
+induce the peasants to adopt any kind of cultivation. They plough the
+land only when they intend to sow corn or other crops between the trees,
+a procedure which tends to lessen the productiveness of the trees. The
+system of irrigation applied is also very defective. Irrigation, while
+improving the quality and quantity of edible olives, is not desirable in
+the case of press olives.
+
+As to pruning, Cypriots would have none of it until within the last five
+years. By dint of patient and constant persuasion, some few of the
+larger owners were induced to let their trees be pruned by a staff of
+pruners under the direction of the Agricultural Department (see Plate
+VI). Much ridicule--and at times threats--was hurled at both the pruners
+and the tree owners, who were assured by the villagers that for their
+folly they would undoubtedly lose their trees. The results belied all
+these fears, and now within the space of some four to five years the
+practice of pruning has become fairly general, and a good number of
+villagers have qualified themselves as expert pruners and are kept
+regularly employed by private persons. As a consequence of this a great
+amelioration is noticeable in the olive trees in many parts and the
+yield and quality of olives have been improved.
+
+The method of gathering olives by beating, however, continues. The fruit
+so knocked to the ground becomes dirty and bruised, and quickly
+ferments, when stored, to the detriment of the oil. This mode of
+gathering by beating damages the young twigs and branches, whose bearing
+capacity the following year is thus impaired.
+
+Little care is taken in selecting the olives for oil. Not only are they
+dirty and bruised, but unripe or diseased fruit, as well as overripe
+fruit that has fallen from the tree, is collected together
+indiscriminately.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.
+
+Pruned Olive-trees at Metochi of Kykos.]
+
+The usual practice is to spread out the olives as received, and
+unsalted, on the mud roofs of houses in order to give off a part of
+their water before grinding.
+
+The procedure is then as follows:
+
+They are first of all taken to the crusher or grinding mill. This
+consists not of two stones, as in Greece, but of one stone, drawn by
+pony, mule or donkey.
+
+For the first quality of oil the olive stones should not be broken, but
+generally speaking, insufficient care is paid to this and the stones
+are, for the most part, crushed. The crushed olives (zimari, paste) are
+then removed to the press, which is worked by hand, with one exception
+of an hydraulic press at Akanthou. At this village, where the best olive
+oil is produced, the olives are brought direct from the trees to the
+mill, whereas elsewhere the practice is to leave them in a heap to
+ferment and they often become foul and covered with dust and dirt.
+
+In pressing with wooden presses, the zimari or crushed olives are placed
+in round bags made of plaited rushes. Seven to ten of these are placed
+one on top of another in the press and the oil obtained is virgin oil
+(huile vierge).
+
+The bags are then removed and squeezed so as to change the position of
+the contents. They are then replaced in the press and hot water is
+poured into each bag. The oil obtained is of second quality. A third
+pressing is sometimes given.
+
+The yield is calculated at the rate of 1 oke of oil to 4 okes of olives.
+
+In the Paphos district is produced a black oil with a very distinct
+flavour. This is due to the custom of boiling the olives before
+grinding. The demand for this inferior oil is confined to that district.
+
+In former days it was usual for the mills and presses to be worked in
+the open. This is now rarely the case, but may still be occasionally
+seen in parts of the Paphos district and elsewhere.
+
+Whether outdoors or indoors these mills and presses are soon allowed to
+become very unclean, and the rancid flavour which clings to the wood is
+quickly imparted to the oil, which possesses, for any but Cypriots, a
+strong and unpleasant smell and flavour. There is a considerable
+residue or waste, which, if it could be utilised, would go far to meet
+the deficiency in the requirements for local consumption.
+
+There are a few good iron presses now in use. Their superiority is
+generally recognised and, no doubt, now that the war is over, they will
+be imported in greater numbers.
+
+Small inexpensive, cottage filters have been designed by the
+Agricultural Department and these are being adopted, though very
+gradually. The oil so filtered is greatly superior, but having acquired
+a more delicate flavour, it is not so much appreciated by the native
+consumers.
+
+Large numbers of young wild olive trees are issued on permit from the
+State forests for private cultivation and many thousands of two- and
+three-year-old plants raised in the Government Nurseries are also
+distributed every year. With the gradual improvement in cultivation and
+in the preparation of the oil, the production should increase
+enormously.
+
+The local production of olive oil is insufficient for the requirements
+of the Island, but there is no reason why, in the course of time, when
+the large number of trees newly planted and annually on the increase,
+come into bearing, a valuable export trade should not result. The
+figures of production, given in the table below, are strikingly
+fluctuating, and indicate the irregularity of the annual yield and the
+marked variation in price:
+
+  Year.    Quantity.   Value.
+           _Cwts._         £
+  1904     4,294       6,467
+  1905     5,291       8,504
+  1906     7,845      12,602
+  1907     8,981      16,922
+  1908       788       1,459
+  1909     3,851       8,864
+  1910     7,550      17,232
+  1911       608       1,415
+  1912        48          88
+  1913       911       2,052
+  1914     2,197       4,837
+  1915     6,003      15,146
+  1916     4,966      16,035
+  1917       290       1,225
+
+
+_Sesame Seed_
+
+The annual production in Cyprus of sesame seed (_Sesamum indicum_) is
+said to be about 195,000 okes. It is one of the recognised summer crops
+in the plains, and is frequently sown together in the same field with
+cotton, maize, etc., and in the vine villages it is sown in the newly
+planted vineyards, where it does well. In such cases the preparation of
+the soil is done on the same lines as for cotton, maize, vines, etc.
+
+The seed is used mainly for the extraction of the oil, which is largely
+employed in cooking, and it is also used in the preparation of
+sweetmeats; it is added sometimes as a condiment in bread-making. There
+is a small export, principally through Egypt.
+
+The percentage of oil extracted varies according to the locality where
+the seed has been produced. Of the local product, that from Paphos gives
+the highest yield, viz. 30 to 35 per cent.; but this is inferior to the
+Egyptian product, which is to some extent imported and yields 40 to 45
+per cent. of oil, this being probably due to the thinner skin. The crop
+is uncertain. The plant is readily affected by the hot west wind
+([Greek: libas]) which not infrequently blows during its period of
+growth. The development of the seed is thereby checked and it remains
+thin and small ([Greek: psalios]), and naturally the oil yield is
+diminished.
+
+
+_Ground Nut, Peanut or Monkey Nut_ (_Arachis hypogæa_)
+
+This nut is fairly popular among all classes and is imported through
+Egypt in moderate quantities. There is no reason why in certain
+localities this plant should not be grown successfully, more especially
+in the light sandy soils around Varosha and at Syrianochori. Efforts
+have been made to induce cultivators to grow this crop, but so far it
+has not commended itself. It calls for something a little out of the
+ordinary in the way of cultivation, as the plants mature their fruits
+under the soil; the profit to be derived from the crop is uncertain, and
+is thought, though without sufficient proof, to compare unfavourably
+with rival crops. Growers have been somewhat deterred by the ease with
+which the fruit can be stolen. As this is hidden under the soil, a theft
+is not at once detected. These drawbacks probably explain its restricted
+cultivation.
+
+Should oil-extracting machinery be introduced, these nuts might well be
+grown for their oil, both for culinary purposes and for use in
+soap-making. The residuum, after extraction of the oil, and the haulm
+are nutritious cattle foods.
+
+The importation of these nuts was recently prohibited except in a
+roasted condition, owing to the risk of their introducing plant pests
+when in the raw, earth-encrusted condition. This has tended to check
+importation, and may perhaps give an impetus to local production. Ground
+nuts can be grown, of course, only where irrigation is possible.
+
+The quantity of ground nuts imported in 1917 was 1,532 cwts., valued at
+_£_2,448. Previous to that year they were not separately enumerated.
+
+
+_Castor-oil Seed_
+
+The castor-oil plant (_Ricinus communis_) is only grown to a small
+extent, but the tree usually thrives well and its cultivation might be
+extended with advantage. According to Gennadius, Dioscorides claimed
+that it used to be called Seseli of Cyprus, from which the inference may
+be drawn that the plant has long been among the flora of the Island,
+where it is now known as a perennial. It grows very freely from seed and
+rapidly attains a height of 15 or 16 ft.; but it quickly dies back after
+a slight frost, though it recovers again the following year. It appears
+to do well in most soils, but thrives best in light loam with moderate
+moisture.
+
+Owing to the demand for the oil, one or two plantations have lately been
+made by the Agricultural Department.
+
+The varieties locally grown include plants producing large, medium and
+small-sized seed. Trial cultivations are being made to ascertain their
+relative values. It is found that a heavier yield of better quality is
+usually obtained where the plant is treated as an annual and not as a
+perennial. Four samples of castor seed examined at the Imperial
+Institute were found to contain normal amounts of oil, and similar seed
+would be readily saleable in the United Kingdom if offered in commercial
+quantities (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xvii. 1919, p.
+492).
+
+
+FIBRES
+
+_Cotton_
+
+During the time of the Venetian occupation (1489-1570) Cyprus exported
+annually from seven to fifteen million pounds of raw cotton. In the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the English Levant Company sent
+large quantities from Cyprus to England. When the scarcity of cotton
+occasioned by the American Civil War gave a stimulus to its growth
+Cyprus took part in meeting the demand, and in 1866 over 2,000,000 lb.
+were exported. Since then the production has declined. In former times,
+then, the production of Cyprus cotton must have been very large, as
+cotton manufactures in the Island were, as in most cotton-producing
+countries in the East at that period, both considerable and of choice
+quality. Cyprus was always distinguished for its cotton spinning.
+Gennadius suggests that the Karpas, which is one of the centres of the
+Cyprus cotton manufacture, derived its name from the ancient "karpasos,"
+a fine cotton cloth which came from India. There is an old Hebrew word
+"karpas" found in the Old Testament, and derived from the Sanscrit
+"karpasa," cotton, or "karpasum," cotton cloth.
+
+During the Turkish Administration cotton cultivation declined, owing to
+the destruction of aqueducts, Venetian wells, etc., and to the practice
+of taxing the cotton crop in the field before it was picked--a cause of
+considerable delay and detriment to the crop. Careless cultivation and
+consequent deterioration of the fibre as well as the general fall in
+value contributed to the decay of the industry. Taxing the crop in the
+field was abandoned in 1890, and a tithe was levied on exported cotton
+only (_Handbook of Cyprus_).
+
+The species of cotton principally cultivated in the Island is _Gossypium
+herbaceum_. American "New Orleans" seed was introduced some twenty years
+or so ago, and this has now largely displaced the original native kind;
+in fact the native kind has almost entirely disappeared, and what little
+is grown is mostly used for stuffing the native bed-quilt or "paploma."
+
+Cotton grown without irrigation is known as "dry" cotton. It is grown
+chiefly in the Messaorian plain and in the Karpas; it is harsh to the
+touch and short in staple, but of satisfactory colour. "Wet" cotton is
+grown on irrigated land; it is usually of larger staple and of finer
+quality than the "dry" cotton and commands a higher price. This is grown
+mainly round about Kythrea, Nisou, Dali, Lapithos and in the Solea
+valley. Native cotton is always grown "dry"; the ordinary American
+variety is grown both "wet" and "dry."
+
+The Karpas cotton, which is "dry" grown, is inferior not only on account
+of its shorter staple, but on account of the method of picking. In some
+places of Messaoria, at Dali, Nisou, etc., the "dry" and sometimes the
+"wet" cotton is picked in the morning before the dew has quite
+evaporated, and it is picked direct from the growing plant. But the most
+general practice is for the villagers to cut the bolls early in the
+morning before the dew is evaporated ([Greek: pornê]), transport them to
+the houses and then remove the lint at their leisure. In this way the
+bolls are more or less crushed and the lint when removed contains a
+mixture of husk, leaves, etc.
+
+In the case of native and other varieties the lint of which adheres to
+the boll, the husks, leaves, etc., are removed from the bolls in the
+following way: The bolls are spread out on mats to dry in the sun; when
+sufficiently dry the bolls are put in a rotary sieve made of reeds and
+sticks, similar in make to the ordinary reed baskets of the country.
+Each end of the sieve is closed, but it has an opening in the middle,
+about 1 by 1-1/2 to 2 ft., which is closed by a small reed mat. The
+sieve is about 5 to 6 ft. long and 2 to 2-1/2 ft. in diameter. The bolls
+are dropped into the sieve through the opening and it is then revolved
+by hand by means of an axle which passes through it longitudinally. By
+this means most of the crushed husks and leaves fall through the
+interstices of the sieve.
+
+The native seed is usually grown on dry lands as it withstands drought.
+The "wet" cotton is mostly of the American variety.
+
+Professor Wyndham Dunstan, F.R.S., in his _Report on the Agricultural
+Resources of Cyprus_ (1905), referred to the successful trials made with
+"Sea Island," "Peterkin," "Truitt's Big Boll," "Culpepper Big Boll,"
+and "Allen's Long Staple." Since then other varieties have been tried by
+the Agricultural Department, and while "Allen's" and "Truitt's" have
+continued to do well, good results have been obtained from "Triumph" and
+"Durango," both of which are early kinds and are therefore very suitable
+to the Island. A report by the Imperial Institute on samples of "Allen's
+Improved," "Mebane's Early Triumph" and "Sakellaridis" cottons grown
+experimentally in Cyprus in 1915 will be found in the BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE (vol. xv. 1917, p. 298).
+
+Owing to fear of locusts, late sowing (about May-June) became rather
+general. This is a dangerous practice as the bolls ripen late and much
+cotton is spoilt by the early autumn rains. It is mostly sown broadcast
+or in trenches; on irrigated land it is mostly sown in the ridges, but
+the older practice of sowing broadcast still, unfortunately, continues.
+
+"Dry" cotton is usually sown either on land which can be irrigated by a
+river when in flood, or in "livadhia" or low-lying lands which retain
+their moisture a long time. In the former case the seed is sown about
+March-April, while the soil is still damp from rain water or from river
+overflow. It is generally expected that when the young plants are fairly
+established a second irrigation from flood-water may occur. In the
+"livadhia" the seed is sown later. "Wet" cotton is watered about every
+fortnight.
+
+The crop begins to be collected in mid-September and continues up till
+the end of October. "Dry" cotton is rarely manured; "wet" cotton
+occasionally. The use of chemical manures is coming into practice. There
+are several ginning machines in the Island, but baling by hydraulic
+presses is done almost exclusively at Larnaca.
+
+In the Island the cotton seed is used for sowing and for feeding cattle.
+The exports of cotton seed have been:
+
+  Year.        Quantity.     Value.
+                 _Cwts._         £
+
+  1909          2,708        769
+  1910          3,066        970
+  1911          3,245        830
+  1912         15,874      4,535
+  1913         13,933      3,750
+
+The exports represent about three-fourths of the total production.
+
+There should be a good opening for machinery for extracting the oil.
+
+The cotton is locally graded into (1) best, (2) medium, and (3) poor,
+all being American varieties. The first quality is the "wet" or
+irrigated cotton. The second quality is grown mostly in the Messaoria
+plain and at Dali, Nisou, Potamia, Kythrea, where it is partly irrigated
+by river floods. The third quality is "dry" and comes principally from
+the Karpas. On the Marseilles market the second quality has a value 3 to
+4 per cent., and the third quality 8 to 10 per cent. less than the first
+quality. The first quality ranks in price at Marseilles on about a level
+with American cotton.
+
+For some ten years Greece has taken the leading place as an importer.
+Before the war, Cyprus cotton went chiefly to Marseilles and Greece,
+some also to Trieste. Only a very insignificant quantity goes to
+England. The freight to Marseilles was about 25_s._ per ton, to Trieste
+about 15_s._ per ton, while to England it averaged 50_s._ per ton. The
+market prices at Marseilles and Trieste were approximately the same, but
+at Marseilles they were subject to a discount of 1-1/2 per cent.,
+whereas at Trieste a discount of 3 to 4 per cent. was made. The Trieste
+market, being small, was subject to sudden fluctuations and was
+therefore risky and less favoured by Cypriot exporters.
+
+For several reasons the Liverpool market has not been so attractive as
+that of Marseilles. At Liverpool and Manchester quantities of not less
+than, say, 100 bales are preferred, whereas Marseilles would take
+smaller consignments of 20 or 40 bales. Uniformity of type is required
+by Manchester spinners, whereas the French factories are more ready to
+handle different types, including the shorter staples. Cyprus merchants
+make no distinction as regards the varieties of cotton, whether
+"Orleans," "Sea Island" or other kinds, and indeed they are scarcely
+competent to do so, as this requires special knowledge and experience.
+They buy in small quantities from many peasant growers and mix the
+produce in order to make up a fair consignment.
+
+In normal times there was always the further difficulty of obtaining
+direct transport to England, whereas to Marseilles, Trieste and also to
+Greece the opportunities were more frequent.
+
+Since the war Greece has become much the largest buyer. Owing to
+shortage of cotton on the Greek market this commodity was purchased from
+Cyprus rather than from Liverpool, as the freight was lower and war
+risks much less; apart from the almost impossibility of obtaining
+tonnage. It was the practice before the war for Cypriot merchants to
+sell c.i.f. Piræus, but they could not continue this under recent
+conditions and now sell f.o.b. Cyprus, and this practice is likely to
+continue. This f.o.b. Cyprus price has lately been about the same as
+would ordinarily be obtained for c.i.f. Liverpool. Greece has many small
+filatures willing to take consignments of even 10 bales, and the
+shipment direct or via Alexandria is easier.
+
+A Cyprus bale weighs about 150 okes.
+
+The following figures, showing average annual exports of raw cotton at
+various pre-war periods, indicate the course of the cultivation:
+
+  Period.        Average Quantity.  Average Value.
+                    _Cwts._         £
+
+  1880-89  .  .  .    68,410         147,683
+  1890-99  .  .  .    57,291          91,812
+  1900-09  .  .  .    41,121          92,939
+  1910-17  .  .  .    68,384         213,275
+
+Prices have varied, as is shown by the values of the following record
+years:
+
+                                  Quantity.   Value.    Average price.
+                                    _Cwts._        £            £
+
+  1885 (highest export on record) 14,276      29,567       2  1  5
+  1886 (2nd ditto)  .  .  .       13,887      26,535       1 16 11
+  1912 (3rd ditto)  .  .  .       13,808      40,085       2 18  0
+  1913 (4th ditto)  .  .  .       13,444      40,693       3  0  6
+  1884 (5th ditto)  .  .  .       12,227      26,874       2  3  1
+
+In 1917 there were 13,685 donums under cotton cultivation.
+
+It is usual in some parts of the Island, especially in the Kyrenia
+district, to leave the crop in the ground for two or three years. This
+method of cropping is locally known as "palia" or old. It is found
+profitable to leave the cotton plants two or three years on irrigated
+land. The second-year crop usually gives the heaviest yield.
+
+The average yield of unginned cotton on irrigated land is about 120 okes
+(3 cwts.) per scala; but as much as 250 okes can be obtained. "Wet"
+cotton, best quality, yields 1 oke of lint from 3 okes of unginned
+cotton, and "dry" cotton yields about 1 oke of lint from 3-1/3 okes of
+unginned cotton.
+
+There is much land well suited to cotton which for lack of water cannot
+be utilised. If artesian water could be found, there would be a very
+considerable extension of this cultivation.
+
+There is a well-equipped little cotton factory at Famagusta, and
+excellent cotton fabrics are made, especially in Nicosia neighbourhood,
+Lapithos and Karavas, Lefkonico and Gypsos and in the Karpas. These are
+known under the names of "alaja" and "dimita." They are mostly of good
+patterns, the material is strong and wears well, and is being largely
+used, not only by the peasantry, but also for making men's suits and
+ladies' skirts and cloths.
+
+An interesting article on the Cyprus Cotton Industry is to be found in
+the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. iii. 1905, pp. 327-334.
+
+
+_Flax and Linseed_
+
+The cultivation of flax (_Linum usitatissimum_), which began to develop
+some twenty years ago, has declined during the last ten years or so. The
+reasons for this are that it is considered to exhaust the soil, the
+later handling of the crop for fibre is troublesome and the market is
+liable to rather violent fluctuations. It grows well in the Messaoria
+plain, and when chemical manures are more generally used it may come
+more into favour. Attempts have been made to improve the quality by the
+introduction of Riga flax seed, but so far without success. There is a
+small export of linseed, but owing to the primitive methods of winnowing
+and cleaning it does not fetch the best price. The quality of the
+cleaned seed is excellent. Knowledge and care are needed in picking the
+crop at exactly the right time. The imperfect methods of general
+cultivation prevent the uniform ripening of the seed, and this means an
+uneven and unsatisfactory sample. Defective screening accounts for the
+presence in excess of foreign substances, weed seeds, etc. These
+difficulties are capable of remedy, and it may reasonably be hoped that
+when once overcome the cultivation will be extended.
+
+In Cyprus the cultivation is the same whether intended for seed or
+fibre, and consequently the latter is of an inferior quality, as is
+indicated in a report on Cyprus flax published in the BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE (vol. vi. 1908, p. 4). Seed is sown in
+November-December at the rate of 17 to 22 okes per donum. Retting is
+done by steeping in the large stone irrigation tanks which are a feature
+on most farms. In the Messaoria, about Ano and Kato Zodia, where flax is
+commonly grown, the plant is retted in the river Ovgos, which retains
+sufficient water usually until August. The yield per donum varies from
+100 to 300 okes of seed, 80 to 100 okes of fibre and 50 to 70 okes of
+tow.
+
+
+_Wool_
+
+The exports of wool for the three last pre-war years were as follows:
+
+  Year.        Quantity.    Value.
+                 _Cwts._        £
+  1911  . . . .  5,535      13,452
+  1912  . . . .  4,627      11,362
+  1913  . . . .  4,707      12,181
+
+This went chiefly to France, and next, though in much smaller
+quantities, to Italy.
+
+The wool is of moderate quality; this is partly due to the breed of
+sheep and partly to the conditions under which they are kept. Attempts
+have been made by the Agricultural Department to impress on the native
+breeders the necessity of keeping the sheep well fed, and experiments
+have been carried out at the Athalassa Experimental Farm for the purpose
+of demonstrating the advantages of careful rearing.
+
+Two fleeces from the Athalassa Farm were sent to the Imperial Institute
+in May 1912, for examination and commercial valuation. One was the
+fleece of a yearling ram. This was clean, fairly soft and almost white.
+The other was the fleece of a yearling ewe. This was clean, slightly
+harsh and almost white, but was slightly coarser than that of the ram.
+
+These fleeces were considered by a firm of London brokers as an
+excellent class of carpet wool and likely to meet always with a ready
+sale in the London market (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol.
+x. 1912, p. 537). A similar opinion was expressed immediately before the
+war (July 1914) by a London firm to whom two bales of Cyprus wool had
+been sent, of which a part had been purchased in the bazaar and washed
+and trimmed by the Department and part came from the Athalassa
+(Government) flock. It was considered as "an ideal wool for carpet
+making or for blankets, but deficient in lustre for braids."
+
+The actual yield per sheep, viz. 3 to 3-1/2 lb., compares unfavourably
+with that of Lincolns, which they most closely resemble. This is due
+partly to breed, but largely also to the conditions under which the
+sheep are kept (see p. 17).
+
+
+_Hemp_
+
+The cultivation of hemp (_Cannabis sativa_) is practically confined to
+the southern part of the Paphos district, and there only in places where
+the water-supply is ample. The plant is grown only for fibre, which is
+exclusively used for rope-making, which is carried out by hand by the
+villagers round about Ktima. It would be of advantage to have a
+rope-making machine at work at a spot centrally situated in the area of
+production. A simple hand-worked machine is now being experimentally
+used and will, it is believed, turn out a better class of rope.
+
+The plant grows well on fertile and irrigated lands. Farmyard manure,
+and specially sheep manure, are generally applied, and chemical
+fertilisers are now also coming into use.
+
+Harvesting takes place when the plants begin to turn pale. The plants
+are uprooted, not cut, and are made up into sheaves tied together at the
+butt end only. The bundles are not more than 2-1/2 spans round, and of
+equal size. When first uprooted the sheaves are placed flat on the field
+in rows to dry and in such zig-zag fashion that the top end of one sheaf
+is always made to rest on the butt end of another, and thus does not
+come into contact with the ground: this ensures the circulation of air
+and hastens the drying process. The sheaves are taken later to the
+threshing-floors, where they are stood upright until they are dry. The
+seed is separated by beating. The sheaves are exposed to the sun until
+the leaves are shed, and when the stems are entirely dry the bundles are
+tied up at both ends and are taken to the retting-place, which is
+usually the common stone tank or cistern of the country. There they are
+steeped in water for six to nine days. The bundles are generally covered
+by about one foot of water. On the sixth day the fibre is tested. If it
+separates easily the bundles are removed, if not they remain for another
+two or three days. This requires much care and experience, as the
+quality depends largely upon effective retting. Then they are taken out
+of the water and sun-dried, being piled up into pointed shooks, left
+hollow in the centre.
+
+The fibre is separated by means of a wooden implement locally called
+"melidjia." This consists of a wooden trough placed on two legs which
+are fixed in the ground. A wedge-shaped piece of wood which is hinged to
+the trough at one end is used as the beater. The hemp stalks, after the
+butts are cut off, are placed in the trough and the beater worked up and
+down so as to split the stalks and lay bare the fibre.
+
+The average production of fibre per scala is 60 to 80 okes, but where
+conditions are all favourable it may reach 160 to 200 okes and the seed
+yield may be anything from 80 to 200 okes per scala.
+
+
+_Silk_
+
+The silkworm (_Bombyx mori_) finds in Cyprus a climate exceptionally
+favourable to its development, and Cyprus silks have been famous for
+their quality throughout the middle ages and as far back as the sixth
+century A.D., when Greek monks first introduced silkworms from China.
+
+In the fateful year 1845, when the disease pebrine nearly destroyed the
+silk industry of Europe, the anxious search for healthy silkworm eggs
+that then ensued led Arabs from Syria to visit Cyprus and buy large
+quantities of silk cocoons from which they raised and exported the eggs.
+At that time, therefore, it is evident that Cypriot moths were well
+thought of. Pebrine soon reached Cyprus and almost brought the Island
+breed to an end. Thanks, however, to the Pasteur system, whereby pebrine
+and other silkworm diseases have been brought under complete control,
+the industry both here and elsewhere was not only saved but has been
+considerably developed.
+
+Writing in 1896 Mr. P. Gennadius, late Director of Agriculture, Cyprus,
+stated that the local production of silkworm eggs was so small that it
+could not be taken into consideration, and from the figures then given
+the total average annual production at that time is estimated to have
+been 35,000 okes of dry cocoons. This represented an average yield of
+only 3-1/2 okes of dry cocoons, equal to 15-1/2 kilograms of fresh
+cocoons, per ounce of silkworm eggs. This compared very unfavourably
+with the average annual production of fresh cocoons in France and Italy
+at that time, which was 35 kilograms and 30 kilograms respectively per
+ounce of silkworm eggs. Moreover, this ratio had been, up to that
+period, on a descending scale.
+
+In a report published in 1897 Mr. Gennadius attributed this
+unsatisfactory state of things to the following causes:
+
+1. The importation of cheap silkworm eggs of inferior quality; the
+average price paid by merchants was 2 to 2-1/2 francs per ounce, while
+the price in France ranged from 9 to 12 francs.
+
+2. The action of merchants who imported larger quantities of eggs than
+they could properly dispose of.
+
+3. The ignorance and folly of rearers who undertook to rear far more
+worms than they could properly "educate," having regard to space, leaves
+and labour.
+
+In 1908 the Department of Agriculture set to work, with some success,
+to improve the methods of rearing up to that time in vogue, and during
+the six years ending 1913 (inclusive) the average annual quantity of
+eggs hatched out was 12,319 oz., the average annual export of "dry"
+cocoons was 45,551 okes, and the average annual estimated local
+consumption 4,449 okes, making a total annual production of 50,000 okes,
+as against 35,000 okes in 1896. The former total represents an average
+yield of about 4 okes of "dry" cocoons, equal to about 18 kilograms of
+fresh cocoons per ounce of seed, and marks a slight improvement upon the
+ratio of eighteen years previously.
+
+Since 1914 this branch of work has received a larger share of attention
+from the Department. Five sericultural stations have been established,
+regulations have been issued, inspections by qualified persons have been
+systematically made, practical advice has been given to rearers in the
+matter of cleanliness, disinfection and so forth, the granting of
+licences to egg-raisers has been put on a better footing and the whole
+industry has been brought more under observation and control.
+
+Numerous suggestions have been made from time to time for insuring that
+only a good quality of egg shall be imported. As an effective--perhaps
+the most effective--means to this end, the Department of Agriculture has
+set itself to improve the production of local eggs and thus indirectly
+discourage their importation: holders of licences to raise eggs are
+required to pass periodical examinations; several have in consequence
+had their licences cancelled, new licensees have been added, and many
+unlicensed persons have been prosecuted and convicted for illegally
+raising eggs.
+
+The common method of hatching practised by villagers, by placing the
+eggs tied in cloth with a little cotton-wool in their beds or by
+carrying them on their persons, still prevails, but it is gradually
+yielding to a better system of incubation. The Department has designed a
+simple, inexpensive hatching-box, and these are now being used with good
+results.
+
+Until about three years ago probably 25 per cent. of the local rearers
+were producing their own seed without any microscopical examination at
+all. Bad feeding, bad ventilation, ill-adapted premises were general.
+As a consequence pebrine and flacherie played such havoc that many
+people were beginning to abandon silkworm rearing and uproot their
+mulberry trees. The expansion and increased resources of the
+Agricultural Department happily came just in time to check this backward
+move.
+
+Silk reeling is unfortunately done in the most primitive manner with
+wooden appliances and hot water by village hand labour. The locally
+reeled silk is used only for Island consumption and the great bulk of
+cocoons is exported in the raw state, mostly to Lyons and Milan. The
+burden of freight on this bulky cargo is naturally a heavy handicap and
+the local silkworm rearers have consequently to be content with very low
+and inadequate prices for their cocoons. During the reeling process 20
+to 25 per cent. of the silk is lost, and a further loss is incurred
+during weaving owing to the numerous knots having to be cut away and the
+silk threads rejoined.
+
+A considerable loss is said to take place in selling cocoons in the
+European markets. The cocoons on arrival at Marseilles are subjected to
+official tests and sold according to the reports made by the official
+testers. It is of advantage to the buyers that the report should be made
+as unfavourable as possible as the price is lowered proportionately, and
+it is felt that the cocoons exported are thus placed too much at the
+mercy of the testing officials.
+
+These Cyprus cocoons are reeled in France and Italy and the silk is
+largely sold to England. It would be to the mutual benefit of England
+and Cyprus if a direct demand for Cyprus reeled silk could be created
+and modern reeling plant introduced into the Island. A large sum of
+money, now annually paid for freight, would thus be saved to the Cypriot
+producers, which would stimulate the local industry and tend to increase
+greatly the annual production and improve the local weaving of silk
+stuffs, an industry which has already gained considerable fame and at
+which the Cypriot women are adepts.
+
+As the following table shows, the amount of raw silk exported is a
+negligible quantity, but a fairly large quantity is locally reeled and
+is used in making the silk stuffs which are so much sought after in the
+local bazaars:
+
+   ___________________________________________________________________
+        Export of cocoons.   |    Export of     |  Export of raw silk
+                             |  cocoons waste.  |
+   -------------------------------------------------------------------
+   _Year._|_Okes._|_Country._|_Okes._|_Country._|_Okes._|_Country._
+   -------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+    1909  |41,013 |France    | 2,120 |France    |    6  |Turkey
+    1910  |44,550 |  "       | 1,105 |  "       |  259  |  "
+          |       |          |       |          |  157  |Egypt
+    1911  |57,422 |  "       | 2,704 |  "       |  246  |Turkey
+          |       |          |       |          |   70  |Egypt
+    1912  |43,196 |  "       | 2,571 |  "       |   90  |Turkey
+          |       |          |    70 |Turkey    |    3  |Greece
+    1913  |48,884 |  "       | 2,502 |France    |  118  |Turkey
+   ___________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Efforts have been made by the Agricultural Department to improve the
+Cypriot race of silkworms. Two races of white colour, the Japanese and
+the Baghdad, have been separately crossed with the yellow race of
+Baghdad. These crossings began in 1912-13 and have been continued up to
+the present. The objects aimed at are to establish a new Cypriot race
+(_a_) giving good cocoons of a fine structure and larger in size than
+the French variety and yielding a maximum quantity of silk; (_b_)
+producing cocoons of a uniform colour and in demand in the European
+market and (_c_) with these characteristics constant.
+
+The results obtained so far are promising, but uniformity of colour has
+not yet been attained, though it is hoped that, by careful selection,
+this will become more fixed every year. It may here be mentioned that
+the famous French cream-coloured race took seventy-five years to become
+fully established owing to the widespread damage caused by pebrine and,
+to a lesser extent, by flacherie.
+
+It has been observed that silkworm eggs locally produced by qualified
+licensees are decidedly more immune to disease and less affected by
+adverse atmospheric conditions than imported seed.
+
+The local conditions of sericulture in Cyprus have undergone a change of
+late years. Formerly Nicosia and Famagusta were the districts where this
+industry was chiefly carried on; but latterly whole mulberry groves have
+been uprooted and replaced by fruit trees which are considered to be
+more profitable. This was the inevitable result of the ignorant methods
+under which the silkworm-rearing industry was conducted and the use of
+bad seed permitted, whereby disease was spread and annual loss
+incurred. It is hoped that the industry is now again on the upward
+grade. One indication of this is that whereas a few years ago 1,000 to
+1,800 cocoons went to an oke, now the figure may be put at 500 to 1,000.
+Again, the waste due to excess of floss is much less than formerly, and
+if only reeling by machinery can be introduced a very much better return
+will result to the cocoon producer.
+
+In the Karpas and in and around Nicosia a bi-voltine race is reared. The
+results are poor, but the two rearings are made because in these
+localities there is an ample supply of leaves. From this race are
+produced small cocoons locally called "Confetti." They are only used for
+local silk manufacture.
+
+An inferior silk called "Koukoularika" is made from the cocoons of the
+ordinary or univoltine race, both those which have been stoved and those
+which have been badly stained when the moths emerged.
+
+These cocoons, which, during the process of boiling in lye, have been
+bleached, are turned inside-out and the excrement of the larva removed.
+The silk is then spun by hand with the "atrachtos." These cocoons are
+mostly from laggard worms and of inferior quality.
+
+The silk industry has suffered greatly from unscrupulous dealing on the
+part of the dealers in eggs. It is a common custom for these persons to
+sell imported seed at 2_s._ and even less per ounce, although the law
+requires all such seed to be accompanied by a Consular certificate and
+affidavit showing that the price paid was not less than 4_s._ per ounce,
+exclusive of freight, carriage or insurance. Secret discounts,
+presumably, render this practice possible. The dealer does not ask for
+payment in cash, but requires it in kind at the rate of 1 oke in every 4
+okes of cocoons raised. If 28 okes of cocoons are obtained from 1 ounce
+of seed the dealer would get 7 okes, valued at say 2_s._ 6_d._ per oke =
+17_s._ 6_d._ for each ounce of seed. The dealer mostly gives a cash
+advance of 10_s._ or £1 with the seed, stipulating that the crop is to
+be sold exclusively to him, the price being left open. The unfortunate
+producer is therefore in his toils.
+
+The establishment of small Sericultural Societies would do much, both
+to encourage and cheapen the cost of growing mulberry trees and assist
+the industry. A few such societies have lately been formed.
+
+
+_Mulberry_
+
+This tree (_Morus alba_) is grown extensively for silkworm feeding and
+is mostly found in those parts of the Island in which the silk industry
+is centred, viz. in the Marathassa valley and in the Karpas, fairly
+generally in and around Nicosia, Kyrenia and in the southern parts of
+the Paphos district.
+
+Little care is given to its cultivation. For the most part, in all the
+older plantations, the trees are set too close together. This is less
+noticeable in the newer plantations. Pruning, where given, is defective
+and so is the method of gathering the leaves.
+
+The usual method is to cut off, every year, the shoots with the leaves
+on them, from about one foot above the main branches. Two reasons are
+given for this by villagers. (1) It is quicker and easier to cut off
+these shoots than to pick off the leaves while still on the tree. The
+shoots are brought into the "magnanerie" and there placed upright in
+water and the leaves can then be removed more conveniently and at
+leisure. In this way the leaves remain fresh two days. (2) By cutting
+these shoots in the spring, _i.e._ during the silkworm-rearing season,
+which begins in early April, fresh shoots are formed which bear leaves
+in late summer and autumn. The latter afford very welcome green food for
+cattle and sheep. These leaves are stripped direct from the growing
+tree. The effect of this second gathering is prejudicial to the tree,
+which is thereby exhausted. The leaves produced the following spring are
+fleshy and watery and in the uncertain weather of spring are apt to
+induce flacherie.
+
+
+_Agaves and Aloes_
+
+_Agave americana_, _A. rigida_ var. _sisalana_, _Furcræa gigantea_,
+_Aloe ciliata_ and _A. frutescens_ all grow well and, if properly
+cultivated and handled, might be worth more attention than they at
+present receive.
+
+In 1913 a Cypriot from German East Africa who had been engaged in the
+production of Sisal hemp there was struck by the few excellent plants he
+found growing in Cyprus, and, had sufficient suitable land been then
+obtainable, with transport facilities, was desirous of undertaking
+cultivation on a commercial basis.
+
+Samples of fibre prepared from the leaves of the abovementioned plants
+were reported on by the Imperial Institute in 1912, but as the leaves
+had been retted, and not scraped or scutched, their value was
+depreciated, and this was estimated at from £14 to £18 per ton with best
+Mexican Sisal hemp at £25 per ton.
+
+The outlay for fencing against wandering flocks of goats and for
+decorticating machinery and other expenses would deter the ordinary
+cultivator from planting, and this could only be profitably undertaken
+if ample capital were forthcoming.
+
+
+_Broom Corn_
+
+Until the end of last century all brooms of European type were imported.
+Seed of broom corn (_Sorghum vulgare_), known locally as "tchihri" or
+"skoupa," was then introduced, and gradually the cultivation has
+extended and a good number of brooms of very fair quality are now
+locally made. The process of broom-making is very simple and the high
+price of the imported article during the war has led to a marked
+extension of the industry. The plant grows well, especially on irrigated
+land. The seed provides a good food for chickens and the stalks and
+leaves can be used as fodder. It is a profitable crop, especially when
+the cultivator makes and sells the brooms himself, and is principally
+grown in the Karpas and at Athienou.
+
+
+TOBACCO
+
+In Turkish times tobacco was grown in several parts of the Island,
+though not to any large extent.
+
+"For centuries it was produced in many districts of the Island, and
+particularly in the Karpas, near Kilani, Omodhos and Paphos, but from
+the time it became an article of monopoly its production was subjected
+to rigorous restrictions, and its cultivation has been entirely
+abandoned." (Reports, pt. ii. (1896), P. Gennadius).
+
+The quantity grown before the occupation appears to have been very
+fluctuating and to have averaged about 56,000 lb. annually, and the
+Government revenue, according to British Consular reports, would not
+have been more than £300 to £400 per annum. The Régie was introduced in
+1874, but owing to the hampering restrictions the industry had been
+pretty well crushed out by the time of British occupation in 1878.
+Meanwhile the revenue from tobacco, imported mainly from Volo and
+Salonica, increased greatly.
+
+The monopoly ceased at the British occupation, but the regulations and
+imposts remained. Those responsible for controlling the industry,
+collecting dues, and checking illicit consumption had a troublesome
+task, while on the other hand the cultivator became averse to engaging
+in a cultivation which was hedged round with so many restrictions and
+formalities.
+
+These exist at the present time and may here be quoted:
+
+The grower has to notify the Customs authorities of his intention to
+sow, giving the locality and area. Before picking he must again notify
+the Customs, so that a Customs officer may be present at the picking and
+weigh the freshly picked leaves. After storing, but before delivering
+the tobacco to the factory, the Customs officer must again weigh the now
+dry leaves.
+
+The excise duties leviable are: Tobacco leaf, 4-1/2_cp._ per oke,
+payable on transfer of leaf from grower to wholesale dealer. Tobacco
+manufactured in Cyprus, whether made into cigarettes or otherwise, in
+addition to the import duty or transport duty, pays a banderolle duty of
+3_s._ 6-1/2_cp._ per oke.
+
+These regulations are a relic of the Turkish times, as in those days the
+State received a definite due called "City Toll" by charging the tobacco
+cutters and tobacco sellers with a trade tax. They appear to have been
+administered with more laxity in Turkish than in post-occupation times,
+and it is said that the abandonment of tobacco cultivation was mainly
+due to the severity with which these rather vexatious and irritating
+regulations were enforced.
+
+For many years the tobacco imported by local cigarette manufacturers
+came almost entirely from Macedonia. This tobacco was of very superior
+quality and cheap, and locally grown tobacco could not compete with it.
+Of late years the price of Macedonian tobacco has risen considerably and
+the manufacturers have therefore been induced to import Thessalian
+tobacco instead, which is not of so fine a flavour and approximates more
+closely to Cyprus produce. Cypriot smokers have thus had their palates
+prepared for the flavour of the locally grown tobacco.
+
+About the year 1912, when Houry's Cyprus Tobacco Association, Ltd., was
+formed, a revival in the industry set in. This has since received
+considerable impetus from the war, which, temporarily, has thrust
+Macedonian tobacco out of the market. The primary object of the
+Association was to manufacture tobacco and cigarettes from Cyprus-grown
+tobacco, although foreign tobacco could also be used. Tobacco then began
+to be regularly grown by the Association at a Chiftlik near Limassol and
+elsewhere, and cigarettes made therefrom have had a fair local sale. The
+arrival of well-to-do refugees from Latakia and other parts of Syria,
+skilled in tobacco cultivation, led to great extension of this crop. A
+large part of the produce was at first converted into Latakia tobacco.
+Owing possibly to the lack of care and skill on the part of native
+labour, partly perhaps to the unsuitability of the herbs and brushwood
+used in the fuming, the market was not found sufficiently encouraging
+and the Latakia, for which at best there is a very restricted market,
+has almost ceased to be produced. Tobacco for cigarettes, however,
+continues to be grown on a fairly large scale, but in order that land
+suitable for corn and other foodstuffs should not be sacrificed to
+tobacco, the cultivation of the latter is permitted only by special
+licence. In 1916 and 1917 the industry fell almost entirely into the
+hands of the richer refugees, who were expert growers, and they
+contracted with the small farmers and peasants. A number of speculative
+growers, professional men, merchants, etc., were tempted by the
+prevailing high prices to embark in the industry, but the licensing
+system has tended to throw it more into the hands of the _bona-fide_
+farmers, who are allowed only to cultivate small areas which can be
+looked after mainly by their own families. In 1916 the total production
+was 89,065 okes, and the estimated yield for 1917 is 487,674 okes.
+
+The Agricultural Department has for some five years carried out
+experimental growings in various districts, and samples of tobacco so
+grown have been submitted to the Imperial Institute (see BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xiii. 1915, pp. 547-550). The two best samples
+reported on were grown in the Nicosia plain. They were said to conform
+with the Turkish tobacco as regards size of leaf, but contained too much
+moisture for the English market. The tobacco was found to smoke rather
+hot and was only mildly aromatic, but it was believed that these defects
+would probably disappear with more experience in the curing. The samples
+referred to were incompletely cured, having been submitted quickly in
+order to roughly ascertain their quality. The report on the whole was
+moderately encouraging, and it is hoped that later samples which have
+been better cured will be found superior.
+
+The tobacco grown in Cyprus is mostly of the Samsoun, Trebizond, Kavalla
+and Hassan Keff varieties.
+
+The normal importation of tobacco into Cyprus is about 180,000 okes,
+which produces an import duty of £4,500 a year, at the rate of
+4-1/2_cp._ per oke.
+
+The average amount paid for banderolles on tobacco when issued from
+factories for consumption is about £30,000 a year, which at the rate of
+3_s._ 6-1/2_cp._ per oke equals a banderolle duty on 161,000 okes; the
+difference of about 20,000 okes would be cigarettes exported on which no
+banderolle duty is paid.
+
+If, then, no tobacco were grown and none imported the Government would
+lose £35,000 revenue annually. It would appear to be immaterial from a
+revenue point of view whether tobacco were imported or grown in the
+Island, since the imposts are the same, viz. on imports 4-1/2_cp._ per
+oke import duty and 3_s._ 6-1/2_cp._ per oke banderolle duty; on
+locally grown tobacco 4-1/2_cp._ per oke transport duty and 3_s._
+6-1/2_cp._ per oke banderolle duty. There is, however, this difference,
+that the money leaves the Island when the tobacco is imported and
+remains and fructifies when it is locally grown.
+
+Tobacco cultivation is in many ways well suited to this Island, as a
+great part of its cultivation as well as the gathering may be done by
+women and children. It need not therefore make any serious demand upon
+man labour, which is already insufficient, and much of the work can be
+performed by those who are unfit for heavy field work. It is a summer
+crop, which is greatly in its favour, the quality when grown "dry" being
+much finer than when irrigated. Its introduction broadens the basis of
+cultivation, provides a revenue from land that would otherwise lie
+fallow and is a useful element in any system of rotation. As it calls
+for careful preparation and thorough cultivation of the soil it has a
+great educative influence on a people prone to slovenly, primitive
+husbandry, and corn crops following tobacco have frequently given a
+larger, more uniform yield.
+
+At the same time it is an open question whether the crop can be grown
+and the leaf cured by the Cypriot farmer to produce a tobacco which,
+under normal conditions, will successfully compete in quality and price
+with the Macedonian tobacco.
+
+
+TANNING MATERIALS AND DYE-STUFFS
+
+Tanneries are fairly numerous and large quantities of skins are tanned
+and sold to native boot-makers. Before the war, goat- and sheep-skins
+and ox-hides were practically the only kinds handled, the two former
+being mainly used for the uppers of boots. The top-boots worn by
+villagers are nearly all made from goat-skin, locally called "totmaria."
+Since the war pig-skins and dog-skins have been also used. Camel-skins
+are often employed for making soles.
+
+Pine bark and sumach are the native tanning substances chiefly used in
+the local tanneries. The pine is one of the commonest forest trees of
+the Island. Shinia leaves (_Pistacia Lentiscus_) are also used (see p.
+51).
+
+
+_Sumach_
+
+The Sicilian, elm-leaved or tanner's sumach (_Rhus Coriaria_) is a shrub
+which grows wild throughout a large part of the Island, being
+principally found among the vineyards on the slopes of the southern
+range of hills. The leaves are largely used in the leather tanning
+industry, and a considerable export might have been established to the
+United Kingdom had it not been for dissatisfaction caused by the
+excessive presence of impurities, such as lentisc leaves and dust, which
+were usually found in the consignments sent.
+
+One sample was sent by the Agricultural Department to the Imperial
+Institute in 1909. This was found to consist wholly of sumach and no
+lentisc or other leaves, and gave on examination the following results:
+Moisture, 10.1; ash, 9.8; tannin (by hide-power method), 26.9;
+extractive matter (non-tannin), 16.7 per cent. The report showed that
+the leaves produced a good leather, similar in texture and colour to
+that obtained with Sicilian sumach, and was considered likely to fetch
+about the same price as a medium quality of Sicilian sumach, which
+contains from 25 to 30 per cent. of tannin (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL
+INSTITUTE, vol. x. 1912, p. 45).
+
+Two further samples were sent in 1916. The first sample "consisted of a
+finely-ground yellowish-green powder, containing a quantity of sand,
+small stones and iron dust." The second sample consisted of a
+"coarsely-ground, yellowish-green powder, containing a quantity of
+pinkish unground twigs, sand and small stones, together with some iron
+dust."
+
+The results of examination were as follows:
+
+                                    NO. 1.    NO. 2.
+                                    _Per cent._   _Per cent._
+  Moisture                             9.3              9.2
+  Insoluble matters                   53.6             57.8
+  Extractive matters (non-tannin)     14.6             13.0
+  Tannin                              22.5             20.0
+  Ash                                  8.5             12.3
+  ---------------------------------------------------------
+  Tintometer readings--Red             0.7              1.2
+                       Yellow          2.1              2.5
+
+Both samples were low in tannin, compared with the Sicilian percentage
+of 25 to 30.
+
+Sample No. 1 was valued at £13, and No. 2 at £12, per ton, with Sicilian
+sumach at £15 per ton; the lower value being due to the lower tannin
+contents, owing to the presence of sand, dirt, etc. It may be assumed
+that if more care in preparing clean samples were taken, Cyprus sumach
+would greatly improve its market value.
+
+
+_Valonea_
+
+There are a few well-grown specimens of valonea oak (_Quercus Ægilops_)
+to be seen, but being a slow grower and as it takes many years to reach
+the stage when it yields a profit, it does not commend itself to the
+Cypriot tree planter. It prefers deep soil and requires artificial
+irrigation or a greater rainfall than we have in Cyprus.
+
+It has been tried at Salamis and failed, and also at Machaera with the
+same result. It has been grown also on Troödos, but after six years'
+growth attained a height of only 1 foot.
+
+Only an insignificant quantity of Valonea cups are locally produced.
+These come from the Paphos district and are said to be rather poor in
+tannin. The bulk comes from Anatolia. The pre-war price for the latter
+was 5_s._ per cantar of 44 okes, that for the locally grown was 20 paras
+per oke on the spot, transport charges bringing up the price to about 1
+copper piastre per oke delivered.
+
+
+_Acacia Barks_
+
+_Acacia pycnantha_ has been grown in Cyprus, but does not acclimatise
+well, and neither the soil nor climate seems favourable. _A. mollissima_
+also has not shown any very successful growth. _A. cyanophylla_ and _A.
+longifolia_, on the other hand, thrive excellently. They are great
+drought-resisters and grow on almost any soil. They have been very
+extensively grown by the Forest Department in every district for fuel
+and along the coast upon sand dunes. They have not been utilised so far
+for the extraction of tanning, except experimentally. Samples of the
+barks of the two last-named species were found on examination at the
+Imperial Institute to be too poor in tannin to be worth exporting, but
+they should be quite suitable for use in Cyprus (see BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 412-414).
+
+
+_Madder_
+
+In former years, and within the period of the British occupation, the
+cultivation of madder (_Rubia tinctorum_) was fairly flourishing in
+Cyprus. The old madder grounds can still be distinguished, and are
+mostly to be seen near Morphou, Ayia Irini, Sotira, Ayios Serghios,
+Famagusta and Larnaca. These madder grounds were excavations made in
+order to expose the soil lying beneath 10 to 30 ft. of drift-sand; and
+they form, as it were, a series of tanks along the shore. The red dye
+obtained from the dried and ground madder roots constituted at one time
+one of the most valued of dye-stuffs, and was in special demand for
+military uniforms; but this has been entirely superseded by artificial
+coal-tar derivatives and, as Gennadius says: "The happy days of the
+cultivation of this plant are past, never to return."
+
+It is propagated mostly by root cuttings. The leaf begins to dry at
+about the sixth month. There is no further growth above ground, but the
+roots continue to increase and shoot downwards till moisture affects
+them. "When they get too wet, they become black or rot. In Cyprus this
+rotting would often begin after about eighteen months, while in superior
+soils the roots would continue to improve during thirty-six months, and
+they would be known in the trade as eighteen months and thirty-six
+months roots. In Famagusta district they remain mostly eighteen months,
+while at Morphou they would continue fully thirty-six months, during the
+whole of which time the surface ground should be kept free of weeds."
+
+After the root is lifted it is generally dried; if packed before quite
+dry, it ferments and deteriorates.
+
+Two and a half tons of dried roots would be produced from an acre of
+good ground, and the madder grounds used to fetch a very high price.
+
+
+DRUGS AND OTHER PRODUCTS
+
+_Liquorice Root_
+
+The liquorice plant (_Glycyrrhiza glabra_, Linn.) grows mainly in the
+Famagusta and Kyrenia districts, and the roots are collected and
+exported from time to time. Two samples were reported upon in 1917 by
+the Imperial Institute (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv.
+1917, p. 312) and the following opinions of two London firms of brokers
+were elicited.
+
+(_a_) One firm described the Lapithos (Kyrenia district) roots as medium
+to bold unpeeled roots of good flavour, fairly well cleaned and very
+well dried; and valued them at from 50_s._ to 55_s._ per cwt. ex wharf,
+London (February 1917). The firm described the Famagusta roots as
+thinner than the Lapithos sample and not so well freed from smooth
+valueless pieces, but mentioned that they had apparently been washed.
+They valued these roots at 50_s._ per cwt. ex wharf, London (February
+1917). The firm added that both samples were exceptionally dry, and that
+it seemed doubtful if the material in the bulk would be as dry.
+
+(_b_) A second firm considered the roots to be rather mixed, inferior
+quality, and worth at that time about 45_s._ per cwt. in London
+(February 1917).
+
+
+_Pyrethrum_
+
+_Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum) cinerariæfolium_ grows well from seed and is
+an attractive garden plant with pretty, marguerite-like flowers. These
+yield the pyrethrum of commerce so largely used as an insecticide, and
+which is said to form the chief ingredients in various flea powders.
+These flowers, when dried and ground to dust, are employed for this
+purpose by the natives. The original pyrethrum powder came from plants
+growing in Dalmatia.
+
+The plant was introduced into the Cyprus Government Gardens some twenty
+years ago and has since spread more or less throughout the Island. It is
+perennial and drought-resistant, and will also stand several degrees of
+frost and seems indifferent to soil, provided it is not too damp. The
+seed is sown in September and the seedlings are transplanted in April or
+May, but it multiplies itself readily by suckers. The flowers, which are
+about three times the size of the Chamomile (_Matricaria Chamomilla_),
+which they closely resemble, are gathered as soon as they are fully
+open, and are then dried in a well-ventilated room. They are usually
+sold in bales of 50 to 100 kilogrammes. One donum may produce about 100
+okes of flowers annually.
+
+
+_Squill_
+
+Bulbs of the local squill were submitted in 1917 to Kew and
+provisionally identified as _Urginea Scilla._ Like the asphodel, this
+root is found everywhere. If sliced and placed about the house they are
+said to drive away mice. It was intended by the Agricultural Department
+to make an attempt to find a market for these roots, in the hope that if
+they could obtain a small payment for them farmers might be induced to
+collect them off their lands, but the project had to be abandoned for
+the time owing to the war. There is a small demand for these roots, if
+sliced and dried, in Europe for medicinal purposes.
+
+Squill bulbs from Cyprus were examined at the Imperial Institute in 1916
+(see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 311). The
+samples, which were submitted to a firm of drug manufacturers, were
+objected to on account of their dark colour, and were valued at about
+6_d._ per lb. as against a pre-war value of 3_d._ per lb.
+
+According to the report by the Imperial Institute there are two
+varieties of _Urginea Scilla,_ white and red, the scales of the former
+being yellowish-white and those of the latter having a reddish tint, and
+there are also many intermediate forms. Though the red and the white
+varieties have been stated to possess equal medicinal value, the white
+variety is preferred in England.
+
+In making stone irrigation channels which are lined with a coating of
+lime and sand or earth, local masons sometimes rub over this lining with
+a sliced squill which has been dipped in oil. It is found that this
+tends to harden and glaze the lining and prevent it from cracking.
+
+
+_Colocynth or Bitter Apple_
+
+The colocynth (_Citrullus Colocynthis_), locally called "pikrankoura" or
+"petrankoura," grows wild in some parts of the plains. The round
+yellowish-green fruit, about the size of an orange or small melon,
+ripens in July to September and, after being gathered, is skinned and
+dried in the sun. It is used by druggists as a purgative. Until about
+ten years ago it was cultivated on a small scale and an annual export of
+about £400 in value took place, chiefly to England and Austria. It was
+then in demand, it is said, as an adulterant of quinine. The fruit is
+locally thought to be a remedy for rheumatism. For this purpose the
+fruits are picked and put in a saucepan and covered with olive oil.
+After cooking for six hours the pulp or ointment is rubbed into the
+affected part. The European demand having ceased, the plant is now only
+found in a wild state.
+
+
+_Asphodel_
+
+The asphodel (_Asphodelus ramosus_), locally known as "spourdellos" or
+"spourtoulla," is a troublesome and abundant weed in many parts of the
+Island, up to an altitude of about 4,000 ft. The peasant farmer rarely
+attempts to remove it, though it occupies a large proportion of his land
+to the detriment of the crops. In the hills the villagers dry the bulbs
+and feed them to their sheep, cattle and donkeys. A paste is also made
+from the roots which is used by boot-makers to stick the leathers
+together. To make this paste the roots are dried in the oven and ground,
+and then mixed with ground vetches or maize and made into the gum or
+paste locally known as "tsirichi."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: _A quantity of stored plant was destroyed by fire, reducing
+the output._]
+
+
+
+
+VI. MINOR AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES
+
+
+_Bee-keeping_
+
+Although Cyprus bees are world-famed, bee-keeping in the Island is still
+in its infancy.
+
+The native hive is generally an earthenware cylinder or pipe about 2 ft.
+6 in. long and 9 in. in diameter (see Plate VII, fig. 1). Hives are also
+made of a mixture of earth and chopped straw, similar to native
+mud-bricks. These hives are also cylindrical, about 18 in. long and 10
+to 12 in. in diameter with a 3-in. thickness of wall. These are cooler
+in summer and warmer in winter, and produce stronger colonies than the
+earthenware ones.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VII.
+
+Fig. 1.--Cypriot Earthenware Beehives.
+
+Fig. 2.--Shipping Fruit at Larnaca.]
+
+Of late years the Agricultural Department has introduced modern hives
+with movable frames, and had it not been for the high cost of timber
+since the war, the number of these would have increased rapidly. The
+difficulty is to get the local carpenters to construct them properly and
+with finish. Practical hive construction is taught at the Agricultural
+School.
+
+Cyprian bees are, par excellence, the yellow race of the world. They are
+of uniform colour, size and character, slightly smaller than the
+Italians and the blacks. They have great power of flight, are very
+prolific and vigorous and good honey-gatherers. They are by many
+considered vicious and ill-tempered. This is possibly due to the
+constant war they have to wage against hornets, which in this country
+are a real plague and frequently exterminate whole colonies and
+sometimes whole apiaries. Various devices are employed for the
+protection of bees in or near the hives.
+
+A good number of Cyprian queen bees have been imported into Europe and
+America, and are very highly regarded wherever they have been
+established. In the eighties Cyprian queens were sold in the United
+States of America at £2 each. This high price checked the importation
+and the crossing of Cyprians with Italians and blacks took place, the
+hybrid offspring being sold by dealers as Cyprians. These, however, did
+not possess the best characteristics of Cyprians, and for a time they
+brought about a reaction in favour of other breeds.
+
+Cyprus possesses excellent honey-producing plants in the eucalyptus
+trees, orange groves, "throumbia" or wild thyme, and other aromatic
+plants.
+
+In the neighbourhood of orange groves a competent bee-keeper can obtain
+an average of 50 lb. of honey per colony; although unfortunately the
+ordinary village bee-keeper gets little more than 6 to 10 lb.
+
+Locally produced beeswax is of fine quality with delicious aroma and of
+a bright yellow colour, said to be superior to that imported from Asia
+Minor and Egypt.
+
+The industry is susceptible of considerable development and, when
+brought under more complete control, should be capable of establishing a
+good export trade of honey and possibly of beeswax.
+
+
+_Basket-making_
+
+Basket-making is a considerable industry, as all fruit and much other
+produce is transported in baskets mostly designed for the backs of
+donkeys or mules. The export trade of fruit and vegetables creates a
+constant demand (see Plate VII, fig. 2). The bulk of these baskets are
+made of reeds (_Arundo_) which grow luxuriantly by the side of water
+channels or wherever moist soil is found. This material is not an ideal
+one for the purpose, as the baskets are easily crushed and lose shape,
+to the detriment of the contents. The reeds are therefore often
+stiffened by the introduction of an occasional breadth of some other
+material, _e.g._ shinia (_Pistacia Lentiscus_), tremithia or myrtle. All
+these are much used in basket-making, though the latter is heavy. There
+is a native willow (_Salix alba_) and also the weeping willow (_S.
+babylonica_). These have not been used until recently when, by the
+efforts of the Agricultural Department, a number of these trees have
+been pollarded and the new shoots have been found quite satisfactory for
+the purpose.
+
+Six years ago a number of osier cuttings were imported from England, but
+unfortunately they have not succeeded so far owing to a succession of
+dry years. The surviving plants were this autumn removed to a more
+suitable site, but after suffering from drought they have now been
+almost destroyed by heavy floods.
+
+In order to encourage the manufacture of better baskets for the fruit
+trade between Cyprus and Egypt the Agricultural Department provides
+practical instruction in basket-making, and a qualified teacher pays
+occasional visits to basket-making villages and demonstrates the work
+and teaches improved patterns to the villagers and school boys.
+
+
+_Fruit and Vegetable Preserving_
+
+There is little doubt that the establishment of small factories for
+canning or bottling fruits and vegetables would be a profitable
+undertaking. Owing to the suddenness with which, in the heat of summer,
+the fruits ripen in Cyprus, and the consequent glut that often ensues,
+market prices fall to a point at which it does not pay to pick and
+handle. Transport difficulties also make it precarious, in the case of
+soft fruits, to attempt a sale outside the immediate place of
+production. Increased cultivation is thus discouraged.
+
+In growing fruits or vegetables for canning or bottling a man is
+independent of market fluctuations, whereas at present both producers
+and consumers are in the hands of the local shopkeepers, who have the
+former entirely at their mercy.
+
+The Egyptian fruit and vegetable trade is very well worth cultivating,
+but until better measures can be enforced in the matter of transport by
+sea as well as land, shippers run the risk of heavy losses, which, no
+doubt, recoil upon the unlucky producers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Specimens of most of the products referred to in these notes may be seen
+in the Cyprus Court in the Public Exhibition Galleries of the Imperial
+Institute.
+
+_Printed by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury, England._
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+In the original, illustrations were marked as 'facing page.' That has not
+been reproduced in this e-book.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND
+ITS PRODUCTS***
+
+
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Notes on Agriculture in Cyprus and Its
+Products, by William Bevan</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Notes on Agriculture in Cyprus and Its Products</p>
+<p>Author: William Bevan</p>
+<p>Release Date: May 15, 2010  [eBook #32392]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND ITS PRODUCTS***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net/c/">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from page images generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive/American Libraries<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/americana">http://www.archive.org/details/americana</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/notesonagricultu00bevarich">
+      http://www.archive.org/details/notesonagricultu00bevarich</a>
+	</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p>
+
+  <h1>NOTES ON<br />
+  AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS<br />
+  AND ITS PRODUCTS</h1>
+
+  <h2>BY W. BEVAN</h2>
+
+  <p class="center">Director of Agriculture, Cyprus<br /></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <p class="center">1919<br />ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span><br /></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="6" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr><td align="left" style="width: 80%;">INTRODUCTION</td><td align="right" style="width: 20%;"><a href='#Page_1'>1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">I. GENERAL</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_3'>3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Geographical Features, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>; Climate and Rainfall, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>; Administration, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a>; Weights, Measures and Currency, <a href='#Page_5'>5</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">II. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_6'>6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">General, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; Land Tenure and Labour, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>; Tithes and Taxation, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>; Credit and Agricultural Societies, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>; Irrigation, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>; Agricultural Implements, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>; The Agricultural Department, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>; Fungoid Diseases and Insect Pests, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">III. LIVE STOCK</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td align="left">Cattle, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>; Sheep, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>; Goats, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a>; Pigs, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>; Camels, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>; Horses, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>; Donkeys, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>; Jennets and Mules, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>; Poultry, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>; Preserved Meats, etc., <a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">IV. DAIRY PRODUCE</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_23'>23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Milk, <a href='#Page_23'>23</a>; Cheese, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>; Butter, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>; Xynogala or Yaourti, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>; Trachanas, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a>; Kaimaki or Tsippa, <a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">V. CROPS AND OTHER PRODUCE OF THE LAND</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Cereals</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_28'>28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wheat, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>; Barley, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>; Oats, <a href='#Page_34'>34</a>; Rye, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>; Maize (Indian Corn), <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>; Dari or Millet (Sorghum vulgare), <a href='#Page_35'>35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Fruits</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_35'>35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vines and Wines, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>; Citrus fruits, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>; Fig (<i>Ficus Carica</i>), <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>; Cherries, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>; Banana, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>; Azarol Hawthorn, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a>; Melons, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>; Date Palm, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Nuts</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_48'>48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hazelnuts and Cobnuts or Filberts, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>; Walnuts, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>; Almonds, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>; Spanish Chestnut, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>; Pistacia spp., <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Vegetables</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_52'>52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beans and Peas, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>; Potatoes, <a href='#Page_55'>55</a>; Kolakas (<i>Colocasia antiquorum</i>), <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>; Onions, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Fodders and Feeding Stuffs</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_57'>57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Carob Tree, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>; Lucerne (<i>Medicago sativa</i>), <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>; Vetch (<i>Vicia Ervilia</i>), <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>; Chickling Vetch (<i>Lathyrus sativus</i>), <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>; Vetch (<i>Vicia sativa</i>), <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>; Tares (<i>Vicia tenuifolia var. stenophylla</i>), <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>; Milk Vetch (<i>Astragalus</i>), <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>; Moha, Sulla (<i>Hedysarum</i>), <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>; Teosinte (<i>Reana luxurians</i>), <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>; Sudan-grass, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>; Teff-grass (<i>Eragrostis abyssinica</i>), <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>; Mangold Wurzel, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>; Prickly Pear (<i>Opuntia</i>), <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Spices</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_65'>65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Coriander Seed, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>; Aniseed, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>; White Cumin Seed, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>; Black Cumin Seed, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Essential Oils and Perfumes</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_67'>67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Origanum Oil, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>; Marjoram Oil, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>; Laurel Oil, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>; Otto of Roses, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>; <i>Acacia Farnesiana</i>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Oils and Oil Seeds</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_71'>71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Olives, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>; Sesame Seed, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>; Ground Nut, Peanut or Monkey Nut (<i>Arachis hypogæa</i>), <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>,; Castor-oil Seed, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Fibres</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cotton, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>; Flax and Linseed, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>; Wool, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a>; Hemp, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>; Silk, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>; Mulberry, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>; Agaves and Aloes, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>; Broom Corn, <a href='#Page_92'>92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Tobacco</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_92'>92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Tanning Materials and Dye-stuffs</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_96'>96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sumach, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>; Valonea, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>; Acacia Barks, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>; Madder, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap"  style="margin-left: 2em;">Drugs and Other Products</span></td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_99'>99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Liquorice Root, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>; Pyrethrum, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>; Squill, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>; Colocynth, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>; Asphodel, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">VI. MINOR AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_102'>102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bee-keeping, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>; Basket-making, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a>; Fruit and Vegetable Preserving, <a href='#Page_104'>104</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" width="95%" cellspacing="0" summary="ILLUSTRATIONS">
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">SKETCH MAP OF CYPRUS, SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS AND FORESTS</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_2'>2</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="6" width="95%" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td align="right" style="width: 5%;">PLATE</td><td align="left" style="width: 25%;">&nbsp;</td><td align="left" style="width: 65%;">&nbsp;</td><td align="left" style="width: 5%;">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td align="left">FIG. 1.</td><td align="left">PLOUGHING ON A MOUNTAIN-SIDE WITH NATIVE PLOUGH</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td align="left">FIG. 2.</td><td align="left">NEWLY-PREPARED BEDS IN EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_10'>10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td align="left" colspan="2">AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_12'>12</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td align="left">FIG. 1.</td><td align="left">NATIVE BULL</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td align="left">FIG. 2.</td><td align="left">NATIVE RAM</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_16'>16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td align="left">FIG. 1.</td><td align="left">CYPRUS PONY</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td align="left">FIG. 2.</td><td align="left">CYPRUS DONKEYS</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_20'>20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td align="left">FIG. 1.</td><td align="left">CARTING CORN</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td align="left">FIG. 2.</td><td align="left">THRESHING CORN WITH NATIVE THRESHING BOARD</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_29'>29</a></td></tr>
+
+
+
+<tr><td align="right">VI.</td><td align="left" colspan="2">PRUNED OLIVE-TREES AT METOCHI OF KYKOS</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_72'>72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VII.</td><td align="left">FIG. 1.</td><td align="left">CYPRIOT EARTHENWARE BEEHIVES</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VII.</td><td align="left">FIG. 2.</td><td align="left">SHIPPING FRUIT AT LARNACA</td><td align="right"><a href='#Page_103'>103</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="NOTES_ON_AGRICULTURE_IN_CYPRUS_AND_ITS_PRODUCTS1" id="NOTES_ON_AGRICULTURE_IN_CYPRUS_AND_ITS_PRODUCTS1"></a>NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND ITS PRODUCTS<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By W. Bevan</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Director of Agriculture, Cyprus</i></p>
+
+
+<p>The intention of these notes is to make available to those interested in
+the agriculture of Cyprus some of the information scattered in various
+reports, leaflets and correspondence not readily accessible to the
+general public.</p>
+
+<p>It has long been a matter of regret to the writer that the valuable
+stores of information collected with so much care and ability by the
+late Mr. Panayiotis Gennadius, formerly Director of Agriculture in
+Cyprus, through having been published in Greek only, have remained
+beyond the reach of many who might otherwise have derived benefit from a
+study of his works. His writings on the general agriculture of the "Near
+East" are voluminous and comprehensive, and show an intimate knowledge
+of the subject as well as of the practices and customs of agriculturists
+in these regions. The results of his labours are mainly embodied in his
+<i>Helleniki Georgia</i> and his <i>Phytologikon Lexicon</i>, both of which are
+works of recognised authority. During his eight years (1896-1903) spent
+in Cyprus Mr. Gennadius devoted himself specially to a study of the
+agricultural conditions and needs of the Island, and the notes and
+reports made by him have been, to a large extent, taken as the basis of
+the present Notes.</p>
+
+<p>During the sixteen years since he left the Island many changes have
+taken place, and the more receptive and enlightened attitude of the
+rising generation of farmers has helped to bring about various
+improvements, and a greater readiness has been shown to adopt modern
+methods. In compiling the present Notes I have drawn freely from the
+articles which have appeared for many years in the <i>Cyprus Agricultural
+Journal</i> (formerly <i>Cyprus Journal</i>), the official publication of the
+Agricultural Department, and which I have edited; I have also taken
+advantage of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> the very admirable and reliable information contained in
+the <i>Handbook of Cyprus</i>, edited by Messrs. Lukach and Jardine.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/i008tb.jpg" width="650" height="399" alt="SKETCH MAP Of CYPRUS SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS &amp;
+FORESTS" title="" />
+<span class="caption">SKETCH MAP Of CYPRUS SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS &amp;
+FORESTS</span><br /><span class="link"><a href="images/i008.jpg">View larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I am greatly indebted to the willing assistance of Mr. Procopios
+Symeonides, Inspector of Agriculture, whose thorough acquaintance with
+local conditions and usages has enabled him to contribute much useful
+and informative material. I have also to offer my acknowledgments to
+Messrs. M. G. Dervishian, C. Pelaghias, Z. Solomides, G. Frangos, A.
+Klokaris, A. Panaretos and others who have kindly supplied me with data
+of various kinds.</p>
+
+<p>It will scarcely be necessary to add that little more than a summary of
+the agricultural practice and resources of the Island has here been
+attempted, and in no sense does it pretend to be anything more. The aim
+has been to give the reader a general idea of what Cypriot agriculture
+is and, to some extent, what it is capable of doing.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="I_GENERAL" id="I_GENERAL"></a>I. GENERAL</h2>
+
+
+<p><i>Geographical Features</i></p>
+
+<p>The Island of Cyprus is situated in the innermost basin of the
+Mediterranean Sea; about 40 miles distant from the Asia Minor coast on
+the north, and about 60 miles from Syria on the east, and 238 miles from
+Port Said to the south. It is the third largest island in the
+Mediterranean, ranking next to Sicily and Sardinia. The larger part of
+the Island is in the form of an irregular parallelogram, 100 miles long
+and from 30 to 60 miles broad; while on the north the eastern extremity
+runs out beyond this into a peninsula 40 miles long by 5 to 6 miles
+broad. The total area is 3,584 sq. miles. The main topographical
+features are the northern and southern mountain ranges running east and
+west and enclosing the great plain of the Messaoria. The mountains of
+the northern range are of an altitude ranging from 2,000 ft. to over
+3,000 ft., the highest point being Buffavento, 3,135 ft.; those of the
+southern range are more lofty and culminate in Mt. Olympus, 6,406 ft.
+above sea-level. The rivers are nearly all mountain torrents, and are
+dry from about July to November or December.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The area of cultivated land is approximately 1,200,000 acres, and that
+of the uncultivated land 1,093,760 acres, of which about 450,000 are
+forest land and 320,000 are susceptible of cultivation. The Messaoria
+plain is the great corn-growing area.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Climate and Rainfall</i></p>
+
+<p>There are considerable extremes of temperature in the plains. In summer
+it is very hot and dry with temperature ranging during June to September
+from 80° to 110° Fahr., while in winter slight frosts not infrequently
+occur. The climate is more equable, but also more humid, along the
+coasts. In the plains there is, during the greater part of the year, a
+marked variation between the day and night temperatures.</p>
+
+<p>Official records show that for a period of thirty-two years up to 1915
+the average rainfall for hill and plain for the whole Island
+approximated to 20 inches. Up to 1902 records were kept only in the six
+district towns, but since then there have been some fifty recording
+stations. The mean rainfall during the winter months for the twelve
+years ended 1914 was 18.55 inches. That for the whole year during the
+latter period was 21.18 inches.</p>
+
+<p>The incidence of rainfall, apart from its volume, is of importance. It
+is on the rainfall of the six winter months, October to March, that the
+prosperity of the Island depends, and any shortage during this period
+cannot be balanced by heavier summer rains, which are more liable to
+cause harm than good, by damaging the corn lying on the threshing-floors
+and by causing sudden floods.</p>
+
+<p>Much importance attaches to the rains in March, without which the grain
+crop, however ample the earlier rains may have been, will not be
+satisfactory, as described in a maxim which I have attempted to render
+in English.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">If twice in March it chance to rain,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">In April once, a shower in May,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">In weight in gold of man and wain,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The farmer's crops are sure to pay.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">If roads are dry at Christmas time,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">But Epiphany finds both mud and slime,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And at Carnival they still hold many a pool,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">The farmer finds his barns quite full.</span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Administration</i></p>
+
+<p>The Island is administered by a High Commissioner. There is an Executive
+Council and a Legislative Council consisting of six official members and
+twelve elected members, of whom three are elected by the Moslem and nine
+by the non-Moslem inhabitants. The Island is divided into six districts,
+in each of which the Executive Government is represented by a
+Commissioner.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Weights, Measures and Currency</i></p>
+
+<p>Nearly everything except corn, wine, oil, carobs, cotton and wool is
+sold by the oke.</p>
+
+<p>An oke, dry measure, equals 400 drams, or 2-4/5 lb.</p>
+
+<p>The liquid oke is reckoned as equivalent to a quart.</p>
+
+<p>Grain is measured by the kilé, regarded as equal to a bushel.</p>
+
+<p>Wool, cotton and oil are sold by the litre of 2-4/5 okes, but commonly
+reckoned as 2&frac12; okes.</p>
+
+<p>Carobs are sold by the Aleppo cantar of 180 okes. This cantar is further
+divided into 100 litres of 1 oke and 320 drams each.</p>
+
+<p>Wine is sold by the kartos = 4 okes, the kouza = 8 okes, and the gomari
+= 128 okes.</p>
+
+<p>1 kilé of wheat weighs 20 to 22 okes.</p>
+
+<p>1 kilé of barley weighs 14 to 18 okes.</p>
+
+<p>1 kilé of oats weighs 13 to 14 okes.</p>
+
+<p>1 kilé of vetches weighs 23 to 24 okes.</p>
+
+<p>1 sack of straw weighs about 40 okes.</p>
+
+<p>1 camel-load of straw weighs about 200 okes, consisting of 2 sacks, each
+weighing about 100 okes.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Measures of Length</i></p>
+
+<p>Metron or metre.</p>
+
+<p>Yarda or yard.</p>
+
+<p>Pic = 2 ft. or two-thirds of a yard.</p>
+
+<p>Inch = English measure.</p>
+
+<p>The land measure is the donum (called by the villagers "scala"), but it
+is very uncertain, and varies in different parts of the Island. As
+recognised by law, 1 donum, called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> "tappoo donum," equals 60 pics = 40
+yards square = 1,600 square yards, or 14,400 sq. ft.; 3.025 of these
+donums go to the acre. There is also a farmer's, or "reshper" donum,
+which is commonly used by agriculturists and is equal to about 1&frac12;
+Government donums. For general purposes a legal donum is about one-third
+and a Cypriot farmer's donum about one-half of an acre. "Stremma" is
+also a synonym for the farmer's donum, or scala, although its actual
+measure is very much less.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Currency</i></p>
+
+<p>£1 = 20 shillings or 180 copper piastres.</p>
+
+<p>1 shilling = 9 copper piastres.</p>
+
+<p>1 cp. (copper piastre) = 40 paras.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="II_AGRICULTURAL_CONDITIONS" id="II_AGRICULTURAL_CONDITIONS"></a>II. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS</h2>
+
+
+<p><i>General</i></p>
+
+<p>Agriculture is the main industry of the Island, which is favourably
+situated for the markets of Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor, although the
+former is practically the only buyer of its perishable produce. During
+recent years the Cypriot agriculturist has come to realise more and more
+the value of the Egyptian market and a considerable trade with that
+country has grown up.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Land Tenure and Labour</i></p>
+
+<p>The small farmer mostly cultivates his own land, whereas the large
+landowner rarely does. The metayer, or metairie, system is fairly
+common, and has much to recommend it when honourably carried out by both
+parties, but it is open to very serious abuse.</p>
+
+<p>Under this system the one party, or contractor, gives the seed and often
+lends the cattle. A valuation of the latter is made at the time of
+entering into the agreement, and a re-valuation is made on termination,
+any depreciation being made good by the other party, or metayer. The
+latter finds the necessary labour and feeds the animals and pays an
+agreed rate for their hire. The crops, after deduction of Government
+tithe, are usually divided equally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> between both parties, but the
+conditions vary according to circumstances and the nature of the crops
+grown.</p>
+
+<p>If cultivated land be given to the partner, such land must be returned
+to the contractor in the same state of cultivation as received, or the
+contractor, at his option, may claim the return of the seed his partner
+received with it.</p>
+
+<p>There are also a considerable number of leaseholders paying a fixed
+rent. The monasteries are the largest landowners, and both cultivate
+their own land and let out portions to the monks or to private farmers.
+Much land is also held by the Church, and this is frequently let out on
+a yearly lease, with the result that it is badly farmed and speedily
+worked out.</p>
+
+<p>The country is rather sparsely populated by about 275,000 inhabitants,
+and although the cultivators are laborious when working for themselves
+and when free from the hands of the usurers, they are still very
+backward in their methods and appliances. A less conservative attitude
+has of late been observed, and a greater readiness has been manifested
+in seeking and following the advice of the Agricultural Department.
+There is a great amount of indebtedness among the peasantry and usurious
+practices abound. This undoubtedly checks progress, as few of the
+smaller farmers are free agents. The matter has lately been the subject
+of a special Commission appointed by Government. Laws have this year
+(1919) been passed by the Legislative Council dealing with usury and
+indebtedness.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Tithes and Taxation</i></p>
+
+<p>The tithe, which forms the principal source of Government revenue, is
+one-tenth of the produce of the land on wheat, barley, oats, vetches,
+rye and favetta, measured on the threshing-floors and delivered in kind
+at the Government Grain Stores. Certain allowances are made to the
+tithe-payers for transport. In the case of carobs, which are also
+subject to this tax, the tithe is taken in money from exporters at the
+Custom House at the rate of 9 cp. (1s.) per cantar from the districts of
+Nicosia, Larnaca and Limassol, and 8 cp. per cantar from the other three
+districts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are certain export dues, in lieu of tithe, payable on the
+following commodities: Aniseed 33 cp., cotton 55 cp., linseed 18 cp.,
+mavrokokko (black cummin) 7 cp., and raisins 10 cp. per 100 okes; silk
+cocoons 6&frac34; cp., wound silk 18 cp., silk manufactured by other than
+hand looms 18 cp. per oke.</p>
+
+<p>An annual tax is levied of 3&frac34; cp. per head on every sheep and of 5
+cp. per head on every goat one year old and upwards, and of 4&frac12; cp.
+per head on every pig over three months old.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Credit and Agricultural Societies</i></p>
+
+<p>The spirit of co-operation has hitherto been singularly lacking, but
+there are signs that a change is in progress and that, with proper
+guidance, the cultivators will ere long come to realise the advantages
+of combined effort in the production and distribution of their crops.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of village co-operative Credit Societies has long been
+advocated, but although a law was passed in 1913 for this purpose, there
+has so far been little practical outcome. Co-operation in its full
+modern significance is not yet understood; but one or two little village
+co-operative banks have nevertheless been started and show encouraging
+results.</p>
+
+<p>There are also a few small village agricultural societies springing up,
+which, if properly conducted, may prove the pioneers of a general
+movement in this direction. The existence of such societies would
+greatly facilitate the work of the Agricultural Department, which would
+be able to influence and assist farmers through their societies, whereas
+now it is often not possible to reach them individually.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Irrigation</i></p>
+
+<p>The most common method of raising water is by means of primitive
+water-wheels or "alakatia," often described as "Persian wheels" and
+resembling the "sakia" of Egypt. By these the water is carried in
+earthenware cups attached to the rim of a large vertical wooden wheel
+fixed in the mouth of a well and made to revolve by a mule<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> or donkey by
+means of a horizontal wheel and beam, or by modern air-motor. Myrtle
+branches are mostly employed for attaching the cups to the wheels, as
+these are pliable and resist the action of water.</p>
+
+<p>These "alakatia" were formerly made entirely of wood, but in the
+nineties, iron ones ("noria") were introduced from Greece, and these
+have become fairly general, and are gradually supplanting the older
+types. They have the advantage of being more durable and lighter to
+work. Good iron wheel wells are now locally made. Water-wheels of this
+description cannot be used for raising water from a depth of more than
+ten fathoms below the surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years a large number of air-motors of Canadian pattern have been
+introduced and are found satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>There is abundant evidence in the remains of old disused Venetian wells
+and cisterns that in pre-Turkish times, when the country was far more
+densely populated than at present, a larger quantity of underground
+water was utilised than now. Abundant subterranean water for
+agricultural and gardening purposes is to be found in almost all the
+coast lands as well as in many parts of the interior. Such waters are
+either brought to the surface along subterranean channels or by means of
+wells, and, for the most part, have their origin in the mountain ranges,
+specially in the southern range, which is the rainy region of the
+Island.</p>
+
+<p>Artesian well-boring experiments have been made in recent years in
+different parts of the Island, but without substantial results. In the
+Famagusta district large reservoirs were constructed several years ago
+for impounding the surplus water of the rivers of Pedias and Ialias, but
+these have only been very partially successful as the water is mostly
+lost before it reaches them.</p>
+
+<p>A satisfactory solution of the water problem is of supreme importance to
+the Island. There are large fertile areas which every year remain
+fallow, but which, if capable of irrigation, would grow excellent cotton
+and other summer crops, thus providing a better system of rotation.
+Vegetable growing and fruit culture could then also be very greatly
+extended.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate I.</span></h4>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i017a.jpg" width="600" height="377" alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;Ploughing on a Mountain-side with Native Plough." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Ploughing on a Mountain-side with Native Plough.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/i017b.jpg" width="600" height="462" alt="Fig. 2.&mdash;Newly-prepared Beds in Experimental Gardens." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Newly-prepared Beds in Experimental Gardens.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Agricultural Implements</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Ploughs.</i>&mdash;The old wooden plough of the East is still the common plough
+of the country (see Plate I, fig. 1). Efforts were made from 10 to 15
+years ago to introduce iron ploughs by selling them through the
+Agricultural Department at half the cost price and even less.
+High-water mark was reached in 1908 when 102 of these ploughs were so
+sold. These were much approved of, and the further sale was then left in
+the hands of merchants. The demand at once fell off and since then only
+a few have been introduced. For a year or two a certain number of iron
+ploughs of Russian make were imported and sold through the Jewish
+settlement at Margo.</p>
+
+<p>There is now a considerable demand which it may be possible to satisfy
+when normal conditions are resumed. There is some prejudice against
+English-made ploughs on the score of weight, as they are mostly heavier
+than those of French, Russian, Greek and American make.</p>
+
+<p><i>Harrow.</i>&mdash;The native harrow, "saraclo," is a wooden beam about 10 ft.
+long by 12 to 18 in. broad and 3 in. thick, on which the labourer stands
+as it is drawn over the newly sown land. It is ineffective inasmuch as
+it does not break the clods, but merely presses them into the ground.
+Iron-toothed harrows and spring-toothed harrows have been lent by the
+Department for demonstration purposes to different persons, and these,
+particularly the second kind, have found favour and are likely to be in
+demand for covering the sown seed. The usual method is to cover the seed
+with the native plough, but the European harrow is seen to do the work
+more effectively and with a great economy of time.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more common agricultural tools of native pattern are the
+following (see Plate II):</p>
+
+<p><i>Tsappa</i> (hoe).&mdash;The wider tool, 5 in. to 6 in., is mostly for garden
+use; the narrow tsappa, about 3 in. wide, is for field work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Skalistiri.</i>&mdash;A kind of small tsappa, 2 in. wide, having two prongs 4
+in. to 5 in. long at the opposite end. It is mostly used for hoeing
+vegetables.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p><i>Xinari</i> (axe or hatchet).&mdash;One end of the implement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> is a sort of
+hoe, and the other end is shaped like a mattock. Used for cleaning off
+weeds, shrubs, etc., from the fields; also for cutting or splitting
+wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kouspos.</i>&mdash;These are of two kinds. The larger is used like a tsappa,
+but in stony or rocky places; the smaller is the tool used by
+well-sinkers. It can be conveniently handled in a confined space.</p>
+
+<p><i>Karetta</i> or <i>Cart</i>.&mdash;This has almost entirely superseded the old
+Cypriot type of cart, but the latter may yet be seen very occasionally
+in the Karpas and possibly in the Paphos district. It is still in use in
+some parts of Anatolia. In its construction no iron nails are needed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Doukani.</i>&mdash;The common threshing-board (see under "Cereals," p. 29).
+This is the primitive implement handed down from classic times and
+generally seen throughout the East (see Plate V, fig. 2).</p>
+
+<p><i>Thernatchin.</i>&mdash;A wooden shovel used for winnowing grain. It is deeply
+serrated, or divided, into 5 or 6 triangular-shaped teeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arvalin.</i>&mdash;A corn sieve. A goat's or sheep's skin, perforated with
+holes, is stretched across a round wooden frame, 12 in. to 18 in. in
+diameter. Instead of a skin, leather thongs or gut are stretched,
+crosswise on the frame. Perforated tin is now sometimes employed. These
+sieves are used for cleaning grain after winnowing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arkon.</i>&mdash;Another kind of sieve, similar to the above, but with smaller
+holes for sifting fine seeds, dust, etc. Mostly made of skin, but now
+tin is being used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Patourin.</i>&mdash;A similar sieve, used for still finer work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Skala.</i>&mdash;An iron dibber, fitted with two wooden handles, used for
+planting vine cuttings.</p>
+
+<p>Some advance has been made of late in cleaning the land, but foul land
+is pretty general. Squills, thistles, thorny bushes, and so forth
+abound; these are mostly deeply rooted, drought-resistant plants, and
+the labour required for uprooting them is not forthcoming.</p>
+
+<p>There are a fair number of reaping machines now in use, but little care
+is bestowed on them, and when slightly out of order they are often put
+aside as useless. More enlightened ideas are now prevailing, and the
+abundant crops of the last few years have created a strong desire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> for
+more reapers and also for threshing machines, of which there are at
+present barely half a dozen in the Island.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate II.</span></h4>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Agricultural Implements.</i></p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table>
+  <tr>
+  <td><img src="images/i021l.jpg" width="346" height="400" alt="" title="Agricultural Implements" /></td>
+  <td><img src="images/i021r.jpg" width="247" height="400" alt="" title="Agricultural Implements" /></td>
+
+  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div class="centerbox">
+<p>1, Arvalin for barley and oats. 2, Arvalin for wheat and vetches. 3,
+Shovel for winnowing. 4, Thernatchin. 5, Arkon. 6, Patourin. 7, Tsappa,
+narrow, for field use. 8, Tsappa, wide, for garden use. 9, Xinari. 10,
+Kouspos. 11, Skalistiri.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>The Agricultural Department</i></p>
+
+<p>The Agricultural Department was established on a small scale in 1896,
+under the direction of Mr. P. Gennadius. It continued much on its
+original lines until 1912, when its establishment was enlarged, and the
+Government Farm and the Veterinary Branch were attached to the
+Department, and again in 1914 it underwent a further slight extension
+which was necessarily checked by the war. There is now a staff of
+inspectors, district overseers and agricultural demonstrators who are
+occupied in continually travelling in the country, advising and giving
+practical assistance to cultivators, lecturing on village wine-making,
+poultry-keeping, bee-keeping, on the action to be taken against various
+pests and so forth.</p>
+
+<p>There are some eight Government Nursery Gardens in the districts from
+which large numbers of trees, plants and seeds are issued. A system of
+Model Orchards and Vineyards, newly started, is giving satisfactory
+results. These are intended to assist those engaged in the production of
+fruit and vegetables, for which an unlimited market is close at hand in
+Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Seventy School Gardens are in existence throughout the Island under the
+guidance and control of the Department. By their means many young fruit
+trees and other plants and seeds are annually distributed at low rates,
+better methods of cultivation and new kinds of vegetable and fodder
+plants are being made known, and the village boys are being taught
+something about the work on which they will later depend for their
+livelihood.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>An Agricultural School for the sons of farmers was opened at Nicosia in
+1913 under the direction of the Agricultural Department. Some twenty to
+twenty-five lads between sixteen and twenty years of age, both Greeks
+and Moslems, receive a two-year course of instruction with a view to
+fitting them to cultivate their own properties later. A few of the more
+promising students have been retained as student-labourers in the
+Department,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> after the termination of their school course, and of
+these again a few have been given minor appointments in the Department.
+A scheme for training young Cypriots abroad, which was in abeyance
+during the war, makes it possible to give the more capable of these some
+further training in Europe in the higher branches of agriculture. It is
+hoped, by this means, to form a group of native experts from among whom
+the technical staff of the Department can be recruited.</p>
+
+<p>The Government Farm, Athalassa, though somewhat ill-placed for purposes
+of education and demonstration, has done good work in improving the live
+stock of the country, as evidenced at the Animal Shows held every year.
+Periodical auction sales of Athalassa stock take place in the different
+districts.</p>
+
+<p>During the three years 1915-18, there were reared at the Farm and
+distributed 41 cattle, 264 sheep, 8 donkeys, 332 pigs and 2 mules,
+besides a considerable head of poultry.</p>
+
+<p>The total value of the live and dead stock was estimated on March 31,
+1918, at £3,128.</p>
+
+<p>For breeding purposes there were 6 stallion horses, 8 jack donkeys, 8
+bulls and 7 boars in 1917-18 stationed either at Athalassa or at the
+stud stables which have been established in the districts. Some 30 cast
+army mares have been obtained free of cost from the Remount Department,
+Egypt, and have been lent out on contract to farmers for mule breeding.</p>
+
+<p>During 1917-18 the Farm produced 169 cheeses and 1,036&frac12; lb. of
+butter. In the winter of 1917-18 some 314 donums of land were under
+cultivation, the chief crops being barley, oats, wheat and gavetta
+(<i>Lathyrus sativus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The Veterinary Establishment provides for 1 Veterinary Surgeon, 2 Stock
+Inspectors and 1 Veterinary Compounder. There is a good deal of endemic
+contagious disease among the flocks and herds of the Island, mainly
+anthrax and goat- and sheep-pox, and the Veterinary staff is kept busy.
+Cattle plague is unknown in the Island.</p>
+
+<p>Cattle breeding should become a paying industry when once the lesson of
+proper feeding and management has been learnt (hitherto sadly neglected
+by the Cypriot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> farmer), since Egypt provides a ready and remunerative
+market.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps no work is of more importance than that of combating the
+numerous insect and other pests which every year cause heavy loss to the
+agricultural community. The addition of an Entomological Laboratory and
+the appointment of an Entomologist have enabled the Department to afford
+relief to many cultivators, and a small but active entomological staff
+are constantly engaged on various pest campaigns.</p>
+
+<p>The Department possesses a small but well-equipped Chemical Laboratory
+under the charge of an Agricultural Chemist. In the absence of any law,
+the Department has, in the interests of importers and agriculturists
+alike, offered its services for analysing and reporting upon samples,
+sealing bags and giving advice as to the use of the different types, and
+this action has been readily availed of. This in itself, however, is not
+enough to check malpractices or safeguard the cultivators.</p>
+
+<p>For the last four years the Department has had trial plots in which new
+varieties of cereals and fodder plants have been experimentally grown
+(see Plate I, fig. 2). The seed has been obtained from England, South
+Africa, India and Australia, but so far none of the varieties have been
+found in any marked degree superior to the native kinds. One or two
+varieties introduced two years ago are promising, and when fully
+acclimatised may be worth the attention of farmers. Experimental sowings
+are often made in the villages when it is desired to bring any
+particular crop to the notice of the agricultural classes.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Cyprus Agricultural Journal</i>, published quarterly in English, Greek
+and Turkish, is the official organ of the Agricultural Department.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Fungoid Diseases and Insect Pests</i></p>
+
+<p>The Cypriot agriculturist has to contend against the attacks of many
+species of insects and a number of fungoid pests. Little could be done
+to bring these under control until, in 1914, an Entomological Branch of
+the Agricultural Department was established. Much valuable research<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> and
+descriptive work had been carried out by Mr. Gennadius, but no organised
+field work could be undertaken until the last three or four years.</p>
+
+<p>A detailed description of the numerous pests cannot here be given, but
+the more important ones are enumerated below. Happily Cyprus is one of
+the few Mediterranean countries which has not been invaded by
+Phylloxera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cereals.</i>&mdash;<i>Æcophora temperatella</i> (Limassol district only), smut and
+rust, hessian fly (occasionally), grain weevils (<i>Calandra granaria</i>),
+grain moth (<i>Sitotroga cerealella</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Carobs.</i>&mdash;<i>Cecidomyia ceratoniæ</i>, scale (<i>Aspidiotus ceratoniæ</i>)
+<i>Myelois ceratoniæ,</i> borer (<i>Cossus liniperda</i>), <i>Oidium ceratoniæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Olives.</i>&mdash;<i>Capnodium</i>, scale (<i>Lecanium oleæ</i> and <i>Aspidiotus oleæ</i>),
+aphis (<i>Psylla oleæ</i>), olive fly (<i>Dacus</i> sp.), <i>Tinea oleela</i> and
+various borers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Citrus and other Fruit Trees.</i>&mdash;Gummosis (Citrus and all stone fruits);
+scale (all); ermin moth (apples, pears and plums); downy plant louse,
+<i>Schizoneura lanigera</i> (apples); aphides (almond, peach, plum and
+apricot); <i>Tingis pyri</i> (pears and apples); codlin moth, <i>Carpocapsa
+pomonella</i> (apples, pears, quinces and walnuts); peach leaf curl,
+<i>Exoascus deformans</i> (peaches); black aphis (peaches); Mediterranean
+fruit fly, <i>Ceratitis capitata</i> (all); mites, <i>Acarus</i> sp. (all);
+various borers, thrips, and barkbeetle (<i>Scolytids</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Vines.</i>&mdash;<i>Oidium Tuckeri</i>, <i>Peronospora</i>, anthracnose, <i>Cladosporium,</i>
+root rot, <i>Zygæna ampelophaga</i>, thrips, <i>Cochylis</i>, <i>Lita solanella</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetables.&mdash;Peronospora infestans</i> (potatoes), <i>Cladosporium</i>,
+<i>Altica</i>, aphides, mole crickets.</p>
+
+<p>Much damage is done to carobs by the large rat, <i>Mus Alexandrinus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The large fruit-eating bat is a great pest. Hornets attack all kinds of
+fruits and cause much loss.</p>
+
+<p>The chief cotton enemies are the cotton boll worm (<i>Earias insulana</i>),
+aphides and <i>Capnodium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Locusts are no longer the formidable plague they were in the eighties.
+They are limited almost to the Famagusta district, where they annually
+breed and do a certain amount of damage to early cotton and to vegetable
+crops. If not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> vigilantly kept under control they would quickly multiply
+and become a serious danger.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="III_LIVE_STOCK" id="III_LIVE_STOCK"></a>III. LIVE STOCK</h2>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate III.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i027top.jpg" width="500" height="371" alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;Native Bull." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Native Bull.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/i027bottom.jpg" width="500" height="305" alt="Fig. 2.&mdash;Native Ram." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Native Ram.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Cattle</i></p>
+
+<p>The cattle of the country have been bred, until the last two or three
+years, exclusively for draught purposes. Cattle breeding as a business
+is unknown. Farmers, as a rule, aim only at raising a calf or two every
+year in order to maintain one or more yokes of oxen. Some of the draught
+animals are very fine (see Plate III, fig. 1, and Plate V, fig. 1).
+These belong mostly to the monasteries; one animal exhibited at a recent
+show measured over 17 hands. The race is presumably the result of many
+crossings with imported breeds, but has acquired a definite type. The
+cows are in colour and conformation not unlike Jerseys, but larger and
+without the udder development of that breed. The oxen have mostly a more
+or less pronounced hump, possibly acquired through many generations of
+progenitors used exclusively for draught purposes. In some of the best
+bulls this hump is particularly marked.</p>
+
+
+
+<p>In 1912 some Devon bulls and cows were imported and a herd of this breed
+was started at the Government Farm, Athalassa. An impetus was thus given
+to breeding dairy cows, and a number of half- and three-quarter-bred
+cows are now to be found, which command high prices for milking
+purposes. The Devon bulls, however, have never come into favour among
+farmers for raising draught cattle.</p>
+
+<p>There was a fair export of cattle to Egypt before the war, a good
+proportion of the animals being consigned to the Serum Institute, Cairo,
+as Cyprus cattle, alone among the cattle in this part of the Levant,
+have so far been free from plague.</p>
+
+<p>The number of horned cattle in 1917 is officially given as 48,761.</p>
+
+<p>The exports for the five years preceding the war were:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="exports for the five years preceding the war">
+<tr><td align="right">Year.</td><td align="right">Number.</td><td align="right">Value.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1909</td><td align="right">2,357</td><td align="right">11,314</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1910</td><td align="right">4,240</td><td align="right">20,218</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1911</td><td align="right">9,664</td><td align="right">44,871</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1912</td><td align="right">5,751</td><td align="right">34,303</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1913</td><td align="right">3,017</td><td align="right">20,110</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There can be no question that if more attention were paid to growing
+fodder crops, cattle breeding could be greatly increased, and a good
+trade with Egypt might be done.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of the Athalassa Stock Farm has had a most useful
+influence on the improvement of the live stock of the Island.</p>
+
+<p>Beef has only lately become an article of food for the country people,
+and is still so only on a small scale. The townspeople, having become
+Europeanised to a greater degree than formerly, are now becoming beef
+consumers, and the high price of beef has had a stimulating effect upon
+breeding for the butchers. Before the British occupation the killing of
+an ox for eating purposes was considered by many villagers an act of
+sacrilege.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Sheep</i></p>
+
+<p>Sheep rearing is an important industry in Cyprus. The sheep are of the
+fat-tailed species and are allied, though superior to, the Afrikander
+sheep. The total number of sheep in the Island in 1917 was 255,150.</p>
+
+<p>They feed almost entirely by grazing, and wander, under the charge of
+shepherds, over considerable areas in search of food, frequently in
+company with goats. They are valued chiefly for their milk and meat;
+their wool, though of moderate quality, is small in quantity. (See also
+under "Dairy Produce," p. 23.)</p>
+
+<p>Large numbers of sheep are killed annually for local consumption, and
+there is a regular export to Egypt, as shown by the following pre-war
+figures:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="pre-war
+figures">
+<tr><td align="right">Year.</td><td align="right">Number.</td><td align="right">Value.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1904</td><td align="right">13,923</td><td align="right">10,544</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1905</td><td align="right">8,816</td><td align="right">7,572</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1906</td><td align="right">5,427</td><td align="right">5,470</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1907</td><td align="right">2,859</td><td align="right">2,699</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1908</td><td align="right">849</td><td align="right">835</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1909</td><td align="right">976</td><td align="right">716</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1910</td><td align="right">3,905</td><td align="right">3,064</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1911</td><td align="right">18,143</td><td align="right">12,311</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1912</td><td align="right">17,611</td><td align="right">13,731</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1913</td><td align="right">7,920</td><td align="right">6,724</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Sheep-folding is practically unknown, and no crops are specially grown
+as food for sheep. Occasionally they may get a little rovi (vetch), rovi
+straw, lentil straw, favetta, pea-haulm or (in the hills) mavrachero
+(tares).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> They suffer in years of drought, but on the whole thrive
+wonderfully well on very scanty pasturage.</p>
+
+<p>Good work has been done of late years in the improvement of Cyprus sheep
+at the Government Athalassa Farm, and ewes and rams from the farm flock
+are much sought after by sheep-owners, many of whom are making efforts
+to ameliorate the breed. The question of providing suitable forage also
+is not being lost sight of.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Goats</i></p>
+
+<p>The goat has been a cause of much controversy for many years and a
+source of discord between farmer and shepherd. Owing to the absence of
+farm boundaries the herds of goats (and sheep) continually trespass on
+the cultivated areas, and the shepherds are at little pains to restrain
+them when there is a chance of the animals getting a good meal. Large
+sums in the aggregate are paid by way of fines and damages, but the
+shepherds evidently find that even so it is profitable to continue such
+practices.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the serious harm done every year in the State forests
+by these animals, a law "For the gradual exclusion of goats from the
+Island" was passed in 1913 and came into operation on August 1 that
+year.</p>
+
+<p>As the subjoined table shows, the number of goats has decreased, but it
+is doubtful how far this is due to the law, and how far to the losses
+from goat-pox, which is very prevalent, and to the shipments for
+military purposes during the war:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="40%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="shipments for
+military purposes during the war">
+<tr><td align="left">Year.</td><td align="right">Head.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1880</td><td align="right">210,736</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1890</td><td align="right">237,475</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1900</td><td align="right">243,397</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1910</td><td align="right">276,794</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1913 (when the law was passed)</td><td align="right">242,524</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1918</td><td align="right">191,017</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The goat is in many respects well suited to the Island, and provides the
+villager with milk, cheese, meat, boots and manure. The animals cost
+very little to keep&mdash;even apart from their depredations&mdash;and thrive,
+especially in the hills, under conditions unsuited to sheep and cattle.
+They are, however, great enemies to agriculture and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> forestry, and if
+they are to be preserved in the Island, it is essential that both they
+and the shepherds be brought under strict control.</p>
+
+<p>In Cyprus most of the goats have very short hair, which cannot be shorn.
+From this fact, and from the external shape of the animal, one may infer
+that it is either a variety of the Anatolian breed modified by local
+influences, or a hybrid of the Numidic and Anatolian breeds (see Plate
+III, fig. 2). The Anatolian goat has long and more or less thick hair,
+especially on the shoulders, sides and thighs, which, clipped in the
+spring, yields a not insignificant income for the goat-breeder
+(Gennadius).</p>
+
+<p>The Cyprus goat gives on an average 150 drams of milk per day during a
+period of say 150 days, or say, 50 to 60 okes per annum.</p>
+
+<p>A good proportion have kids twice a year, and many give birth to twins.</p>
+
+<p>The price of a goat varies considerably in different districts, and
+before the war was from about 8<i>s.</i> to 20<i>s.</i> or 25<i>s.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Pigs</i></p>
+
+<p>The Paphos district and the Karpas end of the Famagusta district are
+specially given to pig raising; but this animal is to be found fairly
+well distributed all over the Island. The native pig is of inferior
+quality, but a noticeable improvement, not only in pig breeding but in
+pig rearing, has resulted from the introduction by Government of the
+Large Black breed from England in 1907. This breed has become well
+established at the Government Farm, Athalassa, and the progeny is now
+well spread over the Island. The improvement resulting from crossing
+with Government stock has been so unmistakable that there is now great
+competition for them at all auction sales and high prices are given.
+This increase in outlay on the part of farmers has led to greater care
+in the feeding and management. They find that well-bred pigs come more
+quickly to maturity, and that it pays to feed them well and not leave
+them to forage for themselves as formerly. Excellent pork and bacon are
+now procurable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> during the winter, and it may be hoped that pig breeding
+in Cyprus has a good future before it.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate IV.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i033.jpg" width="450" height="330" alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;Cyprus Pony." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Cyprus Pony.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i033bottom.jpg" width="450" height="334" alt="Fig. 2.&mdash;Cyprus Donkeys." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Cyprus Donkeys.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The number of pigs counted in the spring of 1914 was 38,850, the third
+highest number on record. Since then, owing to the prohibition of
+export, breeding has been checked and the number declined, but now it
+appears to be again on the upward grade.</p>
+
+<p>Before the war there was an average annual export of about 2,000
+animals; but there is now a better local market than formerly.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Camels</i></p>
+
+<p>Camels are still used to a fair extent, and the breed is good, but owing
+to the improvement in the roads and increased facilities for more rapid
+transport, these animals are less in demand than formerly.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Horses</i></p>
+
+<p>The native breed of horse is best seen in the Paphos pony, which though
+small, about 13 hands, is remarkably strong and hardy (see Plate IV,
+fig. 1). It is said that some eighty years or so ago the breed was
+improved by the introduction of two Arab stallions from Turkey. A useful
+stamp of pony mare is also to be found in the Karpas. A marked
+improvement in the quality of the local horses took place from the
+importation, some years ago, of English pony stallions; and more
+recently a further advance has resulted from the addition to the
+Government stud of the two famous English thoroughbred stallions
+"Téméraire," by Greyleg out of Tereska by Isonomy out of Violetta by
+Hermit, and "Huckle-my-buff," by Isinglass out of Snip by Donovan out of
+Isabel (dam of St. Frusquin).</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Donkeys</i></p>
+
+<p>The Cyprian donkey at its best is a fine animal (see Plate IV, fig. 2).
+It is the common beast of burden of the villager, and is capable of
+carrying a load of from 160 to 224 lb.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of donkey stallions have been exported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> to India,
+Uganda, South Africa, Syria and Egypt from time to time, and the local
+breed has no doubt suffered owing to the best jacks having left the
+country. Although the villagers depend so much upon these animals, very
+little care is taken by them, either in the matter of breeding, feeding
+or proper management. The animals are mostly worked far too early, and
+underfed, and the majority are consequently undersized and of poor
+quality. Where good jacks are used, the progeny is generally
+satisfactory, and at shows and fairs some fine specimens are usually
+brought in. Owing to the increasing demand for jennets, the village
+breeder is inclined to put his she-donkey to a pony stallion rather than
+to a jack-donkey. The donkey mares range from 13 to 13.2 hands, with
+girth measurement of 58 in. to 60 in. and shank 6&frac12; in. They have
+great room, and are well shaped with a straight back and good quarters.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p>It has been recommended that every encouragement should be given to the
+production of good donkeys, from which the best mares could be selected
+for mating with suitable pony stallions, such as the Exmoor and Welsh
+cob, for the breeding of jennets; and at the same time an improvement in
+the jacks would naturally follow.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Jennets and Mules</i></p>
+
+<p>"Owing to the excellence of the Cyprus donkeys and the poor class of
+Cyprus horses, the superiority of the 'jennet' (the result of mating the
+pony stallion with the donkey mare) is very patent over the 'mule' (the
+product of the donkey jack and the pony mare). The jennet of from 13.1
+hands to 14.1 is doubtless the most paying animal that the Cyprus
+villager or landowner can produce, and its excellence for army or
+general pack purposes cannot be surpassed in any country in the world.
+Therefore, in my opinion, it is to this class of animal that the most
+encouragement in breeding should be given. To maintain the excellence of
+the Cyprus jennet every help should be given to the breeding of big
+donkeys, so that the plentiful supply of donkey mares of from 12.3 to
+13.3 hands is available for mating with suitable imported pony
+stallions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> which should be placed by the Government at the breeders'
+disposal."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Both jennets and mules, indiscriminately called "mularia," are largely
+used for transport purposes throughout the Island, and perform
+practically all the carting work of the country, but, as explained, the
+jennet is regarded as greatly the superior animal.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Poultry</i></p>
+
+<p>The ordinary barn-door fowl is met with in Cyprus, as everywhere else.
+The local breed is a mixture of all the various races which have been
+imported by private persons for many years past. The most general types
+met with resemble the Leghorn and Ancona breeds.</p>
+
+<p>The Island, owing to its climate and its corn production, is admirably
+suited to the poultry industry, and a sure and profitable market in
+Egypt can always be relied on. Something has been done of late years by
+the introduction of Wyandottes, Langshans and Orpingtons which have been
+bred by the Agricultural Department.</p>
+
+<p>Proper poultry management among the villagers is practically unknown,
+and until regulations can be made enforceable by law for the control of
+poultry diseases and for the disposal of diseased carcases, poultry
+keepers will continue to suffer heavy losses and the industry will not
+prosper.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Lectures on poultry-keeping have been instituted in the
+districts by the Agricultural Department, and it is hoped that these may
+arouse some interest and lead to improvement.</p>
+
+<p>Given the necessary guidance and control, the industry should have a
+good future before it.</p>
+
+<p>Turkeys are very plentiful and, except in the hills, are seen in nearly
+every village. There are three varieties&mdash;the bronze, by far the most
+general, the white, and a dark brown kind which is not common.</p>
+
+<p>Ducks and geese do well at Kythrea, but elsewhere are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> little seen. At
+this village, however, they are largely bred.</p>
+
+<p>Pigeons also are fairly abundant, and as they mostly feed on a
+neighbour's corn, they are considered profitable birds to keep.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Preserved Meats, etc.</i></p>
+
+<p>A good deal of meat and fat is pickled, dried and smoked for consumption
+by the native population.</p>
+
+<p>Hams and sausages are much eaten, the latter especially in the Karpas.
+Among the various kinds of preserved meats may be specially mentioned
+that known as "apokti." This is the salted and dried flesh of the
+he-goat, which, when cooked, is much appreciated by the villagers. The
+meat is sometimes minced, and after the addition of ground origanum
+leaves and spearmint, is placed in jars and slowly cooked. It is said
+that from 3,000 to 5,000 he-goats are annually slaughtered for making
+"apokti."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IV_DAIRY_PRODUCE" id="IV_DAIRY_PRODUCE"></a>IV. DAIRY PRODUCE</h2>
+
+
+<p><i>Milk</i></p>
+
+<p>Sheep and goats' milk is principally used for cheese and butter making.
+Fresh milk of any kind is not much consumed by the native population,
+although within the last few years the more well-to-do townspeople have
+taken to drinking cows' milk, when obtainable, and it is in growing
+demand in some country parts for invalids when prescribed by the local
+doctor.</p>
+
+<p>The flavour of sheep and goats' milk is a good deal affected by the
+herbage or shrubs on which they feed, and thus varies according to
+locality. A characteristic odour is imparted, for instance, by the
+alnifolia oak (<i>Quercus alnifolia</i>) and the cistus, which are common in
+many parts of the Island, and the cheese and butter produced from such
+milk are in better demand in the local markets. The places in which this
+quality of milk is chiefly produced are the Paphos District, the
+neighbourhood of Kykko and Troöditissa in the Troödos mountains, and
+Akanthou to the north-east of the Island.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A considerable impetus has been given to the production and consumption
+of fresh cows' milk by the establishment of a herd of Devon dairy cows
+at the Government Farm, Athalassa. Cows of Athalassa strain fetch high
+prices, as much as £80 having been given recently for a cow and several
+others have changed hands at £50 to £60.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Cheese</i></p>
+
+<p>The Cypriot is a great cheese eater. The most popular and commonly made
+cheese in Cyprus is that known as Halloumi; the next in order being the
+Paphos and Akanthou cheeses, and then, in imitation of the Greek
+cheeses, the Agrafa, Kefalotyri and Kaskaval, all of which are of a hard
+kind, while there is a small production of the Greek soft cheeses Fetta
+and Telemés.</p>
+
+<p>There are no statistics as to production; the export figures in recent
+years as given in the official trade returns are as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="official trade returns are as follows">
+<tr><td align="right">Year.</td><td align="right">Quantity.</td><td align="right">Value.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1904</td><td align="right">5,606</td><td align="right">8,040</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1905</td><td align="right">4,705</td><td align="right">7,245</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1906</td><td align="right">2,511</td><td align="right">4,238</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1907</td><td align="right">2,200</td><td align="right">4,559</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1908</td><td align="right">2,786</td><td align="right">5,824</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1909</td><td align="right">2,367</td><td align="right">4,927</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1910</td><td align="right">3,345</td><td align="right">6,564</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1911</td><td align="right">3,647</td><td align="right">6,624</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1912</td><td align="right">3,335</td><td align="right">7,203</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1913</td><td align="right">3,699</td><td align="right">9,268</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1914</td><td align="right">4,582</td><td align="right">10,132</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><i>Halloumi.</i>&mdash;This cheese, though rather insipid, is very popular, and
+forms a large part of the dietary of every household. It is easy to
+make, needs no special appliances, and is almost entirely made by the
+shepherds themselves. It is made either from sheep's milk only, or, in
+the hills where goats are numerous, from sheep and goats' milk mixed, or
+in some places from goats' milk only; especially is this so in the
+mountains where sheep are not found. The two kinds of cheese, <i>i.e.</i>
+that made from sheep's milk and that from goats' milk, are easily
+distinguished, as the former is rather soft and crumbly, while the other
+is hard and separates out into flakes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This cheese as it comes from the mould is in the form of a slab called
+"kefali." This is then divided into four or more pieces.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of halloumi: one called "mona" (single), the other
+"dipla" (double). The latter is most in demand. It differs from the
+first in being finished off by being well hand-pressed, and then doubled
+or folded over, salt and spearmint being sprinkled between the fold.</p>
+
+<p>"Myzithra," or, as it is more commonly called, "anari," is a soft cheese
+produced by boiling the whey, whereby all albuminoid substances not
+previously coagulated are now coagulated and rise to the surface
+together with any pieces of curd still remaining in the whey. A good
+quantity of fat is also enclosed in the coagulated mass, which is placed
+in rush moulds or in cloths and pressed so as to squeeze out the whey.
+"Anari" thus made is specially known as "bastard," and is an excellent
+soft cheese, very popular among the European residents as well as among
+the native inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>A rather finer "anari" with slightly different flavour is made by adding
+5 to 10 per cent. of pure milk. This added milk is known as "prosgalo."</p>
+
+<p>Both kinds are dried in the sun.</p>
+
+<p>From "anari" is made a kind of fat used as cooking butter, by crushing
+and rubbing it between the hands in warm water. A thin paste is thus
+formed from which a fat separates, which rises to the surface, and is
+then collected.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paphos and Akanthou Cheeses.</i>&mdash;These are prepared in much the same way
+as "halloumi," but are made in smaller, barrel-shaped moulds, and are
+steeped longer in the whey, which produces a rind and renders them
+tougher and less liable to crack. They are well rubbed with salt. Their
+characteristic flavour is doubtless due to some extent to the milk of
+those districts, as explained above. Owing to their small size they
+become very hard.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kefalotyri.</i>&mdash;The best cheeses of this type are made with sheep's milk,
+which is coagulated at its natural temperature immediately after
+milking. Rennet is added so as to produce coagulation within an hour.
+The cheeses are placed in moulds, pressed and salted. They are turned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+and salted every day for a week; and this continues for two or three
+weeks, until the cheeses cannot absorb more salt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fetta.</i>&mdash;The process for making this cheese is much the same as for
+Paphos cheeses, but differs in regard to temperature. It is placed in
+bags and hung up, or left in cheese cloths on the table to drain. It is
+made up in 100 or 200 dram pieces, and turned and lightly salted for
+three days; then placed in barrels filled with brine. This cheese ripens
+in a few days. It is soft, and has a sharp, pungent flavour. It is the
+first to come on the market. It is not consumed in Cyprus, but made
+entirely for the Egyptian market, where it is much liked. Being soft, it
+does not keep well, and should always be kept covered in brine. For
+these reasons it is exported in small barrels of a gross weight of 40 to
+50 okes. If care is taken in this respect, if all leaky barrels are kept
+refilled and cool storage provided, it may be preserved for a year; but
+these conditions are rarely fulfilled in Cyprus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Telemés.</i>&mdash;This is another soft cheese, prepared in a similar manner to
+"fetta," but it is cut into square blocks and placed not in barrels or
+vats, but in tins which, when completely filled with cheese and brine,
+are soldered down. This cheese is also made entirely for the Egyptian
+market.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kaskaval or Kaskavalli.</i>&mdash;This is mostly made by cheese-makers who come
+over from Greece or Turkey during the cheese-making season.</p>
+
+<p>The curd, after the whey is drained off, is called "phlongos," and it is
+almost always bought from the shepherds, each shepherd preparing it in
+his own way. It is transported in baskets, sometimes a good distance, to
+the cheese factory, or "kassaria," and these drawbacks, added to lack of
+cleanliness, are the cause of much cheese of inferior quality being
+produced which has no keeping properties and must be quickly consumed.</p>
+
+<p>Having reached a pasty condition, the cheese is placed in reed or willow
+baskets and immersed in either boiling whey or clean water and stirred
+until the whole mass is transformed into "kossimari"; it is then cut
+into pieces weighing one or two okes, and moulded by hand into a
+globular form, leaving one slight depression called the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> "omphalos" or
+navel. If not properly stored, this cheese soon dries and becomes rancid
+or tasteless.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agrafa Cheese.</i>&mdash;This is made entirely from sheep's milk. Coagulation
+should be completed in 25 to 30 minutes. The cheese remains 20 hours in
+the press. Salting lasts from 40 to 60 days, and the cheeses ripen in
+four months. If well stored, the cheese may keep for two years.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Butter</i></p>
+
+<p>Butter making is carried on to only a limited extent in Cyprus, and with
+two or three exceptions is in the hands of shepherds, who use a
+primitive conical-shaped churn, something after the Danish pattern.
+Churning consists in beating up the contents of the churn with a stick,
+to the end of which is fixed a round wooden disc 6 to 10 in. in
+diameter, not unlike a piston in its action. Sheep's milk is mostly used
+and, with a modern churn, this will yield 9 to 12 per cent. of fresh
+butter. Goats' milk gives about 5 to 6 per cent. About half the above
+quantities may be obtained with the older, native churn.</p>
+
+<p>In the Near East (Greece, Turkey, etc.) fresh butter is not used in
+cooking, as almost all cooked food is fried and butter containing the
+least water and casein cannot serve the purpose. The pure fat must
+therefore be extracted. Two methods are applied. The best is that of
+plunging the tins containing the fresh butter into hot water which heats
+the butter and sends the fat to the surface. It is then collected and
+slightly salted. This has a good flavour and keeps well.</p>
+
+<p>The second method is to place the fresh butter, or the residue from the
+former process, into tin pans and boil until the water is evaporated,
+when the albuminoids solidify at the bottom of the pans. The fat which
+is then on the surface is ladled out. This is inferior in quality, and
+has a disagreeable smell imparted by the albuminoids which come in
+contact with the hot pan.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Xynogala or Yaourti</i></p>
+
+<p>The former is the Greek, the latter the Turkish name for this
+preparation of sour milk. Unlike fresh butter, it forms,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> in season,
+part of the diet of almost every Cypriot household. It is now made in
+England and sold as "Bulgarian milk" or "yaourti." It is in the form of
+clotted cream, but if placed in a bag of fine cloth and if the whey is
+left to drain off, it forms a thick paste, and has an excellent creamy
+flavour, and is eaten in both cases either alone or, like Devonshire
+cream, with stewed fruits, etc.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Trachanas</i></p>
+
+<p>This is another favourite milk preparation, being a mixture of "yaourti"
+and ground wheat made into a thick paste. This is sun-dried and makes an
+excellent soup.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Kaimaki or Tsippa</i></p>
+
+<p>This much resembles Devonshire clotted cream. It is the natural cream
+formed after boiling the milk overnight and setting it in shallow pans
+to cool. If the boiled milk is poured into the pans from a height, so as
+to make a foam, a better result is obtained.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="V_CROPS_AND_OTHER_PRODUCE_OF_THE_LAND" id="V_CROPS_AND_OTHER_PRODUCE_OF_THE_LAND"></a>V. CROPS AND OTHER PRODUCE OF THE LAND</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cereals</span></p>
+
+<p>The Messaoria plain is the principal corn-producing area of the island.
+Wheat, barley and oats are the chief cereals grown, and they are sown
+more or less throughout the whole of Cyprus, nearly up to the summit of
+Troödos, to an altitude of about 4,500 ft. Indian corn has been
+cultivated for ten years or so, and is becoming more general both for
+green food and for seed, and rye has begun to make its appearance during
+the last few years. Dari is becoming more known.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation of the land for cereals is as follows: About the middle
+of January, when the land is soaked with rain, the fallow field (&#957;&#7953;&#945;&#963;&#956;&#945; or
+ &#957;&#949;&#945;&#964;&#8001;&#962;) is broken up, and in some cases sown with a
+green fallow, and in March or April it is cross ploughed (&#948;&#7985;&#946;&#959;&#955;&#959;). If the autumn rains are early, the field is ploughed for a
+third time (&#945;&#957;&#7937;&#954;&#959;&#956;&#956;&#945;), after which the crop is sown; but if the
+rains are late, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> sowing is done on fields which have been cross
+ploughed only. As a rule sowing begins after the autumn rains, and may
+go on until January. But if rain does not come before the end of
+October, many sow before the rain; and in many places farmers sow
+regularly before, <i>i.e.</i> without waiting for the autumn rains. This
+sowing is called &#958;&#949;&#961;&#8001;&#946;&#959;&#955;&#945;. Lands flooded by a river or other
+running water are called &#960;&#8001;&#964;&#953;&#956;&#945; (<i>Handbook of Cyprus</i>, p. 154).
+The sowing is done broadcast; the drill is not used.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate V.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i044.jpg" width="450" height="335" alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;Carting Corn." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Carting Corn.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i044bottom.jpg" width="450" height="282" alt="Fig. 2.&mdash;Threshing Corn with Native Threshing Board." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Threshing Corn with Native Threshing Board.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p>Often, owing to want of sufficient hands and shortness of time or other
+reasons, land which has been fallowed is sown without being first
+ploughed up. This is called &#949;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#959; &#960;&#961;&#8001;&#963;&#969;&#960;&#959;&#957;, <i>i.e.</i> on the
+surface, or face of the field. Again, a field which has had a corn crop
+is sown the next autumn without ploughing; and this is locally called
+"on the stubble."</p>
+
+<p>It is not uncommon for the same land to be sown year after year with a
+corn crop, with no rotation. This is especially the case with the deep
+soils in the plains, known as "kambos," as contrasted with the shallow,
+rocky soils called "trachonas."</p>
+
+<p>At the time of harvest numbers of labourers, men and women, usually
+arrive from Anatolia and Syria and find employment in the fields.</p>
+
+<p>The threshing-floors are practically identical with those of Biblical
+times. They are frequently paved with flag-stones, but as often as not
+are merely levelled pieces of ground. On these the sheaves are opened
+and spread out for the threshing. The threshing-board (&#948;&#959;&#965;&#954;&#7937;&#957;&#953;
+or &#948;&#959;&#965;&#954;&#7937;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#962;) is that referred to by Virgil as <i>tribulum</i>
+(Georg. Bk. 1) and is merely a stout board, studded on the underside
+with sharp flint stones (see Plate V, fig. 2). This is drawn round and
+round over the spread-out sheaves by mules, donkeys or oxen, and affords
+a pastime to old and young during the summer months. During the process
+the grain is separated from the straw, and the latter is bruised and
+partly shredded, and it is the rooted belief of the Cypriot farmer that
+only in that condition will it be relished by and benefit the animals
+which feed on it. The straw is then gradually cleared away and the grain
+is winnowed by being thrown up in the wind with wooden shovels.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> The
+grain is then heaped up and left until measured by the tithe official.
+With the grain is also collected the sweepings of the threshing-floor,
+and the percentage of the foreign substances mixed with the grain varies
+from 5 to 15 per cent. There are a few winnowing machines and it is
+hoped that they will come into more general use as soon as they can be
+imported.</p>
+
+<p>At Athalassa all cereal crops are reaped and threshed by machinery.</p>
+
+<p>A good many reaping machines were imported by the Agricultural
+Department some years ago for resale to the farmers, and there is a very
+fair demand. This procedure has not been permitted for some years, and
+the work fell into the hands of an English merchant who has succeeded in
+placing a few machines every year. The country is ready to employ these
+and other agricultural machines, but the farmers need guidance in the
+choice of a machine and are reluctant to place orders through native
+merchants, who may not know the best types to supply and whose profits
+they fear to be exorbitant. If they could procure these through the
+medium of the Agricultural Department they would be encouraged to make
+considerable purchases. The loss of grain on the "aloni" alone may be
+gauged by the current opinion that each pair of oxen consumes, while
+threshing, one kilé of grain per day. Much damage is often caused by hot
+westerly winds at the time when the grain is just forming.</p>
+
+<p>In the absence of any law to prevent the adulteration of cereals,
+dishonest practices are very frequent. A common method of adulteration
+is to mix with the grain the joints of the straw which are cut during
+the process of threshing and separated when winnowing. These are often
+sprayed with water in order to increase both bulk and weight. The
+moisture is absorbed by the grain, which thereby swells and is made to
+look bigger.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Seed Corn Law of 1898 the Government make advances of seed
+wheat, barley, oats and vetches to cultivators under an agreement to
+repay in kind after harvest a quantity of grain equivalent to the amount
+of seed so advanced, together with an addition of one-fourth of the
+quantity so advanced, by way of interest.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This benefit is very generally availed of by smaller cultivators. It has
+not, however, been found possible for Government to keep separately the
+various kinds and qualities of tithe corn, from which these advances are
+made, and farmers frequently complain that the seed, so issued
+promiscuously, is unsuitable to the land, aspect, or special conditions
+on individual farms. Weevilled grain also is a source of trouble, and
+farmers obtaining such seed advances must be prepared to run risk of
+failure from this cause.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well-known fact that cultivators often sell their seed corn so
+advanced them, in order to buy some other corn known to them as more
+suited to their land, and they are often justified, perhaps, in so
+doing.</p>
+
+<p>The issues are made by District Commissioners to selected applicants who
+are believed to be unable to buy seed for cash. The average annual
+issues, for the last five years, have been: wheat, 38,013 kilés; barley,
+31,479 kilés.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Wheat</i></p>
+
+<p>In ancient times, when the population numbered about 1,100,000, the
+Island was said to be self-supporting in the matter of wheat. Taking the
+annual consumption of wheat per head of population at 8 bushels
+(Gennadius's <i>Report on the Agriculture of Cyprus</i>, Part I, p. 8) and
+after making an allowance for seed, the annual production would then
+have been about 10,000,000 bushels. From British Consular Reports it
+appears that in 1863 the average produce was reckoned at 640,000
+bushels. The average annual production of wheat for the ten years ended
+1913, as shown in Blue Book Returns, was 2,292,827 kilés. For later
+years the figures are:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="Blue Book Returns">
+<tr><td align="right">Year.</td><td align="right">Kilés.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1914</td><td align="right">1,924,336</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1915</td><td align="right">1,761,501</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1916</td><td align="right">1,524,484</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1917</td><td align="right">1,782,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1918</td><td align="right">2,424,570</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Wheat is sown at the rate of 1 kilé per donum. The average yield per
+donum is 6 to 10 kilés, and varies between 3 to 4 kilés on dry land in a
+poor year, to 16 to 20 on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> best lands in a good year. When rains are
+very late and spring weather is unfavourable, a farmer often fails to
+recover even the seed.</p>
+
+<p>Much might be done to increase the yield by better methods of husbandry,
+by the use of improved implements for cultivating and reaping, and by
+the use of threshing machines. An immense quantity of grain is consumed
+by birds (larks, sparrows, doves, etc.), which at times literally strip
+the fields and continue their depredations on the threshing-floors.</p>
+
+<p>Wheat is sown from October to December; a field which has had a winter
+crop is pastured after the harvest until January; in January and
+February it is broken up and cross ploughed and sown immediately after
+with a spring or summer crop.</p>
+
+<p>The crop is cut about May-June. It is cut with a sickle (&#948;&#961;&#949;&#960;&#7937;&#957;&#953;), tied into sheaves, and carried on donkeys or small carts to
+the threshing-floors. The sickle is larger than the European one, and is
+often provided with bells ("koudounia" or "sousounaria") to frighten the
+snakes, and the handles are ornamented with leather tassels.</p>
+
+<p>Several varieties of wheat are grown in the Island, mostly of the hard
+kinds, these being preferred by millers.</p>
+
+<p>The following English varieties have been imported and tried during the
+last four years: Improved Treasure, White Stand Up, and Improved Red
+Fife. The two former failed, being too late in maturing; the latter is
+still under trial, but it is not very attractive, being a late variety,
+and it gives a smaller yield than the native kinds. The same remarks
+apply to several wheats obtained from India and South Africa and which
+are still under trial.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Barley</i></p>
+
+<p>This crop is sown about the same time as wheat, if anything slightly
+earlier; and it is ready for the sickle three or four weeks before
+wheat. When the straw is short the plant is uprooted, not cut.</p>
+
+<p>It is sown at the rate of 1 to 1&frac12; kilés to the donum, and may be
+expected to yield from 10 to 15 kilés; but 30 kilés is not uncommon in
+the plains, and even much larger yields have been recorded from time to
+time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are three native varieties, viz. the common 4-row, the ordinary
+6-row and the Paphos 6-row barley, also grown around Davlos in the
+north-east of the Island. The last-named is heavier than the two former
+kinds. Little success has attended the introduction by the Agricultural
+Department of "Prize Prolific," "Gold Thorpe" and "Chevalier," which
+have been experimentally grown for the last three years. They mature
+late and have not resisted severe drought. Their yield is small compared
+with native barleys, although this may improve when they are fully
+acclimatised.</p>
+
+<p>Barley is the staple food for all kinds of animals, pigs and poultry in
+Cyprus, and it is often used for bread-making in years of wheat
+shortage.</p>
+
+<p>The tithe is mainly exported to England, where it has a good name for
+malting purposes, especially that produced in the Paphos district. It
+has failed to attain the place it deserves on the English market owing
+to the high percentage of dirt, etc., it mostly contains.</p>
+
+<p>A sample of Cyprus barley examined at the Imperial Institute in 1914
+proved to be of good malting quality, and similar material if marketed
+in commercial quantities would be readily saleable in the United Kingdom
+(see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xii. 1914, p. 552).</p>
+
+<p>A sample of naked or skinless barley from Cyprus has also been reported
+on by the Imperial Institute. This type of barley cannot be employed for
+malting for ordinary brewing purposes, but it was considered that the
+Cyprus material might be used by distillers (who only require a
+partially malted barley), and in any case the sample would rank as a
+good class feeding barley (<i>ibid.</i> vol. xiv, 1916, p. 159).</p>
+
+<p>The average annual production of barley, as shown by the Blue Book
+returns, for the ten years ended 1913 was 2,449,285 kilés. For later
+years the figures are:</p>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="For later
+years the figures are">
+<tr><td align="right">Year.</td><td align="right">Kilés.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1914</td><td align="right">1,957,944</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1915</td><td align="right">1,912,316</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1916</td><td align="right">1,953,628</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1917</td><td align="right">2,508,880</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1918</td><td align="right">3,080,710</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These figures should be contrasted with British consular estimated
+average in the sixties of 960,000 bushels.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Oats</i></p>
+
+<p>In Cyprus, oats are used on a far smaller scale than barley as food for
+cattle, and they are unknown, except to a few townsfolk, as a food for
+human beings.</p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of this crop is restricted, partly because it ripens
+late and needs late rains, and partly because it sheds its ripe grain
+too quickly for the ordinary easy-going farmer, who frequently finds his
+next year's crop smothered with self-sown oats. It is also commonly held
+that the crop exhausts the soil.</p>
+
+<p>There are two native varieties, both white. The one is grown much more
+than the other, called "anoyira," which, although incomparably superior,
+is little cultivated outside the Limassol district.</p>
+
+<p>The seed is sown at the rate of 2 to 2&frac12; kilés to the donum, and a
+yield of from 20 to 30 kilés is obtained. The average annual production
+for the ten years ended 1913, as shown by Blue Book returns, was 394,695
+kilés. For later years the figures are:</p>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="For later years the figures are">
+<tr><td align="right">Year.</td><td align="right">Kilés.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1914</td><td align="right">404,917</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1915</td><td align="right">378,724</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1916</td><td align="right">446,469</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1917</td><td align="right">306,010</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1918</td><td align="right">313,260</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Besides "Black Tartar," which has been regularly grown at Athalassa for
+several years, the Agricultural Department has introduced of late years
+"Black Cluster," "White Cluster" and "Supreme." All these ripen late and
+need late rains, and they have not given any promise of success. A black
+variety imported from Greece some years ago has proved much superior to
+the two native varieties, but its cultivation is still limited.</p>
+
+<p>Reports on oats from Cyprus and on oat, straw and kyko oat plant (<i>Avena
+sativa</i> var. <i>obtusata</i>) are given in the <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial
+Institute</span> (vol. xv. 1917, pp. 308-10).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Rye</i></p>
+
+<p>Rye has only lately been introduced by the Agricultural Department, but
+already its cultivation, though very small, is extending. The dark
+colour of the rye loaf creates some prejudice against it, but its value
+in cases of diabetes, a common complaint in Cyprus, is greatly in its
+favour.</p>
+
+<p>The seed is sown and cultivated here in the same manner as wheat, but at
+the same time or even earlier than barley. It is harvested by being cut
+and is threshed on the threshing-floor. The straw is fed to animals, but
+when threshing machines become more general the long straw will become
+available for other purposes than cattle food, <i>e.g.</i> in the manufacture
+of the native saddles ("stratura"), native straw trays and native straw
+hats.</p>
+
+<p>Rye is also grown for green food, in the same way as barley grass.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Maize</i> (<i>Indian Corn</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This crop was first introduced by the Agricultural Department in 1902.
+Its cultivation is governed by the water-supply. It is grown mostly for
+green food, and is met with very generally throughout the Island, being
+sown among the growing crops, <i>e.g.</i> louvi, sesame, cotton, etc., as a
+wind-break or to afford shade. There was a good demand for the grain for
+grinding during the war and the meal is found to be a useful ingredient
+in the ordinary loaf. The stems and leaves provide a welcome change of
+food for cattle when exhausted from threshing and during the dry season
+of the year. At the Government Farm at Athalassa the stems and leaves
+are made into ensilage.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Dari or Millet</i> (<i>Sorghum vulgare</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This crop is little grown, and is mostly found in the Messaria and also
+at Paleochori, almost exclusively in places irrigated by river floods.
+The grain is used for making flour and the fresh stalks are fed to
+cattle.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fruits</span></p>
+
+<p>Cyprus produces a considerable variety of fruits, the chief ones
+exported being raisins, pomegranates, oranges<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> and lemons, and grapes.
+There is a considerable and expanding export trade in the fruits
+enumerated, as shown by Blue Book returns as under:</p>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="30%" cellspacing="0" summary="Blue Book returns">
+<tr><td align="right">Year.</td><td align="right">£.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1904</td><td align="right">29,706</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1905</td><td align="right">29,265</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1906</td><td align="right">41,716</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1907</td><td align="right">36,009</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1908</td><td align="right">35,027</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1909</td><td align="right">29,890</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1910</td><td align="right">52,267</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1911</td><td align="right">57,393</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1912</td><td align="right">59,887</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1913</td><td align="right">69,097</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The pomegranate of Famagusta is famous, and the annual export of this
+fruit alone during the five years ended 1913 averaged £14,682.</p>
+
+<p>Among the mountain villages apples, pears, and plums are extensively
+grown; the latter specially being in good demand in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Apricots and kaisha trees are grown generally throughout the Island, and
+their fruits are particularly good and plentiful. The last-named is a
+delicious variety with a delicate flavour and externally somewhat
+resembles the nectarine. Peaches are mostly grafted on almond stocks, as
+these are hardy and good drought-resisters, but there are a fair number
+of European varieties. Almond trees abound in all parts and do extremely
+well if properly cultivated. Other fairly common fruit trees are the
+quince and loquat, or Japanese medlar.</p>
+
+<p>For several years choice kinds of fruit trees have been imported from
+England, and many thousands of trees of different kinds throughout the
+Island have been grafted and are now beginning to produce fruit of
+excellent quality. Good work has been done by the Perapedhi Wine
+Association, whose garden has been a centre for the dissemination of
+choice grafts.</p>
+
+<p>Unhappily the village growers have been very reluctant to apply proper
+cultivation or to carry out advice in treating their trees, which have
+become the hosts of all kinds of diseases and insect pests. A better
+spirit is now being shown in this direction.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Vines and Wines</i></p>
+
+<p>Writing in 1896, Gennadius described the industry and perseverance of
+the peasants, who with most imperfect<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> implements, by breaking up the
+hard rock and building up the scanty soil, formed vineyards on the steep
+mountain sides, and often up to their very summits. These vineyards, he
+says, having been mostly planted in haste in the happy days of the
+demand for wines (when French vineyards were destroyed by phylloxera),
+were formed by the personal labour of the peasant eked out by the help
+of loans. Since then the wine trade has passed through critical times
+and prices have often been greatly depreciated. The small vine-growers,
+who are also for the most part wine-producers, fell on evil times and
+became heavily indebted. They have remained so until the last year or
+two, when, owing to the large demand and the high prices of wines in
+Egypt, they have been able to free themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Gennadius regarded the cultivation of the vine in Cyprus as indisputably
+unprofitable, and was in favour of checking its extension, and even
+advocated the imposition of a special tax on new plantations. At the
+time he wrote there was an overproduction, and the value of wine had
+greatly fallen, and the revenue which Cypriot wine-makers could gain
+therefrom would hardly suffice to cover the expenses of its transport to
+the market, the annual interest on their debts, and the taxes they had
+to meet.</p>
+
+<p>The village-made wine is usually clarified by means of gypsum. It is
+carried down from the mountain villages in goat-skins (askos or ashia)
+on pack animals, and then sold to the Limassol merchants, who ship the
+greater part to Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The production of wine as carried out in Cyprus leaves much to be
+desired. M. Mouillefert, who visited Cyprus in 1892 to report on the
+wine industry, says: "The vintage is often gathered too late.
+Insufficient care is given to the picking of the grapes and diseased,
+rotten, mildewy or unripe grapes are often used which detract from the
+quality of the wine.</p>
+
+<p>"The grapes are trodden and the fermentation takes place in jars and
+chatties of porous earth, of a capacity of 2 or 3 hectolitres, which are
+tarred inside to counteract their porosity. The houses in which the
+fermentation takes place are of almost the same temperature as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+surrounding air, with the result that in the warmer parts of the Island
+fermentation at first is generally rapid or disturbed, and the
+temperature of the must becomes excessive. In the colder parts, on the
+contrary, the opposite takes place and the resulting wine is rough and
+sharp. The use of gypsum as a preservative is unfortunately very common.
+The tarring of the goat-skins and jars imparts a flavour which is very
+unsuited to the European taste."</p>
+
+<p>M. Mouillefert made the following recommendations: "Tarred jars for
+fermentation should be replaced by wooden vats, or, in the warmer parts
+of the Island, by tuns similar to those used throughout the South of
+France and in Algeria. Presses less primitive than those in use should
+be employed since these leave in the lees a very large quantity of wine.
+The wine when drawn off from the lees should be kept in tuns or in small
+wooden casks." "In short," he says, "to speak quite plainly, no good
+wine destined for ordinary consumption can be obtained with jars."</p>
+
+<p>Some twenty years ago an English Wine Company was established at
+Perapedhi and, until the war, carried on a successful trade and produced
+some good wines manufactured on modern lines. The factory was well
+equipped with up-to-date plant, and its wine of port type was especially
+popular. It was throughout the greater part of this time owned by the
+firm of W. H. Chaplin &amp; Co., London, but since the war it has been
+closed down. The excellent brandy of Messrs. Hadji Pavlo &amp; Co. has found
+for some time a steady market in England, and there are other
+well-equipped wine and spirit factories at Limassol, notably those of
+the Limassol Wine &amp; Spirit Co., Ltd., of Mr. M. Michaelides and of Mr.
+N. Joannides.</p>
+
+<p>The firm of Messrs. Hadji Pavlo &amp; Co. has carried out since 1872 the
+manufacture of spirits, and for twenty-five years they have been engaged
+in producing their "Zanatzin" brand of wines. Their V.O. cognac and
+three-star brandy are both excellent.</p>
+
+<p>Various liqueurs, made from local products, aniseed, kernels of apricots
+and other stone fruit, etc., are made by this and other firms, and sold
+under the name "Zucki."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The principal wines, spirits, liqueurs and other alcoholic liquors
+produced are:</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary black wine of the country, or "krasi."</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary white wine of the country, or "asprokrasi."</p>
+
+<p>Commandaria.</p>
+
+<p>Brandy. First and second quality sold in barrels; one-star, two-star,
+three-star and V.O. sold in bottles.</p>
+
+<p>Mastic, sold in four qualities; Zucki, sold in two qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Rum and Amer Pigon.</p>
+
+<p>Alcohol. 95 C. and 36 C.</p>
+
+<p>Various spirits, liqueurs and syrups: whisky, vermuth, amathus, banana,
+mentha, mandarini, triantaphyllo, kitro, pergamotto, vanilla, violetta,
+anana, benedictine.</p>
+
+<p>Eau de Cologne.</p>
+
+<p>Commandaria is one of the oldest and most famous sweet dessert wines. It
+is held indeed to have been the "nectar of the gods." In the time of the
+Knights Templar it acquired great fame. Existing stocks are annually
+added to, the original vintage having in some cases a great age, so much
+so that, through evaporation, the wine becomes a syrup or pulp, which
+imparts a bouquet to the fresh commandaria which is added to it. In
+making commandaria the grapes are left on the vines until overripe and,
+after picking, are spread out in the sun for further evaporation, when
+they undergo the usual process of wine-making. In this way a sweet wine,
+rich in sugar and alcohol, and having a characteristic flavour, is
+produced. A limited quantity only is made every year, and of this a
+certain quantity is exported and fetches a high price, as a speciality,
+in England and on the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>A red mastic is made at the Kykko Monastery which has acquired local
+fame.</p>
+
+<p>The situation at the present time is generally improved, and although
+Cyprus wines can never form more than an insignificant proportion of the
+world's supply, and could not create any special market without
+considerable change of system and large expenditure in advertising, they
+may yet, by simple improved methods, by means of co-operative storage
+and the application of sound elementary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> principles, be able to secure a
+more recognised position and a remunerative, though perhaps limited,
+demand, at any rate for some of the special brands.</p>
+
+<p>For the benefit of village producers practical lectures, with the help
+of special apparatus, are now being given in the wine villages during
+the vintage season, by officials of the Agricultural Department.</p>
+
+<p>The export of wines (including commandaria) and spirits during the ten
+years ended 1913 were of a total value of £313,920 and £55,364
+respectively. The lowest and highest figures were £20,274 in 1909 and
+£52,351 in 1911 for wines and £3,991 in 1906 and £8,187 in 1913 for
+spirits. For the last four years the exports have been:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="50%" cellspacing="0" summary="the last four years the exports have been">
+<tr><td align="right">Year.</td><td align="center">Wines<br />(including Commandaria).</td><td align="right">Spirits.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"></td><td align="center">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;£</td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1914</td><td align="center">29,405</td><td align="right">4,396</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1915</td><td align="center">38,158</td><td align="right">5,431</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1916</td><td align="center">80,165</td><td align="right">6,865</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1917</td><td align="center">78,451</td><td align="right">22,173</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>There is an export duty on wine at the rate of 8 paras per gallon, on
+all spirit of 20 paras per gallon and on all vinegar of 5 paras per
+gallon.</p>
+
+<p>Some seventeen varieties of <i>Vitis vinifera</i> have for a long time been
+grown in Cyprus; the most largely cultivated being the following:</p>
+
+<p>Mavro (black). The commonest variety, medium-sized bunch, with dark,
+large, oval-shaped grapes.</p>
+
+<p>Xinisteri (white). Common variety, with medium-sized bunch, white
+roundish grapes, thin skin. These are suited to a rich moist soil.</p>
+
+<p>Voophthalmo (ox-eye). Equally common variety. Rather small bunch, with
+black, round and rather small grapes. Suited to a dry, calcareous soil.</p>
+
+<p>The Muscat comes next, being mostly grown at Omodhos. It is the common
+early muscatel of the East.</p>
+
+<p>The remaining kinds are locally known as Bastardico (bastard),
+Maratheftico or Kraseti, Morokanali or Spourta (flabby-berried), Promari
+or Glycopromo (early or early-sweet), Xantho, Axanthi or Phinikoto,
+Kouphorrhovo or Katin-parmak, Verico, Sultana, Razaki, Corinthiaki
+(currant), Malaga (Alexandria Muscatel), Rhodities. Of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> these, several
+are only to be found here and there in private gardens.</p>
+
+<p>Five years ago several thousand Sultana vines were imported by the
+Agricultural Department from Crete, and these have now become fairly
+well distributed over the Island and the produce is beginning to appear
+in the market. These dried sultanas in 1918 sold for as much as 4<i>s.</i>
+per oke.</p>
+
+<p>Three years ago the following varieties of table vines were imported
+from England by the Agricultural Department:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Black Hamburg</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Alicante or Black Tokay</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Canon Hall Muscat</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lady Hastings</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Royal Muscadine</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Muscat of Alexandria</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>These are now being acclimatised, and it is hoped gradually to
+distribute a large number of grafts.</p>
+
+<p>Vine cultivation covers an area of about 140,000 donums and is in the
+hands of some 15,700 vine growers.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to defects of planting the vines of Cyprus do not in most cases
+begin to bear fruit before the third or fourth year, while, if modern
+methods were adopted, they would bear fruit in their second year and
+attain their full growth in their fourth year.</p>
+
+<p>What is known as the "willow-head" system of pruning has been very
+general, with consequently poor results. Better methods have long been
+inculcated and are now being more and more adopted. Manuring is but
+rarely practised and ploughing is confined to lightly turning the
+surface soil with a wooden plough, and this not every year. On the
+higher slopes of the mountains terracing is common and necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Grape mildew (<i>Oidium Tuckeri</i>) is prevalent in nearly all the vine
+areas. Other diseases and pests of the vine met with are anthracnose,
+pourridié, <i>Septosporium Fuckelii</i>, cuscute, <i>Cochylis</i>, <i>Zygæna
+ampelophaga</i> and <i>Pyralis</i>. Happily the stringent regulations which for
+many years have been in force prohibiting the importation of any kind of
+living plant have resulted in keeping the Cypriot vineyards free from
+the scourge of phylloxera.</p>
+
+<p>Sulphuring has become more general of late years.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> The Government has
+done much to bring this about, and for fifteen years or more has
+imported sufficient sulphur from Sicily, which has been placed in the
+hands of village store-keepers and sold at a fixed price by the
+Agricultural Department. This has never more than exceeded the bare cost
+and more often has been issued at half cost and in times of distress
+even gratis.</p>
+
+<p>The vine-owners have been stimulated by the recent high prices for wines
+to expend more time and money on this operation. The ignorant prejudice
+against the effectiveness of sulphur as a cure for grape mildew has to a
+great extent died out. False ideas of economy alone prevent its general
+use.</p>
+
+<p>Fresh grapes are largely consumed locally, and considerable quantities
+are exported to Egypt, as shown by the following table:</p>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="quantities
+exported to Egypt">
+<tr><td align="left">Year.</td><td align="right">Quantity.</td><td align="right">Value.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1904</td><td align="right">12,025</td><td align="right">1,854</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1905</td><td align="right">8,607</td><td align="right">1,208</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1906</td><td align="right">9,563</td><td align="right">1,487</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1907</td><td align="right">7,399</td><td align="right">1,161</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1908</td><td align="right">6,807</td><td align="right">1,331</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1909</td><td align="right">7,078</td><td align="right">1,094</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1910</td><td align="right">7,588</td><td align="right">1,216</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1911</td><td align="right">11,597</td><td align="right">1,865</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1912</td><td align="right">12,565</td><td align="right">2,028</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1913</td><td align="right">10,303</td><td align="right">1,487</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The average annual export of raisins for the ten years ended 1913 was
+54,007 cwts. valued at £24,190. The lowest price was 5<i>s.</i> 4<i>cp.</i> per
+cwt. in 1909 and the highest 11<i>s.</i> 4&frac12;<i>cp.</i> in 1911. During the war
+the exports have been: 1914, 16,395 cwts., £7,419; 1915, 54,189 cwts.,
+£34,467; 1916, 34,361 cwts., £38,188; and 1917, 70,624 cwts., £90,040.
+The annual prices in these years were respectively 9<i>s.</i>, 12<i>s.</i>
+6&frac12;<i>cp.</i>, 22<i>s.</i> 2<i>cp.</i> and 25<i>s.</i> 4&frac12;<i>cp.</i> per cwt.</p>
+
+<p>Up to 1905, inclusive, by far the greatest quantity of raisins had been
+shipped every year to Austria; Rumania, Turkey and Egypt coming next in
+order. Since that date Rumania has easily taken the first place, being
+followed at a distance by Austria, Turkey and Egypt. Since the war the
+bulk has been shipped for military requirements and to France, Egypt,
+Malta and England<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> for eating and for use in confectionery, and the
+industry has grown.</p>
+
+<p>A marked improvement has taken place in the preparation of the raisins;
+and specially qualified officials of the Agricultural Department every
+year give practical instruction on this subject in the vine villages.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Citrus Fruits</i></p>
+
+<p>Oranges and lemons are very extensively grown in Cyprus, whilst
+mandarines, citrons ("kitria") and sweet limes ("glykolemonia") are also
+found in every part of the Island. In addition, the shaddock ("phrappa")
+and the bergamot orange are cultivated in the Island.</p>
+
+<p>The best and most common variety of the sweet orange is the oval
+(sometimes round) Jaffa, grown everywhere, but specially at Famagusta,
+where there are numerous orange groves. Another variety of good quality
+is grown at Lefka. The trees of both varieties produce large, firm,
+thick-fleshed fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Bitter oranges are largely grown from seed for stock on which the better
+kinds are grafted. Many thousands of these, and also of the grafted
+plants, are annually issued from the Government Nurseries. Much loss has
+been sustained from time to time through disease, and in 1899 whole
+orange groves at Famagusta, Lefka and Kythrea were uprooted or cut right
+back. With the expansion of the Agricultural Department and a small
+qualified staff it has become possible to bring these diseases somewhat
+under control, and the orange and lemon production has much increased,
+though gummosis and scale disease still play much havoc.</p>
+
+<p>In the Varosha orange groves the trees are grown in light, sandy soil,
+which is banked up round the trunk. They are irrigated by means of the
+native alakati, or noria, or more often by air-motors, which in this
+locality are much in vogue.</p>
+
+<p>The two most common causes of failure are the persistent planting of
+trees too close together and over-watering. Growers turn a deaf ear to
+all advice aimed at changing these two bad habits. The native
+agriculturist is convinced, beyond the reach of argument, that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+greater the number of trees on a given area the greater will be the
+profit. In a land where water is so precious the deep-rooted opinion is
+held that the more water a plant receives the better it will thrive, and
+too frequent irrigation accounts to a large extent for the widespread
+damage caused by gummosis. Until lately pruning was scarcely practised
+at all. Thanks to a system of model orchards lately instituted by the
+Agricultural Department, better methods are at last being introduced,
+and fruit-growers are able to model their practice upon the work carried
+out on the specimen trees, alongside their own, reserved by the
+Department for such demonstrations.</p>
+
+<p>Lemons are largely consumed by natives with their food. The produce is
+of large size, thick-skinned and juicy. Until some twelve years or so
+ago the fruit was largely sold on the trees for shipment to Russia and
+Rumania, but those markets failed, owing to the prevalence in Cyprus of
+scale disease and partly to loss through rotting in transport. The
+export of oranges and lemons has of late years been confined almost
+entirely to Egypt.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Fig</i> (<i>Ficus Carica</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This tree thrives everywhere, and is particularly cultivated at Livadhia
+and Lefkara (Larnaca district), in Paphos and at the Tylliria, where the
+small, sweet, white variety, locally called "antelounika," is grown.
+There are but few true Smyrna figs, but this variety is being multiplied
+by cuttings and also by grafting. Other good kinds are the "sarilop" and
+"bardajik," of which there are a few private specimens only, and the
+"vardika" which is more or less common, particularly at Morphou. The
+Lefkara figs somewhat resemble those of Tylliria and, like the latter,
+mature naturally; they are considered very good and are divided into two
+varieties, the "malantzana" and the "kourtziatika." The figs of Ktema in
+Paphos are the common violet-coloured variety, but are larger, and are
+mostly ripened artificially.</p>
+
+<p>Cyprus figs are only of moderate quality, though doubtless susceptible
+of improvement. They resist drought and generally yield good crops every
+year.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The native dried fig is much eaten, and is also used as an adulterant
+of, if not a substitute for, coffee, and makes a good beverage, like the
+well-known Austrian "feigen café." Dried figs are also made into a paste
+and mixed with flour to make fig pies ("sykopitæ").</p>
+
+<p>The method of oiling, that is, smearing with oil the orifice on the top
+of the fig while still unripe, is applied to those varieties which ripen
+slowly. It is these varieties which are especially grown in Cyprus. The
+fruit so treated is rather tasteless and insipid, but as it comes early
+to market it fetches a good price. The reason for hastening the ripening
+process by oiling is that the fruit may become ready for picking before
+sparrows and hornets get it, as they would otherwise do at that season.
+The later crop is more or less immune from their attacks, as ripe corn
+is then abundant in the field or on the threshing-floor.</p>
+
+<p>Figs first appear on the market in May. This early fruit is called
+"magiles" (possibly from Maios-gilia = May production). The fruit is
+produced on the wood of the preceding year, from a bud which has
+remained dormant. The next crop appears about mid-July, and then the
+fruit is called by its proper name "syka."</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Cherries</i></p>
+
+<p>The principal and almost the only cherry-growing village in the Island
+is Pedoulas, in the Marathassa valley. This village is about 3,600 ft.
+above the sea-level. The trees at that village do remarkably well, and
+they bring in a good revenue. They are mostly wild trees which have been
+grafted; but there are also a small number which have been raised from
+imported Malaheb seed. From time to time good kinds of young grafted
+cherry trees have been imported from England by the Agricultural
+Department and grafts from these have been freely supplied to the
+village.</p>
+
+<p>There are two native varieties, one ("kerasi") which is almost
+exclusively grown at Pedoulas, the other ("vysino") which is found
+fairly well distributed over the Island. The former is pale yellow and
+pink, the latter is slightly smaller and less sweet and of a darkish-red
+colour,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> and is used mostly in making jam and preserves, while the
+"kerasi" is more for table purposes.</p>
+
+<p>More grafted trees are now coming into bearing and "White-hearts" are
+now sold in the bazaar at about 12 cps. per oke. "Black-hearts" are also
+beginning to make an appearance.</p>
+
+<p>Efforts are being made to introduce the cherry tree to other hill
+villages, and there seems no reason why its cultivation should not
+become general in the higher parts of the Island. This fruit travels
+well and a fine market awaits it in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the prohibition of fruit exports during the war, a small
+industry has grown up for drying the "kerasi."</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Banana</i></p>
+
+<p>The local name of the banana is Sykiton Adam (Adam's fig), from the
+belief that Adam made an apron of the leaves.</p>
+
+<p>There is some hope that the cultivation of this delicious fruit may
+become more taken up in Cyprus than has hitherto been thought possible.
+Paphos has for several years had the reputation of possessing
+fruit-yielding trees of good quality. Offshoots from some of these have
+been transplanted to Larnaca, and there are now several gardens in which
+a fair quantity of fruit ripens each year. At Kyrenia and Lapithos there
+are also a good number of trees. The fruit is of a different variety
+from that of Paphos and Larnaca, the shape being longitudinally angular,
+whereas the latter kind is longitudinally round and larger.</p>
+
+<p>Five years ago the Agricultural Department obtained some special
+varieties from Zanzibar. These are now beginning to yield fruit, and
+offshoots are being distributed in the Island.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Azarol Hawthorn</i></p>
+
+<p>This hawthorn (<i>Cratægus Azarolus</i>), known locally as "mosphilia," grows
+wild scattered about over the country. The fruit makes an excellent
+jelly. The tree is an excellent stock on which to graft the pear tree.</p>
+
+<p>In the higher regions another species, <i>C. monogyna</i>, is found.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Melons</i></p>
+
+<p>The western end of the Messaoria plain is noted for its water-melons and
+sweet-melons. These are grown in "postania," a corruption of the Persian
+word "bustan," a garden. They are cultivated only on irrigable land. At
+Asha, where, perhaps, the best fruits are grown, the land is flooded by
+the river and no later watering, as a rule, takes place. Through a
+well-grounded fear of theft, the grower and his family live in their
+"postania" during the season of marketing. Reed shelters are erected,
+and the rolled-up beds and bedding with their white coverlets present a
+strange appearance. There is always a big local demand and a good yield
+is generally obtained from these "postania." High prices are paid for
+suitable melonland.</p>
+
+<p>The local names for the water-melons are "karpousia" or "paticha," and
+for the sweet-melons "piponia" or "tamboures."</p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of this fruit is general throughout the Island.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Date Palm</i></p>
+
+<p>This tree grows promiscuously throughout the plains, produced mostly by
+accidental seeding. Very little actual sowing takes place. The best
+groves are round about Nicosia.</p>
+
+<p>The trunk-wood, being very hard and fibrous, is used in the construction
+of the old type of waterwheel ("alakati") and for beams in houses. It is
+also utilised as fuel in Turkish baths as it burns slowly and gives out
+great heat. Palm leaves are in demand for making various native baskets,
+specially the "zimpilia" for holding seed when sowing broadcast. Hats
+are made from them in a few villages.</p>
+
+<p>The native varieties of date palm are not of high quality. They are:
+"Baltchik," the fruit of which ripens on the tree; "Phountouk"
+(hazelnut); "Kourmouzou" (red); and "Saraih" (yellow). The last three
+are artificially ripened when picked, by spraying them with a mixture of
+syrup and vinegar. The "Baltchik"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> produces fruits suitable for fresh
+consumption. The "Phountouk" is somewhat inferior. The other two have
+large fruits which are specially suited for preserving.</p>
+
+<p>Two years ago the Agricultural Department imported from Sudan the
+following varieties: "Condeila," "Bertamouta" and "Barakawi." They
+suffered much on the journey and it is doubtful if more than two or
+three specimens will survive.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule dates ripen well in Cyprus; gathering takes place from October
+to December. The clusters must generally be covered with sacking to
+protect them from birds.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nuts</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Hazelnuts and Cobnuts or Filberts</i></p>
+
+<p>These nuts are collectively known in commerce as "small nuts." They are
+all, however, the produce of a species of <i>Corylus</i>, the different kinds
+being distinguished by trade names according to their country of origin
+(see an article on "Sources of Supply of Hazelnuts" in <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the
+Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xiv. 1916, pp. 261-7).</p>
+
+<p>In Cyprus these are grown almost exclusively around a well-defined group
+of villages of the Pitsillia, notably Alona, Palæchori, Askas,
+Platanistassa, Phterikoudi, Livadhia, Agros, Alithinou, Saranti,
+Polystipos. In this locality the plantations are thickly grown and good
+yields are obtained. It is doubtful whether there are other parts of the
+Island equally well suited to this tree.</p>
+
+<p>Hazelnuts, besides their use for dessert purposes and in the preparation
+of various nut foods, are employed largely as a cheap substitute for
+almonds, and in years when the latter are scarce, hazelnuts are in
+especially good demand.</p>
+
+<p>The Cyprus nuts are outwardly of good size and appearance and are very
+attractive in the English market, but unfortunately they are usually
+picked before reaching full maturity, and consequently the kernels are
+frequently small and soon become rancid. Being gathered when unripe they
+lose greatly in weight, which means loss of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> money to the exporters. The
+flavour is also impaired by premature picking and on this account Cyprus
+nuts compare unfavourably in this respect with those from Spain, and
+Trebizond and other parts on the Black Sea, with which they have to
+compete. If growers would pay more attention to this point, Cyprus
+hazelnuts would, owing to their size, hold a much better place than they
+do in the English market.</p>
+
+<p>The export of hazelnuts is not separately recorded, but the annual
+average production is stated to be approximately 120,000 okes.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Walnuts</i></p>
+
+<p>Some fine specimens of walnut trees are to be seen in the Marathassa
+valley and in the neighbourhood of Palæochori, and near mountain streams
+in several places among the slopes of the hills. These yield excellent
+fruit and are profitable to their owners, but unfortunately many trees
+have succumbed to the attacks of the Codlin moth. Special action has
+been taken during the last two years to deal with this pest. There has
+been a marked increase of late in the planting of young walnut trees.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Almonds</i></p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of this tree has greatly extended of late. Its
+drought-resisting properties enable it to withstand the climate of the
+plains and on the level slopes of both ranges it grows well. There are
+several large plantations, notably at Psevdhas, Larnaca district, where
+the famous Jordan variety is found, and as the tree seems indifferent to
+soil, and thrives particularly well on the limestone which is so general
+throughout the Island, it may be hoped that it will be greatly
+multiplied. Both the soft- and the hard-shelled varieties are grown.
+Much good work has lately been done in School Gardens, under expert
+advice, in germinating the seed in damp sand. The villagers, finding the
+seedlings already to hand for planting, have been induced to plant them
+out.</p>
+
+<p>Almonds are used as stocks on which to graft peaches, kaishas, apricots
+and plums ("mirabelles").<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Spanish Chestnut</i></p>
+
+<p>Some years ago good numbers of the edible chestnut were raised at
+Pedoulas by the Agricultural Department and distributed to villagers for
+growing in the hills. It is feared that the greater part of these trees,
+through want of attention, unsuitability of soil or climate, lack of
+moisture, and especially damage by goats, have been lost, but some
+remain and well-grown young trees may be found in certain localities and
+in moderate numbers among the mountains. As soon as adequate protection
+from goats can be given, this tree might be well worth more extensive
+cultivation. It prospers well when properly cared for, but will not
+thrive in soils containing more than about 3 per cent. of lime or at an
+elevation below about 1,000 ft.</p>
+
+<p>The tree has been propagated almost entirely from seed, which must be as
+fresh as possible. No doubt one reason for the lack of interest hitherto
+shown in this tree by villagers is that it does not begin to fruit, as a
+rule, until about its twentieth year.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Pistacia</i></p>
+
+<p>Several species of <i>Pistacia</i> occur in Cyprus, and although they yield
+products of different kinds, it will be convenient to deal with them
+together in the present section.</p>
+
+<p>The pistachio nut (<i>Pistacia vera</i>), locally called "Aleppo pistachio,"
+is a native of Persia and Arabia and it was thought, until a few years
+ago, that it would not thrive in Cyprus. That is, however, a fallacy,
+which is rather confirmed by the fact that the <i>P. Terebinthus</i> and the
+<i>P. Lentiscus</i> are indigenous to the Island. It is considered that the
+best method of cultivation is to bud <i>P. vera</i> on <i>P. Terebinthus</i>.
+Though they grow more slowly, these budded trees are more robust and
+better resist drought, cold and moisture. The trees should yield fruit
+in five years from the time of grafting. A fair number of these trees
+have now been distributed from the Government Nursery Gardens.</p>
+
+<p>This tree provides the pistachio nuts which are now imported from Syria
+and Chios.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Male trees do not usually flower at the same time as female;
+consequently there has been difficulty in getting fruit with seeds, and
+recourse must in that case be had to artificial fertilisation.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The Palestine or turpentine tree (<i>P. palæstina</i>), local name
+"trémithos," grows in certain parts of the Island, but is seen at its
+best in the Paphos district, especially in and around the town of Ktima.
+The fruit is eaten fresh or salted and dried. It yields 10 to 15 per
+cent. of edible oil which has a certain local demand. A medium-sized
+tree may produce up to 60 to 80 okes of fruit. After crushing and
+expression, the residue together with the seed is found to be a good
+food for pigs. A small consignment of both the dried and salted fruit
+and of the residue was sold in Egypt in 1916 and realised 5 to 6 cp. per
+oke for the former, and 3<i>s.</i> to 4<i>s.</i> per kilé for the latter.</p>
+
+<p>By making incisions in the trunks of both the male and the female trees
+a gum or turpentine known as "Paphos tar" is obtained, which fetches as
+much as 8<i>s.</i> to 10<i>s.</i> per oke. It is used locally for chewing.</p>
+
+<p>This is one of the largest trees in the Island and is of handsome shape.
+It is deciduous and some fine specimens are met with.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p><i>Pistacia Lentiscus</i>, locally known as shinia, or shinia bush, abounds
+all along the coasts of the Island. From the seeds of this shrub an oil
+is expressed which is used for culinary purposes, particularly for
+frying fish. The oil is also in good local demand for soap making, and a
+very fair soap is produced, especially at Akanthou, in which the oil is
+the chief ingredient.</p>
+
+<p>The leaves of this shrub are largely used for tanning purposes and were
+at one time regularly exported to England, though in small quantities.
+The principal market for shinia leaves is Palermo. They are employed to
+no small extent for the adulteration of sumach, for which Palermo is
+also the leading market. Shinia leaves were also in demand at Lyons as a
+dyeing material for silk stuffs.</p>
+
+<p>There are also a few specimens of a variety of <i>P. Lentiscus</i> (mastic
+tree) from which in the Island of Chios<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> the famous Chios mastic is
+obtained by incisions made in the trunks of the male stocks.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>The terebinth tree (<i>P. Terebinthus</i>), locally called "tremithia," is a
+bush very widely grown throughout the higher regions. It is used as a
+stock on which to graft <i>P. vera</i>. The berries are used for extraction
+of oil which has a value for culinary purposes. They are also made into
+a cake called "tremithopites." The berries are much smaller than those
+of the <i>P. palæstina</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Vegetables</span></p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of vegetables has considerably extended of late. Good
+market gardens have existed in and around the principal towns for many
+years, but more attention is now being paid to this industry in the
+villages, wherever water is available, and a considerable amount of
+skill is shown in production.</p>
+
+<p>Among the best and most generally grown vegetables are spinach,
+cauliflowers, cabbages, egg-plants, lady's fingers, leeks, artichokes,
+broad beans (also grown as a field crop), radishes, celery, beet-root,
+pumpkins, marrows, cucumbers, lettuces, tomatoes, lentils, kohl-rabi
+("kouloumbra"), kidney beans ("phasoulia"), peas, kolokas, onions and
+potatoes.</p>
+
+<p>There is a considerable demand in Egypt for fresh vegetables, and to
+meet this the land around the "ports" of Famagusta, Larnaca and Limassol
+has been for some years specially devoted to their cultivation. In the
+mountain valleys a continuous series of small vegetable gardens may be
+seen flanking the sides of the river-banks. The exports of vegetables to
+Egypt in recent years are given in the following table:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="45%" cellspacing="0" summary="exports of vegetables to
+Egypt">
+<tr><td align="left">Year.</td><td align="right">Onions.</td><td align="right">Beans<br />and Peas.</td><td align="right">Other<br />Vegetables.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1909</td><td align="right">6,664</td><td align="right">1,729</td><td align="right">49</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1910</td><td align="right">3,807</td><td align="right">858</td><td align="right">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1911</td><td align="right">5,512</td><td align="right">2,346</td><td align="right">122</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1912</td><td align="right">3,659</td><td align="right">2,583</td><td align="right">135</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1913</td><td align="right">2,854</td><td align="right">1,670</td><td align="right">32</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Beans and Peas</i></p>
+
+<p>Beans are grown for market mainly at Marathassa and Pitsillia and
+generally in the higher regions, but only to a small extent in the
+plains.</p>
+
+<p>Before the war there was a comparatively large importation of beans from
+Anatolia. This having stopped, local prices rose and stimulated
+production in the Island.</p>
+
+<p>The Cypriot is a lover of dried vegetables, and there might well be an
+extension in the cultivation of beans, similar to that which has lately
+taken place in the case of green peas. Except in one or two places,
+these were not sown by the villagers until about four years ago, but so
+valuable have they been found, especially in recent years of scarcity
+and high cost of other foodstuffs, that now whole districts are being
+devoted to their cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>The French or kidney bean (<i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i>) is locally known under
+the general term "louvia." This name is applied both to <i>Phaseolus
+vulgaris</i> and to <i>Dolichos melanophthalmus</i> (<i>Vigna Catjang</i> var.
+<i>sinensis</i>). To distinguish the two kinds the Cypriot describes the <i>P.
+vulgaris</i> as "louvia gliastra" (<i>i.e.</i> lustrous, owing to its shiny
+appearance), or "louvia peratica" (<i>i.e.</i> foreign), as <i>D.
+melanophthalmus</i> was introduced and had become acclimatised some time
+before. Gennadius, however, describes the "louvia peratica" as <i>Dolichos
+Lablab</i> or lablab bean.</p>
+
+<p>Both the dwarf ("koutsoulia") and the climbing ("makrya" or
+"anarichomena") varieties of <i>P. vulgaris</i> are grown. There are two
+white kinds, the large ("adra") and the small ("psintra").</p>
+
+<p>Beans of various colours are grown here and there, and one spotted
+variety ("patsaloudhia") merits greater attention than it receives at
+present, both on account of its greater productiveness and for its
+excellent flavour. Two of these are stringless, but a drawback to them
+is that they discolour the water in which they are boiled.</p>
+
+<p>There are several newly imported kinds which are privately grown, and
+these are gradually coming into the local markets.</p>
+
+<p>The lubia or cow-pea (<i>Dolichos melanophthalmus</i> =<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> <i>Vigna Catjang</i> var.
+<i>sinensis</i>), being a good drought-resister, is grown more or less
+throughout the Island. It is frequently sown in mixed crop with cotton,
+sesame, Indian corn, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Two kinds are cultivated&mdash;the larger, "lubia melissomatia" (having the
+eye like a bee), and the smaller, "lubia mavromatoudhia" (dark-eyed).</p>
+
+<p>The dried pods of <i>Phaseolus</i> and <i>Dolichos</i> are fed to animals and are
+also used for stuffing mattresses.</p>
+
+<p>The broad bean (<i>Vicia Faba</i>) has been grown for some years on irrigated
+land in the plains, where it takes a recognised place in the rotation.
+Its cultivation is now spreading to the higher parts.</p>
+
+<p>The soy bean was introduced a few years ago by the Agricultural
+Department, but has failed hitherto to attract attention. Villagers find
+it requires different cooking from what they are accustomed to, and
+local dealers are not yet prepared to deal in it. It has been found
+resistant to disease, and further efforts are being made to bring it
+into popular favour.</p>
+
+<p>The Ochrus vetch (<i>Lathyrus Ochrus</i>), locally known as "louvana," is a
+fairly common spring crop, being grown for the sake of the seed which
+provides a favourite Cypriot dish. The leaves are also used as a salad.
+This crop is sown in the plains in January, but in the Karpas and some
+other parts it is sown in the autumn.</p>
+
+<p>Chick-peas (<i>Cicer arietinum</i>), locally called "revithia," grow well and
+are cultivated to a moderate extent. Samples examined at the Imperial
+Institute proved to be of normal composition. Two firms of produce
+brokers in London stated that if quantities of about 5 tons at a time
+could be delivered in England in as good a condition as the sample they
+could be sold for human consumption and would be worth (1917) £20 to £24
+per ton c.i.f., United Kingdom ports. If of inferior quality to the
+sample they would be fit only for cattle food and fetch considerably
+less (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xv. 1917, p. 307).</p>
+
+<p>Chick-peas when roasted are locally called "koudames" and are eaten in
+the same way as ground-nuts, which they much resemble in flavour. They
+are little, if at all, used in Cyprus as a cattle food.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Potatoes</i></p>
+
+<p>The potato-growing industry in Cyprus has developed considerably in
+recent years, as will be seen from the subjoined table of exports:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="potato-growing industry in Cyprus">
+<tr><td align="left">Year.</td><td align="right">Quantity.</td><td align="right">Value.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1909</td><td align="right">12,586</td><td align="right">3,105</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1910</td><td align="right">14,983</td><td align="right">3,839</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1911</td><td align="right">36,271</td><td align="right">8,472</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1912</td><td align="right">45,336</td><td align="right">10,348</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1913</td><td align="right">31,310</td><td align="right">7,003</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1914</td><td align="right">54,203</td><td align="right">11,741</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1915</td><td align="right">82,304</td><td align="right">28,513</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1916</td><td align="right">136,027</td><td align="right">74,632</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1917</td><td align="right">224,453</td><td align="right">101,120</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>These figures, however, are a very inadequate indication of the actual
+increase of production, inasmuch as the local consumption of this
+vegetable before the war was confined almost entirely to the well-to-do
+residents in the towns, whereas now it is rapidly becoming a staple food
+of the people. This unascertainable but large local consumption must be
+added to the latest export returns in order to arrive at an estimate of
+present production.</p>
+
+<p>The most favoured variety was at first, and with many growers still is,
+what is known as the French potato, the original seed having been
+brought from France. Irish potatoes (locally called "pittakoura") have
+now largely displaced these, partly, no doubt, on account of the greater
+facility of obtaining the latter seed during the war.</p>
+
+<p>A native variety of potato, believed to have been imported by Syrian
+Arabs in the sixteenth century, is still grown on a small scale in the
+Marathassa valley. This potato has deep-set eyes and a luxuriant growth
+above ground and possesses a characteristic sweet taste.</p>
+
+<p>Great progress has been made within the last few years in the matter of
+cultivation, and the old practice of planting broadcast on the flat has
+given way to ridge planting at proper distances apart. The practice
+formerly was to drop the potatoes into the plough furrow. These were
+covered over by the return plough; every third furrow was sown.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian demand and the purchases made for military purposes have
+greatly stimulated production.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The good prices obtained have led, particularly in the Famagusta
+district and in what are called the "red earth" villages, to much
+activity and no small outlay in the matter of water-supply and
+distribution, and in the use of chemical manures.</p>
+
+<p>The custom has grown up for importers to send their seed potatoes for
+planting in the higher parts of the Island. The produce therefrom is
+exchanged with growers in the plains, who send up their plain-grown
+tubers as seed to the cultivators in the hills. Merchants often
+stipulate with the hill-growers that they shall have their crop at an
+agreed, and generally a fairly high, figure. In this manner degeneration
+of the seed has been retarded; but owing to the difficulty of obtaining
+seed from outside during the war a certain amount of degeneration has
+taken place.</p>
+
+<p>Only one crop can be grown in the hills during the year, but in the
+plains two crops are obtained. The one is planted in January and is dug
+in May-June; the other is planted in July and dug in November. It is
+found that the tubers lifted in the summer suffer greatly from the heat,
+and heavy losses occur from rot, whether the tubers remain in the ground
+or if they are dug and stored; and it is a question whether, when these
+losses are taken into account, the summer crop is really profitable.</p>
+
+<p>The average yield is sometimes put at 2,000 okes per donum, but 1,600
+okes, or 2 tons, is probably a more accurate figure.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Kolokas</i> (<i>Colocasia antiquorum</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This is a favourite food of the villager, but can only be grown where
+there is an ample water-supply and on heavy land that holds the water.
+It is an exhausting crop. The root only is eaten. It is sown in
+March-April and dug about October-November.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Onions</i></p>
+
+<p>These are generally grown, especially in the Paphos district; Famagusta
+and Limassol following in the order named. The Paphos onions are
+supposed to have particularly good keeping qualities. Both round
+("strongyla")<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> and long varieties ("tolmalikia") are grown; the latter
+have less fleshy scales than the former.</p>
+
+<p>Onions are grown either in irrigated gardens or in "livadhia," or
+low-lying lands which retain their moisture, no irrigation being needed.
+They are propagated by means of "konari" or bulblets. Lapithos in the
+Kyrenia district makes a speciality of producing these from seed and
+supplying them to the whole Island, although onions are grown for market
+only on a limited scale in that area. The method is to plant out the
+full-grown onions (locally called "mammes") and leave them to ripen
+their seed. The seed is sown in February-March, at the rate of 20-25
+okes per donum, from which some 3,000 okes of "konari" are raised. These
+are then sold for planting out in October-November-December at the rate
+of 40-50 okes per donum.</p>
+
+<p>Onions are grown either in rows or broadcast. The native variety has the
+outer scales of a reddish colour, but these have largely given way to
+superior imported kinds.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fodders and Feeding Stuffs</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Carob Tree</i></p>
+
+<p>The carob (<i>Ceratonia siliqua</i>) is indigenous in Syria, and probably
+also in the northern countries of Africa, whence it presumably spread to
+certain parts of Asia Minor, to Greece, the Greek Islands and Southern
+Italy.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of Christ, and for some centuries later, this tree was known
+to the Greeks by the name of keronia or keratea, being the Greek for
+horns, and is given to the locust or carob bean from its supposed
+resemblance to goats' horns. It is also known in different parts of
+Cyprus under the following names; teratsia (a corruption of keratea),
+xylokeratea, kountouroudia, koutsoupia and charoupia. The last named is
+of Arabic origin (kharroub) and the same root of the word is common all
+over Europe. Moreover, the fruit varies slightly according to locality,
+and develops local characteristics which have acquired for it
+distinctive local names; thus in Kyrenia District we have templiotiké
+and kyrionitiké, in the Karpas there is the sarakine (introduced by
+Saracens?) and elsewhere the vaklitiké and komboté. This bean or pod,
+which when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> ripe is of a chocolate colour, contains from 6 to 10 hard
+seeds, embedded in a sweet, pithy, honey-like substance which imparts
+the flavour so much appreciated by animals.</p>
+
+<p>The carob tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosæ, sub-order
+Caesalpinæ, and is the only species of the genus <i>Ceratonia</i>. It is an
+evergreen, long-lived tree, growing to a height of 30 ft. and sometimes
+even to 50 and 60 ft. It thrives in most kinds of soil, especially in
+porous, marly and even volcanic soils, but not in marshy lands. Owing to
+its long tap root it resists drought well, and is to be found growing
+well in rocky land such as is common in many of the carob areas of
+Cyprus. It is very generally found intermixed with the olive tree and up
+to about the same altitude.</p>
+
+<p>A succession of flowers is produced from July to September or October,
+and in favourable years up to December and even later, and in
+July-August the tree bears both flowers and ripe fruit. The collection
+of the latter commences about mid-August, the exact date being annually
+fixed separately in each district by the Commissioner. This is done in
+order to prevent the fruit from being stolen.</p>
+
+<p>Recent investigations made by the Agricultural Department go to prove
+that the fruit-producing carob tree of Cyprus is really hermaphrodite,
+though there yet remains much room for investigation and the point is
+not finally settled. The others are true male trees. The hermaphrodite
+carob trees which form practically the whole of the fruit-producing
+trees of the Island are cleistogamous (<i>i.e.</i> self-fertilised before the
+calyx opens) and short-stamened.</p>
+
+<p>There are also certain trees self-produced from seed which are superior
+to the ordinary so-called wild tree. These bear fruit which is straight
+and short but more or less marketable, and these are known as
+"kountoura" (short) or "apostoliki," as though sent by chance or by
+Providence. The word "apostoliki" is applied in Cyprus to other kinds of
+trees or fruit showing similar phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>There are several millions of these trees in the State forests, and yet
+more privately owned. It frequently happens that, owing to the wide
+powers of testamentary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> disposition, a single tree passes by inheritance
+to several heirs.</p>
+
+<p>Many thousands of carob plants are annually raised in the Government
+gardens and issued at a trifling charge. The common method of
+propagation has been to sow the seeds in pots, and when the plant is
+from 18 in. to 2 ft. high it is ready for transplanting. The seed, which
+is very hard, is softened by placing it in a cauldron or saucepan of
+cold water. The water is then brought to the boil. On arriving at
+boiling-point the water is cooled and should then be changed and the
+seed left to steep for twenty-four hours. Owing to the long tap root,
+sowing in ordinary nursery beds has not been satisfactory, as the
+plants, which certainly make better growth than in pots, do not
+transplant well.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing methods have to a great extent been superseded by that of
+germinating the seed in damp sand and sowing direct in the field in
+properly prepared holes. Little watering is needed if the holes are deep
+and the soil kept friable. A top mulch is useful to conserve the
+moisture.</p>
+
+<p>Transplanting from pots or beds is best done when the plants are twelve
+months old and about 12 in. high, after that it is precarious. Grafting
+may be done as soon as the stem is thick enough to take a graft, either
+before or after transplanting.</p>
+
+<p>The tree is liable to attack by insects and other pests. Scale
+(<i>Aspidiotus ceratoniæ</i>) is very common; but the greatest damage of late
+years has been caused by the fly <i>Cecidomyia ceratoniæ</i>, which lays its
+eggs on the flowers or newly-set fruit, and the grub feeds on the bean,
+causing it to become stunted and of no commercial value. This stunted
+condition is locally known as "brachycarpia" and has been the subject of
+careful scientific study and practical treatment by the Agricultural
+Department during the last few years. Very satisfactory results have
+been recorded from the campaigns, which have so far been limited to the
+Kyrenia District, and these have justified the extension of compulsory
+treatment to other infected areas. This and other pests, such as
+<i>Myelois ceratoniæ</i>, <i>Cossus liniperda</i> (a lepidopterous boring insect),
+a species of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> <i>Mycetiasis</i>, and a small hymenopterous fly which has
+lately appeared and is now under investigation, have, no doubt, checked
+production. The attacks of <i>Cecidomyia</i>, when serious, reduce the yield
+by 80 per cent. or over, and normally may lessen it by 40 to 50 per
+cent.</p>
+
+<p>Much damage is also caused by rats (<i>Mus alexandrinus</i>), which gnaw the
+bark of the branches, causing them to dry up. Their destruction is
+encouraged by Government by the payment of 1 cp. per tail.</p>
+
+<p>Carob gathering commences about mid-August and lasts for about a month.
+The beans are knocked down with long sticks, put into sacks and brought
+into store, or heaped up in the open air, where they often remain for
+several weeks. This is a safe procedure, as there is little rainfall at
+that season, and what might fall would not harm the beans, which would
+quickly dry again.</p>
+
+<p>It is not easy to estimate the yield per donum of carob trees, but
+assuming that the trees were planted 30 ft. apart, and there were 16
+medium-sized trees to the donum, the yield would average somewhere about
+1,260 okes to the donum. The yield varies from year to year, a good year
+generally being followed by a moderate year. The fruit may be destroyed
+by frost in January and February, knocked off by hail-stones in March
+and April or scorched by hot winds in May or June. A full-sized,
+well-cultivated tree can give up to 720 okes. Taking good and bad years,
+the value of the annual produce of a medium-sized tree is 5<i>s</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Carobs are sold by the Aleppo cantar of 180 okes, and the normal price
+may be put at from 13<i>s.</i> to 17<i>s.</i> per cantar delivered into store.</p>
+
+<p>Carobs are weighed on export and the tithe is taken in money from
+exporters at the Customs House.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the export of carobs during the ten years
+ending 1913-14:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="export of carobs">
+<tr><td align="left">Year.</td><td align="right">Quantity.</td><td align="right">Value.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><i>Tons.</i></td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1904-05</td><td align="right">31,887</td><td align="right">104,301</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1905-06</td><td align="right">26,187</td><td align="right">85,105</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1906-07</td><td align="right">44,965</td><td align="right">157,452</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1907-08</td><td align="right">42,381</td><td align="right">151,610</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1908-09</td><td align="right">57,010</td><td align="right">188,841</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1909-10</td><td align="right">44,059</td><td align="right">157,972</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1910-11</td><td align="right">37,485</td><td align="right">145,590</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1911-12</td><td align="right">51,359</td><td align="right">182,883</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1912-13</td><td align="right">63,658</td><td align="right">251,750</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1913-14</td><td align="right">44,989</td><td align="right">179,027</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The falling-off in 1913-14 was mainly due to the losses caused by the
+fly <i>Cecidomyia ceratoniæ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The fruit of the carob is exported mostly to England, but also to France
+and Egypt, and more recently, before the war, to Germany. Gaudry
+mentions that about the middle of last century it was exported to
+Russia, Sardinia and Austria. Some is used, in Egypt and the Levant
+especially, as food for the poorer classes and for making sweets and
+sherbets. Its chief use in Western Europe is as food for animals, bovine
+and equine, for which purpose it is ground up and made into either meal
+or cattle cakes. It is also said to be employed in the manufacture of
+chocolate and spirit, and there is a demand for the seed for use in the
+manufacture of certain gums.</p>
+
+<p>The juice of the bean, "carob honey," locally called "mavromelos,"
+"teratsomelo" or "betmezi," is consumed as a substitute for bee-honey or
+jam and also as a flavouring for culinary purposes. From the carob honey
+is also made the sweetmeat "pastelli."</p>
+
+<p>At one time carobs were used in Cyprus for fattening mules and other
+animals, but, unfortunately, this practice died out. Efforts are now
+being made to revive it, and the advantages of this local product are
+again becoming recognised.</p>
+
+<p>The carob contains some 50 per cent. of saccharine matter and the
+interesting question has been raised in recent years as to whether the
+bean might not become a new source of sugar production.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Lucerne</i> (<i>Medicago sativa</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This plant was introduced about eighteen years ago, but in spite of its
+undoubted success when properly grown on suitable soil, the Cypriot
+farmer was for many years very slow to make use of it. Every effort has
+been made of late years to encourage its cultivation and during the last
+three or four years there has been a steadily increased demand for seed.
+Irrigation is necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory yield, but
+there are many farms where it might be grown with great advantage. Its
+value for cattle food is generally recognised, and now that greater<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+attention is being given to dairy cattle, lucerne would seem to have an
+assured future.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Vetch</i> (<i>Vicia Ervilia</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This plant, known locally as "rovi," is undoubtedly the most widely
+grown of the fodder crops. Being a leguminous plant, it has a
+restorative action on the soil, although the average Cypriot farmer
+still considers it to be exhaustive.</p>
+
+<p>In the plains sowing begins in January, whereas in the Pitsillia, and
+even in the Morphou, Solea and Tylliria districts which are only at the
+foothills, it is sown in October-November, <i>i.e.</i> before the cereals.</p>
+
+<p>Rovi is almost the only food in the form of seed given to ploughing oxen
+throughout the East. It is regarded as heat-giving and strengthening,
+and is therefore fed specially in winter. It is sometimes given
+unthreshed with the straw. It is harvested in May, when it is uprooted,
+made into little bundles, which are stacked together in small heaps in
+the field, until they turn yellow, when they are removed to the native
+threshing-floor and threshed in the customary manner. The dry stems,
+etc., are eagerly eaten by cattle and sheep. The average yield is very
+little, from 2 to 4 or 5 kilés per donum. It is subject to tithe.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Chickling Vetch</i> (<i>Lathyrus sativus</i>)</p>
+
+<p>The chickling vetch, known locally as "favetta" or "chavetta," has come
+rather more into prominence of late years, displacing the vetch (<i>Vicia
+Ervilia</i>) to some extent, as it gives a heavier yield. It is subject to
+tithe.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Vetch</i> (<i>Vicia sativa</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This crop, called locally "vicos," was introduced from Crete in 1913 and
+has been found excellently suited to this country. It is most useful in
+any rotation, and has to some extent supplanted rovi (<i>Vicia Ervilia</i>)
+as it gives a larger yield. It is a most nutritious cattle food, for
+which purpose it is grown. When crushed and mixed with chopped straw it
+is readily eaten by cattle and sheep. The plant seeds itself very
+freely. It is sown about November-December and is ready for harvesting
+in about April.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> Seed is sown at the rate of 5 to 6 okes per donum and
+the yield is normally from 8 to 12 kilés per donum. It is a good
+drought-resister and needs no irrigation, and being a leguminous plant
+should be cut and not pulled up, as the roots left in the soil serve to
+increase the amount of nitrogenous salts. Being a vetch it is subject to
+tithe.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Tares</i> (<i>Vicia tenuifolia</i> var. <i>stenophylla</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This plant, locally called "mavracheron" or "phakacheron," grows wild
+in the Pitsillia district among the vineyards and other cultivated as
+well as uncultivated lands. It is of value in those remote localities
+where grain and straw are little grown and difficult to procure, as it
+provides a wholesome fodder for cattle. The villagers have now taken to
+cultivating the plant. It is cut before the seeds are fully matured to
+prevent loss of seed through shedding. The seeds and chaff are mixed
+together when fed to cattle.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Milk Vetch</i> (<i>Astragalus</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This plant, locally called "arkokoutsia," grows wild in some abundance
+among the hills. When it appears above ground it is readily eaten by
+animals, especially sheep; but at this stage it is apt to cause hoven.
+As the plant hardens the animals do not touch it, except when fully
+ripe, and then it is greedily eaten.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as it blossoms, but before the fruit is set, the plant is
+gathered and tied into bundles or small sheaves and stored in a heap.
+When, after a few months, it is quite dry, and at a time when other
+foods are scarce, it forms an important part of an animal's ration.</p>
+
+<p>The plants are sometimes allowed to mature their seeds, and these, after
+being steeped in water for two or three days to remove acidity, are
+given to pigs, and are considered a nourishing and palatable food.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Moha, Sulla</i> (<i>Hedysarum</i>)</p>
+
+<p>These have been tried for some years with success and are gradually
+becoming known and experimentally grown by farmers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Teosinte</i> (<i>Reana luxurians</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This grass is one of the most valuable fodder plants with which the New
+World has enriched the Old. It is a native of Guatemala and is also
+largely grown in Australia.</p>
+
+<p>Seed was first imported into Cyprus by the Agricultural Department in
+1897, and since then the plant has been continuously grown in the
+Government gardens with marked success. It is sown in March-April in the
+same manner as Indian corn, to which it is allied.</p>
+
+<p>If irrigated, three or four cuttings may be obtained during the summer,
+yielding 25 to 30 tons of green food per scala. It is greedily eaten by
+cattle. Some plants grown by the Department attained a height of 11 ft.
+3 in. and of others which were left to ripen their seed, one had 93
+stems and weighed 26 okes, though the leaves had begun to shrivel and
+had lost weight.</p>
+
+<p>This plant is gradually becoming known and may be found growing on some
+of the more progressive farms.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Sudan-grass</i></p>
+
+<p>Seed of this fodder grass was imported in 1915 and very satisfactory
+crops have been obtained each year since then from the experimental
+plots. The grass seems well suited to Cyprus and gives a useful yield
+even when unirrigated. Occasional irrigation produces a valuable crop.
+Trial sowings are now being made on a few private farms.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Teff-grass</i> (<i>Eragrostis abyssinica</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This has also been tried experimentally with good results and it is
+hoped that its cultivation will extend as it becomes more known.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Mangold Wurzel</i></p>
+
+<p>This crop has been grown for several years at the Government Farm,
+Athalassa, where it has done well and forms an important part of the
+cows' rations. It has been grown successfully on a small scale in some
+of the Nursery Gardens.</p>
+
+<p>As irrigation, deep ploughing, thorough cultivation of the soil and
+special cultural operations are needed, this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> crop cannot be generally
+recommended to farmers, but it is being grown by a few progressive stock
+owners under Departmental advice.</p>
+
+<p>The wild beet (<i>Beta vulgaris</i>) is a native of the seacoasts of
+South-eastern Europe, and the garden beet-root is much grown in Cyprus
+in certain localities, so, if carefully cultivated, mangold wurzel,
+which is a variety of <i>B. vulgaris</i>, might also do well in many parts
+and be of great advantage to stock owners.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Prickly Pear</i> (<i>Opuntia</i>)</p>
+
+<p>The prickly pear grows wild as a hedge plant in Cyprus. The fruit is
+eaten to some extent by villagers, but no attempt has yet been made to
+use the stems as food for animals. In Sicily very large quantities are
+so utilised, and now that milch cows are coming more into demand in
+Cyprus the value of the plant for fodder may become recognised.
+Successful experiments have been made by the Agricultural Department in
+mixing the juice of the stems with lime for giving brilliance and
+permanence to ordinary whitewash. There has been an occasional export of
+the fruit to Egypt for consumption by Arabs.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spices</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Coriander Seed</i></p>
+
+<p>Coriander seed is the product of <i>Coriandrum sativum</i>, Linn., an annual
+herb belonging to the natural order Umbelliferæ. The "seed," or more
+strictly fruit, of the plant is employed in confectionery in making
+bonbons, in the preparation of certain liqueurs and as an ingredient for
+disguising the taste of medicines. In Cyprus it is commonly used as a
+flavouring in cooking.</p>
+
+<p>A sample sent to the Imperial Institute in 1917 was examined as a source
+of volatile oil, and the residue remaining after distillation was
+analysed as a feeding-stuff. On steam distillation the ground seed
+yielded 0.48 per cent. of an almost colourless volatile oil with the
+characteristic and pleasant odour of coriander. This yield is below that
+furnished by Russian and German coriander, but is about equal to that
+obtained from Morocco<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> seed. The results of the examination indicate
+that the residue has a fairly high feeding-value, and it would be quite
+suitable for the ordinary use of coriander residue, <i>i.e.</i> as a cattle
+food.</p>
+
+<p>A sample of the seeds was submitted to brokers in London, who reported
+that they were very stalky, but that their value would be from 50<i>s.</i> to
+60<i>s.</i> per cwt. (January 1917) as compared with 10<i>s.</i> to 15<i>s.</i> per
+cwt. before the war. (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xv.
+1917, p. 301).</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Aniseed</i></p>
+
+<p>Aniseed, the fruit of an umbelliferous herb (<i>Pimpinella Anisum</i>,
+Linn.), is grown on a comparatively small scale in Cyprus, the exports
+in recent years varying from 1,000 to 2,000 cwts. per annum. In 1917,
+1,015 cwts., valued at £3,164, were exported, all of which went to
+Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Seed sent for examination to the Imperial Institute was reported to
+consist of aniseed in good condition and practically free from
+extraneous matter.</p>
+
+<p>A sample of the seed was submitted to brokers in London, who stated that
+at that time (January 1917) stocks of aniseed were quite exhausted, and
+the prices therefore much inflated, small stocks of Spanish aniseed
+having changed hands in London at 110<i>s.</i> per cwt. Such price could not
+be secured if any quantity of aniseed were placed on the market. The
+value of the Cyprus sample before the war would have been about 27<i>s.</i>
+6<i>d.</i> per cwt. (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xv. 1917,
+p. 300).</p>
+
+
+<p>White Cumin Seed</p>
+
+<p>White cumin is also an umbelliferous herb (<i>Cuminum Cyminum</i>, Linn.); an
+account of the cultivation and uses of this and other spices is given in
+the <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 131-136.</p>
+
+<p>A sample of the seed sent to the Imperial Institute was submitted to
+brokers in London, who stated that it was rather small and stalky, but
+that it would probably be worth between 70<i>s.</i> and 80<i>s.</i> per cwt.
+(January 1917), although they were of opinion that its pre-war value<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+would not have been much over 20<i>s.</i> per cwt. (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the
+Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xv. 1917, p. 302).</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Black Cumin Seed</i></p>
+
+<p>These seeds, sometimes known as fennel-flower seeds, are the product of
+<i>Nigella sativa</i>, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Ranunculaceæ). The plant is an
+annual, native to the Mediterranean region, and the seeds, which are
+used in the East for flavouring curries, etc., and in Egypt as comfits
+on cakes, have an aromatic fennel-like odour when fresh and a slightly
+acrid taste. There is a small export of black cumin seed from Cyprus.
+There is, however, but little demand for this seed (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the
+Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xv. 1917, p. 304).</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Essential Oils and Perfumes</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Origanum Oil</i></p>
+
+<p>Different opinions have been held as to the botanical identification of
+the plant from which the Cyprus origanum oil is produced. An interesting
+series of articles on this subject by E. M. Holmes appears in the
+<i>Perfumery and Essential Oil Record</i>, 1913, from which it would seem
+that this oil is derived from <i>Origanum majoranoides</i>, Wild.; while Dr.
+Stapf, of Kew, regards the plant as <i>O. dubium</i>, Boiss. (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of
+the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xi. 1913, p. 50). Other varieties growing
+wild in Cyprus are <i>O. Onites</i>, <i>O. hirtum</i>, both of which are locally
+called "rigani," <i>O. Bevani</i> (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>,
+vol. xv. 1917, p. 305) and <i>O. majorana</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In its wild state the plant from which origanum oil is distilled is a
+small perennial shrub, but, if cultivated, its size may be doubled or
+even trebled. The first crop, consisting of shoots and flowers, may give
+from 300 to 500 okes per donum; in subsequent years up to 1,000-1,500
+okes per donum. The latter quantity would produce 40 to 60 okes of
+origanum oil, which is largely used in England for perfuming soap and
+other purposes.</p>
+
+<p>For twenty years the distillation of origanum oil has been made under
+Government control. The industry was started in 1899 and, though not
+large, has steadily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> grown. It has been found that the Cyprus origanum
+oil is exceptionally rich in carvacrol (over 80 per cent.), a powerful
+antiseptic, and to this substance the oil owes mainly its characteristic
+thyme-like odour. Frequent analyses have shown that the Cyprus origanum
+oil is remarkably constant in character.</p>
+
+<p>This oil has the slight disadvantage of darkening considerably on
+exposure to light and air, which renders it unsuitable for use in
+light-coloured soaps, but a method has been worked out at the Imperial
+Institute of refining the oil so as to yield a product which will remain
+practically colourless for long periods.</p>
+
+<p>A report furnished by the Imperial Institute (<span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial
+Institute</span>, vol. iv. 1906, p. 299), after giving a detailed description
+of the oil, states:</p>
+
+<p>"The foregoing results show that this oil sells readily in this country
+at prices which should be fairly remunerative to producers in Cyprus. It
+should, however, be borne in mind that the demand for this oil is
+somewhat limited, and that it competes with the thyme oil produced in
+France and Spain, and with the 'origanum oil' produced in Smyrna, and
+that consequently a sudden increase in production in Cyprus might lead
+to a considerable fall in price. The Cyprus oil has, however, the
+advantage that it is very rich in the odorous and antiseptic constituent
+carvacrol, and it is probably due to its richness in this constituent,
+as revealed by the analyses made at the Imperial Institute, that the
+comparatively high prices realised for these consignments were obtained
+at a time when 'red thyme oils' were selling at lower rates. It would be
+advantageous if a refined white oil could be prepared by some simple
+method from this material, as this probably would fetch an enhanced
+price, and be applicable to other purposes for which the 'red oil' is
+unsuitable."</p>
+
+<p>Until 1910 the distillation was made by the Department, but since then
+it has been undertaken by private contract, permission being given to
+collect the wild plant from the forest. The annual production is now
+about 2,750 lb., and the price has steadily risen from about 3<i>s.</i> per
+lb. to 8<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per lb. at the present time. But whereas the cost of
+transport to London before the war was £8 per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> ton, it has risen to the
+prohibitive rate of £200 per ton, and the 1917 oil still remains in
+store at Alexandria.</p>
+
+<p>The supply of the wild plant is limited and its cultivation is under
+consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the exports of origanum <i>oil</i> in recent years:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="35%" cellspacing="0" summary="exports of origanum oil">
+<tr><td align="left">Year.</td><td align="right">Quantity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><i>lb.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1902</td><td align="right">2,092</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1903</td><td align="right">No distillation</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1904</td><td align="right">2,410</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1905</td><td align="right">1,463</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1906</td><td align="right">2,200</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1907</td><td align="right">1,745</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1908</td><td align="right">2,051</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1909</td><td align="right"><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>1,530</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1910</td><td align="right">2,842</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1911</td><td align="right">2,276</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1912</td><td align="right">2,230</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1913</td><td align="right">2,455</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1914</td><td align="right">3,776</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1915</td><td align="right">3,709</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1916</td><td align="right">2,756</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1917</td><td align="right">2,696</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1918</td><td align="right">2,066</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><i>Marjoram Oil</i></p>
+
+<p>This is not yet a regular product, but samples of locally produced oil
+have been examined at the Imperial Institute and pronounced to be
+superior to European marjoram oil and about equal in value to sweet
+fennel oil (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xi. 1913, p.
+50). It is distilled from a plant which is abundant in the forests of
+Kyrenia and Paphos, and which has been referred by Dr. Stapf to <i>O.
+majoranoides</i>, Wild., and by Mr. Holmes to <i>O. Maru</i>, Linn. The market
+is, however, restricted.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Laurel Oil</i></p>
+
+<p>Samples of oil distilled from the leaves of <i>Laurus nobilis</i> which were
+examined at the Imperial Institute were found to have an aroma inferior
+to that of the oils usually met with in commerce (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the
+Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xi. 1913, p. 430). The demand for the oil is
+said to be small.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Otto of Roses</i></p>
+
+<p>This has been prepared since 1897 in a very small way with native stills
+at the village of Milikouri, where the Damask rose is abundant. The
+cultivation of this rose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> has now spread to other hill villages. The
+closing of the market for Bulgarian otto of roses owing to the war has
+given an impetus to the industry in Cyprus. The Agricultural Department
+has for two years sent qualified officers to superintend the work at
+Milikouri and to carry out an experimental distillation.</p>
+
+<p>A report from the Director, Imperial Institute, upon samples of the 1917
+distillation states that "the constants of the Cyprus oil agree closely
+with those recorded for Bulgarian otto of roses." It was found that the
+odour of the Cyprus oil was fairly good, but rather weak. The otto sold
+at 70<i>s.</i> per ounce, less 2&frac12; per cent., which "in view of the very
+small quantity must be considered satisfactory." At the time of sale
+French otto was quoted at 78<i>s.</i> to 85<i>s.</i> per ounce.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Acacia Farnesiana</i></p>
+
+<p>This tree is but sparsely represented in Cyprus, but wherever found it
+is vigorous and healthy. It belongs to the Mimosa tribe of the order
+Leguminosæ and, as other species are common in the Island and thrive
+remarkably well, there would seem no reason why this species also should
+not become more general.</p>
+
+<p>It is known elsewhere under different names; that of "sweet briar" (in
+Barbados) on account of its numerous thorns and the exquisite scent of
+its flowers, and "stinking cossie" (in Antigua) owing to the highly
+disagreeable smell of its wood. The word "cossie" may be a corruption of
+acacia.</p>
+
+<p>Its flowers are largely used in perfumery, and the annual crop of the
+flowers of this plant in France is stated to be worth thousands of
+francs, and a particularly delicate fragrant perfume is extracted from
+them. The pods are said to yield a fair amount of tannin, while from the
+cracks in the bark of the trunk and branches there exudes a gum very
+like the true gum arabic and is utilised for the same purpose. The wood
+makes good charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>It is locally known as "skouroupathos" or "skouroupathia," and is
+closely allied to the extremely common weed of that name which is found
+abundantly in nearly every field in the plains during summer, but which,
+owing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> to its deep-rooted system, the natives do not trouble to
+eradicate. It is also allied to <i>Prosopis juliflora</i> or algaroba tree,
+of which there are a few specimens in the Island.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oils and Oil Seeds</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Olives</i></p>
+
+<p>The olive tree grows wild in Cyprus, but the wild fruit is small and
+bitter and yields an inferior oil. The cultivated trees are those which
+have been grafted. Owing to the stringent regulations which have
+prohibited the introduction of living plants from abroad, it has not
+been possible to obtain from elsewhere good grafts of new varieties.
+These regulations have lately been modified to allow of importations by
+the Agricultural Department under special restrictions, and now that the
+war has ended it is hoped to obtain these much-needed olive grafts.</p>
+
+<p>This tree thrives well, almost all over the Island, up to an altitude of
+about 2,300 ft., and numbers of vigorous wild olive trees are to be met
+with, which only need cleaning and grafting in order to bear fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Cyprus olives are divided into two classes, locally known as (<i>a</i>)
+"adrouppes" or "drouppes," which are eaten in the green or black stage,
+and (<i>b</i>) "ladoelies," which are suitable both for eating and for oil
+extraction.</p>
+
+<p>Of the former, or "adrouppes," one kind is rather large, with rough
+skin, having a rough, big stone, the other is longer but of less
+diameter, and has a very thin, smooth skin and the stone is smooth,
+curved and smaller. The latter has a better taste and resembles the
+well-known Greek olive of Calamata. Both these "adrouppes" are prepared
+for the table while still green, and are known as "kolymbates," or
+sometimes they are called "tsakkistes," owing to the stone being
+slightly crushed in the process of preparation.</p>
+
+<p>The "ladoelies" are of two distinct varieties, the larger of which is
+mostly regarded as an edible olive, and contains a less percentage of
+oil, while the other, or smaller kind, is richer in oil contents, and is
+mainly used for oil production, though it is sometimes eaten.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate VI.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/i089.jpg" width="550" height="350" alt="Pruned Olive-trees at Metochi of Kykos." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Pruned Olive-trees at Metochi of Kykos.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>A few imported varieties, including one or two specimens of Spanish and
+Greek olive trees, are to be found here and there in private gardens.</p>
+
+<p>If the land were manured and ploughed the trees would, especially on the
+chalky soils, yield abundant fruit and oil of excellent quality.
+Unfortunately this is not done, and it has been found very difficult to
+induce the peasants to adopt any kind of cultivation. They plough the
+land only when they intend to sow corn or other crops between the trees,
+a procedure which tends to lessen the productiveness of the trees. The
+system of irrigation applied is also very defective. Irrigation, while
+improving the quality and quantity of edible olives, is not desirable in
+the case of press olives.</p>
+
+<p>As to pruning, Cypriots would have none of it until within the last five
+years. By dint of patient and constant persuasion, some few of the
+larger owners were induced to let their trees be pruned by a staff of
+pruners under the direction of the Agricultural Department (see Plate
+VI). Much ridicule&mdash;and at times threats&mdash;was hurled at both the pruners
+and the tree owners, who were assured by the villagers that for their
+folly they would undoubtedly lose their trees. The results belied all
+these fears, and now within the space of some four to five years the
+practice of pruning has become fairly general, and a good number of
+villagers have qualified themselves as expert pruners and are kept
+regularly employed by private persons. As a consequence of this a great
+amelioration is noticeable in the olive trees in many parts and the
+yield and quality of olives have been improved.</p>
+
+<p>The method of gathering olives by beating, however, continues. The fruit
+so knocked to the ground becomes dirty and bruised, and quickly
+ferments, when stored, to the detriment of the oil. This mode of
+gathering by beating damages the young twigs and branches, whose bearing
+capacity the following year is thus impaired.</p>
+
+<p>Little care is taken in selecting the olives for oil. Not only are they
+dirty and bruised, but unripe or diseased fruit, as well as overripe
+fruit that has fallen from the tree, is collected together
+indiscriminately.</p>
+
+
+<p>The usual practice is to spread out the olives as received,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> and
+unsalted, on the mud roofs of houses in order to give off a part of
+their water before grinding.</p>
+
+<p>The procedure is then as follows:</p>
+
+<p>They are first of all taken to the crusher or grinding mill. This
+consists not of two stones, as in Greece, but of one stone, drawn by
+pony, mule or donkey.</p>
+
+<p>For the first quality of oil the olive stones should not be broken, but
+generally speaking, insufficient care is paid to this and the stones
+are, for the most part, crushed. The crushed olives (zimari, paste) are
+then removed to the press, which is worked by hand, with one exception
+of an hydraulic press at Akanthou. At this village, where the best olive
+oil is produced, the olives are brought direct from the trees to the
+mill, whereas elsewhere the practice is to leave them in a heap to
+ferment and they often become foul and covered with dust and dirt.</p>
+
+<p>In pressing with wooden presses, the zimari or crushed olives are placed
+in round bags made of plaited rushes. Seven to ten of these are placed
+one on top of another in the press and the oil obtained is virgin oil
+(huile vierge).</p>
+
+<p>The bags are then removed and squeezed so as to change the position of
+the contents. They are then replaced in the press and hot water is
+poured into each bag. The oil obtained is of second quality. A third
+pressing is sometimes given.</p>
+
+<p>The yield is calculated at the rate of 1 oke of oil to 4 okes of olives.</p>
+
+<p>In the Paphos district is produced a black oil with a very distinct
+flavour. This is due to the custom of boiling the olives before
+grinding. The demand for this inferior oil is confined to that district.</p>
+
+<p>In former days it was usual for the mills and presses to be worked in
+the open. This is now rarely the case, but may still be occasionally
+seen in parts of the Paphos district and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Whether outdoors or indoors these mills and presses are soon allowed to
+become very unclean, and the rancid flavour which clings to the wood is
+quickly imparted to the oil, which possesses, for any but Cypriots, a
+strong and unpleasant smell and flavour. There is a considerable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+residue or waste, which, if it could be utilised, would go far to meet
+the deficiency in the requirements for local consumption.</p>
+
+<p>There are a few good iron presses now in use. Their superiority is
+generally recognised and, no doubt, now that the war is over, they will
+be imported in greater numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Small inexpensive, cottage filters have been designed by the
+Agricultural Department and these are being adopted, though very
+gradually. The oil so filtered is greatly superior, but having acquired
+a more delicate flavour, it is not so much appreciated by the native
+consumers.</p>
+
+<p>Large numbers of young wild olive trees are issued on permit from the
+State forests for private cultivation and many thousands of two- and
+three-year-old plants raised in the Government Nurseries are also
+distributed every year. With the gradual improvement in cultivation and
+in the preparation of the oil, the production should increase
+enormously.</p>
+
+<p>The local production of olive oil is insufficient for the requirements
+of the Island, but there is no reason why, in the course of time, when
+the large number of trees newly planted and annually on the increase,
+come into bearing, a valuable export trade should not result. The
+figures of production, given in the table below, are strikingly
+fluctuating, and indicate the irregularity of the annual yield and the
+marked variation in price:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="figures of production">
+<tr><td align="left">Year.</td><td align="right">Quantity.</td><td align="right">Value.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1904</td><td align="right">4,294</td><td align="right">6,467</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1905</td><td align="right">5,291</td><td align="right">8,504</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1906</td><td align="right">7,845</td><td align="right">12,602</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1907</td><td align="right">8,981</td><td align="right">16,922</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1908</td><td align="right">788</td><td align="right">1,459</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1909</td><td align="right">3,851</td><td align="right">8,864</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1910</td><td align="right">7,550</td><td align="right">17,232</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1911</td><td align="right">608</td><td align="right">1,415</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1912</td><td align="right">48</td><td align="right">88</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1913</td><td align="right">911</td><td align="right">2,052</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1914</td><td align="right">2,197</td><td align="right">4,837</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1915</td><td align="right">6,003</td><td align="right">15,146</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1916</td><td align="right">4,966</td><td align="right">16,035</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1917</td><td align="right">290</td><td align="right">1,225</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><i>Sesame Seed</i></p>
+
+<p>The annual production in Cyprus of sesame seed (<i>Sesamum indicum</i>) is
+said to be about 195,000 okes. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> one of the recognised summer crops
+in the plains, and is frequently sown together in the same field with
+cotton, maize, etc., and in the vine villages it is sown in the newly
+planted vineyards, where it does well. In such cases the preparation of
+the soil is done on the same lines as for cotton, maize, vines, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The seed is used mainly for the extraction of the oil, which is largely
+employed in cooking, and it is also used in the preparation of
+sweetmeats; it is added sometimes as a condiment in bread-making. There
+is a small export, principally through Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The percentage of oil extracted varies according to the locality where
+the seed has been produced. Of the local product, that from Paphos gives
+the highest yield, viz. 30 to 35 per cent.; but this is inferior to the
+Egyptian product, which is to some extent imported and yields 40 to 45
+per cent. of oil, this being probably due to the thinner skin. The crop
+is uncertain. The plant is readily affected by the hot west wind
+(&#955;&#7985;&#957;&#945;&#962;) which not infrequently blows during its period of
+growth. The development of the seed is thereby checked and it remains
+thin and small (&#968;&#7937;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#962;), and naturally the oil yield is
+diminished.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Ground Nut, Peanut or Monkey Nut</i> (<i>Arachis hypogæa</i>)</p>
+
+<p>This nut is fairly popular among all classes and is imported through
+Egypt in moderate quantities. There is no reason why in certain
+localities this plant should not be grown successfully, more especially
+in the light sandy soils around Varosha and at Syrianochori. Efforts
+have been made to induce cultivators to grow this crop, but so far it
+has not commended itself. It calls for something a little out of the
+ordinary in the way of cultivation, as the plants mature their fruits
+under the soil; the profit to be derived from the crop is uncertain, and
+is thought, though without sufficient proof, to compare unfavourably
+with rival crops. Growers have been somewhat deterred by the ease with
+which the fruit can be stolen. As this is hidden under the soil, a theft
+is not at once detected. These drawbacks probably explain its restricted
+cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>Should oil-extracting machinery be introduced, these nuts might well be
+grown for their oil, both for culinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> purposes and for use in
+soap-making. The residuum, after extraction of the oil, and the haulm
+are nutritious cattle foods.</p>
+
+<p>The importation of these nuts was recently prohibited except in a
+roasted condition, owing to the risk of their introducing plant pests
+when in the raw, earth-encrusted condition. This has tended to check
+importation, and may perhaps give an impetus to local production. Ground
+nuts can be grown, of course, only where irrigation is possible.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of ground nuts imported in 1917 was 1,532 cwts., valued at
+<i>£</i>2,448. Previous to that year they were not separately enumerated.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Castor-oil Seed</i></p>
+
+<p>The castor-oil plant (<i>Ricinus communis</i>) is only grown to a small
+extent, but the tree usually thrives well and its cultivation might be
+extended with advantage. According to Gennadius, Dioscorides claimed
+that it used to be called Seseli of Cyprus, from which the inference may
+be drawn that the plant has long been among the flora of the Island,
+where it is now known as a perennial. It grows very freely from seed and
+rapidly attains a height of 15 or 16 ft.; but it quickly dies back after
+a slight frost, though it recovers again the following year. It appears
+to do well in most soils, but thrives best in light loam with moderate
+moisture.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the demand for the oil, one or two plantations have lately been
+made by the Agricultural Department.</p>
+
+<p>The varieties locally grown include plants producing large, medium and
+small-sized seed. Trial cultivations are being made to ascertain their
+relative values. It is found that a heavier yield of better quality is
+usually obtained where the plant is treated as an annual and not as a
+perennial. Four samples of castor seed examined at the Imperial
+Institute were found to contain normal amounts of oil, and similar seed
+would be readily saleable in the United Kingdom if offered in commercial
+quantities (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xvii. 1919, p.
+492).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fibres</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Cotton</i></p>
+
+<p>During the time of the Venetian occupation (1489-1570) Cyprus exported
+annually from seven to fifteen million pounds of raw cotton. In the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the English Levant Company sent
+large quantities from Cyprus to England. When the scarcity of cotton
+occasioned by the American Civil War gave a stimulus to its growth
+Cyprus took part in meeting the demand, and in 1866 over 2,000,000 lb.
+were exported. Since then the production has declined. In former times,
+then, the production of Cyprus cotton must have been very large, as
+cotton manufactures in the Island were, as in most cotton-producing
+countries in the East at that period, both considerable and of choice
+quality. Cyprus was always distinguished for its cotton spinning.
+Gennadius suggests that the Karpas, which is one of the centres of the
+Cyprus cotton manufacture, derived its name from the ancient "karpasos,"
+a fine cotton cloth which came from India. There is an old Hebrew word
+"karpas" found in the Old Testament, and derived from the Sanscrit
+"karpasa," cotton, or "karpasum," cotton cloth.</p>
+
+<p>During the Turkish Administration cotton cultivation declined, owing to
+the destruction of aqueducts, Venetian wells, etc., and to the practice
+of taxing the cotton crop in the field before it was picked&mdash;a cause of
+considerable delay and detriment to the crop. Careless cultivation and
+consequent deterioration of the fibre as well as the general fall in
+value contributed to the decay of the industry. Taxing the crop in the
+field was abandoned in 1890, and a tithe was levied on exported cotton
+only (<i>Handbook of Cyprus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The species of cotton principally cultivated in the Island is <i>Gossypium
+herbaceum</i>. American "New Orleans" seed was introduced some twenty years
+or so ago, and this has now largely displaced the original native kind;
+in fact the native kind has almost entirely disappeared, and what little
+is grown is mostly used for stuffing the native bed-quilt or "paploma."</p>
+
+<p>Cotton grown without irrigation is known as "dry"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> cotton. It is grown
+chiefly in the Messaorian plain and in the Karpas; it is harsh to the
+touch and short in staple, but of satisfactory colour. "Wet" cotton is
+grown on irrigated land; it is usually of larger staple and of finer
+quality than the "dry" cotton and commands a higher price. This is grown
+mainly round about Kythrea, Nisou, Dali, Lapithos and in the Solea
+valley. Native cotton is always grown "dry"; the ordinary American
+variety is grown both "wet" and "dry."</p>
+
+<p>The Karpas cotton, which is "dry" grown, is inferior not only on account
+of its shorter staple, but on account of the method of picking. In some
+places of Messaoria, at Dali, Nisou, etc., the "dry" and sometimes the
+"wet" cotton is picked in the morning before the dew has quite
+evaporated, and it is picked direct from the growing plant. But the most
+general practice is for the villagers to cut the bolls early in the
+morning before the dew is evaporated (&#960;&#959;&#961;&#957;&#7969;), transport them to
+the houses and then remove the lint at their leisure. In this way the
+bolls are more or less crushed and the lint when removed contains a
+mixture of husk, leaves, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of native and other varieties the lint of which adheres to
+the boll, the husks, leaves, etc., are removed from the bolls in the
+following way: The bolls are spread out on mats to dry in the sun; when
+sufficiently dry the bolls are put in a rotary sieve made of reeds and
+sticks, similar in make to the ordinary reed baskets of the country.
+Each end of the sieve is closed, but it has an opening in the middle,
+about 1 by 1&frac12; to 2 ft., which is closed by a small reed mat. The
+sieve is about 5 to 6 ft. long and 2 to 2&frac12; ft. in diameter. The bolls
+are dropped into the sieve through the opening and it is then revolved
+by hand by means of an axle which passes through it longitudinally. By
+this means most of the crushed husks and leaves fall through the
+interstices of the sieve.</p>
+
+<p>The native seed is usually grown on dry lands as it withstands drought.
+The "wet" cotton is mostly of the American variety.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Wyndham Dunstan, F.R.S., in his <i>Report on the Agricultural
+Resources of Cyprus</i> (1905), referred to the successful trials made with
+"Sea Island," "Peter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>kin," "Truitt's Big Boll," "Culpepper Big Boll,"
+and "Allen's Long Staple." Since then other varieties have been tried by
+the Agricultural Department, and while "Allen's" and "Truitt's" have
+continued to do well, good results have been obtained from "Triumph" and
+"Durango," both of which are early kinds and are therefore very suitable
+to the Island. A report by the Imperial Institute on samples of "Allen's
+Improved," "Mebane's Early Triumph" and "Sakellaridis" cottons grown
+experimentally in Cyprus in 1915 will be found in the <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the
+Imperial Institute</span> (vol. xv. 1917, p. 298).</p>
+
+<p>Owing to fear of locusts, late sowing (about May-June) became rather
+general. This is a dangerous practice as the bolls ripen late and much
+cotton is spoilt by the early autumn rains. It is mostly sown broadcast
+or in trenches; on irrigated land it is mostly sown in the ridges, but
+the older practice of sowing broadcast still, unfortunately, continues.</p>
+
+<p>"Dry" cotton is usually sown either on land which can be irrigated by a
+river when in flood, or in "livadhia" or low-lying lands which retain
+their moisture a long time. In the former case the seed is sown about
+March-April, while the soil is still damp from rain water or from river
+overflow. It is generally expected that when the young plants are fairly
+established a second irrigation from flood-water may occur. In the
+"livadhia" the seed is sown later. "Wet" cotton is watered about every
+fortnight.</p>
+
+<p>The crop begins to be collected in mid-September and continues up till
+the end of October. "Dry" cotton is rarely manured; "wet" cotton
+occasionally. The use of chemical manures is coming into practice. There
+are several ginning machines in the Island, but baling by hydraulic
+presses is done almost exclusively at Larnaca.</p>
+
+<p>In the Island the cotton seed is used for sowing and for feeding cattle.
+The exports of cotton seed have been:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="35%" cellspacing="0" summary="The exports of cotton seed have been">
+<tr><td align="left">Year.</td><td align="right">Quantity.</td><td align="right">Value.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1909</td><td align="right">2,708</td><td align="right">769</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1910</td><td align="right">3,066</td><td align="right">970</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1911</td><td align="right">3,245</td><td align="right">830</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1912</td><td align="right">15,874</td><td align="right">4,535</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1913</td><td align="right">13,933</td><td align="right">3,750</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The exports represent about three-fourths of the total production.</p>
+
+<p>There should be a good opening for machinery for extracting the oil.</p>
+
+<p>The cotton is locally graded into (1) best, (2) medium, and (3) poor,
+all being American varieties. The first quality is the "wet" or
+irrigated cotton. The second quality is grown mostly in the Messaoria
+plain and at Dali, Nisou, Potamia, Kythrea, where it is partly irrigated
+by river floods. The third quality is "dry" and comes principally from
+the Karpas. On the Marseilles market the second quality has a value 3 to
+4 per cent., and the third quality 8 to 10 per cent. less than the first
+quality. The first quality ranks in price at Marseilles on about a level
+with American cotton.</p>
+
+<p>For some ten years Greece has taken the leading place as an importer.
+Before the war, Cyprus cotton went chiefly to Marseilles and Greece,
+some also to Trieste. Only a very insignificant quantity goes to
+England. The freight to Marseilles was about 25<i>s.</i> per ton, to Trieste
+about 15<i>s.</i> per ton, while to England it averaged 50<i>s.</i> per ton. The
+market prices at Marseilles and Trieste were approximately the same, but
+at Marseilles they were subject to a discount of 1&frac12; per cent.,
+whereas at Trieste a discount of 3 to 4 per cent. was made. The Trieste
+market, being small, was subject to sudden fluctuations and was
+therefore risky and less favoured by Cypriot exporters.</p>
+
+<p>For several reasons the Liverpool market has not been so attractive as
+that of Marseilles. At Liverpool and Manchester quantities of not less
+than, say, 100 bales are preferred, whereas Marseilles would take
+smaller consignments of 20 or 40 bales. Uniformity of type is required
+by Manchester spinners, whereas the French factories are more ready to
+handle different types, including the shorter staples. Cyprus merchants
+make no distinction as regards the varieties of cotton, whether
+"Orleans," "Sea Island" or other kinds, and indeed they are scarcely
+competent to do so, as this requires special knowledge and experience.
+They buy in small quantities from many peasant growers and mix the
+produce in order to make up a fair consignment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In normal times there was always the further difficulty of obtaining
+direct transport to England, whereas to Marseilles, Trieste and also to
+Greece the opportunities were more frequent.</p>
+
+<p>Since the war Greece has become much the largest buyer. Owing to
+shortage of cotton on the Greek market this commodity was purchased from
+Cyprus rather than from Liverpool, as the freight was lower and war
+risks much less; apart from the almost impossibility of obtaining
+tonnage. It was the practice before the war for Cypriot merchants to
+sell c.i.f. Piræus, but they could not continue this under recent
+conditions and now sell f.o.b. Cyprus, and this practice is likely to
+continue. This f.o.b. Cyprus price has lately been about the same as
+would ordinarily be obtained for c.i.f. Liverpool. Greece has many small
+filatures willing to take consignments of even 10 bales, and the
+shipment direct or via Alexandria is easier.</p>
+
+<p>A Cyprus bale weighs about 150 okes.</p>
+
+<p>The following figures, showing average annual exports of raw cotton at
+various pre-war periods, indicate the course of the cultivation:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="40%" cellspacing="0" summary="average annual exports of raw cotton">
+<tr><td align="left">Period.</td><td align="right">Average Quantity.</td><td align="right">Average Value.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1880-89</td><td align="right">68,410</td><td align="right">147,683</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1890-99</td><td align="right">57,291</td><td align="right">91,812</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1900-09</td><td align="right">41,121</td><td align="right">92,939</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1910-17</td><td align="right">68,384</td><td align="right">213,275</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Prices have varied, as is shown by the values of the following record
+years:</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="55%" cellspacing="0" summary="Prices have varied">
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Quantity.</td><td align="right">Value.</td><td align="right" colspan="3">Average price.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td><td align="right">£</td><td align="right" colspan="3">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="width: 40%">1885 (highest export on record)</td><td align="right" style="width: 20%">14,276</td><td align="right" style="width: 23%">29,567</td><td align="right" style="width: 6%">2</td><td align="right" style="width: 6%">1</td><td align="right" style="width: 5%">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1886 (2nd ditto)</td><td align="right">13,887</td><td align="right">26,535</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1912 (3rd ditto)</td><td align="right">13,808</td><td align="right">40,085</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1913 (4th ditto)</td><td align="right">13,444</td><td align="right">40,693</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1884 (5th ditto)</td><td align="right">12,227</td><td align="right">26,874</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">1</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>In 1917 there were 13,685 donums under cotton cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>It is usual in some parts of the Island, especially in the Kyrenia
+district, to leave the crop in the ground for two or three years. This
+method of cropping is locally known<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> as "palia" or old. It is found
+profitable to leave the cotton plants two or three years on irrigated
+land. The second-year crop usually gives the heaviest yield.</p>
+
+<p>The average yield of unginned cotton on irrigated land is about 120 okes
+(3 cwts.) per scala; but as much as 250 okes can be obtained. "Wet"
+cotton, best quality, yields 1 oke of lint from 3 okes of unginned
+cotton, and "dry" cotton yields about 1 oke of lint from 3&#8531; okes of
+unginned cotton.</p>
+
+<p>There is much land well suited to cotton which for lack of water cannot
+be utilised. If artesian water could be found, there would be a very
+considerable extension of this cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>There is a well-equipped little cotton factory at Famagusta, and
+excellent cotton fabrics are made, especially in Nicosia neighbourhood,
+Lapithos and Karavas, Lefkonico and Gypsos and in the Karpas. These are
+known under the names of "alaja" and "dimita." They are mostly of good
+patterns, the material is strong and wears well, and is being largely
+used, not only by the peasantry, but also for making men's suits and
+ladies' skirts and cloths.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting article on the Cyprus Cotton Industry is to be found in
+the <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. iii. 1905, pp. 327-334.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Flax and Linseed</i></p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of flax (<i>Linum usitatissimum</i>), which began to develop
+some twenty years ago, has declined during the last ten years or so. The
+reasons for this are that it is considered to exhaust the soil, the
+later handling of the crop for fibre is troublesome and the market is
+liable to rather violent fluctuations. It grows well in the Messaoria
+plain, and when chemical manures are more generally used it may come
+more into favour. Attempts have been made to improve the quality by the
+introduction of Riga flax seed, but so far without success. There is a
+small export of linseed, but owing to the primitive methods of winnowing
+and cleaning it does not fetch the best price. The quality of the
+cleaned seed is excellent. Knowledge and care are needed in picking the
+crop at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> exactly the right time. The imperfect methods of general
+cultivation prevent the uniform ripening of the seed, and this means an
+uneven and unsatisfactory sample. Defective screening accounts for the
+presence in excess of foreign substances, weed seeds, etc. These
+difficulties are capable of remedy, and it may reasonably be hoped that
+when once overcome the cultivation will be extended.</p>
+
+<p>In Cyprus the cultivation is the same whether intended for seed or
+fibre, and consequently the latter is of an inferior quality, as is
+indicated in a report on Cyprus flax published in the <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the
+Imperial Institute</span> (vol. vi. 1908, p. 4). Seed is sown in
+November-December at the rate of 17 to 22 okes per donum. Retting is
+done by steeping in the large stone irrigation tanks which are a feature
+on most farms. In the Messaoria, about Ano and Kato Zodia, where flax is
+commonly grown, the plant is retted in the river Ovgos, which retains
+sufficient water usually until August. The yield per donum varies from
+100 to 300 okes of seed, 80 to 100 okes of fibre and 50 to 70 okes of
+tow.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Wool</i></p>
+
+<p>The exports of wool for the three last pre-war years were as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="35%" cellspacing="0" summary="exports of wool for the three last pre-war years">
+<tr><td align="left">Year.</td><td align="right">Quantity.</td><td align="right">Value.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><i>Cwts.</i></td><td align="right">£</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1911</td><td align="right">5,535</td><td align="right">13,452</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1912</td><td align="right">4,627</td><td align="right">11,362</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1913</td><td align="right">4,707</td><td align="right">12,181</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>This went chiefly to France, and next, though in much smaller
+quantities, to Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The wool is of moderate quality; this is partly due to the breed of
+sheep and partly to the conditions under which they are kept. Attempts
+have been made by the Agricultural Department to impress on the native
+breeders the necessity of keeping the sheep well fed, and experiments
+have been carried out at the Athalassa Experimental Farm for the purpose
+of demonstrating the advantages of careful rearing.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Two fleeces from the Athalassa Farm were sent to the Imperial Institute
+in May 1912, for examination and commercial valuation. One was the
+fleece of a yearling ram. This was clean, fairly soft and almost white.
+The other was the fleece of a yearling ewe. This was clean, slightly
+harsh and almost white, but was slightly coarser than that of the ram.</p>
+
+<p>These fleeces were considered by a firm of London brokers as an
+excellent class of carpet wool and likely to meet always with a ready
+sale in the London market (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol.
+x. 1912, p. 537). A similar opinion was expressed immediately before the
+war (July 1914) by a London firm to whom two bales of Cyprus wool had
+been sent, of which a part had been purchased in the bazaar and washed
+and trimmed by the Department and part came from the Athalassa
+(Government) flock. It was considered as "an ideal wool for carpet
+making or for blankets, but deficient in lustre for braids."</p>
+
+<p>The actual yield per sheep, viz. 3 to 3&frac12; lb., compares unfavourably
+with that of Lincolns, which they most closely resemble. This is due
+partly to breed, but largely also to the conditions under which the
+sheep are kept (see p. 17).</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Hemp</i></p>
+
+<p>The cultivation of hemp (<i>Cannabis sativa</i>) is practically confined to
+the southern part of the Paphos district, and there only in places where
+the water-supply is ample. The plant is grown only for fibre, which is
+exclusively used for rope-making, which is carried out by hand by the
+villagers round about Ktima. It would be of advantage to have a
+rope-making machine at work at a spot centrally situated in the area of
+production. A simple hand-worked machine is now being experimentally
+used and will, it is believed, turn out a better class of rope.</p>
+
+<p>The plant grows well on fertile and irrigated lands. Farmyard manure,
+and specially sheep manure, are generally applied, and chemical
+fertilisers are now also coming into use.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Harvesting takes place when the plants begin to turn pale. The plants
+are uprooted, not cut, and are made up into sheaves tied together at the
+butt end only. The bundles are not more than 2&frac12; spans round, and of
+equal size. When first uprooted the sheaves are placed flat on the field
+in rows to dry and in such zig-zag fashion that the top end of one sheaf
+is always made to rest on the butt end of another, and thus does not
+come into contact with the ground: this ensures the circulation of air
+and hastens the drying process. The sheaves are taken later to the
+threshing-floors, where they are stood upright until they are dry. The
+seed is separated by beating. The sheaves are exposed to the sun until
+the leaves are shed, and when the stems are entirely dry the bundles are
+tied up at both ends and are taken to the retting-place, which is
+usually the common stone tank or cistern of the country. There they are
+steeped in water for six to nine days. The bundles are generally covered
+by about one foot of water. On the sixth day the fibre is tested. If it
+separates easily the bundles are removed, if not they remain for another
+two or three days. This requires much care and experience, as the
+quality depends largely upon effective retting. Then they are taken out
+of the water and sun-dried, being piled up into pointed shooks, left
+hollow in the centre.</p>
+
+<p>The fibre is separated by means of a wooden implement locally called
+"melidjia." This consists of a wooden trough placed on two legs which
+are fixed in the ground. A wedge-shaped piece of wood which is hinged to
+the trough at one end is used as the beater. The hemp stalks, after the
+butts are cut off, are placed in the trough and the beater worked up and
+down so as to split the stalks and lay bare the fibre.</p>
+
+<p>The average production of fibre per scala is 60 to 80 okes, but where
+conditions are all favourable it may reach 160 to 200 okes and the seed
+yield may be anything from 80 to 200 okes per scala.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Silk</i></p>
+
+<p>The silkworm (<i>Bombyx mori</i>) finds in Cyprus a climate exceptionally
+favourable to its development, and Cyprus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> silks have been famous for
+their quality throughout the middle ages and as far back as the sixth
+century <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, when Greek monks first introduced silkworms from China.</p>
+
+<p>In the fateful year 1845, when the disease pebrine nearly destroyed the
+silk industry of Europe, the anxious search for healthy silkworm eggs
+that then ensued led Arabs from Syria to visit Cyprus and buy large
+quantities of silk cocoons from which they raised and exported the eggs.
+At that time, therefore, it is evident that Cypriot moths were well
+thought of. Pebrine soon reached Cyprus and almost brought the Island
+breed to an end. Thanks, however, to the Pasteur system, whereby pebrine
+and other silkworm diseases have been brought under complete control,
+the industry both here and elsewhere was not only saved but has been
+considerably developed.</p>
+
+<p>Writing in 1896 Mr. P. Gennadius, late Director of Agriculture, Cyprus,
+stated that the local production of silkworm eggs was so small that it
+could not be taken into consideration, and from the figures then given
+the total average annual production at that time is estimated to have
+been 35,000 okes of dry cocoons. This represented an average yield of
+only 3&frac12; okes of dry cocoons, equal to 15&frac12; kilograms of fresh
+cocoons, per ounce of silkworm eggs. This compared very unfavourably
+with the average annual production of fresh cocoons in France and Italy
+at that time, which was 35 kilograms and 30 kilograms respectively per
+ounce of silkworm eggs. Moreover, this ratio had been, up to that
+period, on a descending scale.</p>
+
+<p>In a report published in 1897 Mr. Gennadius attributed this
+unsatisfactory state of things to the following causes:</p>
+
+<p>1. The importation of cheap silkworm eggs of inferior quality; the
+average price paid by merchants was 2 to 2&frac12; francs per ounce, while
+the price in France ranged from 9 to 12 francs.</p>
+
+<p>2. The action of merchants who imported larger quantities of eggs than
+they could properly dispose of.</p>
+
+<p>3. The ignorance and folly of rearers who undertook to rear far more
+worms than they could properly "educate," having regard to space, leaves
+and labour.</p>
+
+<p>In 1908 the Department of Agriculture set to work, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> some success,
+to improve the methods of rearing up to that time in vogue, and during
+the six years ending 1913 (inclusive) the average annual quantity of
+eggs hatched out was 12,319 oz., the average annual export of "dry"
+cocoons was 45,551 okes, and the average annual estimated local
+consumption 4,449 okes, making a total annual production of 50,000 okes,
+as against 35,000 okes in 1896. The former total represents an average
+yield of about 4 okes of "dry" cocoons, equal to about 18 kilograms of
+fresh cocoons per ounce of seed, and marks a slight improvement upon the
+ratio of eighteen years previously.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1914 this branch of work has received a larger share of attention
+from the Department. Five sericultural stations have been established,
+regulations have been issued, inspections by qualified persons have been
+systematically made, practical advice has been given to rearers in the
+matter of cleanliness, disinfection and so forth, the granting of
+licences to egg-raisers has been put on a better footing and the whole
+industry has been brought more under observation and control.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous suggestions have been made from time to time for insuring that
+only a good quality of egg shall be imported. As an effective&mdash;perhaps
+the most effective&mdash;means to this end, the Department of Agriculture has
+set itself to improve the production of local eggs and thus indirectly
+discourage their importation: holders of licences to raise eggs are
+required to pass periodical examinations; several have in consequence
+had their licences cancelled, new licensees have been added, and many
+unlicensed persons have been prosecuted and convicted for illegally
+raising eggs.</p>
+
+<p>The common method of hatching practised by villagers, by placing the
+eggs tied in cloth with a little cotton-wool in their beds or by
+carrying them on their persons, still prevails, but it is gradually
+yielding to a better system of incubation. The Department has designed a
+simple, inexpensive hatching-box, and these are now being used with good
+results.</p>
+
+<p>Until about three years ago probably 25 per cent. of the local rearers
+were producing their own seed without any microscopical examination at
+all. Bad feeding, bad ven<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>tilation, ill-adapted premises were general.
+As a consequence pebrine and flacherie played such havoc that many
+people were beginning to abandon silkworm rearing and uproot their
+mulberry trees. The expansion and increased resources of the
+Agricultural Department happily came just in time to check this backward
+move.</p>
+
+<p>Silk reeling is unfortunately done in the most primitive manner with
+wooden appliances and hot water by village hand labour. The locally
+reeled silk is used only for Island consumption and the great bulk of
+cocoons is exported in the raw state, mostly to Lyons and Milan. The
+burden of freight on this bulky cargo is naturally a heavy handicap and
+the local silkworm rearers have consequently to be content with very low
+and inadequate prices for their cocoons. During the reeling process 20
+to 25 per cent. of the silk is lost, and a further loss is incurred
+during weaving owing to the numerous knots having to be cut away and the
+silk threads rejoined.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable loss is said to take place in selling cocoons in the
+European markets. The cocoons on arrival at Marseilles are subjected to
+official tests and sold according to the reports made by the official
+testers. It is of advantage to the buyers that the report should be made
+as unfavourable as possible as the price is lowered proportionately, and
+it is felt that the cocoons exported are thus placed too much at the
+mercy of the testing officials.</p>
+
+<p>These Cyprus cocoons are reeled in France and Italy and the silk is
+largely sold to England. It would be to the mutual benefit of England
+and Cyprus if a direct demand for Cyprus reeled silk could be created
+and modern reeling plant introduced into the Island. A large sum of
+money, now annually paid for freight, would thus be saved to the Cypriot
+producers, which would stimulate the local industry and tend to increase
+greatly the annual production and improve the local weaving of silk
+stuffs, an industry which has already gained considerable fame and at
+which the Cypriot women are adepts.</p>
+
+<p>As the following table shows, the amount of raw silk exported is a
+negligible quantity, but a fairly large quantity is locally reeled and
+is used in making the silk stuffs which are so much sought after in the
+local bazaars:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="70%" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Export of cocoons.</td><td align="center" colspan="2"> Export of cocoons waste.</td><td align="center" colspan="2"> Export of raw silk.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Year.</i></td><td align="right"> <i>Okes.</i></td><td align="center"> <i>Country.</i></td><td align="right"> <i>Okes.</i></td><td align="center"> <i>Country.</i></td><td align="right"> <i>Okes.</i></td><td align="center"> <i>Country.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"> 1909</td><td align="right">41,013</td><td align="center">France</td><td align="right">120</td><td align="center">France</td><td align="right"> 6</td><td align="center">Turkey</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"> 1910</td><td align="right">44,550</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">1,105</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">259</td><td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="right">157</td><td align="center">Egypt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"> 1911</td><td align="right">57,422</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">2,704</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">246</td><td align="center">Turkey</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="right"> 70</td><td align="center">Egypt</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"> 1912</td><td align="right">43,196</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">2,571</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right"> 90</td><td align="center">Turkey</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="left"></td><td align="right"> 70</td><td align="center">Turkey</td><td align="right"> 3</td><td align="center">Greece</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"> 1913</td><td align="right">48,884</td><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">2,502</td><td align="center">France</td><td align="right">118</td><td align="center">Turkey</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Efforts have been made by the Agricultural Department to improve the
+Cypriot race of silkworms. Two races of white colour, the Japanese and
+the Baghdad, have been separately crossed with the yellow race of
+Baghdad. These crossings began in 1912-13 and have been continued up to
+the present. The objects aimed at are to establish a new Cypriot race
+(<i>a</i>) giving good cocoons of a fine structure and larger in size than
+the French variety and yielding a maximum quantity of silk; (<i>b</i>)
+producing cocoons of a uniform colour and in demand in the European
+market and (<i>c</i>) with these characteristics constant.</p>
+
+<p>The results obtained so far are promising, but uniformity of colour has
+not yet been attained, though it is hoped that, by careful selection,
+this will become more fixed every year. It may here be mentioned that
+the famous French cream-coloured race took seventy-five years to become
+fully established owing to the widespread damage caused by pebrine and,
+to a lesser extent, by flacherie.</p>
+
+<p>It has been observed that silkworm eggs locally produced by qualified
+licensees are decidedly more immune to disease and less affected by
+adverse atmospheric conditions than imported seed.</p>
+
+<p>The local conditions of sericulture in Cyprus have undergone a change of
+late years. Formerly Nicosia and Famagusta were the districts where this
+industry was chiefly carried on; but latterly whole mulberry groves have
+been uprooted and replaced by fruit trees which are considered to be
+more profitable. This was the inevitable result of the ignorant methods
+under which the silkworm-rearing industry was conducted and the use of
+bad seed permitted, whereby disease was spread and annual loss<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+incurred. It is hoped that the industry is now again on the upward
+grade. One indication of this is that whereas a few years ago 1,000 to
+1,800 cocoons went to an oke, now the figure may be put at 500 to 1,000.
+Again, the waste due to excess of floss is much less than formerly, and
+if only reeling by machinery can be introduced a very much better return
+will result to the cocoon producer.</p>
+
+<p>In the Karpas and in and around Nicosia a bi-voltine race is reared. The
+results are poor, but the two rearings are made because in these
+localities there is an ample supply of leaves. From this race are
+produced small cocoons locally called "Confetti." They are only used for
+local silk manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>An inferior silk called "Koukoularika" is made from the cocoons of the
+ordinary or univoltine race, both those which have been stoved and those
+which have been badly stained when the moths emerged.</p>
+
+<p>These cocoons, which, during the process of boiling in lye, have been
+bleached, are turned inside-out and the excrement of the larva removed.
+The silk is then spun by hand with the "atrachtos." These cocoons are
+mostly from laggard worms and of inferior quality.</p>
+
+<p>The silk industry has suffered greatly from unscrupulous dealing on the
+part of the dealers in eggs. It is a common custom for these persons to
+sell imported seed at 2<i>s.</i> and even less per ounce, although the law
+requires all such seed to be accompanied by a Consular certificate and
+affidavit showing that the price paid was not less than 4<i>s.</i> per ounce,
+exclusive of freight, carriage or insurance. Secret discounts,
+presumably, render this practice possible. The dealer does not ask for
+payment in cash, but requires it in kind at the rate of 1 oke in every 4
+okes of cocoons raised. If 28 okes of cocoons are obtained from 1 ounce
+of seed the dealer would get 7 okes, valued at say 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> per oke =
+17<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> for each ounce of seed. The dealer mostly gives a cash
+advance of 10<i>s.</i> or £1 with the seed, stipulating that the crop is to
+be sold exclusively to him, the price being left open. The unfortunate
+producer is therefore in his toils.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of small Sericultural Societies would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> do much, both
+to encourage and cheapen the cost of growing mulberry trees and assist
+the industry. A few such societies have lately been formed.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Mulberry</i></p>
+
+<p>This tree (<i>Morus alba</i>) is grown extensively for silkworm feeding and
+is mostly found in those parts of the Island in which the silk industry
+is centred, viz. in the Marathassa valley and in the Karpas, fairly
+generally in and around Nicosia, Kyrenia and in the southern parts of
+the Paphos district.</p>
+
+<p>Little care is given to its cultivation. For the most part, in all the
+older plantations, the trees are set too close together. This is less
+noticeable in the newer plantations. Pruning, where given, is defective
+and so is the method of gathering the leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The usual method is to cut off, every year, the shoots with the leaves
+on them, from about one foot above the main branches. Two reasons are
+given for this by villagers. (1) It is quicker and easier to cut off
+these shoots than to pick off the leaves while still on the tree. The
+shoots are brought into the "magnanerie" and there placed upright in
+water and the leaves can then be removed more conveniently and at
+leisure. In this way the leaves remain fresh two days. (2) By cutting
+these shoots in the spring, <i>i.e.</i> during the silkworm-rearing season,
+which begins in early April, fresh shoots are formed which bear leaves
+in late summer and autumn. The latter afford very welcome green food for
+cattle and sheep. These leaves are stripped direct from the growing
+tree. The effect of this second gathering is prejudicial to the tree,
+which is thereby exhausted. The leaves produced the following spring are
+fleshy and watery and in the uncertain weather of spring are apt to
+induce flacherie.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Agaves and Aloes</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Agave americana</i>, <i>A. rigida</i> var. <i>sisalana</i>, <i>Furcræa gigantea</i>,
+<i>Aloe ciliata</i> and <i>A. frutescens</i> all grow well and, if properly
+cultivated and handled, might be worth more attention than they at
+present receive.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1913 a Cypriot from German East Africa who had been engaged in the
+production of Sisal hemp there was struck by the few excellent plants he
+found growing in Cyprus, and, had sufficient suitable land been then
+obtainable, with transport facilities, was desirous of undertaking
+cultivation on a commercial basis.</p>
+
+<p>Samples of fibre prepared from the leaves of the abovementioned plants
+were reported on by the Imperial Institute in 1912, but as the leaves
+had been retted, and not scraped or scutched, their value was
+depreciated, and this was estimated at from £14 to £18 per ton with best
+Mexican Sisal hemp at £25 per ton.</p>
+
+<p>The outlay for fencing against wandering flocks of goats and for
+decorticating machinery and other expenses would deter the ordinary
+cultivator from planting, and this could only be profitably undertaken
+if ample capital were forthcoming.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Broom Corn</i></p>
+
+<p>Until the end of last century all brooms of European type were imported.
+Seed of broom corn (<i>Sorghum vulgare</i>), known locally as "tchihri" or
+"skoupa," was then introduced, and gradually the cultivation has
+extended and a good number of brooms of very fair quality are now
+locally made. The process of broom-making is very simple and the high
+price of the imported article during the war has led to a marked
+extension of the industry. The plant grows well, especially on irrigated
+land. The seed provides a good food for chickens and the stalks and
+leaves can be used as fodder. It is a profitable crop, especially when
+the cultivator makes and sells the brooms himself, and is principally
+grown in the Karpas and at Athienou.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tobacco</span></p>
+
+<p>In Turkish times tobacco was grown in several parts of the Island,
+though not to any large extent.</p>
+
+<p>"For centuries it was produced in many districts of the Island, and
+particularly in the Karpas, near Kilani, Omodhos and Paphos, but from
+the time it became an article of monopoly its production was subjected
+to rigorous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> restrictions, and its cultivation has been entirely
+abandoned." (Reports, pt. ii. (1896), P. Gennadius).</p>
+
+<p>The quantity grown before the occupation appears to have been very
+fluctuating and to have averaged about 56,000 lb. annually, and the
+Government revenue, according to British Consular reports, would not
+have been more than £300 to £400 per annum. The Régie was introduced in
+1874, but owing to the hampering restrictions the industry had been
+pretty well crushed out by the time of British occupation in 1878.
+Meanwhile the revenue from tobacco, imported mainly from Volo and
+Salonica, increased greatly.</p>
+
+<p>The monopoly ceased at the British occupation, but the regulations and
+imposts remained. Those responsible for controlling the industry,
+collecting dues, and checking illicit consumption had a troublesome
+task, while on the other hand the cultivator became averse to engaging
+in a cultivation which was hedged round with so many restrictions and
+formalities.</p>
+
+<p>These exist at the present time and may here be quoted:</p>
+
+<p>The grower has to notify the Customs authorities of his intention to
+sow, giving the locality and area. Before picking he must again notify
+the Customs, so that a Customs officer may be present at the picking and
+weigh the freshly picked leaves. After storing, but before delivering
+the tobacco to the factory, the Customs officer must again weigh the now
+dry leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The excise duties leviable are: Tobacco leaf, 4&frac12;<i>cp.</i> per oke,
+payable on transfer of leaf from grower to wholesale dealer. Tobacco
+manufactured in Cyprus, whether made into cigarettes or otherwise, in
+addition to the import duty or transport duty, pays a banderolle duty of
+3<i>s.</i> 6&frac12;<i>cp.</i> per oke.</p>
+
+<p>These regulations are a relic of the Turkish times, as in those days the
+State received a definite due called "City Toll" by charging the tobacco
+cutters and tobacco sellers with a trade tax. They appear to have been
+administered with more laxity in Turkish than in post-occupation times,
+and it is said that the abandonment of tobacco cultivation was mainly
+due to the severity with which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> these rather vexatious and irritating
+regulations were enforced.</p>
+
+<p>For many years the tobacco imported by local cigarette manufacturers
+came almost entirely from Macedonia. This tobacco was of very superior
+quality and cheap, and locally grown tobacco could not compete with it.
+Of late years the price of Macedonian tobacco has risen considerably and
+the manufacturers have therefore been induced to import Thessalian
+tobacco instead, which is not of so fine a flavour and approximates more
+closely to Cyprus produce. Cypriot smokers have thus had their palates
+prepared for the flavour of the locally grown tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1912, when Houry's Cyprus Tobacco Association, Ltd., was
+formed, a revival in the industry set in. This has since received
+considerable impetus from the war, which, temporarily, has thrust
+Macedonian tobacco out of the market. The primary object of the
+Association was to manufacture tobacco and cigarettes from Cyprus-grown
+tobacco, although foreign tobacco could also be used. Tobacco then began
+to be regularly grown by the Association at a Chiftlik near Limassol and
+elsewhere, and cigarettes made therefrom have had a fair local sale. The
+arrival of well-to-do refugees from Latakia and other parts of Syria,
+skilled in tobacco cultivation, led to great extension of this crop. A
+large part of the produce was at first converted into Latakia tobacco.
+Owing possibly to the lack of care and skill on the part of native
+labour, partly perhaps to the unsuitability of the herbs and brushwood
+used in the fuming, the market was not found sufficiently encouraging
+and the Latakia, for which at best there is a very restricted market,
+has almost ceased to be produced. Tobacco for cigarettes, however,
+continues to be grown on a fairly large scale, but in order that land
+suitable for corn and other foodstuffs should not be sacrificed to
+tobacco, the cultivation of the latter is permitted only by special
+licence. In 1916 and 1917 the industry fell almost entirely into the
+hands of the richer refugees, who were expert growers, and they
+contracted with the small farmers and peasants. A number of speculative
+growers, professional men, merchants, etc., were tempted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> by the
+prevailing high prices to embark in the industry, but the licensing
+system has tended to throw it more into the hands of the <i>bona-fide</i>
+farmers, who are allowed only to cultivate small areas which can be
+looked after mainly by their own families. In 1916 the total production
+was 89,065 okes, and the estimated yield for 1917 is 487,674 okes.</p>
+
+<p>The Agricultural Department has for some five years carried out
+experimental growings in various districts, and samples of tobacco so
+grown have been submitted to the Imperial Institute (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the
+Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xiii. 1915, pp. 547-550). The two best samples
+reported on were grown in the Nicosia plain. They were said to conform
+with the Turkish tobacco as regards size of leaf, but contained too much
+moisture for the English market. The tobacco was found to smoke rather
+hot and was only mildly aromatic, but it was believed that these defects
+would probably disappear with more experience in the curing. The samples
+referred to were incompletely cured, having been submitted quickly in
+order to roughly ascertain their quality. The report on the whole was
+moderately encouraging, and it is hoped that later samples which have
+been better cured will be found superior.</p>
+
+<p>The tobacco grown in Cyprus is mostly of the Samsoun, Trebizond, Kavalla
+and Hassan Keff varieties.</p>
+
+<p>The normal importation of tobacco into Cyprus is about 180,000 okes,
+which produces an import duty of £4,500 a year, at the rate of
+4&frac12;<i>cp.</i> per oke.</p>
+
+<p>The average amount paid for banderolles on tobacco when issued from
+factories for consumption is about £30,000 a year, which at the rate of
+3<i>s.</i> 6&frac12;<i>cp.</i> per oke equals a banderolle duty on 161,000 okes; the
+difference of about 20,000 okes would be cigarettes exported on which no
+banderolle duty is paid.</p>
+
+<p>If, then, no tobacco were grown and none imported the Government would
+lose £35,000 revenue annually. It would appear to be immaterial from a
+revenue point of view whether tobacco were imported or grown in the
+Island, since the imposts are the same, viz. on imports 4&frac12;<i>cp.</i> per
+oke import duty and 3<i>s.</i> 6&frac12;<i>cp.</i> per oke banderolle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> duty; on
+locally grown tobacco 4&frac12;<i>cp.</i> per oke transport duty and 3<i>s.</i>
+6&frac12;<i>cp.</i> per oke banderolle duty. There is, however, this difference,
+that the money leaves the Island when the tobacco is imported and
+remains and fructifies when it is locally grown.</p>
+
+<p>Tobacco cultivation is in many ways well suited to this Island, as a
+great part of its cultivation as well as the gathering may be done by
+women and children. It need not therefore make any serious demand upon
+man labour, which is already insufficient, and much of the work can be
+performed by those who are unfit for heavy field work. It is a summer
+crop, which is greatly in its favour, the quality when grown "dry" being
+much finer than when irrigated. Its introduction broadens the basis of
+cultivation, provides a revenue from land that would otherwise lie
+fallow and is a useful element in any system of rotation. As it calls
+for careful preparation and thorough cultivation of the soil it has a
+great educative influence on a people prone to slovenly, primitive
+husbandry, and corn crops following tobacco have frequently given a
+larger, more uniform yield.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time it is an open question whether the crop can be grown
+and the leaf cured by the Cypriot farmer to produce a tobacco which,
+under normal conditions, will successfully compete in quality and price
+with the Macedonian tobacco.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tanning Materials and Dye-stuffs</span></p>
+
+<p>Tanneries are fairly numerous and large quantities of skins are tanned
+and sold to native boot-makers. Before the war, goat- and sheep-skins
+and ox-hides were practically the only kinds handled, the two former
+being mainly used for the uppers of boots. The top-boots worn by
+villagers are nearly all made from goat-skin, locally called "totmaria."
+Since the war pig-skins and dog-skins have been also used. Camel-skins
+are often employed for making soles.</p>
+
+<p>Pine bark and sumach are the native tanning substances chiefly used in
+the local tanneries. The pine is one of the commonest forest trees of
+the Island. Shinia leaves (<i>Pistacia Lentiscus</i>) are also used (see p.
+51).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Sumach</i></p>
+
+<p>The Sicilian, elm-leaved or tanner's sumach (<i>Rhus Coriaria</i>) is a shrub
+which grows wild throughout a large part of the Island, being
+principally found among the vineyards on the slopes of the southern
+range of hills. The leaves are largely used in the leather tanning
+industry, and a considerable export might have been established to the
+United Kingdom had it not been for dissatisfaction caused by the
+excessive presence of impurities, such as lentisc leaves and dust, which
+were usually found in the consignments sent.</p>
+
+<p>One sample was sent by the Agricultural Department to the Imperial
+Institute in 1909. This was found to consist wholly of sumach and no
+lentisc or other leaves, and gave on examination the following results:
+Moisture, 10.1; ash, 9.8; tannin (by hide-power method), 26.9;
+extractive matter (non-tannin), 16.7 per cent. The report showed that
+the leaves produced a good leather, similar in texture and colour to
+that obtained with Sicilian sumach, and was considered likely to fetch
+about the same price as a medium quality of Sicilian sumach, which
+contains from 25 to 30 per cent. of tannin (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial
+Institute</span>, vol. x. 1912, p. 45).</p>
+
+<p>Two further samples were sent in 1916. The first sample "consisted of a
+finely-ground yellowish-green powder, containing a quantity of sand,
+small stones and iron dust." The second sample consisted of a
+"coarsely-ground, yellowish-green powder, containing a quantity of
+pinkish unground twigs, sand and small stones, together with some iron
+dust."</p>
+
+<p>The results of examination were as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" width="45%" cellspacing="0" summary="results of examination were">
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">No. 1.</td><td align="right">No. 2.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><i>Per cent.</i></td><td align="right"><i>Per cent.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Moisture</td><td align="right">9.3</td><td align="right">9.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Insoluble matters</td><td align="right">53.6</td><td align="right">57.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Extractive matters (non-tannin)</td><td align="right">14.6</td><td align="right">13.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tannin</td><td align="right">22.5</td><td align="right">20.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ash</td><td align="right">8.5</td><td align="right">12.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tintometer readings&mdash;Red</td><td align="right">0.7</td><td align="right">1.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Yellow</td><td align="right">2.1</td><td align="right">2.5</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Both samples were low in tannin, compared with the Sicilian percentage
+of 25 to 30.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sample No. 1 was valued at £13, and No. 2 at £12, per ton, with Sicilian
+sumach at £15 per ton; the lower value being due to the lower tannin
+contents, owing to the presence of sand, dirt, etc. It may be assumed
+that if more care in preparing clean samples were taken, Cyprus sumach
+would greatly improve its market value.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Valonea</i></p>
+
+<p>There are a few well-grown specimens of valonea oak (<i>Quercus Ægilops</i>)
+to be seen, but being a slow grower and as it takes many years to reach
+the stage when it yields a profit, it does not commend itself to the
+Cypriot tree planter. It prefers deep soil and requires artificial
+irrigation or a greater rainfall than we have in Cyprus.</p>
+
+<p>It has been tried at Salamis and failed, and also at Machaera with the
+same result. It has been grown also on Troödos, but after six years'
+growth attained a height of only 1 foot.</p>
+
+<p>Only an insignificant quantity of Valonea cups are locally produced.
+These come from the Paphos district and are said to be rather poor in
+tannin. The bulk comes from Anatolia. The pre-war price for the latter
+was 5<i>s.</i> per cantar of 44 okes, that for the locally grown was 20 paras
+per oke on the spot, transport charges bringing up the price to about 1
+copper piastre per oke delivered.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Acacia Barks</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Acacia pycnantha</i> has been grown in Cyprus, but does not acclimatise
+well, and neither the soil nor climate seems favourable. <i>A. mollissima</i>
+also has not shown any very successful growth. <i>A. cyanophylla</i> and <i>A.
+longifolia</i>, on the other hand, thrive excellently. They are great
+drought-resisters and grow on almost any soil. They have been very
+extensively grown by the Forest Department in every district for fuel
+and along the coast upon sand dunes. They have not been utilised so far
+for the extraction of tanning, except experimentally. Samples of the
+barks of the two last-named species were found on examination at the
+Imperial Institute to be too poor in tannin to be worth exporting, but
+they should be quite suitable for use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> in Cyprus (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the
+Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 412-414).</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Madder</i></p>
+
+<p>In former years, and within the period of the British occupation, the
+cultivation of madder (<i>Rubia tinctorum</i>) was fairly flourishing in
+Cyprus. The old madder grounds can still be distinguished, and are
+mostly to be seen near Morphou, Ayia Irini, Sotira, Ayios Serghios,
+Famagusta and Larnaca. These madder grounds were excavations made in
+order to expose the soil lying beneath 10 to 30 ft. of drift-sand; and
+they form, as it were, a series of tanks along the shore. The red dye
+obtained from the dried and ground madder roots constituted at one time
+one of the most valued of dye-stuffs, and was in special demand for
+military uniforms; but this has been entirely superseded by artificial
+coal-tar derivatives and, as Gennadius says: "The happy days of the
+cultivation of this plant are past, never to return."</p>
+
+<p>It is propagated mostly by root cuttings. The leaf begins to dry at
+about the sixth month. There is no further growth above ground, but the
+roots continue to increase and shoot downwards till moisture affects
+them. "When they get too wet, they become black or rot. In Cyprus this
+rotting would often begin after about eighteen months, while in superior
+soils the roots would continue to improve during thirty-six months, and
+they would be known in the trade as eighteen months and thirty-six
+months roots. In Famagusta district they remain mostly eighteen months,
+while at Morphou they would continue fully thirty-six months, during the
+whole of which time the surface ground should be kept free of weeds."</p>
+
+<p>After the root is lifted it is generally dried; if packed before quite
+dry, it ferments and deteriorates.</p>
+
+<p>Two and a half tons of dried roots would be produced from an acre of
+good ground, and the madder grounds used to fetch a very high price.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Drugs and Other Products</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Liquorice Root</i></p>
+
+<p>The liquorice plant (<i>Glycyrrhiza glabra</i>, Linn.) grows mainly in the
+Famagusta and Kyrenia districts, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> roots are collected and
+exported from time to time. Two samples were reported upon in 1917 by
+the Imperial Institute (see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xv.
+1917, p. 312) and the following opinions of two London firms of brokers
+were elicited.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) One firm described the Lapithos (Kyrenia district) roots as medium
+to bold unpeeled roots of good flavour, fairly well cleaned and very
+well dried; and valued them at from 50<i>s.</i> to 55<i>s.</i> per cwt. ex wharf,
+London (February 1917). The firm described the Famagusta roots as
+thinner than the Lapithos sample and not so well freed from smooth
+valueless pieces, but mentioned that they had apparently been washed.
+They valued these roots at 50<i>s.</i> per cwt. ex wharf, London (February
+1917). The firm added that both samples were exceptionally dry, and that
+it seemed doubtful if the material in the bulk would be as dry.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) A second firm considered the roots to be rather mixed, inferior
+quality, and worth at that time about 45<i>s.</i> per cwt. in London
+(February 1917).</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Pyrethrum</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum) cinerariæfolium</i> grows well from seed and is
+an attractive garden plant with pretty, marguerite-like flowers. These
+yield the pyrethrum of commerce so largely used as an insecticide, and
+which is said to form the chief ingredients in various flea powders.
+These flowers, when dried and ground to dust, are employed for this
+purpose by the natives. The original pyrethrum powder came from plants
+growing in Dalmatia.</p>
+
+<p>The plant was introduced into the Cyprus Government Gardens some twenty
+years ago and has since spread more or less throughout the Island. It is
+perennial and drought-resistant, and will also stand several degrees of
+frost and seems indifferent to soil, provided it is not too damp. The
+seed is sown in September and the seedlings are transplanted in April or
+May, but it multiplies itself readily by suckers. The flowers, which are
+about three times the size of the Chamomile (<i>Matricaria Chamomilla</i>),
+which they closely resemble, are gathered as soon as they are fully
+open, and are then dried in a well-ventilated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> room. They are usually
+sold in bales of 50 to 100 kilogrammes. One donum may produce about 100
+okes of flowers annually.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Squill</i></p>
+
+<p>Bulbs of the local squill were submitted in 1917 to Kew and
+provisionally identified as <i>Urginea Scilla.</i> Like the asphodel, this
+root is found everywhere. If sliced and placed about the house they are
+said to drive away mice. It was intended by the Agricultural Department
+to make an attempt to find a market for these roots, in the hope that if
+they could obtain a small payment for them farmers might be induced to
+collect them off their lands, but the project had to be abandoned for
+the time owing to the war. There is a small demand for these roots, if
+sliced and dried, in Europe for medicinal purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Squill bulbs from Cyprus were examined at the Imperial Institute in 1916
+(see <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>, vol. xv. 1917, p. 311). The
+samples, which were submitted to a firm of drug manufacturers, were
+objected to on account of their dark colour, and were valued at about
+6<i>d.</i> per lb. as against a pre-war value of 3<i>d.</i> per lb.</p>
+
+<p>According to the report by the Imperial Institute there are two
+varieties of <i>Urginea Scilla,</i> white and red, the scales of the former
+being yellowish-white and those of the latter having a reddish tint, and
+there are also many intermediate forms. Though the red and the white
+varieties have been stated to possess equal medicinal value, the white
+variety is preferred in England.</p>
+
+<p>In making stone irrigation channels which are lined with a coating of
+lime and sand or earth, local masons sometimes rub over this lining with
+a sliced squill which has been dipped in oil. It is found that this
+tends to harden and glaze the lining and prevent it from cracking.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Colocynth or Bitter Apple</i></p>
+
+<p>The colocynth (<i>Citrullus Colocynthis</i>), locally called "pikrankoura" or
+"petrankoura," grows wild in some parts of the plains. The round
+yellowish-green fruit, about the size of an orange or small melon,
+ripens in July<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> to September and, after being gathered, is skinned and
+dried in the sun. It is used by druggists as a purgative. Until about
+ten years ago it was cultivated on a small scale and an annual export of
+about £400 in value took place, chiefly to England and Austria. It was
+then in demand, it is said, as an adulterant of quinine. The fruit is
+locally thought to be a remedy for rheumatism. For this purpose the
+fruits are picked and put in a saucepan and covered with olive oil.
+After cooking for six hours the pulp or ointment is rubbed into the
+affected part. The European demand having ceased, the plant is now only
+found in a wild state.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Asphodel</i></p>
+
+<p>The asphodel (<i>Asphodelus ramosus</i>), locally known as "spourdellos" or
+"spourtoulla," is a troublesome and abundant weed in many parts of the
+Island, up to an altitude of about 4,000 ft. The peasant farmer rarely
+attempts to remove it, though it occupies a large proportion of his land
+to the detriment of the crops. In the hills the villagers dry the bulbs
+and feed them to their sheep, cattle and donkeys. A paste is also made
+from the roots which is used by boot-makers to stick the leathers
+together. To make this paste the roots are dried in the oven and ground,
+and then mixed with ground vetches or maize and made into the gum or
+paste locally known as "tsirichi."</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VI_MINOR_AGRICULTURAL_INDUSTRIES" id="VI_MINOR_AGRICULTURAL_INDUSTRIES"></a>VI. MINOR AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES</h2>
+
+
+<p><i>Bee-keeping</i></p>
+
+<p>Although Cyprus bees are world-famed, bee-keeping in the Island is still
+in its infancy.</p>
+
+<p>The native hive is generally an earthenware cylinder or pipe about 2 ft.
+6 in. long and 9 in. in diameter (see Plate VII, fig. 1). Hives are also
+made of a mixture of earth and chopped straw, similar to native
+mud-bricks. These hives are also cylindrical, about 18 in. long and 10
+to 12 in. in diameter with a 3-in. thickness of wall. These are cooler
+in summer and warmer in winter, and produce stronger colonies than the
+earthenware ones.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plate VII.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i122.jpg" width="450" height="309" alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;Cypriot Earthenware Beehives." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Cypriot Earthenware Beehives.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+<img src="images/i122bottom.jpg" width="450" height="290" alt="Fig. 2.&mdash;Shipping Fruit at Larnaca." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Shipping Fruit at Larnaca.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p>Of late years the Agricultural Department has introduced modern hives
+with movable frames, and had it not been for the high cost of timber
+since the war, the number of these would have increased rapidly. The
+difficulty is to get the local carpenters to construct them properly and
+with finish. Practical hive construction is taught at the Agricultural
+School.</p>
+
+<p>Cyprian bees are, par excellence, the yellow race of the world. They are
+of uniform colour, size and character, slightly smaller than the
+Italians and the blacks. They have great power of flight, are very
+prolific and vigorous and good honey-gatherers. They are by many
+considered vicious and ill-tempered. This is possibly due to the
+constant war they have to wage against hornets, which in this country
+are a real plague and frequently exterminate whole colonies and
+sometimes whole apiaries. Various devices are employed for the
+protection of bees in or near the hives.</p>
+
+<p>A good number of Cyprian queen bees have been imported into Europe and
+America, and are very highly regarded wherever they have been
+established. In the eighties Cyprian queens were sold in the United
+States of America at £2 each. This high price checked the importation
+and the crossing of Cyprians with Italians and blacks took place, the
+hybrid offspring being sold by dealers as Cyprians. These, however, did
+not possess the best characteristics of Cyprians, and for a time they
+brought about a reaction in favour of other breeds.</p>
+
+<p>Cyprus possesses excellent honey-producing plants in the eucalyptus
+trees, orange groves, "throumbia" or wild thyme, and other aromatic
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>In the neighbourhood of orange groves a competent bee-keeper can obtain
+an average of 50 lb. of honey per colony; although unfortunately the
+ordinary village bee-keeper gets little more than 6 to 10 lb.</p>
+
+<p>Locally produced beeswax is of fine quality with delicious aroma and of
+a bright yellow colour, said to be superior to that imported from Asia
+Minor and Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The industry is susceptible of considerable development and, when
+brought under more complete control, should be capable of establishing a
+good export trade of honey and possibly of beeswax.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Basket-making</i></p>
+
+<p>Basket-making is a considerable industry, as all fruit and much other
+produce is transported in baskets mostly designed for the backs of
+donkeys or mules. The export trade of fruit and vegetables creates a
+constant demand (see Plate VII, fig. 2). The bulk of these baskets are
+made of reeds (<i>Arundo</i>) which grow luxuriantly by the side of water
+channels or wherever moist soil is found. This material is not an ideal
+one for the purpose, as the baskets are easily crushed and lose shape,
+to the detriment of the contents. The reeds are therefore often
+stiffened by the introduction of an occasional breadth of some other
+material, <i>e.g.</i> shinia (<i>Pistacia Lentiscus</i>), tremithia or myrtle. All
+these are much used in basket-making, though the latter is heavy. There
+is a native willow (<i>Salix alba</i>) and also the weeping willow (<i>S.
+babylonica</i>). These have not been used until recently when, by the
+efforts of the Agricultural Department, a number of these trees have
+been pollarded and the new shoots have been found quite satisfactory for
+the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Six years ago a number of osier cuttings were imported from England, but
+unfortunately they have not succeeded so far owing to a succession of
+dry years. The surviving plants were this autumn removed to a more
+suitable site, but after suffering from drought they have now been
+almost destroyed by heavy floods.</p>
+
+<p>In order to encourage the manufacture of better baskets for the fruit
+trade between Cyprus and Egypt the Agricultural Department provides
+practical instruction in basket-making, and a qualified teacher pays
+occasional visits to basket-making villages and demonstrates the work
+and teaches improved patterns to the villagers and school boys.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Fruit and Vegetable Preserving</i></p>
+
+<p>There is little doubt that the establishment of small factories for
+canning or bottling fruits and vegetables would be a profitable
+undertaking. Owing to the suddenness with which, in the heat of summer,
+the fruits ripen in Cyprus, and the consequent glut that often ensues,
+market<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> prices fall to a point at which it does not pay to pick and
+handle. Transport difficulties also make it precarious, in the case of
+soft fruits, to attempt a sale outside the immediate place of
+production. Increased cultivation is thus discouraged.</p>
+
+<p>In growing fruits or vegetables for canning or bottling a man is
+independent of market fluctuations, whereas at present both producers
+and consumers are in the hands of the local shopkeepers, who have the
+former entirely at their mercy.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian fruit and vegetable trade is very well worth cultivating,
+but until better measures can be enforced in the matter of transport by
+sea as well as land, shippers run the risk of heavy losses, which, no
+doubt, recoil upon the unlucky producers.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Specimens of most of the products referred to in these notes may be seen
+in the Cyprus Court in the Public Exhibition Galleries of the Imperial
+Institute.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Reprinted from the <span class="smcap">Bulletin of the Imperial Institute</span>,
+1919.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Report by Captain Goodchild, Remount Department, E.E.F.,
+when visiting Cyprus in 1916 and 1917 to purchase mules and donkeys for
+army purposes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Legislation in this direction has been effected during the
+session of the Legislative Council just ended. (Law No. VII of 1919.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>A quantity of stored plant was destroyed by fire, reducing
+the output.</i></p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Printed by Hazell, Watson &amp; Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury, England.</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="centerbox">
+<p class="center">Transcriber's note:</p>
+
+<p>In the original, illustrations were marked as 'facing page.' That has not
+been reproduced in this e-book.</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND ITS PRODUCTS***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 32392-h.txt or 32392-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/2/3/9/32392">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/3/9/32392</a></p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Notes on Agriculture in Cyprus and Its
+Products, by William Bevan
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Notes on Agriculture in Cyprus and Its Products
+
+
+Author: William Bevan
+
+
+
+Release Date: May 15, 2010  [eBook #32392]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND
+ITS PRODUCTS***
+
+
+E-text prepared by the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading
+Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by
+Internet Archive/American Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/americana)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+      See 32392-h.htm or 32392-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32392/32392-h/32392-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32392/32392-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/notesonagricultu00bevarich
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND ITS PRODUCTS
+
+by
+
+W. BEVAN
+
+Director of Agriculture, Cyprus
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+1919
+
+All Rights Reserved
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  INTRODUCTION      1
+
+  I. GENERAL      3
+
+  Geographical Features, 3; Climate and Rainfall, 4;
+  Administration, 5; Weights, Measures and Currency,
+  5
+
+  II. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS      6
+
+  General, 6; Land Tenure and Labour, 6; Tithes and
+  Taxation, 7; Credit and Agricultural Societies, 8;
+  Irrigation, 8; Agricultural Implements, 10; The
+  Agricultural Department, 12; Fungoid Diseases and
+  Insect Pests, 14
+
+  III. LIVE STOCK      16
+
+  Cattle, 16; Sheep, 17; Goats, 18; Pigs, 19; Camels,
+  20; Horses, 20; Donkeys, 20; Jennets and Mules,
+  21; Poultry, 22; Preserved Meats, etc., 23
+
+  IV. DAIRY PRODUCE      23
+
+  Milk, 23; Cheese, 24; Butter, 27; Xynogala or
+  Yaourti, 27; Trachanas, 28; Kaimaki or Tsippa, 28
+
+  V. CROPS AND OTHER PRODUCE OF THE LAND      28
+
+  CEREALS      28
+
+  Wheat, 31; Barley, 32; Oats, 34; Rye, 35; Maize
+  (Indian Corn), 35; Dari or Millet (Sorghum
+  vulgare), 35
+
+  FRUITS      35
+
+  Vines and Wines, 36; Citrus fruits, 43; Fig (_Ficus
+  Carica_), 44; Cherries, 45; Banana, 46; Azarol
+  Hawthorn, 46; Melons, 47; Date Palm, 47
+
+  NUTS      48
+
+  Hazelnuts and Cobnuts or Filberts, 48; Walnuts,
+  49; Almonds, 49; Spanish Chestnut, 50; Pistacia
+  spp., 50
+
+  VEGETABLES      52
+
+  Beans and Peas, 53; Potatoes, 55; Kolakas (_Colocasia
+  antiquorum_), 56; Onions, 56
+
+  FODDERS AND FEEDING STUFFS      57
+
+  Carob Tree, 57; Lucerne (_Medicago sativa_), 61;
+  Vetch (_Vicia Ervilia_), 62; Chickling Vetch
+  (_Lathyrus sativus_), 62; Vetch (_Vicia sativa_), 62;
+  Tares (_Vicia tenuifolia var. stenophylla_), 63; Milk
+  Vetch (_Astragalus_), 63; Moha, Sulla (_Hedysarum_),
+  63; Teosinte (_Reana luxurians_), 64; Sudan-grass,
+  64; Teff-grass (_Eragrostis abyssinica_), 64; Mangold
+  Wurzel, 64; Prickly Pear (_Opuntia_), 65
+
+  SPICES      65
+
+  Coriander Seed, 65; Aniseed, 66; White Cumin
+  Seed, 66; Black Cumin Seed, 67
+
+  ESSENTIAL OILS AND PERFUMES      67
+
+  Origanum Oil, 67; Marjoram Oil, 69; Laurel Oil, 69;
+  Otto of Roses, 69; _Acacia Farnesiana_, 70
+
+  OILS AND OIL SEEDS      71
+
+  Olives, 71; Sesame Seed, 74; Ground Nut, Peanut
+  or Monkey Nut (_Arachis hypogaea_), 75,; Castor-oil
+  Seed, 76
+
+  FIBRES      77
+
+  Cotton, 77; Flax and Linseed, 82; Wool, 83; Hemp,
+  84; Silk, 85; Mulberry, 91; Agaves and Aloes, 91;
+  Broom Corn, 92
+
+  TOBACCO      92
+
+  TANNING MATERIALS AND DYE-STUFFS      96
+
+  Sumach, 97; Valonea, 98; Acacia Barks, 98;
+  Madder, 99
+
+  DRUGS AND OTHER PRODUCTS      99
+
+  Liquorice Root, 99; Pyrethrum, 100; Squill, 101;
+  Colocynth, 101; Asphodel, 102
+
+  VI. MINOR AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES      102
+
+  Bee-keeping, 102; Basket-making, 104; Fruit and
+  Vegetable Preserving, 104
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  SKETCH MAP OF CYPRUS, SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS AND FORESTS      2
+
+  PLATE
+
+  I. FIG. 1. PLOUGHING ON A MOUNTAIN-SIDE WITH NATIVE PLOUGH          10
+
+  I. FIG. 2. NEWLY-PREPARED BEDS IN EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS              10
+
+  II. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS                                         12
+
+  III. FIG. 1. NATIVE BULL                                            16
+
+  III.  "   2. NATIVE RAM                                             16
+
+  IV.   "   1. CYPRUS PONY                                            20
+
+  IV.   "   2. CYPRUS DONKEYS                                         20
+
+  V.    "   1. CARTING CORN                                           29
+
+  V.    "   2. THRESHING CORN WITH NATIVE THRESHING BOARD             29
+
+  VI. PRUNED OLIVE-TREES AT METOCHI OF KYKOS                          72
+
+  VII. FIG. 1. CYPRIOT EARTHENWARE BEEHIVES                          103
+
+  VII.  "   2. SHIPPING FRUIT AT LARNACA                             103
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND ITS PRODUCTS[1]
+
+BY W. BEVAN
+
+_Director of Agriculture, Cyprus_
+
+
+The intention of these notes is to make available to those interested in
+the agriculture of Cyprus some of the information scattered in various
+reports, leaflets and correspondence not readily accessible to the
+general public.
+
+It has long been a matter of regret to the writer that the valuable
+stores of information collected with so much care and ability by the
+late Mr. Panayiotis Gennadius, formerly Director of Agriculture in
+Cyprus, through having been published in Greek only, have remained
+beyond the reach of many who might otherwise have derived benefit from a
+study of his works. His writings on the general agriculture of the "Near
+East" are voluminous and comprehensive, and show an intimate knowledge
+of the subject as well as of the practices and customs of agriculturists
+in these regions. The results of his labours are mainly embodied in his
+_Helleniki Georgia_ and his _Phytologikon Lexicon_, both of which are
+works of recognised authority. During his eight years (1896-1903) spent
+in Cyprus Mr. Gennadius devoted himself specially to a study of the
+agricultural conditions and needs of the Island, and the notes and
+reports made by him have been, to a large extent, taken as the basis of
+the present Notes.
+
+During the sixteen years since he left the Island many changes have
+taken place, and the more receptive and enlightened attitude of the
+rising generation of farmers has helped to bring about various
+improvements, and a greater readiness has been shown to adopt modern
+methods. In compiling the present Notes I have drawn freely from the
+articles which have appeared for many years in the _Cyprus Agricultural
+Journal_ (formerly _Cyprus Journal_), the official publication of the
+Agricultural Department, and which I have edited; I have also taken
+advantage of the very admirable and reliable information contained in
+the _Handbook of Cyprus_, edited by Messrs. Lukach and Jardine.
+
+[Illustration: SKETCH MAP Of CYPRUS SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS &
+FORESTS]
+
+I am greatly indebted to the willing assistance of Mr. Procopios
+Symeonides, Inspector of Agriculture, whose thorough acquaintance with
+local conditions and usages has enabled him to contribute much useful
+and informative material. I have also to offer my acknowledgments to
+Messrs. M. G. Dervishian, C. Pelaghias, Z. Solomides, G. Frangos, A.
+Klokaris, A. Panaretos and others who have kindly supplied me with data
+of various kinds.
+
+It will scarcely be necessary to add that little more than a summary of
+the agricultural practice and resources of the Island has here been
+attempted, and in no sense does it pretend to be anything more. The aim
+has been to give the reader a general idea of what Cypriot agriculture
+is and, to some extent, what it is capable of doing.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Reprinted from the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE,
+1919.]
+
+
+
+
+I. GENERAL
+
+
+_Geographical Features_
+
+The Island of Cyprus is situated in the innermost basin of the
+Mediterranean Sea; about 40 miles distant from the Asia Minor coast on
+the north, and about 60 miles from Syria on the east, and 238 miles from
+Port Said to the south. It is the third largest island in the
+Mediterranean, ranking next to Sicily and Sardinia. The larger part of
+the Island is in the form of an irregular parallelogram, 100 miles long
+and from 30 to 60 miles broad; while on the north the eastern extremity
+runs out beyond this into a peninsula 40 miles long by 5 to 6 miles
+broad. The total area is 3,584 sq. miles. The main topographical
+features are the northern and southern mountain ranges running east and
+west and enclosing the great plain of the Messaoria. The mountains of
+the northern range are of an altitude ranging from 2,000 ft. to over
+3,000 ft., the highest point being Buffavento, 3,135 ft.; those of the
+southern range are more lofty and culminate in Mt. Olympus, 6,406 ft.
+above sea-level. The rivers are nearly all mountain torrents, and are
+dry from about July to November or December.
+
+The area of cultivated land is approximately 1,200,000 acres, and that
+of the uncultivated land 1,093,760 acres, of which about 450,000 are
+forest land and 320,000 are susceptible of cultivation. The Messaoria
+plain is the great corn-growing area.
+
+
+_Climate and Rainfall_
+
+There are considerable extremes of temperature in the plains. In summer
+it is very hot and dry with temperature ranging during June to September
+from 80 deg. to 110 deg. Fahr., while in winter slight frosts not infrequently
+occur. The climate is more equable, but also more humid, along the
+coasts. In the plains there is, during the greater part of the year, a
+marked variation between the day and night temperatures.
+
+Official records show that for a period of thirty-two years up to 1915
+the average rainfall for hill and plain for the whole Island
+approximated to 20 inches. Up to 1902 records were kept only in the six
+district towns, but since then there have been some fifty recording
+stations. The mean rainfall during the winter months for the twelve
+years ended 1914 was 18.55 inches. That for the whole year during the
+latter period was 21.18 inches.
+
+The incidence of rainfall, apart from its volume, is of importance. It
+is on the rainfall of the six winter months, October to March, that the
+prosperity of the Island depends, and any shortage during this period
+cannot be balanced by heavier summer rains, which are more liable to
+cause harm than good, by damaging the corn lying on the threshing-floors
+and by causing sudden floods.
+
+Much importance attaches to the rains in March, without which the grain
+crop, however ample the earlier rains may have been, will not be
+satisfactory, as described in a maxim which I have attempted to render
+in English.
+
+  If twice in March it chance to rain,
+    In April once, a shower in May,
+  In weight in gold of man and wain,
+    The farmer's crops are sure to pay.
+  If roads are dry at Christmas time,
+    But Epiphany finds both mud and slime,
+  And at Carnival they still hold many a pool,
+    The farmer finds his barns quite full.
+
+
+_Administration_
+
+The Island is administered by a High Commissioner. There is an Executive
+Council and a Legislative Council consisting of six official members and
+twelve elected members, of whom three are elected by the Moslem and nine
+by the non-Moslem inhabitants. The Island is divided into six districts,
+in each of which the Executive Government is represented by a
+Commissioner.
+
+
+_Weights, Measures and Currency_
+
+Nearly everything except corn, wine, oil, carobs, cotton and wool is
+sold by the oke.
+
+An oke, dry measure, equals 400 drams, or 2-4/5 lb.
+
+The liquid oke is reckoned as equivalent to a quart.
+
+Grain is measured by the kile, regarded as equal to a bushel.
+
+Wool, cotton and oil are sold by the litre of 2-4/5 okes, but commonly
+reckoned as 2-1/2 okes.
+
+Carobs are sold by the Aleppo cantar of 180 okes. This cantar is further
+divided into 100 litres of 1 oke and 320 drams each.
+
+Wine is sold by the kartos = 4 okes, the kouza = 8 okes, and the gomari
+= 128 okes.
+
+1 kile of wheat weighs 20 to 22 okes.
+
+1 kile of barley weighs 14 to 18 okes.
+
+1 kile of oats weighs 13 to 14 okes.
+
+1 kile of vetches weighs 23 to 24 okes.
+
+1 sack of straw weighs about 40 okes.
+
+1 camel-load of straw weighs about 200 okes, consisting of 2 sacks, each
+weighing about 100 okes.
+
+
+_Measures of Length_
+
+Metron or metre.
+
+Yarda or yard.
+
+Pic = 2 ft. or two-thirds of a yard.
+
+Inch = English measure.
+
+The land measure is the donum (called by the villagers "scala"), but it
+is very uncertain, and varies in different parts of the Island. As
+recognised by law, 1 donum, called "tappoo donum," equals 60 pics = 40
+yards square = 1,600 square yards, or 14,400 sq. ft.; 3.025 of these
+donums go to the acre. There is also a farmer's, or "reshper" donum,
+which is commonly used by agriculturists and is equal to about 1-1/2
+Government donums. For general purposes a legal donum is about one-third
+and a Cypriot farmer's donum about one-half of an acre. "Stremma" is
+also a synonym for the farmer's donum, or scala, although its actual
+measure is very much less.
+
+
+_Currency_
+
+L1 = 20 shillings or 180 copper piastres.
+
+1 shilling = 9 copper piastres.
+
+1 cp. (copper piastre) = 40 paras.
+
+
+
+
+II. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS
+
+
+_General_
+
+Agriculture is the main industry of the Island, which is favourably
+situated for the markets of Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor, although the
+former is practically the only buyer of its perishable produce. During
+recent years the Cypriot agriculturist has come to realise more and more
+the value of the Egyptian market and a considerable trade with that
+country has grown up.
+
+
+_Land Tenure and Labour_
+
+The small farmer mostly cultivates his own land, whereas the large
+landowner rarely does. The metayer, or metairie, system is fairly
+common, and has much to recommend it when honourably carried out by both
+parties, but it is open to very serious abuse.
+
+Under this system the one party, or contractor, gives the seed and often
+lends the cattle. A valuation of the latter is made at the time of
+entering into the agreement, and a re-valuation is made on termination,
+any depreciation being made good by the other party, or metayer. The
+latter finds the necessary labour and feeds the animals and pays an
+agreed rate for their hire. The crops, after deduction of Government
+tithe, are usually divided equally between both parties, but the
+conditions vary according to circumstances and the nature of the crops
+grown.
+
+If cultivated land be given to the partner, such land must be returned
+to the contractor in the same state of cultivation as received, or the
+contractor, at his option, may claim the return of the seed his partner
+received with it.
+
+There are also a considerable number of leaseholders paying a fixed
+rent. The monasteries are the largest landowners, and both cultivate
+their own land and let out portions to the monks or to private farmers.
+Much land is also held by the Church, and this is frequently let out on
+a yearly lease, with the result that it is badly farmed and speedily
+worked out.
+
+The country is rather sparsely populated by about 275,000 inhabitants,
+and although the cultivators are laborious when working for themselves
+and when free from the hands of the usurers, they are still very
+backward in their methods and appliances. A less conservative attitude
+has of late been observed, and a greater readiness has been manifested
+in seeking and following the advice of the Agricultural Department.
+There is a great amount of indebtedness among the peasantry and usurious
+practices abound. This undoubtedly checks progress, as few of the
+smaller farmers are free agents. The matter has lately been the subject
+of a special Commission appointed by Government. Laws have this year
+(1919) been passed by the Legislative Council dealing with usury and
+indebtedness.
+
+
+_Tithes and Taxation_
+
+The tithe, which forms the principal source of Government revenue, is
+one-tenth of the produce of the land on wheat, barley, oats, vetches,
+rye and favetta, measured on the threshing-floors and delivered in kind
+at the Government Grain Stores. Certain allowances are made to the
+tithe-payers for transport. In the case of carobs, which are also
+subject to this tax, the tithe is taken in money from exporters at the
+Custom House at the rate of 9 cp. (1s.) per cantar from the districts of
+Nicosia, Larnaca and Limassol, and 8 cp. per cantar from the other three
+districts.
+
+There are certain export dues, in lieu of tithe, payable on the
+following commodities: Aniseed 33 cp., cotton 55 cp., linseed 18 cp.,
+mavrokokko (black cummin) 7 cp., and raisins 10 cp. per 100 okes; silk
+cocoons 6-3/4 cp., wound silk 18 cp., silk manufactured by other than
+hand looms 18 cp. per oke.
+
+An annual tax is levied of 3-3/4 cp. per head on every sheep and of 5
+cp. per head on every goat one year old and upwards, and of 4-1/2 cp.
+per head on every pig over three months old.
+
+
+_Credit and Agricultural Societies_
+
+The spirit of co-operation has hitherto been singularly lacking, but
+there are signs that a change is in progress and that, with proper
+guidance, the cultivators will ere long come to realise the advantages
+of combined effort in the production and distribution of their crops.
+
+The establishment of village co-operative Credit Societies has long been
+advocated, but although a law was passed in 1913 for this purpose, there
+has so far been little practical outcome. Co-operation in its full
+modern significance is not yet understood; but one or two little village
+co-operative banks have nevertheless been started and show encouraging
+results.
+
+There are also a few small village agricultural societies springing up,
+which, if properly conducted, may prove the pioneers of a general
+movement in this direction. The existence of such societies would
+greatly facilitate the work of the Agricultural Department, which would
+be able to influence and assist farmers through their societies, whereas
+now it is often not possible to reach them individually.
+
+
+_Irrigation_
+
+The most common method of raising water is by means of primitive
+water-wheels or "alakatia," often described as "Persian wheels" and
+resembling the "sakia" of Egypt. By these the water is carried in
+earthenware cups attached to the rim of a large vertical wooden wheel
+fixed in the mouth of a well and made to revolve by a mule or donkey by
+means of a horizontal wheel and beam, or by modern air-motor. Myrtle
+branches are mostly employed for attaching the cups to the wheels, as
+these are pliable and resist the action of water.
+
+These "alakatia" were formerly made entirely of wood, but in the
+nineties, iron ones ("noria") were introduced from Greece, and these
+have become fairly general, and are gradually supplanting the older
+types. They have the advantage of being more durable and lighter to
+work. Good iron wheel wells are now locally made. Water-wheels of this
+description cannot be used for raising water from a depth of more than
+ten fathoms below the surface of the ground.
+
+Of late years a large number of air-motors of Canadian pattern have been
+introduced and are found satisfactory.
+
+There is abundant evidence in the remains of old disused Venetian wells
+and cisterns that in pre-Turkish times, when the country was far more
+densely populated than at present, a larger quantity of underground
+water was utilised than now. Abundant subterranean water for
+agricultural and gardening purposes is to be found in almost all the
+coast lands as well as in many parts of the interior. Such waters are
+either brought to the surface along subterranean channels or by means of
+wells, and, for the most part, have their origin in the mountain ranges,
+specially in the southern range, which is the rainy region of the
+Island.
+
+Artesian well-boring experiments have been made in recent years in
+different parts of the Island, but without substantial results. In the
+Famagusta district large reservoirs were constructed several years ago
+for impounding the surplus water of the rivers of Pedias and Ialias, but
+these have only been very partially successful as the water is mostly
+lost before it reaches them.
+
+A satisfactory solution of the water problem is of supreme importance to
+the Island. There are large fertile areas which every year remain
+fallow, but which, if capable of irrigation, would grow excellent cotton
+and other summer crops, thus providing a better system of rotation.
+Vegetable growing and fruit culture could then also be very greatly
+extended.
+
+
+_Agricultural Implements_
+
+_Ploughs._--The old wooden plough of the East is still the common plough
+of the country (see Plate I, fig. 1). Efforts were made from 10 to 15
+years ago to introduce iron ploughs by selling them through the
+Agricultural Department at half the cost price and even less.
+High-water mark was reached in 1908 when 102 of these ploughs were so
+sold. These were much approved of, and the further sale was then left in
+the hands of merchants. The demand at once fell off and since then only
+a few have been introduced. For a year or two a certain number of iron
+ploughs of Russian make were imported and sold through the Jewish
+settlement at Margo.
+
+There is now a considerable demand which it may be possible to satisfy
+when normal conditions are resumed. There is some prejudice against
+English-made ploughs on the score of weight, as they are mostly heavier
+than those of French, Russian, Greek and American make.
+
+_Harrow._--The native harrow, "saraclo," is a wooden beam about 10 ft.
+long by 12 to 18 in. broad and 3 in. thick, on which the labourer stands
+as it is drawn over the newly sown land. It is ineffective inasmuch as
+it does not break the clods, but merely presses them into the ground.
+Iron-toothed harrows and spring-toothed harrows have been lent by the
+Department for demonstration purposes to different persons, and these,
+particularly the second kind, have found favour and are likely to be in
+demand for covering the sown seed. The usual method is to cover the seed
+with the native plough, but the European harrow is seen to do the work
+more effectively and with a great economy of time.
+
+Among the more common agricultural tools of native pattern are the
+following (see Plate II):
+
+_Tsappa_ (hoe).--The wider tool, 5 in. to 6 in., is mostly for garden
+use; the narrow tsappa, about 3 in. wide, is for field work.
+
+_Skalistiri._--A kind of small tsappa, 2 in. wide, having two prongs 4
+in. to 5 in. long at the opposite end. It is mostly used for hoeing
+vegetables.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+Fig. 1.--Ploughing on a Mountain-side with Native Plough.
+
+Fig. 2.--Newly-prepared Beds in Experimental Gardens.]
+
+_Xinari_ (axe or hatchet).--One end of the implement is a sort of
+hoe, and the other end is shaped like a mattock. Used for cleaning off
+weeds, shrubs, etc., from the fields; also for cutting or splitting
+wood.
+
+_Kouspos._--These are of two kinds. The larger is used like a tsappa,
+but in stony or rocky places; the smaller is the tool used by
+well-sinkers. It can be conveniently handled in a confined space.
+
+_Karetta_ or _Cart_.--This has almost entirely superseded the old
+Cypriot type of cart, but the latter may yet be seen very occasionally
+in the Karpas and possibly in the Paphos district. It is still in use in
+some parts of Anatolia. In its construction no iron nails are needed.
+
+_Doukani._--The common threshing-board (see under "Cereals," p. 29).
+This is the primitive implement handed down from classic times and
+generally seen throughout the East (see Plate V, fig. 2).
+
+_Thernatchin._--A wooden shovel used for winnowing grain. It is deeply
+serrated, or divided, into 5 or 6 triangular-shaped teeth.
+
+_Arvalin._--A corn sieve. A goat's or sheep's skin, perforated with
+holes, is stretched across a round wooden frame, 12 in. to 18 in. in
+diameter. Instead of a skin, leather thongs or gut are stretched,
+crosswise on the frame. Perforated tin is now sometimes employed. These
+sieves are used for cleaning grain after winnowing.
+
+_Arkon._--Another kind of sieve, similar to the above, but with smaller
+holes for sifting fine seeds, dust, etc. Mostly made of skin, but now
+tin is being used.
+
+_Patourin._--A similar sieve, used for still finer work.
+
+_Skala._--An iron dibber, fitted with two wooden handles, used for
+planting vine cuttings.
+
+Some advance has been made of late in cleaning the land, but foul land
+is pretty general. Squills, thistles, thorny bushes, and so forth
+abound; these are mostly deeply rooted, drought-resistant plants, and
+the labour required for uprooting them is not forthcoming.
+
+There are a fair number of reaping machines now in use, but little care
+is bestowed on them, and when slightly out of order they are often put
+aside as useless. More enlightened ideas are now prevailing, and the
+abundant crops of the last few years have created a strong desire for
+more reapers and also for threshing machines, of which there are at
+present barely half a dozen in the Island.
+
+
+_The Agricultural Department_
+
+The Agricultural Department was established on a small scale in 1896,
+under the direction of Mr. P. Gennadius. It continued much on its
+original lines until 1912, when its establishment was enlarged, and the
+Government Farm and the Veterinary Branch were attached to the
+Department, and again in 1914 it underwent a further slight extension
+which was necessarily checked by the war. There is now a staff of
+inspectors, district overseers and agricultural demonstrators who are
+occupied in continually travelling in the country, advising and giving
+practical assistance to cultivators, lecturing on village wine-making,
+poultry-keeping, bee-keeping, on the action to be taken against various
+pests and so forth.
+
+There are some eight Government Nursery Gardens in the districts from
+which large numbers of trees, plants and seeds are issued. A system of
+Model Orchards and Vineyards, newly started, is giving satisfactory
+results. These are intended to assist those engaged in the production of
+fruit and vegetables, for which an unlimited market is close at hand in
+Egypt.
+
+Seventy School Gardens are in existence throughout the Island under the
+guidance and control of the Department. By their means many young fruit
+trees and other plants and seeds are annually distributed at low rates,
+better methods of cultivation and new kinds of vegetable and fodder
+plants are being made known, and the village boys are being taught
+something about the work on which they will later depend for their
+livelihood.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+_Agricultural Implements._
+
+1, Arvalin for barley and oats. 2, Arvalin for wheat and vetches. 3,
+Shovel for winnowing. 4, Thernatchin. 5, Arkon. 6, Patourin. 7, Tsappa,
+narrow, for field use. 8, Tsappa, wide, for garden use. 9, Xinari. 10,
+Kouspos. 11, Skalistiri.]
+
+An Agricultural School for the sons of farmers was opened at Nicosia in
+1913 under the direction of the Agricultural Department. Some twenty to
+twenty-five lads between sixteen and twenty years of age, both Greeks
+and Moslems, receive a two-year course of instruction with a view to
+fitting them to cultivate their own properties later. A few of the more
+promising students have been retained as student-labourers in the
+Department, after the termination of their school course, and of
+these again a few have been given minor appointments in the Department.
+A scheme for training young Cypriots abroad, which was in abeyance
+during the war, makes it possible to give the more capable of these some
+further training in Europe in the higher branches of agriculture. It is
+hoped, by this means, to form a group of native experts from among whom
+the technical staff of the Department can be recruited.
+
+The Government Farm, Athalassa, though somewhat ill-placed for purposes
+of education and demonstration, has done good work in improving the live
+stock of the country, as evidenced at the Animal Shows held every year.
+Periodical auction sales of Athalassa stock take place in the different
+districts.
+
+During the three years 1915-18, there were reared at the Farm and
+distributed 41 cattle, 264 sheep, 8 donkeys, 332 pigs and 2 mules,
+besides a considerable head of poultry.
+
+The total value of the live and dead stock was estimated on March 31,
+1918, at L3,128.
+
+For breeding purposes there were 6 stallion horses, 8 jack donkeys, 8
+bulls and 7 boars in 1917-18 stationed either at Athalassa or at the
+stud stables which have been established in the districts. Some 30 cast
+army mares have been obtained free of cost from the Remount Department,
+Egypt, and have been lent out on contract to farmers for mule breeding.
+
+During 1917-18 the Farm produced 169 cheeses and 1,036-1/2 lb. of
+butter. In the winter of 1917-18 some 314 donums of land were under
+cultivation, the chief crops being barley, oats, wheat and gavetta
+(_Lathyrus sativus_).
+
+The Veterinary Establishment provides for 1 Veterinary Surgeon, 2 Stock
+Inspectors and 1 Veterinary Compounder. There is a good deal of endemic
+contagious disease among the flocks and herds of the Island, mainly
+anthrax and goat- and sheep-pox, and the Veterinary staff is kept busy.
+Cattle plague is unknown in the Island.
+
+Cattle breeding should become a paying industry when once the lesson of
+proper feeding and management has been learnt (hitherto sadly neglected
+by the Cypriot farmer), since Egypt provides a ready and remunerative
+market.
+
+Perhaps no work is of more importance than that of combating the
+numerous insect and other pests which every year cause heavy loss to the
+agricultural community. The addition of an Entomological Laboratory and
+the appointment of an Entomologist have enabled the Department to afford
+relief to many cultivators, and a small but active entomological staff
+are constantly engaged on various pest campaigns.
+
+The Department possesses a small but well-equipped Chemical Laboratory
+under the charge of an Agricultural Chemist. In the absence of any law,
+the Department has, in the interests of importers and agriculturists
+alike, offered its services for analysing and reporting upon samples,
+sealing bags and giving advice as to the use of the different types, and
+this action has been readily availed of. This in itself, however, is not
+enough to check malpractices or safeguard the cultivators.
+
+For the last four years the Department has had trial plots in which new
+varieties of cereals and fodder plants have been experimentally grown
+(see Plate I, fig. 2). The seed has been obtained from England, South
+Africa, India and Australia, but so far none of the varieties have been
+found in any marked degree superior to the native kinds. One or two
+varieties introduced two years ago are promising, and when fully
+acclimatised may be worth the attention of farmers. Experimental sowings
+are often made in the villages when it is desired to bring any
+particular crop to the notice of the agricultural classes.
+
+The _Cyprus Agricultural Journal_, published quarterly in English, Greek
+and Turkish, is the official organ of the Agricultural Department.
+
+
+_Fungoid Diseases and Insect Pests_
+
+The Cypriot agriculturist has to contend against the attacks of many
+species of insects and a number of fungoid pests. Little could be done
+to bring these under control until, in 1914, an Entomological Branch of
+the Agricultural Department was established. Much valuable research and
+descriptive work had been carried out by Mr. Gennadius, but no organised
+field work could be undertaken until the last three or four years.
+
+A detailed description of the numerous pests cannot here be given, but
+the more important ones are enumerated below. Happily Cyprus is one of
+the few Mediterranean countries which has not been invaded by
+Phylloxera.
+
+_Cereals._--_Aecophora temperatella_ (Limassol district only), smut and
+rust, hessian fly (occasionally), grain weevils (_Calandra granaria_),
+grain moth (_Sitotroga cerealella_).
+
+_Carobs._--_Cecidomyia ceratoniae_, scale (_Aspidiotus ceratoniae_)
+_Myelois ceratoniae,_ borer (_Cossus liniperda_), _Oidium ceratoniae_.
+
+_Olives._--_Capnodium_, scale (_Lecanium oleae_ and _Aspidiotus oleae_),
+aphis (_Psylla oleae_), olive fly (_Dacus_ sp.), _Tinea oleela_ and
+various borers.
+
+_Citrus and other Fruit Trees._--Gummosis (Citrus and all stone fruits);
+scale (all); ermin moth (apples, pears and plums); downy plant louse,
+_Schizoneura lanigera_ (apples); aphides (almond, peach, plum and
+apricot); _Tingis pyri_ (pears and apples); codlin moth, _Carpocapsa
+pomonella_ (apples, pears, quinces and walnuts); peach leaf curl,
+_Exoascus deformans_ (peaches); black aphis (peaches); Mediterranean
+fruit fly, _Ceratitis capitata_ (all); mites, _Acarus_ sp. (all);
+various borers, thrips, and barkbeetle (_Scolytids_).
+
+_Vines._--_Oidium Tuckeri_, _Peronospora_, anthracnose, _Cladosporium,_
+root rot, _Zygaena ampelophaga_, thrips, _Cochylis_, _Lita solanella_.
+
+_Vegetables.--Peronospora infestans_ (potatoes), _Cladosporium_,
+_Altica_, aphides, mole crickets.
+
+Much damage is done to carobs by the large rat, _Mus Alexandrinus_.
+
+The large fruit-eating bat is a great pest. Hornets attack all kinds of
+fruits and cause much loss.
+
+The chief cotton enemies are the cotton boll worm (_Earias insulana_),
+aphides and _Capnodium_.
+
+Locusts are no longer the formidable plague they were in the eighties.
+They are limited almost to the Famagusta district, where they annually
+breed and do a certain amount of damage to early cotton and to vegetable
+crops. If not vigilantly kept under control they would quickly multiply
+and become a serious danger.
+
+
+
+
+III. LIVE STOCK
+
+
+_Cattle_
+
+The cattle of the country have been bred, until the last two or three
+years, exclusively for draught purposes. Cattle breeding as a business
+is unknown. Farmers, as a rule, aim only at raising a calf or two every
+year in order to maintain one or more yokes of oxen. Some of the draught
+animals are very fine (see Plate III, fig. 1, and Plate V, fig. 1).
+These belong mostly to the monasteries; one animal exhibited at a recent
+show measured over 17 hands. The race is presumably the result of many
+crossings with imported breeds, but has acquired a definite type. The
+cows are in colour and conformation not unlike Jerseys, but larger and
+without the udder development of that breed. The oxen have mostly a more
+or less pronounced hump, possibly acquired through many generations of
+progenitors used exclusively for draught purposes. In some of the best
+bulls this hump is particularly marked.
+
+In 1912 some Devon bulls and cows were imported and a herd of this breed
+was started at the Government Farm, Athalassa. An impetus was thus given
+to breeding dairy cows, and a number of half- and three-quarter-bred
+cows are now to be found, which command high prices for milking
+purposes. The Devon bulls, however, have never come into favour among
+farmers for raising draught cattle.
+
+There was a fair export of cattle to Egypt before the war, a good
+proportion of the animals being consigned to the Serum Institute, Cairo,
+as Cyprus cattle, alone among the cattle in this part of the Levant,
+have so far been free from plague.
+
+The number of horned cattle in 1917 is officially given as 48,761.
+
+The exports for the five years preceding the war were:
+
+  Year.  Number.  Value.
+                    L
+  1909  2,357    11,314
+  1910  4,240    20,218
+  1911  9,664    44,871
+  1912  5,751    34,303
+  1913  3,017    20,110
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.
+
+Fig. 1.--Native Bull.
+
+Fig. 2.--Native Ram.]
+
+There can be no question that if more attention were paid to growing
+fodder crops, cattle breeding could be greatly increased, and a good
+trade with Egypt might be done.
+
+The establishment of the Athalassa Stock Farm has had a most useful
+influence on the improvement of the live stock of the Island.
+
+Beef has only lately become an article of food for the country people,
+and is still so only on a small scale. The townspeople, having become
+Europeanised to a greater degree than formerly, are now becoming beef
+consumers, and the high price of beef has had a stimulating effect upon
+breeding for the butchers. Before the British occupation the killing of
+an ox for eating purposes was considered by many villagers an act of
+sacrilege.
+
+
+_Sheep_
+
+Sheep rearing is an important industry in Cyprus. The sheep are of the
+fat-tailed species and are allied, though superior to, the Afrikander
+sheep. The total number of sheep in the Island in 1917 was 255,150.
+
+They feed almost entirely by grazing, and wander, under the charge of
+shepherds, over considerable areas in search of food, frequently in
+company with goats. They are valued chiefly for their milk and meat;
+their wool, though of moderate quality, is small in quantity. (See also
+under "Dairy Produce," p. 23.)
+
+Large numbers of sheep are killed annually for local consumption, and
+there is a regular export to Egypt, as shown by the following pre-war
+figures:
+
+  Year.      Number.   Value.
+                         L
+  1904       13,923   10,544
+  1905        8,816    7,572
+  1906        5,427    5,470
+  1907        2,859    2,699
+  1908          849      835
+  1909          976      716
+  1910        3,905    3,064
+  1911       18,143   12,311
+  1912       17,611   13,731
+  1913        7,920    6,724
+
+Sheep-folding is practically unknown, and no crops are specially grown
+as food for sheep. Occasionally they may get a little rovi (vetch), rovi
+straw, lentil straw, favetta, pea-haulm or (in the hills) mavrachero
+(tares). They suffer in years of drought, but on the whole thrive
+wonderfully well on very scanty pasturage.
+
+Good work has been done of late years in the improvement of Cyprus sheep
+at the Government Athalassa Farm, and ewes and rams from the farm flock
+are much sought after by sheep-owners, many of whom are making efforts
+to ameliorate the breed. The question of providing suitable forage also
+is not being lost sight of.
+
+
+_Goats_
+
+The goat has been a cause of much controversy for many years and a
+source of discord between farmer and shepherd. Owing to the absence of
+farm boundaries the herds of goats (and sheep) continually trespass on
+the cultivated areas, and the shepherds are at little pains to restrain
+them when there is a chance of the animals getting a good meal. Large
+sums in the aggregate are paid by way of fines and damages, but the
+shepherds evidently find that even so it is profitable to continue such
+practices.
+
+In consequence of the serious harm done every year in the State forests
+by these animals, a law "For the gradual exclusion of goats from the
+Island" was passed in 1913 and came into operation on August 1 that
+year.
+
+As the subjoined table shows, the number of goats has decreased, but it
+is doubtful how far this is due to the law, and how far to the losses
+from goat-pox, which is very prevalent, and to the shipments for
+military purposes during the war:
+
+  Year.                            Head.
+  1880                             210,736
+  1890                             237,475
+  1900                             243,397
+  1910                             276,794
+  1913 (when the law was passed)   242,524
+  1918                             191,017
+
+The goat is in many respects well suited to the Island, and provides the
+villager with milk, cheese, meat, boots and manure. The animals cost
+very little to keep--even apart from their depredations--and thrive,
+especially in the hills, under conditions unsuited to sheep and cattle.
+They are, however, great enemies to agriculture and forestry, and if
+they are to be preserved in the Island, it is essential that both they
+and the shepherds be brought under strict control.
+
+In Cyprus most of the goats have very short hair, which cannot be shorn.
+From this fact, and from the external shape of the animal, one may infer
+that it is either a variety of the Anatolian breed modified by local
+influences, or a hybrid of the Numidic and Anatolian breeds (see Plate
+III, fig. 2). The Anatolian goat has long and more or less thick hair,
+especially on the shoulders, sides and thighs, which, clipped in the
+spring, yields a not insignificant income for the goat-breeder
+(Gennadius).
+
+The Cyprus goat gives on an average 150 drams of milk per day during a
+period of say 150 days, or say, 50 to 60 okes per annum.
+
+A good proportion have kids twice a year, and many give birth to twins.
+
+The price of a goat varies considerably in different districts, and
+before the war was from about 8_s._ to 20_s._ or 25_s._
+
+
+_Pigs_
+
+The Paphos district and the Karpas end of the Famagusta district are
+specially given to pig raising; but this animal is to be found fairly
+well distributed all over the Island. The native pig is of inferior
+quality, but a noticeable improvement, not only in pig breeding but in
+pig rearing, has resulted from the introduction by Government of the
+Large Black breed from England in 1907. This breed has become well
+established at the Government Farm, Athalassa, and the progeny is now
+well spread over the Island. The improvement resulting from crossing
+with Government stock has been so unmistakable that there is now great
+competition for them at all auction sales and high prices are given.
+This increase in outlay on the part of farmers has led to greater care
+in the feeding and management. They find that well-bred pigs come more
+quickly to maturity, and that it pays to feed them well and not leave
+them to forage for themselves as formerly. Excellent pork and bacon are
+now procurable during the winter, and it may be hoped that pig breeding
+in Cyprus has a good future before it.
+
+The number of pigs counted in the spring of 1914 was 38,850, the third
+highest number on record. Since then, owing to the prohibition of
+export, breeding has been checked and the number declined, but now it
+appears to be again on the upward grade.
+
+Before the war there was an average annual export of about 2,000
+animals; but there is now a better local market than formerly.
+
+
+_Camels_
+
+Camels are still used to a fair extent, and the breed is good, but owing
+to the improvement in the roads and increased facilities for more rapid
+transport, these animals are less in demand than formerly.
+
+
+_Horses_
+
+The native breed of horse is best seen in the Paphos pony, which though
+small, about 13 hands, is remarkably strong and hardy (see Plate IV,
+fig. 1). It is said that some eighty years or so ago the breed was
+improved by the introduction of two Arab stallions from Turkey. A useful
+stamp of pony mare is also to be found in the Karpas. A marked
+improvement in the quality of the local horses took place from the
+importation, some years ago, of English pony stallions; and more
+recently a further advance has resulted from the addition to the
+Government stud of the two famous English thoroughbred stallions
+"Temeraire," by Greyleg out of Tereska by Isonomy out of Violetta by
+Hermit, and "Huckle-my-buff," by Isinglass out of Snip by Donovan out of
+Isabel (dam of St. Frusquin).
+
+
+_Donkeys_
+
+The Cyprian donkey at its best is a fine animal (see Plate IV, fig. 2).
+It is the common beast of burden of the villager, and is capable of
+carrying a load of from 160 to 224 lb.
+
+A large number of donkey stallions have been exported to India,
+Uganda, South Africa, Syria and Egypt from time to time, and the local
+breed has no doubt suffered owing to the best jacks having left the
+country. Although the villagers depend so much upon these animals, very
+little care is taken by them, either in the matter of breeding, feeding
+or proper management. The animals are mostly worked far too early, and
+underfed, and the majority are consequently undersized and of poor
+quality. Where good jacks are used, the progeny is generally
+satisfactory, and at shows and fairs some fine specimens are usually
+brought in. Owing to the increasing demand for jennets, the village
+breeder is inclined to put his she-donkey to a pony stallion rather than
+to a jack-donkey. The donkey mares range from 13 to 13.2 hands, with
+girth measurement of 58 in. to 60 in. and shank 6-1/2 in. They have
+great room, and are well shaped with a straight back and good quarters.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.
+
+Fig. 1.--Cyprus Pony.
+
+Fig. 2.--Cyprus Donkeys.]
+
+It has been recommended that every encouragement should be given to the
+production of good donkeys, from which the best mares could be selected
+for mating with suitable pony stallions, such as the Exmoor and Welsh
+cob, for the breeding of jennets; and at the same time an improvement in
+the jacks would naturally follow.
+
+
+_Jennets and Mules_
+
+"Owing to the excellence of the Cyprus donkeys and the poor class of
+Cyprus horses, the superiority of the 'jennet' (the result of mating the
+pony stallion with the donkey mare) is very patent over the 'mule' (the
+product of the donkey jack and the pony mare). The jennet of from 13.1
+hands to 14.1 is doubtless the most paying animal that the Cyprus
+villager or landowner can produce, and its excellence for army or
+general pack purposes cannot be surpassed in any country in the world.
+Therefore, in my opinion, it is to this class of animal that the most
+encouragement in breeding should be given. To maintain the excellence of
+the Cyprus jennet every help should be given to the breeding of big
+donkeys, so that the plentiful supply of donkey mares of from 12.3 to
+13.3 hands is available for mating with suitable imported pony
+stallions, which should be placed by the Government at the breeders'
+disposal."[2]
+
+Both jennets and mules, indiscriminately called "mularia," are largely
+used for transport purposes throughout the Island, and perform
+practically all the carting work of the country, but, as explained, the
+jennet is regarded as greatly the superior animal.
+
+
+_Poultry_
+
+The ordinary barn-door fowl is met with in Cyprus, as everywhere else.
+The local breed is a mixture of all the various races which have been
+imported by private persons for many years past. The most general types
+met with resemble the Leghorn and Ancona breeds.
+
+The Island, owing to its climate and its corn production, is admirably
+suited to the poultry industry, and a sure and profitable market in
+Egypt can always be relied on. Something has been done of late years by
+the introduction of Wyandottes, Langshans and Orpingtons which have been
+bred by the Agricultural Department.
+
+Proper poultry management among the villagers is practically unknown,
+and until regulations can be made enforceable by law for the control of
+poultry diseases and for the disposal of diseased carcases, poultry
+keepers will continue to suffer heavy losses and the industry will not
+prosper.[3] Lectures on poultry-keeping have been instituted in the
+districts by the Agricultural Department, and it is hoped that these may
+arouse some interest and lead to improvement.
+
+Given the necessary guidance and control, the industry should have a
+good future before it.
+
+Turkeys are very plentiful and, except in the hills, are seen in nearly
+every village. There are three varieties--the bronze, by far the most
+general, the white, and a dark brown kind which is not common.
+
+Ducks and geese do well at Kythrea, but elsewhere are little seen. At
+this village, however, they are largely bred.
+
+Pigeons also are fairly abundant, and as they mostly feed on a
+neighbour's corn, they are considered profitable birds to keep.
+
+
+_Preserved Meats, etc._
+
+A good deal of meat and fat is pickled, dried and smoked for consumption
+by the native population.
+
+Hams and sausages are much eaten, the latter especially in the Karpas.
+Among the various kinds of preserved meats may be specially mentioned
+that known as "apokti." This is the salted and dried flesh of the
+he-goat, which, when cooked, is much appreciated by the villagers. The
+meat is sometimes minced, and after the addition of ground origanum
+leaves and spearmint, is placed in jars and slowly cooked. It is said
+that from 3,000 to 5,000 he-goats are annually slaughtered for making
+"apokti."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: Report by Captain Goodchild, Remount Department, E.E.F.,
+when visiting Cyprus in 1916 and 1917 to purchase mules and donkeys for
+army purposes.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Legislation in this direction has been effected during the
+session of the Legislative Council just ended. (Law No. VII of 1919.)]
+
+
+
+
+IV. DAIRY PRODUCE
+
+
+_Milk_
+
+Sheep and goats' milk is principally used for cheese and butter making.
+Fresh milk of any kind is not much consumed by the native population,
+although within the last few years the more well-to-do townspeople have
+taken to drinking cows' milk, when obtainable, and it is in growing
+demand in some country parts for invalids when prescribed by the local
+doctor.
+
+The flavour of sheep and goats' milk is a good deal affected by the
+herbage or shrubs on which they feed, and thus varies according to
+locality. A characteristic odour is imparted, for instance, by the
+alnifolia oak (_Quercus alnifolia_) and the cistus, which are common in
+many parts of the Island, and the cheese and butter produced from such
+milk are in better demand in the local markets. The places in which this
+quality of milk is chiefly produced are the Paphos District, the
+neighbourhood of Kykko and Trooditissa in the Troodos mountains, and
+Akanthou to the north-east of the Island.
+
+A considerable impetus has been given to the production and consumption
+of fresh cows' milk by the establishment of a herd of Devon dairy cows
+at the Government Farm, Athalassa. Cows of Athalassa strain fetch high
+prices, as much as L80 having been given recently for a cow and several
+others have changed hands at L50 to L60.
+
+
+_Cheese_
+
+The Cypriot is a great cheese eater. The most popular and commonly made
+cheese in Cyprus is that known as Halloumi; the next in order being the
+Paphos and Akanthou cheeses, and then, in imitation of the Greek
+cheeses, the Agrafa, Kefalotyri and Kaskaval, all of which are of a hard
+kind, while there is a small production of the Greek soft cheeses Fetta
+and Telemes.
+
+There are no statistics as to production; the export figures in recent
+years as given in the official trade returns are as follows:
+
+  Year.       Quantity.   Value.
+               _Cwts._       L
+
+  1904       5,606       8,040
+  1905       4,705       7,245
+  1906       2,511       4,238
+  1907       2,200       4,559
+  1908       2,786       5,824
+  1909       2,367       4,927
+  1910       3,345       6,564
+  1911       3,647       6,624
+  1912       3,335       7,203
+  1913       3,699       9,268
+  1914       4,582      10,132
+
+_Halloumi._--This cheese, though rather insipid, is very popular, and
+forms a large part of the dietary of every household. It is easy to
+make, needs no special appliances, and is almost entirely made by the
+shepherds themselves. It is made either from sheep's milk only, or, in
+the hills where goats are numerous, from sheep and goats' milk mixed, or
+in some places from goats' milk only; especially is this so in the
+mountains where sheep are not found. The two kinds of cheese, _i.e._
+that made from sheep's milk and that from goats' milk, are easily
+distinguished, as the former is rather soft and crumbly, while the other
+is hard and separates out into flakes.
+
+This cheese as it comes from the mould is in the form of a slab called
+"kefali." This is then divided into four or more pieces.
+
+There are two kinds of halloumi: one called "mona" (single), the other
+"dipla" (double). The latter is most in demand. It differs from the
+first in being finished off by being well hand-pressed, and then doubled
+or folded over, salt and spearmint being sprinkled between the fold.
+
+"Myzithra," or, as it is more commonly called, "anari," is a soft cheese
+produced by boiling the whey, whereby all albuminoid substances not
+previously coagulated are now coagulated and rise to the surface
+together with any pieces of curd still remaining in the whey. A good
+quantity of fat is also enclosed in the coagulated mass, which is placed
+in rush moulds or in cloths and pressed so as to squeeze out the whey.
+"Anari" thus made is specially known as "bastard," and is an excellent
+soft cheese, very popular among the European residents as well as among
+the native inhabitants.
+
+A rather finer "anari" with slightly different flavour is made by adding
+5 to 10 per cent. of pure milk. This added milk is known as "prosgalo."
+
+Both kinds are dried in the sun.
+
+From "anari" is made a kind of fat used as cooking butter, by crushing
+and rubbing it between the hands in warm water. A thin paste is thus
+formed from which a fat separates, which rises to the surface, and is
+then collected.
+
+_Paphos and Akanthou Cheeses._--These are prepared in much the same way
+as "halloumi," but are made in smaller, barrel-shaped moulds, and are
+steeped longer in the whey, which produces a rind and renders them
+tougher and less liable to crack. They are well rubbed with salt. Their
+characteristic flavour is doubtless due to some extent to the milk of
+those districts, as explained above. Owing to their small size they
+become very hard.
+
+_Kefalotyri._--The best cheeses of this type are made with sheep's milk,
+which is coagulated at its natural temperature immediately after
+milking. Rennet is added so as to produce coagulation within an hour.
+The cheeses are placed in moulds, pressed and salted. They are turned
+and salted every day for a week; and this continues for two or three
+weeks, until the cheeses cannot absorb more salt.
+
+_Fetta._--The process for making this cheese is much the same as for
+Paphos cheeses, but differs in regard to temperature. It is placed in
+bags and hung up, or left in cheese cloths on the table to drain. It is
+made up in 100 or 200 dram pieces, and turned and lightly salted for
+three days; then placed in barrels filled with brine. This cheese ripens
+in a few days. It is soft, and has a sharp, pungent flavour. It is the
+first to come on the market. It is not consumed in Cyprus, but made
+entirely for the Egyptian market, where it is much liked. Being soft, it
+does not keep well, and should always be kept covered in brine. For
+these reasons it is exported in small barrels of a gross weight of 40 to
+50 okes. If care is taken in this respect, if all leaky barrels are kept
+refilled and cool storage provided, it may be preserved for a year; but
+these conditions are rarely fulfilled in Cyprus.
+
+_Telemes._--This is another soft cheese, prepared in a similar manner to
+"fetta," but it is cut into square blocks and placed not in barrels or
+vats, but in tins which, when completely filled with cheese and brine,
+are soldered down. This cheese is also made entirely for the Egyptian
+market.
+
+_Kaskaval or Kaskavalli._--This is mostly made by cheese-makers who come
+over from Greece or Turkey during the cheese-making season.
+
+The curd, after the whey is drained off, is called "phlongos," and it is
+almost always bought from the shepherds, each shepherd preparing it in
+his own way. It is transported in baskets, sometimes a good distance, to
+the cheese factory, or "kassaria," and these drawbacks, added to lack of
+cleanliness, are the cause of much cheese of inferior quality being
+produced which has no keeping properties and must be quickly consumed.
+
+Having reached a pasty condition, the cheese is placed in reed or willow
+baskets and immersed in either boiling whey or clean water and stirred
+until the whole mass is transformed into "kossimari"; it is then cut
+into pieces weighing one or two okes, and moulded by hand into a
+globular form, leaving one slight depression called the "omphalos" or
+navel. If not properly stored, this cheese soon dries and becomes rancid
+or tasteless.
+
+_Agrafa Cheese._--This is made entirely from sheep's milk. Coagulation
+should be completed in 25 to 30 minutes. The cheese remains 20 hours in
+the press. Salting lasts from 40 to 60 days, and the cheeses ripen in
+four months. If well stored, the cheese may keep for two years.
+
+
+_Butter_
+
+Butter making is carried on to only a limited extent in Cyprus, and with
+two or three exceptions is in the hands of shepherds, who use a
+primitive conical-shaped churn, something after the Danish pattern.
+Churning consists in beating up the contents of the churn with a stick,
+to the end of which is fixed a round wooden disc 6 to 10 in. in
+diameter, not unlike a piston in its action. Sheep's milk is mostly used
+and, with a modern churn, this will yield 9 to 12 per cent. of fresh
+butter. Goats' milk gives about 5 to 6 per cent. About half the above
+quantities may be obtained with the older, native churn.
+
+In the Near East (Greece, Turkey, etc.) fresh butter is not used in
+cooking, as almost all cooked food is fried and butter containing the
+least water and casein cannot serve the purpose. The pure fat must
+therefore be extracted. Two methods are applied. The best is that of
+plunging the tins containing the fresh butter into hot water which heats
+the butter and sends the fat to the surface. It is then collected and
+slightly salted. This has a good flavour and keeps well.
+
+The second method is to place the fresh butter, or the residue from the
+former process, into tin pans and boil until the water is evaporated,
+when the albuminoids solidify at the bottom of the pans. The fat which
+is then on the surface is ladled out. This is inferior in quality, and
+has a disagreeable smell imparted by the albuminoids which come in
+contact with the hot pan.
+
+
+_Xynogala or Yaourti_
+
+The former is the Greek, the latter the Turkish name for this
+preparation of sour milk. Unlike fresh butter, it forms, in season,
+part of the diet of almost every Cypriot household. It is now made in
+England and sold as "Bulgarian milk" or "yaourti." It is in the form of
+clotted cream, but if placed in a bag of fine cloth and if the whey is
+left to drain off, it forms a thick paste, and has an excellent creamy
+flavour, and is eaten in both cases either alone or, like Devonshire
+cream, with stewed fruits, etc.
+
+
+_Trachanas_
+
+This is another favourite milk preparation, being a mixture of "yaourti"
+and ground wheat made into a thick paste. This is sun-dried and makes an
+excellent soup.
+
+
+_Kaimaki or Tsippa_
+
+This much resembles Devonshire clotted cream. It is the natural cream
+formed after boiling the milk overnight and setting it in shallow pans
+to cool. If the boiled milk is poured into the pans from a height, so as
+to make a foam, a better result is obtained.
+
+
+
+
+V. CROPS AND OTHER PRODUCE OF THE LAND
+
+
+CEREALS
+
+The Messaoria plain is the principal corn-producing area of the island.
+Wheat, barley and oats are the chief cereals grown, and they are sown
+more or less throughout the whole of Cyprus, nearly up to the summit of
+Troodos, to an altitude of about 4,500 ft. Indian corn has been
+cultivated for ten years or so, and is becoming more general both for
+green food and for seed, and rye has begun to make its appearance during
+the last few years. Dari is becoming more known.
+
+The preparation of the land for cereals is as follows: About the middle
+of January, when the land is soaked with rain, the fallow field ([Greek:
+neasma] or [Greek: neatos]) is broken up, and in some cases sown with a
+green fallow, and in March or April it is cross ploughed ([Greek:
+dibolo]). If the autumn rains are early, the field is ploughed for a
+third time ([Greek: anakomma]), after which the crop is sown; but if the
+rains are late, the sowing is done on fields which have been cross
+ploughed only. As a rule sowing begins after the autumn rains, and may
+go on until January. But if rain does not come before the end of
+October, many sow before the rain; and in many places farmers sow
+regularly before, _i.e._ without waiting for the autumn rains. This
+sowing is called [Greek: xerobola]. Lands flooded by a river or other
+running water are called [Greek: potima] (_Handbook of Cyprus_, p. 154).
+The sowing is done broadcast; the drill is not used.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V.
+
+Fig. 1.--Carting Corn.
+
+Fig. 2.--Threshing Corn with Native Threshing Board.]
+
+Often, owing to want of sufficient hands and shortness of time or other
+reasons, land which has been fallowed is sown without being first
+ploughed up. This is called [Greek: eis to prosopon], _i.e._ on the
+surface, or face of the field. Again, a field which has had a corn crop
+is sown the next autumn without ploughing; and this is locally called
+"on the stubble."
+
+It is not uncommon for the same land to be sown year after year with a
+corn crop, with no rotation. This is especially the case with the deep
+soils in the plains, known as "kambos," as contrasted with the shallow,
+rocky soils called "trachonas."
+
+At the time of harvest numbers of labourers, men and women, usually
+arrive from Anatolia and Syria and find employment in the fields.
+
+The threshing-floors are practically identical with those of Biblical
+times. They are frequently paved with flag-stones, but as often as not
+are merely levelled pieces of ground. On these the sheaves are opened
+and spread out for the threshing. The threshing-board ([Greek: doukani]
+or [Greek: doukanais]) is that referred to by Virgil as _tribulum_
+(Georg. Bk. 1) and is merely a stout board, studded on the underside
+with sharp flint stones (see Plate V, fig. 2). This is drawn round and
+round over the spread-out sheaves by mules, donkeys or oxen, and affords
+a pastime to old and young during the summer months. During the process
+the grain is separated from the straw, and the latter is bruised and
+partly shredded, and it is the rooted belief of the Cypriot farmer that
+only in that condition will it be relished by and benefit the animals
+which feed on it. The straw is then gradually cleared away and the grain
+is winnowed by being thrown up in the wind with wooden shovels. The
+grain is then heaped up and left until measured by the tithe official.
+With the grain is also collected the sweepings of the threshing-floor,
+and the percentage of the foreign substances mixed with the grain varies
+from 5 to 15 per cent. There are a few winnowing machines and it is
+hoped that they will come into more general use as soon as they can be
+imported.
+
+At Athalassa all cereal crops are reaped and threshed by machinery.
+
+A good many reaping machines were imported by the Agricultural
+Department some years ago for resale to the farmers, and there is a very
+fair demand. This procedure has not been permitted for some years, and
+the work fell into the hands of an English merchant who has succeeded in
+placing a few machines every year. The country is ready to employ these
+and other agricultural machines, but the farmers need guidance in the
+choice of a machine and are reluctant to place orders through native
+merchants, who may not know the best types to supply and whose profits
+they fear to be exorbitant. If they could procure these through the
+medium of the Agricultural Department they would be encouraged to make
+considerable purchases. The loss of grain on the "aloni" alone may be
+gauged by the current opinion that each pair of oxen consumes, while
+threshing, one kile of grain per day. Much damage is often caused by hot
+westerly winds at the time when the grain is just forming.
+
+In the absence of any law to prevent the adulteration of cereals,
+dishonest practices are very frequent. A common method of adulteration
+is to mix with the grain the joints of the straw which are cut during
+the process of threshing and separated when winnowing. These are often
+sprayed with water in order to increase both bulk and weight. The
+moisture is absorbed by the grain, which thereby swells and is made to
+look bigger.
+
+Under the Seed Corn Law of 1898 the Government make advances of seed
+wheat, barley, oats and vetches to cultivators under an agreement to
+repay in kind after harvest a quantity of grain equivalent to the amount
+of seed so advanced, together with an addition of one-fourth of the
+quantity so advanced, by way of interest.
+
+This benefit is very generally availed of by smaller cultivators. It has
+not, however, been found possible for Government to keep separately the
+various kinds and qualities of tithe corn, from which these advances are
+made, and farmers frequently complain that the seed, so issued
+promiscuously, is unsuitable to the land, aspect, or special conditions
+on individual farms. Weevilled grain also is a source of trouble, and
+farmers obtaining such seed advances must be prepared to run risk of
+failure from this cause.
+
+It is a well-known fact that cultivators often sell their seed corn so
+advanced them, in order to buy some other corn known to them as more
+suited to their land, and they are often justified, perhaps, in so
+doing.
+
+The issues are made by District Commissioners to selected applicants who
+are believed to be unable to buy seed for cash. The average annual
+issues, for the last five years, have been: wheat, 38,013 kiles; barley,
+31,479 kiles.
+
+
+_Wheat_
+
+In ancient times, when the population numbered about 1,100,000, the
+Island was said to be self-supporting in the matter of wheat. Taking the
+annual consumption of wheat per head of population at 8 bushels
+(Gennadius's _Report on the Agriculture of Cyprus_, Part I, p. 8) and
+after making an allowance for seed, the annual production would then
+have been about 10,000,000 bushels. From British Consular Reports it
+appears that in 1863 the average produce was reckoned at 640,000
+bushels. The average annual production of wheat for the ten years ended
+1913, as shown in Blue Book Returns, was 2,292,827 kiles. For later
+years the figures are:
+
+  Year.              Kiles.
+
+  1914             1,924,336
+  1915             1,761,501
+  1916             1,524,484
+  1917             1,782,800
+  1918             2,424,570
+
+Wheat is sown at the rate of 1 kile per donum. The average yield per
+donum is 6 to 10 kiles, and varies between 3 to 4 kiles on dry land in a
+poor year, to 16 to 20 on the best lands in a good year. When rains are
+very late and spring weather is unfavourable, a farmer often fails to
+recover even the seed.
+
+Much might be done to increase the yield by better methods of husbandry,
+by the use of improved implements for cultivating and reaping, and by
+the use of threshing machines. An immense quantity of grain is consumed
+by birds (larks, sparrows, doves, etc.), which at times literally strip
+the fields and continue their depredations on the threshing-floors.
+
+Wheat is sown from October to December; a field which has had a winter
+crop is pastured after the harvest until January; in January and
+February it is broken up and cross ploughed and sown immediately after
+with a spring or summer crop.
+
+The crop is cut about May-June. It is cut with a sickle ([Greek:
+drepani]), tied into sheaves, and carried on donkeys or small carts to
+the threshing-floors. The sickle is larger than the European one, and is
+often provided with bells ("koudounia" or "sousounaria") to frighten the
+snakes, and the handles are ornamented with leather tassels.
+
+Several varieties of wheat are grown in the Island, mostly of the hard
+kinds, these being preferred by millers.
+
+The following English varieties have been imported and tried during the
+last four years: Improved Treasure, White Stand Up, and Improved Red
+Fife. The two former failed, being too late in maturing; the latter is
+still under trial, but it is not very attractive, being a late variety,
+and it gives a smaller yield than the native kinds. The same remarks
+apply to several wheats obtained from India and South Africa and which
+are still under trial.
+
+
+_Barley_
+
+This crop is sown about the same time as wheat, if anything slightly
+earlier; and it is ready for the sickle three or four weeks before
+wheat. When the straw is short the plant is uprooted, not cut.
+
+It is sown at the rate of 1 to 1-1/2 kiles to the donum, and may be
+expected to yield from 10 to 15 kiles; but 30 kiles is not uncommon in
+the plains, and even much larger yields have been recorded from time to
+time.
+
+There are three native varieties, viz. the common 4-row, the ordinary
+6-row and the Paphos 6-row barley, also grown around Davlos in the
+north-east of the Island. The last-named is heavier than the two former
+kinds. Little success has attended the introduction by the Agricultural
+Department of "Prize Prolific," "Gold Thorpe" and "Chevalier," which
+have been experimentally grown for the last three years. They mature
+late and have not resisted severe drought. Their yield is small compared
+with native barleys, although this may improve when they are fully
+acclimatised.
+
+Barley is the staple food for all kinds of animals, pigs and poultry in
+Cyprus, and it is often used for bread-making in years of wheat
+shortage.
+
+The tithe is mainly exported to England, where it has a good name for
+malting purposes, especially that produced in the Paphos district. It
+has failed to attain the place it deserves on the English market owing
+to the high percentage of dirt, etc., it mostly contains.
+
+A sample of Cyprus barley examined at the Imperial Institute in 1914
+proved to be of good malting quality, and similar material if marketed
+in commercial quantities would be readily saleable in the United Kingdom
+(see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xii. 1914, p. 552).
+
+A sample of naked or skinless barley from Cyprus has also been reported
+on by the Imperial Institute. This type of barley cannot be employed for
+malting for ordinary brewing purposes, but it was considered that the
+Cyprus material might be used by distillers (who only require a
+partially malted barley), and in any case the sample would rank as a
+good class feeding barley (_ibid._ vol. xiv, 1916, p. 159).
+
+The average annual production of barley, as shown by the Blue Book
+returns, for the ten years ended 1913 was 2,449,285 kiles. For later
+years the figures are:
+
+  Year.  Kiles.
+
+  1914      1,957,944
+  1915      1,912,316
+  1916      1,953,628
+  1917      2,508,880
+  1918      3,080,710
+
+These figures should be contrasted with British consular estimated
+average in the sixties of 960,000 bushels.
+
+
+_Oats_
+
+In Cyprus, oats are used on a far smaller scale than barley as food for
+cattle, and they are unknown, except to a few townsfolk, as a food for
+human beings.
+
+The cultivation of this crop is restricted, partly because it ripens
+late and needs late rains, and partly because it sheds its ripe grain
+too quickly for the ordinary easy-going farmer, who frequently finds his
+next year's crop smothered with self-sown oats. It is also commonly held
+that the crop exhausts the soil.
+
+There are two native varieties, both white. The one is grown much more
+than the other, called "anoyira," which, although incomparably superior,
+is little cultivated outside the Limassol district.
+
+The seed is sown at the rate of 2 to 2-1/2 kiles to the donum, and a
+yield of from 20 to 30 kiles is obtained. The average annual production
+for the ten years ended 1913, as shown by Blue Book returns, was 394,695
+kiles. For later years the figures are:
+
+  Year.      Kiles.
+  1914      404,917
+  1915      378,724
+  1916      446,469
+  1917      306,010
+  1918      313,260
+
+Besides "Black Tartar," which has been regularly grown at Athalassa for
+several years, the Agricultural Department has introduced of late years
+"Black Cluster," "White Cluster" and "Supreme." All these ripen late and
+need late rains, and they have not given any promise of success. A black
+variety imported from Greece some years ago has proved much superior to
+the two native varieties, but its cultivation is still limited.
+
+Reports on oats from Cyprus and on oat, straw and kyko oat plant (_Avena
+sativa_ var. _obtusata_) are given in the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL
+INSTITUTE (vol. xv. 1917, pp. 308-10).
+
+
+_Rye_
+
+Rye has only lately been introduced by the Agricultural Department, but
+already its cultivation, though very small, is extending. The dark
+colour of the rye loaf creates some prejudice against it, but its value
+in cases of diabetes, a common complaint in Cyprus, is greatly in its
+favour.
+
+The seed is sown and cultivated here in the same manner as wheat, but at
+the same time or even earlier than barley. It is harvested by being cut
+and is threshed on the threshing-floor. The straw is fed to animals, but
+when threshing machines become more general the long straw will become
+available for other purposes than cattle food, _e.g._ in the manufacture
+of the native saddles ("stratura"), native straw trays and native straw
+hats.
+
+Rye is also grown for green food, in the same way as barley grass.
+
+
+_Maize_ (_Indian Corn_)
+
+This crop was first introduced by the Agricultural Department in 1902.
+Its cultivation is governed by the water-supply. It is grown mostly for
+green food, and is met with very generally throughout the Island, being
+sown among the growing crops, _e.g._ louvi, sesame, cotton, etc., as a
+wind-break or to afford shade. There was a good demand for the grain for
+grinding during the war and the meal is found to be a useful ingredient
+in the ordinary loaf. The stems and leaves provide a welcome change of
+food for cattle when exhausted from threshing and during the dry season
+of the year. At the Government Farm at Athalassa the stems and leaves
+are made into ensilage.
+
+
+_Dari or Millet_ (_Sorghum vulgare_)
+
+This crop is little grown, and is mostly found in the Messaria and also
+at Paleochori, almost exclusively in places irrigated by river floods.
+The grain is used for making flour and the fresh stalks are fed to
+cattle.
+
+
+FRUITS
+
+Cyprus produces a considerable variety of fruits, the chief ones
+exported being raisins, pomegranates, oranges and lemons, and grapes.
+There is a considerable and expanding export trade in the fruits
+enumerated, as shown by Blue Book returns as under:
+
+  Year.    L.
+
+  1904  29,706
+  1905  29,265
+  1906  41,716
+  1907  36,009
+  1908  35,027
+  1909  29,890
+  1910  52,267
+  1911  57,393
+  1912  59,887
+  1913  69,097
+
+The pomegranate of Famagusta is famous, and the annual export of this
+fruit alone during the five years ended 1913 averaged L14,682.
+
+Among the mountain villages apples, pears, and plums are extensively
+grown; the latter specially being in good demand in Egypt.
+
+Apricots and kaisha trees are grown generally throughout the Island, and
+their fruits are particularly good and plentiful. The last-named is a
+delicious variety with a delicate flavour and externally somewhat
+resembles the nectarine. Peaches are mostly grafted on almond stocks, as
+these are hardy and good drought-resisters, but there are a fair number
+of European varieties. Almond trees abound in all parts and do extremely
+well if properly cultivated. Other fairly common fruit trees are the
+quince and loquat, or Japanese medlar.
+
+For several years choice kinds of fruit trees have been imported from
+England, and many thousands of trees of different kinds throughout the
+Island have been grafted and are now beginning to produce fruit of
+excellent quality. Good work has been done by the Perapedhi Wine
+Association, whose garden has been a centre for the dissemination of
+choice grafts.
+
+Unhappily the village growers have been very reluctant to apply proper
+cultivation or to carry out advice in treating their trees, which have
+become the hosts of all kinds of diseases and insect pests. A better
+spirit is now being shown in this direction.
+
+
+_Vines and Wines_
+
+Writing in 1896, Gennadius described the industry and perseverance of
+the peasants, who with most imperfect implements, by breaking up the
+hard rock and building up the scanty soil, formed vineyards on the steep
+mountain sides, and often up to their very summits. These vineyards, he
+says, having been mostly planted in haste in the happy days of the
+demand for wines (when French vineyards were destroyed by phylloxera),
+were formed by the personal labour of the peasant eked out by the help
+of loans. Since then the wine trade has passed through critical times
+and prices have often been greatly depreciated. The small vine-growers,
+who are also for the most part wine-producers, fell on evil times and
+became heavily indebted. They have remained so until the last year or
+two, when, owing to the large demand and the high prices of wines in
+Egypt, they have been able to free themselves.
+
+Gennadius regarded the cultivation of the vine in Cyprus as indisputably
+unprofitable, and was in favour of checking its extension, and even
+advocated the imposition of a special tax on new plantations. At the
+time he wrote there was an overproduction, and the value of wine had
+greatly fallen, and the revenue which Cypriot wine-makers could gain
+therefrom would hardly suffice to cover the expenses of its transport to
+the market, the annual interest on their debts, and the taxes they had
+to meet.
+
+The village-made wine is usually clarified by means of gypsum. It is
+carried down from the mountain villages in goat-skins (askos or ashia)
+on pack animals, and then sold to the Limassol merchants, who ship the
+greater part to Egypt.
+
+The production of wine as carried out in Cyprus leaves much to be
+desired. M. Mouillefert, who visited Cyprus in 1892 to report on the
+wine industry, says: "The vintage is often gathered too late.
+Insufficient care is given to the picking of the grapes and diseased,
+rotten, mildewy or unripe grapes are often used which detract from the
+quality of the wine.
+
+"The grapes are trodden and the fermentation takes place in jars and
+chatties of porous earth, of a capacity of 2 or 3 hectolitres, which are
+tarred inside to counteract their porosity. The houses in which the
+fermentation takes place are of almost the same temperature as the
+surrounding air, with the result that in the warmer parts of the Island
+fermentation at first is generally rapid or disturbed, and the
+temperature of the must becomes excessive. In the colder parts, on the
+contrary, the opposite takes place and the resulting wine is rough and
+sharp. The use of gypsum as a preservative is unfortunately very common.
+The tarring of the goat-skins and jars imparts a flavour which is very
+unsuited to the European taste."
+
+M. Mouillefert made the following recommendations: "Tarred jars for
+fermentation should be replaced by wooden vats, or, in the warmer parts
+of the Island, by tuns similar to those used throughout the South of
+France and in Algeria. Presses less primitive than those in use should
+be employed since these leave in the lees a very large quantity of wine.
+The wine when drawn off from the lees should be kept in tuns or in small
+wooden casks." "In short," he says, "to speak quite plainly, no good
+wine destined for ordinary consumption can be obtained with jars."
+
+Some twenty years ago an English Wine Company was established at
+Perapedhi and, until the war, carried on a successful trade and produced
+some good wines manufactured on modern lines. The factory was well
+equipped with up-to-date plant, and its wine of port type was especially
+popular. It was throughout the greater part of this time owned by the
+firm of W. H. Chaplin & Co., London, but since the war it has been
+closed down. The excellent brandy of Messrs. Hadji Pavlo & Co. has found
+for some time a steady market in England, and there are other
+well-equipped wine and spirit factories at Limassol, notably those of
+the Limassol Wine & Spirit Co., Ltd., of Mr. M. Michaelides and of Mr.
+N. Joannides.
+
+The firm of Messrs. Hadji Pavlo & Co. has carried out since 1872 the
+manufacture of spirits, and for twenty-five years they have been engaged
+in producing their "Zanatzin" brand of wines. Their V.O. cognac and
+three-star brandy are both excellent.
+
+Various liqueurs, made from local products, aniseed, kernels of apricots
+and other stone fruit, etc., are made by this and other firms, and sold
+under the name "Zucki."
+
+The principal wines, spirits, liqueurs and other alcoholic liquors
+produced are:
+
+The ordinary black wine of the country, or "krasi."
+
+The ordinary white wine of the country, or "asprokrasi."
+
+Commandaria.
+
+Brandy. First and second quality sold in barrels; one-star, two-star,
+three-star and V.O. sold in bottles.
+
+Mastic, sold in four qualities; Zucki, sold in two qualities.
+
+Rum and Amer Pigon.
+
+Alcohol. 95 C. and 36 C.
+
+Various spirits, liqueurs and syrups: whisky, vermuth, amathus, banana,
+mentha, mandarini, triantaphyllo, kitro, pergamotto, vanilla, violetta,
+anana, benedictine.
+
+Eau de Cologne.
+
+Commandaria is one of the oldest and most famous sweet dessert wines. It
+is held indeed to have been the "nectar of the gods." In the time of the
+Knights Templar it acquired great fame. Existing stocks are annually
+added to, the original vintage having in some cases a great age, so much
+so that, through evaporation, the wine becomes a syrup or pulp, which
+imparts a bouquet to the fresh commandaria which is added to it. In
+making commandaria the grapes are left on the vines until overripe and,
+after picking, are spread out in the sun for further evaporation, when
+they undergo the usual process of wine-making. In this way a sweet wine,
+rich in sugar and alcohol, and having a characteristic flavour, is
+produced. A limited quantity only is made every year, and of this a
+certain quantity is exported and fetches a high price, as a speciality,
+in England and on the Continent.
+
+A red mastic is made at the Kykko Monastery which has acquired local
+fame.
+
+The situation at the present time is generally improved, and although
+Cyprus wines can never form more than an insignificant proportion of the
+world's supply, and could not create any special market without
+considerable change of system and large expenditure in advertising, they
+may yet, by simple improved methods, by means of co-operative storage
+and the application of sound elementary principles, be able to secure a
+more recognised position and a remunerative, though perhaps limited,
+demand, at any rate for some of the special brands.
+
+For the benefit of village producers practical lectures, with the help
+of special apparatus, are now being given in the wine villages during
+the vintage season, by officials of the Agricultural Department.
+
+The export of wines (including commandaria) and spirits during the ten
+years ended 1913 were of a total value of L313,920 and L55,364
+respectively. The lowest and highest figures were L20,274 in 1909 and
+L52,351 in 1911 for wines and L3,991 in 1906 and L8,187 in 1913 for
+spirits. For the last four years the exports have been:
+
+  Year.             Wines (including        Spirits.
+                    Commandaria).
+                         L                     L
+  1914                 29,405                4,396
+  1915                 38,158                5,431
+  1916                 80,165                6,865
+  1917                 78,451               22,173
+
+There is an export duty on wine at the rate of 8 paras per gallon, on
+all spirit of 20 paras per gallon and on all vinegar of 5 paras per
+gallon.
+
+Some seventeen varieties of _Vitis vinifera_ have for a long time been
+grown in Cyprus; the most largely cultivated being the following:
+
+Mavro (black). The commonest variety, medium-sized bunch, with dark,
+large, oval-shaped grapes.
+
+Xinisteri (white). Common variety, with medium-sized bunch, white
+roundish grapes, thin skin. These are suited to a rich moist soil.
+
+Voophthalmo (ox-eye). Equally common variety. Rather small bunch, with
+black, round and rather small grapes. Suited to a dry, calcareous soil.
+
+The Muscat comes next, being mostly grown at Omodhos. It is the common
+early muscatel of the East.
+
+The remaining kinds are locally known as Bastardico (bastard),
+Maratheftico or Kraseti, Morokanali or Spourta (flabby-berried), Promari
+or Glycopromo (early or early-sweet), Xantho, Axanthi or Phinikoto,
+Kouphorrhovo or Katin-parmak, Verico, Sultana, Razaki, Corinthiaki
+(currant), Malaga (Alexandria Muscatel), Rhodities. Of these, several
+are only to be found here and there in private gardens.
+
+Five years ago several thousand Sultana vines were imported by the
+Agricultural Department from Crete, and these have now become fairly
+well distributed over the Island and the produce is beginning to appear
+in the market. These dried sultanas in 1918 sold for as much as 4_s._
+per oke.
+
+Three years ago the following varieties of table vines were imported
+from England by the Agricultural Department:
+
+  Black Hamburg
+  Alicante or Black Tokay
+  Canon Hall Muscat
+  Lady Hastings
+  Royal Muscadine
+  Muscat of Alexandria
+
+These are now being acclimatised, and it is hoped gradually to
+distribute a large number of grafts.
+
+Vine cultivation covers an area of about 140,000 donums and is in the
+hands of some 15,700 vine growers.
+
+Owing to defects of planting the vines of Cyprus do not in most cases
+begin to bear fruit before the third or fourth year, while, if modern
+methods were adopted, they would bear fruit in their second year and
+attain their full growth in their fourth year.
+
+What is known as the "willow-head" system of pruning has been very
+general, with consequently poor results. Better methods have long been
+inculcated and are now being more and more adopted. Manuring is but
+rarely practised and ploughing is confined to lightly turning the
+surface soil with a wooden plough, and this not every year. On the
+higher slopes of the mountains terracing is common and necessary.
+
+Grape mildew (_Oidium Tuckeri_) is prevalent in nearly all the vine
+areas. Other diseases and pests of the vine met with are anthracnose,
+pourridie, _Septosporium Fuckelii_, cuscute, _Cochylis_, _Zygaena
+ampelophaga_ and _Pyralis_. Happily the stringent regulations which for
+many years have been in force prohibiting the importation of any kind of
+living plant have resulted in keeping the Cypriot vineyards free from
+the scourge of phylloxera.
+
+Sulphuring has become more general of late years. The Government has
+done much to bring this about, and for fifteen years or more has
+imported sufficient sulphur from Sicily, which has been placed in the
+hands of village store-keepers and sold at a fixed price by the
+Agricultural Department. This has never more than exceeded the bare cost
+and more often has been issued at half cost and in times of distress
+even gratis.
+
+The vine-owners have been stimulated by the recent high prices for wines
+to expend more time and money on this operation. The ignorant prejudice
+against the effectiveness of sulphur as a cure for grape mildew has to a
+great extent died out. False ideas of economy alone prevent its general
+use.
+
+Fresh grapes are largely consumed locally, and considerable quantities
+are exported to Egypt, as shown by the following table:
+
+  Year.     Quantity.    Value.
+
+          _Cwts._     L
+
+  1904     12,025       1,854
+  1905     8,607        1,208
+  1906     9,563        1,487
+  1907     7,399        1,161
+  1908     6,807        1,331
+  1909     7,078        1,094
+  1910     7,588        1,216
+  1911    11,597        1,865
+  1912    12,565        2,028
+  1913    10,303        1,487
+
+The average annual export of raisins for the ten years ended 1913 was
+54,007 cwts. valued at L24,190. The lowest price was 5_s._ 4_cp._ per
+cwt. in 1909 and the highest 11_s._ 4-1/2_cp._ in 1911. During the war
+the exports have been: 1914, 16,395 cwts., L7,419; 1915, 54,189 cwts.,
+L34,467; 1916, 34,361 cwts., L38,188; and 1917, 70,624 cwts., L90,040.
+The annual prices in these years were respectively 9_s._, 12_s._
+6-1/2_cp._, 22_s._ 2_cp._ and 25_s._ 4-1/2_cp._ per cwt.
+
+Up to 1905, inclusive, by far the greatest quantity of raisins had been
+shipped every year to Austria; Rumania, Turkey and Egypt coming next in
+order. Since that date Rumania has easily taken the first place, being
+followed at a distance by Austria, Turkey and Egypt. Since the war the
+bulk has been shipped for military requirements and to France, Egypt,
+Malta and England for eating and for use in confectionery, and the
+industry has grown.
+
+A marked improvement has taken place in the preparation of the raisins;
+and specially qualified officials of the Agricultural Department every
+year give practical instruction on this subject in the vine villages.
+
+
+_Citrus Fruits_
+
+Oranges and lemons are very extensively grown in Cyprus, whilst
+mandarines, citrons ("kitria") and sweet limes ("glykolemonia") are also
+found in every part of the Island. In addition, the shaddock ("phrappa")
+and the bergamot orange are cultivated in the Island.
+
+The best and most common variety of the sweet orange is the oval
+(sometimes round) Jaffa, grown everywhere, but specially at Famagusta,
+where there are numerous orange groves. Another variety of good quality
+is grown at Lefka. The trees of both varieties produce large, firm,
+thick-fleshed fruit.
+
+Bitter oranges are largely grown from seed for stock on which the better
+kinds are grafted. Many thousands of these, and also of the grafted
+plants, are annually issued from the Government Nurseries. Much loss has
+been sustained from time to time through disease, and in 1899 whole
+orange groves at Famagusta, Lefka and Kythrea were uprooted or cut right
+back. With the expansion of the Agricultural Department and a small
+qualified staff it has become possible to bring these diseases somewhat
+under control, and the orange and lemon production has much increased,
+though gummosis and scale disease still play much havoc.
+
+In the Varosha orange groves the trees are grown in light, sandy soil,
+which is banked up round the trunk. They are irrigated by means of the
+native alakati, or noria, or more often by air-motors, which in this
+locality are much in vogue.
+
+The two most common causes of failure are the persistent planting of
+trees too close together and over-watering. Growers turn a deaf ear to
+all advice aimed at changing these two bad habits. The native
+agriculturist is convinced, beyond the reach of argument, that the
+greater the number of trees on a given area the greater will be the
+profit. In a land where water is so precious the deep-rooted opinion is
+held that the more water a plant receives the better it will thrive, and
+too frequent irrigation accounts to a large extent for the widespread
+damage caused by gummosis. Until lately pruning was scarcely practised
+at all. Thanks to a system of model orchards lately instituted by the
+Agricultural Department, better methods are at last being introduced,
+and fruit-growers are able to model their practice upon the work carried
+out on the specimen trees, alongside their own, reserved by the
+Department for such demonstrations.
+
+Lemons are largely consumed by natives with their food. The produce is
+of large size, thick-skinned and juicy. Until some twelve years or so
+ago the fruit was largely sold on the trees for shipment to Russia and
+Rumania, but those markets failed, owing to the prevalence in Cyprus of
+scale disease and partly to loss through rotting in transport. The
+export of oranges and lemons has of late years been confined almost
+entirely to Egypt.
+
+
+_Fig_ (_Ficus Carica_)
+
+This tree thrives everywhere, and is particularly cultivated at Livadhia
+and Lefkara (Larnaca district), in Paphos and at the Tylliria, where the
+small, sweet, white variety, locally called "antelounika," is grown.
+There are but few true Smyrna figs, but this variety is being multiplied
+by cuttings and also by grafting. Other good kinds are the "sarilop" and
+"bardajik," of which there are a few private specimens only, and the
+"vardika" which is more or less common, particularly at Morphou. The
+Lefkara figs somewhat resemble those of Tylliria and, like the latter,
+mature naturally; they are considered very good and are divided into two
+varieties, the "malantzana" and the "kourtziatika." The figs of Ktema in
+Paphos are the common violet-coloured variety, but are larger, and are
+mostly ripened artificially.
+
+Cyprus figs are only of moderate quality, though doubtless susceptible
+of improvement. They resist drought and generally yield good crops every
+year.
+
+The native dried fig is much eaten, and is also used as an adulterant
+of, if not a substitute for, coffee, and makes a good beverage, like the
+well-known Austrian "feigen cafe." Dried figs are also made into a paste
+and mixed with flour to make fig pies ("sykopitae").
+
+The method of oiling, that is, smearing with oil the orifice on the top
+of the fig while still unripe, is applied to those varieties which ripen
+slowly. It is these varieties which are especially grown in Cyprus. The
+fruit so treated is rather tasteless and insipid, but as it comes early
+to market it fetches a good price. The reason for hastening the ripening
+process by oiling is that the fruit may become ready for picking before
+sparrows and hornets get it, as they would otherwise do at that season.
+The later crop is more or less immune from their attacks, as ripe corn
+is then abundant in the field or on the threshing-floor.
+
+Figs first appear on the market in May. This early fruit is called
+"magiles" (possibly from Maios-gilia = May production). The fruit is
+produced on the wood of the preceding year, from a bud which has
+remained dormant. The next crop appears about mid-July, and then the
+fruit is called by its proper name "syka."
+
+
+_Cherries_
+
+The principal and almost the only cherry-growing village in the Island
+is Pedoulas, in the Marathassa valley. This village is about 3,600 ft.
+above the sea-level. The trees at that village do remarkably well, and
+they bring in a good revenue. They are mostly wild trees which have been
+grafted; but there are also a small number which have been raised from
+imported Malaheb seed. From time to time good kinds of young grafted
+cherry trees have been imported from England by the Agricultural
+Department and grafts from these have been freely supplied to the
+village.
+
+There are two native varieties, one ("kerasi") which is almost
+exclusively grown at Pedoulas, the other ("vysino") which is found
+fairly well distributed over the Island. The former is pale yellow and
+pink, the latter is slightly smaller and less sweet and of a darkish-red
+colour, and is used mostly in making jam and preserves, while the
+"kerasi" is more for table purposes.
+
+More grafted trees are now coming into bearing and "White-hearts" are
+now sold in the bazaar at about 12 cps. per oke. "Black-hearts" are also
+beginning to make an appearance.
+
+Efforts are being made to introduce the cherry tree to other hill
+villages, and there seems no reason why its cultivation should not
+become general in the higher parts of the Island. This fruit travels
+well and a fine market awaits it in Egypt.
+
+Owing to the prohibition of fruit exports during the war, a small
+industry has grown up for drying the "kerasi."
+
+
+_Banana_
+
+The local name of the banana is Sykiton Adam (Adam's fig), from the
+belief that Adam made an apron of the leaves.
+
+There is some hope that the cultivation of this delicious fruit may
+become more taken up in Cyprus than has hitherto been thought possible.
+Paphos has for several years had the reputation of possessing
+fruit-yielding trees of good quality. Offshoots from some of these have
+been transplanted to Larnaca, and there are now several gardens in which
+a fair quantity of fruit ripens each year. At Kyrenia and Lapithos there
+are also a good number of trees. The fruit is of a different variety
+from that of Paphos and Larnaca, the shape being longitudinally angular,
+whereas the latter kind is longitudinally round and larger.
+
+Five years ago the Agricultural Department obtained some special
+varieties from Zanzibar. These are now beginning to yield fruit, and
+offshoots are being distributed in the Island.
+
+
+_Azarol Hawthorn_
+
+This hawthorn (_Crataegus Azarolus_), known locally as "mosphilia," grows
+wild scattered about over the country. The fruit makes an excellent
+jelly. The tree is an excellent stock on which to graft the pear tree.
+
+In the higher regions another species, _C. monogyna_, is found.
+
+
+_Melons_
+
+The western end of the Messaoria plain is noted for its water-melons and
+sweet-melons. These are grown in "postania," a corruption of the Persian
+word "bustan," a garden. They are cultivated only on irrigable land. At
+Asha, where, perhaps, the best fruits are grown, the land is flooded by
+the river and no later watering, as a rule, takes place. Through a
+well-grounded fear of theft, the grower and his family live in their
+"postania" during the season of marketing. Reed shelters are erected,
+and the rolled-up beds and bedding with their white coverlets present a
+strange appearance. There is always a big local demand and a good yield
+is generally obtained from these "postania." High prices are paid for
+suitable melonland.
+
+The local names for the water-melons are "karpousia" or "paticha," and
+for the sweet-melons "piponia" or "tamboures."
+
+The cultivation of this fruit is general throughout the Island.
+
+
+_Date Palm_
+
+This tree grows promiscuously throughout the plains, produced mostly by
+accidental seeding. Very little actual sowing takes place. The best
+groves are round about Nicosia.
+
+The trunk-wood, being very hard and fibrous, is used in the construction
+of the old type of waterwheel ("alakati") and for beams in houses. It is
+also utilised as fuel in Turkish baths as it burns slowly and gives out
+great heat. Palm leaves are in demand for making various native baskets,
+specially the "zimpilia" for holding seed when sowing broadcast. Hats
+are made from them in a few villages.
+
+The native varieties of date palm are not of high quality. They are:
+"Baltchik," the fruit of which ripens on the tree; "Phountouk"
+(hazelnut); "Kourmouzou" (red); and "Saraih" (yellow). The last three
+are artificially ripened when picked, by spraying them with a mixture of
+syrup and vinegar. The "Baltchik" produces fruits suitable for fresh
+consumption. The "Phountouk" is somewhat inferior. The other two have
+large fruits which are specially suited for preserving.
+
+Two years ago the Agricultural Department imported from Sudan the
+following varieties: "Condeila," "Bertamouta" and "Barakawi." They
+suffered much on the journey and it is doubtful if more than two or
+three specimens will survive.
+
+As a rule dates ripen well in Cyprus; gathering takes place from October
+to December. The clusters must generally be covered with sacking to
+protect them from birds.
+
+
+NUTS
+
+_Hazelnuts and Cobnuts or Filberts_
+
+These nuts are collectively known in commerce as "small nuts." They are
+all, however, the produce of a species of _Corylus_, the different kinds
+being distinguished by trade names according to their country of origin
+(see an article on "Sources of Supply of Hazelnuts" in BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xiv. 1916, pp. 261-7).
+
+In Cyprus these are grown almost exclusively around a well-defined group
+of villages of the Pitsillia, notably Alona, Palaechori, Askas,
+Platanistassa, Phterikoudi, Livadhia, Agros, Alithinou, Saranti,
+Polystipos. In this locality the plantations are thickly grown and good
+yields are obtained. It is doubtful whether there are other parts of the
+Island equally well suited to this tree.
+
+Hazelnuts, besides their use for dessert purposes and in the preparation
+of various nut foods, are employed largely as a cheap substitute for
+almonds, and in years when the latter are scarce, hazelnuts are in
+especially good demand.
+
+The Cyprus nuts are outwardly of good size and appearance and are very
+attractive in the English market, but unfortunately they are usually
+picked before reaching full maturity, and consequently the kernels are
+frequently small and soon become rancid. Being gathered when unripe they
+lose greatly in weight, which means loss of money to the exporters. The
+flavour is also impaired by premature picking and on this account Cyprus
+nuts compare unfavourably in this respect with those from Spain, and
+Trebizond and other parts on the Black Sea, with which they have to
+compete. If growers would pay more attention to this point, Cyprus
+hazelnuts would, owing to their size, hold a much better place than they
+do in the English market.
+
+The export of hazelnuts is not separately recorded, but the annual
+average production is stated to be approximately 120,000 okes.
+
+
+_Walnuts_
+
+Some fine specimens of walnut trees are to be seen in the Marathassa
+valley and in the neighbourhood of Palaeochori, and near mountain streams
+in several places among the slopes of the hills. These yield excellent
+fruit and are profitable to their owners, but unfortunately many trees
+have succumbed to the attacks of the Codlin moth. Special action has
+been taken during the last two years to deal with this pest. There has
+been a marked increase of late in the planting of young walnut trees.
+
+
+_Almonds_
+
+The cultivation of this tree has greatly extended of late. Its
+drought-resisting properties enable it to withstand the climate of the
+plains and on the level slopes of both ranges it grows well. There are
+several large plantations, notably at Psevdhas, Larnaca district, where
+the famous Jordan variety is found, and as the tree seems indifferent to
+soil, and thrives particularly well on the limestone which is so general
+throughout the Island, it may be hoped that it will be greatly
+multiplied. Both the soft- and the hard-shelled varieties are grown.
+Much good work has lately been done in School Gardens, under expert
+advice, in germinating the seed in damp sand. The villagers, finding the
+seedlings already to hand for planting, have been induced to plant them
+out.
+
+Almonds are used as stocks on which to graft peaches, kaishas, apricots
+and plums ("mirabelles").
+
+
+_Spanish Chestnut_
+
+Some years ago good numbers of the edible chestnut were raised at
+Pedoulas by the Agricultural Department and distributed to villagers for
+growing in the hills. It is feared that the greater part of these trees,
+through want of attention, unsuitability of soil or climate, lack of
+moisture, and especially damage by goats, have been lost, but some
+remain and well-grown young trees may be found in certain localities and
+in moderate numbers among the mountains. As soon as adequate protection
+from goats can be given, this tree might be well worth more extensive
+cultivation. It prospers well when properly cared for, but will not
+thrive in soils containing more than about 3 per cent. of lime or at an
+elevation below about 1,000 ft.
+
+The tree has been propagated almost entirely from seed, which must be as
+fresh as possible. No doubt one reason for the lack of interest hitherto
+shown in this tree by villagers is that it does not begin to fruit, as a
+rule, until about its twentieth year.
+
+
+_Pistacia_
+
+Several species of _Pistacia_ occur in Cyprus, and although they yield
+products of different kinds, it will be convenient to deal with them
+together in the present section.
+
+The pistachio nut (_Pistacia vera_), locally called "Aleppo pistachio,"
+is a native of Persia and Arabia and it was thought, until a few years
+ago, that it would not thrive in Cyprus. That is, however, a fallacy,
+which is rather confirmed by the fact that the _P. Terebinthus_ and the
+_P. Lentiscus_ are indigenous to the Island. It is considered that the
+best method of cultivation is to bud _P. vera_ on _P. Terebinthus_.
+Though they grow more slowly, these budded trees are more robust and
+better resist drought, cold and moisture. The trees should yield fruit
+in five years from the time of grafting. A fair number of these trees
+have now been distributed from the Government Nursery Gardens.
+
+This tree provides the pistachio nuts which are now imported from Syria
+and Chios.
+
+Male trees do not usually flower at the same time as female;
+consequently there has been difficulty in getting fruit with seeds, and
+recourse must in that case be had to artificial fertilisation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Palestine or turpentine tree (_P. palaestina_), local name
+"tremithos," grows in certain parts of the Island, but is seen at its
+best in the Paphos district, especially in and around the town of Ktima.
+The fruit is eaten fresh or salted and dried. It yields 10 to 15 per
+cent. of edible oil which has a certain local demand. A medium-sized
+tree may produce up to 60 to 80 okes of fruit. After crushing and
+expression, the residue together with the seed is found to be a good
+food for pigs. A small consignment of both the dried and salted fruit
+and of the residue was sold in Egypt in 1916 and realised 5 to 6 cp. per
+oke for the former, and 3_s._ to 4_s._ per kile for the latter.
+
+By making incisions in the trunks of both the male and the female trees
+a gum or turpentine known as "Paphos tar" is obtained, which fetches as
+much as 8_s._ to 10_s._ per oke. It is used locally for chewing.
+
+This is one of the largest trees in the Island and is of handsome shape.
+It is deciduous and some fine specimens are met with.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Pistacia Lentiscus_, locally known as shinia, or shinia bush, abounds
+all along the coasts of the Island. From the seeds of this shrub an oil
+is expressed which is used for culinary purposes, particularly for
+frying fish. The oil is also in good local demand for soap making, and a
+very fair soap is produced, especially at Akanthou, in which the oil is
+the chief ingredient.
+
+The leaves of this shrub are largely used for tanning purposes and were
+at one time regularly exported to England, though in small quantities.
+The principal market for shinia leaves is Palermo. They are employed to
+no small extent for the adulteration of sumach, for which Palermo is
+also the leading market. Shinia leaves were also in demand at Lyons as a
+dyeing material for silk stuffs.
+
+There are also a few specimens of a variety of _P. Lentiscus_ (mastic
+tree) from which in the Island of Chios the famous Chios mastic is
+obtained by incisions made in the trunks of the male stocks.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The terebinth tree (_P. Terebinthus_), locally called "tremithia," is a
+bush very widely grown throughout the higher regions. It is used as a
+stock on which to graft _P. vera_. The berries are used for extraction
+of oil which has a value for culinary purposes. They are also made into
+a cake called "tremithopites." The berries are much smaller than those
+of the _P. palaestina_.
+
+
+VEGETABLES
+
+The cultivation of vegetables has considerably extended of late. Good
+market gardens have existed in and around the principal towns for many
+years, but more attention is now being paid to this industry in the
+villages, wherever water is available, and a considerable amount of
+skill is shown in production.
+
+Among the best and most generally grown vegetables are spinach,
+cauliflowers, cabbages, egg-plants, lady's fingers, leeks, artichokes,
+broad beans (also grown as a field crop), radishes, celery, beet-root,
+pumpkins, marrows, cucumbers, lettuces, tomatoes, lentils, kohl-rabi
+("kouloumbra"), kidney beans ("phasoulia"), peas, kolokas, onions and
+potatoes.
+
+There is a considerable demand in Egypt for fresh vegetables, and to
+meet this the land around the "ports" of Famagusta, Larnaca and Limassol
+has been for some years specially devoted to their cultivation. In the
+mountain valleys a continuous series of small vegetable gardens may be
+seen flanking the sides of the river-banks. The exports of vegetables to
+Egypt in recent years are given in the following table:
+
+                              Beans and      Other
+  Year.            Onions.      Peas.      Vegetables.
+                    _Cwts._       _Cwts._        _Cwts._
+  1909              6,664       1,729          49
+  1910              3,807         858          60
+  1911              5,512       2,346         122
+  1912              3,659       2,583         135
+  1913              2,854       1,670          32
+
+
+_Beans and Peas_
+
+Beans are grown for market mainly at Marathassa and Pitsillia and
+generally in the higher regions, but only to a small extent in the
+plains.
+
+Before the war there was a comparatively large importation of beans from
+Anatolia. This having stopped, local prices rose and stimulated
+production in the Island.
+
+The Cypriot is a lover of dried vegetables, and there might well be an
+extension in the cultivation of beans, similar to that which has lately
+taken place in the case of green peas. Except in one or two places,
+these were not sown by the villagers until about four years ago, but so
+valuable have they been found, especially in recent years of scarcity
+and high cost of other foodstuffs, that now whole districts are being
+devoted to their cultivation.
+
+The French or kidney bean (_Phaseolus vulgaris_) is locally known under
+the general term "louvia." This name is applied both to _Phaseolus
+vulgaris_ and to _Dolichos melanophthalmus_ (_Vigna Catjang_ var.
+_sinensis_). To distinguish the two kinds the Cypriot describes the _P.
+vulgaris_ as "louvia gliastra" (_i.e._ lustrous, owing to its shiny
+appearance), or "louvia peratica" (_i.e._ foreign), as _D.
+melanophthalmus_ was introduced and had become acclimatised some time
+before. Gennadius, however, describes the "louvia peratica" as _Dolichos
+Lablab_ or lablab bean.
+
+Both the dwarf ("koutsoulia") and the climbing ("makrya" or
+"anarichomena") varieties of _P. vulgaris_ are grown. There are two
+white kinds, the large ("adra") and the small ("psintra").
+
+Beans of various colours are grown here and there, and one spotted
+variety ("patsaloudhia") merits greater attention than it receives at
+present, both on account of its greater productiveness and for its
+excellent flavour. Two of these are stringless, but a drawback to them
+is that they discolour the water in which they are boiled.
+
+There are several newly imported kinds which are privately grown, and
+these are gradually coming into the local markets.
+
+The lubia or cow-pea (_Dolichos melanophthalmus_ = _Vigna Catjang_ var.
+_sinensis_), being a good drought-resister, is grown more or less
+throughout the Island. It is frequently sown in mixed crop with cotton,
+sesame, Indian corn, etc.
+
+Two kinds are cultivated--the larger, "lubia melissomatia" (having the
+eye like a bee), and the smaller, "lubia mavromatoudhia" (dark-eyed).
+
+The dried pods of _Phaseolus_ and _Dolichos_ are fed to animals and are
+also used for stuffing mattresses.
+
+The broad bean (_Vicia Faba_) has been grown for some years on irrigated
+land in the plains, where it takes a recognised place in the rotation.
+Its cultivation is now spreading to the higher parts.
+
+The soy bean was introduced a few years ago by the Agricultural
+Department, but has failed hitherto to attract attention. Villagers find
+it requires different cooking from what they are accustomed to, and
+local dealers are not yet prepared to deal in it. It has been found
+resistant to disease, and further efforts are being made to bring it
+into popular favour.
+
+The Ochrus vetch (_Lathyrus Ochrus_), locally known as "louvana," is a
+fairly common spring crop, being grown for the sake of the seed which
+provides a favourite Cypriot dish. The leaves are also used as a salad.
+This crop is sown in the plains in January, but in the Karpas and some
+other parts it is sown in the autumn.
+
+Chick-peas (_Cicer arietinum_), locally called "revithia," grow well and
+are cultivated to a moderate extent. Samples examined at the Imperial
+Institute proved to be of normal composition. Two firms of produce
+brokers in London stated that if quantities of about 5 tons at a time
+could be delivered in England in as good a condition as the sample they
+could be sold for human consumption and would be worth (1917) L20 to L24
+per ton c.i.f., United Kingdom ports. If of inferior quality to the
+sample they would be fit only for cattle food and fetch considerably
+less (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 307).
+
+Chick-peas when roasted are locally called "koudames" and are eaten in
+the same way as ground-nuts, which they much resemble in flavour. They
+are little, if at all, used in Cyprus as a cattle food.
+
+
+_Potatoes_
+
+The potato-growing industry in Cyprus has developed considerably in
+recent years, as will be seen from the subjoined table of exports:
+
+  Year.        Quantity.   Value.
+                _Cwts._         L
+  1909         12,586      3,105
+  1910         14,983      3,839
+  1911         36,271      8,472
+  1912         45,336     10,348
+  1913         31,310      7,003
+  1914         54,203     11,741
+  1915         82,304     28,513
+  1916        136,027     74,632
+  1917        224,453    101,120
+
+These figures, however, are a very inadequate indication of the actual
+increase of production, inasmuch as the local consumption of this
+vegetable before the war was confined almost entirely to the well-to-do
+residents in the towns, whereas now it is rapidly becoming a staple food
+of the people. This unascertainable but large local consumption must be
+added to the latest export returns in order to arrive at an estimate of
+present production.
+
+The most favoured variety was at first, and with many growers still is,
+what is known as the French potato, the original seed having been
+brought from France. Irish potatoes (locally called "pittakoura") have
+now largely displaced these, partly, no doubt, on account of the greater
+facility of obtaining the latter seed during the war.
+
+A native variety of potato, believed to have been imported by Syrian
+Arabs in the sixteenth century, is still grown on a small scale in the
+Marathassa valley. This potato has deep-set eyes and a luxuriant growth
+above ground and possesses a characteristic sweet taste.
+
+Great progress has been made within the last few years in the matter of
+cultivation, and the old practice of planting broadcast on the flat has
+given way to ridge planting at proper distances apart. The practice
+formerly was to drop the potatoes into the plough furrow. These were
+covered over by the return plough; every third furrow was sown.
+
+The Egyptian demand and the purchases made for military purposes have
+greatly stimulated production.
+
+The good prices obtained have led, particularly in the Famagusta
+district and in what are called the "red earth" villages, to much
+activity and no small outlay in the matter of water-supply and
+distribution, and in the use of chemical manures.
+
+The custom has grown up for importers to send their seed potatoes for
+planting in the higher parts of the Island. The produce therefrom is
+exchanged with growers in the plains, who send up their plain-grown
+tubers as seed to the cultivators in the hills. Merchants often
+stipulate with the hill-growers that they shall have their crop at an
+agreed, and generally a fairly high, figure. In this manner degeneration
+of the seed has been retarded; but owing to the difficulty of obtaining
+seed from outside during the war a certain amount of degeneration has
+taken place.
+
+Only one crop can be grown in the hills during the year, but in the
+plains two crops are obtained. The one is planted in January and is dug
+in May-June; the other is planted in July and dug in November. It is
+found that the tubers lifted in the summer suffer greatly from the heat,
+and heavy losses occur from rot, whether the tubers remain in the ground
+or if they are dug and stored; and it is a question whether, when these
+losses are taken into account, the summer crop is really profitable.
+
+The average yield is sometimes put at 2,000 okes per donum, but 1,600
+okes, or 2 tons, is probably a more accurate figure.
+
+
+_Kolokas_ (_Colocasia antiquorum_)
+
+This is a favourite food of the villager, but can only be grown where
+there is an ample water-supply and on heavy land that holds the water.
+It is an exhausting crop. The root only is eaten. It is sown in
+March-April and dug about October-November.
+
+
+_Onions_
+
+These are generally grown, especially in the Paphos district; Famagusta
+and Limassol following in the order named. The Paphos onions are
+supposed to have particularly good keeping qualities. Both round
+("strongyla") and long varieties ("tolmalikia") are grown; the latter
+have less fleshy scales than the former.
+
+Onions are grown either in irrigated gardens or in "livadhia," or
+low-lying lands which retain their moisture, no irrigation being needed.
+They are propagated by means of "konari" or bulblets. Lapithos in the
+Kyrenia district makes a speciality of producing these from seed and
+supplying them to the whole Island, although onions are grown for market
+only on a limited scale in that area. The method is to plant out the
+full-grown onions (locally called "mammes") and leave them to ripen
+their seed. The seed is sown in February-March, at the rate of 20-25
+okes per donum, from which some 3,000 okes of "konari" are raised. These
+are then sold for planting out in October-November-December at the rate
+of 40-50 okes per donum.
+
+Onions are grown either in rows or broadcast. The native variety has the
+outer scales of a reddish colour, but these have largely given way to
+superior imported kinds.
+
+
+FODDERS AND FEEDING STUFFS
+
+_Carob Tree_
+
+The carob (_Ceratonia siliqua_) is indigenous in Syria, and probably
+also in the northern countries of Africa, whence it presumably spread to
+certain parts of Asia Minor, to Greece, the Greek Islands and Southern
+Italy.
+
+At the time of Christ, and for some centuries later, this tree was known
+to the Greeks by the name of keronia or keratea, being the Greek for
+horns, and is given to the locust or carob bean from its supposed
+resemblance to goats' horns. It is also known in different parts of
+Cyprus under the following names; teratsia (a corruption of keratea),
+xylokeratea, kountouroudia, koutsoupia and charoupia. The last named is
+of Arabic origin (kharroub) and the same root of the word is common all
+over Europe. Moreover, the fruit varies slightly according to locality,
+and develops local characteristics which have acquired for it
+distinctive local names; thus in Kyrenia District we have templiotike
+and kyrionitike, in the Karpas there is the sarakine (introduced by
+Saracens?) and elsewhere the vaklitike and kombote. This bean or pod,
+which when ripe is of a chocolate colour, contains from 6 to 10 hard
+seeds, embedded in a sweet, pithy, honey-like substance which imparts
+the flavour so much appreciated by animals.
+
+The carob tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosae, sub-order
+Caesalpinae, and is the only species of the genus _Ceratonia_. It is an
+evergreen, long-lived tree, growing to a height of 30 ft. and sometimes
+even to 50 and 60 ft. It thrives in most kinds of soil, especially in
+porous, marly and even volcanic soils, but not in marshy lands. Owing to
+its long tap root it resists drought well, and is to be found growing
+well in rocky land such as is common in many of the carob areas of
+Cyprus. It is very generally found intermixed with the olive tree and up
+to about the same altitude.
+
+A succession of flowers is produced from July to September or October,
+and in favourable years up to December and even later, and in
+July-August the tree bears both flowers and ripe fruit. The collection
+of the latter commences about mid-August, the exact date being annually
+fixed separately in each district by the Commissioner. This is done in
+order to prevent the fruit from being stolen.
+
+Recent investigations made by the Agricultural Department go to prove
+that the fruit-producing carob tree of Cyprus is really hermaphrodite,
+though there yet remains much room for investigation and the point is
+not finally settled. The others are true male trees. The hermaphrodite
+carob trees which form practically the whole of the fruit-producing
+trees of the Island are cleistogamous (_i.e._ self-fertilised before the
+calyx opens) and short-stamened.
+
+There are also certain trees self-produced from seed which are superior
+to the ordinary so-called wild tree. These bear fruit which is straight
+and short but more or less marketable, and these are known as
+"kountoura" (short) or "apostoliki," as though sent by chance or by
+Providence. The word "apostoliki" is applied in Cyprus to other kinds of
+trees or fruit showing similar phenomena.
+
+There are several millions of these trees in the State forests, and yet
+more privately owned. It frequently happens that, owing to the wide
+powers of testamentary disposition, a single tree passes by inheritance
+to several heirs.
+
+Many thousands of carob plants are annually raised in the Government
+gardens and issued at a trifling charge. The common method of
+propagation has been to sow the seeds in pots, and when the plant is
+from 18 in. to 2 ft. high it is ready for transplanting. The seed, which
+is very hard, is softened by placing it in a cauldron or saucepan of
+cold water. The water is then brought to the boil. On arriving at
+boiling-point the water is cooled and should then be changed and the
+seed left to steep for twenty-four hours. Owing to the long tap root,
+sowing in ordinary nursery beds has not been satisfactory, as the
+plants, which certainly make better growth than in pots, do not
+transplant well.
+
+The foregoing methods have to a great extent been superseded by that of
+germinating the seed in damp sand and sowing direct in the field in
+properly prepared holes. Little watering is needed if the holes are deep
+and the soil kept friable. A top mulch is useful to conserve the
+moisture.
+
+Transplanting from pots or beds is best done when the plants are twelve
+months old and about 12 in. high, after that it is precarious. Grafting
+may be done as soon as the stem is thick enough to take a graft, either
+before or after transplanting.
+
+The tree is liable to attack by insects and other pests. Scale
+(_Aspidiotus ceratoniae_) is very common; but the greatest damage of late
+years has been caused by the fly _Cecidomyia ceratoniae_, which lays its
+eggs on the flowers or newly-set fruit, and the grub feeds on the bean,
+causing it to become stunted and of no commercial value. This stunted
+condition is locally known as "brachycarpia" and has been the subject of
+careful scientific study and practical treatment by the Agricultural
+Department during the last few years. Very satisfactory results have
+been recorded from the campaigns, which have so far been limited to the
+Kyrenia District, and these have justified the extension of compulsory
+treatment to other infected areas. This and other pests, such as
+_Myelois ceratoniae_, _Cossus liniperda_ (a lepidopterous boring insect),
+a species of _Mycetiasis_, and a small hymenopterous fly which has
+lately appeared and is now under investigation, have, no doubt, checked
+production. The attacks of _Cecidomyia_, when serious, reduce the yield
+by 80 per cent. or over, and normally may lessen it by 40 to 50 per
+cent.
+
+Much damage is also caused by rats (_Mus alexandrinus_), which gnaw the
+bark of the branches, causing them to dry up. Their destruction is
+encouraged by Government by the payment of 1 cp. per tail.
+
+Carob gathering commences about mid-August and lasts for about a month.
+The beans are knocked down with long sticks, put into sacks and brought
+into store, or heaped up in the open air, where they often remain for
+several weeks. This is a safe procedure, as there is little rainfall at
+that season, and what might fall would not harm the beans, which would
+quickly dry again.
+
+It is not easy to estimate the yield per donum of carob trees, but
+assuming that the trees were planted 30 ft. apart, and there were 16
+medium-sized trees to the donum, the yield would average somewhere about
+1,260 okes to the donum. The yield varies from year to year, a good year
+generally being followed by a moderate year. The fruit may be destroyed
+by frost in January and February, knocked off by hail-stones in March
+and April or scorched by hot winds in May or June. A full-sized,
+well-cultivated tree can give up to 720 okes. Taking good and bad years,
+the value of the annual produce of a medium-sized tree is 5_s_.
+
+Carobs are sold by the Aleppo cantar of 180 okes, and the normal price
+may be put at from 13_s._ to 17_s._ per cantar delivered into store.
+
+Carobs are weighed on export and the tithe is taken in money from
+exporters at the Customs House.
+
+The following table shows the export of carobs during the ten years
+ending 1913-14:
+
+  Year.          Quantity.     Value.
+                    _Tons._       L
+  1904-05           31,887    104,301
+  1905-06           26,187     85,105
+  1906-07           44,965    157,452
+  1907-08           42,381    151,610
+  1908-09           57,010    188,841
+  1909-10           44,059    157,972
+  1910-11           37,485    145,590
+  1911-12           51,359    182,883
+  1912-13           63,658    251,750
+  1913-14           44,989    179,027
+
+The falling-off in 1913-14 was mainly due to the losses caused by the
+fly _Cecidomyia ceratoniae_.
+
+The fruit of the carob is exported mostly to England, but also to France
+and Egypt, and more recently, before the war, to Germany. Gaudry
+mentions that about the middle of last century it was exported to
+Russia, Sardinia and Austria. Some is used, in Egypt and the Levant
+especially, as food for the poorer classes and for making sweets and
+sherbets. Its chief use in Western Europe is as food for animals, bovine
+and equine, for which purpose it is ground up and made into either meal
+or cattle cakes. It is also said to be employed in the manufacture of
+chocolate and spirit, and there is a demand for the seed for use in the
+manufacture of certain gums.
+
+The juice of the bean, "carob honey," locally called "mavromelos,"
+"teratsomelo" or "betmezi," is consumed as a substitute for bee-honey or
+jam and also as a flavouring for culinary purposes. From the carob honey
+is also made the sweetmeat "pastelli."
+
+At one time carobs were used in Cyprus for fattening mules and other
+animals, but, unfortunately, this practice died out. Efforts are now
+being made to revive it, and the advantages of this local product are
+again becoming recognised.
+
+The carob contains some 50 per cent. of saccharine matter and the
+interesting question has been raised in recent years as to whether the
+bean might not become a new source of sugar production.
+
+
+_Lucerne_ (_Medicago sativa_)
+
+This plant was introduced about eighteen years ago, but in spite of its
+undoubted success when properly grown on suitable soil, the Cypriot
+farmer was for many years very slow to make use of it. Every effort has
+been made of late years to encourage its cultivation and during the last
+three or four years there has been a steadily increased demand for seed.
+Irrigation is necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory yield, but
+there are many farms where it might be grown with great advantage. Its
+value for cattle food is generally recognised, and now that greater
+attention is being given to dairy cattle, lucerne would seem to have an
+assured future.
+
+
+_Vetch_ (_Vicia Ervilia_)
+
+This plant, known locally as "rovi," is undoubtedly the most widely
+grown of the fodder crops. Being a leguminous plant, it has a
+restorative action on the soil, although the average Cypriot farmer
+still considers it to be exhaustive.
+
+In the plains sowing begins in January, whereas in the Pitsillia, and
+even in the Morphou, Solea and Tylliria districts which are only at the
+foothills, it is sown in October-November, _i.e._ before the cereals.
+
+Rovi is almost the only food in the form of seed given to ploughing oxen
+throughout the East. It is regarded as heat-giving and strengthening,
+and is therefore fed specially in winter. It is sometimes given
+unthreshed with the straw. It is harvested in May, when it is uprooted,
+made into little bundles, which are stacked together in small heaps in
+the field, until they turn yellow, when they are removed to the native
+threshing-floor and threshed in the customary manner. The dry stems,
+etc., are eagerly eaten by cattle and sheep. The average yield is very
+little, from 2 to 4 or 5 kiles per donum. It is subject to tithe.
+
+
+_Chickling Vetch_ (_Lathyrus sativus_)
+
+The chickling vetch, known locally as "favetta" or "chavetta," has come
+rather more into prominence of late years, displacing the vetch (_Vicia
+Ervilia_) to some extent, as it gives a heavier yield. It is subject to
+tithe.
+
+
+_Vetch_ (_Vicia sativa_)
+
+This crop, called locally "vicos," was introduced from Crete in 1913 and
+has been found excellently suited to this country. It is most useful in
+any rotation, and has to some extent supplanted rovi (_Vicia Ervilia_)
+as it gives a larger yield. It is a most nutritious cattle food, for
+which purpose it is grown. When crushed and mixed with chopped straw it
+is readily eaten by cattle and sheep. The plant seeds itself very
+freely. It is sown about November-December and is ready for harvesting
+in about April. Seed is sown at the rate of 5 to 6 okes per donum and
+the yield is normally from 8 to 12 kiles per donum. It is a good
+drought-resister and needs no irrigation, and being a leguminous plant
+should be cut and not pulled up, as the roots left in the soil serve to
+increase the amount of nitrogenous salts. Being a vetch it is subject to
+tithe.
+
+
+_Tares_ (_Vicia tenuifolia_ var. _stenophylla_)
+
+This plant, locally called "mavracheron" or "phakacheron," grows wild
+in the Pitsillia district among the vineyards and other cultivated as
+well as uncultivated lands. It is of value in those remote localities
+where grain and straw are little grown and difficult to procure, as it
+provides a wholesome fodder for cattle. The villagers have now taken to
+cultivating the plant. It is cut before the seeds are fully matured to
+prevent loss of seed through shedding. The seeds and chaff are mixed
+together when fed to cattle.
+
+
+_Milk Vetch_ (_Astragalus_)
+
+This plant, locally called "arkokoutsia," grows wild in some abundance
+among the hills. When it appears above ground it is readily eaten by
+animals, especially sheep; but at this stage it is apt to cause hoven.
+As the plant hardens the animals do not touch it, except when fully
+ripe, and then it is greedily eaten.
+
+As soon as it blossoms, but before the fruit is set, the plant is
+gathered and tied into bundles or small sheaves and stored in a heap.
+When, after a few months, it is quite dry, and at a time when other
+foods are scarce, it forms an important part of an animal's ration.
+
+The plants are sometimes allowed to mature their seeds, and these, after
+being steeped in water for two or three days to remove acidity, are
+given to pigs, and are considered a nourishing and palatable food.
+
+
+_Moha, Sulla_ (_Hedysarum_)
+
+These have been tried for some years with success and are gradually
+becoming known and experimentally grown by farmers.
+
+
+_Teosinte_ (_Reana luxurians_)
+
+This grass is one of the most valuable fodder plants with which the New
+World has enriched the Old. It is a native of Guatemala and is also
+largely grown in Australia.
+
+Seed was first imported into Cyprus by the Agricultural Department in
+1897, and since then the plant has been continuously grown in the
+Government gardens with marked success. It is sown in March-April in the
+same manner as Indian corn, to which it is allied.
+
+If irrigated, three or four cuttings may be obtained during the summer,
+yielding 25 to 30 tons of green food per scala. It is greedily eaten by
+cattle. Some plants grown by the Department attained a height of 11 ft.
+3 in. and of others which were left to ripen their seed, one had 93
+stems and weighed 26 okes, though the leaves had begun to shrivel and
+had lost weight.
+
+This plant is gradually becoming known and may be found growing on some
+of the more progressive farms.
+
+
+_Sudan-grass_
+
+Seed of this fodder grass was imported in 1915 and very satisfactory
+crops have been obtained each year since then from the experimental
+plots. The grass seems well suited to Cyprus and gives a useful yield
+even when unirrigated. Occasional irrigation produces a valuable crop.
+Trial sowings are now being made on a few private farms.
+
+
+_Teff-grass_ (_Eragrostis abyssinica_)
+
+This has also been tried experimentally with good results and it is
+hoped that its cultivation will extend as it becomes more known.
+
+
+_Mangold Wurzel_
+
+This crop has been grown for several years at the Government Farm,
+Athalassa, where it has done well and forms an important part of the
+cows' rations. It has been grown successfully on a small scale in some
+of the Nursery Gardens.
+
+As irrigation, deep ploughing, thorough cultivation of the soil and
+special cultural operations are needed, this crop cannot be generally
+recommended to farmers, but it is being grown by a few progressive stock
+owners under Departmental advice.
+
+The wild beet (_Beta vulgaris_) is a native of the seacoasts of
+South-eastern Europe, and the garden beet-root is much grown in Cyprus
+in certain localities, so, if carefully cultivated, mangold wurzel,
+which is a variety of _B. vulgaris_, might also do well in many parts
+and be of great advantage to stock owners.
+
+
+_Prickly Pear_ (_Opuntia_)
+
+The prickly pear grows wild as a hedge plant in Cyprus. The fruit is
+eaten to some extent by villagers, but no attempt has yet been made to
+use the stems as food for animals. In Sicily very large quantities are
+so utilised, and now that milch cows are coming more into demand in
+Cyprus the value of the plant for fodder may become recognised.
+Successful experiments have been made by the Agricultural Department in
+mixing the juice of the stems with lime for giving brilliance and
+permanence to ordinary whitewash. There has been an occasional export of
+the fruit to Egypt for consumption by Arabs.
+
+
+SPICES
+
+_Coriander Seed_
+
+Coriander seed is the product of _Coriandrum sativum_, Linn., an annual
+herb belonging to the natural order Umbelliferae. The "seed," or more
+strictly fruit, of the plant is employed in confectionery in making
+bonbons, in the preparation of certain liqueurs and as an ingredient for
+disguising the taste of medicines. In Cyprus it is commonly used as a
+flavouring in cooking.
+
+A sample sent to the Imperial Institute in 1917 was examined as a source
+of volatile oil, and the residue remaining after distillation was
+analysed as a feeding-stuff. On steam distillation the ground seed
+yielded 0.48 per cent. of an almost colourless volatile oil with the
+characteristic and pleasant odour of coriander. This yield is below that
+furnished by Russian and German coriander, but is about equal to that
+obtained from Morocco seed. The results of the examination indicate
+that the residue has a fairly high feeding-value, and it would be quite
+suitable for the ordinary use of coriander residue, _i.e._ as a cattle
+food.
+
+A sample of the seeds was submitted to brokers in London, who reported
+that they were very stalky, but that their value would be from 50_s._ to
+60_s._ per cwt. (January 1917) as compared with 10_s._ to 15_s._ per
+cwt. before the war. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv.
+1917, p. 301).
+
+
+_Aniseed_
+
+Aniseed, the fruit of an umbelliferous herb (_Pimpinella Anisum_,
+Linn.), is grown on a comparatively small scale in Cyprus, the exports
+in recent years varying from 1,000 to 2,000 cwts. per annum. In 1917,
+1,015 cwts., valued at L3,164, were exported, all of which went to
+Egypt.
+
+Seed sent for examination to the Imperial Institute was reported to
+consist of aniseed in good condition and practically free from
+extraneous matter.
+
+A sample of the seed was submitted to brokers in London, who stated that
+at that time (January 1917) stocks of aniseed were quite exhausted, and
+the prices therefore much inflated, small stocks of Spanish aniseed
+having changed hands in London at 110_s._ per cwt. Such price could not
+be secured if any quantity of aniseed were placed on the market. The
+value of the Cyprus sample before the war would have been about 27_s._
+6_d._ per cwt. (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917,
+p. 300).
+
+
+White Cumin Seed
+
+White cumin is also an umbelliferous herb (_Cuminum Cyminum_, Linn.); an
+account of the cultivation and uses of this and other spices is given in
+the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 131-136.
+
+A sample of the seed sent to the Imperial Institute was submitted to
+brokers in London, who stated that it was rather small and stalky, but
+that it would probably be worth between 70_s._ and 80_s._ per cwt.
+(January 1917), although they were of opinion that its pre-war value
+would not have been much over 20_s._ per cwt. (see BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 302).
+
+
+_Black Cumin Seed_
+
+These seeds, sometimes known as fennel-flower seeds, are the product of
+_Nigella sativa_, Linn. (Nat. Ord. Ranunculaceae). The plant is an
+annual, native to the Mediterranean region, and the seeds, which are
+used in the East for flavouring curries, etc., and in Egypt as comfits
+on cakes, have an aromatic fennel-like odour when fresh and a slightly
+acrid taste. There is a small export of black cumin seed from Cyprus.
+There is, however, but little demand for this seed (see BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 304).
+
+
+ESSENTIAL OILS AND PERFUMES
+
+_Origanum Oil_
+
+Different opinions have been held as to the botanical identification of
+the plant from which the Cyprus origanum oil is produced. An interesting
+series of articles on this subject by E. M. Holmes appears in the
+_Perfumery and Essential Oil Record_, 1913, from which it would seem
+that this oil is derived from _Origanum majoranoides_, Wild.; while Dr.
+Stapf, of Kew, regards the plant as _O. dubium_, Boiss. (see BULLETIN OF
+THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 50). Other varieties growing
+wild in Cyprus are _O. Onites_, _O. hirtum_, both of which are locally
+called "rigani," _O. Bevani_ (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE,
+vol. xv. 1917, p. 305) and _O. majorana_.
+
+In its wild state the plant from which origanum oil is distilled is a
+small perennial shrub, but, if cultivated, its size may be doubled or
+even trebled. The first crop, consisting of shoots and flowers, may give
+from 300 to 500 okes per donum; in subsequent years up to 1,000-1,500
+okes per donum. The latter quantity would produce 40 to 60 okes of
+origanum oil, which is largely used in England for perfuming soap and
+other purposes.
+
+For twenty years the distillation of origanum oil has been made under
+Government control. The industry was started in 1899 and, though not
+large, has steadily grown. It has been found that the Cyprus origanum
+oil is exceptionally rich in carvacrol (over 80 per cent.), a powerful
+antiseptic, and to this substance the oil owes mainly its characteristic
+thyme-like odour. Frequent analyses have shown that the Cyprus origanum
+oil is remarkably constant in character.
+
+This oil has the slight disadvantage of darkening considerably on
+exposure to light and air, which renders it unsuitable for use in
+light-coloured soaps, but a method has been worked out at the Imperial
+Institute of refining the oil so as to yield a product which will remain
+practically colourless for long periods.
+
+A report furnished by the Imperial Institute (BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL
+INSTITUTE, vol. iv. 1906, p. 299), after giving a detailed description
+of the oil, states:
+
+"The foregoing results show that this oil sells readily in this country
+at prices which should be fairly remunerative to producers in Cyprus. It
+should, however, be borne in mind that the demand for this oil is
+somewhat limited, and that it competes with the thyme oil produced in
+France and Spain, and with the 'origanum oil' produced in Smyrna, and
+that consequently a sudden increase in production in Cyprus might lead
+to a considerable fall in price. The Cyprus oil has, however, the
+advantage that it is very rich in the odorous and antiseptic constituent
+carvacrol, and it is probably due to its richness in this constituent,
+as revealed by the analyses made at the Imperial Institute, that the
+comparatively high prices realised for these consignments were obtained
+at a time when 'red thyme oils' were selling at lower rates. It would be
+advantageous if a refined white oil could be prepared by some simple
+method from this material, as this probably would fetch an enhanced
+price, and be applicable to other purposes for which the 'red oil' is
+unsuitable."
+
+Until 1910 the distillation was made by the Department, but since then
+it has been undertaken by private contract, permission being given to
+collect the wild plant from the forest. The annual production is now
+about 2,750 lb., and the price has steadily risen from about 3_s._ per
+lb. to 8_s._ 6_d._ per lb. at the present time. But whereas the cost of
+transport to London before the war was L8 per ton, it has risen to the
+prohibitive rate of L200 per ton, and the 1917 oil still remains in
+store at Alexandria.
+
+The supply of the wild plant is limited and its cultivation is under
+consideration.
+
+The following table shows the exports of origanum _oil_ in recent years:
+
+  Year.    Quantity.
+           _lb._
+
+  1902    2,092
+  1903    No distillation
+  1904    2,410
+  1905    1,463
+  1906    2,200
+  1907    1,745
+  1908    2,051
+  1909    1,530[4]
+  1910    2,842
+  1911    2,276
+  1912    2,230
+  1913    2,455
+  1914    3,776
+  1915    3,709
+  1916    2,756
+  1917    2,696
+  1918    2,066
+
+
+
+_Marjoram Oil_
+
+This is not yet a regular product, but samples of locally produced oil
+have been examined at the Imperial Institute and pronounced to be
+superior to European marjoram oil and about equal in value to sweet
+fennel oil (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p.
+50). It is distilled from a plant which is abundant in the forests of
+Kyrenia and Paphos, and which has been referred by Dr. Stapf to _O.
+majoranoides_, Wild., and by Mr. Holmes to _O. Maru_, Linn. The market
+is, however, restricted.
+
+
+_Laurel Oil_
+
+Samples of oil distilled from the leaves of _Laurus nobilis_ which were
+examined at the Imperial Institute were found to have an aroma inferior
+to that of the oils usually met with in commerce (see BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, p. 430). The demand for the oil is
+said to be small.
+
+
+_Otto of Roses_
+
+This has been prepared since 1897 in a very small way with native stills
+at the village of Milikouri, where the Damask rose is abundant. The
+cultivation of this rose has now spread to other hill villages. The
+closing of the market for Bulgarian otto of roses owing to the war has
+given an impetus to the industry in Cyprus. The Agricultural Department
+has for two years sent qualified officers to superintend the work at
+Milikouri and to carry out an experimental distillation.
+
+A report from the Director, Imperial Institute, upon samples of the 1917
+distillation states that "the constants of the Cyprus oil agree closely
+with those recorded for Bulgarian otto of roses." It was found that the
+odour of the Cyprus oil was fairly good, but rather weak. The otto sold
+at 70_s._ per ounce, less 2-1/2 per cent., which "in view of the very
+small quantity must be considered satisfactory." At the time of sale
+French otto was quoted at 78_s._ to 85_s._ per ounce.
+
+
+_Acacia Farnesiana_
+
+This tree is but sparsely represented in Cyprus, but wherever found it
+is vigorous and healthy. It belongs to the Mimosa tribe of the order
+Leguminosae and, as other species are common in the Island and thrive
+remarkably well, there would seem no reason why this species also should
+not become more general.
+
+It is known elsewhere under different names; that of "sweet briar" (in
+Barbados) on account of its numerous thorns and the exquisite scent of
+its flowers, and "stinking cossie" (in Antigua) owing to the highly
+disagreeable smell of its wood. The word "cossie" may be a corruption of
+acacia.
+
+Its flowers are largely used in perfumery, and the annual crop of the
+flowers of this plant in France is stated to be worth thousands of
+francs, and a particularly delicate fragrant perfume is extracted from
+them. The pods are said to yield a fair amount of tannin, while from the
+cracks in the bark of the trunk and branches there exudes a gum very
+like the true gum arabic and is utilised for the same purpose. The wood
+makes good charcoal.
+
+It is locally known as "skouroupathos" or "skouroupathia," and is
+closely allied to the extremely common weed of that name which is found
+abundantly in nearly every field in the plains during summer, but which,
+owing to its deep-rooted system, the natives do not trouble to
+eradicate. It is also allied to _Prosopis juliflora_ or algaroba tree,
+of which there are a few specimens in the Island.
+
+
+OILS AND OIL SEEDS
+
+_Olives_
+
+The olive tree grows wild in Cyprus, but the wild fruit is small and
+bitter and yields an inferior oil. The cultivated trees are those which
+have been grafted. Owing to the stringent regulations which have
+prohibited the introduction of living plants from abroad, it has not
+been possible to obtain from elsewhere good grafts of new varieties.
+These regulations have lately been modified to allow of importations by
+the Agricultural Department under special restrictions, and now that the
+war has ended it is hoped to obtain these much-needed olive grafts.
+
+This tree thrives well, almost all over the Island, up to an altitude of
+about 2,300 ft., and numbers of vigorous wild olive trees are to be met
+with, which only need cleaning and grafting in order to bear fruit.
+
+Cyprus olives are divided into two classes, locally known as (_a_)
+"adrouppes" or "drouppes," which are eaten in the green or black stage,
+and (_b_) "ladoelies," which are suitable both for eating and for oil
+extraction.
+
+Of the former, or "adrouppes," one kind is rather large, with rough
+skin, having a rough, big stone, the other is longer but of less
+diameter, and has a very thin, smooth skin and the stone is smooth,
+curved and smaller. The latter has a better taste and resembles the
+well-known Greek olive of Calamata. Both these "adrouppes" are prepared
+for the table while still green, and are known as "kolymbates," or
+sometimes they are called "tsakkistes," owing to the stone being
+slightly crushed in the process of preparation.
+
+The "ladoelies" are of two distinct varieties, the larger of which is
+mostly regarded as an edible olive, and contains a less percentage of
+oil, while the other, or smaller kind, is richer in oil contents, and is
+mainly used for oil production, though it is sometimes eaten.
+
+A few imported varieties, including one or two specimens of Spanish and
+Greek olive trees, are to be found here and there in private gardens.
+
+If the land were manured and ploughed the trees would, especially on the
+chalky soils, yield abundant fruit and oil of excellent quality.
+Unfortunately this is not done, and it has been found very difficult to
+induce the peasants to adopt any kind of cultivation. They plough the
+land only when they intend to sow corn or other crops between the trees,
+a procedure which tends to lessen the productiveness of the trees. The
+system of irrigation applied is also very defective. Irrigation, while
+improving the quality and quantity of edible olives, is not desirable in
+the case of press olives.
+
+As to pruning, Cypriots would have none of it until within the last five
+years. By dint of patient and constant persuasion, some few of the
+larger owners were induced to let their trees be pruned by a staff of
+pruners under the direction of the Agricultural Department (see Plate
+VI). Much ridicule--and at times threats--was hurled at both the pruners
+and the tree owners, who were assured by the villagers that for their
+folly they would undoubtedly lose their trees. The results belied all
+these fears, and now within the space of some four to five years the
+practice of pruning has become fairly general, and a good number of
+villagers have qualified themselves as expert pruners and are kept
+regularly employed by private persons. As a consequence of this a great
+amelioration is noticeable in the olive trees in many parts and the
+yield and quality of olives have been improved.
+
+The method of gathering olives by beating, however, continues. The fruit
+so knocked to the ground becomes dirty and bruised, and quickly
+ferments, when stored, to the detriment of the oil. This mode of
+gathering by beating damages the young twigs and branches, whose bearing
+capacity the following year is thus impaired.
+
+Little care is taken in selecting the olives for oil. Not only are they
+dirty and bruised, but unripe or diseased fruit, as well as overripe
+fruit that has fallen from the tree, is collected together
+indiscriminately.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.
+
+Pruned Olive-trees at Metochi of Kykos.]
+
+The usual practice is to spread out the olives as received, and
+unsalted, on the mud roofs of houses in order to give off a part of
+their water before grinding.
+
+The procedure is then as follows:
+
+They are first of all taken to the crusher or grinding mill. This
+consists not of two stones, as in Greece, but of one stone, drawn by
+pony, mule or donkey.
+
+For the first quality of oil the olive stones should not be broken, but
+generally speaking, insufficient care is paid to this and the stones
+are, for the most part, crushed. The crushed olives (zimari, paste) are
+then removed to the press, which is worked by hand, with one exception
+of an hydraulic press at Akanthou. At this village, where the best olive
+oil is produced, the olives are brought direct from the trees to the
+mill, whereas elsewhere the practice is to leave them in a heap to
+ferment and they often become foul and covered with dust and dirt.
+
+In pressing with wooden presses, the zimari or crushed olives are placed
+in round bags made of plaited rushes. Seven to ten of these are placed
+one on top of another in the press and the oil obtained is virgin oil
+(huile vierge).
+
+The bags are then removed and squeezed so as to change the position of
+the contents. They are then replaced in the press and hot water is
+poured into each bag. The oil obtained is of second quality. A third
+pressing is sometimes given.
+
+The yield is calculated at the rate of 1 oke of oil to 4 okes of olives.
+
+In the Paphos district is produced a black oil with a very distinct
+flavour. This is due to the custom of boiling the olives before
+grinding. The demand for this inferior oil is confined to that district.
+
+In former days it was usual for the mills and presses to be worked in
+the open. This is now rarely the case, but may still be occasionally
+seen in parts of the Paphos district and elsewhere.
+
+Whether outdoors or indoors these mills and presses are soon allowed to
+become very unclean, and the rancid flavour which clings to the wood is
+quickly imparted to the oil, which possesses, for any but Cypriots, a
+strong and unpleasant smell and flavour. There is a considerable
+residue or waste, which, if it could be utilised, would go far to meet
+the deficiency in the requirements for local consumption.
+
+There are a few good iron presses now in use. Their superiority is
+generally recognised and, no doubt, now that the war is over, they will
+be imported in greater numbers.
+
+Small inexpensive, cottage filters have been designed by the
+Agricultural Department and these are being adopted, though very
+gradually. The oil so filtered is greatly superior, but having acquired
+a more delicate flavour, it is not so much appreciated by the native
+consumers.
+
+Large numbers of young wild olive trees are issued on permit from the
+State forests for private cultivation and many thousands of two- and
+three-year-old plants raised in the Government Nurseries are also
+distributed every year. With the gradual improvement in cultivation and
+in the preparation of the oil, the production should increase
+enormously.
+
+The local production of olive oil is insufficient for the requirements
+of the Island, but there is no reason why, in the course of time, when
+the large number of trees newly planted and annually on the increase,
+come into bearing, a valuable export trade should not result. The
+figures of production, given in the table below, are strikingly
+fluctuating, and indicate the irregularity of the annual yield and the
+marked variation in price:
+
+  Year.    Quantity.   Value.
+           _Cwts._         L
+  1904     4,294       6,467
+  1905     5,291       8,504
+  1906     7,845      12,602
+  1907     8,981      16,922
+  1908       788       1,459
+  1909     3,851       8,864
+  1910     7,550      17,232
+  1911       608       1,415
+  1912        48          88
+  1913       911       2,052
+  1914     2,197       4,837
+  1915     6,003      15,146
+  1916     4,966      16,035
+  1917       290       1,225
+
+
+_Sesame Seed_
+
+The annual production in Cyprus of sesame seed (_Sesamum indicum_) is
+said to be about 195,000 okes. It is one of the recognised summer crops
+in the plains, and is frequently sown together in the same field with
+cotton, maize, etc., and in the vine villages it is sown in the newly
+planted vineyards, where it does well. In such cases the preparation of
+the soil is done on the same lines as for cotton, maize, vines, etc.
+
+The seed is used mainly for the extraction of the oil, which is largely
+employed in cooking, and it is also used in the preparation of
+sweetmeats; it is added sometimes as a condiment in bread-making. There
+is a small export, principally through Egypt.
+
+The percentage of oil extracted varies according to the locality where
+the seed has been produced. Of the local product, that from Paphos gives
+the highest yield, viz. 30 to 35 per cent.; but this is inferior to the
+Egyptian product, which is to some extent imported and yields 40 to 45
+per cent. of oil, this being probably due to the thinner skin. The crop
+is uncertain. The plant is readily affected by the hot west wind
+([Greek: libas]) which not infrequently blows during its period of
+growth. The development of the seed is thereby checked and it remains
+thin and small ([Greek: psalios]), and naturally the oil yield is
+diminished.
+
+
+_Ground Nut, Peanut or Monkey Nut_ (_Arachis hypogaea_)
+
+This nut is fairly popular among all classes and is imported through
+Egypt in moderate quantities. There is no reason why in certain
+localities this plant should not be grown successfully, more especially
+in the light sandy soils around Varosha and at Syrianochori. Efforts
+have been made to induce cultivators to grow this crop, but so far it
+has not commended itself. It calls for something a little out of the
+ordinary in the way of cultivation, as the plants mature their fruits
+under the soil; the profit to be derived from the crop is uncertain, and
+is thought, though without sufficient proof, to compare unfavourably
+with rival crops. Growers have been somewhat deterred by the ease with
+which the fruit can be stolen. As this is hidden under the soil, a theft
+is not at once detected. These drawbacks probably explain its restricted
+cultivation.
+
+Should oil-extracting machinery be introduced, these nuts might well be
+grown for their oil, both for culinary purposes and for use in
+soap-making. The residuum, after extraction of the oil, and the haulm
+are nutritious cattle foods.
+
+The importation of these nuts was recently prohibited except in a
+roasted condition, owing to the risk of their introducing plant pests
+when in the raw, earth-encrusted condition. This has tended to check
+importation, and may perhaps give an impetus to local production. Ground
+nuts can be grown, of course, only where irrigation is possible.
+
+The quantity of ground nuts imported in 1917 was 1,532 cwts., valued at
+_L_2,448. Previous to that year they were not separately enumerated.
+
+
+_Castor-oil Seed_
+
+The castor-oil plant (_Ricinus communis_) is only grown to a small
+extent, but the tree usually thrives well and its cultivation might be
+extended with advantage. According to Gennadius, Dioscorides claimed
+that it used to be called Seseli of Cyprus, from which the inference may
+be drawn that the plant has long been among the flora of the Island,
+where it is now known as a perennial. It grows very freely from seed and
+rapidly attains a height of 15 or 16 ft.; but it quickly dies back after
+a slight frost, though it recovers again the following year. It appears
+to do well in most soils, but thrives best in light loam with moderate
+moisture.
+
+Owing to the demand for the oil, one or two plantations have lately been
+made by the Agricultural Department.
+
+The varieties locally grown include plants producing large, medium and
+small-sized seed. Trial cultivations are being made to ascertain their
+relative values. It is found that a heavier yield of better quality is
+usually obtained where the plant is treated as an annual and not as a
+perennial. Four samples of castor seed examined at the Imperial
+Institute were found to contain normal amounts of oil, and similar seed
+would be readily saleable in the United Kingdom if offered in commercial
+quantities (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xvii. 1919, p.
+492).
+
+
+FIBRES
+
+_Cotton_
+
+During the time of the Venetian occupation (1489-1570) Cyprus exported
+annually from seven to fifteen million pounds of raw cotton. In the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the English Levant Company sent
+large quantities from Cyprus to England. When the scarcity of cotton
+occasioned by the American Civil War gave a stimulus to its growth
+Cyprus took part in meeting the demand, and in 1866 over 2,000,000 lb.
+were exported. Since then the production has declined. In former times,
+then, the production of Cyprus cotton must have been very large, as
+cotton manufactures in the Island were, as in most cotton-producing
+countries in the East at that period, both considerable and of choice
+quality. Cyprus was always distinguished for its cotton spinning.
+Gennadius suggests that the Karpas, which is one of the centres of the
+Cyprus cotton manufacture, derived its name from the ancient "karpasos,"
+a fine cotton cloth which came from India. There is an old Hebrew word
+"karpas" found in the Old Testament, and derived from the Sanscrit
+"karpasa," cotton, or "karpasum," cotton cloth.
+
+During the Turkish Administration cotton cultivation declined, owing to
+the destruction of aqueducts, Venetian wells, etc., and to the practice
+of taxing the cotton crop in the field before it was picked--a cause of
+considerable delay and detriment to the crop. Careless cultivation and
+consequent deterioration of the fibre as well as the general fall in
+value contributed to the decay of the industry. Taxing the crop in the
+field was abandoned in 1890, and a tithe was levied on exported cotton
+only (_Handbook of Cyprus_).
+
+The species of cotton principally cultivated in the Island is _Gossypium
+herbaceum_. American "New Orleans" seed was introduced some twenty years
+or so ago, and this has now largely displaced the original native kind;
+in fact the native kind has almost entirely disappeared, and what little
+is grown is mostly used for stuffing the native bed-quilt or "paploma."
+
+Cotton grown without irrigation is known as "dry" cotton. It is grown
+chiefly in the Messaorian plain and in the Karpas; it is harsh to the
+touch and short in staple, but of satisfactory colour. "Wet" cotton is
+grown on irrigated land; it is usually of larger staple and of finer
+quality than the "dry" cotton and commands a higher price. This is grown
+mainly round about Kythrea, Nisou, Dali, Lapithos and in the Solea
+valley. Native cotton is always grown "dry"; the ordinary American
+variety is grown both "wet" and "dry."
+
+The Karpas cotton, which is "dry" grown, is inferior not only on account
+of its shorter staple, but on account of the method of picking. In some
+places of Messaoria, at Dali, Nisou, etc., the "dry" and sometimes the
+"wet" cotton is picked in the morning before the dew has quite
+evaporated, and it is picked direct from the growing plant. But the most
+general practice is for the villagers to cut the bolls early in the
+morning before the dew is evaporated ([Greek: porne]), transport them to
+the houses and then remove the lint at their leisure. In this way the
+bolls are more or less crushed and the lint when removed contains a
+mixture of husk, leaves, etc.
+
+In the case of native and other varieties the lint of which adheres to
+the boll, the husks, leaves, etc., are removed from the bolls in the
+following way: The bolls are spread out on mats to dry in the sun; when
+sufficiently dry the bolls are put in a rotary sieve made of reeds and
+sticks, similar in make to the ordinary reed baskets of the country.
+Each end of the sieve is closed, but it has an opening in the middle,
+about 1 by 1-1/2 to 2 ft., which is closed by a small reed mat. The
+sieve is about 5 to 6 ft. long and 2 to 2-1/2 ft. in diameter. The bolls
+are dropped into the sieve through the opening and it is then revolved
+by hand by means of an axle which passes through it longitudinally. By
+this means most of the crushed husks and leaves fall through the
+interstices of the sieve.
+
+The native seed is usually grown on dry lands as it withstands drought.
+The "wet" cotton is mostly of the American variety.
+
+Professor Wyndham Dunstan, F.R.S., in his _Report on the Agricultural
+Resources of Cyprus_ (1905), referred to the successful trials made with
+"Sea Island," "Peterkin," "Truitt's Big Boll," "Culpepper Big Boll,"
+and "Allen's Long Staple." Since then other varieties have been tried by
+the Agricultural Department, and while "Allen's" and "Truitt's" have
+continued to do well, good results have been obtained from "Triumph" and
+"Durango," both of which are early kinds and are therefore very suitable
+to the Island. A report by the Imperial Institute on samples of "Allen's
+Improved," "Mebane's Early Triumph" and "Sakellaridis" cottons grown
+experimentally in Cyprus in 1915 will be found in the BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE (vol. xv. 1917, p. 298).
+
+Owing to fear of locusts, late sowing (about May-June) became rather
+general. This is a dangerous practice as the bolls ripen late and much
+cotton is spoilt by the early autumn rains. It is mostly sown broadcast
+or in trenches; on irrigated land it is mostly sown in the ridges, but
+the older practice of sowing broadcast still, unfortunately, continues.
+
+"Dry" cotton is usually sown either on land which can be irrigated by a
+river when in flood, or in "livadhia" or low-lying lands which retain
+their moisture a long time. In the former case the seed is sown about
+March-April, while the soil is still damp from rain water or from river
+overflow. It is generally expected that when the young plants are fairly
+established a second irrigation from flood-water may occur. In the
+"livadhia" the seed is sown later. "Wet" cotton is watered about every
+fortnight.
+
+The crop begins to be collected in mid-September and continues up till
+the end of October. "Dry" cotton is rarely manured; "wet" cotton
+occasionally. The use of chemical manures is coming into practice. There
+are several ginning machines in the Island, but baling by hydraulic
+presses is done almost exclusively at Larnaca.
+
+In the Island the cotton seed is used for sowing and for feeding cattle.
+The exports of cotton seed have been:
+
+  Year.        Quantity.     Value.
+                 _Cwts._         L
+
+  1909          2,708        769
+  1910          3,066        970
+  1911          3,245        830
+  1912         15,874      4,535
+  1913         13,933      3,750
+
+The exports represent about three-fourths of the total production.
+
+There should be a good opening for machinery for extracting the oil.
+
+The cotton is locally graded into (1) best, (2) medium, and (3) poor,
+all being American varieties. The first quality is the "wet" or
+irrigated cotton. The second quality is grown mostly in the Messaoria
+plain and at Dali, Nisou, Potamia, Kythrea, where it is partly irrigated
+by river floods. The third quality is "dry" and comes principally from
+the Karpas. On the Marseilles market the second quality has a value 3 to
+4 per cent., and the third quality 8 to 10 per cent. less than the first
+quality. The first quality ranks in price at Marseilles on about a level
+with American cotton.
+
+For some ten years Greece has taken the leading place as an importer.
+Before the war, Cyprus cotton went chiefly to Marseilles and Greece,
+some also to Trieste. Only a very insignificant quantity goes to
+England. The freight to Marseilles was about 25_s._ per ton, to Trieste
+about 15_s._ per ton, while to England it averaged 50_s._ per ton. The
+market prices at Marseilles and Trieste were approximately the same, but
+at Marseilles they were subject to a discount of 1-1/2 per cent.,
+whereas at Trieste a discount of 3 to 4 per cent. was made. The Trieste
+market, being small, was subject to sudden fluctuations and was
+therefore risky and less favoured by Cypriot exporters.
+
+For several reasons the Liverpool market has not been so attractive as
+that of Marseilles. At Liverpool and Manchester quantities of not less
+than, say, 100 bales are preferred, whereas Marseilles would take
+smaller consignments of 20 or 40 bales. Uniformity of type is required
+by Manchester spinners, whereas the French factories are more ready to
+handle different types, including the shorter staples. Cyprus merchants
+make no distinction as regards the varieties of cotton, whether
+"Orleans," "Sea Island" or other kinds, and indeed they are scarcely
+competent to do so, as this requires special knowledge and experience.
+They buy in small quantities from many peasant growers and mix the
+produce in order to make up a fair consignment.
+
+In normal times there was always the further difficulty of obtaining
+direct transport to England, whereas to Marseilles, Trieste and also to
+Greece the opportunities were more frequent.
+
+Since the war Greece has become much the largest buyer. Owing to
+shortage of cotton on the Greek market this commodity was purchased from
+Cyprus rather than from Liverpool, as the freight was lower and war
+risks much less; apart from the almost impossibility of obtaining
+tonnage. It was the practice before the war for Cypriot merchants to
+sell c.i.f. Piraeus, but they could not continue this under recent
+conditions and now sell f.o.b. Cyprus, and this practice is likely to
+continue. This f.o.b. Cyprus price has lately been about the same as
+would ordinarily be obtained for c.i.f. Liverpool. Greece has many small
+filatures willing to take consignments of even 10 bales, and the
+shipment direct or via Alexandria is easier.
+
+A Cyprus bale weighs about 150 okes.
+
+The following figures, showing average annual exports of raw cotton at
+various pre-war periods, indicate the course of the cultivation:
+
+  Period.        Average Quantity.  Average Value.
+                    _Cwts._         L
+
+  1880-89  .  .  .    68,410         147,683
+  1890-99  .  .  .    57,291          91,812
+  1900-09  .  .  .    41,121          92,939
+  1910-17  .  .  .    68,384         213,275
+
+Prices have varied, as is shown by the values of the following record
+years:
+
+                                  Quantity.   Value.    Average price.
+                                    _Cwts._        L            L
+
+  1885 (highest export on record) 14,276      29,567       2  1  5
+  1886 (2nd ditto)  .  .  .       13,887      26,535       1 16 11
+  1912 (3rd ditto)  .  .  .       13,808      40,085       2 18  0
+  1913 (4th ditto)  .  .  .       13,444      40,693       3  0  6
+  1884 (5th ditto)  .  .  .       12,227      26,874       2  3  1
+
+In 1917 there were 13,685 donums under cotton cultivation.
+
+It is usual in some parts of the Island, especially in the Kyrenia
+district, to leave the crop in the ground for two or three years. This
+method of cropping is locally known as "palia" or old. It is found
+profitable to leave the cotton plants two or three years on irrigated
+land. The second-year crop usually gives the heaviest yield.
+
+The average yield of unginned cotton on irrigated land is about 120 okes
+(3 cwts.) per scala; but as much as 250 okes can be obtained. "Wet"
+cotton, best quality, yields 1 oke of lint from 3 okes of unginned
+cotton, and "dry" cotton yields about 1 oke of lint from 3-1/3 okes of
+unginned cotton.
+
+There is much land well suited to cotton which for lack of water cannot
+be utilised. If artesian water could be found, there would be a very
+considerable extension of this cultivation.
+
+There is a well-equipped little cotton factory at Famagusta, and
+excellent cotton fabrics are made, especially in Nicosia neighbourhood,
+Lapithos and Karavas, Lefkonico and Gypsos and in the Karpas. These are
+known under the names of "alaja" and "dimita." They are mostly of good
+patterns, the material is strong and wears well, and is being largely
+used, not only by the peasantry, but also for making men's suits and
+ladies' skirts and cloths.
+
+An interesting article on the Cyprus Cotton Industry is to be found in
+the BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. iii. 1905, pp. 327-334.
+
+
+_Flax and Linseed_
+
+The cultivation of flax (_Linum usitatissimum_), which began to develop
+some twenty years ago, has declined during the last ten years or so. The
+reasons for this are that it is considered to exhaust the soil, the
+later handling of the crop for fibre is troublesome and the market is
+liable to rather violent fluctuations. It grows well in the Messaoria
+plain, and when chemical manures are more generally used it may come
+more into favour. Attempts have been made to improve the quality by the
+introduction of Riga flax seed, but so far without success. There is a
+small export of linseed, but owing to the primitive methods of winnowing
+and cleaning it does not fetch the best price. The quality of the
+cleaned seed is excellent. Knowledge and care are needed in picking the
+crop at exactly the right time. The imperfect methods of general
+cultivation prevent the uniform ripening of the seed, and this means an
+uneven and unsatisfactory sample. Defective screening accounts for the
+presence in excess of foreign substances, weed seeds, etc. These
+difficulties are capable of remedy, and it may reasonably be hoped that
+when once overcome the cultivation will be extended.
+
+In Cyprus the cultivation is the same whether intended for seed or
+fibre, and consequently the latter is of an inferior quality, as is
+indicated in a report on Cyprus flax published in the BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE (vol. vi. 1908, p. 4). Seed is sown in
+November-December at the rate of 17 to 22 okes per donum. Retting is
+done by steeping in the large stone irrigation tanks which are a feature
+on most farms. In the Messaoria, about Ano and Kato Zodia, where flax is
+commonly grown, the plant is retted in the river Ovgos, which retains
+sufficient water usually until August. The yield per donum varies from
+100 to 300 okes of seed, 80 to 100 okes of fibre and 50 to 70 okes of
+tow.
+
+
+_Wool_
+
+The exports of wool for the three last pre-war years were as follows:
+
+  Year.        Quantity.    Value.
+                 _Cwts._        L
+  1911  . . . .  5,535      13,452
+  1912  . . . .  4,627      11,362
+  1913  . . . .  4,707      12,181
+
+This went chiefly to France, and next, though in much smaller
+quantities, to Italy.
+
+The wool is of moderate quality; this is partly due to the breed of
+sheep and partly to the conditions under which they are kept. Attempts
+have been made by the Agricultural Department to impress on the native
+breeders the necessity of keeping the sheep well fed, and experiments
+have been carried out at the Athalassa Experimental Farm for the purpose
+of demonstrating the advantages of careful rearing.
+
+Two fleeces from the Athalassa Farm were sent to the Imperial Institute
+in May 1912, for examination and commercial valuation. One was the
+fleece of a yearling ram. This was clean, fairly soft and almost white.
+The other was the fleece of a yearling ewe. This was clean, slightly
+harsh and almost white, but was slightly coarser than that of the ram.
+
+These fleeces were considered by a firm of London brokers as an
+excellent class of carpet wool and likely to meet always with a ready
+sale in the London market (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol.
+x. 1912, p. 537). A similar opinion was expressed immediately before the
+war (July 1914) by a London firm to whom two bales of Cyprus wool had
+been sent, of which a part had been purchased in the bazaar and washed
+and trimmed by the Department and part came from the Athalassa
+(Government) flock. It was considered as "an ideal wool for carpet
+making or for blankets, but deficient in lustre for braids."
+
+The actual yield per sheep, viz. 3 to 3-1/2 lb., compares unfavourably
+with that of Lincolns, which they most closely resemble. This is due
+partly to breed, but largely also to the conditions under which the
+sheep are kept (see p. 17).
+
+
+_Hemp_
+
+The cultivation of hemp (_Cannabis sativa_) is practically confined to
+the southern part of the Paphos district, and there only in places where
+the water-supply is ample. The plant is grown only for fibre, which is
+exclusively used for rope-making, which is carried out by hand by the
+villagers round about Ktima. It would be of advantage to have a
+rope-making machine at work at a spot centrally situated in the area of
+production. A simple hand-worked machine is now being experimentally
+used and will, it is believed, turn out a better class of rope.
+
+The plant grows well on fertile and irrigated lands. Farmyard manure,
+and specially sheep manure, are generally applied, and chemical
+fertilisers are now also coming into use.
+
+Harvesting takes place when the plants begin to turn pale. The plants
+are uprooted, not cut, and are made up into sheaves tied together at the
+butt end only. The bundles are not more than 2-1/2 spans round, and of
+equal size. When first uprooted the sheaves are placed flat on the field
+in rows to dry and in such zig-zag fashion that the top end of one sheaf
+is always made to rest on the butt end of another, and thus does not
+come into contact with the ground: this ensures the circulation of air
+and hastens the drying process. The sheaves are taken later to the
+threshing-floors, where they are stood upright until they are dry. The
+seed is separated by beating. The sheaves are exposed to the sun until
+the leaves are shed, and when the stems are entirely dry the bundles are
+tied up at both ends and are taken to the retting-place, which is
+usually the common stone tank or cistern of the country. There they are
+steeped in water for six to nine days. The bundles are generally covered
+by about one foot of water. On the sixth day the fibre is tested. If it
+separates easily the bundles are removed, if not they remain for another
+two or three days. This requires much care and experience, as the
+quality depends largely upon effective retting. Then they are taken out
+of the water and sun-dried, being piled up into pointed shooks, left
+hollow in the centre.
+
+The fibre is separated by means of a wooden implement locally called
+"melidjia." This consists of a wooden trough placed on two legs which
+are fixed in the ground. A wedge-shaped piece of wood which is hinged to
+the trough at one end is used as the beater. The hemp stalks, after the
+butts are cut off, are placed in the trough and the beater worked up and
+down so as to split the stalks and lay bare the fibre.
+
+The average production of fibre per scala is 60 to 80 okes, but where
+conditions are all favourable it may reach 160 to 200 okes and the seed
+yield may be anything from 80 to 200 okes per scala.
+
+
+_Silk_
+
+The silkworm (_Bombyx mori_) finds in Cyprus a climate exceptionally
+favourable to its development, and Cyprus silks have been famous for
+their quality throughout the middle ages and as far back as the sixth
+century A.D., when Greek monks first introduced silkworms from China.
+
+In the fateful year 1845, when the disease pebrine nearly destroyed the
+silk industry of Europe, the anxious search for healthy silkworm eggs
+that then ensued led Arabs from Syria to visit Cyprus and buy large
+quantities of silk cocoons from which they raised and exported the eggs.
+At that time, therefore, it is evident that Cypriot moths were well
+thought of. Pebrine soon reached Cyprus and almost brought the Island
+breed to an end. Thanks, however, to the Pasteur system, whereby pebrine
+and other silkworm diseases have been brought under complete control,
+the industry both here and elsewhere was not only saved but has been
+considerably developed.
+
+Writing in 1896 Mr. P. Gennadius, late Director of Agriculture, Cyprus,
+stated that the local production of silkworm eggs was so small that it
+could not be taken into consideration, and from the figures then given
+the total average annual production at that time is estimated to have
+been 35,000 okes of dry cocoons. This represented an average yield of
+only 3-1/2 okes of dry cocoons, equal to 15-1/2 kilograms of fresh
+cocoons, per ounce of silkworm eggs. This compared very unfavourably
+with the average annual production of fresh cocoons in France and Italy
+at that time, which was 35 kilograms and 30 kilograms respectively per
+ounce of silkworm eggs. Moreover, this ratio had been, up to that
+period, on a descending scale.
+
+In a report published in 1897 Mr. Gennadius attributed this
+unsatisfactory state of things to the following causes:
+
+1. The importation of cheap silkworm eggs of inferior quality; the
+average price paid by merchants was 2 to 2-1/2 francs per ounce, while
+the price in France ranged from 9 to 12 francs.
+
+2. The action of merchants who imported larger quantities of eggs than
+they could properly dispose of.
+
+3. The ignorance and folly of rearers who undertook to rear far more
+worms than they could properly "educate," having regard to space, leaves
+and labour.
+
+In 1908 the Department of Agriculture set to work, with some success,
+to improve the methods of rearing up to that time in vogue, and during
+the six years ending 1913 (inclusive) the average annual quantity of
+eggs hatched out was 12,319 oz., the average annual export of "dry"
+cocoons was 45,551 okes, and the average annual estimated local
+consumption 4,449 okes, making a total annual production of 50,000 okes,
+as against 35,000 okes in 1896. The former total represents an average
+yield of about 4 okes of "dry" cocoons, equal to about 18 kilograms of
+fresh cocoons per ounce of seed, and marks a slight improvement upon the
+ratio of eighteen years previously.
+
+Since 1914 this branch of work has received a larger share of attention
+from the Department. Five sericultural stations have been established,
+regulations have been issued, inspections by qualified persons have been
+systematically made, practical advice has been given to rearers in the
+matter of cleanliness, disinfection and so forth, the granting of
+licences to egg-raisers has been put on a better footing and the whole
+industry has been brought more under observation and control.
+
+Numerous suggestions have been made from time to time for insuring that
+only a good quality of egg shall be imported. As an effective--perhaps
+the most effective--means to this end, the Department of Agriculture has
+set itself to improve the production of local eggs and thus indirectly
+discourage their importation: holders of licences to raise eggs are
+required to pass periodical examinations; several have in consequence
+had their licences cancelled, new licensees have been added, and many
+unlicensed persons have been prosecuted and convicted for illegally
+raising eggs.
+
+The common method of hatching practised by villagers, by placing the
+eggs tied in cloth with a little cotton-wool in their beds or by
+carrying them on their persons, still prevails, but it is gradually
+yielding to a better system of incubation. The Department has designed a
+simple, inexpensive hatching-box, and these are now being used with good
+results.
+
+Until about three years ago probably 25 per cent. of the local rearers
+were producing their own seed without any microscopical examination at
+all. Bad feeding, bad ventilation, ill-adapted premises were general.
+As a consequence pebrine and flacherie played such havoc that many
+people were beginning to abandon silkworm rearing and uproot their
+mulberry trees. The expansion and increased resources of the
+Agricultural Department happily came just in time to check this backward
+move.
+
+Silk reeling is unfortunately done in the most primitive manner with
+wooden appliances and hot water by village hand labour. The locally
+reeled silk is used only for Island consumption and the great bulk of
+cocoons is exported in the raw state, mostly to Lyons and Milan. The
+burden of freight on this bulky cargo is naturally a heavy handicap and
+the local silkworm rearers have consequently to be content with very low
+and inadequate prices for their cocoons. During the reeling process 20
+to 25 per cent. of the silk is lost, and a further loss is incurred
+during weaving owing to the numerous knots having to be cut away and the
+silk threads rejoined.
+
+A considerable loss is said to take place in selling cocoons in the
+European markets. The cocoons on arrival at Marseilles are subjected to
+official tests and sold according to the reports made by the official
+testers. It is of advantage to the buyers that the report should be made
+as unfavourable as possible as the price is lowered proportionately, and
+it is felt that the cocoons exported are thus placed too much at the
+mercy of the testing officials.
+
+These Cyprus cocoons are reeled in France and Italy and the silk is
+largely sold to England. It would be to the mutual benefit of England
+and Cyprus if a direct demand for Cyprus reeled silk could be created
+and modern reeling plant introduced into the Island. A large sum of
+money, now annually paid for freight, would thus be saved to the Cypriot
+producers, which would stimulate the local industry and tend to increase
+greatly the annual production and improve the local weaving of silk
+stuffs, an industry which has already gained considerable fame and at
+which the Cypriot women are adepts.
+
+As the following table shows, the amount of raw silk exported is a
+negligible quantity, but a fairly large quantity is locally reeled and
+is used in making the silk stuffs which are so much sought after in the
+local bazaars:
+
+   ___________________________________________________________________
+        Export of cocoons.   |    Export of     |  Export of raw silk
+                             |  cocoons waste.  |
+   -------------------------------------------------------------------
+   _Year._|_Okes._|_Country._|_Okes._|_Country._|_Okes._|_Country._
+   -------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+    1909  |41,013 |France    | 2,120 |France    |    6  |Turkey
+    1910  |44,550 |  "       | 1,105 |  "       |  259  |  "
+          |       |          |       |          |  157  |Egypt
+    1911  |57,422 |  "       | 2,704 |  "       |  246  |Turkey
+          |       |          |       |          |   70  |Egypt
+    1912  |43,196 |  "       | 2,571 |  "       |   90  |Turkey
+          |       |          |    70 |Turkey    |    3  |Greece
+    1913  |48,884 |  "       | 2,502 |France    |  118  |Turkey
+   ___________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Efforts have been made by the Agricultural Department to improve the
+Cypriot race of silkworms. Two races of white colour, the Japanese and
+the Baghdad, have been separately crossed with the yellow race of
+Baghdad. These crossings began in 1912-13 and have been continued up to
+the present. The objects aimed at are to establish a new Cypriot race
+(_a_) giving good cocoons of a fine structure and larger in size than
+the French variety and yielding a maximum quantity of silk; (_b_)
+producing cocoons of a uniform colour and in demand in the European
+market and (_c_) with these characteristics constant.
+
+The results obtained so far are promising, but uniformity of colour has
+not yet been attained, though it is hoped that, by careful selection,
+this will become more fixed every year. It may here be mentioned that
+the famous French cream-coloured race took seventy-five years to become
+fully established owing to the widespread damage caused by pebrine and,
+to a lesser extent, by flacherie.
+
+It has been observed that silkworm eggs locally produced by qualified
+licensees are decidedly more immune to disease and less affected by
+adverse atmospheric conditions than imported seed.
+
+The local conditions of sericulture in Cyprus have undergone a change of
+late years. Formerly Nicosia and Famagusta were the districts where this
+industry was chiefly carried on; but latterly whole mulberry groves have
+been uprooted and replaced by fruit trees which are considered to be
+more profitable. This was the inevitable result of the ignorant methods
+under which the silkworm-rearing industry was conducted and the use of
+bad seed permitted, whereby disease was spread and annual loss
+incurred. It is hoped that the industry is now again on the upward
+grade. One indication of this is that whereas a few years ago 1,000 to
+1,800 cocoons went to an oke, now the figure may be put at 500 to 1,000.
+Again, the waste due to excess of floss is much less than formerly, and
+if only reeling by machinery can be introduced a very much better return
+will result to the cocoon producer.
+
+In the Karpas and in and around Nicosia a bi-voltine race is reared. The
+results are poor, but the two rearings are made because in these
+localities there is an ample supply of leaves. From this race are
+produced small cocoons locally called "Confetti." They are only used for
+local silk manufacture.
+
+An inferior silk called "Koukoularika" is made from the cocoons of the
+ordinary or univoltine race, both those which have been stoved and those
+which have been badly stained when the moths emerged.
+
+These cocoons, which, during the process of boiling in lye, have been
+bleached, are turned inside-out and the excrement of the larva removed.
+The silk is then spun by hand with the "atrachtos." These cocoons are
+mostly from laggard worms and of inferior quality.
+
+The silk industry has suffered greatly from unscrupulous dealing on the
+part of the dealers in eggs. It is a common custom for these persons to
+sell imported seed at 2_s._ and even less per ounce, although the law
+requires all such seed to be accompanied by a Consular certificate and
+affidavit showing that the price paid was not less than 4_s._ per ounce,
+exclusive of freight, carriage or insurance. Secret discounts,
+presumably, render this practice possible. The dealer does not ask for
+payment in cash, but requires it in kind at the rate of 1 oke in every 4
+okes of cocoons raised. If 28 okes of cocoons are obtained from 1 ounce
+of seed the dealer would get 7 okes, valued at say 2_s._ 6_d._ per oke =
+17_s._ 6_d._ for each ounce of seed. The dealer mostly gives a cash
+advance of 10_s._ or L1 with the seed, stipulating that the crop is to
+be sold exclusively to him, the price being left open. The unfortunate
+producer is therefore in his toils.
+
+The establishment of small Sericultural Societies would do much, both
+to encourage and cheapen the cost of growing mulberry trees and assist
+the industry. A few such societies have lately been formed.
+
+
+_Mulberry_
+
+This tree (_Morus alba_) is grown extensively for silkworm feeding and
+is mostly found in those parts of the Island in which the silk industry
+is centred, viz. in the Marathassa valley and in the Karpas, fairly
+generally in and around Nicosia, Kyrenia and in the southern parts of
+the Paphos district.
+
+Little care is given to its cultivation. For the most part, in all the
+older plantations, the trees are set too close together. This is less
+noticeable in the newer plantations. Pruning, where given, is defective
+and so is the method of gathering the leaves.
+
+The usual method is to cut off, every year, the shoots with the leaves
+on them, from about one foot above the main branches. Two reasons are
+given for this by villagers. (1) It is quicker and easier to cut off
+these shoots than to pick off the leaves while still on the tree. The
+shoots are brought into the "magnanerie" and there placed upright in
+water and the leaves can then be removed more conveniently and at
+leisure. In this way the leaves remain fresh two days. (2) By cutting
+these shoots in the spring, _i.e._ during the silkworm-rearing season,
+which begins in early April, fresh shoots are formed which bear leaves
+in late summer and autumn. The latter afford very welcome green food for
+cattle and sheep. These leaves are stripped direct from the growing
+tree. The effect of this second gathering is prejudicial to the tree,
+which is thereby exhausted. The leaves produced the following spring are
+fleshy and watery and in the uncertain weather of spring are apt to
+induce flacherie.
+
+
+_Agaves and Aloes_
+
+_Agave americana_, _A. rigida_ var. _sisalana_, _Furcraea gigantea_,
+_Aloe ciliata_ and _A. frutescens_ all grow well and, if properly
+cultivated and handled, might be worth more attention than they at
+present receive.
+
+In 1913 a Cypriot from German East Africa who had been engaged in the
+production of Sisal hemp there was struck by the few excellent plants he
+found growing in Cyprus, and, had sufficient suitable land been then
+obtainable, with transport facilities, was desirous of undertaking
+cultivation on a commercial basis.
+
+Samples of fibre prepared from the leaves of the abovementioned plants
+were reported on by the Imperial Institute in 1912, but as the leaves
+had been retted, and not scraped or scutched, their value was
+depreciated, and this was estimated at from L14 to L18 per ton with best
+Mexican Sisal hemp at L25 per ton.
+
+The outlay for fencing against wandering flocks of goats and for
+decorticating machinery and other expenses would deter the ordinary
+cultivator from planting, and this could only be profitably undertaken
+if ample capital were forthcoming.
+
+
+_Broom Corn_
+
+Until the end of last century all brooms of European type were imported.
+Seed of broom corn (_Sorghum vulgare_), known locally as "tchihri" or
+"skoupa," was then introduced, and gradually the cultivation has
+extended and a good number of brooms of very fair quality are now
+locally made. The process of broom-making is very simple and the high
+price of the imported article during the war has led to a marked
+extension of the industry. The plant grows well, especially on irrigated
+land. The seed provides a good food for chickens and the stalks and
+leaves can be used as fodder. It is a profitable crop, especially when
+the cultivator makes and sells the brooms himself, and is principally
+grown in the Karpas and at Athienou.
+
+
+TOBACCO
+
+In Turkish times tobacco was grown in several parts of the Island,
+though not to any large extent.
+
+"For centuries it was produced in many districts of the Island, and
+particularly in the Karpas, near Kilani, Omodhos and Paphos, but from
+the time it became an article of monopoly its production was subjected
+to rigorous restrictions, and its cultivation has been entirely
+abandoned." (Reports, pt. ii. (1896), P. Gennadius).
+
+The quantity grown before the occupation appears to have been very
+fluctuating and to have averaged about 56,000 lb. annually, and the
+Government revenue, according to British Consular reports, would not
+have been more than L300 to L400 per annum. The Regie was introduced in
+1874, but owing to the hampering restrictions the industry had been
+pretty well crushed out by the time of British occupation in 1878.
+Meanwhile the revenue from tobacco, imported mainly from Volo and
+Salonica, increased greatly.
+
+The monopoly ceased at the British occupation, but the regulations and
+imposts remained. Those responsible for controlling the industry,
+collecting dues, and checking illicit consumption had a troublesome
+task, while on the other hand the cultivator became averse to engaging
+in a cultivation which was hedged round with so many restrictions and
+formalities.
+
+These exist at the present time and may here be quoted:
+
+The grower has to notify the Customs authorities of his intention to
+sow, giving the locality and area. Before picking he must again notify
+the Customs, so that a Customs officer may be present at the picking and
+weigh the freshly picked leaves. After storing, but before delivering
+the tobacco to the factory, the Customs officer must again weigh the now
+dry leaves.
+
+The excise duties leviable are: Tobacco leaf, 4-1/2_cp._ per oke,
+payable on transfer of leaf from grower to wholesale dealer. Tobacco
+manufactured in Cyprus, whether made into cigarettes or otherwise, in
+addition to the import duty or transport duty, pays a banderolle duty of
+3_s._ 6-1/2_cp._ per oke.
+
+These regulations are a relic of the Turkish times, as in those days the
+State received a definite due called "City Toll" by charging the tobacco
+cutters and tobacco sellers with a trade tax. They appear to have been
+administered with more laxity in Turkish than in post-occupation times,
+and it is said that the abandonment of tobacco cultivation was mainly
+due to the severity with which these rather vexatious and irritating
+regulations were enforced.
+
+For many years the tobacco imported by local cigarette manufacturers
+came almost entirely from Macedonia. This tobacco was of very superior
+quality and cheap, and locally grown tobacco could not compete with it.
+Of late years the price of Macedonian tobacco has risen considerably and
+the manufacturers have therefore been induced to import Thessalian
+tobacco instead, which is not of so fine a flavour and approximates more
+closely to Cyprus produce. Cypriot smokers have thus had their palates
+prepared for the flavour of the locally grown tobacco.
+
+About the year 1912, when Houry's Cyprus Tobacco Association, Ltd., was
+formed, a revival in the industry set in. This has since received
+considerable impetus from the war, which, temporarily, has thrust
+Macedonian tobacco out of the market. The primary object of the
+Association was to manufacture tobacco and cigarettes from Cyprus-grown
+tobacco, although foreign tobacco could also be used. Tobacco then began
+to be regularly grown by the Association at a Chiftlik near Limassol and
+elsewhere, and cigarettes made therefrom have had a fair local sale. The
+arrival of well-to-do refugees from Latakia and other parts of Syria,
+skilled in tobacco cultivation, led to great extension of this crop. A
+large part of the produce was at first converted into Latakia tobacco.
+Owing possibly to the lack of care and skill on the part of native
+labour, partly perhaps to the unsuitability of the herbs and brushwood
+used in the fuming, the market was not found sufficiently encouraging
+and the Latakia, for which at best there is a very restricted market,
+has almost ceased to be produced. Tobacco for cigarettes, however,
+continues to be grown on a fairly large scale, but in order that land
+suitable for corn and other foodstuffs should not be sacrificed to
+tobacco, the cultivation of the latter is permitted only by special
+licence. In 1916 and 1917 the industry fell almost entirely into the
+hands of the richer refugees, who were expert growers, and they
+contracted with the small farmers and peasants. A number of speculative
+growers, professional men, merchants, etc., were tempted by the
+prevailing high prices to embark in the industry, but the licensing
+system has tended to throw it more into the hands of the _bona-fide_
+farmers, who are allowed only to cultivate small areas which can be
+looked after mainly by their own families. In 1916 the total production
+was 89,065 okes, and the estimated yield for 1917 is 487,674 okes.
+
+The Agricultural Department has for some five years carried out
+experimental growings in various districts, and samples of tobacco so
+grown have been submitted to the Imperial Institute (see BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xiii. 1915, pp. 547-550). The two best samples
+reported on were grown in the Nicosia plain. They were said to conform
+with the Turkish tobacco as regards size of leaf, but contained too much
+moisture for the English market. The tobacco was found to smoke rather
+hot and was only mildly aromatic, but it was believed that these defects
+would probably disappear with more experience in the curing. The samples
+referred to were incompletely cured, having been submitted quickly in
+order to roughly ascertain their quality. The report on the whole was
+moderately encouraging, and it is hoped that later samples which have
+been better cured will be found superior.
+
+The tobacco grown in Cyprus is mostly of the Samsoun, Trebizond, Kavalla
+and Hassan Keff varieties.
+
+The normal importation of tobacco into Cyprus is about 180,000 okes,
+which produces an import duty of L4,500 a year, at the rate of
+4-1/2_cp._ per oke.
+
+The average amount paid for banderolles on tobacco when issued from
+factories for consumption is about L30,000 a year, which at the rate of
+3_s._ 6-1/2_cp._ per oke equals a banderolle duty on 161,000 okes; the
+difference of about 20,000 okes would be cigarettes exported on which no
+banderolle duty is paid.
+
+If, then, no tobacco were grown and none imported the Government would
+lose L35,000 revenue annually. It would appear to be immaterial from a
+revenue point of view whether tobacco were imported or grown in the
+Island, since the imposts are the same, viz. on imports 4-1/2_cp._ per
+oke import duty and 3_s._ 6-1/2_cp._ per oke banderolle duty; on
+locally grown tobacco 4-1/2_cp._ per oke transport duty and 3_s._
+6-1/2_cp._ per oke banderolle duty. There is, however, this difference,
+that the money leaves the Island when the tobacco is imported and
+remains and fructifies when it is locally grown.
+
+Tobacco cultivation is in many ways well suited to this Island, as a
+great part of its cultivation as well as the gathering may be done by
+women and children. It need not therefore make any serious demand upon
+man labour, which is already insufficient, and much of the work can be
+performed by those who are unfit for heavy field work. It is a summer
+crop, which is greatly in its favour, the quality when grown "dry" being
+much finer than when irrigated. Its introduction broadens the basis of
+cultivation, provides a revenue from land that would otherwise lie
+fallow and is a useful element in any system of rotation. As it calls
+for careful preparation and thorough cultivation of the soil it has a
+great educative influence on a people prone to slovenly, primitive
+husbandry, and corn crops following tobacco have frequently given a
+larger, more uniform yield.
+
+At the same time it is an open question whether the crop can be grown
+and the leaf cured by the Cypriot farmer to produce a tobacco which,
+under normal conditions, will successfully compete in quality and price
+with the Macedonian tobacco.
+
+
+TANNING MATERIALS AND DYE-STUFFS
+
+Tanneries are fairly numerous and large quantities of skins are tanned
+and sold to native boot-makers. Before the war, goat- and sheep-skins
+and ox-hides were practically the only kinds handled, the two former
+being mainly used for the uppers of boots. The top-boots worn by
+villagers are nearly all made from goat-skin, locally called "totmaria."
+Since the war pig-skins and dog-skins have been also used. Camel-skins
+are often employed for making soles.
+
+Pine bark and sumach are the native tanning substances chiefly used in
+the local tanneries. The pine is one of the commonest forest trees of
+the Island. Shinia leaves (_Pistacia Lentiscus_) are also used (see p.
+51).
+
+
+_Sumach_
+
+The Sicilian, elm-leaved or tanner's sumach (_Rhus Coriaria_) is a shrub
+which grows wild throughout a large part of the Island, being
+principally found among the vineyards on the slopes of the southern
+range of hills. The leaves are largely used in the leather tanning
+industry, and a considerable export might have been established to the
+United Kingdom had it not been for dissatisfaction caused by the
+excessive presence of impurities, such as lentisc leaves and dust, which
+were usually found in the consignments sent.
+
+One sample was sent by the Agricultural Department to the Imperial
+Institute in 1909. This was found to consist wholly of sumach and no
+lentisc or other leaves, and gave on examination the following results:
+Moisture, 10.1; ash, 9.8; tannin (by hide-power method), 26.9;
+extractive matter (non-tannin), 16.7 per cent. The report showed that
+the leaves produced a good leather, similar in texture and colour to
+that obtained with Sicilian sumach, and was considered likely to fetch
+about the same price as a medium quality of Sicilian sumach, which
+contains from 25 to 30 per cent. of tannin (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL
+INSTITUTE, vol. x. 1912, p. 45).
+
+Two further samples were sent in 1916. The first sample "consisted of a
+finely-ground yellowish-green powder, containing a quantity of sand,
+small stones and iron dust." The second sample consisted of a
+"coarsely-ground, yellowish-green powder, containing a quantity of
+pinkish unground twigs, sand and small stones, together with some iron
+dust."
+
+The results of examination were as follows:
+
+                                    NO. 1.    NO. 2.
+                                    _Per cent._   _Per cent._
+  Moisture                             9.3              9.2
+  Insoluble matters                   53.6             57.8
+  Extractive matters (non-tannin)     14.6             13.0
+  Tannin                              22.5             20.0
+  Ash                                  8.5             12.3
+  ---------------------------------------------------------
+  Tintometer readings--Red             0.7              1.2
+                       Yellow          2.1              2.5
+
+Both samples were low in tannin, compared with the Sicilian percentage
+of 25 to 30.
+
+Sample No. 1 was valued at L13, and No. 2 at L12, per ton, with Sicilian
+sumach at L15 per ton; the lower value being due to the lower tannin
+contents, owing to the presence of sand, dirt, etc. It may be assumed
+that if more care in preparing clean samples were taken, Cyprus sumach
+would greatly improve its market value.
+
+
+_Valonea_
+
+There are a few well-grown specimens of valonea oak (_Quercus Aegilops_)
+to be seen, but being a slow grower and as it takes many years to reach
+the stage when it yields a profit, it does not commend itself to the
+Cypriot tree planter. It prefers deep soil and requires artificial
+irrigation or a greater rainfall than we have in Cyprus.
+
+It has been tried at Salamis and failed, and also at Machaera with the
+same result. It has been grown also on Troodos, but after six years'
+growth attained a height of only 1 foot.
+
+Only an insignificant quantity of Valonea cups are locally produced.
+These come from the Paphos district and are said to be rather poor in
+tannin. The bulk comes from Anatolia. The pre-war price for the latter
+was 5_s._ per cantar of 44 okes, that for the locally grown was 20 paras
+per oke on the spot, transport charges bringing up the price to about 1
+copper piastre per oke delivered.
+
+
+_Acacia Barks_
+
+_Acacia pycnantha_ has been grown in Cyprus, but does not acclimatise
+well, and neither the soil nor climate seems favourable. _A. mollissima_
+also has not shown any very successful growth. _A. cyanophylla_ and _A.
+longifolia_, on the other hand, thrive excellently. They are great
+drought-resisters and grow on almost any soil. They have been very
+extensively grown by the Forest Department in every district for fuel
+and along the coast upon sand dunes. They have not been utilised so far
+for the extraction of tanning, except experimentally. Samples of the
+barks of the two last-named species were found on examination at the
+Imperial Institute to be too poor in tannin to be worth exporting, but
+they should be quite suitable for use in Cyprus (see BULLETIN OF THE
+IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xi. 1913, pp. 412-414).
+
+
+_Madder_
+
+In former years, and within the period of the British occupation, the
+cultivation of madder (_Rubia tinctorum_) was fairly flourishing in
+Cyprus. The old madder grounds can still be distinguished, and are
+mostly to be seen near Morphou, Ayia Irini, Sotira, Ayios Serghios,
+Famagusta and Larnaca. These madder grounds were excavations made in
+order to expose the soil lying beneath 10 to 30 ft. of drift-sand; and
+they form, as it were, a series of tanks along the shore. The red dye
+obtained from the dried and ground madder roots constituted at one time
+one of the most valued of dye-stuffs, and was in special demand for
+military uniforms; but this has been entirely superseded by artificial
+coal-tar derivatives and, as Gennadius says: "The happy days of the
+cultivation of this plant are past, never to return."
+
+It is propagated mostly by root cuttings. The leaf begins to dry at
+about the sixth month. There is no further growth above ground, but the
+roots continue to increase and shoot downwards till moisture affects
+them. "When they get too wet, they become black or rot. In Cyprus this
+rotting would often begin after about eighteen months, while in superior
+soils the roots would continue to improve during thirty-six months, and
+they would be known in the trade as eighteen months and thirty-six
+months roots. In Famagusta district they remain mostly eighteen months,
+while at Morphou they would continue fully thirty-six months, during the
+whole of which time the surface ground should be kept free of weeds."
+
+After the root is lifted it is generally dried; if packed before quite
+dry, it ferments and deteriorates.
+
+Two and a half tons of dried roots would be produced from an acre of
+good ground, and the madder grounds used to fetch a very high price.
+
+
+DRUGS AND OTHER PRODUCTS
+
+_Liquorice Root_
+
+The liquorice plant (_Glycyrrhiza glabra_, Linn.) grows mainly in the
+Famagusta and Kyrenia districts, and the roots are collected and
+exported from time to time. Two samples were reported upon in 1917 by
+the Imperial Institute (see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv.
+1917, p. 312) and the following opinions of two London firms of brokers
+were elicited.
+
+(_a_) One firm described the Lapithos (Kyrenia district) roots as medium
+to bold unpeeled roots of good flavour, fairly well cleaned and very
+well dried; and valued them at from 50_s._ to 55_s._ per cwt. ex wharf,
+London (February 1917). The firm described the Famagusta roots as
+thinner than the Lapithos sample and not so well freed from smooth
+valueless pieces, but mentioned that they had apparently been washed.
+They valued these roots at 50_s._ per cwt. ex wharf, London (February
+1917). The firm added that both samples were exceptionally dry, and that
+it seemed doubtful if the material in the bulk would be as dry.
+
+(_b_) A second firm considered the roots to be rather mixed, inferior
+quality, and worth at that time about 45_s._ per cwt. in London
+(February 1917).
+
+
+_Pyrethrum_
+
+_Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum) cinerariaefolium_ grows well from seed and is
+an attractive garden plant with pretty, marguerite-like flowers. These
+yield the pyrethrum of commerce so largely used as an insecticide, and
+which is said to form the chief ingredients in various flea powders.
+These flowers, when dried and ground to dust, are employed for this
+purpose by the natives. The original pyrethrum powder came from plants
+growing in Dalmatia.
+
+The plant was introduced into the Cyprus Government Gardens some twenty
+years ago and has since spread more or less throughout the Island. It is
+perennial and drought-resistant, and will also stand several degrees of
+frost and seems indifferent to soil, provided it is not too damp. The
+seed is sown in September and the seedlings are transplanted in April or
+May, but it multiplies itself readily by suckers. The flowers, which are
+about three times the size of the Chamomile (_Matricaria Chamomilla_),
+which they closely resemble, are gathered as soon as they are fully
+open, and are then dried in a well-ventilated room. They are usually
+sold in bales of 50 to 100 kilogrammes. One donum may produce about 100
+okes of flowers annually.
+
+
+_Squill_
+
+Bulbs of the local squill were submitted in 1917 to Kew and
+provisionally identified as _Urginea Scilla._ Like the asphodel, this
+root is found everywhere. If sliced and placed about the house they are
+said to drive away mice. It was intended by the Agricultural Department
+to make an attempt to find a market for these roots, in the hope that if
+they could obtain a small payment for them farmers might be induced to
+collect them off their lands, but the project had to be abandoned for
+the time owing to the war. There is a small demand for these roots, if
+sliced and dried, in Europe for medicinal purposes.
+
+Squill bulbs from Cyprus were examined at the Imperial Institute in 1916
+(see BULLETIN OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, vol. xv. 1917, p. 311). The
+samples, which were submitted to a firm of drug manufacturers, were
+objected to on account of their dark colour, and were valued at about
+6_d._ per lb. as against a pre-war value of 3_d._ per lb.
+
+According to the report by the Imperial Institute there are two
+varieties of _Urginea Scilla,_ white and red, the scales of the former
+being yellowish-white and those of the latter having a reddish tint, and
+there are also many intermediate forms. Though the red and the white
+varieties have been stated to possess equal medicinal value, the white
+variety is preferred in England.
+
+In making stone irrigation channels which are lined with a coating of
+lime and sand or earth, local masons sometimes rub over this lining with
+a sliced squill which has been dipped in oil. It is found that this
+tends to harden and glaze the lining and prevent it from cracking.
+
+
+_Colocynth or Bitter Apple_
+
+The colocynth (_Citrullus Colocynthis_), locally called "pikrankoura" or
+"petrankoura," grows wild in some parts of the plains. The round
+yellowish-green fruit, about the size of an orange or small melon,
+ripens in July to September and, after being gathered, is skinned and
+dried in the sun. It is used by druggists as a purgative. Until about
+ten years ago it was cultivated on a small scale and an annual export of
+about L400 in value took place, chiefly to England and Austria. It was
+then in demand, it is said, as an adulterant of quinine. The fruit is
+locally thought to be a remedy for rheumatism. For this purpose the
+fruits are picked and put in a saucepan and covered with olive oil.
+After cooking for six hours the pulp or ointment is rubbed into the
+affected part. The European demand having ceased, the plant is now only
+found in a wild state.
+
+
+_Asphodel_
+
+The asphodel (_Asphodelus ramosus_), locally known as "spourdellos" or
+"spourtoulla," is a troublesome and abundant weed in many parts of the
+Island, up to an altitude of about 4,000 ft. The peasant farmer rarely
+attempts to remove it, though it occupies a large proportion of his land
+to the detriment of the crops. In the hills the villagers dry the bulbs
+and feed them to their sheep, cattle and donkeys. A paste is also made
+from the roots which is used by boot-makers to stick the leathers
+together. To make this paste the roots are dried in the oven and ground,
+and then mixed with ground vetches or maize and made into the gum or
+paste locally known as "tsirichi."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 4: _A quantity of stored plant was destroyed by fire, reducing
+the output._]
+
+
+
+
+VI. MINOR AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES
+
+
+_Bee-keeping_
+
+Although Cyprus bees are world-famed, bee-keeping in the Island is still
+in its infancy.
+
+The native hive is generally an earthenware cylinder or pipe about 2 ft.
+6 in. long and 9 in. in diameter (see Plate VII, fig. 1). Hives are also
+made of a mixture of earth and chopped straw, similar to native
+mud-bricks. These hives are also cylindrical, about 18 in. long and 10
+to 12 in. in diameter with a 3-in. thickness of wall. These are cooler
+in summer and warmer in winter, and produce stronger colonies than the
+earthenware ones.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VII.
+
+Fig. 1.--Cypriot Earthenware Beehives.
+
+Fig. 2.--Shipping Fruit at Larnaca.]
+
+Of late years the Agricultural Department has introduced modern hives
+with movable frames, and had it not been for the high cost of timber
+since the war, the number of these would have increased rapidly. The
+difficulty is to get the local carpenters to construct them properly and
+with finish. Practical hive construction is taught at the Agricultural
+School.
+
+Cyprian bees are, par excellence, the yellow race of the world. They are
+of uniform colour, size and character, slightly smaller than the
+Italians and the blacks. They have great power of flight, are very
+prolific and vigorous and good honey-gatherers. They are by many
+considered vicious and ill-tempered. This is possibly due to the
+constant war they have to wage against hornets, which in this country
+are a real plague and frequently exterminate whole colonies and
+sometimes whole apiaries. Various devices are employed for the
+protection of bees in or near the hives.
+
+A good number of Cyprian queen bees have been imported into Europe and
+America, and are very highly regarded wherever they have been
+established. In the eighties Cyprian queens were sold in the United
+States of America at L2 each. This high price checked the importation
+and the crossing of Cyprians with Italians and blacks took place, the
+hybrid offspring being sold by dealers as Cyprians. These, however, did
+not possess the best characteristics of Cyprians, and for a time they
+brought about a reaction in favour of other breeds.
+
+Cyprus possesses excellent honey-producing plants in the eucalyptus
+trees, orange groves, "throumbia" or wild thyme, and other aromatic
+plants.
+
+In the neighbourhood of orange groves a competent bee-keeper can obtain
+an average of 50 lb. of honey per colony; although unfortunately the
+ordinary village bee-keeper gets little more than 6 to 10 lb.
+
+Locally produced beeswax is of fine quality with delicious aroma and of
+a bright yellow colour, said to be superior to that imported from Asia
+Minor and Egypt.
+
+The industry is susceptible of considerable development and, when
+brought under more complete control, should be capable of establishing a
+good export trade of honey and possibly of beeswax.
+
+
+_Basket-making_
+
+Basket-making is a considerable industry, as all fruit and much other
+produce is transported in baskets mostly designed for the backs of
+donkeys or mules. The export trade of fruit and vegetables creates a
+constant demand (see Plate VII, fig. 2). The bulk of these baskets are
+made of reeds (_Arundo_) which grow luxuriantly by the side of water
+channels or wherever moist soil is found. This material is not an ideal
+one for the purpose, as the baskets are easily crushed and lose shape,
+to the detriment of the contents. The reeds are therefore often
+stiffened by the introduction of an occasional breadth of some other
+material, _e.g._ shinia (_Pistacia Lentiscus_), tremithia or myrtle. All
+these are much used in basket-making, though the latter is heavy. There
+is a native willow (_Salix alba_) and also the weeping willow (_S.
+babylonica_). These have not been used until recently when, by the
+efforts of the Agricultural Department, a number of these trees have
+been pollarded and the new shoots have been found quite satisfactory for
+the purpose.
+
+Six years ago a number of osier cuttings were imported from England, but
+unfortunately they have not succeeded so far owing to a succession of
+dry years. The surviving plants were this autumn removed to a more
+suitable site, but after suffering from drought they have now been
+almost destroyed by heavy floods.
+
+In order to encourage the manufacture of better baskets for the fruit
+trade between Cyprus and Egypt the Agricultural Department provides
+practical instruction in basket-making, and a qualified teacher pays
+occasional visits to basket-making villages and demonstrates the work
+and teaches improved patterns to the villagers and school boys.
+
+
+_Fruit and Vegetable Preserving_
+
+There is little doubt that the establishment of small factories for
+canning or bottling fruits and vegetables would be a profitable
+undertaking. Owing to the suddenness with which, in the heat of summer,
+the fruits ripen in Cyprus, and the consequent glut that often ensues,
+market prices fall to a point at which it does not pay to pick and
+handle. Transport difficulties also make it precarious, in the case of
+soft fruits, to attempt a sale outside the immediate place of
+production. Increased cultivation is thus discouraged.
+
+In growing fruits or vegetables for canning or bottling a man is
+independent of market fluctuations, whereas at present both producers
+and consumers are in the hands of the local shopkeepers, who have the
+former entirely at their mercy.
+
+The Egyptian fruit and vegetable trade is very well worth cultivating,
+but until better measures can be enforced in the matter of transport by
+sea as well as land, shippers run the risk of heavy losses, which, no
+doubt, recoil upon the unlucky producers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Specimens of most of the products referred to in these notes may be seen
+in the Cyprus Court in the Public Exhibition Galleries of the Imperial
+Institute.
+
+_Printed by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury, England._
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+In the original, illustrations were marked as 'facing page.' That has not
+been reproduced in this e-book.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOTES ON AGRICULTURE IN CYPRUS AND
+ITS PRODUCTS***
+
+
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