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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Vivisection, by Albert Leffingwell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Vivisection
+
+Author: Albert Leffingwell
+
+Release Date: April 17, 2010 [EBook #32033]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VIVISECTION ***
+
+
+
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+Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/American
+Libraries.)
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+
+
+                             VIVISECTION
+
+                                  BY
+
+                       ALBERT LEFFINGWELL, M. D.
+
+
+                               NEW YORK:
+                        JOHN W. LOVELL COMPANY,
+                        14 AND 16 VESEY STREET.
+
+
+                                  TO
+
+                        A Memory of Friendship.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+To the CENTURY COMPANY of New York, in the pages of whose magazine,
+then known as "_Scribner's Monthly_," the first of the following
+essays originally appeared in July, 1880, the thanks of the writer
+are due for permission to re-publish in the present form. For a like
+courtesy on the part of the proprietors of LIPPINCOTT'S MAGAZINE, in
+which the second paper was first published [Aug., 1884], the writer
+desires to make due acknowledgment.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The first of the Essays following appeared in "SCRIBNER'S MONTHLY,"
+in July, 1880; and immediately became honored by the attention of
+the Medical Press throughout the country. The aggressive title of
+the paper, justified, in great measure, perhaps, the vigor of the
+criticism bestowed. Again and again the point was raised by reviewers
+that the problem presented by the title, was not solved or answered
+by the article itself.
+
+At this day, it perhaps may be mentioned that the question--"Does
+Vivisection Pay?" was never raised by the writer, who selected as his
+title the single word "Vivisection." The more taking headline was
+affixed by the editor of the magazine as more apt to arrest attention
+and arouse professional pugnacity. That in this latter respect it was
+eminently successful, the author had the best reason to remember. With
+this explanation--which is made simply to prevent future criticism
+on the same point--the old title is retained. If the present reader
+continues the inquiry here presented, he will learn wherein the
+writer believes in the utility of vivisection, and on the other hand,
+in what respects and under what conditions he very seriously questions
+whether any gains can possibly compensate the infinitely great cost.
+
+"What do you hope for or expect as the result of agitation in regard
+to vivisection?" recently inquired a friend; "its legal abolition?"
+
+"Certainly not," was the reply.
+
+"Would you then expect its restriction during the present century?"
+
+"Hardly even so soon as that. It will take longer than a dozen years
+to awaken recognition of any evil which touches neither the purse nor
+personal comfort of an American citizen. All that can be hoped in the
+immediate future is education. Action will perhaps follow when its
+necessity is recognized generally; but not before."
+
+For myself, I believe no permanent or effective reform of present
+practices is probable until the Medical Profession generally concede
+as dangerous and unnecessary that freedom of unlimited experimentation
+in pain, which is claimed and practiced to-day. That legislative
+reform is otherwise unattainable, one would hesitate to affirm; but it
+assuredly would be vastly less effective. You must convince men of the
+justice and reasonableness of a law before you can secure a willing
+obedience. Yielding to none in loyalty to the science, and enthusiasm
+for the Art of Healing, what standpoint may be taken by those of the
+Medical Profession who desire to reform evils which confessedly exist?
+
+I. We need not seek the total abolition of all experiments upon living
+animals. I do not forget that just such abolition is energetically
+demanded by a large number of earnest men and women, who have lost
+all faith in the possibility of restricting an abuse, if it be favored
+by scientific enthusiasm. "Let us take," they say, "the upright and
+conscientious ground of refusing all compromise with sin and evil, and
+maintaining our position unflinchingly, leave the rest to God."[A]
+This is almost precisely the ground taken by the Prohibitionists
+in national politics; it is the only ground one can occupy,
+provided the taking of a glass of wine, or the performance of any
+experiment,--painless or otherwise,--is of itself an "evil and a sin."
+There are those, however, who believe it possible to oppose and
+restrain intemperance by other methods than legislative prohibition.
+So with the prohibition of vivisection. Admitting the abuses of the
+practice, I cannot yet see that they are so intrinsic and essential
+as to make necessary the entire abolition of all physiological
+experiments whatsoever.
+
+    [A] Report of American Anti-Vivisection Society, Jan'y 30,
+    1888.
+
+II. We may advocate (and I believe we should advocate)--_the total
+abolition, by law, of all mutilating or destructive experiments upon
+lower animals, involving pain, when such experiments are made for the
+purpose of public or private demonstration of already known and
+accepted physiological facts_.
+
+This is the ground of compromise--unacceptable, as yet, to either
+party. Nevertheless it is asking simply for those limitations and
+restrictions which have always been conceded as prudent and fair by
+the medical profession of Great Britain. Speaking of a certain
+experiment upon the spinal nerves, Dr. M. Foster, of Cambridge
+University, one of the leading physiological teachers of England,
+says: "I have not performed it and have never seen it done," partly
+because of horror at the pain necessary. And yet this experiment has
+been performed before classes of young men and young women in the
+Medical Schools of this country! Absolutely no legal restriction here
+exists to the repetition, over and over again, of the most atrocious
+tortures of Mantegazza, Bert and Schiff.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+This is the vivisection which does not "pay,"--even if we dismiss
+altogether from our calculation the interests of the animals
+sacrificed to the demand for mnemonic aid. For the great and perilous
+outcome of such methods will be--finally--an atrophy of the sense of
+sympathy for human suffering. It is seen to-day in certain hospitals
+in Europe. Can other result be expected to follow the deliberate
+infliction of prolonged pain without other object than to see or
+demonstrate what will happen therefrom? Will any assistance to memory,
+counterweigh the annihilation or benumbing of the instinct of pity?
+
+Upon this subject of utility of painful experiments in class
+demonstrations or private study, I would like to appeal for judgment
+to the physician of the future, who then shall review the experience
+of the medical student of to-day. In his course of physiological
+training, he or she may be invited to see living animals cut and
+mutilated in various ways, eviscerated, poisoned, frozen, starved, and
+by ingenious devices of science subjected to the exhibition of pain.
+On the first occasion such a scene generally induces in the young man
+or young woman a significant subjective phenomenon of physiological
+interest; an involuntary, creeping, tremulous sense of horror emerges
+into consciousness,--and is speedily repressed. "This feeling," he
+whispers to himself, "is altogether unworthy the scientific spirit in
+which I am now to be educated; it needs to be subdued. The sight of
+this inarticulate agony, this prolonged anguish is not presented to me
+for amusement. I must steel myself to witness it, to assist in it, for
+the sake of the good I shall be helped thereby to accomplish, some
+day, for suffering humanity."
+
+Praiseworthy sentiments, these are, indeed. Are they founded in
+reality? No. The student who thus conquers "squeamishness" will not
+see one fact thus demonstrated at the cost of pain which was unknown
+to science before; not one fact which he might not have been made to
+remember without this demonstrative illustration; _not one
+fact_--saddest truth of all--that is likely to be of the slightest
+practical service to him or to her in the multiplied and various
+duties of future professional life. Why, then, are they shown? To help
+him to remember his lesson! Admit the value to the student, but what
+of the cost?
+
+In one of the great cities of China, I was shown, leaning against the
+high wall of the execution ground, a rude, wooden frame-work or cross,
+old, hacked, and smeared with recent blood-stains. It was used, I was
+told, in the punishment of extreme offenses; the criminal being bound
+thereto, and flayed and cut in every way human ingenuity could devise
+for inflicting torture before giving an immediately mortal wound. Only
+the week before, such an execution had taken place; the victim being a
+woman who had poisoned her husband. A young and enthusiastic physician
+whom I met, told me he had secured the privilege of being an eye
+witness to the awful tragedy, that he might verify a theory he had
+formed on the influence of pain; a theory perhaps like that which led
+to Mantegazza's crucifixion of pregnant rabbits with _dolori
+atrocissimi_.[A] Science here caught her profit from the punishment of
+crime, but the gain would have been the same had her interest alone
+been the object. There is _always_ gain, always some aid to
+memory;--_but what of the cost?_
+
+    [A] See Appendix, page 83.
+
+It cannot be expected that any Medical College, of its own accord and
+without outside pressure, will restrict or hamper its freedom of
+action. As a condition of prosperity and success it cannot show less
+than is exhibited by other medical schools; it must keep abreast of
+"advanced thought," and do and demonstrate in every way what its
+rivals demonstrate and do. There can be no question but that there is
+to-day a strong public demand for continental methods of physiological
+instruction. Who make this demand? You, gentlemen, students of
+medicine, and they who follow in your pathway. This year it is you
+who silently request this aid to your memory of the physiological
+statements of your text books; another year, another class of young
+men and young women, occupying the same benches, or filling the same
+laboratory, repeats the demand for the same series of illustrations.
+You, perhaps, will have gone forward to take your places in active
+life, to assume the real burdens of the medical profession. To those
+succeeding years of thought, reflection and usefulness, let me
+appeal, respecting the absolute necessity of all class demonstrations
+and laboratory work involving pain. Postpone if you please, the ready
+decision which, fresh from your class-room, you are perhaps only too
+willing to give me to-day; I do not wish it. But some time in the
+future, after years have gone by, remembering all you have seen and
+aided in the doing, tell us if you can, exactly wherein you received,
+in added potency for helping human suffering and for the treatment of
+human ills, the equivalent of that awful expenditure of pain which you
+are now demanding, and which by unprotesting acquiescence, you are
+_to-day_ helping to inflict.
+
+  BOSTON, MASS.,
+    _March, 1889_.
+
+
+
+
+[_From_ SCRIBNER'S MONTHLY, _July, 1880_.]
+
+DOES VIVISECTION PAY?
+
+
+The question of vivisection is again pushing itself to the front. A
+distinguished American physiologist has lately come forward in defense
+of the French experimenter, Magendie, and, parenthetically, of his
+methods of investigation in the study of vital phenomena. On the other
+hand, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals made an
+unsuccessful attempt, in the New York Legislature last winter, to
+secure the passage of a law which would entirely abolish the practice
+as now in vogue in our medical schools, or cause it to be secretly
+carried on, in defiance of legal enactments. In support of this bill
+it was claimed that physiologists, for the sake of "demonstrating to
+medical students certain physiological phenomena connected with the
+functions of life, are constantly and habitually in the practice of
+cutting up alive, torturing and tormenting divers of the unoffending
+brute creation to illustrate their theories and lectures, but without
+any practical or beneficial result either to themselves or to the
+students, which practice is demoralizing to both and engenders in the
+future medical practitioners a want of humanity and sympathy for
+physical pain and suffering." How far these statements are true will
+be hereafter discussed; but one assertion is so evidently erroneous
+that it may be at once indicated. _No_ experiment, however atrocious,
+cruel and, therefore, on the whole, unjustifiable, if performed to
+illustrate some scientific point, was ever without "any beneficial
+result." The benefit may have been infinitesimal, but every scientific
+fact is of some value. To assert the contrary is to weaken one's case
+by overstatement.
+
+Leaving out the brute creation, there are three parties interested
+in this discussion. In the first place, there are the professors and
+teachers of physiology in the medical colleges. Naturally, these
+desire no interference with either their work or their methods. They
+claim that were the knowledge acquired by experiments upon living
+organisms swept out of existence, in many respects the science of
+physiology would be little more than guesswork to-day. The subject of
+vivisection, they declare, is one which does not concern the general
+public, but belongs exclusively to scientists and especially to
+physiologists. That the present century should permit sentimentalists
+to interfere with scientific investigations is preposterous.
+
+Behind these stand the majority of men belonging to the medical
+profession. Holding, as they do, the most important and intimate
+relations to society, it is manifestly desirable that they should
+enjoy the best facilities for the acquirement of knowledge necessary
+to their art. To most, the question is merely one of professional
+privilege against sentiment, and they cannot hesitate which side to
+prefer. In this, as in other professions or trades, the feeling of
+_esprit de corps_ is exceedingly strong; and no class of men likes
+interference on the part of outsiders. To most physicians it is wholly
+a scientific question. It is a matter, they think, with which the
+public has no concern; if society can trust to the profession its sick
+and dying, they surely can leave to its feeling of humanity a few
+worthless brutes.
+
+The opinion of the general public is therefore, divided and confused.
+On the one hand, it is profoundly desirous to make systematic and
+needless cruelty impossible; yet, on the other, it cannot but hesitate
+to take any step which shall hinder medical education, impede
+scientific discovery, or restrict search for new methods of treating
+disease. What are the sufferings of an animal, however acute or
+prolonged, compared with the gain to humanity which would result from
+the knowledge thereby acquired of a single curative agent? Public
+opinion hesitates. A leading newspaper, commenting on the introduction
+of the Bergh bill, doubtless expressed the sentiment of most people
+when it deprecated prevention of experiments "by which original
+investigators seek to establish or verify conclusions which may be of
+priceless value to the preservation of life and health among human
+beings."
+
+The question nevertheless confronts society,--and in such shape, too,
+that society cannot escape, even if it would, the responsibility of a
+decision. Either by action or inaction the State must decide whether
+the practice of vivisection shall be wholly abolished, as desired by
+some; whether it shall be restricted by law within certain limits and
+for certain definite objects, as in Great Britain; or whether we are
+to continue in this country to follow the example of France and
+Germany, in permitting the practice of physiological experimentation
+to any extent devised or desired by the experimentalist himself. Any
+information tending to indicate which of these courses is best cannot
+be inopportune. Having witnessed experiments by some of the most
+distinguished European physiologists, such as Claude Bernard (the
+successor of Magendie), Milne-Edwards and Brown-Sequard; and, still
+better (or worse, as the reader may think), having performed some
+experiments in this direction for purposes of investigation and for
+the instruction of others, the present writer believes himself
+justified in holding and stating a pronounced opinion on this subject,
+even if it be to some extent, opposed to the one prevailing in the
+profession. Suppose, therefore, we review briefly the arguments to be
+adduced both in favor of the practice and against it.
+
+Two principal arguments may be advanced in its favor.
+
+I. It is undeniable that to the practice of vivisection we are
+indebted for very much of our present knowledge of physiology. This is
+the fortress of the advocates of vivisection, and a certain refuge
+when other arguments are of no avail.
+
+II. As a means of teaching physiological facts, vivisection is
+unsurpassed. No teacher of science needs to be told the vast
+superiority of demonstration over affirmation. Take for instance, the
+circulation of the blood. The student who displays but a languid
+interest in statements of fact, or even in the best delineations and
+charts obtainable, will be thoroughly aroused by seeing the process
+actually before his eyes. A week's study upon the book will less
+certainly be retained in his memory than a single view of the opened
+thorax of a frog or dog. There before him is the throbbing heart; he
+sees its relations to adjoining structures, and marks, with a wonder
+he never before knew, that mystery of life by which the heart, even
+though excised from the body, does not cease for a time its rhythmic
+beat. To imagine, then, that teachers of physiology find mere
+amusement in these operations is the greatest of ignorant mistakes.
+They deem it desirable that certain facts be accurately fixed in
+memory, and they know that no system of mnemonics equals for such
+purpose the demonstration of the function itself.
+
+Just here, however, arises a very important question. Admitting the
+benefit of the demonstration of scientific facts, _how far may one
+justifiably subject an animal to pain for the purpose of illustrating
+a point already known_? It is merely a question of cost. For instance,
+it is an undisputed statement in physical science that the diamond is
+nothing more than a form of crystallized carbon, and, like other forms
+of carbon, under certain conditions, may be made to burn. Now most of
+us are entirely willing to accept this, as we do the majority of
+truths, upon the testimony of scientific men, without making
+demonstration a requisite of assent. In a certain private school,
+however, it has long been the custom once a year, to burn in oxygen a
+small diamond, worth perhaps $30, so as actually to prove to the
+pupils the assertion of their text-books. The experiment is a
+brilliant one; no one can doubt its entire success. Nevertheless, we
+do not furnish diamonds to our public schools for this purpose.
+Exactly similar to this is one aspect of vivisection--it is a question
+of cost. Granting all the advantages which follow demonstration of
+certain physiological facts, the cost is pain--pain sometimes
+amounting to prolonged and excruciating torture. Is the gain worth
+this?
+
+Let me mention an instance. Not long ago, in a certain medical college
+in the State of New York, I saw what Doctor Sharpey, for thirty years
+the professor of physiology in the University Medical College, London,
+once characterized by antithesis as "Magendie's _infamous_
+experiment," it having been first performed by that eminent
+physiologist. It was designed to prove that the stomach, although
+supplied with muscular coats, is during the act of vomiting for the
+most part passive; and that expulsion of its contents is due to the
+action of the diaphragm and the larger abdominal muscles. The
+professor to whom I refer did not propose to have even Magendie's
+word accepted as an authority on the subject: the fact should be
+demonstrated again. So an incision in the abdomen of a dog was made;
+its stomach was cut out; a pig's bladder containing colored water was
+inserted in its place, an emetic was injected into the veins,--and
+vomiting ensued. Long before the conclusion of the experiment the
+animal became conscious, and its cries of suffering were exceedingly
+painful to hear. Now, granting that this experiment impressed an
+abstract scientific fact upon the memories of all who saw it,
+nevertheless it remains significantly true that the fact thus
+demonstrated had no conceivable relation to the treatment of disease.
+It is not to-day regarded as conclusive of the theory which, after
+nearly two hundred repetitions of his experiment, was doubtless
+considered by Magendie as established beyond question. Doctor Sharpey,
+a strong advocate of vivisection, by the way, condemned it as a
+perfectly unjustifiable experiment, since "besides its atrocity, it
+was really purposeless." Was this repetition of the experiment which
+I have described worth its cost? Was the gain worth the pain?
+
+Let me instance another and more recent case. Being in Paris a year
+ago, I went one morning to the College de France, to hear
+Brown-Sequard, the most eminent experimenter in vivisection now
+living--one who, Doctor Carpenter tells us, has probably inflicted
+more animal suffering than any other man in his time. The lecturer
+stated that injury to certain nervous centers near the base of the
+brain would produce peculiar and curious phenomena in the animal
+operated upon, causing it, for example, to keep turning to one side in
+a circular manner, instead of walking in a straightforward direction.
+A Guinea-pig was produced--a little creature, about the size of a
+half-grown kitten--and the operation was effected, accompanied by a
+series of piercing little squeaks. As foretold, the creature thus
+injured did immediately perform a "circular" movement. A rabbit was
+then operated upon with similar results. Lastly, an unfortunate
+poodle was introduced, its muzzle tied with stout whip-cord, wound
+round and round so tightly that it must necessarily have caused severe
+pain. It was forced to walk back and forth on the long table, during
+which it cast looks on every side, as though seeking a possible avenue
+of escape. Being fastened in the operating trough, an incision was
+made to the bone, flaps turned back, an opening made in the skull,
+and enlarged by breaking away some portions with forceps. During
+these various processes no attempt whatever was made to cause
+unconsciousness by means of anæsthetics, and the half-articulate,
+half-smothered cries of the creature in its agony were terrible to
+hear, even to one not unaccustomed to vivisections. The experiment was
+a "success"; the animal after its mutilation _did_ describe certain
+circular movements. But I cannot help questioning in regard to these
+demonstrations, _did they pay_? This experiment had not the slightest
+relation whatever to the cure of disease. More than this: it teaches
+us little or nothing in physiology. The most eminent physiologist in
+this country, Doctor Austin Flint, Jr., admits that experiments of
+this kind "do not seem to have advanced our positive knowledge of the
+functions of the nerve centers," and that similar experiments "have
+been very indefinite in their results." On this occasion, therefore,
+three animals were subjected to torture to demonstrate an abstract
+fact, which probably not a single one of the two dozen spectators
+would have hesitated to take for granted on the word of so great a
+pathologist as Doctor Brown-Sequard. Was the gain worth the cost?
+
+This, then, is the great question that must eventually be decided by
+the public. Do humanity and science here indicate diverging roads? On
+the contrary, I believe it to be an undeniable fact that _the highest
+scientific and medical opinion is against the repetition of painful
+experiments for class teaching_. In 1875, a Royal Commission was
+appointed in Great Britain to investigate the subject of vivisection,
+with a view to subsequent legislation. The interests of science were
+represented by the appointment of Professor Huxley as a member of this
+commission. Its meetings continued over several months, and the report
+constitutes a large volume of valuable testimony. The opinions of many
+of these witnesses are worthy of special attention, from the eminent
+position to the men who hold them. The physician to the Queen, Sir
+Thomas Watson, with whose "Lectures on Physic" every medical
+practitioner in this country is familiar, says: "I hold that no
+teacher or man of science who by his own previous experiments, * * *
+has thoroughly satisfied himself of the solution of any physiological
+problem, is justified in repeating the experiments, however
+mercifully, to appease the natural curiosity of a class of students or
+of scientific friends." Sir George Burroughs, President of the Royal
+College of Physicians, says: "I do not think that an experiment should
+be repeated over and over again in our medical schools to illustrate
+what is already established."[A] Sir James Paget, Surgeon
+Extraordinary to the Queen, said before the commission that
+"experiments for the purpose of repeating anything already ascertained
+ought never to be shown to classes." [363.] Sir William Fergusson, F.
+R. S., also Surgeon to her Majesty, asserted that "sufferings
+incidental to such operations are protracted in a very shocking
+manner"; that of such experiments there is "useless repetition," and
+that "when once a fact which involves cruelty to animals has been
+fairly recognized and accepted, there is no necessity for a continued
+repetition." [1019.] Even physiologists--some of them practical
+experimenters in vivisection--join in condemning these class
+demonstrations. Dr. William Sharpey, before referred to as a teacher
+of physiology for over thirty years in University College, says: "Once
+such facts fully established, I do not think it justifiable to repeat
+experiments causing pain to animals." [405.] Dr. Rolleston, Professor
+of Physiology at Oxford, said that "for class demonstrations
+limitations should undoubtedly be imposed, and _those limitations
+should render illegal painful experiments before classes_." [1291.]
+Charles Darwin, the greatest of living naturalists, stated that he had
+never either directly or indirectly experimented on animals, and that
+he regarded a painful experiment without anæsthetics which might be
+made with anæsthetics as deserving "detestation and abhorrence."
+[4672.] And finally the report of this commission, to which is
+attached the name of Professor Huxley, says: "With respect to medical
+schools, we accept the resolution of the British Association in 1871,
+that experimentation without the use of anæsthetics is not a fitting
+exhibition for teaching purposes."
+
+    [A] "Report of the Royal Commission on the Practice of
+    Subjecting Live Animals to Experiments for Scientific
+    Purposes." Question No, 175. Reference to this volume will
+    hereafter be made in this article by inserting in brackets,
+    immediately after the authority quoted, the number of the
+    question in this report from which the extract is made.
+
+It must be noted that hardly any of these opinions touch the question
+of vivisection so far as it is done without the infliction of pain,
+nor object to it as a method of original research; they relate simply
+to the practice of repeating painful experiments for purposes of
+physiological teaching. We cannot dismiss them as "sentimental" or
+unimportant. If painful experiments are necessary for the education of
+the young physician, how happens it that Watson and Burroughs are
+ignorant of the fact? If indispensable to the proper training of the
+surgeon, why are they condemned by Fergusson and Paget? If requisite
+even to physiology, why denounced by the physiologists of Oxford and
+London? If necessary to science, why viewed "with abhorrence" by the
+greatest of modern scientists?
+
+Another objection to vivisection, when practiced as at present without
+supervision or control, is the undeniable fact that habitual
+familiarity with the infliction of pain upon animals has a decided
+tendency to engender a sort of careless indifference regarding
+suffering. "Vivisection," says Professor Rolleston of Oxford, "is very
+liable to abuse. * * * It is specially liable to tempt a man into
+certain carelessness; the passive impressions produced by the sight
+of suffering growing weaker, while the habit and pleasure of
+experimenting grows stronger by repetition." [1287.] Says Doctor
+Elliotson: "I cannot refrain from expressing my horror at the amount
+of torture which Doctor Brachet inflicted. _I hardly think knowledge
+is worth having at such a purchase._"[A] A very striking example of
+this tendency was brought out in the testimony of a witness before the
+Royal Commission,--Doctor Klein, a practical physiologist. He admitted
+frankly that as an investigator he held as entirely indifferent the
+sufferings of animals subjected to his experiments, that, except for
+teaching purposes, he never used anæsthetics unless necessary for his
+own convenience. Some members of the Commission could hardly realize
+the possibility of such a confession.
+
+    [A] "Human Physiology," by John Elliotson, M. D., F. R. S.
+    (page 448).
+
+"Do you mean you have no regard at all to the sufferings of the lower
+animals?"
+
+"_No regard at all_," was the strange reply; and, after a little
+further questioning, the witness explained:
+
+"I think that, with regard to an experimenter--a man who conducts
+special research and performs an experiment--he has _no time, so to
+speak, for thinking what the animal will feel or suffer_!"
+
+Of Magendie's cruel disposition there seems only too abundant
+evidence. Says Doctor Elliotson: "Dr. Magendie, in one of his
+barbarous experiments, which I am ashamed to say I witnessed, began by
+coolly cutting out a large round piece from the back of a beautiful
+little puppy, as he would from an apple dumpling!" "It is not to be
+doubted that inhumanity may be found in persons of very high position
+as physiologists. _We have seen that it was so in Magendie._" This is
+the language of the report on vivisection, to which is attached the
+name of Professor Huxley.
+
+But the fact which, in my own mind, constitutes by far the strongest
+objection to unrestrained experiments in pain, is their questionable
+utility as regards therapeutics. Probably most readers are aware that
+physiology is that science which treats of the various functions of
+life, such as digestion, respiration and the circulation of the blood,
+while therapeutics is that department of medicine which relates to the
+discovery and application of remedies for disease. Now I venture to
+assert that, during the last quarter of a century, infliction of
+intense torture upon unknown myriads of sentient, living creatures,
+_has not resulted in the discovery of a single remedy of acknowledged
+and generally accepted value in the cure of disease_. This is not
+known to the general public, but it is a fact essential to any just
+decision regarding the expediency of unrestrained liberty of
+vivisection. It is by no means intended to deny the value to
+therapeutics of well-known physiological facts acquired thus in the
+past--such, for instance, as the more complete knowledge we possess
+regarding the circulation of the blood, or the distinction between
+motor and sensory nerves, nor can original investigation be
+pronounced absolutely valueless as respects remote possibility of
+future gain. What the public has a right to ask of those who would
+indefinitely prolong these experiments without State supervision or
+control is, "What good have your painful experiments accomplished
+during the past thirty years--not in ascertaining facts in physiology
+or causes of rare or incurable complaints, but in the discovery of
+improved methods for ameliorating human suffering, and for the cure
+of disease?" If pain could be estimated in money, no corporation
+ever existed which would be satisfied with such waste of capital
+in experiments so futile; no mining company would permit a
+quarter-century of "prospecting" in such barren regions. The usual
+answer to this inquiry is to bring forward facts in physiology thus
+acquired in the past, in place of facts in therapeutics. Thus, in a
+recent article on Magendie to which reference has been made, we are
+furnished with a long list of such additions to our knowledge. It may
+be questioned, however, whether the writer is quite scientifically
+accurate in asserting that, were our past experience in vivisection
+abolished, "it would blot out _all_ that we know to-day in regard to
+the circulation of the blood, * * the growth and regeneration of bone,
+* * * the origin of many parasitic diseases, * * * the communicability
+of certain contagious and infectious diseases, and, to make the list
+complete, it would be requisite * * to take _a wide range in addition
+through the domains of pathology and therapeutics_." Surely somewhat
+about these subjects has been acquired otherwise than by experiments
+upon animals? For example, an inquiring critic might wish to know a
+few of the "many parasitic diseases" thus discovered; or what
+contagious and infectious diseases, whose communicability was
+previously unknown, have had this quality demonstrated solely by
+experiments on animals? And what, too, prevented that "wide range into
+therapeutics" necessary to make complete the list of benefits due to
+vivisection? In urging the utility of a practice so fraught with
+danger, the utmost precaution against the slightest error of
+overstatement becomes an imperative duty. Even so distinguished a
+scientist as Sir John Lubbock once rashly asserted in Parliament that,
+"without experiments on living animals, we should never have had the
+use of ether"! Nearly every American school-boy knows that the
+contrary is true--that the use of ether as an anæsthetic--the grandest
+discovery of modern times--had no origin in the torture of animals.
+
+I confess that, until very recently, I shared the common impression
+regarding the utility of vivisection in therapeutics. It is a belief
+still widely prevalent in the medical profession. Nevertheless, is it
+not a mistake? The therapeutical results of nearly half a century of
+painful experiments--we seek them in vain. Do we ask surgery? Sir
+William Ferguson, surgeon to the Queen, tells us: "In surgery I am not
+aware of any of these experiments on the lower animals having led to
+the mitigation of pain or to improvement as regards surgical
+details." [1049.] Have antidotes to poisons been discovered thereby?
+Says Doctor Taylor, lecturer on Toxicology for nearly half a century
+in the chief London Medical School (a writer whose work on Poisons is
+a recognized authority): "I do not know that we have as yet learned
+anything, so far as treatment is concerned, from our experiments with
+them (_i.e._ poisons) on animals." [1204.] Doctor Anthony, speaking of
+Magendie's experiments, says: "I never gained one single fact by
+seeing these cruel experiments in Paris. _I know nothing more from
+them than I could have read._" [2450.] Even physiologists admit the
+paucity of therapeutic results. Doctor Sharpey says: "I should lay
+less stress on the direct application of the results of vivisection to
+improvement in the art of healing, than upon the value of these
+experiments in the promotion of physiology." [394.] The Oxford
+professor of Physiology admitted that Etiology, the science which
+treats of the causes of disease, had, by these experiments, been the
+gainer, rather than therapeutics. [1302.] "Experiments on animals,"
+says Doctor Thorowgood, "already extensive and numerous, cannot be
+said to have advanced therapeutics much."[A] Sir William Gull, M. D.,
+was questioned before the commission whether he could enumerate any
+therapeutic remedies which have been discovered by vivisection, and he
+replied with fervor: "The cases bristle around us everywhere!" Yet,
+excepting Hall's experiments on the nervous system, he could enumerate
+only various forms of disease, our knowledge of which is due to
+Harvey's discovery, two hundred and fifty years ago! The question was
+pushed closer, and so brought to the necessity of a definite reply, he
+answered: "I do not say at present our therapeutics are much, but
+there are lines of experiment which _seem to promise_ great help in
+therapeutics." [5529.] The results of two centuries of experiments, so
+far as therapeutics are concerned, reduced to a seeming promise!
+
+    [A] "Medical Times and Gazette," October 5, 1872.
+
+On two points, then, the evidence of the highest scientific
+authorities in Great Britain seems conclusive--first, that experiments
+upon living animals conduce chiefly to the benefit of the science of
+physiology, and little, if at all, at the present day, to the
+treatment of disease or the amelioration of human suffering; and,
+secondly, that repetition of painful experiments for class-teaching in
+medical schools is both unnecessary and unjustifiable. Do these
+conclusions affect the practice of vivisection in this country? Is it
+true that experiments are habitually performed in some of our medical
+schools, often causing extreme pain, to illustrate well-known and
+accepted facts--experiments which English physiologists pronounce
+"infamous" and "atrocious," which English physicians and surgeons
+stigmatize as purposeless cruelty and unjustifiable--which even Huxley
+regards as unfitting for teaching purposes, and Darwin denounces as
+worthy of detestation and abhorrence? I confess I see no occasion for
+any over-delicate reticence in this matter. Science needs no secrecy
+either for her methods or results; her function is to reveal, not to
+hide, facts. The reply to these questions must be in the affirmative.
+In this country our physiologists are rather followers of Magendie and
+Bernard, after the methods in vogue at Paris and Leipsic, than
+governed by the cautious and sensitive conservatism in this respect
+which generally characterizes the physiological teaching of London and
+Oxford. In making this statement, no criticism is intended on the
+motives of those responsible for ingrafting continental methods upon
+our medical schools. If any opprobrium shall be inferred for the past
+performance of experiments herein condemned, the present writer asks a
+share in it. It is the future that we hope to change. Now, what are
+the facts? A recent contributor to the "International Review,"
+referring to Mr. Bergh, says that "he assails physiological
+experiments with the same blind extravagance of denunciation as if
+they were still performed without anæsthetics, as in the time of
+Magendie." In the interests of scientific accuracy one would wish
+more care had been given to the construction of this sentence, for it
+implies that experiments are not now performed except with
+anæsthetics--a meaning its author never could have intended to convey.
+Every medical student in New York knows that experiments involving
+pain are repeatedly performed to illustrate teaching. It is no secret;
+one need not go beyond the frank admissions of our later text-books on
+physiology for abundant proof, not only of this, but of the extent to
+which experimentation is now carried in this country. "We have long
+been in the habit, in class demonstrations, of removing the optic lobe
+on one side from a pigeon," says Professor Flint, of Bellevue Hospital
+Medical College, in his excellent work on Physiology.[A] "The
+experiment of dividing the sympathetic in the neck, especially in
+rabbits, is so easily performed that the phenomena observed by Bernard
+and Brown-Sequard have been repeatedly verified. _We have often done
+this in class demonstrations._"[B] "The cerebral lobes were removed
+from a young pigeon in the usual way, an operation * * _which we
+practice yearly as a class demonstration_."[C] Referring to the
+removal of the cerebellum, the same authority states: "Our own
+experiments, which have been very numerous during the last fifteen
+years, are _simply repetitions of those of Flourens, and the results
+have been the same without exception."[D] We have frequently removed
+both kidneys_ from dogs, and when the operation is carefully performed
+the animals live for from three to five days. * * Death always takes
+place with symptoms of blood poisoning."[E] In the same work we are
+given precise details for making a pancreatic fistula, after the
+method of Claude Bernard--"one we have repeatedly employed with
+success." "In performing the above experiment it is generally better
+_not_ to employ an anæsthetic,"[F] but ether is sometimes used. In the
+same work is given a picture of a dog, muzzled and with a biliary
+fistula, as it appeared the fourteenth day after the operation, which,
+with details of the experiment, is quite suggestive.[G] Bernard was
+the first to succeed in following the spinal accessory nerve back to
+the jugular foramen, seizing it here with a strong pair of forceps and
+drawing it out by the roots. This experiment is practiced in our own
+country. "We have found this result (loss of voice) to follow in the
+cat after the spinal accessory nerves have been torn out by the
+roots," says Professor John C. Dalton, in his Treatise on Human
+Physiology.[H] "This operation is difficult," writes Professor Flint,
+"but we have several times performed it with entire success;" and his
+assistant at Bellevue Medical College has succeeded "in extirpating
+these nerves for class demonstrations."[I] In withdrawal of blood from
+the hepatic veins of a dog, "avoiding the administration of an
+anæsthetic" is one of the steps recommended.[J] The curious experiment
+of Bernard, in which artificial diabetes is produced by irritating the
+floor of the fourth ventricle of the brain, is carefully described,
+and illustrations afforded both of the instrument and the animal
+undergoing the operation. The inexperienced experimenter is here
+taught to hold the head of the rabbit "firmly in the left hand," and
+to bore through its skull "by a few lateral movements of the
+instrument." It is not a difficult operation; it is one which the
+author has "often repeated." He tell us "_it is not desirable to
+administer an anæsthetic_," as it would prevent success; and a little
+further we are told that "we should avoid the administration of
+anæsthetics in all accurate experiments on the glycogenic
+function."[K] It is true the pleasing assurance is given that "this
+experiment is almost painless"; but on this point, could the rabbit
+speak during the operation, its opinion might not accord with that of
+the physiologist.
+
+    [A] A Text-book of Human Physiology, designed for the use of
+    Practitioners and Students of Medicine, by Austin Flint, Jr.,
+    M. D. D. Appleton & Co. New York: 1876 (page 722).
+
+    [B] Page 738.
+
+    [C] Page 585.
+
+    [D] Page 710.
+
+    [E] Page 403.
+
+    [F] Pages 269-70.
+
+    [G] Page 282.
+
+    [H] Page 489.
+
+    [I] Page 629.
+
+    [J] Page 463.
+
+    [K] Pages 470-71.
+
+There is one experiment in regard to which the severe characterization
+of English scientists is especially applicable, from the pain
+necessarily attending it. Numerous investigators have long established
+the fact that the great sensory nerve of the head and face is endowed
+with an exquisite degree of sensibility. More than half a century ago,
+both Magendie and Sir Charles Bell pointed out that merely exposing
+and touching this fifth nerve gave signs of most acute pain. "All who
+have divided this root in living animals must have recognized, not
+only that it is sensitive, but that its sensibility is far more acute
+than that of any other nervous trunk in the body."[A] "The fifth
+pair," says Professor John C. Dalton, "is the most acutely sensitive
+nerve in the whole body. Its irritation by mechanical means _always
+causes intense pain_, and even though the animal be nearly unconscious
+from the influence of ether, any severe injury to its large root is
+almost invariably followed by cries."[B] Testimony on this point is
+uniform and abundant. If science speaks anywhere with assurance, it
+is in regard to the properties of this nerve. Yet every year the
+experiment is repeated before medical classes, simply to demonstrate
+accepted facts. "This is an operation," says Professor Flint,
+referring to the division of this nerve, "that we have frequently
+performed with success." He adds that "it is difficult from the fact
+that one is working in the dark, and it requires a certain amount of
+dexterity, _to be acquired only by practice_." Minute directions are
+therefore laid down for the operative procedure, and illustrations
+given both of the instrument to be used, and of the head of a rabbit
+with the blade of the instrument in its cranial cavity.[C] Holding the
+head of our rabbit firmly in the left hand, we are directed to
+penetrate the cranium in a particular manner. "Soon the operator feels
+at a certain depth that the bony resistance ceases; he is then on the
+fifth pair, and the cries of the animal give evidence that the nerve
+is pressed upon." This is one of Magendie's celebrated experiments;
+perhaps the reader fancies that in its modern repetitions the animal
+suffers nothing, being rendered insensible by anæsthetics? "_It is
+much more satisfactory to divide the nerve without etherizing the
+animal, as the evidence of pain is an important guide in this delicate
+operation._" Anæsthetics, however, are sometimes used, but not so as
+wholly to overcome the pain.
+
+    [A] Flint: "Text Book on Human Physiology" (page 641).
+
+    [B] Dalton's "Human Physiology" (page 466).
+
+    [C] Flint (pages 639-40).
+
+Testimony of individuals, indicating the extent to which vivisection
+is at present practiced in this country might be given; but it seems
+better to submit proof within the reach of every reader, and the
+accuracy of which is beyond cavil. No legal restrictions whatever
+exist, preventing the performance of any experiment desired. Indeed, I
+think it may safely be asserted that, in the city of New York, in a
+single medical school, more pain is inflicted upon living animals as a
+means of teaching well-known facts, than is permitted to be done for
+the same purpose in all the medical schools of Great Britain and
+Ireland. And _cui bono_? "I can truly say," writes a physician who
+has seen all these experiments, "that not only have I never seen any
+results at all commensurate with the suffering inflicted, but I cannot
+recall a single experiment which, in the slightest degree, has
+increased my ability to relieve pain, or in any way fitted me to cope
+better with disease."
+
+In respect to this practice, therefore, evidence abounds indicating
+the necessity for that State supervision which obtains in Great
+Britain. We cannot abolish it any more than we can repress dissection;
+to attempt it would be equally unwise. Within certain limitations,
+dictated both by a regard for the interest of science and by that
+sympathy for everything that lives and suffers which is the highest
+attribute of humanity, it seems to me that the practice of vivisection
+should be allowed. What are these restrictions?
+
+The following conclusions are suggested as a basis for future
+legislation:
+
+_I. Any experiment or operation whatever upon a living animal, during
+which by recognized anæsthetics it is made completely insensible to
+pain, should be permitted._
+
+This does not necessarily imply the taking of life. Should a surgeon,
+for example, desire to cause a fracture or tie an artery, and then
+permit the animal to recover so as to note subsequent effects, there
+is no reason why the privilege should be refused. The discomfort
+following such an operation would be inconsiderable. This permission
+should not extend to experiments purely physiological and having no
+definite relation to surgery; nor to mutilation from which recovery is
+impossible, and prolonged pain certain as a sequence.
+
+_II. Any experiment performed thus, under complete anæsthesia, though
+involving any degree of mutilation, if concluded by the extinction of
+life before consciousness is regained should also be permitted._
+
+To object to killing animals for scientific purposes while we continue
+to demand their sacrifice for food, is to seek for the appetite a
+privilege we refuse the mind. It is equally absurd to object to
+vivisection because it dissects, or "cuts up." If no pain be felt, why
+is it worse to cut up a dog, than a sheep or an ox? Such experiments
+as the foregoing might be permitted to any extent desired in our
+medical schools.
+
+Far more difficult is the question of painful experimentation.
+Unfortunately, it so happens that the most attractive original
+investigations are largely upon the nervous system, involving the
+consciousness of pain as a requisite to success. Toward this class of
+experiments the State should act with caution and firmness. It seems
+to me that the following restrictions are only just.
+
+_III. In view of the great cost in suffering, as compared with the
+slight profit gained by the student, the repetition, for purposes of
+class instruction of any experiment involving pain to a vertebrate
+animal should be forbidden by law._
+
+_IV. In view of the slight gain to practical medicine resulting from
+innumerable past experiments of this kind, a painful experiment upon
+a living vertebrate animal should be permitted solely for purposes of
+original investigation, and then only under the most rigid
+surveillance, and preceded by the strictest precautions._ For every
+experiment of this kind the physiologist should be required to obtain
+special permission from a State board, specifying on application (1)
+the object of the proposed investigation, (2) the nature and method of
+the operation, (3) the species of animal to be sacrificed, and (4) the
+shortest period during which pain will probably be felt. An officer of
+the State should be given an opportunity to be present; and a report
+made, both of the length of time occupied, and the knowledge, if any,
+gained thereby. If these restrictions are made obligatory by statute,
+and their violation made punishable by a heavy fine, such experiments
+will be generally performed only when absolutely necessary for
+purposes of scientific research.
+
+In few matters is there greater necessity for careful discrimination
+than in everything pertaining to this subject. The attempt has been
+made in this paper to indicate how far the State--leaning to mercy's
+side--may sanction a practice often so necessary and useful, always so
+dangerous in its tendencies. That is a worthy ideal of conduct which
+seeks
+
+  "Never to blend our pleasure or our pride
+  With sorrow of the meanest thing that feels."
+
+Is not this a sentiment in which even science may fitly share? Are we
+justified in neglecting the evidence she offers, purchased in the past
+at such immeasurable agonies, and in demanding that year after year
+new victims shall be subjected to torture, only to demonstrate what
+none of us doubt? That is the chief question. For, if all compromise
+be persistently rejected by physiologists, there is danger that some
+day, impelled by the advancing growth of humane sentiment, society may
+confound in one common condemnation all experiments of this nature,
+and make the whole practice impossible, except in secret and as a
+crime.
+
+
+
+
+[_From_ LIPPINCOTT'S MAGAZINE, _August, 1884_.]
+
+VIVISECTION.
+
+
+Omitting entirely any consideration of the ethics of vivisection, the
+only points to which in the present article the attention of the
+reader is invited are those in which scientific inquirers may be
+supposed to have a common interest.
+
+I. One danger to which scientific truth seems to be exposed is a
+peculiar tendency to underestimate the numberless uncertainties
+and contradictions created by experimentation upon living beings.
+Judging from the enthusiasm of its advocates, one would think that
+by this method of interrogating nature all fallacies can be
+detected, all doubts determined. But, on the contrary, the result of
+experimentation, in many directions, is to plunge the observer into
+the abyss of uncertainty. Take, for example, one of the simplest and
+yet most important questions possible,--the degree of sensibility in
+the lower animals. Has an infinite number of experiments enabled
+physiologists to determine for us the mere question of pain? Suppose
+an amateur experimenter in London, desirous of performing some severe
+operations upon frogs, to hesitate because of the extreme painfulness
+of his methods, what replies would he be likely to obtain from the
+highest scientific authorities of England as to the sensibility of
+these creatures? We may fairly judge their probable answers to such
+inquiries from their evidence already given before a royal
+commission.[A]
+
+    [A] The contradictory opinions ascribed to most of the
+    authorities quoted in this article are taken directly from
+    the "Report of the Royal Commission on the Practice of
+    Subjecting Live Animals to Experiments for Scientific
+    Purposes,"--a Blue-Book Parliamentary Report.
+
+Dr. Carpenter would doubtless repeat his opinion that "frogs have
+extremely little perception of pain;" and in the evidence of that
+experienced physiologist George Henry Lewes, he would find the
+cheerful assurance, "I do not believe that frogs suffer pain at all."
+Our friend applies, let us suppose, to Dr. Klein, of St. Bartholomew's
+Hospital, who despises the sentimentality which regards animal
+suffering as of the least consequence; and this enthusiastic
+vivisector informs him that, in his English experience, the experiment
+which caused the greatest pain without anæsthetics was the
+cauterization of the cornea of a frog. Somewhat confused at finding
+that a most painful experiment can be performed upon an animal that
+does not suffer he relates this to Dr. Swaine Taylor, of Guy's
+Hospital, who does not think that Klein's experiment would cause
+severe suffering; but of another--placing a frog in cold water and
+raising the temperature to about 100°--"that," says Doctor Taylor,
+"would be a cruel experiment: I cannot see what purpose it can
+answer." Before leaving Guy's Hospital, our inquiring friend meets Dr.
+Pavy, one of the most celebrated physiologists in England, who tells
+him that in this experiment, stigmatized by his colleague as "cruel,"
+the frog would in reality suffer very little; that if we ourselves
+were treated to a bath gradually raised from a medium temperature to
+the boiling point, "I think we should not feel any pain;" that were we
+plunged at once into boiling water, "even then," says the enthusiastic
+and scientific Dr. Pavy, "I do not think pain would be experienced!"
+Our friend goes then to Dr. Sibson, of St. Mary's Hospital, who as a
+physiologist of many years' standing, sees no objection to freezing,
+starving, or baking animals alive; but he declares of boiling a frog,
+"That is a horrible idea, and I certainly am not going to defend it."
+Perplexed more than ever, he goes to Dr. Lister, of King's College,
+and is astonished upon being told "that the mere holding of a frog
+in your warm hand is about as painful as any experiment probably
+that you would perform." Finally, one of the strongest advocates of
+vivisections, Dr. Anthony, pupil of Sir Charles Bell, would exclaim,
+if a mere exposition of the lungs of the frog were referred to,
+"Fond as I am of physiology, I would not do that for the world!"
+
+Now, what has our inquirer learned by his appeal to science? Has
+he gained any clear and absolute knowledge? Hardly two of the
+experimenters named agree upon one simple yet most important
+preliminary of research--_the sensibility to pain of a single species
+of animals_.
+
+Let us interrogate scientific opinion a little further on this
+question of sensibility. Is there any difference in animals as
+regards susceptibility to pain? Dr. Anthony says that we may take
+the amount of intelligence in animals as a fair measure of their
+sensibility--that the pain one would suffer would be in proportion
+to its intelligence. Dr. Rutherford, Edinburgh, never performs an
+experiment upon a cat or a spaniel if he can help it, because they are
+so exceedingly sensitive; and Dr. Horatio Wood, of Philadelphia, tells
+us that the nervous system of a cat is far more sensitive than that of
+the rabbit. On the other hand, Dr. Lister, of King's College, is not
+aware of any such difference in sensibility in animals, and Dr.
+Brunton, of St. Bartholomew's, finds cats such very good animals to
+operate with that he on one occasion used ninety in making a single
+experiment.
+
+Sir William Gull thinks "there are but few experiments performed on
+living creatures where sensation is not removed," yet Dr. Rutherford
+admits "about half" his experiments to have been made upon animals
+sensitive to pain. Professor Rolleston, of Oxford University, tells
+us "the whole question of anæsthetizing animals has an element of
+uncertainty"; and Professor Rutherford declares it "impossible to say"
+whether even artificial respiration is painful or not, "unless the
+animal can speak." Dr. Brunton, of St. Bartholomew's, says of that
+most painful experiment, poisoning by strychnine, that it cannot be
+efficiently shown if the animal be under chloroform. Dr. Davy, of
+Guy's, on the contrary, always gives chloroform, and finds it no
+impediment to successful demonstration, Is opium an anæsthetic? Claude
+Bernard declares that sensibility exists even though the animal be
+motionless: "_Il sent la douleur, mais il a, pour ainsi dire, perdu
+l'idee de la defense._"[A] But Dr. Brunton, of St. Bartholomew's
+hospital, London, has no hesitation whatever in contradicting this
+statement "emphatically, however high an authority it may be."
+
+Curare, a poison invented by South American Indians for their arrows,
+is much used in physiological laboratories to paralyze the motor
+nerves, rendering an animal absolutely incapable of the slightest
+disturbing movement. Does it at the same time destroy sensation, or
+is the creature conscious of every pang? Claude Bernard, of Paris,
+Sharpey, of London, and Flint, of New York[B] all agree that sensation
+is _not_ abolished; on the other hand, Rutherford regards curare as a
+partial anæsthetic, and Huxley strongly intimates that Bernard in thus
+deciding from experiments that it does not affect the cerebral
+hemispheres or consciousness, "_jumped at a conclusion_ for which
+neither he nor anybody else had any scientific justification." This
+is extraordinary language for one experimentalist to use regarding
+others! If it is possible that such men as Claude Bernard and
+Professor Flint have "jumped at" one utterly unscientific conclusion,
+notwithstanding the most painstaking of vivisections, what security
+have we that other of our theories in physiology now regarded as
+absolutely established may not be one day as severely ridiculed by
+succeeding investigators? Is it, after all, true, that the absolute
+certainty of our most important deductions must remain forever hidden
+"unless the animal can speak"?
+
+    [A] "He feels the pain, but has lost, so to speak, the idea
+    of self defense." Leçons de Physiologie opératoire, 1879, p.
+    115.
+
+    [B] Text-Book of Human Physiology, p. 595.
+
+II. Between advocating State supervision of painful vivisection, and
+proposing with Mr. Bergh the total suppression of all experiments,
+painful or otherwise, there is manifestly a very wide distinction.
+Unfortunately, the suggestion of any interference whatever invariably
+rouses the anger of those most interested--an indignation as
+unreasonable, to say the least, as that of the merchant who refuses a
+receipt for money just paid to him, on the ground that a request for a
+written acknowledgement is a reflection upon his honesty. I cannot see
+how otherwise than by State supervision we are to reach abuses which
+confessedly exist. Can we trust the sensitiveness and conscience
+of every experimenter? Nobody claims this. One of the leading
+physiologists in this country, Dr. John C. Dalton, admits "that
+vivisection may be, and has been, abused by reckless, unfeeling, or
+unskillful persons;" that he himself has witnessed abroad, in a
+veterinary institution, operations than which "nothing could be more
+shocking." And yet the unspeakable atrocities at Alfort, to which,
+apparently, Dr. Dalton alludes, were defended upon the very ground he
+occupies to-day in advocating experiments of the modern laboratory and
+classroom; for the Academie des Sciences decided that there was "no
+occasion to take any notice of complaints; that in the future, as in
+the past, vivisectional experiments must be left entirely to the
+judgment of scientific men." What seemed "atrocious" to the more
+tender-hearted Anglo-Saxon was pronounced entirely justifiable by the
+French Academy of Science.
+
+A curious question suggests itself in connection with this point.
+There can be little doubt, I think, that the sentiment of compassion
+and of sympathy with suffering is more generally diffused among all
+classes of Great Britain than elsewhere in Europe; and one cannot help
+wondering what our place might be, were it possible to institute any
+reliable comparison of national humanity. Should we be found in all
+respects as sensitive as the English people? Would indignation and
+protest be as quickly and spontaneously evoked among us by a cruel
+act? The question may appear an ungracious one, yet it seems to me
+there exists some reason why it should be plainly asked. There is a
+certain experiment--one of the most excruciating that can be
+performed--which consists in exposing the spinal cord of the dog for
+the purpose of demonstrating the functions of the spinal nerves. It is
+one, by the way, which Dr. Wilder forgot to enumerate in his summary
+of the "four kinds of experiments," since it is not the "cutting
+operation" which forms its chief peculiarity or to which special
+objection would be made. At present all this preliminary process is
+generally performed under anæsthetics: it is an hour or two later,
+when the animal has partly recovered from the severe shock of the
+operation, that the wound is reopened and the experiment begins. It
+was during a class demonstration of this kind by Magendie, before
+the introduction of ether, that the circumstance occurred which one
+hesitates to think possible in a person retaining a single spark of
+humanity or pity. "I recall to mind," says Dr. Latour, who was present
+at the time, "a poor dog, the roots of whose vertebral nerves Magendie
+desired to lay bare to demonstrate Bell's theory, which he claimed as
+his own. The dog, mutilated and bleeding twice escaped from under the
+implacable knife, and threw its front paws around Magendie's neck,
+licking, as if to soften his murderer and ask for mercy! I confess I
+was unable to endure that heartrending spectacle."
+
+It was probably in reference to this experiment that Sir Charles Bell,
+the greatest English physiologist of our century, writing to his
+brother in 1822, informs him that he hesitates to go on with his
+investigations. "You may think me silly," he adds, "but I cannot
+perfectly convince myself that I am authorized in nature or religion
+to do these cruelties." Now, what do English physiologists and
+vivisectors of the present day think of the repetition of this
+experiment solely as a class demonstration?
+
+They have candidly expressed their opinions before a royal commission.
+Dr. David Ferrier, of King's college, noted for his experiments upon
+the brain of monkeys, affirms his belief that "students would rebel"
+at the sight of a painful experiment. Dr. Rutherford, who certainly
+dared do all that may become a physiologist, confesses mournfully,
+"_I dare not_ show an experiment upon a dog or rabbit before students,
+when the animal is not anæsthetized." Dr. Pavy, of Guy's Hospital,
+asserts that a painful experiment introduced before a class "would not
+be tolerated for a moment." Sir William Gull, M. D., believes that the
+repetition of an operation like this upon the spinal nerves would
+excite the reprobation alike of teacher, pupils, and the public at
+large. Michael Foster, of Cambridge University, who minutely describes
+all the details of the experiment on recurrent sensibility in the
+"Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory," nevertheless tells
+us, "I have not performed it, and have never seen it done," partly,
+as he confesses, "from horror at the pain." And finally Dr.
+Burdon-Sanderson, physiologist at University College, London, states
+with the utmost emphasis, in regard to the performance of this
+demonstration on the spinal cord, "I am perfectly certain that no
+physiologist--none of the leading men in Germany, for example--would
+exhibit an experiment of that kind."
+
+Now mark the contrast. This experiment--which we are told passes even
+the callousness of Germany to repeat; which every leading champion of
+vivisection in Great Britain reprobates for medical teaching; which
+some of them shrink even from seeing, themselves, from horror at the
+tortures necessarily inflicted; which the most ruthless among them
+_dare not_ exhibit to the young men of England,--_this experiment has
+been performed publicly again and again in American medical colleges_,
+without exciting, so far as we know, even a whisper of protest or the
+faintest murmur of remonstrance! The proof is to be found in the
+published statements of the experimenter himself. In his "Text-Book
+of Physiology," Professor Flint says, "Magendie showed very
+satisfactorily that the posterior roots (of the spinal cord) were
+exclusively sensory, and this fact has been confirmed by more recent
+observations upon the higher classes of animals. We have ourselves
+frequently exposed and irritated the roots of the nerves in dogs, _in
+public demonstrations_ in experiments on the recurrent sensibility,
+... and in another series of observations."[A]
+
+    [A] "A Text-Book of Human Physiology." By Austin Flint, Jr.
+    M. D. New York, 1876. Page 589; see also page 674.
+
+This is the experience of a single professional teacher; but it is
+improbable that this experiment has been shown only to the students of
+a single medical college in the United States; it has doubtless been
+repeated again and again in different colleges throughout the country.
+If Englishmen are, then, so extremely sensitive as Ferrier, Gull, and
+Burdon-Sanderson would have us believe, we must necessarily conclude
+that the sentiment of compassion is far greater in Britain than in
+America. Have we drifted backward in humanity? Have American students
+learned to witness, without protest, tortures at the sight of which
+English students would rebel? We are told that there is no need of any
+public sensitiveness on this subject. We should trust entirely, as
+they do in France,--at Alfort, for example,--"to the judgment of the
+investigator." There must be no lifting of the veil to the outside
+multitude; for the priests of this unpitying science there must be as
+absolute immunity from criticism or inquiry as was ever demanded
+before the shrine of Delphi or the altars of Baal. "Let them exercise
+their solemn office," demands Dr. Wilder, "not only unrestrained by
+law, but upheld by public sentiment."
+
+For myself, I cannot believe this position is tenable. Nothing seems
+to me more certain than the results that must follow if popular
+sentiment in this country shall knowingly sustain the public
+demonstration of an experiments in pain, which can find no defender
+among the physiologists of Great Britain. It has been my fortune to
+know something of the large hospitals of Europe; and I confess I do
+not know a single one in countries where painful vivisection
+flourishes, unchecked by law, wherein the poor and needy sick are
+treated with the sympathy, the delicacy, or even the decency, which so
+universally characterize the hospitals of England. When Magendie,
+operating for cataract, plunged his needle to the bottom of his
+patient's eye, that he might note upon a human being the effect
+produced by mechanical irritation of the retina, he demonstrated how
+greatly the zeal of the enthusiast may impair the responsibility of
+the physician and the sympathy of man for man.
+
+III. The utility of vivisection in advancing therapeutics, despite
+much argument, still remains an open question. No one is so foolish as
+to deny the possibility of future usefulness to any discovery
+whatever; but there is a distinction, very easily slurred over in the
+eagerness of debate, between present applicability and remotely
+potential service. If the pains inflicted on animals are absolutely
+necessary to the protection of human life and the advancement of
+practical skill in medicine, should sentiment be permitted to check
+investigation? An English prelate, the Bishop of Peterborough,
+speaking in Parliament on this subject, once told the House of Lords
+that "it was very difficult to decide what was unnecessary pain," and
+as an example of the perplexities which arose in his own mind he
+mentioned "the case of the wretched man who was convicted of skinning
+cats alive, because their skins were more valuable when taken from the
+living animal than from the dead one. The extra money," added the
+Bishop, "got the man a dinner!"[A] Whether in this particular case the
+excuse was well received by the judge, the reverend prelate neglected
+to inform us; but it is certain that the plea for painful
+experimentation rests substantially on the same basis. Out of the
+agonies of sentient brutes we are to pluck the secret of longer living
+and the art of surer triumph over intractable disease.
+
+    [A] See Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, June 20, 1876.
+
+But has this hope been fulfilled? Pasteur, we are told, has claimed
+the discovery of a cure for hydrophobia through experiments on
+animals. It may be well worth its cost if only true; but we cannot
+forget that its practical value is by no means yet demonstrated. Aside
+from this, has physiological experimentation during the last quarter
+of a century contributed such marked improvements in therapeutic
+methods that we find certain and tangible evidence thereof in the
+diminishing fatality of any disease? Can one mention a single malady
+which thirty years ago resisted every remedial effort, to which the
+more enlightened science of to-day can offer hopes of recovery? These
+seem to me perfectly legitimate and fair questions, and, fortunately,
+in one respect, capable of a scientific reply. I suppose the opinion
+of the late Claude Bernard, of Paris, would be generally accepted as
+that of the highest scientific authority on the utility of vivisection
+in "practical medicine;" but he tells us that it is hardly worth while
+to make the inquiry. "Without doubt," he confessed, "_our hands are
+empty to-day_, although our mouths are full of legitimate promises for
+the future."
+
+Was Claude Bernard correct in this opinion as to the "empty hands?"
+If scientific evidence is worth anything, it points to the appalling
+conclusion that, _notwithstanding all the researches of physiology,
+the chief forms of chronic disease exhibit to-day in England a greater
+fatality than thirty years ago_. In the following table I have
+indicated the average annual mortality, per million inhabitants, of
+certain diseases, _first_, for the period of five years from 1850 to
+1854, and _secondly_, for the period twenty-five years later, from
+1875 to 1879. The authority is beyond question; the facts are
+collected from the report to Parliament of the Registrar-general
+of England:
+
+             _Average Annual Rate of Mortality in England,
+          from Causes of Death, per One Million Inhabitants._
+
+  ----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
+                                    |    During     |    During
+           NAME OF DISEASE.         |  Five Years,  |  Five Years,
+                                    |    1850-54.   |    1875-79.
+  ----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
+  Gout,                             |        12     |        25
+  Aneurism,                         |        16     |        32
+  Diabetes,                         |        23     |        41
+  Insanity,                         |        29     |        57
+  Syphilis,                         |        37     |        86
+  Epilepsy,                         |       105     |       119
+  Bright's disease,                 |        32     |       182
+  Kidney disease,                   |        94     |       114
+  Brain disease,                    |       192     |       281
+  Liver disease,                    |       215     |       291
+  Heart disease,                    |       651     |     1,335
+  Cancer,                           |       302     |       492
+  Paralysis,                        |       440     |       501
+  Apoplexy,                         |       454     |       552
+  Tubercular diseases and diseases  |               |
+    of the Respiratory Organs,      |     6,424     |     6,886
+  ----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
+  Mortality from above diseases:    |     9,026     |    10,994
+  ----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
+
+This is certainly a most startling exhibit, when we remember that from
+only these few causes about half of _all_ the deaths in England
+annually occur, and that from them result the deaths of two-thirds of
+the persons, of both sexes, who reach the age of twenty years.[A] What
+are the effects here discernible of Bernard's experiments upon
+diabetes? of Brown-Sequard's upon epilepsy and paralysis? of Flint's
+and Pavy's on diseases of the liver? of Ferrier's researches upon the
+functions of the brain? Let us appeal from the heated enthusiasm of
+the experimenter to the stern facts of the statistician. Why, so far
+from having obtained the least mastery over those malignant forces
+which seem forever to elude and baffle our art, they are actually
+gaining upon us; every one of these forms of disease is more fatal
+to-day in England than thirty years ago; during 1879 over sixty
+thousand _more_ deaths resulted from these maladies alone than would
+have occurred had the rate of mortality from them been simply that
+which prevailed during the benighted period of 1850 to 1854! True,
+during later years there has been a diminished mortality in England,
+but it is from the lesser prevalence of zymotic diseases, which no one
+to-day pretends to cure; while the organic diseases show a constant
+tendency to increase. Part of this may be due to more accurate
+diagnosis and clearer definition of mortality causes: but this will
+not explain a phenomenon which is too evident to be overlooked.
+
+    [A] In 1879 the total mortality in England, above the age of
+    twenty, from _all causes_ whatsoever, was 287,093. Of these
+    deaths, the number occasioned by the sixteen causes above
+    named, was 191,706, or almost exactly two-thirds.
+
+"It is a fact," says the Registrar-general, in his report for 1879,
+"that while mortality in early life has been very notably diminished,
+_the mortality of persons in middle or advanced life has been steadily
+rising for a long period of years_." It is probable that the same
+story would be told by the records of France, Germany, and other
+European countries; it is useless, of course, to refer to America,
+since in regard to statistical information we still lag behind every
+country which pretends to be civilized.[A] Undoubtedly it would be a
+false assumption which from these facts should deduce retrogression
+in medical art or deny advance and improvement; but they certainly
+indicate that the boasted superiority of modern medicine over the
+skill of our fathers, due to physiological researches, is not
+sustained by the only impartial authority to which science can appeal
+for evidence of results.
+
+    [A] Even Japan, a country we are apt to consider as somewhat
+    benighted, has far better statistical information at hand
+    than the United States of America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+What then is the substance of the whole matter? It seems to me the
+following conclusions are justified by the facts presented.
+
+I. All experiments upon living animals may be divided into two general
+classes; 1st those which produce pain,--slight, brief, severe or
+atrociously acute and prolonged; and 2nd, those experiments which are
+performed under complete anæsthesia from which either death ensues
+during unconsciousness, or entire recovery may follow.
+
+II. The majority of vivisections requisite for purposes of teaching
+physiological facts _may_ be so carried on as to take life with less
+pain or inconvenience to the animal than is absolutely necessary in
+order to furnish meat for our tables. Those who would make it a penal
+offense to submit to a class of college students the unconscious and
+painless demonstration of functional activity of the heart, for
+example, and yet demand for the gratification of appetite the daily
+slaughter of oxen and sheep without anæsthetics, and without any
+attempt to minimize the agony of terror, fear and pain--may not be
+inconsistent. But it is a view the writer cannot share.
+
+III. Prohibition of all experiments may be fairly demanded by those
+who believe that the enthusiastic ardor of the scientific experimenter
+or lecturer, will outweigh all considerations of good faith, provided
+success or failure of his experiment depend on the consciousness of
+pain. In other words, that the experimenter himself, as a rule,
+_cannot be trusted to obey the law, should the law restrict_.
+
+This also is an extreme position.
+
+IV. Absolute liberty in the matter of painful experiments has produced
+admitted abuses by physiologists of Germany, France and Italy. In
+America it has led to the repetition before classes of students of
+Magendie's extreme cruelties,--demonstrations which have been
+condemned by every leading English physiologist.
+
+V. In view of the dangerous impulses not unfrequently awakened by the
+sight of pain intentionally inflicted, experiments of this kind should
+be by legal enactment absolutely forbidden before classes of students,
+especially in our Public Schools.
+
+VI. It is not in accord with scientific accuracy to contend for
+unlimited freedom of painful experimentation, on the ground of its
+vast utility to humanity in the discovery of new methods for the cure
+of disease. On the contrary, so far as can be discovered by a careful
+study of English mortality statistics, physiological experiments upon
+living animals for fifty years back have in no single instance
+lessened the fatality of any disease below its average of thirty-five
+years ago.
+
+VII. Vivisection, involving the infliction of pain is, even in its
+best possible aspect, a necessary evil, and ought at once to be
+restricted within the narrowest limits, and placed under the
+supervision of the State.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+I.
+
+For reasons sufficiently stated in the preceding pages, the writer
+does not advocate the total abolition of all experimentation. It is
+only fair to acknowledge, however, that very strong and weighty
+arguments in favor of legal repression have been advanced both in this
+country and abroad, some of which are herewith presented, as the other
+side of the question.
+
+The cause of abolition has no more earnest and eloquent advocate than
+Miss Frances Power Cobbe of England. Through innumerable controversies
+with scientific men in the public journals, magazines and reviews, she
+has presented in awful array, the abuses of unlimited and uncontrolled
+experimentation on the continent of Europe, and the arguments in favor
+of total repression. The following letters, extracts from her public
+correspondence, will indicate her position.
+
+TENDER VIVISECTION.
+
+(TO THE EDITOR OF THE "SCOTSMAN.")
+
+                                1, Victoria Street, London, S. W.,
+                                         January 10, 1881.
+
+SIR.--An Italian pamphlet, _Dell'Azione del Dolore sulla Respirazione_
+(The Action of Pain on Respiration), has just reached my hands, and as
+it is, I think, quite unknown in this country, I will beg you to grant
+me space for a few extracts from its pages. The pamphlet is by the
+eminent physiologist, Mantegazza, and was published by Chiusi, of
+Milan. Having explained the object of his investigations to be the
+effects of pain on the respiratory organs, the Professor describes (p.
+20) the methods he devised for the production of such pain. He found
+the best to consist in "planting nails, sharp and numerous, through
+the feet of the animal in such a manner as to render the creature
+almost motionless, because in every movement it would have felt its
+torment more acutely" (_piantando chiodi acuti e numerosi attraverso
+le piante dei piedi in modo da rendere immobile o quasi l'animale,
+perché ad ogni movimento avrebbe sentito molto piu acuto il suo
+tormento_). Further on he mentions that, to produce still more intense
+pain (_dolore intenso_) he was obliged to employ lesions, followed by
+inflammation. An ingenious machine, constructed by "our" Tecnomasio,
+of Milan, enabled him likewise to grip any part of an animal with
+pincers with iron teeth, and to crush, or tear, or lift up the victim,
+"so as to produce pain in every possible way." A drawing of this
+instrument is appended. The first series of his experiments, Signor
+Mantegazza informs us, were tried on twelve animals, chiefly rabbits
+and guinea pigs, of which several were pregnant. One poor little
+creature, "far advanced in pregnancy," was made to endure _dolori
+atrocissimi_, so that it was impossible to make any observations in
+consequence of its convulsions.
+
+In the second series of experiments twenty-eight animals were
+sacrificed, some of them taken from nursing their young, exposed to
+torture for an hour or two, then allowed to rest an hour, and usually
+replaced in the machine to be crushed or torn by the Professor for
+periods of from two to six hours more. In the table wherein these
+experiments are summed up, the terms _molto dolore_ and _crudeli
+dolori_ are delicately distinguished, the latter being apparently
+reserved for the cases when the victims were, as the Professor
+expresses it, _lardellati di chiodi_--("larded with nails").
+
+In conclusion, the author informs us (p. 25) that these experiments
+were all conducted "_con molto amore e pazienza!_"--with much zeal and
+patience.
+
+                         I am, etc.,
+                                        FRANCES POWER COBBE.
+
+In a controversy with Dr. Pye-Smith, who had read a paper before the
+British Association, Miss Cobbe writes as follows to one of the public
+journals:
+
+"Dr. Pye-Smith is reported to have said: 'Happily, the neccessary
+experiments were comparatively few.' Few! What are a "few"
+experiments? Professor Schiff in ten years experimented on 14,000
+dogs, given over to him by the Municipality of Florence, and returned
+their carcases so mangled that the man who had contracted for their
+skins found them useless. He also experimented on pigeons, cats, and
+rabbits to the number, it is calculated, of 70,000 creatures; and he
+now asks for ten dogs a week in Geneva. All over Germany and France
+there are laboratories "using" (as the horrible phrase is) numberless
+animals, inasmuch as I have just received a letter stating that dogs
+are actually becoming scarce in Lyons, and it is proposed to breed
+them for the purpose of Vivisection. Be this true or not, I invite any
+of your readers to visit the office of the Victoria Street Society,
+and examine the volumes of splendid plates of vivisecting instruments,
+which will there be shown them, and then judge for themselves whether
+it be for a few experiments that those elaborate and costly inventions
+have become a regular branch of manufacture. Let them examine the
+volume of the English handbook of the physiological laboratory, the
+volume of Cyon's magnificent atlas, with its 54 plates, the _Archives
+de Physiologie_, with its 191 plates, the _Physiologische Methodik_,
+or Claude Bernard's _Leçons sur la Chaleur Animale_, with its pictures
+of the stoves wherein he baked dogs and rabbits alive; and after these
+sights of disgust and horror they will know how to understand the word
+"few" in the vocabulary of a physiologist. I am glad to hear that a
+German opponent of Vivisection recently entering a shop devoted to the
+sale of these tools of torture, was greeted by the proprietor with a
+volley of abuse: 'It is you and your friends,' he said, 'who are
+destroying my trade. I used to sell a hundred of Czermak's tables and
+other instruments for one I sell now.'
+
+"Dr. Pye-Smith said: 'Many of the experiments inflicted no pain or
+injury whatever, and the great majority of the rest were rendered
+painless by the use of those beneficial agents which abolished pain
+and had themselves been discovered by experiments upon living
+animals.' As to the use of anæsthetics in annulling the agonies of
+mutilated animals, the audience ought to have asked Dr. Pye-Smith to
+explain whether he intended to refer to chloroform, or the narcotic
+morphia, or, lastly, to the drug _curare_. If he referred to
+chloroform, Dr. Hoggan tells from his own experience (_Anæsthetics_,
+p. 1), that 'nothing can be more uncertain than its influence on
+the lower animals; many of them die before they become insensible.
+Complete and conscientious anæsthesia is seldom even attempted,
+the animal getting at most a slight whiff of chloroform _by way of
+satisfying the conscience of the operator_, or enabling him to make
+statements of a humane character.' Even if it were conscientiously
+administered at the beginning of an experiment, how little would
+chloroform diminish the misery of Rutherford's dogs or Brunton's
+ninety cats, whose long-drawn agonies extended over many days? How
+little could it affect in any way the cases of starving, poisoning,
+baking, stewing to death, or burning,--like the twenty-five dogs over
+which Professor Wertheim poured turpentine and then set them on fire,
+leaving them afterwards slowly to perish? If Dr. Pye-Smith was
+thinking of morphia, the reader may refer to Claude Bernard's
+_Leçons de Physiologie Operatoire_, where he will find that great
+physiologists recommends its use; but at the same time mentions (as of
+no particular consequence) that the animal subjected to its influence
+still 'suffers pain.' I can hardly suppose, lastly, that Dr. Pye-Smith
+was secretly thinking of _curare_, and that he is one of those whom
+Tennyson says would
+
+  "Mangle the living dog which loved him and fawned at his knee,
+  Drenched with the hellish oorali."
+
+It is bad enough to "mangle" a loving and intelligent creature without
+adding to its agonies the paralysis of the powers of motion, and the
+increased sensibility to pain occasioned by this horrible drug, which
+nevertheless Bernard, in the work above quoted, says is in such common
+use among physiologists, that when an experiment is not otherwise
+described, it may always be "taken for granted it has been performed
+on a curarized dog."
+
+Finally, Dr. Pye-Smith says, "It was remarkable that the small residue
+of experiments in which some amount of pain was necessary were chiefly
+those in which the direct and immediate benefit to mankind was more
+obvious. He referred to the trying of drugs on animals, to discovering
+antidotes to poisons," etc. The bribe here offered to human
+selfishness is an ingenious one. "Let us," the physiologists say,
+"retain the right to put animals to torture, for it is very
+'remarkable' that when we do so it is always in your interest!"
+Unluckily for this appeal to the meaner feelings of human nature,
+which these modern instructors of our young men are not ashamed to put
+forward, it is difficult for them to hit on any one instance wherein
+out of their "few" (million) experiments any good to mankind has been,
+even apparently, achieved. As Claude Bernard honestly said, at least
+as regards any benefit for suffering humanity, "_Nos mains sont
+vides_." As to the trying of drugs on animals, Dr. Pritchard, who is,
+I believe, the best living authority on the subject, told the Royal
+Commission (Minutes, 908), "I do not think that the use of drugs on
+animals can be taken as a guide to the doses or to the action of the
+same drugs on the human subjects." As to the discovery of antidotes to
+poison, the only man who seems on the verge of any success is the
+brave and noble fellow who has been trying such experiments not on
+animals but on himself.
+
+In conclusion, I must add one word on Dr. Pye-Smith's last sentence,
+namely, "that legislation against vivisection is injurious to the best
+interests of the community." Sir, I know not what vivisectors deem to
+be the best interests of the community. For my part I do not reckon
+them to be the influence of drugs, nor yet susceptible of being carved
+out with surgical instruments. I do not think that they consist in
+escape from physical pain, nor even in the prolongation for a few
+years of our little earthly life. I hold that the best interests of
+the community are the moral and immortal interests of every soul in
+such community, namely, the conquest of selfishness, cowardice, and
+cruelty, and the development of the god-like sense of justice and
+love--the growth of the divinest thing in human nature, the faculty of
+sympathizing with the joys and sorrows of all God's creatures.
+Believing these to be "the best interests of the community," I ask,
+without hesitation, for the suppression of this abominable trade,
+which can best be described as "Pitilessness practised as a
+profession." If vivisection be indeed the true method of studying
+physiology, if physiology cannot be advanced except by vivisection,
+if chemical observation and microscopic research be useless for the
+purpose, and nothing but the torture of animals and the demoralization
+of men will suffice for its progress--then, in God's name, I say, let
+physiology stop at the point it has reached, even till the day of
+doom.--I am, Sir, with apologies for the length of this letter, yours,
+etc.
+
+                                         FRANCES POWER COBBE
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Certainly, as regards the ethics of vivisection, nothing more eloquent
+has ever been written than this closing paragraph.
+
+In a letter to the London TIMES in December, 1884, Miss Cobbe writes
+as follows:
+
+TO THE EDITOR.
+
+SIR,--In your article on this subject on Saturday last you called upon
+the opponents of vivisection to answer certain questions. As I have
+been intrusted for many years with the hon. secretaryship of the
+leading anti-vivisectionist society, I beg to offer you the following
+replies to those questions:--
+
+You ask first, Do we "deny that vivisection is capable of yielding
+knowledge of service to man?" We are not so rash as to deny that any
+practice, even the most immoral conceivable, might possibly yield
+knowledge of service to man; and, in particular, we do not deny that
+the vivisection of human beings by the surgeons of classic times, and
+again by the great anatomists of Italy in the 15th century, may very
+possibly have yielded knowledge to man, and be capable, if revived, of
+yielding still more. We have, however, for a long time back called on
+the advocates of the vivisection of dogs, monkeys, &c., to furnish
+evidence of the beneficial results of their work, not as setting at
+rest the question of its morality, but as an indispensable preliminary
+to justify them in coming into the court of public opinion as
+defendants of a practice obviously (as the Royal Commissioners
+reported) "liable from its very nature to great abuse."
+
+We must be excused if we now hold it to be demonstrated that, whether
+vivisection be or be not "capable of yielding useful knowledge," it
+certainly yields only a scanty crop of it. Were there anything like an
+abundant harvest, such a sample as this would not have been produced
+with so much pomp for public scrutiny. In short, we think with Dr.
+Leffingwell that, "if pain could be measured by money, there is no
+mining company in the world which would sanction prospecting in such
+barren regions."
+
+You ask us, Sir, secondly, "Do we affirm that the benefit of mankind
+is not an adequate or sufficient justification for the infliction of
+pain on animals?" We have two answers to this question.
+
+Assuming that by vivisection benefits might be obtained for human
+bodies, we hold that the evil results of the practice on human minds
+would more than counterbalance any such benefits. The cowardice and
+pitilessness involved in tying down a dog on a table and slowly
+mangling its brain, its eyes, its entrails; the sin committed against
+love and fidelity themselves when a creature capable of dying of grief
+on his master's grave is dealt with as a mere parcel of material
+tissues, "valuable for purposes of research"--these are basenesses for
+which no physical advantages would compensate, and the prevalence of
+such a heart-hardening process among our young men would, we are
+convinced, detract more from the moral interests of our nation than a
+thousand cases of recovery from disease would serve those of a lower
+kind. Even life itself ought not to be saved by such methods, any more
+than by the cannibalism of the men of the "Mignonette."
+
+Our second answer is yet more brief. We do not "deny that the benefit
+of man is a sufficient justification for inflicting pain upon
+animals," provided that pain is kept within moderate bounds, nor yet
+to taking life from them in a quick and careful manner. But we do deny
+the right of man to inflict torture upon brutes, and thus convert
+their lives from a blessing into a curse. Such torture has been
+inflicted upon tens of thousands of animals by vivisection; and no
+legislation that ingenuity can devise will, we believe, suffice to
+guard against the repetition of it so long as it is sanctioned in any
+way as a method of research. The use of vivisection--if it have any
+use--is practically inseparable from abuse. We therefore call upon our
+countrymen to forego the poor bribes of possible use which are offered
+to them, and of which we have now seen a "unique and impressive"
+example, and generously and manfully to say of vivisection as they
+once said of slavery "We will have none of it."
+
+                        I am, Sir, yours, etc.,
+                                        FRANCES POWER COBBE.
+
+  Hengwrt, Dolgelly, Dec. 28, 1884.
+
+
+II.
+
+[_Report of American Anti-vivisection Society, Jan. 1888._]
+
+"There remain two grounds to adopt: one the total abolition of all
+experiments; the other the total abolition of all _painful_
+experiments. This latter position, which is the one that Dr. Bigelow
+of Boston and Dr. Leffingwell have assumed, has engaged our attention
+for a long time; but, after bestowing upon it careful consideration,
+we feel that we must give it up as impracticable. To secure immunity
+from pain there must be absolutely perfect anæsthesia. This can be
+only obtained in two ways: one is by trusting to the experimenter
+himself to give sufficient of the anæsthetic; the other to insist that
+an assistant shall be present for the express purpose of keeping the
+animal under perfect anæsthesia. Now is it anyway likely that either
+of these conditions would be observed?"
+
+
+III.
+
+[_From the "Therapeutic Gazette," Detroit, Aug., 1880._]
+
+"Vivisection is grossly abused in the United States. * * We would add
+our condemnation of the ruthless barbarity which is every winter
+perpetrated in the Medical Schools of this country. History records
+some frightful atrocities perpetrated in the name of Religion; but it
+has remained for the enlightenment and humaneness of this century to
+stultify themselves by tolerating the abuses of the average
+physiological laboratory--all conducted in the name of Science. There
+is only one way to progress in Therapeutics; and that is by clinical
+observation; the noting of the action of individual drugs under
+particular diseased conditions. He who has the largest practice and is
+the keenest observer, and the most systematic recorder of what he
+sees, does the most to advance Medicine."
+
+
+IV.
+
+[_From editorial in "The Spectator," London, July 17, 1880._]
+
+"A memorial for the absolute abolition of vivisection has been
+presented to Mr. Gladstone with a great many most influential
+signatures attached. For our own part, were the experiments on the
+inoculation of animal diseases excepted,--experiments which, we
+venture to say, have sometimes proved of the greatest value to animals
+themselves,--we should, on the whole, be content to go with the
+abolitionists, not because we think all experiments, especially when
+conducted under strict anæsthetics, wrong, but because when they are
+permitted at all it is so extremely difficult to enforce properly and
+fully humane conditions. Dr. A. Leffingwell has sufficiently shown in
+the able paper in the July _Scribner's Magazine_, how extremely few
+remedies of value have resulted from this awfully costly expenditure
+of anguish. 'If pain could be estimated in money' he justly says,
+'no corporation would be satisfied with such a waste of capital.'
+Take, as the single illustration of this most weighty sentence,
+Dr. Leffingwell's statement that what the late Dr. Sharpey called
+'Magendie's infamous experiment' on the stomach of the dog, has
+been repeated 200 times without establishing to the satisfaction of
+scientific physiologists the theory for which that act of wickedness
+was first committed. No wonder the society for the Protection of
+Animals from Vivisection goes to extremes."
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_.
+
+2. Footnotes have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the
+closest paragraph break.
+
+3. Some obvious punctuation errors in the text have been silently
+corrected, for example, missing period at a paragraph end, etc.
+
+4. The following misprints have been corrected:
+     "sufering" corrected to "suffering" (page 14)
+     "anæthetics" corrected to "anæsthetics" (page 48)
+
+5. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
+in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Vivisection, by Albert Leffingwell
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Vivisection, by Albert Leffingwell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
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+
+Title: Vivisection
+
+Author: Albert Leffingwell
+
+Release Date: April 17, 2010 [EBook #32033]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VIVISECTION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/American
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<h1><span class="smcap">Vivisection</span><br /><br /></h1>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h2>ALBERT LEFFINGWELL, M. D.<br /><br /></h2>
+
+<h4><small>NEW YORK:</small><br />
+<big>JOHN W. LOVELL COMPANY,</big><br />
+<span class="smcap">14 and 16 Vesey Street.</span></h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h4>TO<br />
+<big>A Memory of Friendship.</big></h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>To the <span class="smcap">Century Company</span> of New York, in the
+pages of whose magazine, then known as "<i>Scribner's Monthly</i>," the
+first of the following essays originally appeared in July, 1880, the
+thanks of the writer are due for permission to re-publish in the
+present form. For a like courtesy on the part of the proprietors of
+<span class="smcap">Lippincott's Magazine</span>, in which the second
+paper was first published [Aug., 1884], the writer desires to make due
+acknowledgment.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The first of the Essays following appeared in "<span class="smcap">Scribner's Monthly</span>," in
+July, 1880; and immediately became honored by the attention of the
+Medical Press throughout the country. The aggressive title of the
+paper, justified, in great measure, perhaps, the vigor of the
+criticism bestowed. Again and again the point was raised by reviewers
+that the problem presented by the title, was not solved or answered by
+the article itself.</p>
+
+<p>At this day, it perhaps may be mentioned that the question&mdash;"Does
+Vivisection Pay?" was never raised by the writer, who selected as his
+title the single word "Vivisection." The more taking headline was
+affixed by the editor of the magazine as more apt to arrest attention
+and arouse professional pugnacity. That in this latter respect it was
+eminently successful, the author had the best reason to remember. With
+this explanation&mdash;which is made simply to prevent future criticism
+on the same point&mdash;the old title is retained. If the present reader
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+continues the inquiry here presented, he will learn wherein the writer
+believes in the utility of vivisection, and on the other hand, in what
+respects and under what conditions he very seriously questions whether
+any gains can possibly compensate the infinitely great cost.</p>
+
+<p>"What do you hope for or expect as the result of agitation in regard
+to vivisection?" recently inquired a friend; "its legal abolition?"</p>
+
+<p>"Certainly not," was the reply.</p>
+
+<p>"Would you then expect its restriction during the present century?"</p>
+
+<p>"Hardly even so soon as that. It will take longer than a dozen years
+to awaken recognition of any evil which touches neither the purse nor
+personal comfort of an American citizen. All that can be hoped in the
+immediate future is education. Action will perhaps follow when its
+necessity is recognized generally; but not before."</p>
+
+<p>For myself, I believe no permanent or effective reform of present practices
+is probable until the Medical Profession generally concede as dangerous and
+unnecessary that freedom of unlimited experimentation in pain, which is claimed
+and practiced to-day. That legislative reform is otherwise unattainable, one
+would hesitate to affirm; but it assuredly would be vastly less effective.
+You must convince men of the justice and reasonableness of a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+law before you can secure a willing obedience. Yielding to none in
+loyalty to the science, and enthusiasm for the Art of Healing, what
+standpoint may be taken by those of the Medical Profession who desire
+to reform evils which confessedly exist?</p>
+
+<p>I. We need not seek the total abolition of all experiments upon living
+animals. I do not forget that just such abolition is energetically
+demanded by a large number of earnest men and women, who have lost all
+faith in the possibility of restricting an abuse, if it be favored by
+scientific enthusiasm. "Let us take," they say, "the upright and
+conscientious ground of refusing all compromise with sin and evil,
+and maintaining our position unflinchingly, leave the rest to
+God."<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+This is almost precisely the ground taken by the Prohibitionists in
+national politics; it is the only ground one can occupy, provided
+the taking of a glass of wine, or the performance of any
+experiment,&mdash;painless or otherwise,&mdash;is of itself an "evil and
+a sin." There are those, however, who believe it possible to oppose and
+restrain intemperance by other methods than legislative prohibition.
+So with the prohibition of vivisection. Admitting the abuses of the
+practice, I cannot yet see that they are so intrinsic and essential as
+to make necessary the entire abolition of all physiological
+experiments whatsoever.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+II. We may advocate (and I believe we should advocate)&mdash;<i>the total
+abolition, by law, of all mutilating or destructive experiments upon
+lower animals, involving pain, when such experiments are made for the
+purpose of public or private demonstration of already known and
+accepted physiological facts</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This is the ground of compromise&mdash;unacceptable, as yet, to either
+party. Nevertheless it is asking simply for those limitations and
+restrictions which have always been conceded as prudent and fair by
+the medical profession of Great Britain. Speaking of a certain
+experiment upon the spinal nerves, Dr. M. Foster, of Cambridge
+University, one of the leading physiological teachers of England,
+says: "I have not performed it and have never seen it done," partly
+because of horror at the pain necessary. And yet this experiment has
+been performed before classes of young men and young women in the
+Medical Schools of this country! Absolutely no legal restriction here
+exists to the repetition, over and over again, of the most atrocious
+tortures of Mantegazza, Bert and Schiff.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>This is the vivisection which does not "pay,"&mdash;even if we
+dismiss altogether from our calculation the interests of the animals
+sacrificed to the demand for mnemonic aid. For the great and perilous
+outcome of such methods will be&mdash;finally&mdash;an atrophy of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+sense of sympathy for human suffering. It is seen to-day in certain
+hospitals in Europe. Can other result be expected to follow the deliberate
+infliction of prolonged pain without other object than to see or
+demonstrate what will happen therefrom? Will any assistance to memory,
+counterweigh the annihilation or benumbing of the instinct of pity?</p>
+
+<p>Upon this subject of utility of painful experiments in class
+demonstrations or private study, I would like to appeal for judgment
+to the physician of the future, who then shall review the experience
+of the medical student of to-day. In his course of physiological
+training, he or she may be invited to see living animals cut and
+mutilated in various ways, eviscerated, poisoned, frozen, starved, and
+by ingenious devices of science subjected to the exhibition of pain.
+On the first occasion such a scene generally induces in the young man
+or young woman a significant subjective phenomenon of physiological
+interest; an involuntary, creeping, tremulous sense of horror emerges
+into consciousness,&mdash;and is speedily repressed. "This feeling," he
+whispers to himself, "is altogether unworthy the scientific spirit in
+which I am now to be educated; it needs to be subdued. The sight of
+this inarticulate agony, this prolonged anguish is not presented to me
+for amusement. I must steel myself to witness it, to assist in it, for the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+sake of the good I shall be helped thereby to accomplish, some
+day, for suffering humanity."</p>
+
+<p>Praiseworthy sentiments, these are, indeed. Are
+they founded in reality? No. The student who
+thus conquers "squeamishness" will not see one fact
+thus demonstrated at the cost of pain which was unknown
+to science before; not one fact which he
+might not have been made to remember without this
+demonstrative illustration; <i>not one fact</i>&mdash;saddest truth
+of all&mdash;that is likely to be of the slightest practical
+service to him or to her in the multiplied and various
+duties of future professional life. Why, then, are
+they shown? To help him to remember his lesson!
+Admit the value to the student, but what of the cost?</p>
+
+<p>In one of the great cities of China, I was shown, leaning against the
+high wall of the execution ground, a rude, wooden frame-work or cross, old,
+hacked, and smeared with recent blood-stains. It was used, I was told, in
+the punishment of extreme offenses; the criminal being bound thereto, and
+flayed and cut in every way human ingenuity could devise for inflicting
+torture before giving an immediately mortal wound. Only the week before,
+such an execution had taken place; the victim being a woman who had
+poisoned her husband. A young and enthusiastic physician whom I met,
+told me he had secured the privilege of being an eye witness to the awful
+tragedy, that he might verify a theory he had formed on the influence
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+of pain; a theory perhaps like that which led to Mantegazza's crucifixion of pregnant rabbits with
+<i>dolori atrocissimi</i>.<a name="FNanchor_A_2" id="FNanchor_A_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+Science here caught her profit from the punishment of crime, but the
+gain would have been the same had her interest alone been the object.
+There is <i>always</i> gain, always some aid to memory;&mdash;<i>but what
+of the cost?</i></p>
+
+<p>It cannot be expected that any Medical College, of its own accord and
+without outside pressure, will restrict or hamper its freedom of
+action. As a condition of prosperity and success it cannot show less
+than is exhibited by other medical schools; it must keep abreast of
+"advanced thought," and do and demonstrate in every way what its
+rivals demonstrate and do. There can be no question but that there is
+to-day a strong public demand for continental methods of physiological
+instruction. Who make this demand? You, gentlemen, students of
+medicine, and they who follow in your pathway. This year it is you
+who silently request this aid to your memory of the physiological
+statements of your text books; another year, another class of young
+men and young women, occupying the same benches, or filling the same
+laboratory, repeats the demand for the same series of illustrations.
+You, perhaps, will have gone forward to take your places in active
+life, to assume the real burdens of the medical profession. To those
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+succeeding years of thought, reflection and usefulness, let me
+appeal, respecting the absolute necessity of all class demonstrations
+and laboratory work involving pain. Postpone if you please, the ready
+decision which, fresh from your class-room, you are perhaps only too
+willing to give me to-day; I do not wish it. But some time in the
+future, after years have gone by, remembering all you have seen and
+aided in the doing, tell us if you can, exactly wherein you received,
+in added potency for helping human suffering and for the treatment of
+human ills, the equivalent of that awful expenditure of pain which you
+are now demanding, and which by unprotesting acquiescence, you are
+<i>to-day</i> helping to inflict.</p>
+
+<p>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="smcap">Boston, Mass.</span>,<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>March, 1889</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="From_Scribners_Monthly_July_1880" id="From_Scribners_Monthly_July_1880"></a>[<i>From</i> <span class="smcap">Scribner's Monthly</span>, <i>July, 1880</i>.]</h3>
+
+<h2>DOES VIVISECTION PAY?</h2>
+
+
+<p>The question of vivisection is again pushing itself to the front. A
+distinguished American physiologist has lately come forward in defense
+of the French experimenter, Magendie, and, parenthetically, of his
+methods of investigation in the study of vital phenomena. On the other
+hand, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals made an
+unsuccessful attempt, in the New York Legislature last winter, to
+secure the passage of a law which would entirely abolish the practice
+as now in vogue in our medical schools, or cause it to be secretly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+carried on, in defiance of legal enactments. In support of this bill
+it was claimed that physiologists, for the sake of "demonstrating to
+medical students certain physiological phenomena connected with the
+functions of life, are constantly and habitually in the practice of
+cutting up alive, torturing and tormenting divers of the unoffending
+brute creation to illustrate their theories and lectures, but without
+any practical or beneficial result either to themselves or to the
+students, which practice is demoralizing to both and engenders in the
+future medical practitioners a want of humanity and sympathy for
+physical pain and suffering." How far these statements are true will
+be hereafter discussed; but one assertion is so evidently erroneous
+that it may be at once indicated. <i>No</i> experiment, however
+atrocious, cruel and, therefore, on the whole, unjustifiable, if
+performed to illustrate some scientific point, was ever without
+"any beneficial result." The benefit may have been infinitesimal,
+but every scientific fact is of some value. To assert the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+contrary is to weaken one's case by overstatement.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving out the brute creation, there are three parties interested in
+this discussion. In the first place, there are the professors and
+teachers of physiology in the medical colleges. Naturally, these
+desire no interference with either their work or their methods. They
+claim that were the knowledge acquired by experiments upon living
+organisms swept out of existence, in many respects the science of
+physiology would be little more than guesswork to-day. The subject of
+vivisection, they declare, is one which does not concern the general
+public, but belongs exclusively to scientists and especially to
+physiologists. That the present century should permit sentimentalists
+to interfere with scientific investigations is preposterous.</p>
+
+<p>Behind these stand the majority of men belonging to the medical
+profession. Holding, as they do, the most important and intimate relations
+to society, it is manifestly desirable that they should enjoy the best
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+facilities for the acquirement of knowledge necessary
+to their art. To most, the question is merely one of professional
+privilege against sentiment, and they cannot hesitate which side to
+prefer. In this, as in other professions or trades, the feeling of
+<i>esprit de corps</i> is exceedingly strong; and no class of men likes
+interference on the part of outsiders. To most physicians it is wholly
+a scientific question. It is a matter, they think, with which the
+public has no concern; if society can trust to the profession its sick
+and dying, they surely can leave to its feeling of humanity a few
+worthless brutes.</p>
+
+<p>The opinion of the general public is therefore, divided and confused.
+On the one hand, it is profoundly desirous to make systematic and
+needless cruelty impossible; yet, on the other, it cannot but hesitate
+to take any step which shall hinder medical education, impede scientific
+discovery, or restrict search for new methods of treating disease. What
+are the sufferings of an animal, however acute or prolonged, compared
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+with the gain to humanity which would result from the knowledge
+thereby acquired of a single curative agent? Public opinion hesitates.
+A leading newspaper, commenting on the introduction of the Bergh bill,
+doubtless expressed the sentiment of most people when it deprecated
+prevention of experiments "by which original investigators seek to
+establish or verify conclusions which may be of priceless value to the
+preservation of life and health among human beings."</p>
+
+<p>The question nevertheless confronts society,&mdash;and in such shape,
+too, that society cannot escape, even if it would, the responsibility
+of a decision. Either by action or inaction the State must decide
+whether the practice of vivisection shall be wholly abolished,
+as desired by some; whether it shall be restricted by law
+within certain limits and for certain definite objects, as in
+Great Britain; or whether we are to continue in this country
+to follow the example of France and Germany, in permitting the
+practice of physiological experimentation to any extent devised
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+or desired by the experimentalist himself. Any information tending to
+indicate which of these courses is best cannot be inopportune. Having
+witnessed experiments by some of the most distinguished European
+physiologists, such as Claude Bernard (the successor of Magendie),
+Milne-Edwards and Brown-Sequard; and, still better (or worse, as the
+reader may think), having performed some experiments in this direction
+for purposes of investigation and for the instruction of others, the
+present writer believes himself justified in holding and stating a
+pronounced opinion on this subject, even if it be to some extent,
+opposed to the one prevailing in the profession. Suppose, therefore,
+we review briefly the arguments to be adduced both in favor of the
+practice and against it.</p>
+
+<p>Two principal arguments may be advanced in its favor.</p>
+
+<p>I. It is undeniable that to the practice of vivisection we are
+indebted for very much of our present knowledge of physiology.
+This is the fortress of the advocates of vivisection,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+and a certain refuge when other arguments are of no avail.</p>
+
+<p>II. As a means of teaching physiological facts, vivisection is
+unsurpassed. No teacher of science needs to be told the vast
+superiority of demonstration over affirmation. Take for instance, the
+circulation of the blood. The student who displays but a languid
+interest in statements of fact, or even in the best delineations and
+charts obtainable, will be thoroughly aroused by seeing the process
+actually before his eyes. A week's study upon the book will less
+certainly be retained in his memory than a single view of the opened
+thorax of a frog or dog. There before him is the throbbing heart; he
+sees its relations to adjoining structures, and marks, with a wonder
+he never before knew, that mystery of life by which the heart, even
+though excised from the body, does not cease for a time its rhythmic
+beat. To imagine, then, that teachers of physiology find mere amusement
+in these operations is the greatest of ignorant mistakes. They deem it desirable
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+that certain facts be accurately fixed in memory, and they know that
+no system of mnemonics equals for such purpose the demonstration of
+the function itself.</p>
+
+<p>Just here, however, arises a very important question. Admitting the
+benefit of the demonstration of scientific facts, <i>how far may one
+justifiably subject an animal to pain for the purpose of illustrating
+a point already known</i>? It is merely a question of cost. For instance,
+it is an undisputed statement in physical science that the diamond is
+nothing more than a form of crystallized carbon, and, like other forms
+of carbon, under certain conditions, may be made to burn. Now most of
+us are entirely willing to accept this, as we do the majority of
+truths, upon the testimony of scientific men, without making
+demonstration a requisite of assent. In a certain private school,
+however, it has long been the custom once a year, to burn in oxygen a
+small diamond, worth perhaps $30, so as actually to prove to the
+pupils the assertion of their text-books. The experiment is a brilliant
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+one; no one can doubt its entire success. Nevertheless, we do not
+furnish diamonds to our public schools for this purpose. Exactly
+similar to this is one aspect of vivisection&mdash;it is a question of
+cost. Granting all the advantages which follow demonstration of
+certain physiological facts, the cost is pain&mdash;pain sometimes
+amounting to prolonged and excruciating torture. Is the gain worth
+this?</p>
+
+<p>Let me mention an instance. Not long ago, in a certain medical college
+in the State of New York, I saw what Doctor Sharpey, for thirty years
+the professor of physiology in the University Medical College, London,
+once characterized by antithesis as "Magendie's <i>infamous</i>
+experiment," it having been first performed by that eminent
+physiologist. It was designed to prove that the stomach, although
+supplied with muscular coats, is during the act of vomiting for the
+most part passive; and that expulsion of its contents is due to the
+action of the diaphragm and the larger abdominal muscles.
+The professor to whom I refer did not propose to have even
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+Magendie's word accepted as an authority on the subject: the fact
+should be demonstrated again. So an incision in the abdomen of a dog
+was made; its stomach was cut out; a pig's bladder containing colored
+water was inserted in its place, an emetic was injected into the
+veins,&mdash;and vomiting ensued. Long before the conclusion of the
+experiment the animal became conscious, and its cries of suffering
+were exceedingly painful to hear. Now, granting that this experiment
+impressed an abstract scientific fact upon the memories of all who saw
+it, nevertheless it remains significantly true that the fact thus
+demonstrated had no conceivable relation to the treatment of disease.
+It is not to-day regarded as conclusive of the theory which, after nearly
+two hundred repetitions of his experiment, was doubtless considered by
+Magendie as established beyond question. Doctor Sharpey, a strong advocate
+of vivisection, by the way, condemned it as a perfectly unjustifiable
+experiment, since "besides its atrocity, it was really purposeless."  Was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+this repetition of the experiment which I have described worth its
+cost? Was the gain worth the pain?</p>
+
+<p>Let me instance another and more recent case. Being in Paris a year
+ago, I went one morning to the College de France, to hear
+Brown-Sequard, the most eminent experimenter in vivisection now
+living&mdash;one who, Doctor Carpenter tells us, has probably
+inflicted more animal suffering than any other man in his time. The
+lecturer stated that injury to certain nervous centers near the base
+of the brain would produce peculiar and curious phenomena in the
+animal operated upon, causing it, for example, to keep turning to one
+side in a circular manner, instead of walking in a straightforward
+direction. A Guinea-pig was produced&mdash;a little creature, about
+the size of a half-grown kitten&mdash;and the operation was effected,
+accompanied by a series of piercing little squeaks. As foretold, the
+creature thus injured did immediately perform a "circular" movement.
+A rabbit was then operated upon with similar results.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+Lastly, an unfortunate poodle was introduced, its muzzle tied with
+stout whip-cord, wound round and round so tightly that it must
+necessarily have caused severe pain. It was forced to walk back and
+forth on the long table, during which it cast looks on every side, as
+though seeking a possible avenue of escape. Being fastened in the
+operating trough, an incision was made to the bone, flaps turned back,
+an opening made in the skull, and enlarged by breaking away some
+portions with forceps. During these various processes no attempt
+whatever was made to cause unconsciousness by means of
+an&aelig;sthetics, and the half-articulate, half-smothered cries of
+the creature in its agony were terrible to hear, even to one not
+unaccustomed to vivisections. The experiment was a "success"; the
+animal after its mutilation <i>did</i> describe certain circular movements.
+But I cannot help questioning in regard to these demonstrations,
+<i>did they pay</i>? This experiment had not the slightest relation
+whatever to the cure of disease. More than this: it
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+teaches us little or nothing in physiology. The most eminent
+physiologist in this country, Doctor Austin Flint, Jr., admits that
+experiments of this kind "do not seem to have advanced our positive
+knowledge of the functions of the nerve centers," and that similar
+experiments "have been very indefinite in their results." On this
+occasion, therefore, three animals were subjected to torture to
+demonstrate an abstract fact, which probably not a single one of the
+two dozen spectators would have hesitated to take for granted on the
+word of so great a pathologist as Doctor Brown-Sequard. Was the gain
+worth the cost?</p>
+
+<p>This, then, is the great question that must eventually be decided by
+the public. Do humanity and science here indicate diverging roads? On
+the contrary, I believe it to be an undeniable fact that <i>the highest
+scientific and medical opinion is against the repetition of painful
+experiments for class teaching</i>. In 1875, a Royal Commission was
+appointed in Great Britain to investigate the subject of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+vivisection, with a view to subsequent legislation. The interests of
+science were represented by the appointment of Professor Huxley as a
+member of this commission. Its meetings continued over several months,
+and the report constitutes a large volume of valuable testimony. The
+opinions of many of these witnesses are worthy of special attention,
+from the eminent position to the men who hold them. The physician to
+the Queen, Sir Thomas Watson, with whose "Lectures on Physic" every
+medical practitioner in this country is familiar, says: "I hold that
+no teacher or man of science who by his own previous experiments, * *
+* has thoroughly satisfied himself of the solution of any
+physiological problem, is justified in repeating the experiments,
+however mercifully, to appease the natural curiosity of a class of
+students or of scientific friends." Sir George Burroughs, President of
+the Royal College of Physicians, says: "I do not think that an experiment
+should be repeated over and over again in our medical schools to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+illustrate what is already established."<a name="FNanchor_A_3" id="FNanchor_A_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+Sir James Paget, Surgeon Extraordinary to the Queen, said before the
+commission that "experiments for the purpose of repeating anything
+already ascertained ought never to be shown to classes." [363.] Sir
+William Fergusson, F. R. S., also Surgeon to her Majesty, asserted
+that "sufferings incidental to such operations are protracted in a
+very shocking manner"; that of such experiments there is "useless
+repetition," and that "when once a fact which involves cruelty to
+animals has been fairly recognized and accepted, there is no necessity
+for a continued repetition." [1019.] Even physiologists&mdash;some of them
+practical experimenters in vivisection&mdash;join in condemning these class
+demonstrations. Dr. William Sharpey, before referred to as a teacher of
+physiology for over thirty years in University College, says: "Once such facts
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+fully established, I do not think it justifiable to repeat experiments
+causing pain to animals." [405.] Dr. Rolleston, Professor of
+Physiology at Oxford, said that "for class demonstrations limitations
+should undoubtedly be imposed, and <i>those limitations should render
+illegal painful experiments before classes</i>." [1291.] Charles Darwin,
+the greatest of living naturalists, stated that he had never either
+directly or indirectly experimented on animals, and that he regarded a
+painful experiment without an&aelig;sthetics which might be made with
+an&aelig;sthetics as deserving "detestation and abhorrence." [4672.]
+And finally the report of this commission, to which is attached the
+name of Professor Huxley, says: "With respect to medical schools, we
+accept the resolution of the British Association in 1871, that
+experimentation without the use of an&aelig;sthetics is not a fitting
+exhibition for teaching purposes."</p>
+
+<p>It must be noted that hardly any of these opinions touch the question
+of vivisection so far as it is done without the infliction of pain,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+nor object to it as a method of original research; they relate simply
+to the practice of repeating painful experiments for purposes of
+physiological teaching. We cannot dismiss them as "sentimental" or
+unimportant. If painful experiments are necessary for the education of
+the young physician, how happens it that Watson and Burroughs are
+ignorant of the fact? If indispensable to the proper training of the
+surgeon, why are they condemned by Fergusson and Paget? If requisite
+even to physiology, why denounced by the physiologists of Oxford and
+London? If necessary to science, why viewed "with abhorrence" by the
+greatest of modern scientists?</p>
+
+<p>Another objection to vivisection, when practiced as at present without
+supervision or control, is the undeniable fact that habitual
+familiarity with the infliction of pain upon animals has a decided
+tendency to engender a sort of careless indifference regarding
+suffering. "Vivisection," says Professor Rolleston of Oxford, "is very
+liable to abuse. * * * It is specially liable to tempt a man into
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+certain carelessness; the passive impressions produced by the sight of
+suffering growing weaker, while the habit and pleasure of experimenting
+grows stronger by repetition." [1287.] Says Doctor Elliotson: "I cannot
+refrain from expressing my horror at the amount of torture which Doctor
+Brachet inflicted. <i>I hardly think knowledge is worth having at such a
+purchase.</i>"<a name="FNanchor_A_4" id="FNanchor_A_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+A very striking example of this tendency was brought out in the
+testimony of a witness before the Royal Commission,&mdash;Doctor
+Klein, a practical physiologist. He admitted frankly that as an
+investigator he held as entirely indifferent the sufferings of animals
+subjected to his experiments, that, except for teaching purposes, he
+never used an&aelig;sthetics unless necessary for his own convenience.
+Some members of the Commission could hardly realize the possibility of
+such a confession.</p>
+
+<p>"Do you mean you have no regard at all to the sufferings of the lower
+animals?"</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+"<i>No regard at all</i>," was the strange reply; and, after a little
+further questioning, the witness explained:</p>
+
+<p>"I think that, with regard to an experimenter&mdash;a man who conducts
+special research and performs an experiment&mdash;he has <i>no time, so
+to speak, for thinking what the animal will feel or suffer</i>!"</p>
+
+<p>Of Magendie's cruel disposition there seems only too abundant
+evidence. Says Doctor Elliotson: "Dr. Magendie, in one of his
+barbarous experiments, which I am ashamed to say I witnessed, began by
+coolly cutting out a large round piece from the back of a beautiful
+little puppy, as he would from an apple dumpling!" "It is not to be
+doubted that inhumanity may be found in persons of very high position
+as physiologists. <i>We have seen that it was so in Magendie.</i>" This is
+the language of the report on vivisection, to which is attached the
+name of Professor Huxley.</p>
+
+<p>But the fact which, in my own mind, constitutes by far the strongest objection to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+unrestrained experiments in pain, is their questionable utility as
+regards therapeutics. Probably most readers are aware that physiology
+is that science which treats of the various functions of life, such as
+digestion, respiration and the circulation of the blood, while
+therapeutics is that department of medicine which relates to the
+discovery and application of remedies for disease. Now I venture to
+assert that, during the last quarter of a century, infliction of
+intense torture upon unknown myriads of sentient, living creatures,
+<i>has not resulted in the discovery of a single remedy of acknowledged
+and generally accepted value in the cure of disease</i>. This is not
+known to the general public, but it is a fact essential to any just
+decision regarding the expediency of unrestrained liberty of vivisection.
+It is by no means intended to deny the value to therapeutics of well-known
+physiological facts acquired thus in the past&mdash;such, for instance,
+as the more complete knowledge we possess regarding the circulation of
+the blood, or the distinction between motor and sensory nerves,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+nor can original investigation be pronounced absolutely valueless as
+respects remote possibility of future gain. What the public has a
+right to ask of those who would indefinitely prolong these experiments
+without State supervision or control is, "What good have your painful
+experiments accomplished during the past thirty years&mdash;not in
+ascertaining facts in physiology or causes of rare or incurable
+complaints, but in the discovery of improved methods for ameliorating
+human suffering, and for the cure of disease?" If pain could be
+estimated in money, no corporation ever existed which would be
+satisfied with such waste of capital in experiments so futile; no
+mining company would permit a quarter-century of "prospecting" in such
+barren regions. The usual answer to this inquiry is to bring forward
+facts in physiology thus acquired in the past, in place of facts in
+therapeutics. Thus, in a recent article on Magendie to which
+reference has been made, we are furnished with a long list of
+such additions to our knowledge. It may be questioned,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+however, whether the writer is quite scientifically accurate in
+asserting that, were our past experience in vivisection abolished, "it
+would blot out <i>all</i> that we know to-day in regard to the circulation
+of the blood, * * the growth and regeneration of bone, * * * the
+origin of many parasitic diseases, * * * the communicability of
+certain contagious and infectious diseases, and, to make the list
+complete, it would be requisite * * to take <i>a wide range in addition
+through the domains of pathology and therapeutics</i>." Surely somewhat
+about these subjects has been acquired otherwise than by experiments
+upon animals? For example, an inquiring critic might wish to know a
+few of the "many parasitic diseases" thus discovered; or what
+contagious and infectious diseases, whose communicability was
+previously unknown, have had this quality demonstrated solely by
+experiments on animals? And what, too, prevented that "wide range
+into therapeutics" necessary to make complete the list of benefits
+due to vivisection? In urging the utility of a practice
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+so fraught with danger, the utmost precaution against the slightest error of
+overstatement becomes an imperative duty. Even so distinguished a
+scientist as Sir John Lubbock once rashly asserted in Parliament that,
+"without experiments on living animals, we should never have had the
+use of ether"! Nearly every American school-boy knows that the
+contrary is true&mdash;that the use of ether as an an&aelig;sthetic&mdash;the grandest
+discovery of modern times&mdash;had no origin in the torture of animals.</p>
+
+<p>I confess that, until very recently, I shared the common impression
+regarding the utility of vivisection in therapeutics. It is a belief
+still widely prevalent in the medical profession. Nevertheless, is it
+not a mistake? The therapeutical results of nearly half a century of
+painful experiments&mdash;we seek them in vain. Do we ask surgery? Sir
+William Ferguson, surgeon to the Queen, tells us: "In surgery I am not
+aware of any of these experiments on the lower animals having led to
+the mitigation of pain or to improvement as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+regards surgical details." [1049.] Have antidotes to poisons been
+discovered thereby? Says Doctor Taylor, lecturer on Toxicology for
+nearly half a century in the chief London Medical School (a writer
+whose work on Poisons is a recognized authority): "I do not know that
+we have as yet learned anything, so far as treatment is concerned,
+from our experiments with them (<i>i.e.</i> poisons) on animals." [1204.]
+Doctor Anthony, speaking of Magendie's experiments, says: "I never
+gained one single fact by seeing these cruel experiments in Paris. <i>I
+know nothing more from them than I could have read.</i>" [2450.] Even
+physiologists admit the paucity of therapeutic results. Doctor Sharpey
+says: "I should lay less stress on the direct application of the results of
+vivisection to improvement in the art of healing, than upon the value of
+these experiments in the promotion of physiology." [394.] The Oxford
+professor of Physiology admitted that Etiology, the science which treats
+of the causes of disease, had, by these experiments, been the gainer, rather
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+than therapeutics. [1302.] "Experiments on animals," says Doctor
+Thorowgood, "already extensive and numerous, cannot be said to
+have advanced therapeutics much."<a name="FNanchor_A_5" id="FNanchor_A_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+Sir William Gull, M. D., was questioned before the commission whether
+he could enumerate any therapeutic remedies which have been discovered
+by vivisection, and he replied with fervor: "The cases bristle around
+us everywhere!" Yet, excepting Hall's experiments on the nervous
+system, he could enumerate only various forms of disease, our
+knowledge of which is due to Harvey's discovery, two hundred and fifty
+years ago! The question was pushed closer, and so brought to the
+necessity of a definite reply, he answered: "I do not say at present
+our therapeutics are much, but there are lines of experiment which
+<i>seem to promise</i> great help in therapeutics." [5529.] The results of
+two centuries of experiments, so far as therapeutics are concerned,
+reduced to a seeming promise!</p>
+
+<p>On two points, then, the evidence of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+highest scientific authorities in Great Britain seems
+conclusive&mdash;first, that experiments upon living animals conduce
+chiefly to the benefit of the science of physiology, and little, if at
+all, at the present day, to the treatment of disease or the
+amelioration of human suffering; and, secondly, that repetition of
+painful experiments for class-teaching in medical schools is both
+unnecessary and unjustifiable. Do these conclusions affect the
+practice of vivisection in this country? Is it true that experiments
+are habitually performed in some of our medical schools, often causing
+extreme pain, to illustrate well-known and accepted
+facts&mdash;experiments which English physiologists pronounce
+"infamous" and "atrocious," which English physicians and surgeons
+stigmatize as purposeless cruelty and unjustifiable&mdash;which even
+Huxley regards as unfitting for teaching purposes, and Darwin
+denounces as worthy of detestation and abhorrence? I confess I see no
+occasion for any over-delicate reticence in this matter.
+Science needs no secrecy either for her
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+methods or results; her function is to reveal, not to hide, facts. The
+reply to these questions must be in the affirmative. In this country
+our physiologists are rather followers of Magendie and Bernard, after
+the methods in vogue at Paris and Leipsic, than governed by the
+cautious and sensitive conservatism in this respect which generally
+characterizes the physiological teaching of London and Oxford. In
+making this statement, no criticism is intended on the motives of
+those responsible for ingrafting continental methods upon our medical
+schools. If any opprobrium shall be inferred for the past performance
+of experiments herein condemned, the present writer asks a share in
+it. It is the future that we hope to change. Now, what are the facts?
+A recent contributor to the "International Review," referring to Mr.
+Bergh, says that "he assails physiological experiments with the same
+blind extravagance of denunciation as if they were still performed
+without an&aelig;sthetics, as in the time of Magendie."
+In the interests of scientific accuracy
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+one would wish more care had been given to the construction of this
+sentence, for it implies that experiments are not now performed except
+with an&aelig;sthetics&mdash;a meaning its author never could have
+intended to convey. Every medical student in New York knows that
+experiments involving pain are repeatedly performed to illustrate
+teaching. It is no secret; one need not go beyond the frank admissions
+of our later text-books on physiology for abundant proof, not only of
+this, but of the extent to which experimentation is now carried in
+this country. "We have long been in the habit, in class demonstrations,
+of removing the optic lobe on one side from a pigeon," says Professor
+Flint, of Bellevue Hospital Medical College, in his excellent work on
+Physiology.<a name="FNanchor_A_6" id="FNanchor_A_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
+"The experiment of dividing the sympathetic in the neck, especially
+in rabbits, is so easily performed that the phenomena observed
+by Bernard and Brown-Sequard have been repeatedly verified.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+<i>We have often done this in class
+demonstrations.</i>"<a name="FNanchor_A_7" id="FNanchor_A_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+"The cerebral lobes were removed from a young pigeon in the usual
+way, an operation * * <i>which we practice yearly as a class
+demonstration</i>."<a name="FNanchor_B_8" id="FNanchor_B_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>
+Referring to the removal of the cerebellum, the same authority states:
+"Our own experiments, which have been very numerous during the last
+fifteen years, are <i>simply repetitions of those of Flourens, and the
+results have been the same without exception."</i><a name="FNanchor_C_9" id="FNanchor_C_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
+<i>We have frequently removed both kidneys</i> from dogs, and when the
+operation is carefully performed the animals live for from three to
+five days. * * Death always takes place with symptoms of blood
+poisoning."<a name="FNanchor_D_10" id="FNanchor_D_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
+In the same work we are given precise details for making a pancreatic
+fistula, after the method of Claude Bernard&mdash;"one we have
+repeatedly employed with success." "In performing the above experiment
+it is generally better <i>not</i> to employ an
+an&aelig;sthetic,"<a name="FNanchor_E_11" id="FNanchor_E_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+but ether is sometimes used. In the same work
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+is given a picture of a dog, muzzled and with a biliary fistula, as it
+appeared the fourteenth day after the operation, which, with details
+of the experiment, is quite suggestive.<a name="FNanchor_F_12" id="FNanchor_F_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
+Bernard was the first to succeed in following the spinal accessory
+nerve back to the jugular foramen, seizing it here with a strong pair
+of forceps and drawing it out by the roots. This experiment is
+practiced in our own country. "We have found this result (loss of
+voice) to follow in the cat after the spinal accessory nerves have
+been torn out by the roots," says Professor John C. Dalton, in his
+Treatise on Human Physiology.<a name="FNanchor_G_13" id="FNanchor_G_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+"This operation is difficult," writes Professor Flint, "but we have
+several times performed it with entire success;" and his assistant
+at Bellevue Medical College has succeeded "in extirpating these nerves
+for class demonstrations."<a name="FNanchor_H_14" id="FNanchor_H_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_H_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
+In withdrawal of blood from the hepatic veins of a dog, "avoiding
+the administration of an an&aelig;sthetic" is one of the steps
+recommended.<a name="FNanchor_I_15" id="FNanchor_I_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_I_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
+The curious experiment of Bernard,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+in which artificial diabetes is produced by irritating the floor of
+the fourth ventricle of the brain, is carefully described, and
+illustrations afforded both of the instrument and the animal
+undergoing the operation. The inexperienced experimenter is here
+taught to hold the head of the rabbit "firmly in the left hand," and
+to bore through its skull "by a few lateral movements of the
+instrument." It is not a difficult operation; it is one which the
+author has "often repeated." He tell us "<i>it is not desirable to
+administer an an&aelig;sthetic</i>," as it would prevent success; and a
+little further we are told that "we should avoid the administration of
+an&aelig;sthetics in all accurate experiments on the glycogenic
+function."<a name="FNanchor_J_16" id="FNanchor_J_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_J_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+It is true the pleasing assurance is given that "this experiment is
+almost painless"; but on this point, could the rabbit speak during the
+operation, its opinion might not accord with that of the physiologist.</p>
+
+<p>There is one experiment in regard to which the severe characterization of English
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+scientists is especially applicable, from the pain necessarily
+attending it. Numerous investigators have long established the fact
+that the great sensory nerve of the head and face is endowed with an
+exquisite degree of sensibility. More than half a century ago, both
+Magendie and Sir Charles Bell pointed out that merely exposing and
+touching this fifth nerve gave signs of most acute pain. "All who have
+divided this root in living animals must have recognized, not only
+that it is sensitive, but that its sensibility is far more acute than
+that of any other nervous trunk in the
+body."<a name="FNanchor_A_17" id="FNanchor_A_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+"The fifth pair," says Professor John C. Dalton, "is the most acutely
+sensitive nerve in the whole body. Its irritation by mechanical means
+<i>always causes intense pain</i>, and even though the animal be
+nearly unconscious from the influence of ether, any severe injury
+to its large root is almost invariably followed by
+cries."<a name="FNanchor_B_18" id="FNanchor_B_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
+Testimony on this point is uniform and abundant. If
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+science speaks anywhere with assurance, it is in regard to the
+properties of this nerve. Yet every year the experiment is repeated
+before medical classes, simply to demonstrate accepted facts. "This is
+an operation," says Professor Flint, referring to the division of this
+nerve, "that we have frequently performed with success." He adds that
+"it is difficult from the fact that one is working in the dark, and it
+requires a certain amount of dexterity, <i>to be acquired only by
+practice</i>." Minute directions are therefore laid down for the
+operative procedure, and illustrations given both of the instrument to
+be used, and of the head of a rabbit with the blade of the instrument in
+its cranial cavity.<a name="FNanchor_C_19" id="FNanchor_C_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+Holding the head of our rabbit firmly in the left hand, we are
+directed to penetrate the cranium in a particular manner. "Soon the
+operator feels at a certain depth that the bony resistance ceases; he
+is then on the fifth pair, and the cries of the animal give
+evidence that the nerve is pressed upon." This is one of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+Magendie's celebrated experiments; perhaps the reader fancies that in
+its modern repetitions the animal suffers nothing, being rendered
+insensible by an&aelig;sthetics? "<i>It is much more satisfactory to
+divide the nerve without etherizing the animal, as the evidence of
+pain is an important guide in this delicate operation.</i>"
+An&aelig;sthetics, however, are sometimes used, but not so as wholly
+to overcome the pain.</p>
+
+<p>Testimony of individuals, indicating the extent to which vivisection
+is at present practiced in this country might be given; but it seems
+better to submit proof within the reach of every reader, and the
+accuracy of which is beyond cavil. No legal restrictions whatever
+exist, preventing the performance of any experiment desired. Indeed, I
+think it may safely be asserted that, in the city of New York, in a
+single medical school, more pain is inflicted upon living animals as a
+means of teaching well-known facts, than is permitted to be done for
+the same purpose in all the medical schools of Great Britain and Ireland.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+And <i>cui bono</i>? "I can truly say," writes a physician who has seen all
+these experiments, "that not only have I never seen any results at all
+commensurate with the suffering inflicted, but I cannot recall a
+single experiment which, in the slightest degree, has increased my
+ability to relieve pain, or in any way fitted me to cope better with
+disease."</p>
+
+<p>In respect to this practice, therefore, evidence abounds indicating
+the necessity for that State supervision which obtains in Great
+Britain. We cannot abolish it any more than we can repress dissection;
+to attempt it would be equally unwise. Within certain limitations,
+dictated both by a regard for the interest of science and by that
+sympathy for everything that lives and suffers which is the highest
+attribute of humanity, it seems to me that the practice of vivisection
+should be allowed. What are these restrictions?</p>
+
+<p>The following conclusions are suggested as a basis for future
+legislation:</p>
+
+<p><i>I. Any experiment or operation whatever upon a living animal, during which by</i>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+<i>recognized an&aelig;sthetics it is made completely insensible
+to pain, should be permitted.</i></p>
+
+<p>This does not necessarily imply the taking of life. Should a surgeon,
+for example, desire to cause a fracture or tie an artery, and then
+permit the animal to recover so as to note subsequent effects, there
+is no reason why the privilege should be refused. The discomfort
+following such an operation would be inconsiderable. This permission
+should not extend to experiments purely physiological and having no
+definite relation to surgery; nor to mutilation from which recovery is
+impossible, and prolonged pain certain as a sequence.</p>
+
+<p><i>II. Any experiment performed thus, under complete an&aelig;sthesia,
+though involving any degree of mutilation, if concluded by the
+extinction of life before consciousness is regained should also be
+permitted.</i></p>
+
+<p>To object to killing animals for scientific purposes while we continue
+to demand their sacrifice for food, is to seek for the appetite a
+privilege we refuse the mind. It is equally
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+absurd to object to vivisection because it dissects, or "cuts up." If
+no pain be felt, why is it worse to cut up a dog, than a sheep or an
+ox? Such experiments as the foregoing might be permitted to any extent
+desired in our medical schools.</p>
+
+<p>Far more difficult is the question of painful experimentation.
+Unfortunately, it so happens that the most attractive original
+investigations are largely upon the nervous system, involving the
+consciousness of pain as a requisite to success. Toward this class of
+experiments the State should act with caution and firmness. It seems
+to me that the following restrictions are only just.</p>
+
+<p><i>III. In view of the great cost in suffering, as compared with the
+slight profit gained by the student, the repetition, for purposes of
+class instruction of any experiment involving pain to a vertebrate
+animal should be forbidden by law.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>IV. In view of the slight gain to practical medicine resulting
+from innumerable past experiments of this kind, a painful experiment</i>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+<i>upon a living vertebrate animal should be permitted solely for
+purposes of original investigation, and then only under the most rigid
+surveillance, and preceded by the strictest precautions.</i> For every
+experiment of this kind the physiologist should be required to obtain
+special permission from a State board, specifying on application (1)
+the object of the proposed investigation, (2) the nature and method of
+the operation, (3) the species of animal to be sacrificed, and (4) the
+shortest period during which pain will probably be felt. An officer of
+the State should be given an opportunity to be present; and a report
+made, both of the length of time occupied, and the knowledge, if any,
+gained thereby. If these restrictions are made obligatory by statute,
+and their violation made punishable by a heavy fine, such experiments
+will be generally performed only when absolutely necessary for
+purposes of scientific research.</p>
+
+<p>In few matters is there greater necessity for careful discrimination
+than in everything pertaining to this subject. The attempt has
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+been made in this paper to indicate how far the State&mdash;leaning to
+mercy's side&mdash;may sanction a practice often so necessary and
+useful, always so dangerous in its tendencies. That is a worthy ideal
+of conduct which seeks</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><p>
+"Never to blend our pleasure or our pride<br />
+With sorrow of the meanest thing that feels."<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>Is not this a sentiment in which even science
+may fitly share? Are we justified in neglecting
+the evidence she offers, purchased in the past
+at such immeasurable agonies, and in demanding
+that year after year new victims shall be
+subjected to torture, only to demonstrate what
+none of us doubt? That is the chief question.
+For, if all compromise be persistently rejected
+by physiologists, there is danger that some
+day, impelled by the advancing growth of
+humane sentiment, society may confound in
+one common condemnation all experiments
+of this nature, and make the whole practice
+impossible, except in secret and as a crime.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+<h3>[<i>From</i> <span class="smcap">Lippincott's Magazine</span>, <i>August, 1884</i>.]</h3>
+
+<h2>VIVISECTION.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Omitting entirely any consideration of the ethics of vivisection, the
+only points to which in the present article the attention of the
+reader is invited are those in which scientific inquirers may be
+supposed to have a common interest.</p>
+
+<p>I. One danger to which scientific truth seems to be exposed is a
+peculiar tendency to underestimate the numberless uncertainties and
+contradictions created by experimentation upon living beings. Judging
+from the enthusiasm of its advocates, one would think that by this
+method of interrogating nature all fallacies can be detected, all
+doubts determined. But, on the contrary, the result of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+experimentation, in many directions, is to plunge the observer into
+the abyss of uncertainty. Take, for example, one of the simplest and
+yet most important questions possible,&mdash;the degree of sensibility
+in the lower animals. Has an infinite number of experiments enabled
+physiologists to determine for us the mere question of pain? Suppose
+an amateur experimenter in London, desirous of performing some severe
+operations upon frogs, to hesitate because of the extreme painfulness
+of his methods, what replies would he be likely to obtain from the
+highest scientific authorities of England as to the sensibility of
+these creatures? We may fairly judge their probable answers to such
+inquiries from their evidence already given before a royal
+commission.<a name="FNanchor_A_20" id="FNanchor_A_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Carpenter would doubtless repeat his opinion that "frogs have
+extremely little perception of pain;" and in the evidence of that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+experienced physiologist George Henry Lewes, he would find the
+cheerful assurance, "I do not believe that frogs suffer pain at all."
+Our friend applies, let us suppose, to Dr. Klein, of St. Bartholomew's
+Hospital, who despises the sentimentality which regards animal
+suffering as of the least consequence; and this enthusiastic
+vivisector informs him that, in his English experience, the experiment
+which caused the greatest pain without an&aelig;sthetics was the
+cauterization of the cornea of a frog. Somewhat confused at finding
+that a most painful experiment can be performed upon an animal that
+does not suffer he relates this to Dr. Swaine Taylor, of Guy's
+Hospital, who does not think that Klein's experiment would cause
+severe suffering; but of another&mdash;placing a frog in cold water
+and raising the temperature to about 100&deg;&mdash;"that," says
+Doctor Taylor, "would be a cruel experiment: I cannot see what purpose
+it can answer." Before leaving Guy's Hospital, our inquiring friend
+meets Dr. Pavy, one of the most celebrated physiologists
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+in England, who tells him that in this experiment, stigmatized by his
+colleague as "cruel," the frog would in reality suffer very little;
+that if we ourselves were treated to a bath gradually raised from a
+medium temperature to the boiling point, "I think we should not feel
+any pain;" that were we plunged at once into boiling water, "even
+then," says the enthusiastic and scientific Dr. Pavy, "I do not think
+pain would be experienced!" Our friend goes then to Dr. Sibson, of St.
+Mary's Hospital, who as a physiologist of many years' standing, sees
+no objection to freezing, starving, or baking animals alive; but he
+declares of boiling a frog, "That is a horrible idea, and I certainly
+am not going to defend it." Perplexed more than ever, he goes to Dr.
+Lister, of King's College, and is astonished upon being told
+"that the mere holding of a frog in your warm hand is about as
+painful as any experiment probably that you would perform."
+Finally, one of the strongest advocates of vivisections,
+Dr. Anthony, pupil of Sir Charles Bell, would exclaim, if a mere
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+exposition of the lungs of the frog were referred to, "Fond as I am of
+physiology, I would not do that for the world!"</p>
+
+<p>Now, what has our inquirer learned by his appeal to science? Has he
+gained any clear and absolute knowledge? Hardly two of the
+experimenters named agree upon one simple yet most important
+preliminary of research&mdash;<i>the sensibility to pain of a single
+species of animals</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Let us interrogate scientific opinion a little further on this
+question of sensibility. Is there any difference in animals as regards
+susceptibility to pain? Dr. Anthony says that we may take the amount of
+intelligence in animals as a fair measure of their sensibility&mdash;that
+the pain one would suffer would be in proportion to its intelligence.
+Dr. Rutherford, Edinburgh, never performs an experiment upon a cat or
+a spaniel if he can help it, because they are so exceedingly
+sensitive; and Dr. Horatio Wood, of Philadelphia, tells us that the
+nervous system of a cat is far more sensitive than that of the rabbit. On
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+the other hand, Dr. Lister, of King's College, is not aware of any
+such difference in sensibility in animals, and Dr. Brunton, of St.
+Bartholomew's, finds cats such very good animals to operate with that
+he on one occasion used ninety in making a single experiment.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Gull thinks "there are but few experiments performed on
+living creatures where sensation is not removed," yet Dr. Rutherford
+admits "about half" his experiments to have been made upon animals
+sensitive to pain. Professor Rolleston, of Oxford University, tells us
+"the whole question of an&aelig;sthetizing animals has an element of
+uncertainty"; and Professor Rutherford declares it "impossible to say"
+whether even artificial respiration is painful or not, "unless the
+animal can speak." Dr. Brunton, of St. Bartholomew's, says of that
+most painful experiment, poisoning by strychnine, that it cannot be
+efficiently shown if the animal be under chloroform. Dr. Davy, of
+Guy's, on the contrary, always gives chloroform, and finds it no
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+impediment to successful demonstration, Is opium an an&aelig;sthetic?
+Claude Bernard declares that sensibility exists even though the animal
+be motionless: "<i>Il sent la douleur, mais il a, pour ainsi dire, perdu
+l'idee de la defense.</i>"<a name="FNanchor_A_21" id="FNanchor_A_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+But Dr. Brunton, of St. Bartholomew's hospital, London, has no
+hesitation whatever in contradicting this statement "emphatically,
+however high an authority it may be."</p>
+
+<p>Curare, a poison invented by South American Indians for their arrows,
+is much used in physiological laboratories to paralyze the motor
+nerves, rendering an animal absolutely incapable of the slightest
+disturbing movement. Does it at the same time destroy sensation, or is
+the creature conscious of every pang? Claude Bernard, of Paris,
+Sharpey, of London, and Flint, of New York<a name="FNanchor_B_22" id="FNanchor_B_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+all agree that sensation is <i>not</i> abolished; on the other hand,
+Rutherford regards curare as a partial an&aelig;sthetic, and Huxley strongly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+intimates that Bernard in thus deciding from experiments that it does
+not affect the cerebral hemispheres or consciousness, "<i>jumped
+at a conclusion</i> for which neither he nor anybody else had any
+scientific justification." This is extraordinary language for one
+experimentalist to use regarding others! If it is possible that such
+men as Claude Bernard and Professor Flint have "jumped at" one utterly
+unscientific conclusion, notwithstanding the most painstaking of
+vivisections, what security have we that other of our theories in
+physiology now regarded as absolutely established may not be one day
+as severely ridiculed by succeeding investigators? Is it, after all,
+true, that the absolute certainty of our most important deductions
+must remain forever hidden "unless the animal can speak"?</p>
+
+<p>II. Between advocating State supervision of painful vivisection, and
+proposing with Mr. Bergh the total suppression of all experiments,
+painful or otherwise, there is manifestly a very wide distinction.
+Unfortunately, the suggestion of any interference whatever invariably
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+rouses the anger of those most interested&mdash;an indignation as
+unreasonable, to say the least, as that of the merchant who refuses a
+receipt for money just paid to him, on the ground that a request for a
+written acknowledgement is a reflection upon his honesty. I cannot see
+how otherwise than by State supervision we are to reach abuses which
+confessedly exist. Can we trust the sensitiveness and conscience of
+every experimenter? Nobody claims this. One of the leading
+physiologists in this country, Dr. John C. Dalton, admits "that
+vivisection may be, and has been, abused by reckless, unfeeling, or
+unskillful persons;" that he himself has witnessed abroad, in a veterinary
+institution, operations than which "nothing could be more shocking."
+And yet the unspeakable atrocities at Alfort, to which, apparently,
+Dr. Dalton alludes, were defended upon the very ground he occupies to-day
+in advocating experiments of the modern laboratory and classroom; for
+the Academie des Sciences decided that there was "no occasion to take any
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+notice of complaints; that in the future, as in the past,
+vivisectional experiments must be left entirely to the judgment of
+scientific men." What seemed "atrocious" to the more tender-hearted
+Anglo-Saxon was pronounced entirely justifiable by the French Academy
+of Science.</p>
+
+<p>A curious question suggests itself in connection with this point.
+There can be little doubt, I think, that the sentiment of compassion
+and of sympathy with suffering is more generally diffused among all
+classes of Great Britain than elsewhere in Europe; and one cannot help
+wondering what our place might be, were it possible to institute any
+reliable comparison of national humanity. Should we be found in all
+respects as sensitive as the English people? Would indignation and
+protest be as quickly and spontaneously evoked among us by a cruel
+act? The question may appear an ungracious one, yet it seems to me
+there exists some reason why it should be plainly asked. There
+is a certain experiment&mdash;one of the most excruciating
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+that can be performed&mdash;which consists in exposing the spinal cord
+of the dog for the purpose of demonstrating the functions of the
+spinal nerves. It is one, by the way, which Dr. Wilder forgot to
+enumerate in his summary of the "four kinds of experiments," since it
+is not the "cutting operation" which forms its chief peculiarity or to
+which special objection would be made. At present all this preliminary
+process is generally performed under an&aelig;sthetics: it is an hour
+or two later, when the animal has partly recovered from the severe
+shock of the operation, that the wound is reopened and the experiment
+begins. It was during a class demonstration of this kind by Magendie,
+before the introduction of ether, that the circumstance occurred which
+one hesitates to think possible in a person retaining a single spark
+of humanity or pity. "I recall to mind," says Dr. Latour, who was
+present at the time, "a poor dog, the roots of whose
+vertebral nerves Magendie desired to lay bare
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+to demonstrate Bell's theory, which he claimed as his own. The dog,
+mutilated and bleeding twice escaped from under the implacable knife,
+and threw its front paws around Magendie's neck, licking, as if to
+soften his murderer and ask for mercy! I confess I was unable to
+endure that heartrending spectacle."</p>
+
+<p>It was probably in reference to this experiment that Sir Charles Bell,
+the greatest English physiologist of our century, writing to his
+brother in 1822, informs him that he hesitates to go on with his
+investigations. "You may think me silly," he adds, "but I cannot
+perfectly convince myself that I am authorized in nature or religion
+to do these cruelties." Now, what do English physiologists and
+vivisectors of the present day think of the repetition of this
+experiment solely as a class demonstration?</p>
+
+<p>They have candidly expressed their opinions before a royal
+commission. Dr. David Ferrier, of King's college, noted for
+his experiments upon the brain of monkeys, affirms his
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+belief that "students would rebel" at the sight of a painful
+experiment. Dr. Rutherford, who certainly dared do all that may become
+a physiologist, confesses mournfully, "<i>I dare not</i> show an experiment
+upon a dog or rabbit before students, when the animal is not
+an&aelig;sthetized." Dr. Pavy, of Guy's Hospital, asserts that a
+painful experiment introduced before a class "would not be tolerated
+for a moment." Sir William Gull, M. D., believes that the repetition
+of an operation like this upon the spinal nerves would excite the
+reprobation alike of teacher, pupils, and the public at large. Michael
+Foster, of Cambridge University, who minutely describes all the
+details of the experiment on recurrent sensibility in the "Handbook
+for the Physiological Laboratory," nevertheless tells us, "I have not
+performed it, and have never seen it done," partly, as he confesses,
+"from horror at the pain." And finally Dr. Burdon-Sanderson,
+physiologist at University College, London, states with the utmost
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+emphasis, in regard to the performance of this demonstration on the
+spinal cord, "I am perfectly certain that no physiologist&mdash;none
+of the leading men in Germany, for example&mdash;would exhibit an
+experiment of that kind."</p>
+
+<p>Now mark the contrast. This experiment&mdash;which we are told passes
+even the callousness of Germany to repeat; which every leading
+champion of vivisection in Great Britain reprobates for medical
+teaching; which some of them shrink even from seeing, themselves, from
+horror at the tortures necessarily inflicted; which the most ruthless
+among them <i>dare not</i> exhibit to the young men of England,&mdash;<i>this
+experiment has been performed publicly again and again in American
+medical colleges</i>, without exciting, so far as we know, even a whisper
+of protest or the faintest murmur of remonstrance! The proof is to be
+found in the published statements of the experimenter himself. In his
+"Text-Book of Physiology," Professor Flint says, "Magendie showed very
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+satisfactorily that the posterior roots (of the spinal cord) were
+exclusively sensory, and this fact has been confirmed by more recent
+observations upon the higher classes of animals. We have ourselves
+frequently exposed and irritated the roots of the nerves in dogs, <i>in
+public demonstrations</i> in experiments on the recurrent sensibility,
+... and in another series of observations."<a name="FNanchor_A_23" id="FNanchor_A_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is the experience of a single professional teacher; but it is
+improbable that this experiment has been shown only to the students of
+a single medical college in the United States; it has doubtless been
+repeated again and again in different colleges throughout the country.
+If Englishmen are, then, so extremely sensitive as Ferrier, Gull, and
+Burdon-Sanderson would have us believe, we must necessarily conclude
+that the sentiment of compassion is far greater in Britain than in
+America. Have we drifted backward in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+humanity? Have American students learned to witness, without protest,
+tortures at the sight of which English students would rebel? We are
+told that there is no need of any public sensitiveness on this
+subject. We should trust entirely, as they do in France,&mdash;at
+Alfort, for example,&mdash;"to the judgment of the investigator."
+There must be no lifting of the veil to the outside multitude; for the
+priests of this unpitying science there must be as absolute immunity
+from criticism or inquiry as was ever demanded before the shrine of
+Delphi or the altars of Baal. "Let them exercise their solemn office,"
+demands Dr. Wilder, "not only unrestrained by law, but upheld by
+public sentiment."</p>
+
+<p>For myself, I cannot believe this position is tenable. Nothing seems
+to me more certain than the results that must follow if popular
+sentiment in this country shall knowingly sustain the public
+demonstration of an experiments in pain, which can find no defender
+among the physiologists of Great Britain. It
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+has been my fortune to know something of the large hospitals of
+Europe; and I confess I do not know a single one in countries where
+painful vivisection flourishes, unchecked by law, wherein the poor and
+needy sick are treated with the sympathy, the delicacy, or even the
+decency, which so universally characterize the hospitals of England.
+When Magendie, operating for cataract, plunged his needle to the
+bottom of his patient's eye, that he might note upon a human being the
+effect produced by mechanical irritation of the retina, he
+demonstrated how greatly the zeal of the enthusiast may impair the
+responsibility of the physician and the sympathy of man for man.</p>
+
+<p>III. The utility of vivisection in advancing therapeutics, despite
+much argument, still remains an open question. No one is so foolish as
+to deny the possibility of future usefulness to any discovery
+whatever; but there is a distinction, very easily slurred over
+in the eagerness of debate, between present applicability
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+and remotely potential service. If the pains inflicted on animals are
+absolutely necessary to the protection of human life and the
+advancement of practical skill in medicine, should sentiment be
+permitted to check investigation? An English prelate, the Bishop of
+Peterborough, speaking in Parliament on this subject, once told the
+House of Lords that "it was very difficult to decide what was
+unnecessary pain," and as an example of the perplexities which arose
+in his own mind he mentioned "the case of the wretched man who was
+convicted of skinning cats alive, because their skins were more
+valuable when taken from the living animal than from the dead one. The
+extra money," added the Bishop, "got the man a dinner!"<a name="FNanchor_A_24" id="FNanchor_A_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
+Whether in this particular case the excuse was well received by the judge,
+the reverend prelate neglected to inform us; but it is certain that the plea
+for painful experimentation rests substantially on the same basis. Out of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+agonies of sentient brutes we are to pluck the secret of longer
+living and the art of surer triumph over intractable disease.</p>
+
+<p>But has this hope been fulfilled? Pasteur, we are told, has claimed
+the discovery of a cure for hydrophobia through experiments on
+animals. It may be well worth its cost if only true; but we cannot
+forget that its practical value is by no means yet demonstrated. Aside
+from this, has physiological experimentation during the last quarter
+of a century contributed such marked improvements in therapeutic
+methods that we find certain and tangible evidence thereof in the
+diminishing fatality of any disease? Can one mention a single malady
+which thirty years ago resisted every remedial effort, to which the
+more enlightened science of to-day can offer hopes of recovery? These
+seem to me perfectly legitimate and fair questions, and, fortunately,
+in one respect, capable of a scientific reply. I suppose the opinion
+of the late Claude Bernard, of Paris, would be generally
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+accepted as that of the highest scientific authority on the utility of
+vivisection in "practical medicine;" but he tells us that it is hardly
+worth while to make the inquiry. "Without doubt," he confessed, "<i>our
+hands are empty to-day</i>, although our mouths are full of legitimate
+promises for the future."</p>
+
+<p>Was Claude Bernard correct in this opinion as to the "empty hands?" If
+scientific evidence is worth anything, it points to the appalling
+conclusion that, <i>notwithstanding all the researches of physiology,
+the chief forms of chronic disease exhibit to-day in England a greater
+fatality than thirty years ago</i>. In the following table I have
+indicated the average annual mortality, per million inhabitants, of
+certain diseases, <i>first</i>, for the period of five years from 1850 to
+1854, and <i>secondly</i>, for the period twenty-five years later, from
+1875 to 1879. The authority is beyond question; the facts are
+collected from the report to Parliament of the Registrar-general of
+England:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
+<h4><i>Average Annual Rate of Mortality in England, from
+Causes of Death, per One Million Inhabitants.</i></h4>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Diseases">
+<tr>
+  <th>NAME OF DISEASE.</th>
+  <th>During Five Years, 1850-54.</th>
+  <th>During Five Years, 1875-79.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Gout,</td>
+  <td align="center">12</td>
+  <td align="center">25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Aneurism,</td>
+  <td align="center">16</td>
+  <td align="center">32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Diabetes,</td>
+  <td align="center">23</td>
+  <td align="center">41</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Insanity,</td>
+  <td align="center">29</td>
+  <td align="center">57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Syphilis,</td>
+  <td align="center">37</td>
+  <td align="center">86</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Epilepsy,</td>
+  <td align="center">105</td>
+  <td align="center">119</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Bright's disease,</td>
+  <td align="center">32</td>
+  <td align="center">182</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Kidney disease,</td>
+  <td align="center">94</td>
+  <td align="center">114</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Brain disease,</td>
+  <td align="center">192</td>
+  <td align="center">281</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Liver disease,</td>
+  <td align="center">215</td>
+  <td align="center">291</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Heart disease,</td>
+  <td align="center">651</td>
+  <td align="center">1,335</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Cancer,</td>
+  <td align="center">302</td>
+  <td align="center">492</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Paralysis,</td>
+  <td align="center">440</td>
+  <td align="center">501</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Apoplexy,</td>
+  <td align="center">454</td>
+  <td align="center">552</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>Tubercular diseases and diseases of the Respiratory Organs,</td>
+  <td align="center">6,424</td>
+  <td align="center">6,886</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><b>Mortality from above diseases:</b></td>
+  <td align="center"><b>9,026</b></td>
+  <td align="center"><b>10,994</b></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This is certainly a most startling exhibit, when we remember that
+from only these few causes about half of <i>all</i> the deaths in
+England annually occur, and that from them result the deaths of
+two-thirds of the persons, of both sexes, who reach the age of twenty
+years.<a name="FNanchor_A_25" id="FNanchor_A_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+What are the effects here discernible
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+of Bernard's experiments upon diabetes? of Brown-Sequard's upon
+epilepsy and paralysis? of Flint's and Pavy's on diseases of the
+liver? of Ferrier's researches upon the functions of the brain? Let us
+appeal from the heated enthusiasm of the experimenter to the stern
+facts of the statistician. Why, so far from having obtained the least
+mastery over those malignant forces which seem forever to elude and
+baffle our art, they are actually gaining upon us; every one of these
+forms of disease is more fatal to-day in England than thirty years
+ago; during 1879 over sixty thousand <i>more</i> deaths resulted from these
+maladies alone than would have occurred had the rate of mortality from
+them been simply that which prevailed during the benighted period of
+1850 to 1854! True, during later years there has been a diminished
+mortality in England, but it is from the lesser prevalence of zymotic
+diseases, which no one to-day pretends to cure; while the organic
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+diseases show a constant tendency to increase. Part of this may be due
+to more accurate diagnosis and clearer definition of mortality causes:
+but this will not explain a phenomenon which is too evident to be
+overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>"It is a fact," says the Registrar-general, in his report for 1879,
+"that while mortality in early life has been very notably diminished,
+<i>the mortality of persons in middle or advanced life has been steadily
+rising for a long period of years</i>." It is probable that the same
+story would be told by the records of France, Germany, and other
+European countries; it is useless, of course, to refer to America,
+since in regard to statistical information we still lag behind every
+country which pretends to be civilized.<a name="FNanchor_A_26" id="FNanchor_A_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
+Undoubtedly it would be a false assumption which from these facts
+should deduce retrogression in medical art or deny advance and
+improvement; but they certainly indicate that the boasted
+superiority of modern medicine over the skill of our fathers,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+due to physiological researches, is not sustained by the only
+impartial authority to which science can appeal for evidence of
+results.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>What then is the substance of the whole matter? It seems to me the
+following conclusions are justified by the facts presented.</p>
+
+<p>I. All experiments upon living animals may be divided into two general
+classes; 1st those which produce pain,&mdash;slight, brief, severe or
+atrociously acute and prolonged; and 2nd, those experiments which are
+performed under complete an&aelig;sthesia from which either death
+ensues during unconsciousness, or entire recovery may follow.</p>
+
+<p>II. The majority of vivisections requisite for purposes of teaching
+physiological facts <i>may</i> be so carried on as to take life with less
+pain or inconvenience to the animal than is absolutely necessary in order
+to furnish meat for our tables. Those who would make it a penal offense to
+submit to a class of college students the unconscious and painless demonstration
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+of functional activity of the heart, for example, and yet demand for
+the gratification of appetite the daily slaughter of oxen and sheep
+without an&aelig;sthetics, and without any attempt to minimize the
+agony of terror, fear and pain&mdash;may not be inconsistent. But it
+is a view the writer cannot share.</p>
+
+<p>III. Prohibition of all experiments may be fairly demanded by those
+who believe that the enthusiastic ardor of the scientific experimenter
+or lecturer, will outweigh all considerations of good faith, provided
+success or failure of his experiment depend on the consciousness of
+pain. In other words, that the experimenter himself, as a rule,
+<i>cannot be trusted to obey the law, should the law restrict</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This also is an extreme position.</p>
+
+<p>IV. Absolute liberty in the matter of painful experiments has produced
+admitted abuses by physiologists of Germany, France and Italy. In
+America it has led to the repetition before classes of students of
+Magendie's extreme cruelties,&mdash;demonstrations which have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+been condemned by every leading English physiologist.</p>
+
+<p>V. In view of the dangerous impulses not unfrequently awakened by the
+sight of pain intentionally inflicted, experiments of this kind should
+be by legal enactment absolutely forbidden before classes of students,
+especially in our Public Schools.</p>
+
+<p>VI. It is not in accord with scientific accuracy to contend for
+unlimited freedom of painful experimentation, on the ground of its
+vast utility to humanity in the discovery of new methods for the cure
+of disease. On the contrary, so far as can be discovered by a careful
+study of English mortality statistics, physiological experiments upon
+living animals for fifty years back have in no single instance
+lessened the fatality of any disease below its average of thirty-five
+years ago.</p>
+
+<p>VII. Vivisection, involving the infliction of pain is, even in its
+best possible aspect, a necessary evil, and ought at once to be
+restricted within the narrowest limits, and placed under the
+supervision of the State.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>I.</h3>
+
+<p>For reasons sufficiently stated in the preceding pages, the writer
+does not advocate the total abolition of all experimentation. It is
+only fair to acknowledge, however, that very strong and weighty
+arguments in favor of legal repression have been advanced both in this
+country and abroad, some of which are herewith presented, as the other
+side of the question.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of abolition has no more earnest and eloquent advocate than
+Miss Frances Power Cobbe of England. Through innumerable controversies
+with scientific men in the public journals, magazines and reviews, she
+has presented in awful array, the abuses of unlimited and uncontrolled
+experimentation on the continent of Europe, and the arguments in favor
+of total repression. The following letters, extracts from her public
+correspondence, will indicate her position.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>TENDER VIVISECTION.<br />
+(<span class="smcap">To the Editor of the "Scotsman."</span>)</h4>
+
+<p class="author">1, Victoria Street, London, S. W.,<br />
+January 10, 1881. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir.</span>&mdash;An Italian pamphlet, <i>Dell'Azione del Dolore sulla
+Respirazione</i> (The Action of Pain on Respiration), has just reached my
+hands, and as it is, I think, quite unknown in this country, I will
+beg you to grant me space for a few extracts from its pages. The
+pamphlet is by the eminent physiologist, Mantegazza, and was published
+by Chiusi, of Milan. Having explained the object of his investigations
+to be the effects of pain on the respiratory organs, the Professor
+describes (p. 20) the methods he devised for the production of such
+pain. He found the best to consist in "planting nails, sharp and
+numerous, through the feet of the animal in such a manner as to render
+the creature almost motionless, because in every movement it would
+have felt its torment more acutely" (<i>piantando chiodi acuti e numerosi
+attraverso le piante dei piedi in modo da rendere immobile o quasi
+l'animale, perch&eacute; ad ogni movimento avrebbe sentito molto piu acuto
+il suo tormento</i>). Further on he mentions that, to produce still more
+intense pain (<i>dolore intenso</i>) he was obliged to employ lesions,
+followed by inflammation. An ingenious machine, constructed by "our"
+Tecnomasio, of Milan, enabled him likewise to grip any part of an animal with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+pincers with iron teeth, and to crush, or tear, or lift up the victim,
+"so as to produce pain in every possible way." A drawing of this
+instrument is appended. The first series of his experiments, Signor
+Mantegazza informs us, were tried on twelve animals, chiefly rabbits
+and guinea pigs, of which several were pregnant. One poor little
+creature, "far advanced in pregnancy," was made to endure <i>dolori
+atrocissimi</i>, so that it was impossible to make any observations in
+consequence of its convulsions.</p>
+
+<p>In the second series of experiments twenty-eight animals were
+sacrificed, some of them taken from nursing their young, exposed to
+torture for an hour or two, then allowed to rest an hour, and usually
+replaced in the machine to be crushed or torn by the Professor for
+periods of from two to six hours more. In the table wherein these
+experiments are summed up, the terms <i>molto dolore</i> and <i>crudeli
+dolori</i> are delicately distinguished, the latter being apparently
+reserved for the cases when the victims were, as the Professor
+expresses it, <i>lardellati di chiodi</i>&mdash;("larded with nails").</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, the author informs us (p. 25) that these experiments
+were all conducted "<i>con molto amore e pazienza!</i>"&mdash;with much
+zeal and patience.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+I am, etc., &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<br />
+<span class="smcap">Frances Power Cobbe</span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+In a controversy with Dr. Pye-Smith, who had read a paper before the
+British Association, Miss Cobbe writes as follows to one of the public
+journals:</p>
+
+<p>"Dr. Pye-Smith is reported to have said: 'Happily, the neccessary
+experiments were comparatively few.' Few! What are a "few" experiments?
+Professor Schiff in ten years experimented on 14,000 dogs, given over
+to him by the Municipality of Florence, and returned their carcases so
+mangled that the man who had contracted for their skins found them
+useless. He also experimented on pigeons, cats, and rabbits to the
+number, it is calculated, of 70,000 creatures; and he now asks for ten
+dogs a week in Geneva. All over Germany and France there are laboratories
+"using" (as the horrible phrase is) numberless animals, inasmuch as I
+have just received a letter stating that dogs are actually becoming
+scarce in Lyons, and it is proposed to breed them for the purpose of
+Vivisection. Be this true or not, I invite any of your readers to visit
+the office of the Victoria Street Society, and examine the volumes of
+splendid plates of vivisecting instruments, which will there be shown
+them, and then judge for themselves whether it be for a few experiments
+that those elaborate and costly inventions have become a regular branch
+of manufacture. Let them examine the volume of the English handbook of
+the physiological laboratory, the volume of Cyon's magnificent
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+atlas, with its 54 plates, the <i>Archives de Physiologie</i>, with its
+191 plates, the <i>Physiologische Methodik</i>, or Claude Bernard's
+<i>Le&ccedil;ons sur la Chaleur Animale</i>, with its pictures of the
+stoves wherein he baked dogs and rabbits alive; and after these sights
+of disgust and horror they will know how to understand the word "few"
+in the vocabulary of a physiologist. I am glad to hear that a German
+opponent of Vivisection recently entering a shop devoted to the sale
+of these tools of torture, was greeted by the proprietor with a volley
+of abuse: 'It is you and your friends,' he said, 'who are destroying
+my trade. I used to sell a hundred of Czermak's tables and other
+instruments for one I sell now.'</p>
+
+<p>"Dr. Pye-Smith said: 'Many of the experiments inflicted no pain or
+injury whatever, and the great majority of the rest were rendered
+painless by the use of those beneficial agents which abolished pain
+and had themselves been discovered by experiments upon living
+animals.' As to the use of an&aelig;sthetics in annulling the
+agonies of mutilated animals, the audience ought to have asked
+Dr. Pye-Smith to explain whether he intended to refer to chloroform,
+or the narcotic morphia, or, lastly, to the drug <i>curare</i>. If he
+referred to chloroform, Dr. Hoggan tells from his own experience
+(<i>An&aelig;sthetics</i>, p. 1), that 'nothing can be more uncertain than
+its influence on the lower animals; many of them die before they become
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+insensible. Complete and conscientious an&aelig;sthesia is seldom even
+attempted, the animal getting at most a slight whiff of chloroform
+<i>by way of satisfying the conscience of the operator</i>, or enabling
+him to make statements of a humane character.' Even if it were
+conscientiously administered at the beginning of an experiment, how little
+would chloroform diminish the misery of Rutherford's dogs or Brunton's
+ninety cats, whose long-drawn agonies extended over many days? How
+little could it affect in any way the cases of starving, poisoning,
+baking, stewing to death, or burning,&mdash;like the twenty-five dogs over
+which Professor Wertheim poured turpentine and then set them on fire,
+leaving them afterwards slowly to perish? If Dr. Pye-Smith was
+thinking of morphia, the reader may refer to Claude Bernard's <i>Le&ccedil;ons
+de Physiologie Operatoire</i>, where he will find that great
+physiologists recommends its use; but at the same time mentions (as of
+no particular consequence) that the animal subjected to its influence
+still 'suffers pain.' I can hardly suppose, lastly, that Dr. Pye-Smith
+was secretly thinking of <i>curare</i>, and that he is one of those whom
+Tennyson says would</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><p>
+"Mangle the living dog which loved him and fawned at his knee,<br />
+Drenched with the hellish oorali."<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>It is bad enough to "mangle" a loving and intelligent creature without
+adding to its agonies the paralysis of the powers of motion, and the increased
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+sensibility to pain occasioned by this horrible drug, which
+nevertheless Bernard, in the work above quoted, says is in such common
+use among physiologists, that when an experiment is not otherwise
+described, it may always be "taken for granted it has been performed
+on a curarized dog."</p>
+
+<p>Finally, Dr. Pye-Smith says, "It was remarkable that the small residue
+of experiments in which some amount of pain was necessary were chiefly
+those in which the direct and immediate benefit to mankind was more
+obvious. He referred to the trying of drugs on animals, to discovering
+antidotes to poisons," etc. The bribe here offered to human
+selfishness is an ingenious one. "Let us," the physiologists say,
+"retain the right to put animals to torture, for it is very
+'remarkable' that when we do so it is always in your interest!"
+Unluckily for this appeal to the meaner feelings of human nature,
+which these modern instructors of our young men are not ashamed to put
+forward, it is difficult for them to hit on any one instance wherein
+out of their "few" (million) experiments any good to mankind has been,
+even apparently, achieved. As Claude Bernard honestly said, at least
+as regards any benefit for suffering humanity, "<i>Nos mains sont
+vides</i>." As to the trying of drugs on animals, Dr. Pritchard,
+who is, I believe, the best living authority on the subject,
+told the Royal Commission (Minutes, 908), "I do not think
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+that the use of drugs on animals can be taken as a guide to the doses
+or to the action of the same drugs on the human subjects." As to the
+discovery of antidotes to poison, the only man who seems on the verge
+of any success is the brave and noble fellow who has been trying such
+experiments not on animals but on himself.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, I must add one word on Dr. Pye-Smith's last sentence,
+namely, "that legislation against vivisection is injurious to the best
+interests of the community." Sir, I know not what vivisectors deem to
+be the best interests of the community. For my part I do not reckon
+them to be the influence of drugs, nor yet susceptible of being carved
+out with surgical instruments. I do not think that they consist in
+escape from physical pain, nor even in the prolongation for a few
+years of our little earthly life. I hold that the best interests of
+the community are the moral and immortal interests of every soul in
+such community, namely, the conquest of selfishness, cowardice, and
+cruelty, and the development of the god-like sense of justice and
+love&mdash;the growth of the divinest thing in human nature, the faculty of
+sympathizing with the joys and sorrows of all God's creatures.
+Believing these to be "the best interests of the community," I ask,
+without hesitation, for the suppression of this abominable trade,
+which can best be described as "Pitilessness practised as a profession."
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+If vivisection be indeed the true method of studying physiology, if
+physiology cannot be advanced except by vivisection, if chemical
+observation and microscopic research be useless for the purpose, and
+nothing but the torture of animals and the demoralization of men will
+suffice for its progress&mdash;then, in God's name, I say, let
+physiology stop at the point it has reached, even till the day of
+doom.&mdash;I am, Sir, with apologies for the length of this letter,
+yours, etc.</p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Frances Power Cobbe</span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+<p>Certainly, as regards the ethics of vivisection, nothing more eloquent
+has ever been written than this closing paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>In a letter to the London <span class="smcap">Times</span> in December,
+1884, Miss Cobbe writes as follows:</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">TO THE EDITOR.</span></h4>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>,&mdash;In your article on this subject on Saturday last you called
+upon the opponents of vivisection to answer certain questions. As I
+have been intrusted for many years with the hon. secretaryship of the
+leading anti-vivisectionist society, I beg to offer you the following
+replies to those questions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>You ask first, Do we "deny that vivisection is capable of yielding
+knowledge of service to man?" We are not so rash as to deny that any
+practice, even the most immoral conceivable, might possibly yield
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+knowledge of service to man; and, in particular, we do not deny that
+the vivisection of human beings by the surgeons of classic times, and
+again by the great anatomists of Italy in the 15th century, may very
+possibly have yielded knowledge to man, and be capable, if revived, of
+yielding still more. We have, however, for a long time back called on
+the advocates of the vivisection of dogs, monkeys, &amp;c., to furnish
+evidence of the beneficial results of their work, not as setting at
+rest the question of its morality, but as an indispensable preliminary
+to justify them in coming into the court of public opinion as
+defendants of a practice obviously (as the Royal Commissioners
+reported) "liable from its very nature to great abuse."</p>
+
+<p>We must be excused if we now hold it to be demonstrated that, whether
+vivisection be or be not "capable of yielding useful knowledge," it
+certainly yields only a scanty crop of it. Were there anything like an
+abundant harvest, such a sample as this would not have been produced
+with so much pomp for public scrutiny. In short, we think with Dr.
+Leffingwell that, "if pain could be measured by money, there is no
+mining company in the world which would sanction prospecting in such
+barren regions."</p>
+
+<p>You ask us, Sir, secondly, "Do we affirm that the benefit of mankind
+is not an adequate or sufficient justification for the infliction of
+pain on animals?" We have two answers to this question.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+Assuming that by vivisection benefits might be obtained for human
+bodies, we hold that the evil results of the practice on human minds
+would more than counterbalance any such benefits. The cowardice and
+pitilessness involved in tying down a dog on a table and slowly
+mangling its brain, its eyes, its entrails; the sin committed against
+love and fidelity themselves when a creature capable of dying of grief
+on his master's grave is dealt with as a mere parcel of material
+tissues, "valuable for purposes of research"&mdash;these are basenesses
+for which no physical advantages would compensate, and the prevalence
+of such a heart-hardening process among our young men would, we are
+convinced, detract more from the moral interests of our nation than a
+thousand cases of recovery from disease would serve those of a lower
+kind. Even life itself ought not to be saved by such methods, any more
+than by the cannibalism of the men of the "Mignonette."</p>
+
+<p>Our second answer is yet more brief. We do not "deny that the
+benefit of man is a sufficient justification for inflicting pain upon
+animals," provided that pain is kept within moderate bounds, nor yet
+to taking life from them in a quick and careful manner. But we do deny
+the right of man to inflict torture upon brutes, and thus convert
+their lives from a blessing into a curse. Such torture has been
+inflicted upon tens of thousands of animals by vivisection; and no
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+legislation that ingenuity can devise will, we believe, suffice to
+guard against the repetition of it so long as it is sanctioned in any
+way as a method of research. The use of vivisection&mdash;if it have any
+use&mdash;is practically inseparable from abuse. We therefore call upon our
+countrymen to forego the poor bribes of possible use which are offered
+to them, and of which we have now seen a "unique and impressive"
+example, and generously and manfully to say of vivisection as they
+once said of slavery "We will have none of it."</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+I am, Sir, yours, etc., &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<br />
+<span class="smcap">Frances Power Cobbe</span>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; Hengwrt, Dolgelly, Dec. 28, 1884.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+<h3>II.<br />
+
+<small>[<i>Report of American Anti-vivisection Society, Jan. 1888.</i>]</small></h3>
+
+
+<p>"There remain two grounds to adopt: one the total abolition of all
+experiments; the other the total abolition of all <i>painful</i>
+experiments. This latter position, which is the one that Dr. Bigelow
+of Boston and Dr. Leffingwell have assumed, has engaged our attention
+for a long time; but, after bestowing upon it careful consideration,
+we feel that we must give it up as impracticable. To secure immunity
+from pain there must be absolutely perfect an&aelig;sthesia. This can be
+only obtained in two ways: one is by trusting to the experimenter
+himself to give sufficient of the an&aelig;sthetic; the other to insist that
+an assistant shall be present for the express purpose of keeping the
+animal under perfect an&aelig;sthesia. Now is it anyway likely that either
+of these conditions would be observed?"</p>
+
+
+<h3>III.<br />
+
+<small>[<i>From the "Therapeutic Gazette," Detroit, Aug., 1880.</i>]</small></h3>
+
+<p>"Vivisection is grossly abused in the United States. * * We would add
+our condemnation of the ruthless barbarity which is every winter perpetrated
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+in the Medical Schools of this country. History records some
+frightful atrocities perpetrated in the name of Religion; but it
+has remained for the enlightenment and humaneness of this century to
+stultify themselves by tolerating the abuses of the average
+physiological laboratory&mdash;all conducted in the name of Science. There
+is only one way to progress in Therapeutics; and that is by clinical
+observation; the noting of the action of individual drugs under
+particular diseased conditions. He who has the largest practice and is
+the keenest observer, and the most systematic recorder of what he
+sees, does the most to advance Medicine."</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV.<br />
+
+<small>[<i>From editorial in "The Spectator," London, July 17, 1880.</i>]</small></h3>
+
+<p>"A memorial for the absolute abolition of vivisection has been
+presented to Mr. Gladstone with a great many most influential
+signatures attached. For our own part, were the experiments on the
+inoculation of animal diseases excepted,&mdash;experiments which,
+we venture to say, have sometimes proved of the greatest value to
+animals themselves,&mdash;we should, on the whole, be content to
+go with the abolitionists, not because we think all experiments,
+especially when conducted under strict an&aelig;sthetics, wrong,
+but because when they are permitted at all it is so extremely
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+difficult to enforce properly and fully humane conditions. Dr. A.
+Leffingwell has sufficiently shown in the able paper in the July
+<i>Scribner's Magazine</i>, how extremely few remedies of value have
+resulted from this awfully costly expenditure of anguish. 'If pain
+could be estimated in money' he justly says, 'no corporation would be
+satisfied with such a waste of capital.' Take, as the single
+illustration of this most weighty sentence, Dr. Leffingwell's
+statement that what the late Dr. Sharpey called 'Magendie's infamous
+experiment' on the stomach of the dog, has been repeated 200 times
+without establishing to the satisfaction of scientific physiologists
+the theory for which that act of wickedness was first committed. No
+wonder the society for the Protection of Animals from Vivisection goes
+to extremes."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES</h4>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+Report of American Anti-Vivisection Society, Jan'y 30, 1888.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_2" id="Footnote_A_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
+See Appendix, page 83.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_3" id="Footnote_A_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
+"Report of the Royal Commission on the Practice of Subjecting Live
+Animals to Experiments for Scientific Purposes." Question No, 175.
+Reference to this volume will hereafter be made in this article by
+inserting in brackets, immediately after the authority quoted, the
+number of the question in this report from which the extract is made.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_4" id="Footnote_A_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+"Human Physiology," by John Elliotson, M. D., F. R. S. (page 448).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_5" id="Footnote_A_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+"Medical Times and Gazette," October 5, 1872.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_6" id="Footnote_A_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
+A Text-book of Human Physiology, designed for the use of
+Practitioners and Students of Medicine, by Austin Flint, Jr., M. D.
+D. Appleton &amp; Co. New York: 1876 (page 722).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_7" id="Footnote_A_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
+Page 738.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_8" id="Footnote_B_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
+Page 585.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_9" id="Footnote_C_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
+Page 710.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_10" id="Footnote_D_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
+Page 403.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_11" id="Footnote_E_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
+Pages 269-70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_12" id="Footnote_F_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
+Page 282.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_13" id="Footnote_G_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
+Page 489.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_H_14" id="Footnote_H_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_H_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
+Page 629.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_I_15" id="Footnote_I_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_I_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
+Page 463.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_J_16" id="Footnote_J_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_J_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>
+Pages 470-71.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_17" id="Footnote_A_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
+Flint: "Text Book on Human Physiology" (page 641).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_18" id="Footnote_B_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>
+Dalton's "Human Physiology" (page 466).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_19" id="Footnote_C_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>
+Flint (pages 639-40).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_20" id="Footnote_A_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a>
+The contradictory opinions ascribed to most of the authorities
+quoted in this article are taken directly from the "Report of the
+Royal Commission on the Practice of Subjecting Live Animals to
+Experiments for Scientific Purposes,"&mdash;a Blue-Book Parliamentary
+Report.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_21" id="Footnote_A_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
+"He feels the pain, but has lost, so to speak, the idea
+of self defense." Le&ccedil;ons de Physiologie op&eacute;ratoire, 1879, p. 115.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_22" id="Footnote_B_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
+Text-Book of Human Physiology, p. 595.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_23" id="Footnote_A_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
+"A Text-Book of Human Physiology." By Austin Flint, Jr.
+M. D. New York, 1876. Page 589; see also page 674.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_24" id="Footnote_A_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>
+See Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, June 20, 1876.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_25" id="Footnote_A_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a>
+In 1879 the total mortality in England, above the age of twenty, from
+<i>all causes</i> whatsoever, was 287,093. Of these deaths, the number
+occasioned by the sixteen causes above named, was 191,706, or almost
+exactly two-thirds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_26" id="Footnote_A_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>
+Even Japan, a country we are apt to consider as somewhat
+benighted, has far better statistical information at hand than the
+United States of America.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h2>
+
+<p>1. Footnotes have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the
+end of this e-text.<br />
+<br />
+2. Some obvious punctuation errors in the text have been silently
+corrected, for example, missing period at a paragraph end, etc.<br />
+<br />
+3. The following misprints have been corrected:<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;    "sufering" corrected to "suffering" (page 14)<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;    "anæthetics" corrected to "anæsthetics" (page 48)<br />
+<br />
+4. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
+in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
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+
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+<pre>
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diff --git a/32033.txt b/32033.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Vivisection, by Albert Leffingwell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Vivisection
+
+Author: Albert Leffingwell
+
+Release Date: April 17, 2010 [EBook #32033]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VIVISECTION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive/American
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                             VIVISECTION
+
+                                  BY
+
+                       ALBERT LEFFINGWELL, M. D.
+
+
+                               NEW YORK:
+                        JOHN W. LOVELL COMPANY,
+                        14 AND 16 VESEY STREET.
+
+
+                                  TO
+
+                        A Memory of Friendship.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+To the CENTURY COMPANY of New York, in the pages of whose magazine,
+then known as "_Scribner's Monthly_," the first of the following
+essays originally appeared in July, 1880, the thanks of the writer
+are due for permission to re-publish in the present form. For a like
+courtesy on the part of the proprietors of LIPPINCOTT'S MAGAZINE, in
+which the second paper was first published [Aug., 1884], the writer
+desires to make due acknowledgment.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The first of the Essays following appeared in "SCRIBNER'S MONTHLY,"
+in July, 1880; and immediately became honored by the attention of
+the Medical Press throughout the country. The aggressive title of
+the paper, justified, in great measure, perhaps, the vigor of the
+criticism bestowed. Again and again the point was raised by reviewers
+that the problem presented by the title, was not solved or answered
+by the article itself.
+
+At this day, it perhaps may be mentioned that the question--"Does
+Vivisection Pay?" was never raised by the writer, who selected as his
+title the single word "Vivisection." The more taking headline was
+affixed by the editor of the magazine as more apt to arrest attention
+and arouse professional pugnacity. That in this latter respect it was
+eminently successful, the author had the best reason to remember. With
+this explanation--which is made simply to prevent future criticism
+on the same point--the old title is retained. If the present reader
+continues the inquiry here presented, he will learn wherein the
+writer believes in the utility of vivisection, and on the other hand,
+in what respects and under what conditions he very seriously questions
+whether any gains can possibly compensate the infinitely great cost.
+
+"What do you hope for or expect as the result of agitation in regard
+to vivisection?" recently inquired a friend; "its legal abolition?"
+
+"Certainly not," was the reply.
+
+"Would you then expect its restriction during the present century?"
+
+"Hardly even so soon as that. It will take longer than a dozen years
+to awaken recognition of any evil which touches neither the purse nor
+personal comfort of an American citizen. All that can be hoped in the
+immediate future is education. Action will perhaps follow when its
+necessity is recognized generally; but not before."
+
+For myself, I believe no permanent or effective reform of present
+practices is probable until the Medical Profession generally concede
+as dangerous and unnecessary that freedom of unlimited experimentation
+in pain, which is claimed and practiced to-day. That legislative
+reform is otherwise unattainable, one would hesitate to affirm; but it
+assuredly would be vastly less effective. You must convince men of the
+justice and reasonableness of a law before you can secure a willing
+obedience. Yielding to none in loyalty to the science, and enthusiasm
+for the Art of Healing, what standpoint may be taken by those of the
+Medical Profession who desire to reform evils which confessedly exist?
+
+I. We need not seek the total abolition of all experiments upon living
+animals. I do not forget that just such abolition is energetically
+demanded by a large number of earnest men and women, who have lost
+all faith in the possibility of restricting an abuse, if it be favored
+by scientific enthusiasm. "Let us take," they say, "the upright and
+conscientious ground of refusing all compromise with sin and evil, and
+maintaining our position unflinchingly, leave the rest to God."[A]
+This is almost precisely the ground taken by the Prohibitionists
+in national politics; it is the only ground one can occupy,
+provided the taking of a glass of wine, or the performance of any
+experiment,--painless or otherwise,--is of itself an "evil and a sin."
+There are those, however, who believe it possible to oppose and
+restrain intemperance by other methods than legislative prohibition.
+So with the prohibition of vivisection. Admitting the abuses of the
+practice, I cannot yet see that they are so intrinsic and essential
+as to make necessary the entire abolition of all physiological
+experiments whatsoever.
+
+    [A] Report of American Anti-Vivisection Society, Jan'y 30,
+    1888.
+
+II. We may advocate (and I believe we should advocate)--_the total
+abolition, by law, of all mutilating or destructive experiments upon
+lower animals, involving pain, when such experiments are made for the
+purpose of public or private demonstration of already known and
+accepted physiological facts_.
+
+This is the ground of compromise--unacceptable, as yet, to either
+party. Nevertheless it is asking simply for those limitations and
+restrictions which have always been conceded as prudent and fair by
+the medical profession of Great Britain. Speaking of a certain
+experiment upon the spinal nerves, Dr. M. Foster, of Cambridge
+University, one of the leading physiological teachers of England,
+says: "I have not performed it and have never seen it done," partly
+because of horror at the pain necessary. And yet this experiment has
+been performed before classes of young men and young women in the
+Medical Schools of this country! Absolutely no legal restriction here
+exists to the repetition, over and over again, of the most atrocious
+tortures of Mantegazza, Bert and Schiff.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+This is the vivisection which does not "pay,"--even if we dismiss
+altogether from our calculation the interests of the animals
+sacrificed to the demand for mnemonic aid. For the great and perilous
+outcome of such methods will be--finally--an atrophy of the sense of
+sympathy for human suffering. It is seen to-day in certain hospitals
+in Europe. Can other result be expected to follow the deliberate
+infliction of prolonged pain without other object than to see or
+demonstrate what will happen therefrom? Will any assistance to memory,
+counterweigh the annihilation or benumbing of the instinct of pity?
+
+Upon this subject of utility of painful experiments in class
+demonstrations or private study, I would like to appeal for judgment
+to the physician of the future, who then shall review the experience
+of the medical student of to-day. In his course of physiological
+training, he or she may be invited to see living animals cut and
+mutilated in various ways, eviscerated, poisoned, frozen, starved, and
+by ingenious devices of science subjected to the exhibition of pain.
+On the first occasion such a scene generally induces in the young man
+or young woman a significant subjective phenomenon of physiological
+interest; an involuntary, creeping, tremulous sense of horror emerges
+into consciousness,--and is speedily repressed. "This feeling," he
+whispers to himself, "is altogether unworthy the scientific spirit in
+which I am now to be educated; it needs to be subdued. The sight of
+this inarticulate agony, this prolonged anguish is not presented to me
+for amusement. I must steel myself to witness it, to assist in it, for
+the sake of the good I shall be helped thereby to accomplish, some
+day, for suffering humanity."
+
+Praiseworthy sentiments, these are, indeed. Are they founded in
+reality? No. The student who thus conquers "squeamishness" will not
+see one fact thus demonstrated at the cost of pain which was unknown
+to science before; not one fact which he might not have been made to
+remember without this demonstrative illustration; _not one
+fact_--saddest truth of all--that is likely to be of the slightest
+practical service to him or to her in the multiplied and various
+duties of future professional life. Why, then, are they shown? To help
+him to remember his lesson! Admit the value to the student, but what
+of the cost?
+
+In one of the great cities of China, I was shown, leaning against the
+high wall of the execution ground, a rude, wooden frame-work or cross,
+old, hacked, and smeared with recent blood-stains. It was used, I was
+told, in the punishment of extreme offenses; the criminal being bound
+thereto, and flayed and cut in every way human ingenuity could devise
+for inflicting torture before giving an immediately mortal wound. Only
+the week before, such an execution had taken place; the victim being a
+woman who had poisoned her husband. A young and enthusiastic physician
+whom I met, told me he had secured the privilege of being an eye
+witness to the awful tragedy, that he might verify a theory he had
+formed on the influence of pain; a theory perhaps like that which led
+to Mantegazza's crucifixion of pregnant rabbits with _dolori
+atrocissimi_.[A] Science here caught her profit from the punishment of
+crime, but the gain would have been the same had her interest alone
+been the object. There is _always_ gain, always some aid to
+memory;--_but what of the cost?_
+
+    [A] See Appendix, page 83.
+
+It cannot be expected that any Medical College, of its own accord and
+without outside pressure, will restrict or hamper its freedom of
+action. As a condition of prosperity and success it cannot show less
+than is exhibited by other medical schools; it must keep abreast of
+"advanced thought," and do and demonstrate in every way what its
+rivals demonstrate and do. There can be no question but that there is
+to-day a strong public demand for continental methods of physiological
+instruction. Who make this demand? You, gentlemen, students of
+medicine, and they who follow in your pathway. This year it is you
+who silently request this aid to your memory of the physiological
+statements of your text books; another year, another class of young
+men and young women, occupying the same benches, or filling the same
+laboratory, repeats the demand for the same series of illustrations.
+You, perhaps, will have gone forward to take your places in active
+life, to assume the real burdens of the medical profession. To those
+succeeding years of thought, reflection and usefulness, let me
+appeal, respecting the absolute necessity of all class demonstrations
+and laboratory work involving pain. Postpone if you please, the ready
+decision which, fresh from your class-room, you are perhaps only too
+willing to give me to-day; I do not wish it. But some time in the
+future, after years have gone by, remembering all you have seen and
+aided in the doing, tell us if you can, exactly wherein you received,
+in added potency for helping human suffering and for the treatment of
+human ills, the equivalent of that awful expenditure of pain which you
+are now demanding, and which by unprotesting acquiescence, you are
+_to-day_ helping to inflict.
+
+  BOSTON, MASS.,
+    _March, 1889_.
+
+
+
+
+[_From_ SCRIBNER'S MONTHLY, _July, 1880_.]
+
+DOES VIVISECTION PAY?
+
+
+The question of vivisection is again pushing itself to the front. A
+distinguished American physiologist has lately come forward in defense
+of the French experimenter, Magendie, and, parenthetically, of his
+methods of investigation in the study of vital phenomena. On the other
+hand, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals made an
+unsuccessful attempt, in the New York Legislature last winter, to
+secure the passage of a law which would entirely abolish the practice
+as now in vogue in our medical schools, or cause it to be secretly
+carried on, in defiance of legal enactments. In support of this bill
+it was claimed that physiologists, for the sake of "demonstrating to
+medical students certain physiological phenomena connected with the
+functions of life, are constantly and habitually in the practice of
+cutting up alive, torturing and tormenting divers of the unoffending
+brute creation to illustrate their theories and lectures, but without
+any practical or beneficial result either to themselves or to the
+students, which practice is demoralizing to both and engenders in the
+future medical practitioners a want of humanity and sympathy for
+physical pain and suffering." How far these statements are true will
+be hereafter discussed; but one assertion is so evidently erroneous
+that it may be at once indicated. _No_ experiment, however atrocious,
+cruel and, therefore, on the whole, unjustifiable, if performed to
+illustrate some scientific point, was ever without "any beneficial
+result." The benefit may have been infinitesimal, but every scientific
+fact is of some value. To assert the contrary is to weaken one's case
+by overstatement.
+
+Leaving out the brute creation, there are three parties interested
+in this discussion. In the first place, there are the professors and
+teachers of physiology in the medical colleges. Naturally, these
+desire no interference with either their work or their methods. They
+claim that were the knowledge acquired by experiments upon living
+organisms swept out of existence, in many respects the science of
+physiology would be little more than guesswork to-day. The subject of
+vivisection, they declare, is one which does not concern the general
+public, but belongs exclusively to scientists and especially to
+physiologists. That the present century should permit sentimentalists
+to interfere with scientific investigations is preposterous.
+
+Behind these stand the majority of men belonging to the medical
+profession. Holding, as they do, the most important and intimate
+relations to society, it is manifestly desirable that they should
+enjoy the best facilities for the acquirement of knowledge necessary
+to their art. To most, the question is merely one of professional
+privilege against sentiment, and they cannot hesitate which side to
+prefer. In this, as in other professions or trades, the feeling of
+_esprit de corps_ is exceedingly strong; and no class of men likes
+interference on the part of outsiders. To most physicians it is wholly
+a scientific question. It is a matter, they think, with which the
+public has no concern; if society can trust to the profession its sick
+and dying, they surely can leave to its feeling of humanity a few
+worthless brutes.
+
+The opinion of the general public is therefore, divided and confused.
+On the one hand, it is profoundly desirous to make systematic and
+needless cruelty impossible; yet, on the other, it cannot but hesitate
+to take any step which shall hinder medical education, impede
+scientific discovery, or restrict search for new methods of treating
+disease. What are the sufferings of an animal, however acute or
+prolonged, compared with the gain to humanity which would result from
+the knowledge thereby acquired of a single curative agent? Public
+opinion hesitates. A leading newspaper, commenting on the introduction
+of the Bergh bill, doubtless expressed the sentiment of most people
+when it deprecated prevention of experiments "by which original
+investigators seek to establish or verify conclusions which may be of
+priceless value to the preservation of life and health among human
+beings."
+
+The question nevertheless confronts society,--and in such shape, too,
+that society cannot escape, even if it would, the responsibility of a
+decision. Either by action or inaction the State must decide whether
+the practice of vivisection shall be wholly abolished, as desired by
+some; whether it shall be restricted by law within certain limits and
+for certain definite objects, as in Great Britain; or whether we are
+to continue in this country to follow the example of France and
+Germany, in permitting the practice of physiological experimentation
+to any extent devised or desired by the experimentalist himself. Any
+information tending to indicate which of these courses is best cannot
+be inopportune. Having witnessed experiments by some of the most
+distinguished European physiologists, such as Claude Bernard (the
+successor of Magendie), Milne-Edwards and Brown-Sequard; and, still
+better (or worse, as the reader may think), having performed some
+experiments in this direction for purposes of investigation and for
+the instruction of others, the present writer believes himself
+justified in holding and stating a pronounced opinion on this subject,
+even if it be to some extent, opposed to the one prevailing in the
+profession. Suppose, therefore, we review briefly the arguments to be
+adduced both in favor of the practice and against it.
+
+Two principal arguments may be advanced in its favor.
+
+I. It is undeniable that to the practice of vivisection we are
+indebted for very much of our present knowledge of physiology. This is
+the fortress of the advocates of vivisection, and a certain refuge
+when other arguments are of no avail.
+
+II. As a means of teaching physiological facts, vivisection is
+unsurpassed. No teacher of science needs to be told the vast
+superiority of demonstration over affirmation. Take for instance, the
+circulation of the blood. The student who displays but a languid
+interest in statements of fact, or even in the best delineations and
+charts obtainable, will be thoroughly aroused by seeing the process
+actually before his eyes. A week's study upon the book will less
+certainly be retained in his memory than a single view of the opened
+thorax of a frog or dog. There before him is the throbbing heart; he
+sees its relations to adjoining structures, and marks, with a wonder
+he never before knew, that mystery of life by which the heart, even
+though excised from the body, does not cease for a time its rhythmic
+beat. To imagine, then, that teachers of physiology find mere
+amusement in these operations is the greatest of ignorant mistakes.
+They deem it desirable that certain facts be accurately fixed in
+memory, and they know that no system of mnemonics equals for such
+purpose the demonstration of the function itself.
+
+Just here, however, arises a very important question. Admitting the
+benefit of the demonstration of scientific facts, _how far may one
+justifiably subject an animal to pain for the purpose of illustrating
+a point already known_? It is merely a question of cost. For instance,
+it is an undisputed statement in physical science that the diamond is
+nothing more than a form of crystallized carbon, and, like other forms
+of carbon, under certain conditions, may be made to burn. Now most of
+us are entirely willing to accept this, as we do the majority of
+truths, upon the testimony of scientific men, without making
+demonstration a requisite of assent. In a certain private school,
+however, it has long been the custom once a year, to burn in oxygen a
+small diamond, worth perhaps $30, so as actually to prove to the
+pupils the assertion of their text-books. The experiment is a
+brilliant one; no one can doubt its entire success. Nevertheless, we
+do not furnish diamonds to our public schools for this purpose.
+Exactly similar to this is one aspect of vivisection--it is a question
+of cost. Granting all the advantages which follow demonstration of
+certain physiological facts, the cost is pain--pain sometimes
+amounting to prolonged and excruciating torture. Is the gain worth
+this?
+
+Let me mention an instance. Not long ago, in a certain medical college
+in the State of New York, I saw what Doctor Sharpey, for thirty years
+the professor of physiology in the University Medical College, London,
+once characterized by antithesis as "Magendie's _infamous_
+experiment," it having been first performed by that eminent
+physiologist. It was designed to prove that the stomach, although
+supplied with muscular coats, is during the act of vomiting for the
+most part passive; and that expulsion of its contents is due to the
+action of the diaphragm and the larger abdominal muscles. The
+professor to whom I refer did not propose to have even Magendie's
+word accepted as an authority on the subject: the fact should be
+demonstrated again. So an incision in the abdomen of a dog was made;
+its stomach was cut out; a pig's bladder containing colored water was
+inserted in its place, an emetic was injected into the veins,--and
+vomiting ensued. Long before the conclusion of the experiment the
+animal became conscious, and its cries of suffering were exceedingly
+painful to hear. Now, granting that this experiment impressed an
+abstract scientific fact upon the memories of all who saw it,
+nevertheless it remains significantly true that the fact thus
+demonstrated had no conceivable relation to the treatment of disease.
+It is not to-day regarded as conclusive of the theory which, after
+nearly two hundred repetitions of his experiment, was doubtless
+considered by Magendie as established beyond question. Doctor Sharpey,
+a strong advocate of vivisection, by the way, condemned it as a
+perfectly unjustifiable experiment, since "besides its atrocity, it
+was really purposeless." Was this repetition of the experiment which
+I have described worth its cost? Was the gain worth the pain?
+
+Let me instance another and more recent case. Being in Paris a year
+ago, I went one morning to the College de France, to hear
+Brown-Sequard, the most eminent experimenter in vivisection now
+living--one who, Doctor Carpenter tells us, has probably inflicted
+more animal suffering than any other man in his time. The lecturer
+stated that injury to certain nervous centers near the base of the
+brain would produce peculiar and curious phenomena in the animal
+operated upon, causing it, for example, to keep turning to one side in
+a circular manner, instead of walking in a straightforward direction.
+A Guinea-pig was produced--a little creature, about the size of a
+half-grown kitten--and the operation was effected, accompanied by a
+series of piercing little squeaks. As foretold, the creature thus
+injured did immediately perform a "circular" movement. A rabbit was
+then operated upon with similar results. Lastly, an unfortunate
+poodle was introduced, its muzzle tied with stout whip-cord, wound
+round and round so tightly that it must necessarily have caused severe
+pain. It was forced to walk back and forth on the long table, during
+which it cast looks on every side, as though seeking a possible avenue
+of escape. Being fastened in the operating trough, an incision was
+made to the bone, flaps turned back, an opening made in the skull,
+and enlarged by breaking away some portions with forceps. During
+these various processes no attempt whatever was made to cause
+unconsciousness by means of anaesthetics, and the half-articulate,
+half-smothered cries of the creature in its agony were terrible to
+hear, even to one not unaccustomed to vivisections. The experiment was
+a "success"; the animal after its mutilation _did_ describe certain
+circular movements. But I cannot help questioning in regard to these
+demonstrations, _did they pay_? This experiment had not the slightest
+relation whatever to the cure of disease. More than this: it teaches
+us little or nothing in physiology. The most eminent physiologist in
+this country, Doctor Austin Flint, Jr., admits that experiments of
+this kind "do not seem to have advanced our positive knowledge of the
+functions of the nerve centers," and that similar experiments "have
+been very indefinite in their results." On this occasion, therefore,
+three animals were subjected to torture to demonstrate an abstract
+fact, which probably not a single one of the two dozen spectators
+would have hesitated to take for granted on the word of so great a
+pathologist as Doctor Brown-Sequard. Was the gain worth the cost?
+
+This, then, is the great question that must eventually be decided by
+the public. Do humanity and science here indicate diverging roads? On
+the contrary, I believe it to be an undeniable fact that _the highest
+scientific and medical opinion is against the repetition of painful
+experiments for class teaching_. In 1875, a Royal Commission was
+appointed in Great Britain to investigate the subject of vivisection,
+with a view to subsequent legislation. The interests of science were
+represented by the appointment of Professor Huxley as a member of this
+commission. Its meetings continued over several months, and the report
+constitutes a large volume of valuable testimony. The opinions of many
+of these witnesses are worthy of special attention, from the eminent
+position to the men who hold them. The physician to the Queen, Sir
+Thomas Watson, with whose "Lectures on Physic" every medical
+practitioner in this country is familiar, says: "I hold that no
+teacher or man of science who by his own previous experiments, * * *
+has thoroughly satisfied himself of the solution of any physiological
+problem, is justified in repeating the experiments, however
+mercifully, to appease the natural curiosity of a class of students or
+of scientific friends." Sir George Burroughs, President of the Royal
+College of Physicians, says: "I do not think that an experiment should
+be repeated over and over again in our medical schools to illustrate
+what is already established."[A] Sir James Paget, Surgeon
+Extraordinary to the Queen, said before the commission that
+"experiments for the purpose of repeating anything already ascertained
+ought never to be shown to classes." [363.] Sir William Fergusson, F.
+R. S., also Surgeon to her Majesty, asserted that "sufferings
+incidental to such operations are protracted in a very shocking
+manner"; that of such experiments there is "useless repetition," and
+that "when once a fact which involves cruelty to animals has been
+fairly recognized and accepted, there is no necessity for a continued
+repetition." [1019.] Even physiologists--some of them practical
+experimenters in vivisection--join in condemning these class
+demonstrations. Dr. William Sharpey, before referred to as a teacher
+of physiology for over thirty years in University College, says: "Once
+such facts fully established, I do not think it justifiable to repeat
+experiments causing pain to animals." [405.] Dr. Rolleston, Professor
+of Physiology at Oxford, said that "for class demonstrations
+limitations should undoubtedly be imposed, and _those limitations
+should render illegal painful experiments before classes_." [1291.]
+Charles Darwin, the greatest of living naturalists, stated that he had
+never either directly or indirectly experimented on animals, and that
+he regarded a painful experiment without anaesthetics which might be
+made with anaesthetics as deserving "detestation and abhorrence."
+[4672.] And finally the report of this commission, to which is
+attached the name of Professor Huxley, says: "With respect to medical
+schools, we accept the resolution of the British Association in 1871,
+that experimentation without the use of anaesthetics is not a fitting
+exhibition for teaching purposes."
+
+    [A] "Report of the Royal Commission on the Practice of
+    Subjecting Live Animals to Experiments for Scientific
+    Purposes." Question No, 175. Reference to this volume will
+    hereafter be made in this article by inserting in brackets,
+    immediately after the authority quoted, the number of the
+    question in this report from which the extract is made.
+
+It must be noted that hardly any of these opinions touch the question
+of vivisection so far as it is done without the infliction of pain,
+nor object to it as a method of original research; they relate simply
+to the practice of repeating painful experiments for purposes of
+physiological teaching. We cannot dismiss them as "sentimental" or
+unimportant. If painful experiments are necessary for the education of
+the young physician, how happens it that Watson and Burroughs are
+ignorant of the fact? If indispensable to the proper training of the
+surgeon, why are they condemned by Fergusson and Paget? If requisite
+even to physiology, why denounced by the physiologists of Oxford and
+London? If necessary to science, why viewed "with abhorrence" by the
+greatest of modern scientists?
+
+Another objection to vivisection, when practiced as at present without
+supervision or control, is the undeniable fact that habitual
+familiarity with the infliction of pain upon animals has a decided
+tendency to engender a sort of careless indifference regarding
+suffering. "Vivisection," says Professor Rolleston of Oxford, "is very
+liable to abuse. * * * It is specially liable to tempt a man into
+certain carelessness; the passive impressions produced by the sight
+of suffering growing weaker, while the habit and pleasure of
+experimenting grows stronger by repetition." [1287.] Says Doctor
+Elliotson: "I cannot refrain from expressing my horror at the amount
+of torture which Doctor Brachet inflicted. _I hardly think knowledge
+is worth having at such a purchase._"[A] A very striking example of
+this tendency was brought out in the testimony of a witness before the
+Royal Commission,--Doctor Klein, a practical physiologist. He admitted
+frankly that as an investigator he held as entirely indifferent the
+sufferings of animals subjected to his experiments, that, except for
+teaching purposes, he never used anaesthetics unless necessary for his
+own convenience. Some members of the Commission could hardly realize
+the possibility of such a confession.
+
+    [A] "Human Physiology," by John Elliotson, M. D., F. R. S.
+    (page 448).
+
+"Do you mean you have no regard at all to the sufferings of the lower
+animals?"
+
+"_No regard at all_," was the strange reply; and, after a little
+further questioning, the witness explained:
+
+"I think that, with regard to an experimenter--a man who conducts
+special research and performs an experiment--he has _no time, so to
+speak, for thinking what the animal will feel or suffer_!"
+
+Of Magendie's cruel disposition there seems only too abundant
+evidence. Says Doctor Elliotson: "Dr. Magendie, in one of his
+barbarous experiments, which I am ashamed to say I witnessed, began by
+coolly cutting out a large round piece from the back of a beautiful
+little puppy, as he would from an apple dumpling!" "It is not to be
+doubted that inhumanity may be found in persons of very high position
+as physiologists. _We have seen that it was so in Magendie._" This is
+the language of the report on vivisection, to which is attached the
+name of Professor Huxley.
+
+But the fact which, in my own mind, constitutes by far the strongest
+objection to unrestrained experiments in pain, is their questionable
+utility as regards therapeutics. Probably most readers are aware that
+physiology is that science which treats of the various functions of
+life, such as digestion, respiration and the circulation of the blood,
+while therapeutics is that department of medicine which relates to the
+discovery and application of remedies for disease. Now I venture to
+assert that, during the last quarter of a century, infliction of
+intense torture upon unknown myriads of sentient, living creatures,
+_has not resulted in the discovery of a single remedy of acknowledged
+and generally accepted value in the cure of disease_. This is not
+known to the general public, but it is a fact essential to any just
+decision regarding the expediency of unrestrained liberty of
+vivisection. It is by no means intended to deny the value to
+therapeutics of well-known physiological facts acquired thus in the
+past--such, for instance, as the more complete knowledge we possess
+regarding the circulation of the blood, or the distinction between
+motor and sensory nerves, nor can original investigation be
+pronounced absolutely valueless as respects remote possibility of
+future gain. What the public has a right to ask of those who would
+indefinitely prolong these experiments without State supervision or
+control is, "What good have your painful experiments accomplished
+during the past thirty years--not in ascertaining facts in physiology
+or causes of rare or incurable complaints, but in the discovery of
+improved methods for ameliorating human suffering, and for the cure
+of disease?" If pain could be estimated in money, no corporation
+ever existed which would be satisfied with such waste of capital
+in experiments so futile; no mining company would permit a
+quarter-century of "prospecting" in such barren regions. The usual
+answer to this inquiry is to bring forward facts in physiology thus
+acquired in the past, in place of facts in therapeutics. Thus, in a
+recent article on Magendie to which reference has been made, we are
+furnished with a long list of such additions to our knowledge. It may
+be questioned, however, whether the writer is quite scientifically
+accurate in asserting that, were our past experience in vivisection
+abolished, "it would blot out _all_ that we know to-day in regard to
+the circulation of the blood, * * the growth and regeneration of bone,
+* * * the origin of many parasitic diseases, * * * the communicability
+of certain contagious and infectious diseases, and, to make the list
+complete, it would be requisite * * to take _a wide range in addition
+through the domains of pathology and therapeutics_." Surely somewhat
+about these subjects has been acquired otherwise than by experiments
+upon animals? For example, an inquiring critic might wish to know a
+few of the "many parasitic diseases" thus discovered; or what
+contagious and infectious diseases, whose communicability was
+previously unknown, have had this quality demonstrated solely by
+experiments on animals? And what, too, prevented that "wide range into
+therapeutics" necessary to make complete the list of benefits due to
+vivisection? In urging the utility of a practice so fraught with
+danger, the utmost precaution against the slightest error of
+overstatement becomes an imperative duty. Even so distinguished a
+scientist as Sir John Lubbock once rashly asserted in Parliament that,
+"without experiments on living animals, we should never have had the
+use of ether"! Nearly every American school-boy knows that the
+contrary is true--that the use of ether as an anaesthetic--the grandest
+discovery of modern times--had no origin in the torture of animals.
+
+I confess that, until very recently, I shared the common impression
+regarding the utility of vivisection in therapeutics. It is a belief
+still widely prevalent in the medical profession. Nevertheless, is it
+not a mistake? The therapeutical results of nearly half a century of
+painful experiments--we seek them in vain. Do we ask surgery? Sir
+William Ferguson, surgeon to the Queen, tells us: "In surgery I am not
+aware of any of these experiments on the lower animals having led to
+the mitigation of pain or to improvement as regards surgical
+details." [1049.] Have antidotes to poisons been discovered thereby?
+Says Doctor Taylor, lecturer on Toxicology for nearly half a century
+in the chief London Medical School (a writer whose work on Poisons is
+a recognized authority): "I do not know that we have as yet learned
+anything, so far as treatment is concerned, from our experiments with
+them (_i.e._ poisons) on animals." [1204.] Doctor Anthony, speaking of
+Magendie's experiments, says: "I never gained one single fact by
+seeing these cruel experiments in Paris. _I know nothing more from
+them than I could have read._" [2450.] Even physiologists admit the
+paucity of therapeutic results. Doctor Sharpey says: "I should lay
+less stress on the direct application of the results of vivisection to
+improvement in the art of healing, than upon the value of these
+experiments in the promotion of physiology." [394.] The Oxford
+professor of Physiology admitted that Etiology, the science which
+treats of the causes of disease, had, by these experiments, been the
+gainer, rather than therapeutics. [1302.] "Experiments on animals,"
+says Doctor Thorowgood, "already extensive and numerous, cannot be
+said to have advanced therapeutics much."[A] Sir William Gull, M. D.,
+was questioned before the commission whether he could enumerate any
+therapeutic remedies which have been discovered by vivisection, and he
+replied with fervor: "The cases bristle around us everywhere!" Yet,
+excepting Hall's experiments on the nervous system, he could enumerate
+only various forms of disease, our knowledge of which is due to
+Harvey's discovery, two hundred and fifty years ago! The question was
+pushed closer, and so brought to the necessity of a definite reply, he
+answered: "I do not say at present our therapeutics are much, but
+there are lines of experiment which _seem to promise_ great help in
+therapeutics." [5529.] The results of two centuries of experiments, so
+far as therapeutics are concerned, reduced to a seeming promise!
+
+    [A] "Medical Times and Gazette," October 5, 1872.
+
+On two points, then, the evidence of the highest scientific
+authorities in Great Britain seems conclusive--first, that experiments
+upon living animals conduce chiefly to the benefit of the science of
+physiology, and little, if at all, at the present day, to the
+treatment of disease or the amelioration of human suffering; and,
+secondly, that repetition of painful experiments for class-teaching in
+medical schools is both unnecessary and unjustifiable. Do these
+conclusions affect the practice of vivisection in this country? Is it
+true that experiments are habitually performed in some of our medical
+schools, often causing extreme pain, to illustrate well-known and
+accepted facts--experiments which English physiologists pronounce
+"infamous" and "atrocious," which English physicians and surgeons
+stigmatize as purposeless cruelty and unjustifiable--which even Huxley
+regards as unfitting for teaching purposes, and Darwin denounces as
+worthy of detestation and abhorrence? I confess I see no occasion for
+any over-delicate reticence in this matter. Science needs no secrecy
+either for her methods or results; her function is to reveal, not to
+hide, facts. The reply to these questions must be in the affirmative.
+In this country our physiologists are rather followers of Magendie and
+Bernard, after the methods in vogue at Paris and Leipsic, than
+governed by the cautious and sensitive conservatism in this respect
+which generally characterizes the physiological teaching of London and
+Oxford. In making this statement, no criticism is intended on the
+motives of those responsible for ingrafting continental methods upon
+our medical schools. If any opprobrium shall be inferred for the past
+performance of experiments herein condemned, the present writer asks a
+share in it. It is the future that we hope to change. Now, what are
+the facts? A recent contributor to the "International Review,"
+referring to Mr. Bergh, says that "he assails physiological
+experiments with the same blind extravagance of denunciation as if
+they were still performed without anaesthetics, as in the time of
+Magendie." In the interests of scientific accuracy one would wish
+more care had been given to the construction of this sentence, for it
+implies that experiments are not now performed except with
+anaesthetics--a meaning its author never could have intended to convey.
+Every medical student in New York knows that experiments involving
+pain are repeatedly performed to illustrate teaching. It is no secret;
+one need not go beyond the frank admissions of our later text-books on
+physiology for abundant proof, not only of this, but of the extent to
+which experimentation is now carried in this country. "We have long
+been in the habit, in class demonstrations, of removing the optic lobe
+on one side from a pigeon," says Professor Flint, of Bellevue Hospital
+Medical College, in his excellent work on Physiology.[A] "The
+experiment of dividing the sympathetic in the neck, especially in
+rabbits, is so easily performed that the phenomena observed by Bernard
+and Brown-Sequard have been repeatedly verified. _We have often done
+this in class demonstrations._"[B] "The cerebral lobes were removed
+from a young pigeon in the usual way, an operation * * _which we
+practice yearly as a class demonstration_."[C] Referring to the
+removal of the cerebellum, the same authority states: "Our own
+experiments, which have been very numerous during the last fifteen
+years, are _simply repetitions of those of Flourens, and the results
+have been the same without exception."[D] We have frequently removed
+both kidneys_ from dogs, and when the operation is carefully performed
+the animals live for from three to five days. * * Death always takes
+place with symptoms of blood poisoning."[E] In the same work we are
+given precise details for making a pancreatic fistula, after the
+method of Claude Bernard--"one we have repeatedly employed with
+success." "In performing the above experiment it is generally better
+_not_ to employ an anaesthetic,"[F] but ether is sometimes used. In the
+same work is given a picture of a dog, muzzled and with a biliary
+fistula, as it appeared the fourteenth day after the operation, which,
+with details of the experiment, is quite suggestive.[G] Bernard was
+the first to succeed in following the spinal accessory nerve back to
+the jugular foramen, seizing it here with a strong pair of forceps and
+drawing it out by the roots. This experiment is practiced in our own
+country. "We have found this result (loss of voice) to follow in the
+cat after the spinal accessory nerves have been torn out by the
+roots," says Professor John C. Dalton, in his Treatise on Human
+Physiology.[H] "This operation is difficult," writes Professor Flint,
+"but we have several times performed it with entire success;" and his
+assistant at Bellevue Medical College has succeeded "in extirpating
+these nerves for class demonstrations."[I] In withdrawal of blood from
+the hepatic veins of a dog, "avoiding the administration of an
+anaesthetic" is one of the steps recommended.[J] The curious experiment
+of Bernard, in which artificial diabetes is produced by irritating the
+floor of the fourth ventricle of the brain, is carefully described,
+and illustrations afforded both of the instrument and the animal
+undergoing the operation. The inexperienced experimenter is here
+taught to hold the head of the rabbit "firmly in the left hand," and
+to bore through its skull "by a few lateral movements of the
+instrument." It is not a difficult operation; it is one which the
+author has "often repeated." He tell us "_it is not desirable to
+administer an anaesthetic_," as it would prevent success; and a little
+further we are told that "we should avoid the administration of
+anaesthetics in all accurate experiments on the glycogenic
+function."[K] It is true the pleasing assurance is given that "this
+experiment is almost painless"; but on this point, could the rabbit
+speak during the operation, its opinion might not accord with that of
+the physiologist.
+
+    [A] A Text-book of Human Physiology, designed for the use of
+    Practitioners and Students of Medicine, by Austin Flint, Jr.,
+    M. D. D. Appleton & Co. New York: 1876 (page 722).
+
+    [B] Page 738.
+
+    [C] Page 585.
+
+    [D] Page 710.
+
+    [E] Page 403.
+
+    [F] Pages 269-70.
+
+    [G] Page 282.
+
+    [H] Page 489.
+
+    [I] Page 629.
+
+    [J] Page 463.
+
+    [K] Pages 470-71.
+
+There is one experiment in regard to which the severe characterization
+of English scientists is especially applicable, from the pain
+necessarily attending it. Numerous investigators have long established
+the fact that the great sensory nerve of the head and face is endowed
+with an exquisite degree of sensibility. More than half a century ago,
+both Magendie and Sir Charles Bell pointed out that merely exposing
+and touching this fifth nerve gave signs of most acute pain. "All who
+have divided this root in living animals must have recognized, not
+only that it is sensitive, but that its sensibility is far more acute
+than that of any other nervous trunk in the body."[A] "The fifth
+pair," says Professor John C. Dalton, "is the most acutely sensitive
+nerve in the whole body. Its irritation by mechanical means _always
+causes intense pain_, and even though the animal be nearly unconscious
+from the influence of ether, any severe injury to its large root is
+almost invariably followed by cries."[B] Testimony on this point is
+uniform and abundant. If science speaks anywhere with assurance, it
+is in regard to the properties of this nerve. Yet every year the
+experiment is repeated before medical classes, simply to demonstrate
+accepted facts. "This is an operation," says Professor Flint,
+referring to the division of this nerve, "that we have frequently
+performed with success." He adds that "it is difficult from the fact
+that one is working in the dark, and it requires a certain amount of
+dexterity, _to be acquired only by practice_." Minute directions are
+therefore laid down for the operative procedure, and illustrations
+given both of the instrument to be used, and of the head of a rabbit
+with the blade of the instrument in its cranial cavity.[C] Holding the
+head of our rabbit firmly in the left hand, we are directed to
+penetrate the cranium in a particular manner. "Soon the operator feels
+at a certain depth that the bony resistance ceases; he is then on the
+fifth pair, and the cries of the animal give evidence that the nerve
+is pressed upon." This is one of Magendie's celebrated experiments;
+perhaps the reader fancies that in its modern repetitions the animal
+suffers nothing, being rendered insensible by anaesthetics? "_It is
+much more satisfactory to divide the nerve without etherizing the
+animal, as the evidence of pain is an important guide in this delicate
+operation._" Anaesthetics, however, are sometimes used, but not so as
+wholly to overcome the pain.
+
+    [A] Flint: "Text Book on Human Physiology" (page 641).
+
+    [B] Dalton's "Human Physiology" (page 466).
+
+    [C] Flint (pages 639-40).
+
+Testimony of individuals, indicating the extent to which vivisection
+is at present practiced in this country might be given; but it seems
+better to submit proof within the reach of every reader, and the
+accuracy of which is beyond cavil. No legal restrictions whatever
+exist, preventing the performance of any experiment desired. Indeed, I
+think it may safely be asserted that, in the city of New York, in a
+single medical school, more pain is inflicted upon living animals as a
+means of teaching well-known facts, than is permitted to be done for
+the same purpose in all the medical schools of Great Britain and
+Ireland. And _cui bono_? "I can truly say," writes a physician who
+has seen all these experiments, "that not only have I never seen any
+results at all commensurate with the suffering inflicted, but I cannot
+recall a single experiment which, in the slightest degree, has
+increased my ability to relieve pain, or in any way fitted me to cope
+better with disease."
+
+In respect to this practice, therefore, evidence abounds indicating
+the necessity for that State supervision which obtains in Great
+Britain. We cannot abolish it any more than we can repress dissection;
+to attempt it would be equally unwise. Within certain limitations,
+dictated both by a regard for the interest of science and by that
+sympathy for everything that lives and suffers which is the highest
+attribute of humanity, it seems to me that the practice of vivisection
+should be allowed. What are these restrictions?
+
+The following conclusions are suggested as a basis for future
+legislation:
+
+_I. Any experiment or operation whatever upon a living animal, during
+which by recognized anaesthetics it is made completely insensible to
+pain, should be permitted._
+
+This does not necessarily imply the taking of life. Should a surgeon,
+for example, desire to cause a fracture or tie an artery, and then
+permit the animal to recover so as to note subsequent effects, there
+is no reason why the privilege should be refused. The discomfort
+following such an operation would be inconsiderable. This permission
+should not extend to experiments purely physiological and having no
+definite relation to surgery; nor to mutilation from which recovery is
+impossible, and prolonged pain certain as a sequence.
+
+_II. Any experiment performed thus, under complete anaesthesia, though
+involving any degree of mutilation, if concluded by the extinction of
+life before consciousness is regained should also be permitted._
+
+To object to killing animals for scientific purposes while we continue
+to demand their sacrifice for food, is to seek for the appetite a
+privilege we refuse the mind. It is equally absurd to object to
+vivisection because it dissects, or "cuts up." If no pain be felt, why
+is it worse to cut up a dog, than a sheep or an ox? Such experiments
+as the foregoing might be permitted to any extent desired in our
+medical schools.
+
+Far more difficult is the question of painful experimentation.
+Unfortunately, it so happens that the most attractive original
+investigations are largely upon the nervous system, involving the
+consciousness of pain as a requisite to success. Toward this class of
+experiments the State should act with caution and firmness. It seems
+to me that the following restrictions are only just.
+
+_III. In view of the great cost in suffering, as compared with the
+slight profit gained by the student, the repetition, for purposes of
+class instruction of any experiment involving pain to a vertebrate
+animal should be forbidden by law._
+
+_IV. In view of the slight gain to practical medicine resulting from
+innumerable past experiments of this kind, a painful experiment upon
+a living vertebrate animal should be permitted solely for purposes of
+original investigation, and then only under the most rigid
+surveillance, and preceded by the strictest precautions._ For every
+experiment of this kind the physiologist should be required to obtain
+special permission from a State board, specifying on application (1)
+the object of the proposed investigation, (2) the nature and method of
+the operation, (3) the species of animal to be sacrificed, and (4) the
+shortest period during which pain will probably be felt. An officer of
+the State should be given an opportunity to be present; and a report
+made, both of the length of time occupied, and the knowledge, if any,
+gained thereby. If these restrictions are made obligatory by statute,
+and their violation made punishable by a heavy fine, such experiments
+will be generally performed only when absolutely necessary for
+purposes of scientific research.
+
+In few matters is there greater necessity for careful discrimination
+than in everything pertaining to this subject. The attempt has been
+made in this paper to indicate how far the State--leaning to mercy's
+side--may sanction a practice often so necessary and useful, always so
+dangerous in its tendencies. That is a worthy ideal of conduct which
+seeks
+
+  "Never to blend our pleasure or our pride
+  With sorrow of the meanest thing that feels."
+
+Is not this a sentiment in which even science may fitly share? Are we
+justified in neglecting the evidence she offers, purchased in the past
+at such immeasurable agonies, and in demanding that year after year
+new victims shall be subjected to torture, only to demonstrate what
+none of us doubt? That is the chief question. For, if all compromise
+be persistently rejected by physiologists, there is danger that some
+day, impelled by the advancing growth of humane sentiment, society may
+confound in one common condemnation all experiments of this nature,
+and make the whole practice impossible, except in secret and as a
+crime.
+
+
+
+
+[_From_ LIPPINCOTT'S MAGAZINE, _August, 1884_.]
+
+VIVISECTION.
+
+
+Omitting entirely any consideration of the ethics of vivisection, the
+only points to which in the present article the attention of the
+reader is invited are those in which scientific inquirers may be
+supposed to have a common interest.
+
+I. One danger to which scientific truth seems to be exposed is a
+peculiar tendency to underestimate the numberless uncertainties
+and contradictions created by experimentation upon living beings.
+Judging from the enthusiasm of its advocates, one would think that
+by this method of interrogating nature all fallacies can be
+detected, all doubts determined. But, on the contrary, the result of
+experimentation, in many directions, is to plunge the observer into
+the abyss of uncertainty. Take, for example, one of the simplest and
+yet most important questions possible,--the degree of sensibility in
+the lower animals. Has an infinite number of experiments enabled
+physiologists to determine for us the mere question of pain? Suppose
+an amateur experimenter in London, desirous of performing some severe
+operations upon frogs, to hesitate because of the extreme painfulness
+of his methods, what replies would he be likely to obtain from the
+highest scientific authorities of England as to the sensibility of
+these creatures? We may fairly judge their probable answers to such
+inquiries from their evidence already given before a royal
+commission.[A]
+
+    [A] The contradictory opinions ascribed to most of the
+    authorities quoted in this article are taken directly from
+    the "Report of the Royal Commission on the Practice of
+    Subjecting Live Animals to Experiments for Scientific
+    Purposes,"--a Blue-Book Parliamentary Report.
+
+Dr. Carpenter would doubtless repeat his opinion that "frogs have
+extremely little perception of pain;" and in the evidence of that
+experienced physiologist George Henry Lewes, he would find the
+cheerful assurance, "I do not believe that frogs suffer pain at all."
+Our friend applies, let us suppose, to Dr. Klein, of St. Bartholomew's
+Hospital, who despises the sentimentality which regards animal
+suffering as of the least consequence; and this enthusiastic
+vivisector informs him that, in his English experience, the experiment
+which caused the greatest pain without anaesthetics was the
+cauterization of the cornea of a frog. Somewhat confused at finding
+that a most painful experiment can be performed upon an animal that
+does not suffer he relates this to Dr. Swaine Taylor, of Guy's
+Hospital, who does not think that Klein's experiment would cause
+severe suffering; but of another--placing a frog in cold water and
+raising the temperature to about 100 deg.--"that," says Doctor Taylor,
+"would be a cruel experiment: I cannot see what purpose it can
+answer." Before leaving Guy's Hospital, our inquiring friend meets Dr.
+Pavy, one of the most celebrated physiologists in England, who tells
+him that in this experiment, stigmatized by his colleague as "cruel,"
+the frog would in reality suffer very little; that if we ourselves
+were treated to a bath gradually raised from a medium temperature to
+the boiling point, "I think we should not feel any pain;" that were we
+plunged at once into boiling water, "even then," says the enthusiastic
+and scientific Dr. Pavy, "I do not think pain would be experienced!"
+Our friend goes then to Dr. Sibson, of St. Mary's Hospital, who as a
+physiologist of many years' standing, sees no objection to freezing,
+starving, or baking animals alive; but he declares of boiling a frog,
+"That is a horrible idea, and I certainly am not going to defend it."
+Perplexed more than ever, he goes to Dr. Lister, of King's College,
+and is astonished upon being told "that the mere holding of a frog
+in your warm hand is about as painful as any experiment probably
+that you would perform." Finally, one of the strongest advocates of
+vivisections, Dr. Anthony, pupil of Sir Charles Bell, would exclaim,
+if a mere exposition of the lungs of the frog were referred to,
+"Fond as I am of physiology, I would not do that for the world!"
+
+Now, what has our inquirer learned by his appeal to science? Has
+he gained any clear and absolute knowledge? Hardly two of the
+experimenters named agree upon one simple yet most important
+preliminary of research--_the sensibility to pain of a single species
+of animals_.
+
+Let us interrogate scientific opinion a little further on this
+question of sensibility. Is there any difference in animals as
+regards susceptibility to pain? Dr. Anthony says that we may take
+the amount of intelligence in animals as a fair measure of their
+sensibility--that the pain one would suffer would be in proportion
+to its intelligence. Dr. Rutherford, Edinburgh, never performs an
+experiment upon a cat or a spaniel if he can help it, because they are
+so exceedingly sensitive; and Dr. Horatio Wood, of Philadelphia, tells
+us that the nervous system of a cat is far more sensitive than that of
+the rabbit. On the other hand, Dr. Lister, of King's College, is not
+aware of any such difference in sensibility in animals, and Dr.
+Brunton, of St. Bartholomew's, finds cats such very good animals to
+operate with that he on one occasion used ninety in making a single
+experiment.
+
+Sir William Gull thinks "there are but few experiments performed on
+living creatures where sensation is not removed," yet Dr. Rutherford
+admits "about half" his experiments to have been made upon animals
+sensitive to pain. Professor Rolleston, of Oxford University, tells
+us "the whole question of anaesthetizing animals has an element of
+uncertainty"; and Professor Rutherford declares it "impossible to say"
+whether even artificial respiration is painful or not, "unless the
+animal can speak." Dr. Brunton, of St. Bartholomew's, says of that
+most painful experiment, poisoning by strychnine, that it cannot be
+efficiently shown if the animal be under chloroform. Dr. Davy, of
+Guy's, on the contrary, always gives chloroform, and finds it no
+impediment to successful demonstration, Is opium an anaesthetic? Claude
+Bernard declares that sensibility exists even though the animal be
+motionless: "_Il sent la douleur, mais il a, pour ainsi dire, perdu
+l'idee de la defense._"[A] But Dr. Brunton, of St. Bartholomew's
+hospital, London, has no hesitation whatever in contradicting this
+statement "emphatically, however high an authority it may be."
+
+Curare, a poison invented by South American Indians for their arrows,
+is much used in physiological laboratories to paralyze the motor
+nerves, rendering an animal absolutely incapable of the slightest
+disturbing movement. Does it at the same time destroy sensation, or
+is the creature conscious of every pang? Claude Bernard, of Paris,
+Sharpey, of London, and Flint, of New York[B] all agree that sensation
+is _not_ abolished; on the other hand, Rutherford regards curare as a
+partial anaesthetic, and Huxley strongly intimates that Bernard in thus
+deciding from experiments that it does not affect the cerebral
+hemispheres or consciousness, "_jumped at a conclusion_ for which
+neither he nor anybody else had any scientific justification." This
+is extraordinary language for one experimentalist to use regarding
+others! If it is possible that such men as Claude Bernard and
+Professor Flint have "jumped at" one utterly unscientific conclusion,
+notwithstanding the most painstaking of vivisections, what security
+have we that other of our theories in physiology now regarded as
+absolutely established may not be one day as severely ridiculed by
+succeeding investigators? Is it, after all, true, that the absolute
+certainty of our most important deductions must remain forever hidden
+"unless the animal can speak"?
+
+    [A] "He feels the pain, but has lost, so to speak, the idea
+    of self defense." Lecons de Physiologie operatoire, 1879, p.
+    115.
+
+    [B] Text-Book of Human Physiology, p. 595.
+
+II. Between advocating State supervision of painful vivisection, and
+proposing with Mr. Bergh the total suppression of all experiments,
+painful or otherwise, there is manifestly a very wide distinction.
+Unfortunately, the suggestion of any interference whatever invariably
+rouses the anger of those most interested--an indignation as
+unreasonable, to say the least, as that of the merchant who refuses a
+receipt for money just paid to him, on the ground that a request for a
+written acknowledgement is a reflection upon his honesty. I cannot see
+how otherwise than by State supervision we are to reach abuses which
+confessedly exist. Can we trust the sensitiveness and conscience
+of every experimenter? Nobody claims this. One of the leading
+physiologists in this country, Dr. John C. Dalton, admits "that
+vivisection may be, and has been, abused by reckless, unfeeling, or
+unskillful persons;" that he himself has witnessed abroad, in a
+veterinary institution, operations than which "nothing could be more
+shocking." And yet the unspeakable atrocities at Alfort, to which,
+apparently, Dr. Dalton alludes, were defended upon the very ground he
+occupies to-day in advocating experiments of the modern laboratory and
+classroom; for the Academie des Sciences decided that there was "no
+occasion to take any notice of complaints; that in the future, as in
+the past, vivisectional experiments must be left entirely to the
+judgment of scientific men." What seemed "atrocious" to the more
+tender-hearted Anglo-Saxon was pronounced entirely justifiable by the
+French Academy of Science.
+
+A curious question suggests itself in connection with this point.
+There can be little doubt, I think, that the sentiment of compassion
+and of sympathy with suffering is more generally diffused among all
+classes of Great Britain than elsewhere in Europe; and one cannot help
+wondering what our place might be, were it possible to institute any
+reliable comparison of national humanity. Should we be found in all
+respects as sensitive as the English people? Would indignation and
+protest be as quickly and spontaneously evoked among us by a cruel
+act? The question may appear an ungracious one, yet it seems to me
+there exists some reason why it should be plainly asked. There is a
+certain experiment--one of the most excruciating that can be
+performed--which consists in exposing the spinal cord of the dog for
+the purpose of demonstrating the functions of the spinal nerves. It is
+one, by the way, which Dr. Wilder forgot to enumerate in his summary
+of the "four kinds of experiments," since it is not the "cutting
+operation" which forms its chief peculiarity or to which special
+objection would be made. At present all this preliminary process is
+generally performed under anaesthetics: it is an hour or two later,
+when the animal has partly recovered from the severe shock of the
+operation, that the wound is reopened and the experiment begins. It
+was during a class demonstration of this kind by Magendie, before
+the introduction of ether, that the circumstance occurred which one
+hesitates to think possible in a person retaining a single spark of
+humanity or pity. "I recall to mind," says Dr. Latour, who was present
+at the time, "a poor dog, the roots of whose vertebral nerves Magendie
+desired to lay bare to demonstrate Bell's theory, which he claimed as
+his own. The dog, mutilated and bleeding twice escaped from under the
+implacable knife, and threw its front paws around Magendie's neck,
+licking, as if to soften his murderer and ask for mercy! I confess I
+was unable to endure that heartrending spectacle."
+
+It was probably in reference to this experiment that Sir Charles Bell,
+the greatest English physiologist of our century, writing to his
+brother in 1822, informs him that he hesitates to go on with his
+investigations. "You may think me silly," he adds, "but I cannot
+perfectly convince myself that I am authorized in nature or religion
+to do these cruelties." Now, what do English physiologists and
+vivisectors of the present day think of the repetition of this
+experiment solely as a class demonstration?
+
+They have candidly expressed their opinions before a royal commission.
+Dr. David Ferrier, of King's college, noted for his experiments upon
+the brain of monkeys, affirms his belief that "students would rebel"
+at the sight of a painful experiment. Dr. Rutherford, who certainly
+dared do all that may become a physiologist, confesses mournfully,
+"_I dare not_ show an experiment upon a dog or rabbit before students,
+when the animal is not anaesthetized." Dr. Pavy, of Guy's Hospital,
+asserts that a painful experiment introduced before a class "would not
+be tolerated for a moment." Sir William Gull, M. D., believes that the
+repetition of an operation like this upon the spinal nerves would
+excite the reprobation alike of teacher, pupils, and the public at
+large. Michael Foster, of Cambridge University, who minutely describes
+all the details of the experiment on recurrent sensibility in the
+"Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory," nevertheless tells
+us, "I have not performed it, and have never seen it done," partly,
+as he confesses, "from horror at the pain." And finally Dr.
+Burdon-Sanderson, physiologist at University College, London, states
+with the utmost emphasis, in regard to the performance of this
+demonstration on the spinal cord, "I am perfectly certain that no
+physiologist--none of the leading men in Germany, for example--would
+exhibit an experiment of that kind."
+
+Now mark the contrast. This experiment--which we are told passes even
+the callousness of Germany to repeat; which every leading champion of
+vivisection in Great Britain reprobates for medical teaching; which
+some of them shrink even from seeing, themselves, from horror at the
+tortures necessarily inflicted; which the most ruthless among them
+_dare not_ exhibit to the young men of England,--_this experiment has
+been performed publicly again and again in American medical colleges_,
+without exciting, so far as we know, even a whisper of protest or the
+faintest murmur of remonstrance! The proof is to be found in the
+published statements of the experimenter himself. In his "Text-Book
+of Physiology," Professor Flint says, "Magendie showed very
+satisfactorily that the posterior roots (of the spinal cord) were
+exclusively sensory, and this fact has been confirmed by more recent
+observations upon the higher classes of animals. We have ourselves
+frequently exposed and irritated the roots of the nerves in dogs, _in
+public demonstrations_ in experiments on the recurrent sensibility,
+... and in another series of observations."[A]
+
+    [A] "A Text-Book of Human Physiology." By Austin Flint, Jr.
+    M. D. New York, 1876. Page 589; see also page 674.
+
+This is the experience of a single professional teacher; but it is
+improbable that this experiment has been shown only to the students of
+a single medical college in the United States; it has doubtless been
+repeated again and again in different colleges throughout the country.
+If Englishmen are, then, so extremely sensitive as Ferrier, Gull, and
+Burdon-Sanderson would have us believe, we must necessarily conclude
+that the sentiment of compassion is far greater in Britain than in
+America. Have we drifted backward in humanity? Have American students
+learned to witness, without protest, tortures at the sight of which
+English students would rebel? We are told that there is no need of any
+public sensitiveness on this subject. We should trust entirely, as
+they do in France,--at Alfort, for example,--"to the judgment of the
+investigator." There must be no lifting of the veil to the outside
+multitude; for the priests of this unpitying science there must be as
+absolute immunity from criticism or inquiry as was ever demanded
+before the shrine of Delphi or the altars of Baal. "Let them exercise
+their solemn office," demands Dr. Wilder, "not only unrestrained by
+law, but upheld by public sentiment."
+
+For myself, I cannot believe this position is tenable. Nothing seems
+to me more certain than the results that must follow if popular
+sentiment in this country shall knowingly sustain the public
+demonstration of an experiments in pain, which can find no defender
+among the physiologists of Great Britain. It has been my fortune to
+know something of the large hospitals of Europe; and I confess I do
+not know a single one in countries where painful vivisection
+flourishes, unchecked by law, wherein the poor and needy sick are
+treated with the sympathy, the delicacy, or even the decency, which so
+universally characterize the hospitals of England. When Magendie,
+operating for cataract, plunged his needle to the bottom of his
+patient's eye, that he might note upon a human being the effect
+produced by mechanical irritation of the retina, he demonstrated how
+greatly the zeal of the enthusiast may impair the responsibility of
+the physician and the sympathy of man for man.
+
+III. The utility of vivisection in advancing therapeutics, despite
+much argument, still remains an open question. No one is so foolish as
+to deny the possibility of future usefulness to any discovery
+whatever; but there is a distinction, very easily slurred over in the
+eagerness of debate, between present applicability and remotely
+potential service. If the pains inflicted on animals are absolutely
+necessary to the protection of human life and the advancement of
+practical skill in medicine, should sentiment be permitted to check
+investigation? An English prelate, the Bishop of Peterborough,
+speaking in Parliament on this subject, once told the House of Lords
+that "it was very difficult to decide what was unnecessary pain," and
+as an example of the perplexities which arose in his own mind he
+mentioned "the case of the wretched man who was convicted of skinning
+cats alive, because their skins were more valuable when taken from the
+living animal than from the dead one. The extra money," added the
+Bishop, "got the man a dinner!"[A] Whether in this particular case the
+excuse was well received by the judge, the reverend prelate neglected
+to inform us; but it is certain that the plea for painful
+experimentation rests substantially on the same basis. Out of the
+agonies of sentient brutes we are to pluck the secret of longer living
+and the art of surer triumph over intractable disease.
+
+    [A] See Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, June 20, 1876.
+
+But has this hope been fulfilled? Pasteur, we are told, has claimed
+the discovery of a cure for hydrophobia through experiments on
+animals. It may be well worth its cost if only true; but we cannot
+forget that its practical value is by no means yet demonstrated. Aside
+from this, has physiological experimentation during the last quarter
+of a century contributed such marked improvements in therapeutic
+methods that we find certain and tangible evidence thereof in the
+diminishing fatality of any disease? Can one mention a single malady
+which thirty years ago resisted every remedial effort, to which the
+more enlightened science of to-day can offer hopes of recovery? These
+seem to me perfectly legitimate and fair questions, and, fortunately,
+in one respect, capable of a scientific reply. I suppose the opinion
+of the late Claude Bernard, of Paris, would be generally accepted as
+that of the highest scientific authority on the utility of vivisection
+in "practical medicine;" but he tells us that it is hardly worth while
+to make the inquiry. "Without doubt," he confessed, "_our hands are
+empty to-day_, although our mouths are full of legitimate promises for
+the future."
+
+Was Claude Bernard correct in this opinion as to the "empty hands?"
+If scientific evidence is worth anything, it points to the appalling
+conclusion that, _notwithstanding all the researches of physiology,
+the chief forms of chronic disease exhibit to-day in England a greater
+fatality than thirty years ago_. In the following table I have
+indicated the average annual mortality, per million inhabitants, of
+certain diseases, _first_, for the period of five years from 1850 to
+1854, and _secondly_, for the period twenty-five years later, from
+1875 to 1879. The authority is beyond question; the facts are
+collected from the report to Parliament of the Registrar-general
+of England:
+
+             _Average Annual Rate of Mortality in England,
+          from Causes of Death, per One Million Inhabitants._
+
+  ----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
+                                    |    During     |    During
+           NAME OF DISEASE.         |  Five Years,  |  Five Years,
+                                    |    1850-54.   |    1875-79.
+  ----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
+  Gout,                             |        12     |        25
+  Aneurism,                         |        16     |        32
+  Diabetes,                         |        23     |        41
+  Insanity,                         |        29     |        57
+  Syphilis,                         |        37     |        86
+  Epilepsy,                         |       105     |       119
+  Bright's disease,                 |        32     |       182
+  Kidney disease,                   |        94     |       114
+  Brain disease,                    |       192     |       281
+  Liver disease,                    |       215     |       291
+  Heart disease,                    |       651     |     1,335
+  Cancer,                           |       302     |       492
+  Paralysis,                        |       440     |       501
+  Apoplexy,                         |       454     |       552
+  Tubercular diseases and diseases  |               |
+    of the Respiratory Organs,      |     6,424     |     6,886
+  ----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
+  Mortality from above diseases:    |     9,026     |    10,994
+  ----------------------------------+---------------+---------------
+
+This is certainly a most startling exhibit, when we remember that from
+only these few causes about half of _all_ the deaths in England
+annually occur, and that from them result the deaths of two-thirds of
+the persons, of both sexes, who reach the age of twenty years.[A] What
+are the effects here discernible of Bernard's experiments upon
+diabetes? of Brown-Sequard's upon epilepsy and paralysis? of Flint's
+and Pavy's on diseases of the liver? of Ferrier's researches upon the
+functions of the brain? Let us appeal from the heated enthusiasm of
+the experimenter to the stern facts of the statistician. Why, so far
+from having obtained the least mastery over those malignant forces
+which seem forever to elude and baffle our art, they are actually
+gaining upon us; every one of these forms of disease is more fatal
+to-day in England than thirty years ago; during 1879 over sixty
+thousand _more_ deaths resulted from these maladies alone than would
+have occurred had the rate of mortality from them been simply that
+which prevailed during the benighted period of 1850 to 1854! True,
+during later years there has been a diminished mortality in England,
+but it is from the lesser prevalence of zymotic diseases, which no one
+to-day pretends to cure; while the organic diseases show a constant
+tendency to increase. Part of this may be due to more accurate
+diagnosis and clearer definition of mortality causes: but this will
+not explain a phenomenon which is too evident to be overlooked.
+
+    [A] In 1879 the total mortality in England, above the age of
+    twenty, from _all causes_ whatsoever, was 287,093. Of these
+    deaths, the number occasioned by the sixteen causes above
+    named, was 191,706, or almost exactly two-thirds.
+
+"It is a fact," says the Registrar-general, in his report for 1879,
+"that while mortality in early life has been very notably diminished,
+_the mortality of persons in middle or advanced life has been steadily
+rising for a long period of years_." It is probable that the same
+story would be told by the records of France, Germany, and other
+European countries; it is useless, of course, to refer to America,
+since in regard to statistical information we still lag behind every
+country which pretends to be civilized.[A] Undoubtedly it would be a
+false assumption which from these facts should deduce retrogression
+in medical art or deny advance and improvement; but they certainly
+indicate that the boasted superiority of modern medicine over the
+skill of our fathers, due to physiological researches, is not
+sustained by the only impartial authority to which science can appeal
+for evidence of results.
+
+    [A] Even Japan, a country we are apt to consider as somewhat
+    benighted, has far better statistical information at hand
+    than the United States of America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+What then is the substance of the whole matter? It seems to me the
+following conclusions are justified by the facts presented.
+
+I. All experiments upon living animals may be divided into two general
+classes; 1st those which produce pain,--slight, brief, severe or
+atrociously acute and prolonged; and 2nd, those experiments which are
+performed under complete anaesthesia from which either death ensues
+during unconsciousness, or entire recovery may follow.
+
+II. The majority of vivisections requisite for purposes of teaching
+physiological facts _may_ be so carried on as to take life with less
+pain or inconvenience to the animal than is absolutely necessary in
+order to furnish meat for our tables. Those who would make it a penal
+offense to submit to a class of college students the unconscious and
+painless demonstration of functional activity of the heart, for
+example, and yet demand for the gratification of appetite the daily
+slaughter of oxen and sheep without anaesthetics, and without any
+attempt to minimize the agony of terror, fear and pain--may not be
+inconsistent. But it is a view the writer cannot share.
+
+III. Prohibition of all experiments may be fairly demanded by those
+who believe that the enthusiastic ardor of the scientific experimenter
+or lecturer, will outweigh all considerations of good faith, provided
+success or failure of his experiment depend on the consciousness of
+pain. In other words, that the experimenter himself, as a rule,
+_cannot be trusted to obey the law, should the law restrict_.
+
+This also is an extreme position.
+
+IV. Absolute liberty in the matter of painful experiments has produced
+admitted abuses by physiologists of Germany, France and Italy. In
+America it has led to the repetition before classes of students of
+Magendie's extreme cruelties,--demonstrations which have been
+condemned by every leading English physiologist.
+
+V. In view of the dangerous impulses not unfrequently awakened by the
+sight of pain intentionally inflicted, experiments of this kind should
+be by legal enactment absolutely forbidden before classes of students,
+especially in our Public Schools.
+
+VI. It is not in accord with scientific accuracy to contend for
+unlimited freedom of painful experimentation, on the ground of its
+vast utility to humanity in the discovery of new methods for the cure
+of disease. On the contrary, so far as can be discovered by a careful
+study of English mortality statistics, physiological experiments upon
+living animals for fifty years back have in no single instance
+lessened the fatality of any disease below its average of thirty-five
+years ago.
+
+VII. Vivisection, involving the infliction of pain is, even in its
+best possible aspect, a necessary evil, and ought at once to be
+restricted within the narrowest limits, and placed under the
+supervision of the State.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+I.
+
+For reasons sufficiently stated in the preceding pages, the writer
+does not advocate the total abolition of all experimentation. It is
+only fair to acknowledge, however, that very strong and weighty
+arguments in favor of legal repression have been advanced both in this
+country and abroad, some of which are herewith presented, as the other
+side of the question.
+
+The cause of abolition has no more earnest and eloquent advocate than
+Miss Frances Power Cobbe of England. Through innumerable controversies
+with scientific men in the public journals, magazines and reviews, she
+has presented in awful array, the abuses of unlimited and uncontrolled
+experimentation on the continent of Europe, and the arguments in favor
+of total repression. The following letters, extracts from her public
+correspondence, will indicate her position.
+
+TENDER VIVISECTION.
+
+(TO THE EDITOR OF THE "SCOTSMAN.")
+
+                                1, Victoria Street, London, S. W.,
+                                         January 10, 1881.
+
+SIR.--An Italian pamphlet, _Dell'Azione del Dolore sulla Respirazione_
+(The Action of Pain on Respiration), has just reached my hands, and as
+it is, I think, quite unknown in this country, I will beg you to grant
+me space for a few extracts from its pages. The pamphlet is by the
+eminent physiologist, Mantegazza, and was published by Chiusi, of
+Milan. Having explained the object of his investigations to be the
+effects of pain on the respiratory organs, the Professor describes (p.
+20) the methods he devised for the production of such pain. He found
+the best to consist in "planting nails, sharp and numerous, through
+the feet of the animal in such a manner as to render the creature
+almost motionless, because in every movement it would have felt its
+torment more acutely" (_piantando chiodi acuti e numerosi attraverso
+le piante dei piedi in modo da rendere immobile o quasi l'animale,
+perche ad ogni movimento avrebbe sentito molto piu acuto il suo
+tormento_). Further on he mentions that, to produce still more intense
+pain (_dolore intenso_) he was obliged to employ lesions, followed by
+inflammation. An ingenious machine, constructed by "our" Tecnomasio,
+of Milan, enabled him likewise to grip any part of an animal with
+pincers with iron teeth, and to crush, or tear, or lift up the victim,
+"so as to produce pain in every possible way." A drawing of this
+instrument is appended. The first series of his experiments, Signor
+Mantegazza informs us, were tried on twelve animals, chiefly rabbits
+and guinea pigs, of which several were pregnant. One poor little
+creature, "far advanced in pregnancy," was made to endure _dolori
+atrocissimi_, so that it was impossible to make any observations in
+consequence of its convulsions.
+
+In the second series of experiments twenty-eight animals were
+sacrificed, some of them taken from nursing their young, exposed to
+torture for an hour or two, then allowed to rest an hour, and usually
+replaced in the machine to be crushed or torn by the Professor for
+periods of from two to six hours more. In the table wherein these
+experiments are summed up, the terms _molto dolore_ and _crudeli
+dolori_ are delicately distinguished, the latter being apparently
+reserved for the cases when the victims were, as the Professor
+expresses it, _lardellati di chiodi_--("larded with nails").
+
+In conclusion, the author informs us (p. 25) that these experiments
+were all conducted "_con molto amore e pazienza!_"--with much zeal and
+patience.
+
+                         I am, etc.,
+                                        FRANCES POWER COBBE.
+
+In a controversy with Dr. Pye-Smith, who had read a paper before the
+British Association, Miss Cobbe writes as follows to one of the public
+journals:
+
+"Dr. Pye-Smith is reported to have said: 'Happily, the neccessary
+experiments were comparatively few.' Few! What are a "few"
+experiments? Professor Schiff in ten years experimented on 14,000
+dogs, given over to him by the Municipality of Florence, and returned
+their carcases so mangled that the man who had contracted for their
+skins found them useless. He also experimented on pigeons, cats, and
+rabbits to the number, it is calculated, of 70,000 creatures; and he
+now asks for ten dogs a week in Geneva. All over Germany and France
+there are laboratories "using" (as the horrible phrase is) numberless
+animals, inasmuch as I have just received a letter stating that dogs
+are actually becoming scarce in Lyons, and it is proposed to breed
+them for the purpose of Vivisection. Be this true or not, I invite any
+of your readers to visit the office of the Victoria Street Society,
+and examine the volumes of splendid plates of vivisecting instruments,
+which will there be shown them, and then judge for themselves whether
+it be for a few experiments that those elaborate and costly inventions
+have become a regular branch of manufacture. Let them examine the
+volume of the English handbook of the physiological laboratory, the
+volume of Cyon's magnificent atlas, with its 54 plates, the _Archives
+de Physiologie_, with its 191 plates, the _Physiologische Methodik_,
+or Claude Bernard's _Lecons sur la Chaleur Animale_, with its pictures
+of the stoves wherein he baked dogs and rabbits alive; and after these
+sights of disgust and horror they will know how to understand the word
+"few" in the vocabulary of a physiologist. I am glad to hear that a
+German opponent of Vivisection recently entering a shop devoted to the
+sale of these tools of torture, was greeted by the proprietor with a
+volley of abuse: 'It is you and your friends,' he said, 'who are
+destroying my trade. I used to sell a hundred of Czermak's tables and
+other instruments for one I sell now.'
+
+"Dr. Pye-Smith said: 'Many of the experiments inflicted no pain or
+injury whatever, and the great majority of the rest were rendered
+painless by the use of those beneficial agents which abolished pain
+and had themselves been discovered by experiments upon living
+animals.' As to the use of anaesthetics in annulling the agonies of
+mutilated animals, the audience ought to have asked Dr. Pye-Smith to
+explain whether he intended to refer to chloroform, or the narcotic
+morphia, or, lastly, to the drug _curare_. If he referred to
+chloroform, Dr. Hoggan tells from his own experience (_Anaesthetics_,
+p. 1), that 'nothing can be more uncertain than its influence on
+the lower animals; many of them die before they become insensible.
+Complete and conscientious anaesthesia is seldom even attempted,
+the animal getting at most a slight whiff of chloroform _by way of
+satisfying the conscience of the operator_, or enabling him to make
+statements of a humane character.' Even if it were conscientiously
+administered at the beginning of an experiment, how little would
+chloroform diminish the misery of Rutherford's dogs or Brunton's
+ninety cats, whose long-drawn agonies extended over many days? How
+little could it affect in any way the cases of starving, poisoning,
+baking, stewing to death, or burning,--like the twenty-five dogs over
+which Professor Wertheim poured turpentine and then set them on fire,
+leaving them afterwards slowly to perish? If Dr. Pye-Smith was
+thinking of morphia, the reader may refer to Claude Bernard's
+_Lecons de Physiologie Operatoire_, where he will find that great
+physiologists recommends its use; but at the same time mentions (as of
+no particular consequence) that the animal subjected to its influence
+still 'suffers pain.' I can hardly suppose, lastly, that Dr. Pye-Smith
+was secretly thinking of _curare_, and that he is one of those whom
+Tennyson says would
+
+  "Mangle the living dog which loved him and fawned at his knee,
+  Drenched with the hellish oorali."
+
+It is bad enough to "mangle" a loving and intelligent creature without
+adding to its agonies the paralysis of the powers of motion, and the
+increased sensibility to pain occasioned by this horrible drug, which
+nevertheless Bernard, in the work above quoted, says is in such common
+use among physiologists, that when an experiment is not otherwise
+described, it may always be "taken for granted it has been performed
+on a curarized dog."
+
+Finally, Dr. Pye-Smith says, "It was remarkable that the small residue
+of experiments in which some amount of pain was necessary were chiefly
+those in which the direct and immediate benefit to mankind was more
+obvious. He referred to the trying of drugs on animals, to discovering
+antidotes to poisons," etc. The bribe here offered to human
+selfishness is an ingenious one. "Let us," the physiologists say,
+"retain the right to put animals to torture, for it is very
+'remarkable' that when we do so it is always in your interest!"
+Unluckily for this appeal to the meaner feelings of human nature,
+which these modern instructors of our young men are not ashamed to put
+forward, it is difficult for them to hit on any one instance wherein
+out of their "few" (million) experiments any good to mankind has been,
+even apparently, achieved. As Claude Bernard honestly said, at least
+as regards any benefit for suffering humanity, "_Nos mains sont
+vides_." As to the trying of drugs on animals, Dr. Pritchard, who is,
+I believe, the best living authority on the subject, told the Royal
+Commission (Minutes, 908), "I do not think that the use of drugs on
+animals can be taken as a guide to the doses or to the action of the
+same drugs on the human subjects." As to the discovery of antidotes to
+poison, the only man who seems on the verge of any success is the
+brave and noble fellow who has been trying such experiments not on
+animals but on himself.
+
+In conclusion, I must add one word on Dr. Pye-Smith's last sentence,
+namely, "that legislation against vivisection is injurious to the best
+interests of the community." Sir, I know not what vivisectors deem to
+be the best interests of the community. For my part I do not reckon
+them to be the influence of drugs, nor yet susceptible of being carved
+out with surgical instruments. I do not think that they consist in
+escape from physical pain, nor even in the prolongation for a few
+years of our little earthly life. I hold that the best interests of
+the community are the moral and immortal interests of every soul in
+such community, namely, the conquest of selfishness, cowardice, and
+cruelty, and the development of the god-like sense of justice and
+love--the growth of the divinest thing in human nature, the faculty of
+sympathizing with the joys and sorrows of all God's creatures.
+Believing these to be "the best interests of the community," I ask,
+without hesitation, for the suppression of this abominable trade,
+which can best be described as "Pitilessness practised as a
+profession." If vivisection be indeed the true method of studying
+physiology, if physiology cannot be advanced except by vivisection,
+if chemical observation and microscopic research be useless for the
+purpose, and nothing but the torture of animals and the demoralization
+of men will suffice for its progress--then, in God's name, I say, let
+physiology stop at the point it has reached, even till the day of
+doom.--I am, Sir, with apologies for the length of this letter, yours,
+etc.
+
+                                         FRANCES POWER COBBE
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Certainly, as regards the ethics of vivisection, nothing more eloquent
+has ever been written than this closing paragraph.
+
+In a letter to the London TIMES in December, 1884, Miss Cobbe writes
+as follows:
+
+TO THE EDITOR.
+
+SIR,--In your article on this subject on Saturday last you called upon
+the opponents of vivisection to answer certain questions. As I have
+been intrusted for many years with the hon. secretaryship of the
+leading anti-vivisectionist society, I beg to offer you the following
+replies to those questions:--
+
+You ask first, Do we "deny that vivisection is capable of yielding
+knowledge of service to man?" We are not so rash as to deny that any
+practice, even the most immoral conceivable, might possibly yield
+knowledge of service to man; and, in particular, we do not deny that
+the vivisection of human beings by the surgeons of classic times, and
+again by the great anatomists of Italy in the 15th century, may very
+possibly have yielded knowledge to man, and be capable, if revived, of
+yielding still more. We have, however, for a long time back called on
+the advocates of the vivisection of dogs, monkeys, &c., to furnish
+evidence of the beneficial results of their work, not as setting at
+rest the question of its morality, but as an indispensable preliminary
+to justify them in coming into the court of public opinion as
+defendants of a practice obviously (as the Royal Commissioners
+reported) "liable from its very nature to great abuse."
+
+We must be excused if we now hold it to be demonstrated that, whether
+vivisection be or be not "capable of yielding useful knowledge," it
+certainly yields only a scanty crop of it. Were there anything like an
+abundant harvest, such a sample as this would not have been produced
+with so much pomp for public scrutiny. In short, we think with Dr.
+Leffingwell that, "if pain could be measured by money, there is no
+mining company in the world which would sanction prospecting in such
+barren regions."
+
+You ask us, Sir, secondly, "Do we affirm that the benefit of mankind
+is not an adequate or sufficient justification for the infliction of
+pain on animals?" We have two answers to this question.
+
+Assuming that by vivisection benefits might be obtained for human
+bodies, we hold that the evil results of the practice on human minds
+would more than counterbalance any such benefits. The cowardice and
+pitilessness involved in tying down a dog on a table and slowly
+mangling its brain, its eyes, its entrails; the sin committed against
+love and fidelity themselves when a creature capable of dying of grief
+on his master's grave is dealt with as a mere parcel of material
+tissues, "valuable for purposes of research"--these are basenesses for
+which no physical advantages would compensate, and the prevalence of
+such a heart-hardening process among our young men would, we are
+convinced, detract more from the moral interests of our nation than a
+thousand cases of recovery from disease would serve those of a lower
+kind. Even life itself ought not to be saved by such methods, any more
+than by the cannibalism of the men of the "Mignonette."
+
+Our second answer is yet more brief. We do not "deny that the benefit
+of man is a sufficient justification for inflicting pain upon
+animals," provided that pain is kept within moderate bounds, nor yet
+to taking life from them in a quick and careful manner. But we do deny
+the right of man to inflict torture upon brutes, and thus convert
+their lives from a blessing into a curse. Such torture has been
+inflicted upon tens of thousands of animals by vivisection; and no
+legislation that ingenuity can devise will, we believe, suffice to
+guard against the repetition of it so long as it is sanctioned in any
+way as a method of research. The use of vivisection--if it have any
+use--is practically inseparable from abuse. We therefore call upon our
+countrymen to forego the poor bribes of possible use which are offered
+to them, and of which we have now seen a "unique and impressive"
+example, and generously and manfully to say of vivisection as they
+once said of slavery "We will have none of it."
+
+                        I am, Sir, yours, etc.,
+                                        FRANCES POWER COBBE.
+
+  Hengwrt, Dolgelly, Dec. 28, 1884.
+
+
+II.
+
+[_Report of American Anti-vivisection Society, Jan. 1888._]
+
+"There remain two grounds to adopt: one the total abolition of all
+experiments; the other the total abolition of all _painful_
+experiments. This latter position, which is the one that Dr. Bigelow
+of Boston and Dr. Leffingwell have assumed, has engaged our attention
+for a long time; but, after bestowing upon it careful consideration,
+we feel that we must give it up as impracticable. To secure immunity
+from pain there must be absolutely perfect anaesthesia. This can be
+only obtained in two ways: one is by trusting to the experimenter
+himself to give sufficient of the anaesthetic; the other to insist that
+an assistant shall be present for the express purpose of keeping the
+animal under perfect anaesthesia. Now is it anyway likely that either
+of these conditions would be observed?"
+
+
+III.
+
+[_From the "Therapeutic Gazette," Detroit, Aug., 1880._]
+
+"Vivisection is grossly abused in the United States. * * We would add
+our condemnation of the ruthless barbarity which is every winter
+perpetrated in the Medical Schools of this country. History records
+some frightful atrocities perpetrated in the name of Religion; but it
+has remained for the enlightenment and humaneness of this century to
+stultify themselves by tolerating the abuses of the average
+physiological laboratory--all conducted in the name of Science. There
+is only one way to progress in Therapeutics; and that is by clinical
+observation; the noting of the action of individual drugs under
+particular diseased conditions. He who has the largest practice and is
+the keenest observer, and the most systematic recorder of what he
+sees, does the most to advance Medicine."
+
+
+IV.
+
+[_From editorial in "The Spectator," London, July 17, 1880._]
+
+"A memorial for the absolute abolition of vivisection has been
+presented to Mr. Gladstone with a great many most influential
+signatures attached. For our own part, were the experiments on the
+inoculation of animal diseases excepted,--experiments which, we
+venture to say, have sometimes proved of the greatest value to animals
+themselves,--we should, on the whole, be content to go with the
+abolitionists, not because we think all experiments, especially when
+conducted under strict anaesthetics, wrong, but because when they are
+permitted at all it is so extremely difficult to enforce properly and
+fully humane conditions. Dr. A. Leffingwell has sufficiently shown in
+the able paper in the July _Scribner's Magazine_, how extremely few
+remedies of value have resulted from this awfully costly expenditure
+of anguish. 'If pain could be estimated in money' he justly says,
+'no corporation would be satisfied with such a waste of capital.'
+Take, as the single illustration of this most weighty sentence,
+Dr. Leffingwell's statement that what the late Dr. Sharpey called
+'Magendie's infamous experiment' on the stomach of the dog, has
+been repeated 200 times without establishing to the satisfaction of
+scientific physiologists the theory for which that act of wickedness
+was first committed. No wonder the society for the Protection of
+Animals from Vivisection goes to extremes."
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_.
+
+2. Footnotes have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the
+closest paragraph break.
+
+3. Some obvious punctuation errors in the text have been silently
+corrected, for example, missing period at a paragraph end, etc.
+
+4. The following misprints have been corrected:
+     "sufering" corrected to "suffering" (page 14)
+     "anaethetics" corrected to "anaesthetics" (page 48)
+
+5. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
+in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Vivisection, by Albert Leffingwell
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VIVISECTION ***
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