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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 7
+       "Columbus" to "Condottiere"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 11, 2010 [EBook #31950]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. When letters are subscripted, they are
+      preceded by an underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were originally printed in
+      superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(5) [oo] stands for infinity; [int] for integral; [alpha], [beta], etc.
+      for greek letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON: "In 1834 he was sworn a privy
+      councillor, and in 1852 he succeeded Wellington as constable of the
+      Tower and lord lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets." 'Wellington'
+      amended from 'Wellingtion'.
+
+    Article COMMERCE: "But in the ancient records we see commerce
+      exposed to great risks, subject to constant pillage, hunted down in
+      peace and utterly extinguished in war." 'pillage' amended from
+      'pilage'.
+
+    Article COMPANY: "But they also contemplate the ultimate
+      controlling power as residing in the shareholders." 'contemplate'
+      amended from 'comtemplate'.
+
+    Article COMPASS: "and if the magnetic variation and the disturbing
+      effects of the ship's iron are known, the desired angle between the
+      ship's course and the geographical meridian can be computed."
+      'ship's' amended from 'ships's'.
+
+    Article COMTE, AUGUSTE: "Comte began to fret under Saint-Simon's
+      pretensions to be his director. Saint-Simon, on the other hand,
+      perhaps began to feel uncomfortably conscious of the superiority
+      of his disciple." 'feel' from 'fell'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME VI, SLICE VII
+
+         Columbus to Condottiere
+
+
+
+
+Articles in This Slice:
+
+
+  COLUMBUS (city of Georgia, U.S.A.)      COMO (city of Italy)
+  COLUMBUS (city of Indiana, U.S.A.)      COMO (lake of Italy)
+  COLUMBUS (city of Mississippi, U.S.A.)  COMONFORT, IGNACIO
+  COLUMBUS (city of Ohio, U.S.A.)         COMORIN, CAPE
+  COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS      COMORO ISLANDS
+  COLUMN                                  COMPANION
+  COLURE                                  COMPANY
+  COLUTHUS                                COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
+  COLVILLE, JOHN                          COMPARETTI, DOMENICO
+  COLVIN, JOHN RUSSELL                    COMPASS
+  COLVIN, SIDNEY                          COMPASS PLANT
+  COLWYN BAY                              COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL
+  COLZA OIL                               COMPENSATION
+  COMA                                    COMPIČGNE
+  COMA BERENICES                          COMPLEMENT
+  COMACCHIO                               COMPLUVIUM
+  COMANA (city of Cappadocia)             COMPOSITAE
+  COMANA (city of Pontus)                 COMPOSITE ORDER
+  COMANCHES                               COMPOSITION
+  COMAYAGUA                               COMPOUND
+  COMB                                    COMPOUND PIER
+  COMBACONUM                              COMPRADOR
+  COMBE, ANDREW                           COMPRESSION
+  COMBE, GEORGE                           COMPROMISE
+  COMBE, WILLIAM                          COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850
+  COMBE (closed-in valley)                COMPSA
+  COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON            COMPTON, HENRY
+  COMBES, ÉMILE                           COMPTROLLER
+  COMBINATION                             COMPURGATION
+  COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS                  COMTE, AUGUSTE
+  COMBUSTION                              COMUS
+  COMEDY                                  COMYN, JOHN
+  COMENIUS, JOHANN AMOS                   CONACRE
+  COMET                                   CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON
+  COMET-SEEKER                            CONATION
+  COMILLA                                 CONCA, SEBASTIANO
+  COMINES                                 CONCARNEAU
+  COMITIA                                 CONCEPCIÓN (province of Chile)
+  COMITY                                  CONCEPCIÓN (city of Chile)
+  COMMA                                   CONCEPCIÓN (town of Paraguay)
+  COMMANDEER                              CONCEPT
+  COMMANDER                               CONCEPTUALISM
+  COMMANDERY                              CONCERT
+  COMMANDO                                CONCERTINA
+  COMMEMORATION                           CONCERTO
+  COMMENDATION                            CONCH
+  COMMENTARII                             CONCHOID
+  COMMENTRY                               CONCIERGE
+  COMMERCE (trade)                        CONCINI, CONCINO
+  COMMERCE (card-game)                    CONCLAVE
+  COMMERCIAL COURT                        CONCORD (Massachusetts, U.S.A)
+  COMMERCIAL LAW                          CONCORD (North Carolina, U.S.A.)
+  COMMERCIAL TREATIES                     CONCORD (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)
+  COMMERCY                                CONCORD, BOOK OF
+  COMMERS                                 CONCORDANCE
+  COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE                   CONCORDAT
+  COMMISSARIAT                            CONCORDIA (Roman goddess)
+  COMMISSARY                              CONCORDIA (town of Venetia)
+  COMMISSION                              CONCRETE (solidity)
+  COMMISSIONAIRE                          CONCRETE (building material)
+  COMMISSIONER                            CONCRETION
+  COMMITMENT                              CONCUBINAGE
+  COMMITTEE                               CONDÉ, PRINCES OF
+  COMMODIANUS                             CONDÉ, LOUIS DE BOURBON
+  COMMODORE                               CONDÉ, LOUIS II. DE BOURBON
+  COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS        CONDÉ (villages of France)
+  COMMON LAW                              CONDE, JOSÉ ANTONIO
+  COMMON LODGING-HOUSE                    CONDENSATION OF GASES
+  COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF                   CONDENSER
+  COMMONPLACE                             CONDER, CHARLES
+  COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF                  CONDILLAC, ÉTIENNE BONNOT DE
+  COMMONS                                 CONDITION
+  COMMONWEALTH                            CONDITIONAL FEE
+  COMMUNE                                 CONDITIONAL LIMITATION
+  COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL                       CONDOM
+  COMMUNISM                               CONDOR
+  COMMUTATION                             CONDORCET, CARITAT
+  COMNENUS                                CONDOTTIERE
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Muscogee county, Georgia,
+U.S.A., on the E. bank and at the head of navigation of the
+Chattahoochee river, about 100 m. S.S.W. of Atlanta. Pop. (1890) 17,303;
+(1900) 17,614, of whom 7267 were negroes; (1910, census) 20,554. There
+is also a considerable suburban population. Columbus is served by the
+Southern, the Central of Georgia, and the Seaboard Air Line railways,
+and three steamboat lines afford communication with Apalachicola,
+Florida. The city has a public library. A fall in the river of 115 ft.
+within a mile of the city furnishes a valuable water-power, which has
+been utilized for public and private enterprises. The most important
+industry is the manufacture of cotton goods; there are also cotton
+compresses, iron works, flour and woollen mills, wood-working
+establishments, &c. The value of the city's factory products increased
+from $5,061,485 in 1900 to $7,079,702 in 1905, or 39.9%; of the total
+value in 1905, $2,759,081, or 39%, was the value of the cotton goods
+manufactured. There are many large factories just outside the city
+limits. Columbus was one of the first cities in the United States to
+maintain, at public expense, a system of trade schools. It has a large
+wholesale and retail trade. The city was founded in 1827 and was
+incorporated in 1828. In the latter year Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar
+(1798-1859) established here the Columbus _Independent_, a
+State's-Rights newspaper. For the first twenty years the city's leading
+industry was trade in cotton. As this trade was diverted by the railways
+to Savannah, the water-power was developed and manufactories were
+established. During the Civil War the city ranked next to Richmond in
+the manufacture of supplies for the Confederate army. On the 16th of
+April 1865 it was captured by a Union force under General James Harrison
+Wilson (b. 1837); 1200 Confederates were taken prisoners; large
+quantities of arms and stores were seized, and the principal
+manufactories and much other property were destroyed.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Bartholomew county, Indiana,
+U.S.A., situated on the E. fork of White river, a little S. of the
+centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 6719; (1900) 8130, of whom 313 were
+foreign-born and 224 were of negro descent (1910 census) 8813. In 1900
+the centre of population of the United States was 5 m. S.E. of Columbus.
+The city is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and
+the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and is connected
+with Indianapolis and with Louisville, Ky., by an electric interurban
+line. Columbus is situated in a fine farming region, and has extensive
+tanneries, threshing-machine and traction and automobile engine works,
+structural iron works, tool and machine shops, canneries and furniture
+factories. In 1905 the value of the city's factory product was
+$2,983,160, being 28.4% more than in 1900. The water-supply system and
+electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the city.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Lowndes county, Mississippi,
+U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Tombigbee river, at the head of steam
+navigation, 150. m. S.E. of Memphis, Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 4559; (1900)
+6484 (3366 negroes); (1910) 8988. It is served by the Mobile & Ohio and
+the Southern railways, and by passenger and freight steamboat lines. It
+has cotton and knitting mills, cotton-seed oil factories, machine shops,
+and wagon, stove, plough and fertilizer factories; and is a market and
+jobbing centre for a fertile agricultural region. It has a public
+library, and is the seat of the Mississippi Industrial Institute and
+College (1885) for women, the first state college for women--the
+successor of the Columbus Female Institute (1848)--of Franklin Academy
+(1821), and of the Union Academy (1873) for negroes. The site was first
+settled about 1818; the city was incorporated in 1821, and in 1830 it
+became the county-seat of the newly formed Lowndes county. During the
+Civil War the legislature met here in 1863 and 1865, and in the former
+year Governor Charles Clark (1810-1877) was inaugurated here.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBUS, a city, a port of entry, the capital of Ohio, U.S.A., and the
+county-seat of Franklin county, at the confluence of the Scioto and
+Olentangy rivers, near the geographical centre of the state, 120 m. N.E.
+of Cincinnati, and 138 m. S.S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 88,150;
+(1900) 125,560, of whom 12,328 were foreign-born and 8201 were negroes;
+(1910) 181,511. Columbus is an important railway centre and is served by
+the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, the Pittsburg,
+Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania system), the Baltimore &
+Ohio, the Ohio Central, the Norfolk & Western, the Hocking Valley, and
+the Cleveland, Akron & Columbus (Pennsylvania system) railways, and by
+nine interurban electric lines. It occupies a land area of about 17 sq.
+m., the principal portion being along the east side of the Scioto in the
+midst of an extensive plain. High Street, the principal business
+thoroughfare, is 100 ft. wide, and Broad Street, on which are many of
+the finest residences, is 120 ft. wide, has four rows of trees, a
+roadway for heavy vehicles in the middle, and a driveway for carriages
+on either side.
+
+The principal building is the state capitol (completed in 1857) in a
+square of ten acres at the intersection of High and Broad streets. It is
+built in the simple Doric style, of grey limestone taken from a quarry
+owned by the state, near the city; is 304 ft. long and 184 ft. wide, and
+has a rotunda 158 ft. high, on the walls of which are the original
+painting, by William Henry Powell (1823-1879), of O. H. Perry's victory
+on Lake Erie, and portraits of most of the governors of Ohio. Other
+prominent structures are the U.S. government and the judiciary
+buildings, the latter connected with the capitol by a stone terrace, the
+city hall, the county court house, the union station, the board of
+trade, the soldiers' memorial hall (with a seating capacity of about
+4500), and several office buildings. The city is a favourite
+meeting-place for conventions. Among the state institutions in Columbus
+are the university (see below), the penitentiary, a state hospital for
+the insane, the state school for the blind, and the state institutions
+for the education of the deaf and dumb and for feeble-minded youth. In
+the capitol grounds are monuments to the memory of Ulysses S. Grant,
+Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, William T. Sherman, Philip H.
+Sheridan, Salmon P. Chase, and Edwin M. Stanton, and a beautiful
+memorial arch (with sculpture by H. A. M'Neil) to William McKinley.
+
+The city has several parks, including the Franklin of 90 acres, the
+Goodale of 44 acres, and the Schiller of 24 acres, besides the
+Olentangy, a well-equipped amusement resort on the banks of the river
+from which it is named, the Indianola, another amusement resort, and the
+United States military post and recruiting station, which occupies 80
+acres laid out like a park. The state fair grounds of 115 acres adjoin
+the city, and there is also a beautiful cemetery of 220 acres.
+
+The Ohio State University (non-sectarian and co-educational), opened as
+the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College in 1873, and reorganized
+under its present name in 1878, is 3 m. north of the capitol. It
+includes colleges of arts, philosophy and science, of education (for
+teachers), of engineering, of law, of pharmacy, of agriculture and
+domestic science, and of veterinary medicine. It occupies a campus of
+110 acres, has an adjoining farm of 325 acres, and 18 buildings devoted
+to instruction, 2 dormitories, and a library containing (1906) 67,709
+volumes, besides excellent museums of geology, zoology, botany and
+archaeology and history, the last being owned jointly by the university
+and by the state archaeological and historical society. In 1908 the
+faculty numbered 175, and the students 2277. The institution owed its
+origin to federal land grants; it is maintained by the state, the United
+States, and by small fees paid by the students; tuition is free in all
+colleges except the college of law. The government of the university is
+vested in a board of trustees appointed by the governor of the state for
+a term of seven years. The first president of the institution (from 1873
+to 1881) was the distinguished geologist, Edward Orton (1829-1899), who
+was professor of geology from 1873 to 1899.
+
+Other institutions of learning are the Capital University and
+Evangelical Lutheran Theological Seminary (Theological Seminary opened
+in 1830; college opened as an academy in 1850), with buildings just east
+of the city limits; Starling Ohio Medical College, a law school, a
+dental school and an art institute. Besides the university library,
+there is the Ohio state library occupying a room in the capitol and
+containing in 1908 126,000 volumes, including a "travelling library" of
+about 36,000 volumes, from which various organizations in different
+parts of the state may borrow books; the law library of the supreme
+court of Ohio, containing complete sets of English, Scottish, Irish,
+Canadian, United States and state reports, statutes and digests; the
+public school library of about 68,000 volumes, and the public library
+(of about 55,000), which is housed in a marble and granite building
+completed in 1906.
+
+Columbus is near the Ohio coal and iron-fields, and has an extensive
+trade in coal, but its largest industrial interests are in manufactures,
+among which the more important are foundry and machine-shop products
+(1905 value, $6,259,579); boots and shoes (1905 value, $5,425,087, being
+more than one-sixtieth of the total product value of the boot and shoe
+industry in the United States, and being an increase from $359,000 in
+1890); patent medicines and compounds (1905 value, $3,214,096);
+carriages and wagons (1905 value, $2,197,960); malt liquors (1905 value,
+$2,133,955); iron and steel; regalia and society emblems; steam-railway
+cars, construction and repairing; and oleo-margarine. In 1905 the city's
+factory products were valued at $40,435,531, an increase of 16.4% in
+five years. Immediately outside the city limits in 1905 were various
+large and important manufactories, including railway shops, foundries,
+slaughter-houses, ice factories and brick-yards. In Columbus there is a
+large market for imported horses. Several large quarries also are
+adjacent to the city.
+
+The waterworks are owned by the municipality. In 1904-1905 the city
+built on the Scioto river a concrete storage dam, having a capacity of
+5,000,000,000 gallons, and in 1908 it completed the construction of
+enormous works for filtering and softening the water-supply, and of
+works for purifying the flow of sewage--the two costing nearly
+$5,000,000. The filtering works include 6 lime saturators, 2 mixing or
+softening tanks, 6 settling basins, 10 mechanical filters and 2
+clear-water reservoirs. A large municipal electric-lighting plant was
+completed in 1908.
+
+The first permanent settlement within the present limits of the city was
+established in 1797 on the west bank of the Scioto, was named
+Franklinton, and in 1803 was made the county-seat. In 1810 four citizens
+of Franklinton formed an association to secure the location of the
+capital on the higher ground of the east bank; in 1812 they were
+successful and the place was laid out while still a forest. Four years
+later, when the legislature held its first session here, the settlement
+was incorporated as the Borough of Columbus. In 1824 the county-seat was
+removed here from Franklinton; in 1831 the Columbus branch of the Ohio
+Canal was completed; in 1834 the borough was made a city; by the close
+of the same decade the National Road extending from Wheeling to
+Indianapolis and passing through Columbus was completed; in 1871 most of
+Franklinton, which was never incorporated, was annexed, and several
+other annexations followed.
+
+  See J. H. Studer, _Columbus, Ohio; its History and Resources_
+  (Columbus, 1873); A. E. Lee, _History of the City of Columbus, Ohio_
+  (New York, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS, of Gades, writer on agriculture,
+contemporary of Seneca the philosopher, flourished about the middle of
+the 1st century A.D. His extant works treat, with great fulness and in a
+diffuse but not inelegant style which well represents the silver age, of
+the cultivation of all kinds of corn and garden vegetables, trees,
+flowers, the vine, the olive and other fruits, and of the rearing of
+cattle, birds, fishes and bees. They consist of the twelve books of the
+_De re rustica_ (the tenth, which treats of gardening, being in dactylic
+hexameters in imitation of Virgil), and of a book _De arboribus_, the
+second book of an earlier and less elaborate work on the same subject.
+
+  The best complete edition is by J. G. Schneider (1794). Of a new
+  edition by K. J. Lundström, the tenth book appeared in 1902 and _De
+  arboribus_ in 1897. There are English translations by R. Bradley
+  (1725), and anonymous (1745); and treatises, _De Columellae vita et
+  scriptis_, by V. Barberet (1887), and G. R. Becher (1897), a compact
+  dissertation with notes and references to authorities.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMN (Lat. _columna_), in architecture, a vertical support consisting
+of capital, shaft and base, used to carry a horizontal beam or an arch.
+The earliest example in wood (2684 B.C.) was that found at Kahun in
+Egypt by Professor Flinders Petrie, which was fluted and stood on a
+raised base, and in stone the octagonal shafts of the early temple at
+Deir-el-Bahri (c. 2850). In the tombs at Beni Hasan (2723 B.C.) are
+columns of two kinds, the octagonal or polygonal shaft, and the reed or
+lotus column, the horizontal section of which is a quatrefoil. This
+became later the favourite type, but it was made circular on plan. In
+all these examples the column rests on a stone base. (See also CAPITAL
+and ORDER.)
+
+The column was employed in Assyria in small structures only, such as
+pavilions or porticoes. In Persia the column, employed to carry timber
+superstructures only, was very lofty, being sometimes 12 diameters high;
+the shaft was fluted, the number of flutes varying from 30 to 52.
+
+The earliest example of the Greek column is that represented in the
+temple fresco at Cnossus (c. 1600 B.C.), of which portions have been
+found. The columns were in cypress wood raised on a stone base and
+tapered downwards.[1] The same, though to a less degree, is found in the
+stone semi-detached columns which flank the doorway of the Tomb of
+Agamemnon at Mycenae; the shafts of these columns were carved with the
+chevron design.
+
+The earliest Greek columns in stone as isolated features are those of
+the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse (early 7th century B.C.) the shafts of
+which were monoliths, but as a rule the Greek columns were all built of
+drums, sometimes as many as ten or twelve. There was no base to the
+Doric column, but the shafts were fluted, 20 flutes being the usual
+number. In the Archaic Temple of Diana at Ephesus there were 52 flutes.
+In the later examples of the Ionic order the shaft had 24 flutes. In the
+Roman temples the shafts were very often monoliths.
+
+Columns were occasionally used as supports for figures or other
+features. The Naxian column at Delphi of the Ionic order carried a
+sphinx. The Romans employed columns in various ways: the Trajan and the
+Antonine columns carried figures of the two emperors; the columna
+rostrata (260 B.C.) in the Forum was decorated with the beaks of ships
+and was a votive column, the miliaria column marked the centre of Rome
+from which all distances were measured. In the same way the column in
+the Place Vendôme in Paris carries a statue of Napoleon I.; the monument
+of the Fire of London, a finial with flames sculptured on it; the duke
+of York's column (London), a statue of the duke of York.
+
+With the exception of the Cretan and Mycenaean, all the shafts of the
+classic orders tapered from the bottom upwards, and about one-third up
+the column had an increment, known as the _entasis_, to correct an
+optical illusion which makes tapering shafts look concave; the
+proportions of diameter to height varied with the order employed. Thus,
+broadly speaking, a Roman Doric column will be eight, a Roman Ionic
+nine, a Corinthian ten diameters in height. Except in rare cases, the
+columns of the Romanesque and Gothic styles were of equal diameter at
+top and bottom, and had no definite dimensions as regards diameter and
+height. They were also grouped together round piers which are known as
+clustered piers. When of exceptional size, as in Gloucester and Durham
+cathedrals, Waltham Abbey and Tewkesbury, they are generally called
+"pillars," which was apparently the medieval term for column. The word
+_columna_, employed by Vitruvius, was introduced into England by the
+Italian writers of the Revival.
+
+In the Renaissance period columns were frequently banded, the bands
+being concentric with the column as in France, and occasionally richly
+carved as in Philibert De L'Orme's work at the Tuileries. In England
+Inigo Jones introduced similar features, but with square blocks
+sometimes rusticated, a custom lately revived in England, but of which
+there are few examples either in Italy or Spain.
+
+The word "column" is used, by analogy with architecture, for any upright
+body or mass, in chemistry, anatomy, typography, &c.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The tree-trunk used as a column was inverted to retain the sap;
+    hence the shape.
+
+
+
+
+COLURE (from Gr. [Greek: kolos], shortened, and [Greek: oura], tail), in
+astronomy, either of the two principal meridians of the celestial
+sphere, one of which passes through the poles and the two solstices, the
+other through the poles and the two equinoxes; hence designated as
+_solstitial colure_ and _equinoxial colure_, respectively.
+
+
+
+
+COLUTHUS, or COLLUTHUS, of Lycopolis in the Egyptian Thebaid, Greek epic
+poet, flourished during the reign of Anastasius I. (491-518). According
+to Suidas, he was the author of _Calydoniaca_ (probably an account of
+the Calydonian boar hunt), _Persica_ (an account of the Persian wars),
+and _Encomia_ (laudatory poems). These are all lost, but his poem in
+some 400 hexameters on _The Rape of Helen_ ([Greek: Harpagę Helenęs]) is
+still extant, having been discovered by Cardinal Bessarion in Calabria.
+The poem is dull and tasteless, devoid of imagination, a poor imitation
+of Homer, and has little to recommend it except its harmonious
+versification, based upon the technical rules of Nonnus. It related the
+history of Paris and Helen from the wedding of Peleus and Thetis down to
+the elopement and arrival at Troy.
+
+  The best editions are by Van Lennep (1747), G. F. Schäfer (1825), E.
+  Abel (1880).
+
+
+
+
+COLVILLE, JOHN (c. 1540-1605), Scottish divine and author, was the son
+of Robert Colville of Cleish, in the county of Kinross. Educated at St
+Andrews University, he became a Presbyterian minister, but occupied
+himself chiefly with political intrigue, sending secret information to
+the English government concerning Scottish affairs. He joined the party
+of the earl of Gowrie, and took part in the Raid of Ruthven in 1582. In
+1587 he for a short time occupied a seat on the judicial bench, and was
+commissioner for Stirling in the Scottish parliament. In December 1591
+he was implicated in the earl of Bothwell's attack on Holyrood Palace,
+and was outlawed with the earl. He retired abroad, and is said to have
+joined the Roman Church. He died in Paris in 1605. Colville was the
+author of several works, including an _Oratio Funebris_ on Queen
+Elizabeth, and some political and religious controversial essays. He is
+said to be the author also of _The Historie and Life of King James the
+Sext_ (edited by T. Thompson for the Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh, 1825).
+
+  Colville's _Original Letters_, 1582-1603, published by the Bannatyne
+  Club in 1858, contains a biographical memoir by the editor, David
+  Laing.
+
+
+
+
+COLVIN, JOHN RUSSELL (1807-1857), lieutenant-governor of the North-West
+Provinces of India during the mutiny of 1857, belonged to an
+Anglo-Indian family of Scottish descent, and was born in Calcutta on the
+29th of May 1807. Passing through Haileybury he entered the service of
+the East India Company in 1826. In 1836 he became private secretary to
+Lord Auckland, and his influence over the viceroy has been held partly
+responsible for the first Afghan war of 1837; but it has since been
+shown that Lord Auckland's policy was dictated by the secret committee
+of the company at home. In 1853 Mr Colvin was appointed
+lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces by Lord Dalhousie. On
+the outbreak of the mutiny in 1857 he had with him at Agra only a weak
+British regiment and a native battery, too small a force to make head
+against the mutineers; and a proclamation which he issued to the natives
+was censured at the time for its clemency, but it followed the same
+lines as those adopted by Sir Henry Lawrence and subsequently followed
+by Lord Canning. Exhausted by anxiety and misrepresentation he died on
+the 9th of September, his death shortly preceding the fall of Delhi.
+
+His son, SIR AUCKLAND COLVIN (1838-1908), followed him in a
+distinguished career in the same service, from 1858 to 1879. He was
+comptroller-general in Egypt (1880 to 1882), and financial adviser to
+the khedive (1883 to 1887), and from 1883 till 1892 was back again in
+India, first as financial member of council, and then, from 1887, as
+lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces and Oudh. He was created
+K.C.M.G. in 1881, and K.C.S.I. in 1892, when he retired. He published
+_The Making of Modern Egypt_ in 1906, and a biography of his father, in
+the "Rulers of India" series, in 1895. He died at Surbiton on the 24th
+of March 1908.
+
+
+
+
+COLVIN, SIDNEY (1845-   ), English literary and art critic, was born at
+Norwood, London, on the 18th of June 1845. A scholar of Trinity College,
+Cambridge, he became a fellow of his college in 1868. In 1873 he was
+Slade professor of fine art, and was appointed in the next year to the
+directorship of the Fitzwilliam Museum. In 1884 he removed to London on
+his appointment as keeper of prints and drawings in the British Museum.
+His chief publications are lives of Landor (1881) and Keats (1887), in
+the English Men of Letters series; the Edinburgh edition of R. L.
+Stevenson's works (1894-1897); editions of the letters of Keats (1887),
+and of the _Vailima Letters_ (1899), which R. L. Stevenson chiefly
+addressed to him; _A Florentine Picture-Chronicle_ (1898), and _Early
+History of Engraving in England_ (1905). But in the field both of art
+and of literature, Mr Colvin's fine taste, wide knowledge and high
+ideals made his authority and influence extend far beyond his published
+work.
+
+
+
+
+COLWYN BAY, a watering-place of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on the Irish
+Sea, 40˝ m. from Chester by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. of
+urban district of Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (1901) 8689. Colwyn Bay has
+become a favourite bathing-place, being near to, and cheaper than, the
+fashionable Llandudno, and being a centre for picturesque excursions.
+Near it is Llaneilian village, famous for its "cursing well" (St
+Eilian's, perhaps Aelianus'). The stream Colwyn joins the Gwynnant. The
+name Colwyn is that of lords of Ardudwy; a Lord Colwyn of Ardudwy, in
+the 10th century, is believed to have repaired Harlech castle, and is
+considered the founder of one of the fifteen tribes of North Wales. Nant
+Colwyn is on the road from Carnarvon to Beddgelert, beyond Llyn y gader
+(gadair), "chair pool," and what tourists have fancifully called Pitt's
+head, a roadside rock resembling, or thought to resemble, the great
+statesman's profile. Near this is Llyn y dywarchen (sod pool), with a
+floating island.
+
+
+
+
+COLZA OIL, a non-drying oil obtained from the seeds of _Brassica
+campestris_, var. _oleifera_, a variety of the plant which produces
+Swedish turnips. Colza is extensively cultivated in France, Belgium,
+Holland and Germany; and, especially in the first-named country, the
+expression of the oil is an important industry. In commerce colza is
+classed with rape oil, to which both in source and properties it is very
+closely allied. It is a comparatively inodorous oil of a yellow colour,
+having a specific gravity varying from 0.912 to 0.920. The cake left
+after expression of the oil is a valuable feeding substance for cattle.
+Colza oil is extensively used as a lubricant for machinery, and for
+burning in lamps.
+
+
+
+
+COMA (Gr. [Greek: kôma], from [Greek: koiman], to put to sleep), a deep
+sleep; the term is, however, used in medicine to imply something more
+than its Greek origin denotes, namely, a complete and prolonged loss of
+consciousness from which a patient cannot be roused. There are various
+degrees of coma: in the slighter forms the patient can be partially
+roused only to relapse again into a state of insensibility; in the
+deeper states, the patient cannot be roused at all, and such are met
+with in apoplexy, already described. Coma may arise abruptly in a
+patient who has presented no pre-existent indication of such a state
+occurring. Such a condition is called _primary coma_, and may result
+from the following causes:--(1) concussion, compression or laceration of
+the brain from head injuries, especially fracture of the skull; (2) from
+alcoholic and narcotic poisoning; (3) from cerebral haemorrhage,
+embolism and thrombosis, such being the causes of apoplexy. _Secondary
+coma_ may arise as a complication in the following diseases:--diabetes,
+uraemia, general paralysis, meningitis, cerebral tumour and acute yellow
+atrophy of the liver; in such diseases it is anticipated, for it is a
+frequent cause of the fatal termination. The depth of insensibility to
+stimulus is a measure of the gravity of the symptom; thus the
+conjunctival reflex and even the spinal reflexes may be abolished, the
+only sign of life being the respiration and heart-beat, the muscles of
+the limbs being sometimes perfectly flaccid. A characteristic change in
+the respiration, known as Cheyne-Stokes breathing occurs prior to death
+in some cases; it indicates that the respiratory centre in the medulla
+is becoming exhausted, and is stimulated to action only when the
+venosity of the blood has increased sufficiently to excite it. The
+breathing consequently loses its natural rhythm, and each successive
+breath becomes deeper until a maximum is reached; it then diminishes in
+depth by successive steps until it dies away completely. The condition
+of apnoea, or cessation of breathing, follows, and as soon as the
+venosity of the blood again affords sufficient stimulus, the signs of
+air-hunger commence; this altered rhythm continues until the respiratory
+centre becomes exhausted and death ensues.
+
+_Coma Vigil_ is a state of unconsciousness met with in the algide stage
+of cholera and some other exhausting diseases. The patient's eyes remain
+open, and he may be in a state of low muttering delirium; he is entirely
+insensible to his surroundings, and neither knows nor can indicate his
+wants.
+
+There is a distinct word "coma" (Gr. [Greek: komę], hair), which is used
+in astronomy for the envelope of a comet, and in botany for a tuft.
+
+
+
+
+COMA BERENICES ("BERENICE'S HAIR"), in astronomy, a constellation of the
+northern hemisphere; it was first mentioned by Callimachus, and
+Eratosthenes (3rd century B.C.), but is not included in the 48 asterisms
+of Ptolemy. It is said to have been named by Conon, in order to console
+Berenice, queen of Ptolemy Euergetes, for the loss of a lock of her
+hair, which had been stolen from a temple to Venus. This constellation
+is sometimes, but wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe. The most
+interesting member of this group is _24 Comae_, a fine, wide double
+star, consisting of an orange star of magnitude 5˝, and a blue star,
+magnitude 7.
+
+
+
+
+COMACCHIO, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara, 30 m.
+E.S.E. by road from the town of Ferrara, on the level of the sea, in the
+centre of the lagoon of Valli di Comacchio, just N. of the present mouth
+of the Reno. Pop. (1901) 7944 (town), 10,745 (commune). It is built on
+no less than thirteen different islets, joined by bridges, and its
+industries are the fishery, which belongs to the commune, and the
+salt-works. The seaport of Magnavacca lies 4 m. to the east. Comacchio
+appears as a city in the 6th century, and, owing to its position in the
+centre of the lagoons, was an important fortress. It was included in the
+"donation of Pippin"; it was taken by the Venetians in 854, but
+afterwards came under the government of the archbishops of Ravenna; in
+1299 it came under the dominion of the house of Este. In 1508 it became
+Venetian, but in 1597 was claimed by Clement VIII. as a vacant fief.
+
+
+
+
+COMANA, a city of Cappadocia [frequently called CHRYSE or AUREA, i.e.
+the golden, to distinguish it from Comana in Pontus; mod. _Shahr_],
+celebrated in ancient times as the place where the rites of M[=a]-Enyo,
+a variety of the great west Asian Nature-goddess, were celebrated with
+much solemnity. The service was carried on in a sumptuous temple with
+great magnificence by many thousands of _hieroduli_ (temple-servants).
+To defray expenses, large estates had been set apart, which yielded a
+more than royal revenue. The city, a mere apanage of the temple, was
+governed immediately by the chief priest, who was always a member of the
+reigning Cappadocian family, and took rank next to the king. The number
+of persons engaged in the service of the temple, even in Strabo's time,
+was upwards of 6000, and among these, to judge by the names common on
+local tombstones, were many of Persian race. Under Caracalla, Comana
+became a Roman colony, and it received honours from later emperors down
+to the official recognition of Christianity. The site lies at Shahr, a
+village in the Anti-Taurus on the upper course of the Sarus (Sihun),
+mainly Armenian, but surrounded by new settlements of Avshar Turkomans
+and Circassians. The place has derived importance both in antiquity and
+now from its position at the eastern end of the main pass of the western
+Anti-Taurus range, the Kuru Chai, through which passed the road from
+Caesarea-Mazaca (mod. _Kaisarieh_) to Melitene (Malatia), converted by
+Septimius Severus into the chief military road to the eastern frontier
+of the empire. The extant remains at Shahr include a theatre on the left
+bank of the river, a fine Roman doorway and many inscriptions; but the
+exact site of the great temple has not been satisfactorily identified.
+There are many traces of Severus' road, including a bridge at Kemer, and
+an immense number of milestones, some in their original positions,
+others in cemeteries.
+
+  See P. H. H. Massy in _Geog. Journ._ (Sept. 1905); E. Chantre,
+  _Mission en Cappadocie_ (1898).     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+COMANA (mod. _Gumenek_), an ancient city of Pontus, said to have been
+colonized from Comana in Cappadocia. It stood on the river Iris (Tozanli
+Su or Yeshil Irmak), and from its central position was a favourite
+emporium of Armenian and other merchants. The moon-goddess was
+worshipped in the city with a pomp and ceremony in all respects
+analogous to those employed in the Cappadocian city. The slaves attached
+to the temple alone numbered not less than 6000. St John Chrysostom died
+there on the way to Constantinople from his exile at Cocysus in the
+Anti-Taurus. Remains of Comana are still to be seen near a village
+called Gumenek on the Tozanli Su, 7 m. from Tokat, but they are of the
+slightest description. There is a mound; and a few inscriptions are
+built into a bridge, which here spans the river, carrying the road from
+Niksar to Tokat.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+COMANCHES, a tribe of North American Indians of Shoshonean stock, so
+called by the Spaniards, but known to the French as Padoucas, an
+adaptation of their Sioux name, and among themselves _nimenim_ (people).
+They number some 1400, attached to the Kiowa agency, Oklahoma. When
+first met by Europeans, they occupied the regions between the upper
+waters of the Brazos and Colorado on the one hand, and the Arkansas and
+Missouri on the other. Until their final surrender in 1875 the Comanches
+were the terror of the Mexican and Texan frontiers, and were always
+famed for their bravery. They were brought to nominal submission in 1783
+by the Spanish general Anza, who killed thirty of their chiefs. During
+the 19th century they were always raiding and fighting, but in 1867, to
+the number of 2500, they agreed to go on a reservation. In 1872 a
+portion of the tribe, the Quanhada or Staked Plain Comanches, had again
+to be reduced by military measures.
+
+
+
+
+COMAYAGUA, the capital of the department of Comayagua in central
+Honduras, on the right bank of the river Ulua, and on the interoceanic
+railway from Puerto Cortes to Fonseca Bay. Pop. (1900) about 8000.
+Comayagua occupies part of a fertile valley, enclosed by mountain
+ranges. Under Spanish rule it was a city of considerable size and
+beauty, and in 1827 its inhabitants numbered more than 18,000. A fine
+cathedral, dating from 1715, is the chief monument of its former
+prosperity, for most of the handsome public buildings erected in the
+colonial period have fallen into disrepair. The present city chiefly
+consists of low adobe houses and cane huts, tenanted by Indians. The
+university founded in 1678 has ceased to exist, but there is a school of
+jurisprudence. In the neighbourhood are many ancient Indian ruins (see
+CENTRAL AMERICA: _ARCHAEOLOGY_).
+
+Founded in 1540 by Alonzo Caceres, who had been instructed by the
+Spanish government to find a site for a city midway between the two
+oceans, Valladolid la Nueva, as the town was first named, soon became
+the capital of Honduras. It received the privileges of a city in 1557,
+and was made an episcopal see in 1561. Its decline dates from 1827, when
+it was burned by revolutionaries; and in 1854 its population had
+dwindled to 2000. It afterwards suffered through war and rebellion,
+notably in 1872 and 1873, when it was besieged by the Guatemalans. In
+1880 Tegucigalpa (q.v.), a city 37 m. east-south-east, superseded it as
+the capital of Honduras.
+
+
+
+
+COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger.
+_Kamm_, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in [Greek: gomphos], a
+peg or pin, and Sanskrit, _gambhas_, a tooth), a toothed article of the
+toilet used for cleaning and arranging the hair, and also for holding it
+in place after it has been arranged; the word is also applied, from
+resemblance in form or in use, to various appliances employed for
+dressing wool and other fibrous substances, to the indented fleshy crest
+of a cock, and to the ridged series of cells of wax filled with honey in
+a beehive. Hair combs are of great antiquity, and specimens made of
+wood, bone and horn have been found in Swiss lake-dwellings. Among the
+Greeks and Romans they were made of boxwood, and in Egypt also of ivory.
+For modern combs the same materials are used, together with others such
+as tortoise-shell, metal, india-rubber and celluloid. There are two
+chief methods of manufacture. A plate of the selected material is taken
+of the size and thickness required for the comb, and on one side of it,
+occasionally on both sides, a series of fine slits are cut with a
+circular saw. This method involves the loss of the material cut out
+between the teeth. The second method, known as "twinning" or "parting,"
+avoids this loss and is also more rapid. The plate of material is rather
+wider than before, and is formed into two combs simultaneously, by the
+aid of a twinning machine. Two pairs of chisels, the cutting edges of
+which are as long as the teeth are required to be and are set at an
+angle converging towards the sides of the plate, are brought down
+alternately in such a way that the wedges removed from one comb form the
+teeth of the other, and that when the cutting is complete the plate
+presents the appearance of two combs with their teeth exactly
+inosculating or dovetailing into each other. In india-rubber combs the
+teeth are moulded to shape and the whole hardened by vulcanization.
+
+
+
+
+COMBACONUM, or KUMBAKONAM, a city of British India, in the Tanjore
+district of Madras, in the delta of the Cauvery, on the South Indian
+railway, 194 m. from Madras. Pop. (1901) 59,623, showing an increase of
+10% in the decade. It is a large town with wide and airy streets, and is
+adorned with pagodas, gateways and other buildings of considerable
+pretension. The great _gopuram_, or gate-pyramid, is one of the most
+imposing buildings of the kind, rising in twelve stories to a height of
+upwards of 100 ft., and ornamented with a profusion of figures of men
+and animals formed in stucco. One of the water-tanks in the town is
+popularly reputed to be filled with water admitted from the Ganges every
+twelve years by a subterranean passage 1200 m. long; and it consequently
+forms a centre of attraction for large numbers of devotees. The city is
+historically interesting as the capital of the Chola race, one of the
+oldest Hindu dynasties of which any traces remain, and from which the
+whole coast of Coromandel, or more properly Cholamandal, derives its
+name. It contains a government college. Brass and other metal wares,
+silk and cotton cloth and sugar are among the manufactures.
+
+
+
+
+COMBE, ANDREW (1797-1847), Scottish physiologist, was born in Edinburgh
+on the 27th of October 1797, and was a younger brother of George Combe.
+He served an apprenticeship in a surgery, and in 1817 passed at
+Surgeons' Hall. He proceeded to Paris to complete his medical studies,
+and whilst there he investigated phrenology on anatomical principles. He
+became convinced of the truth of the new science, and, as he acquired
+much skill in the dissection of the brain, he subsequently gave
+additional interest to the lectures of his brother George, by his
+practical demonstrations of the convolutions. He returned to Edinburgh
+in 1819 with the intention of beginning practice; but being attacked by
+the first symptoms of pulmonary disease, he was obliged to seek health
+in the south of France and in Italy during the two following winters. He
+began to practise in 1823, and by careful adherence to the laws of
+health he was enabled to fulfil the duties of his profession for nine
+years. During that period he assisted in editing the _Phrenological
+Journal_ and contributed a number of articles to it, defended phrenology
+before the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, published his
+_Observations on Mental Derangement_ (1831), and prepared the greater
+portion of his _Principles of Physiology Applied to Health and
+Education_, which was issued in 1834, and immediately obtained extensive
+public favour. In 1836 he was appointed physician to Leopold I., king of
+the Belgians, and removed to Brussels, but he speedily found the climate
+unsuitable and returned to Edinburgh, where he resumed his practice. In
+1836 he published his _Physiology of Digestion_, and in 1838 he was
+appointed one of the physicians extraordinary to the queen in Scotland.
+Two years later he completed his _Physiological and Moral Management of
+Infancy_, which he believed to be his best work and it was his last. His
+latter years were mostly occupied in seeking at various health resorts
+some alleviation of his disease; he spent two winters in Madeira, and
+tried a voyage to the United States, but was compelled to return within
+a few weeks of the date of his landing at New York. He died at Gorgie,
+near Edinburgh, on the 9th of August 1847.
+
+  His biography, written by George Combe, was published in 1850.
+
+
+
+
+COMBE, GEORGE (1788-1858), Scottish phrenologist, elder brother of the
+above, was born in Edinburgh on the 21st of October 1788. After
+attending Edinburgh high school and university he entered a lawyer's
+office in 1804, and in 1812 began to practise on his own account. In
+1815 the _Edinburgh Review_ contained an article on the system of
+"craniology" of F. J. Gall and K. Spurzheim, which was denounced as "a
+piece of thorough quackery from beginning to end." Combe laughed like
+others at the absurdities of this so-called new theory of the brain, and
+thought that it must be finally exploded after such an exposure; and
+when Spurzheim delivered lectures in Edinburgh, in refutation of the
+statements of his critic, Combe considered the subject unworthy of
+serious attention. He was, however, invited to a friend's house where he
+saw Spurzheim dissect the brain, and he was so far impressed by the
+demonstration that he attended the second course of lectures.
+Investigating the subject for himself, he became satisfied that the
+fundamental principles of phrenology were true--namely "that the brain
+is the organ of mind; that the brain is an aggregate of several parts,
+each subserving a distinct mental faculty; and that the size of the
+cerebral organ is, _caeteris paribus_, an index of power or energy of
+function." In 1817 his first essay on phrenology was published in the
+_Scots Magazine_; and a series of papers on the same subject appeared
+soon afterwards in the _Literary and Statistical Magazine_; these were
+collected and published in 1819 in book form as _Essays on Phrenology_,
+which in later editions became _A System of Phrenology_. In 1820 he
+helped to found the Phrenological Society, which in 1823 began to
+publish a _Phrenological Journal_. By his lectures and writings he
+attracted public attention to the subject on the continent of Europe and
+in America, as well as at home; and a long discussion with Sir William
+Hamilton in 1827-1828 excited general interest.
+
+His most popular work, _The Constitution of Man_, was published in 1828,
+and in some quarters brought upon him denunciations as a materialist and
+atheist. From that time he saw everything by the light of phrenology. He
+gave time, labour and money to help forward the education of the poorer
+classes; he established the first infant school in Edinburgh; and he
+originated a series of evening lectures on chemistry, physiology,
+history and moral philosophy. He studied the criminal classes, and tried
+to solve the problem how to reform as well as to punish them; and he
+strove to introduce into lunatic asylums a humane system of treatment.
+In 1836 he offered himself as a candidate for the chair of logic at
+Edinburgh, but was rejected in favour of Sir William Hamilton. In 1838
+he visited America and spent about two years lecturing on phrenology,
+education and the treatment of the criminal classes. On his return in
+1840 he published his _Moral Philosophy_, and in the following year his
+_Notes on the United States of North America_. In 1842 he delivered, in
+German, a course of twenty-two lectures on phrenology in the university
+of Heidelberg, and he travelled much in Europe, inquiring into the
+management of schools, prisons and asylums. The commercial crisis of
+1855 elicited his remarkable pamphlet on _The Currency Question_ (1858).
+The culmination of the religious thought and experience of his life is
+contained in his work _On the Relation between Science and Religion_,
+first publicly issued in 1857. He was engaged in revising the ninth
+edition of the _Constitution of Man_ when he died at Moor Park, Farnham,
+on the 14th of August 1858. He married in 1833 Cecilia Siddons, a
+daughter of the great actress.
+
+
+
+
+COMBE, WILLIAM (1741-1823), English writer, the creator of "Dr Syntax,"
+was born at Bristol in 1741. The circumstances of his birth and
+parentage are somewhat doubtful, and it is questioned whether his father
+was a rich Bristol merchant, or a certain William Alexander, a London
+alderman, who died in 1762. He was educated at Eton, where he was
+contemporary with Charles James Fox, the 2nd Baron Lyttelton and William
+Beckford. Alexander bequeathed him some Ł2000--a little fortune that
+soon disappeared in a course of splendid extravagance, which gained him
+the nickname of Count Combe; and after a chequered career as private
+soldier, cook and waiter, he finally settled in London (about 1771), as
+a law student and bookseller's hack. In 1776 he made his first success
+in London with _The Diaboliad_, a satire full of bitter personalities.
+Four years afterwards (1780) his debts brought him into the King's
+Bench; and much of his subsequent life was spent in prison. His spurious
+_Letters of the Late Lord Lyttelton_[1] (1780) imposed on many of his
+contemporaries, and a writer in the _Quarterly Review_, so late as 1851,
+regarded these letters as authentic, basing upon them a claim that
+Lyttelton was "Junius." An early acquaintance with Lawrence Sterne
+resulted in his _Letters supposed to have been written by Yorick and
+Eliza_ (1779). Periodical literature of all sorts--pamphlets, satires,
+burlesques, "two thousand columns for the papers," "two hundred
+biographies"--filled up the next years, and about 1789 Combe was
+receiving Ł200 yearly from Pitt, as a pamphleteer. Six volumes of a
+_Devil on Two Sticks in England_ won for him the title of "the English
+le Sage"; in 1794-1796 he wrote the text for Boydell's _History of the
+River Thames_; in 1803 he began to write for _The Times_. In 1809-1811
+he wrote for Ackermann's _Political Magazine_ the famous _Tour of Dr
+Syntax in search of the Picturesque_ (descriptive and moralizing verse
+of a somewhat doggerel type), which, owing greatly to Thomas
+Rowlandson's designs, had an immense success. It was published
+separately in 1812 and was followed by two similar _Tours_, "in search
+of Consolation," and "in search of a Wife," the first Mrs Syntax having
+died at the end of the first _Tour_. Then came _Six Poems_ in
+illustration of drawings by Princess Elizabeth (1813), _The English
+Dance of Death_ (1815-1816), _The Dance of Life_ (1816-1817), _The
+Adventures of Johnny Quae Genus_ (1822)--all written for Rowlandson's
+caricatures; together with _Histories_ of Oxford and Cambridge, and of
+Westminster Abbey for Ackermann; _Picturesque Tours_ along the Rhine and
+other rivers, _Histories of Madeira_, _Antiquities of York_, texts for
+_Turner's Southern Coast Views_, and contributions innumerable to the
+_Literary Repository_. In his later years, notwithstanding a by no means
+unsullied character, Combe was courted for the sake of his charming
+conversation and inexhaustible stock of anecdote. He died in London on
+the 19th of June 1823.
+
+  Brief obituary memoirs of Combe appeared in Ackermann's _Literary
+  Repository_ and in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for August 1823; and in
+  May 1859 a list of his works, drawn up by his own hand, was printed in
+  the latter periodical. See also _Diary of H. Crabb Robinson_, _Notes
+  and Queries for 1869_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Thomas, 2nd Baron Lyttelton (1744-1779), commonly known as the
+    "wicked Lord Lyttelton," was famous for his abilities and his
+    libertinism, also for the mystery attached to his death, of which it
+    was alleged he was warned in a dream three days before the event.
+
+
+
+
+COMBE, or COOMB, a term particularly in use in south-western England for
+a short closed-in valley, either on the side of a down or running up
+from the sea. It appears in place-names as a termination, e.g.
+Wiveliscombe, Ilfracombe, and as a prefix, e.g. Combemartin. The
+etymology of the word is obscure, but "hollow" seems a common meaning to
+similar forms in many languages. In English "combe" or "cumb" is an
+obsolete word for a "hollow vessel," and the like meaning attached to
+Teutonic forms _kumm_ and _kumme_. The Welsh _cwm_, in place-names,
+means hollow or valley, with which may be compared _cum_ in many Scots
+place-names. The Greek [Greek: kumbę] also means a hollow vessel, and
+there is a French dialect word _combe_ meaning a little valley.
+
+
+
+
+COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON, 1ST VISCOUNT (1773-1865), British
+field-marshal and colonel of the 1st Life Guards, was the second son of
+Sir Robert Salusbury Cotton of Combermere Abbey, Cheshire, and was born
+on the 14th of November 1773, at Llewenny Hall in Denbighshire. He was
+educated at Westminster School, and when only sixteen obtained a second
+lieutenancy in the 23rd regiment (Royal Welsh Fusiliers). A few years
+afterwards (1793) he became by purchase captain in the 6th Dragoon
+Guards, and he served in this regiment during the campaigns of the duke
+of York in Flanders. While yet in his twentieth year, he joined the 25th
+Light Dragoons (subsequently 22nd) as lieutenant-colonel, and, while in
+attendance with his regiment on George III. at Weymouth, he became a
+great favourite of the king. In 1796 he went with his regiment to India,
+taking part _en route_ in the operations in Cape Colony (July-August
+1796), and in 1799 served in the war with Tippoo Sahib, and at the
+storming of Seringapatam. Soon after this, having become heir to the
+family baronetcy, he was, at his father's desire, exchanged into a
+regiment at home, the 16th Light Dragoons. He was stationed in Ireland
+during Emmett's insurrection, became colonel in 1800, and major-general
+five years later. From 1806 to 1814 he was M.P. for Newark. In 1808 he
+was sent to the seat of war in Portugal, where he shortly rose to the
+position of commander of Wellington's cavalry, and it was here that he
+most displayed that courage and judgment which won for him his fame as a
+cavalry officer. He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1809, but continued
+his military career. His share in the battle of Salamanca (22nd of July
+1812) was especially marked, and he received the personal thanks of
+Wellington. The day after, he was accidentally wounded. He was now a
+lieutenant-general in the British army and a K.B., and on the conclusion
+of peace (1814) was raised to the peerage under the style of Baron
+Combermere. He was not present at Waterloo, the command, which he
+expected, and bitterly regretted not receiving, having been given to
+Lord Uxbridge. When the latter was wounded Cotton was sent for to take
+over his command, and he remained in France until the reduction of the
+allied army of occupation. In 1817 he was appointed governor of
+Barbadoes and commander of the West Indian forces. From 1822 to 1825 he
+commanded in Ireland. His career of active service was concluded in
+India (1826), where he besieged and took Bhurtpore--a fort which
+twenty-two years previously had defied the genius of Lake and was deemed
+impregnable. For this service he was created Viscount Combermere. A long
+period of peace and honour still remained to him at home. In 1834 he was
+sworn a privy councillor, and in 1852 he succeeded Wellington as
+constable of the Tower and lord lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets. In 1855
+he was made a field-marshal and G.C.B. He died at Clifton on the 21st of
+February 1865. An equestrian statue in bronze, the work of Baron
+Marochetti, was raised in his honour at Chester by the inhabitants of
+Cheshire. Combermere was succeeded by his only son, Wellington Henry
+(1818-1891), and the viscountcy is still held by his descendants.
+
+  See Viscountess Combermere and Captain W. W. Knollys, _The Combermere
+  Correspondence_ (London, 1866).
+
+
+
+
+COMBES, [JUSTIN LOUIS] ÉMILE (1835-   ), French statesman, was born at
+Roquecourbe in the department of the Tarn. He studied for the
+priesthood, but abandoned the idea before ordination, and took the
+diploma of doctor of letters (1860), then he studied medicine, taking
+his degree in 1867, and setting up in practice at Pons in
+Charente-Inférieure. In 1881 he presented himself as a political
+candidate for Saintes, but was defeated. In 1885 he was elected to the
+senate by the department of Charente-Inférieure. He sat in the
+Democratic left, and was elected vice-president in 1893 and 1894. The
+reports which he drew up upon educational questions drew attention to
+him, and on the 3rd of November 1895 he entered the Bourgeois cabinet as
+minister of public instruction, resigning with his colleagues on the
+21st of April following. He actively supported the Waldeck-Rousseau
+ministry, and upon its retirement in 1903 he was himself charged with
+the formation of a cabinet. In this he took the portfolio of the
+Interior, and the main energy of the government was devoted to the
+struggle with clericalism. The parties of the Left in the chamber,
+united upon this question in the _Bloc republicain_, supported Combes in
+his application of the law of 1901 on the religious associations, and
+voted the new bill on the congregations (1904), and under his guidance
+France took the first definite steps toward the separation of church and
+state. He was opposed with extreme violence by all the Conservative
+parties, who regarded the secularization of the schools as a persecution
+of religion. But his stubborn enforcement of the law won him the
+applause of the people, who called him familiarly _le petit pčre_.
+Finally the defection of the Radical and Socialist groups induced him to
+resign on the 17th of January 1905, although he had not met an adverse
+vote in the Chamber. His policy was still carried on; and when the law
+of the separation of church and state was passed, all the leaders of the
+Radical parties entertained him at a noteworthy banquet in which they
+openly recognized him as the real originator of the movement.
+
+
+
+
+COMBINATION (Lat. _combinare_, to combine), a term meaning an
+association or union of persons for the furtherance of a common object,
+historically associated with agreements amongst workmen for the purpose
+of raising their wages. Such a combination was for a long time expressly
+prohibited by statute. See TRADE UNIONS; also CONSPIRACY and STRIKES AND
+LOCK OUTS.
+
+
+
+
+COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS.
+
+
+  Historical Introduction.
+
+The Combinatorial Analysis, as it was understood up to the end of the
+18th century, was of limited scope and restricted application. P.
+Nicholson, in his _Essays on the Combinatorial Analysis_, published in
+1818, states that "the Combinatorial Analysis is a branch of mathematics
+which teaches us to ascertain and exhibit all the possible ways in which
+a given number of things may be associated and mixed together; so that
+we may be certain that we have not missed any collection or arrangement
+of these things that has not been enumerated." Writers on the subject
+seemed to recognize fully that it was in need of cultivation, that it
+was of much service in facilitating algebraical operations of all kinds,
+and that it was the fundamental method of investigation in the theory of
+Probabilities. Some idea of its scope may be gathered from a statement
+of the parts of algebra to which it was commonly applied, viz., the
+expansion of a multinomial, the product of two or more multinomials, the
+quotient of one multinomial by another, the reversion and conversion of
+series, the theory of indeterminate equations, &c. Some of the
+elementary theorems and various particular problems appear in the works
+of the earliest algebraists, but the true pioneer of modern researches
+seems to have been Abraham Demoivre, who first published in _Phil.
+Trans._ (1697) the law of the general coefficient in the expansion of
+the series a + bx + cx˛ + dxł + ... raised to any power. (See also
+_Miscellanea Analytica_, bk. iv. chap. ii. prob. iv.) His work on
+Probabilities would naturally lead him to consider questions of this
+nature. An important work at the time it was published was the _De
+Partitione Numerorum_ of Leonhard Euler, in which the consideration of
+the reciprocal of the product (1 - xz) (1 - x˛z) (1 - xłz) ...
+establishes a fundamental connexion between arithmetic and algebra,
+arithmetical addition being made to depend upon algebraical
+multiplication, and a close bond is secured between the theories of
+discontinuous and continuous quantities. (Cf. Numbers, Partition of.)
+The multiplication of the two powers x^a, x^b, viz. x^a + x^b = x^(a+b),
+showed Euler that he could convert arithmetical addition into
+algebraical multiplication, and in the paper referred to he gives the
+complete formal solution of the main problems of the partition of
+numbers. He did not obtain general expressions for the coefficients
+which arose in the expansion of his generating functions, but he gave
+the actual values to a high order of the coefficients which arise from
+the generating functions corresponding to various conditions of
+partitionment. Other writers who have contributed to the solution of
+special problems are James Bernoulli, Ruggiero Guiseppe Boscovich, Karl
+Friedrich Hindenburg (1741-1808), William Emerson (1701-1782), Robert
+Woodhouse (1773-1827), Thomas Simpson and Peter Barlow. Problems of
+combination were generally undertaken as they became necessary for the
+advancement of some particular part of mathematical science: it was not
+recognized that the theory of combinations is in reality a science by
+itself, well worth studying for its own sake irrespective of
+applications to other parts of analysis. There was a total absence of
+orderly development, and until the first third of the 19th century had
+passed, Euler's classical paper remained alike the chief result and the
+only scientific method of combinatorial analysis.
+
+In 1846 Karl G. J. Jacobi studied the partitions of numbers by means of
+certain identities involving infinite series that are met with in the
+theory of elliptic functions. The method employed is essentially that of
+Euler. Interest in England was aroused, in the first instance, by
+Augustus De Morgan in 1846, who, in a letter to Henry Warburton,
+suggested that combinatorial analysis stood in great need of
+development, and alluded to the theory of partitions. Warburton, to some
+extent under the guidance of De Morgan, prosecuted researches by the aid
+of a new instrument, viz. the theory of finite differences. This was a
+distinct advance, and he was able to obtain expressions for the
+coefficients in partition series in some of the simplest cases (_Trans.
+Camb. Phil. Soc._, 1849). This paper inspired a valuable paper by Sir
+John Herschel (_Phil. Trans._ 1850), who, by introducing the idea and
+notation of the circulating function, was able to present results in
+advance of those of Warburton. The new idea involved a calculus of the
+imaginary roots of unity. Shortly afterwards, in 1855, the subject was
+attacked simultaneously by Arthur Cayley and James Joseph Sylvester, and
+their combined efforts resulted in the practical solution of the problem
+that we have to-day. The former added the idea of the prime circulator,
+and the latter applied Cauchy's theory of residues to the subject, and
+invented the arithmetical entity termed a denumerant. The next distinct
+advance was made by Sylvester, Fabian Franklin, William Pitt Durfee and
+others, about the year 1882 (_Amer. Journ. Math._ vol. v.) by the
+employment of a graphical method. The results obtained were not only
+valuable in themselves, but also threw considerable light upon the
+theory of algebraic series. So far it will be seen that researches had
+for their object the discussion of the partition of numbers. Other
+branches of combinatorial analysis were, from any general point of view,
+absolutely neglected. In 1888 P. A. MacMahon investigated the general
+problem of distribution, of which the partition of a number is a
+particular case. He introduced the method of symmetric functions and the
+method of differential operators, applying both methods to the two
+important subdivisions, the theory of composition and the theory of
+partition. He introduced the notion of the separation of a partition,
+and extended all the results so as to include multipartite as well as
+unipartite numbers. He showed how to introduce zero and negative
+numbers, unipartite and multipartite, into the general theory; he
+extended Sylvester's graphical method to three dimensions; and finally,
+1898, he invented the "Partition Analysis" and applied it to the
+solution of novel questions in arithmetic and algebra. An important
+paper by G. B. Mathews, which reduces the problem of compound partition
+to that of simple partition, should also be noticed. This is the problem
+which was known to Euler and his contemporaries as "The Problem of the
+Virgins," or "the Rule of Ceres"; it is only now, nearly 200 years
+later, that it has been solved.
+
+
+  Fundamental problem.
+
+The most important problem of combinatorial analysis is connected with
+the distribution of objects into classes. A number n may be regarded as
+enumerating n similar objects; it is then said to be unipartite. On the
+other hand, if the objects be not all similar they cannot be effectively
+enumerated by a single integer; we require a succession of integers. If
+the objects be p in number of one kind, q of a second kind, r of a
+third, &c., the enumeration is given by the succession pqr... which is
+termed a multipartite number, and written,
+
+  ______
+  pqr...,
+
+where p + q + r + ... = n. If the order of magnitude of the numbers p,
+q, r, ... is immaterial, it is usual to write them in descending order
+of magnitude, and the succession may then be termed a partition of the
+number n, and is written (pqr...). The succession of integers thus has a
+twofold signification: (i.) as a multipartite number it may enumerate
+objects of different kinds; (ii.) it may be viewed as a partitionment
+into separate parts of a unipartite number. We may say either that the
+objects are represented by the multipartite number
+
+  ______
+  pqr...,
+
+or that they are defined by the partition (pqr...) of the unipartite
+number n. Similarly the classes into which they are distributed may be m
+in number all similar; or they may be p1 of one kind, q1 of a second, r1
+of a third, &c., where p1 + q1 + r1 + ... = m. We may thus denote the
+classes either by the multipartite numbers
+
+  _________
+  p1q1r1...,
+
+or by the partition (p1q1r1...) of the unipartite number m. The
+distributions to be considered are such that any number of objects may
+be in any one class subject to the restriction that no class is empty.
+Two cases arise. If the order of the objects in a particular class is
+immaterial, the class is termed a _parcel_; if the order is material,
+the class is termed a _group_. The distribution into parcels is alone
+considered here, and the main problem is the enumeration of the
+distributions of objects defined by the partition (pqr...) of the number
+n into parcels defined by the partition (p1q1r1...) of the number m.
+(See "Symmetric Functions and the Theory of Distributions," _Proc.
+London Mathematical Society_, vol. xix.) Three particular cases are of
+great importance. Case I. is the "one-to-one distribution," in which the
+number of parcels is equal to the number of objects, and one object is
+distributed in each parcel. Case II. is that in which the parcels are
+all different, being defined by the partition (1111...), conveniently
+written (1^m); this is the theory of the compositions of unipartite and
+multipartite numbers. Case III. is that in which the parcels are all
+similar, being defined by the partition (m); this is the theory of the
+partitions of unipartite and multipartite numbers. Previous to
+discussing these in detail, it is necessary to describe the method of
+symmetric functions which will be largely utilized.
+
+
+  The distribution function.
+
+Let [alpha], [beta], [gamma], ... be the roots of the equation
+
+  x^n - a1x^(n-1) + a2x^(n-2) - ... = 0.
+
+The symmetric function [Sigma][alpha]^p[beta]^q[gamma]^r..., where p
++ q + r + ... = n is, in the partition notation, written (pqr...). Let
+
+  A_[(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)]
+
+denote the number of ways of distributing the n objects defined by the
+partition (pqr...) into the m parcels defined by the partition
+(p1q1r1...). The expression
+
+  [Sigma]A_[(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)]ˇ(pqr...),
+
+where the numbers p1, q1, r1 ... are fixed and assumed to be in
+descending order of magnitude, the summation being for every partition
+(pqr...) of the number n, is defined to be the distribution function of
+the objects defined by (pqr...) into the parcels defined by (p1q1r1...).
+It gives a complete enumeration of n objects of whatever species into
+parcels of the given species.
+
+
+  Case I.
+
+1. _One-to-One Distribution. Parcels m in number (i.e. m = n)._--Let hs
+be the homogeneous product-sum of degree s of the quantities [alpha],
+[beta], [gamma], ... so that
+
+  (1 - [alpha]x. 1 - [beta]x. 1 - [gamma]x. ...)^-1 =
+         1 + h1x + h2x˛ + h3xł + ...
+
+      h1 = [Sigma][alpha] = (1)
+      h2 = [Sigma][alpha]˛ + [Sigma][alpha][beta] = (2) + (1˛)
+      h3 = [Sigma][alpha]ł + [Sigma][alpha]˛[beta] +
+              [Sigma][alpha][beta][gamma] = (3) + (21) + (1ł).
+
+Form the product h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1)...
+
+Any term in h_(p1) may be regarded as derived from p1 objects distributed
+into p1 similar parcels, one object in each parcel, since the order of
+occurrence of the letters [alpha], [beta], [gamma], ... in any term is
+immaterial. Moreover, every selection of p1 letters from the letters in
+[alpha]^p[beta]^q[gamma]^r ... will occur in some term of h_(p1), every
+further selection of q1 letters will occur in some term of h_(q1), and so
+on. Therefore in the product h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1) ... the term
+[alpha]^p[beta]^q[gamma]^r ..., and therefore also the symmetric function
+(pqr ...), will occur as many times as it is possible to distribute
+objects defined by (pqr ...) into parcels defined by (p1q1r1 ...) one
+object in each parcel. Hence
+
+  [Sigma]A_[(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)]ˇ(pqr ...) = h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1)....
+
+This theorem is of algebraic importance; for consider the simple
+particular case of the distribution of objects (43) into parcels (52),
+and represent objects and parcels by small and capital letters
+respectively. One distribution is shown by the scheme
+
+  A A A A A B B
+  a a a a b b b
+
+wherein an object denoted by a small letter is placed in a parcel
+denoted by the capital letter immediately above it. We may interchange
+small and capital letters and derive from it a distribution of objects
+(52) into parcels (43); viz.:--
+
+  A A A A B B B
+  a a a a a b b.
+
+The process is clearly of general application, and establishes a
+one-to-one correspondence between the distribution of objects (pqr ...)
+into parcels (p1q1r1 ...) and the distribution of objects (p1q1r1 ...)
+into parcels (pqr ...). It is in fact, in Case I., an intuitive
+observation that we may either consider an object placed in or attached
+to a parcel, or a parcel placed in or attached to an object.
+Analytically we have
+
+_Theorem._--"The coefficient of symmetric function (pqr ...) in the
+development of the product h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1) ... is equal to the
+coefficient of symmetric function (p1q1r1 ...) in the development of the
+product h_pˇh_qˇh_r...."
+
+The problem of Case I. may be considered when the distributions are
+subject to various restrictions. If the restriction be to the effect
+that an aggregate of similar parcels is not to contain more than one
+object of a kind, we have clearly to deal with the elementary symmetric
+functions a1, a2, a3, ... or (1), (1˛), (1ł), ... in lieu of the
+quantities h1, h2, h3, ... The distribution function has then the value
+a_(p1)a_(q1)a_(r1)... or (1^p1) (1^q1) (1^r1) ..., and by interchange of
+object and parcel we arrive at the well-known theorem of symmetry in
+symmetric functions, which states that the coefficient of symmetric
+function (pqr ...) in the development of the product ap1aq1ar1 ... in
+a series of monomial symmetric functions, is equal to the coefficient of
+the function (p1q1r1 ...) in the similar development of the product
+a_pˇa_qˇa_r....
+
+The general result of Case I. may be further analysed with important
+consequences.
+
+  Write    X1 = (1)x1,
+           X2 = (2)x2 + (1˛)x1˛,
+           X3 = (3)x3 + (21)x2x1 + (1ł){x1}ł
+
+       .       .       .       .       .
+
+  and generally
+
+           X_s = [Sigma]([lambda][mu][nu] ...)x_[lambda]x_[mu]x_[nu] ...
+
+the summation being in regard to every partition of s. Consider the
+result of the multiplication--
+
+  X_p1 X_q1 X_r1 ... =
+          [Sigma]P(x_s1)^[sigma]1 (x_s2)^[sigma]2 (x_s3)^[sigma]3 ...
+
+To determine the nature of the symmetric function P a few definitions
+are necessary.
+
+_Definition I._--Of a number n take any partition
+([lambda]1[lambda]2[lambda]3 ... [lambda]s) and separate it into
+component partitions thus:--
+
+  ([lambda]1[lambda]2) ([lambda]3[lambda]4[lambda]5) ([lambda]6) ...
+
+in any manner. This may be termed a _separation_ of the partition, the
+numbers occurring in the separation being identical with those which
+occur in the partition. In the theory of symmetric functions the
+separation denotes the product of symmetric functions--
+
+  [Sigma] [alpha]^[lambda]1 [beta]^[lambda]2 [Sigma][alpha]^[lambda]3
+      [beta]^[lambda]4 [gamma]^[lambda]5 [Sigma][alpha]^[lambda]6 ...
+
+The portions ([lambda]1[lambda]2), ([lambda]3[lambda]4[lambda]5),
+([lambda]6)... are termed _separates_, and if [lambda]1 + [lambda]2 =
+p1, [lambda]3 + [lambda]4 + [lambda]5 = q1, [lambda]6 = r1... be in
+descending order of magnitude, the usual arrangement, the separation is
+said to have a _species_ denoted by the partition (p1q1r1...) of the
+number n.
+
+_Definition II._--If in any distribution of n objects into n parcels
+(one object in each parcel), we write down a number [xi], whenever we
+observe [xi] similar objects in similar parcels we will obtain a
+succession of numbers [xi]1, [xi]2, [xi]3, ..., where ([xi]1, [xi]2,
+[xi]3 ...) is some partition of n. The distribution is then said to have
+a _specification_ denoted by the partition ([xi]1[xi]2[xi]3...).
+
+Now it is clear that P consists of an aggregate of terms, each of which,
+to a numerical factor _prčs_, is a separation of the partition
+
+  ( s1^{[sigma]1} s2^{[sigma]2} s3^{[sigma]3} ...)
+
+of species (p1q1r1...). Further, P is the distribution function of
+objects into parcels denoted by (p1q1r1...), subject to the restriction
+that the distributions have each of them the specification denoted by
+the partition
+
+  ( s1^{[sigma]1} s2^{[sigma]2} s3^{[sigma]3} ...).
+
+Employing a more general notation we may write
+
+  X_p1^[pi]1 X_p2^[pi]2 X_p3^[pi]3 ... =
+         [Sigma]P x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ...
+
+and then P is the distribution function of objects into parcels
+
+  (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...),
+
+the distributions being such as to have the specification
+
+  (s1^[sigma]1 s2^[sigma]2 s3^[sigma]3 ...),
+
+Multiplying out P so as to exhibit it as a sum of monomials, we get a
+result--
+
+  X_p1^[pi]1 X_p2^[pi]2 X_p3^[pi]3 ... =
+      [Sigma][Sigma][theta] ([lambda]1^l1 [lambda]2^l2 [lambda]3^l3)
+        x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ...
+
+indicating that for distributions of specification
+
+  (s1^[sigma]1 s2^[sigma]2 s3^[sigma]3 ...)
+
+there are [theta] ways of distributing n objects denoted by
+
+  ([lambda]1^l1 [lambda]2^l2 [lambda]3^l3 ...)
+
+amongst n parcels denoted by
+
+  (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...),
+
+one object in each parcel. Now observe that as before we may interchange
+parcel and object, and that this operation leaves the specification of
+the distribution unchanged. Hence the number of distributions must be
+the same, and if
+
+  X_p1^[pi]1 X_p2^[pi]2 X_p3^[pi]3 ... =
+      = ... + [theta]([lambda]1^l1 [lambda]2^l2 [lambda]3^l3)
+                x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ... + ...
+
+then also
+
+    X_[lambda]1^l1 X_[lambda]2^l2 X_[lambda]3^l3 ... =
+       = ... + [theta](p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3)
+                x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ... + ...
+
+This extensive theorem of algebraic reciprocity includes many known
+theorems of symmetry in the theory of Symmetric Functions.
+
+The whole of the theory has been extended to include symmetric functions
+symbolized by partitions which contain as well zero and negative parts.
+
+
+  Case II.
+
+2. _The Compositions of Multipartite Numbers. Parcels denoted by
+(I^m)._--There are here no similarities between the parcels.
+
+  Let ([pi]1 [pi]2 [pi]3) be a partition of m.
+
+      (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3) a partition of n.
+
+Of the whole number of distributions of the n objects, there will be a
+certain number such that n1 parcels each contain p1 objects, and in
+general [pi]s parcels each contain ps objects, where s = 1, 2, 3, ...
+Consider the product h_p1^[pi]1 h_p2^[pi]2 h_p3^[pi]3 ... which can be
+permuted in m! / ([pi]1![pi]2![pi]3! ...) ways. For each of these ways
+h_p1^[pi]1 h_p2^[pi]2 h_p3^[pi]3 ... will be a distribution function for
+distributions of the specified type. Hence, regarding all the
+permutations, the distribution function is
+
+              m!
+  ------------------------ h_p1^[pi]1  h_p2^[pi]2  h_p3^[pi]3 ...
+  [pi]1! [pi]2! [pi]3! ...
+
+and regarding, as well, all the partitions of n into exactly m parts,
+the desired distribution function is
+
+                     m!
+ [Sigma] ------------------------ h_p1^[pi]1  h_p2^[pi]2  h_p3^[pi]3 ...
+         [pi]1! [pi]2! [pi]3! ...
+                                 [ [Sigma]_[pi] = ([Sigma]_[pi])p = n ],
+
+that is, it is the coefficient of x^n in (h1x + h2x˛ + h3xł + ... )^m.
+The value of A_{(p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...), (1^m)} is the
+coefficient of (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...)x^n in the development of
+the above expression, and is easily shown to have the value
+
+          /p1 + m - 1\^[pi]1  /p2 + m - 1\^[pi]2  /p3 + m - 1\^[pi]3
+          \    p1    /        \    p2    /        \    p3    /      ...
+
+  -  /m\  /p1 + m - 2\^[pi]1  /p2 + m - 2\^[pi]2  /p3 + m - 2\^[pi]3
+     \1/  \    p1    /        \    p2    /        \    p3    /      ...
+
+  -  /m\  /p1 + m - 3\^[pi]1  /p2 + m - 3\^[pi]2  /p3 + m - 3\^[pi]3
+     \1/  \    p1    /        \    p2    /        \    p3    /      ...
+
+  - ... to m terms.
+
+Observe that when p1 = p2 = p3 = ... = [pi]1 = [pi]1 = [pi]1 ... = 1
+this expression reduces to the mth divided differences of 0^n. The
+expression gives the compositions of the multipartite number
+  ______________________________
+  p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...
+
+into m parts. Summing the distribution function from m = 1 to w = [oo]
+and putting x = 1, as we may without detriment, we find that the
+totality of the compositions is given by
+
+    h1 + h2 + h3 + ...
+  ----------------------  which may be given the form
+  1 - h1 - h2 - h3 + ...
+
+     a1 - a2 + a3 - ...
+  -------------------------.
+  1 - 2(a1 - a2 + a3 - ...)
+
+Adding ˝ we bring this to the still more convenient form
+
+               1
+  ˝ -------------------------.
+    1 - 2(a1 - a2 + a3 - ...)
+
+Let F(p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...) denote the total number of
+compositions of the multipartite /{p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3}....
+Then ˝{1/1 - 2[alpha]} = ˝ + [Sigma]F(p)[alpha]^p, and thence
+F(p) = 2^(p-1).
+
+                            1
+ Again ˝ --------------------------------------- =
+         1 - 2([alpha] + [beta] - [alpha][beta])
+
+          = ˝ + [Sigma]F(p)[alpha]^p1 [beta]^p2,
+
+and expanding the left-hand side we easily find
+
+
+                        (p1 + p2)!                   (p1 + p2 - 1)!
+  F(p1p2) = 2^(p1+p2-1) ---------- - 2^(p1+p2-2) ---------------------
+                        0! p1! p2!               1!(p1 - 1)! (p2 - 1)!
+
+                    (p1 + p2 - 2)!
+   + 2^(p1+p2-3) --------------------- - ....
+                 2!(p1 - 2)! (p2 - 2)!
+
+We have found that the number of compositions of the multipartite
+/(p1p2p3 ... ps) is equal to the coefficient of symmetric function
+(p1p2p3...ps) _or_ of the single term [alpha]1^p1 [alpha]2^p2
+[alpha]3^p3 ... [alpha]s^ps in the development according to ascending
+powers of the algebraic fraction
+
+                                                     1
+  ˝ ˇ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
+      1 - 2([Sigma][a]1 - [Sigma][a]1 [a]2 + [Sigma][a]1 [a]2 [a]3) - ... + (-)^(s+1)[a]1 [a]2 [a]3...[a]s
+
+This result can be thrown into another suggestive form, for it can be
+proved that this portion of the expanded fraction
+
+                                                            1
+  ˝ ˇ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
+      {1 - t1(2[a]1 + [a]2  + ... + [a]3)} {1 - t2(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + [a]s)} ... {1 - t_s(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + 2[a]s)}
+
+which is composed entirely of powers of
+
+  t1[alpha]1, t2[alpha]2, t3[alpha]3, ... t_s[alpha]_s
+
+has the expression
+
+                                                                 1
+  ˝ ˇ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
+      1 - 2([Sigma]t1[a]1  - [Sigma]t1t2[a]1[a]2 + [Sigma]t1t2[a]1[a]2[a]3 - ... + (-)^(s+1) t1t2...t_s[a]1[a]2...[a]_s)
+
+and therefore the coefficient of [alpha]1^p1 [alpha]2^p2...[alpha]s^ps
+in the latter fraction, when t1, t2, &c., are put equal to unity, is
+equal to the coefficient of the same term in the product
+
+  ˝ (2[a]1 + [a]2 + ... + [a]s)^p1 (2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... +[a]s)^p2 ... (2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + 2[a]s)^ps.
+
+This result gives a direct connexion between the number of compositions
+and the permutations of the letters in the product [alpha]1^p1
+[alpha]2^p2...[alpha]s^ps. Selecting any permutation, suppose that the
+letter a_r occurs q_r times in the last p_r + p_(r+1) + ... + p_s places
+of the permutation; the coefficient in question may be represented by
+˝[Sigma] 2^(q1+q2+...+qs), the summation being for every permutation,
+and since q1 = p1 this may be written
+
+  2p1^(-1)[Sigma] 2^(q2+q3+...+qs).
+
+_Ex. Gr._--For the bipartite /22, p1 = p2 = 2, and we have the following
+scheme:--
+
+  [a]1 [a]1  |  [a]2 [a]2  q2 = 2
+  [a]1 [a]2  |  [a]1 [a]2     = 1
+  [a]1 [a]2  |  [a]2 [a]1     = 1
+  [a]2 [a]1  |  [a]1 [a]2     = 1
+  [a]2 [a]1  |  [a]2 [a]1     = 1
+  [a]2 [a]2  |  [a]1 [a]1     = 0
+
+Hence F(22) = 2(2˛ + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2°) = 26.
+
+We may regard the fraction
+
+                                                                 1
+      -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
+  ˝ ˇ {1 - t1(2[a]1 + [a]2 + ... + [a]s)} {1 - t2(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + [a]s)} ... {1 - t_s(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + 2[a]s)}
+
+as a redundant generating function, the enumeration of the compositions
+being given by the coefficient of
+
+  (t1[alpha]1)^p1 (t2[alpha]2)^p2 ... (t_s[alpha]_s )^ps.
+
+The transformation of the pure generating function into a factorized
+redundant form supplies the key to the solution of a large number of
+questions in the theory of ordinary permutations, as will be seen later.
+
+
+  The theory of permutations.
+
+[The transformation of the last section involves a comprehensive theory
+of Permutations, which it is convenient to discuss shortly here.
+
+If X1, X2, X3, ... Xn be linear functions given by the matricular
+relation
+
+  (X1, X2, X3, ... Xn) = (a11 a12 ... a1n)(x1, x2, ... xn)
+                         |a21 a22 ... a2n|
+                         |  .  .  ...  . |
+                         |  .  .  ...  . |
+                         |an1 an2 ... ann|
+
+that portion of the algebraic fraction,
+
+                  1
+  ---------------------------------,
+  (1 - s1X1)(1 - s2X2)...(1 - snXn)
+
+which is a function of the products s1x1, s2x2, s3x3, ... snxn only is
+
+                            1
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+  |(1 - a11s1x1)(1 - a22s2x2)(1 - a33s3x3)(1 - annˇsnˇxn)|
+
+where the denominator is in a symbolic form and denotes on expansion
+
+  1 - [Sigma]|a11|s1x1 + [Sigma]|a11a22|s1s2x1x2 - ... + (-)^n|a11a22a33...ann|s1s2 ... snˇx1x2...xn,
+
+where |a11|, |a11a22|, ... |a11a22,...ann| denote the several co-axial
+minors of the determinant
+
+  |a11a22...ann|
+
+of the matrix. (For the proof of this theorem see MacMahon, "A certain
+Class of Generating Functions in the Theory of Numbers," _Phil. Trans.
+R. S._ vol. clxxxv. A, 1894). It follows that the coefficient of
+
+  x1^[xi]1 x2^[xi]2 ... xn^[xi]n
+
+in the product
+
+  (a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1nˇxn  )^[xi]š (a21x1 + a22x2 + ... +
+       + a2nˇxn)^[xi]˛...(an1x1 + an2x2 + ... + annˇxn)^[xi]n
+
+is equal to the coefficient of the same term in the expansion
+ascending-wise of the fraction
+
+                                      1
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------------.
+  1 - [Sigma]|a11|x1 + [Sigma]|a11a22|x1x2 - ... + (-)^n|a11a22...|x1x2...xn
+
+If the elements of the determinant be all of them equal to unity, we
+obtain the functions which enumerate the unrestricted permutations of
+the letters in
+
+  x1^[xi]1 x2^[xi]2 ... xn^[xi]n,
+
+viz.   (x1 + x2 + ... - xn)^{[xi]1 + [xi]2 + ... + [xi]n}
+
+                  1
+and    ------------------------.
+       1 - (x1 + x2 + ... + xn)
+
+Suppose that we wish to find the generating function for the enumeration
+of those permutations of the letters in x1^[xi]1 x2^[xi]2...x3^[xi]n
+which are such that no letter xs is in a position originally occupied by
+an x3 for all values of s. This is a generalization of the "Problčme des
+rencontres" or of "derangements." We have merely to put
+
+  a11 = a22 = a33 = ... = ann = 0
+
+and the remaining elements equal to unity. The generating product is
+
+  (x2 + x3 + ... + xn)^[xi]1 (x1 + x3 + ... + xn)^[xi]2 ...
+       (x1 + x2 + ... + x_n-1)^[xi]n,
+
+and to obtain the condensed form we have to evaluate the co-axial minors
+of the invertebrate determinant--
+
+  | 0  1  1  ...  1 |
+  | 1  0  1  ...  1 |
+  | 1  1  0  ...  1 |
+  | .  .  .  ...  . |
+  | 1  1  1  ...  0 |
+
+The minors of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd ... nth orders have respectively the
+values
+
+           0
+           -1
+           +2
+          ...
+   (-)^(n-1)(n - 1),
+
+therefore the generating function is
+
+                                           1
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------;
+  1 - [Sigma]x1x2 - 2[Sigma]x1x2x3 - ... - s[Sigma]x1x2...x_s+1 - ... - (n - 1)x1x2...xn
+
+or writing
+
+  (x - x1)(x - x2)...(x - xn) = x^n - a1x^(n-1) + a2x^(n-2) - ...,
+
+this is
+
+                    1
+  -------------------------------------
+  1 - a2 - 2a3 - 3a4 - ... - (n - 1)a_n
+
+Again, consider the general problem of "derangements." We have to find
+the number of permutations such that exactly _m_ of the letters are in
+places they originally occupied. We have the particular redundant
+product
+
+  (ax1 + x2 + ... + xn)^[xi]š (x1 + ax2 + ... + xn)^[xi]˛ ...
+        (x1 + x2 + ... + ax_n)^[xi]n,
+
+in which the sought number is the coefficient of
+a^m x1^[xi]š x2^[xi]˛...xn^[xi]n. The true generating function is
+derived from the determinant
+
+  | a  1  1  1  .  .  . |
+  | 1  a  1  1  .  .  . |
+  | 1  1  a  1  .  .  . |
+  | 1  1  1  a  .  .  . |
+  | .  .  .  .          |
+  | .  .  .  .          |
+
+and has the form
+
+                                             1
+  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
+  1 - a[Sigma]x1 + (a - 1)(a + 1)[Sigma]x1x2 - ... + (-)^n(a - 1)^(n-1)(a + n - 1)x1x2... xn
+
+It is clear that a large class of problems in permutations can be solved
+in a similar manner, viz. by giving special values to the elements of
+the determinant of the matrix. The redundant product leads uniquely to
+the real generating function, but the latter has generally more than one
+representation as a redundant product, in the cases in which it is
+representable at all. For the existence of a redundant form, the
+coefficients of x1, x2, ... x1x2 ... in the denominator of the real
+generating function must satisfy 2^n - n˛ + n - 2 conditions, and
+assuming this to be the case, a redundant form can be constructed which
+involves n - 1 undetermined quantities. We are thus able to pass from
+any particular redundant generating function to one equivalent to it,
+but involving n - 1 undetermined quantities. Assuming these quantities
+at pleasure we obtain a number of different algebraic products, each of
+which may have its own meaning in arithmetic, and thus the number of
+arithmetical correspondences obtainable is subject to no finite limit
+(cf. MacMahon, _loc. cit._ pp. 125 et seq.)]
+
+
+  Case III.
+
+3. _The Theory of Partitions. Parcels defined by (m)._--When an ordinary
+unipartite number n is broken up into other numbers, and the order of
+occurrence of the numbers is immaterial, the collection of numbers is
+termed a partition of the number n. It is usual to arrange the numbers
+comprised in the collection, termed the parts of the partition, in
+descending order of magnitude, and to indicate repetitions of the same
+part by the use of exponents. Thus (32111), a partition of 8, is written
+(321ł). Euler's pioneering work in the subject rests on the observation
+that the algebraic multiplication
+
+  x^a × x^b × x^c × ... =  x^(a+b+c+...)
+
+is equivalent to the arithmetical addition of the exponents a, b, c, ...
+He showed that the number of ways of composing n with p integers drawn
+from the series a, b, c, ..., repeated or not, is equal to the
+coefficient of [zeta]^pˇx^n in the ascending expansion of the fraction
+
+                         1
+  ------------------------------------------------,
+  1 - [zeta]x^a. 1 - [zeta]x^b. 1 - [zeta]x^c. ...
+
+which he termed the generating function of the partitions in question.
+
+If the partitions are to be composed of p, or fewer parts, it is merely
+necessary to multiply this fraction by 1/(1 - [zeta]). Similarly, if the
+parts are to be unrepeated, the generating function is the algebraic
+product
+
+  (1 + [zeta]x^a)(1 + [zeta]x^b)(1 + [zeta]x^c)...;
+
+if each part may occur at most twice,
+
+  (1 + [zeta]x^a + [zeta]˛x^2a)(1 + [zeta]x^b + [zeta]˛x^2b)
+      (1 + [zeta]x^c + [zeta]˛x^2c)...;
+
+and generally if each part may occur at most k - 1 times it is
+
+  1 - [zeta]^kˇx^ka   1 - [zeta]^kˇx^kb   1 - [zeta]^kˇx^kc
+  ----------------- ˇ ----------------- ˇ ----------------- ˇ ...
+    1 - [zeta]x^a       1 - [zeta]x^b       1 - [zeta]x^c
+
+It is thus easy to form generating functions for the partitions of
+numbers into parts subject to various restrictions. If there be no
+restriction in regard to the numbers of the parts, the generating
+function is
+
+                1
+  ------------------------------
+  1 - x^a. 1 - x^b. 1 - x^c. ...
+
+and the problems of finding the partitions of a number n, and of
+determining their number, are the same as those of solving and
+enumerating the solutions of the indeterminate equation in positive
+integers
+
+  ax + by + cz + ... = n.
+
+Euler considered also the question of enumerating the solutions of the
+indeterminate simultaneous equation in positive integers
+
+  ax + by + cz + ... = n
+  a'x + b'y + c'z + ... = n'
+  a"x + b"y + c"z + ... = n"
+
+which was called by him and those of his time the "Problem of the
+Virgins." The enumeration is given by the coefficient of x^nˇy^n'ˇz^n" ...
+in the expansion of the fraction
+
+                                    1
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  (1 - x^aˇy^bˇz^c...)(1 - x^a'ˇy^b'ˇz^c'...)(1 - x^a"ˇy^b"ˇz^c"...) ...
+
+which enumerates the partitions of the multipartite number /nn'n"...
+into the parts
+
+  /abc..., /a'b'c'..., /a"b"c"..., ...
+
+Sylvester has determined an analytical expression for the coefficient of
+x^n in the expansion of
+
+                1
+  ------------------------------
+  (1 - x^a)(1 - x^b)...(1 - x^i)
+
+To explain this we have two lemmas:--
+
+_Lemma 1._--The coefficient of x^-1, i.e., after Cauchy, the residue in
+the ascending expansion of (1 - e^x)^-i, is -1. For when i is unity, it
+is obviously the case, and
+
+     (1 - e^x)^-i-1 = (1 - e^x)^-i + e^x(1 - e^x)^-i-1
+
+                                     d                1
+                    = (1 - e^x)^-i + -- (1 - e^x)^-iˇ--.
+                                     dx               i
+
+                    d               1
+Here the residue of -- (1 - e^x)^-iˇ-- is zero, and therefore the residue
+                    dx              i
+of (1 - e^x)^-i is unchanged when i is increased by unity, and is
+therefore always -1 for all values of i.
+
+_Lemma 2._--The constant term in any proper algebraical fraction
+developed in ascending powers of its variable is the same as the
+residue, with changed sign, of the sum of the fractions obtained by
+substituting in the given fraction, in lieu of the variable, its
+exponential multiplied in succession by each of its values (zero
+excepted, if there be such), which makes the given fraction infinite.
+For write the proper algebraical fraction
+
+                        c_{[lambda],[mu]}            [gamma]_[lambda]
+  F(x) = [Sigma][Sigma]-------------------- + [Sigma]----------------.
+                       (a_[mu] - x)[lambda]              x^[lambda]
+
+                                   c_{[lambda],[mu]}
+The constant term is [Sigma][Sigma]-----------------.
+                                    a_[mu]^[lambda]
+
+Let a_[nu] be a value of x which makes the fraction infinite. The residue
+of
+
+                             c_{[lambda],[mu]}                       [gamma]_[lambda]
+  [Sigma][Sigma][Sigma]------------------------------ + [Sigma]-----------------------------
+                       (a_[mu] - a_[nu]ˇe^x)^[lambda]          a_[nu]^[lambda]ˇe^{[lambda]x}
+
+is equal to the residue of
+
+                             c_{[lambda],[mu]}
+  [Sigma][Sigma][Sigma]------------------------------,
+                       (a_[mu] - a_[nu]ˇe^x)^[lambda]
+
+and when [nu] = [mu], the residue vanishes, so that we have to consider
+
+                        c_{[lambda],[mu]}
+  [Sigma][Sigma]----------------------------------,
+                a_[mu]^[lambda]ˇ(1 - e^x)^[lambda]
+
+and the residue of this is, by the first lemma,
+
+                  c_{[lambda],[mu]}
+  - [Sigma][Sigma]-----------------,
+                   a_[mu]^[lambda]
+
+which proves the lemma.
+
+                            1                   f(x)
+Take F(x) = --------------------------------- = ----, since the sought
+            x^n(1 - x^a)(1 - x^b)...(1 - x^l)   x^n
+
+number is its constant term.
+
+Let [rho] be a root of unity which makes f(x) infinite when substituted
+for x. The function of which we have to take the residue is
+
+    [Sigma][rho]^-nˇe^nxˇf([rho]e^-x)
+
+                                 [rho]^-nˇe^nx
+  = [Sigma]------------------------------------------------------------.
+           (1 - [rho]^aˇe^-ax)(1 - [rho]^bˇe^-bx)...(1 - [rho]^lˇe^-lx)
+
+We may divide the calculation up into sections by considering separately
+that portion of the summation which involves the primitive qth roots of
+unity, q being a divisor of one of the numbers a, b, ... l. Thus the qth
+_wave_ is
+
+                                  [rho]_q^-nˇe^nx
+  [Sigma]-------------------------------------------------------------------- ,
+         (1 - [rho]_q^aˇe^-ax)(1 - [rho]_q^bˇe^-bx)...(1 - [rho]_q^lˇe^-lx)
+
+which, putting 1/[rho]_q for [rho]_q and [nu] = ˝(a + b + ... + l), may
+be written
+
+                                                            [rho]_q^[nu]ˇe^[nu]x
+  [Sigma]------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
+         ([rho]_q^˝aˇe^˝ax - [rho]_q^-˝aˇe^-˝ax)([rho]_q^˝bˇe^˝bx - [rho]_q^-˝bˇe^-˝bx)...([rho]_q^˝lˇe^˝lx - [rho]_q^-˝lˇe^-˝lx)
+
+and the calculation in simple cases is practicable.
+
+Thus Sylvester finds for the coefficient of x^n in
+
+           1
+  ---------------------
+  1 - x. 1 - x˛. 1 - xł
+
+               [nu]˛  7    1           1
+the expression ---- - -- - --(-)[nu] + --([rho]_3^[nu] + [rho]_3^-[nu]),
+                12    72   8           9
+
+where [nu] = n + 3.
+
+
+  Sylvester's graphical method.
+
+Sylvester, Franklin, Durfee, G. S. Ely and others have evolved a
+constructive theory of partitions, the object of which is the
+contemplation of the partitions themselves, and the evolution of their
+properties from a study of their inherent characters. It is concerned
+for the most part with the partition of a number into parts drawn from
+the natural series of numbers 1, 2, 3.... Any partition, say (521) of
+the number 8, is represented by nodes placed in order at the points of a
+rectangular lattice,
+
+  o---o---o---o---o------
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  o---o---+---+---+------
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  o---+---+---+---+------
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  |   |   |   |   |
+
+when the partition is given by the enumeration of the nodes by lines. If
+we enumerate by columns we obtain another partition of 8, viz. (321ł),
+which is termed the conjugate of the former. The fact or conjugacy was
+first pointed out by Norman Macleod Ferrers. If the original partition
+is one of a number n in i parts, of which the largest is j, the
+conjugate is one into j parts, of which the largest is i, and we obtain
+the theorem:--"The number of partitions of any number into [i parts]/[i
+parts or fewer], and having the largest part [equal to j]/[equal or less
+than j], remains the same when the numbers i and j are interchanged."
+
+The study of this representation on a lattice (termed by Sylvester the
+"graph") yields many theorems similar to that just given, and, moreover,
+throws considerable light upon the expansion of algebraic series.
+
+The theorem of reciprocity just established shows that the number of
+partitions of n into; parts or fewer, is the same as the number of ways
+of composing n with the integers 1, 2, 3, ... j. Hence we can
+
+                           1
+expand ----------------------------------------- in ascending powers of
+       1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax˛. 1 - axł...ad inf.
+
+a; for the coefficient of a^jˇx^n in the expansion is the number of ways
+of composing n with j or fewer parts, and this we have seen in the
+coefficients of x^n in the ascending expansion of
+
+             1
+  -----------------------.
+  1 - x. 1 - x˛...1 - x^j
+
+Therefore
+
+              1                      a           a˛
+  -------------------------- = 1 + ----- + ------------- + ...
+  1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax˛....       1 - x   1 - x. 1 - x˛
+
+                                             a^j
+                                 + ----------------------- + ....
+                                   1 - x. 1 - x˛...1 - x^j
+
+The coefficient of a^jˇx^n in the expansion of
+
+                   1
+  ------------------------------------
+  1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax˛. ... 1 - ax^i
+
+denotes the number of ways of composing n with j or fewer parts, none of
+which are greater than i. The expansion is known to be
+
+         1 - x^(j+1). 1 - x^(j+2). ... 1 - x^(j+i)
+  [Sigma]-----------------------------------------a^j.
+                1 - x. 1 - x˛. ... 1 - x^i
+
+It has been established by the constructive method by F. Franklin
+(_Amer. Jour. of Math._ v. 254), and shows that the generating function
+for the partitions in question is
+
+  1 - x^(j+1). 1 - x^(j+2). ... 1 - x^(j+i)
+  -----------------------------------------,
+         1 - x. 1 - x˛. ... 1 - x^i
+
+which, observe, is unaltered by interchange of i and j.
+
+Franklin has also similarly established the identity of Euler
+
+                                       j=-[oo]
+  (1 - x)(1 - x˛)(1 - xł)...ad inf. = [Sigma](-)jx^{˝(3j˛+j)},
+                                       j=+[oo]
+
+known as the "pentagonal number theorem," which on interpretation shows
+that the number of ways of partitioning n into an even number of
+unrepeated parts is equal to that into an uneven number, except when n
+has the pentagonal form ˝(3j˛ + j), j positive or negative, when the
+difference between the numbers of the partitions is (-)^j.
+
+  +----------+
+  |ˇ  ˇ  ˇ  ˇ| ˇ  ˇ  ˇ  ˇ  ˇ
+  |ˇ  ˇ  ˇ  ˇ| ˇ  ˇ
+  |ˇ  ˇ  ˇ  ˇ| ˇ
+  |ˇ  ˇ  ˇ  ˇ|
+  +----------+
+   ˇ   ˇ   ˇ
+   .   .
+   .
+   .
+   .
+
+To illustrate an important dissection of the graph we will consider
+those graphs which read the same by columns as by lines; these are
+called self-conjugate. Such a graph may be obviously dissected into a
+square, containing say [theta]˛ nodes, and into two graphs, one lateral
+and one subjacent, the latter being the conjugate of the former. The
+former graph is limited to contain not more than [theta] parts, but is
+subject to no other condition. Hence the number of self-conjugate
+partitions of n which are associated with a square of [theta]˛ nodes is
+clearly equal to the number of partitions of ˝(n = [theta]˛) into
+[theta] or few parts, i.e. it is the coefficient of x^{˝(n-[theta]˛)} in
+
+                     1
+  -----------------------------------------,
+  1 - x. 1 - x˛. 1 - xł. ... 1 - x^[theta].
+
+                              x^[theta]˛
+or of x^n in --------------------------------------------.
+             1 - x˛. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[theta]
+
+and the whole generating function is
+
+     [theta]=[oo]                x^[theta]˛
+  1 + [Sigma]   --------------------------------------------.
+     [theta]=1  1 - x˛. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[theta]
+
+Now the graph is also composed of [theta] angles of nodes, each angle
+containing an uneven number of nodes; hence the partition is
+transformable into one containing [theta] unequal uneven numbers. In the
+case depicted this partition is (17, 9, 5, 1). Hence the number of the
+partitions based upon a square of [theta]˛ nodes is the coefficient of
+a^[theta]ˇx^n in the product (1 + ax)(1 + axł)(1 + ax^5)...(1 +
+ax^{2s-1}), and thence the coefficient of a^[theta] in this product is
+
+                   x^[theta]˛
+  --------------------------------------------, and we have the expansion
+  1 - x˛. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[theta]
+
+  (1 + ax)(1 + axł)(1 + ax^5)...ad inf.
+
+           x             x^4                     x^9
+  = 1 + ------ a + --------------- a˛ + ---------------------- ał + ...
+        1 - x˛     1 - x˛. 1 - x^4      1 - x˛. 1 - x^4. - x^6
+
+Again, if we restrict the part magnitude to i, the largest angle of
+nodes contains at most 2i - 1 nodes, and based upon a square of [theta]˛
+nodes we have partitions enumerated by the coefficient of a^[theta]ˇx^n
+in the product (1 + ax)(1 + axł)(1 + ax^5)...(1 + ax^{2i-1}); moreover
+the same number enumerates the partition of ˝(n - [theta]˛) into [theta]
+or fewer parts, of which the largest part is equal to or less than i
+-[theta], and is thus given by the coefficient of x^{˝(n-[theta]˛)} in
+the expansion of
+
+  1 - x^{i-[t]+1}. 1 - x^{i-[t]+2}. 1 - x^{i-[t]+3}. ... 1 - x^i
+  --------------------------------------------------------------,
+              1 - x. 1 - x˛. 1 - xł. ... 1 - x^[t]
+                                                     ([t] = [theta])
+or of x^n in
+
+  1 - x^{2i-2[t]+2}. 1 - x^{2i-2[t]+4}. ... 1 - x^2i
+  -------------------------------------------------- x[t]˛;
+        1 - x˛. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^[t]
+
+hence the expansion
+
+  (1 + ax)(1 + axł)(1 + ax^5)...(1 + ax^{2i-1})
+
+         [t]=i  1 - x^{2i-2[t]+2}. 1 - x^{2i-2[t]+4}. ... 1 + x^2i
+  = 1 + [Sigma] -------------------------------------------------- x^[t]˛ˇa^[t].
+         [t]=1       1 - x˛. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[t]
+
+
+  Extension to three dimensions.
+
+There is no difficulty in extending the graphical method to three
+dimensions, and we have then a theory of a special kind of partition of
+multipartite numbers. Of such kind is the partition
+
+   _________    _________    _________
+  (a1a2a3...), (b1b2b3...), (c1c2c3..., ...)
+
+of the multipartite number
+   _______________________________________________________________
+  (a1 + b1 + c1 + ..., a2 + b2 + c2 + ..., a3 + b3 + c3 + ..., ...)
+
+if          a1 >= a2 >= a3 >= ...; b1 >= b2 >= b3 >= ..., ...
+                           a3 >= b3 >= c3 >= ...,
+
+for then the graphs of the parts /a1a2a3..., /b1b2b3..., ... are
+superposable, and we have what we may term a _regular_ graph in three
+dimensions. Thus the partition (/643, /632, /411) of the multipartite
+/(16, 8, 6) leads to the graph
+
+    0+------------------------------------ x
+     |
+     | ((ˇ)) ((ˇ)) ((ˇ)) ((ˇ))  (ˇ)  (ˇ)
+     |
+     | ((ˇ))  (ˇ)   (ˇ)    ˇ
+     |
+     | ((ˇ))  (ˇ)    ˇ
+     |
+     y
+
+and every such graph is readable in six ways, the axis of z being
+perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
+
+                               _Ex. Gr._
+                                            ___ ___ ___
+  Plane parallel to xy, direction Ox reads (643,632,411)
+                                            ______ ______ ______
+    "       "       xy,     "     Oy   "   (333211,332111,311100)
+                                            ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
+    "       "       yz,     "     Oy   "   (333,331,321,211,110,110)
+                                            ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
+    "       "       yz,     "     Oz   "   (333,322,321,310,200,200)
+                                            ______ ______ ______
+    "       "       zx,     "     Oz   "   (333322,322100,321000)
+                                            ___ ___ ___
+    "       "       zx,     "     Ox   "   (664,431,321)
+
+the partitions having reference to the multipartite numbers /16, 8, 6,
+976422, /13, 11, 6, which are brought into relation through the medium
+of the graph. The graph in question is more conveniently represented by
+a numbered diagram, viz.--
+
+  3  3  3  3  2  2
+  3  2  2  1
+  3  2  1
+
+and then we may evidently regard it as a unipartite partition on the
+points of a lattice,
+
+  0 +-----+-----+-----+-----+------- x
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    +-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    +-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    +-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    y
+
+the descending order of magnitude of part being maintained along _every_
+line of route which proceeds from the origin in the positive directions
+of the axes.
+
+This brings in view the modern notion of a partition, which has
+enormously enlarged the scope of the theory. We consider any number of
+points _in plano_ or _in solido_ connected (or not) by lines in pairs in
+any desired manner and fix upon any condition, such as is implied by the
+symbols >=, >, =, <=, <>, as affecting any pair of points so connected.
+Thus in ordinary unipartite partition we have to solve in integers such
+a system as
+
+  [a]1 >= [a]2 >= [a]3 >= ... [a]n
+
+  [a]1 + [a]2 + [a]3 + ... + [a]n = n,
+                                         ([a] = [alpha])
+
+the points being in a straight line. In the simplest example of the
+three-dimensional graph we have to solve the system
+
+  [a]1 >= [a]2
+  v         =       [a]1 + [a]2 + [a]3 + [a]4 = n,
+  =         v
+  [a]3 >= [a]4
+
+and a system for the general lattice constructed upon the same
+principle. The system has been discussed by MacMahon, _Phil. Trans._
+vol. clxxxvii. A, 1896, pp. 619-673, with the conclusion that if the
+numbers of nodes along the axes of x, y, z be limited not to exceed the
+numbers m, n, l respectively, then writing for brevity 1 - x^s = (s),
+the generating function is given by the product of the factors
+
+  +----------------------------------------------x
+  |
+  |  (l + 1)      (l + 2)             (l + m)
+  |  ------- .    -------    ...      -------
+  |    (1)          (2)                 (m)
+  |
+  |  (l + 2)      (l + 3)           (l + m + 1)
+  |  ------- .    -------    ...    -----------
+  |    (2)          (3)               (m + 1)
+  |     .            .       ...         .
+  |     .            .       ...         .
+  |     .            .       ...         .
+  |  (l + n)    (l + n + 1)       (l + m + n - 1)
+  |  ------- .  -----------  ...  ---------------
+  |    (n)        (n + 1)           (m + n - 1)
+  y
+
+one factor appearing at each point of the lattice.
+
+In general, partition problems present themselves which depend upon the
+solution of a number of simultaneous relations in integers of the form
+
+  [lambda]_1ˇ[alpha]_1  + [lambda]_2ˇ[alpha]_2  +
+        [lambda]_3ˇ[alpha]_3 + ... >= 0,
+
+the coefficients [lambda] being given positive or negative integers, and
+in some cases the generating function has been determined in a form
+which exhibits the fundamental solutions of the problems from which all
+other solutions are derivable by addition. (See MacMahon, _Phil. Trans._
+vol. cxcii. (1899), pp. 351-401; and _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._ vol.
+xviii. (1899), pp. 12-34.)
+
+
+  Method of symmetric functions.
+
+The number of distributions of n objects (p1p2p3 ...) into parcels (m)
+is the coefficient of b^m(p1p2p3 ...)x^n in the development of the
+fraction
+
+                                       1
+     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+    (1 - b[alpha]x. 1 - b[beta]x. 1 - b[gamma]x ...                         )
+  × (1 - b[alpha]˛x˛. 1 - b[alpha][beta]x˛. 1 - b[beta]˛x˛ ...              )
+  × (1 - b[alpha]łxł. 1 - b[alpha]˛[beta]xł. 1 - b[alpha][beta][gamma]xł ...)
+
+          .          .          .          .          .          .
+
+and if we write the expansion of that portion which involves products of
+the letters [alpha], [beta], [gamma], ... of degree r in the form
+
+  1 + h_r1ˇbx^r + h_r2ˇb˛x^2r + ...,
+
+we may write the development
+
+  r=[oo]
+   [Pi] (1 + h_r1ˇbx^r + h_r2ˇb˛x^2r + ...),
+  r=1
+
+and picking out the coefficient of b^m x^n we find
+
+  [Sigma] h_[tau]1ˇh_[tau]2ˇh_[tau]3 ...,
+            t1       t2       t3
+
+where [Sigma][tau] = m, [Sigma][tau]t = n.
+
+The quantities h are symmetric functions of the quantities [alpha],
+[beta], [gamma], ... which in simple cases can be calculated without
+difficulty, and then the distribution function can be formed.
+
+_Ex. Gr._--Required the enumeration of the partitions of all
+multipartite numbers (p1p2p2 ...) into exactly two parts. We find
+
+      h2˛ = h4 - h3h1 + (h2)˛
+
+      h3˛ = h6 - h5h1 + h4h2
+
+      h4˛ = h8 - h7h1 + h6h2 + h5h3 + (h4)˛,
+
+and paying attention to the fact that in the expression of h_r2 the term
+(h_r)˛ is absent when r is uneven, the law is clear. The generating
+function is
+
+  h2x˛ + h2h1xł + (h4 + h2˛)x^4 + (h4h1 + h3h2)x^5 + (h6 + 2h4h2)x^6
+   + (h6h1 + h6h2 + h4h3)x^7 + (h8 + 2h6h2 + h4˛)x8 + ...
+
+Taking h4 + h2˛ = h4 + {(2) + (1˛)}˛
+
+                   = 2(4) + 3(31) + 4(2˛) + 5(21˛) + 7(1^4),
+
+the term 5(21˛) indicates that objects such as a, a, b, c can be
+partitioned in five ways into two parts. These are a|a, b, c; b|a; a, c;
+c|a, a, b; a, a|b, c; a, b|a, c. The function h_{r^s} has been studied.
+(See MacMahon, _Proc. Lond. Math. Soc._ vol. xix.) Putting x equal to
+unity, the function may be written (h2 + h4 + h6 + ...)(1 + h1 + h2 + h3
++ h4 + ...), a convenient formula.
+
+
+  Method of differential operators.
+
+The method of differential operators, of wide application to problems of
+combinatorial analysis, has for its leading idea the designing of a
+function and of a differential operator, so that when the operator is
+performed upon the function a number is reached which enumerates the
+solutions of the given problem. Generally speaking, the problems
+considered are such as are connected with lattices, or as it is possible
+to connect with lattices.
+
+  To take the simplest possible example, consider the problem of finding
+  the number of permutations of n different letters. The function is
+  here x^n, and the operator (d/dx)^n = [delta]_x^n, yielding
+  [delta]_x^nˇx^n = n! the number which enumerates the permutations. In
+  fact--
+
+    [delta]_xˇx^n = [delta]_x. x. x. x. x. x. ...,
+
+  and differentiating we obtain a sum of n terms by striking out an x
+  from the product in all possible ways. Fixing upon any one of these
+  terms, say x. [x]. x. x. ..., we again operate with [delta]_x by
+  striking out an x in all possible ways, and one of the terms so
+  reached is x. [x]. x. [x]. x. .... Fixing upon this term, and again
+  operating and continuing the process, we finally arrive at one
+  solution of the problem, which (taking say n = 4) may be said to be in
+  correspondence with the operator diagram--
+                                            ([x] = striken-out x)
+
+                                  or say
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |       | [d]_x |       |       |     |       |   1   |       |       |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |       |       |       | [d]_x |     |       |       |       |   1   |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |       |       | [d]_x |       |     |       |       |   1   |       |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  | [d]_x |       |       |       |     |   1   |       |       |       |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+-------+
+                   ([d] = [delta])
+
+  the number in each row of cempartments denoting an operation of
+  [delta]_x. Hence the permutation problem is equivalent to that of
+  placing n units in the compartments of a square lattice of order n in
+  such manner that each row and each column contains a single unit.
+  Observe that the method not only enumerates, but also gives a process
+  by which each solution is actually formed. The same problem is that of
+  placing n rooks upon a chess-board of n˛ compartments, so that no rook
+  can be captured by any other rook.
+
+  Regarding these elementary remarks as introductory, we proceed to give
+  some typical examples of the method. Take a lattice of m columns and n
+  rows, and consider the problem of placing units in the compartments in
+  such wise that the sth column shall contain [lambda]_s units (s = 1,
+  2, 3, ... m), and the tth row p1 units (t = l, 2, 3, ... n).
+
+  Writing
+
+    1 + a1x + a2x˛ + ... + ... = (1 + a1x)(1 + a2x)(1 + a3x) ...
+
+             1
+  and D_p = --([d]_[a]1 + [a]1[d]_[a]2 + [a]2[d]_[a]3 + ...)^p,
+            p!
+                    ([d] = [delta], [a] = [alpha])
+
+  the multiplication being symbolic, so that D_p is an operator of order
+  p, the function is
+
+    a_[lambda]1ˇa_[lambda]2ˇa_[lambda]3...a_[lambda]m,
+
+  and the operator D_p1ˇD_p2ˇD_p3...D_pn. The number
+  D_p1ˇD_p2...D_pnˇa_[lambda]1ˇa_[lambda]2ˇa_[lambda]3...a_[lambda]m
+  enumerates the solutions. For the mode of operation of D_p upon a
+  product reference must be made to the section on "Differential
+  Operators" in the article ALGEBRAIC FORMS. Writing
+
+    a_[l]1ˇa_[l]2...a_[l]m =
+        ... + [Delta][Sigma][a]1^p1ˇ[a]2^p2...[a]n^pn + ...,
+
+  or, in partition notation,
+
+
+    (1^[l]1)(1^[l]2)...(1^[l]m) = ... + A(p1p2...pn) ... +
+         D_p1ˇD_p2...D_pnˇ(1^[l]1)(1^[l]2)...(1^[l]m) = A,
+                                         ([l] = [lambda])
+
+  and the law by which the operation is performed upon the product shows
+  that the solutions of the given problem are enumerated by the number
+  A, and that the process of operation actually represents each
+  solution.
+
+  _Ex. Gr._--Take  [lambda]1 = 3, [lambda]2 = 2, [lambda]4 = 1,
+
+                   p1 = 2, p2 = 2, p3 = 1, p4 = 1,
+
+                   D2˛D1˛ˇa3a2a1 = 8,
+
+  and the process yields the eight diagrams:--
+
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 | 1 |   |    |   | 1 | 1 |    | 1 | 1 |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 | 1 |   |    |   | 1 | 1 |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 |   |   |    |   |   | 1 |    | 1 |   |   |    | 1 |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    |   |   | 1 |    | 1 |   |   |    | 1 |   |   |    | 1 |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 |   | 1 |    | 1 |   | 1 |    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 | 1 |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 |   | 1 |    | 1 |   | 1 |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 |   |   |    |   | 1 |   |    | 1 |   |   |    |   | 1 |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    |   | 1 |   |    | 1 |   |   |    |   | 1 |   |    | 1 |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+
+  viz. every solution of the problem. Observe that transposition of the
+  diagrams furnishes a proof of the simplest of the laws of symmetry in
+  the theory of symmetric functions.
+
+  For the next example we have a similar problem, but no restriction is
+  placed upon the magnitude of the numbers which may appear in the
+  compartments. The function is now
+  h_[lambda]1ˇh_[lambda]2...h_[lambda]m, h_[lambda]m being the
+  homogeneous product sum of the quantities a, of order [lambda]. The
+  operator is as before
+
+    D_p1ˇD_p2...D_pn,
+
+  and the solutions are enumerated by
+
+    D_p1ˇD_p2...D_pnˇh_[lambda]1ˇh_[lambda]2...h_[lambda]m.
+
+  Putting as before [lambda]1 = 2, [lambda]2 = 2, [lambda]1 = 1, p1 = 2,
+  P2 = 2, p3 = 1, p4 = 1, the reader will have no difficulty in
+  constructing the diagrams of the eighteen solutions.
+
+  The next and last example of a multitude that might be given shows the
+  extraordinary power of the method by solving the famous problem of the
+  "Latin Square," which for hundreds of years had proved beyond the
+  powers of mathematicians. The problem consists in placing n letters a,
+  b, c, ... n in the compartments of a square lattice of n˛
+  compartments, no compartment being empty, so that no letter occurs
+  twice either in the same row or in the same column. The function is
+  here
+
+    {[Sigma][a]1^(2^n-1)ˇ[a]2^(2^n-2)...([a]_n-1)˛ˇ[a]n}^n,
+
+  and the operator D_n^{2^(n-1)}, the enumeration being given by
+
+    D_n^{2^(n-1)}ˇ{[Sigma][a]1^(2^n-1)ˇ[a]2^(2^n-2)...([a]_n-1)˛ˇ[a]n}^n,
+                                         ([a] = [alpha])
+
+  See _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._ vol. xvi. pt. iv. pp. 262-290.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--P. A. MacMahon, "Combinatory Analysis: A Review of the
+  Present State of Knowledge," _Proc. Lond. Math. Soc._ vol. xxviii.
+  (London, 1897). Here will be found a bibliography of the Theory of
+  Partitions. Whitworth, _Choice and Chance_; Édouard Lucas, _Théorie
+  des nombres_ (Paris, 1891); Arthur Cayley, _Collected Mathematical
+  Papers_ (Cambridge, 1898), ii. 419; iii. 36, 37; iv. 166-170; v.
+  62-65, 617; vii. 575; ix. 480-483; x. 16, 38, 611; xi. 61, 62,
+  357-364, 589-591; xii. 217-219, 273-274; xiii. 47, 93-113, 269;
+  Sylvester, _Amer. Jour, of Math._ v. 119 251; MacMahon, _Proc. Lond.
+  Math. Soc._ xix. 228 et seq.; _Phil. Trans._ clxxxiv. 835-901; clxxxv.
+  111-160; clxxxvii. 619-673; cxcii. 351-401; _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._
+  xvi. 262-290.     (P. A. M.)
+
+
+
+
+COMBUSTION (from the Lat. _comburere_, to burn up), in chemistry, the
+process of burning or, more scientifically, the oxidation of a
+substance, generally with the production of flame and the evolution of
+heat. The term is more customarily given to productions of flame such as
+we have in the burning of oils, gas, fuel, &c., but it is conveniently
+extended to other cases of oxidation, such as are met with when metals
+are heated for a long time in air or oxygen. The term "spontaneous
+combustion" is used when a substance smoulders or inflames apparently
+without the intervention of any external heat or light; in such cases,
+as, for example, in heaps of cotton-waste soaked in oil, the oxidation
+has proceeded slowly, but steadily, for some time, until the heat
+evolved has raised the mass to the temperature of ignition.
+
+The explanation of the phenomena of combustion was attempted at very
+early times, and the early theories were generally bound up in the
+explanation of the nature of fire or flame. The idea that some
+extraneous substance is essential to the process is of ancient date;
+Clement of Alexandria (c. 3rd century A.D.) held that some "air" was
+necessary, and the same view was accepted during the middle ages, when
+it had been also found that the products of combustion weighed more than
+the original combustible, a fact which pointed to the conclusion that
+some substance had combined with the combustible during the process.
+This theory was supported by the French physician Jean Ray, who showed
+also that in the cases of tin and lead there was a limit to the increase
+in weight. Robert Boyle, who made many researches on the origin and
+nature of fire, regarded the increase as due to the fixation of the
+particles of fire. Ideas identical with the modern ones were expressed
+by John Mayow in his _Tractatus quinque medico-physici_ (1674), but his
+death in 1679 undoubtedly accounts for the neglect of his suggestions by
+his contemporaries. Mayow perceived the similarity of the processes of
+respiration and combustion, and showed that one constituent of the
+atmosphere, which he termed _spiritus nitro-aereus_, was essential to
+combustion and life, and that the second constituent, which he termed
+_spiritus nitri acidi_, inhibited combustion and life. At the beginning
+of the 18th century a new theory of combustion was promulgated by Georg
+Ernst Stahl. This theory regarded combustibility as due to a principle
+named phlogiston (from the Gr. [Greek: phlogistos], burnt), which was
+present in all combustible bodies in an amount proportional to their
+degree of combustibility; for instance, coal was regarded as practically
+pure phlogiston. On this theory, all substances which could be burnt
+were composed of phlogiston and some other substance, and the operation
+of burning was simply equivalent to the liberation of the phlogiston.
+The Stahlian theory, originally a theory of combustion, came to be a
+general theory of chemical reactions, since it provided simple
+explanations of the ordinary chemical processes (when regarded
+qualitatively) and permitted generalizations which largely stimulated
+its acceptance. Its inherent defect--that the products of combustion
+were invariably heavier than the original substance instead of less as
+the theory demanded--was ignored, and until late in the 18th century it
+dominated chemical thought. Its overthrow was effected by Lavoisier, who
+showed that combustion was simply an oxidation, the oxygen of the
+atmosphere (which was isolated at about this time by K. W. Scheele and
+J. Priestley) combining with the substance burnt.
+
+
+
+
+COMEDY, the general term applied to a type of drama the chief object of
+which, according to modern notions, is to amuse. It is contrasted on the
+one hand with tragedy and on the other with farce, burlesque, &c. As
+compared with tragedy it is distinguished by having a happy ending (this
+being considered for a long time the essential difference), by quaint
+situations, and by lightness of dialogue and character-drawing. As
+compared with farce it abstains from crude and boisterous jesting, and
+is marked by some subtlety of dialogue and plot. It is, however,
+difficult to draw a hard and fast line of demarcation, there being a
+distinct tendency to combine the characteristics of farce with those of
+true comedy. This is perhaps more especially the case in the so-called
+"musical comedy," which became popular in Great Britain and America in
+the later 19th century, where true comedy is frequently subservient to
+broad farce and spectacular effects.
+
+The word "comedy" is derived from the Gr. [Greek: kômôidia], which is a
+compound either of [Greek: kômos] (revel) and [Greek: aoidos] (singer;
+[Greek: aeidein], [Greek: aidein], to sing), or of [Greek: kômę]
+(village) and [Greek: aoidos]: it is possible that [Greek: kômos] itself
+is derived from [Greek: komę], and originally meant a village revel. The
+word comes into modern usage through the Lat. _comoedia_ and Ital.
+_commedia_. It has passed through various shades of meaning. In the
+middle ages it meant simply a story with a happy ending. Thus some of
+Chaucer's Tales are called comedies, and in this sense Dante used the
+term in the title of his poem, _La Commedia_ (cf. his _Epistola_ X., in
+which he speaks of the comic style as "loquutio vulgaris, in qua et
+mulierculae communicant"; again "comoedia vero remisse et humiliter";
+"differt a tragoedia per hoc, quod t. in principio est admirabilis et
+quieta, in fine sive exitu est foetida et horribilis"). Subsequently the
+term is applied to mystery plays with a happy ending. The modern usage
+combines this sense with that in which Renaissance scholars applied it
+to the ancient comedies.
+
+The adjective "comic" (Gr. [Greek: kômikos]), which strictly means that
+which relates to comedy, is in modern usage generally confined to the
+sense of "laughter-provoking": it is distinguished from "humorous" or
+"witty" inasmuch as it is applied to an incident or remark which
+provokes spontaneous laughter without a special mental effort. The
+phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it, the comic,
+have been carefully investigated by psychologists, in contrast with
+other phenomena connected with the emotions. It is very generally agreed
+that the predominating characteristics are incongruity or contrast in
+the object, and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject.
+It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential,
+if not the essential, factor: thus Hobbes speaks of laughter as a
+"sudden glory." Physiological explanations have been given by Kant,
+Spencer and Darwin. Modern investigators have paid much attention to the
+origin both of laughter and of smiling, babies being watched from
+infancy and the date of their first smile being carefully recorded. For
+an admirable analysis and account of the theories see James Sully, _On
+Laughter_ (1902), who deals generally with the development of the "play
+instinct" and its emotional expression.
+
+  See DRAMA; also HUMOUR; CARICATURE; PLAY, &c.
+
+
+
+
+COMENIUS (or KOMENSKY), JOHANN AMOS (1592-1671), a famous writer on
+education, and the last bishop of the old church of the Moravian and
+Bohemian Brethren, was born at Comna, or, according to another account,
+at Niwnitz, in Moravia, of poor parents belonging to the sect of the
+Moravian Brethren. Having studied at Herborn and Heidelberg, and
+travelled in Holland and England, he became rector of a school at
+Prerau, and after that pastor and rector of a school at Fulnek. In 1621
+the Spanish invasion and persecution of the Protestants robbed him of
+all he possessed, and drove him into Poland. Soon after he was made
+bishop of the church of the Brethren. He supported himself by teaching
+Latin at Lissa, and it was here that he published his _Pansophiae
+prodromus_ (1630), a work on education, and his _Janua linguarum
+reserata_ (1631), the latter of which gained for him a widespread
+reputation, being produced in twelve European languages, and also in
+Arabic, Persian and Turkish. He subsequently published several other
+works of a similar kind, as the _Eruditionis scholasticae janua_ and the
+_Janua linguarum trilinguis_. His method of teaching languages, which he
+seems to have been the first to adopt, consisted in giving, in parallel
+columns, sentences conveying useful information, in the vernacular and
+the languages intended to be taught (i.e. in Comenius's works, Latin and
+sometimes Greek). In some of his books, as the _Orbis sensualium pictus_
+(1658), pictures are added; this work is, indeed, the first children's
+picture-book. In 1638 Comenius was requested by the government of Sweden
+to draw up a scheme for the management of the schools of that country;
+and a few years after he was invited to join the commission that the
+English parliament then intended to appoint, in order to reform the
+system of education. He visited England in 1641, but the disturbed state
+of politics prevented the appointment of the commission, and Comenius
+passed over to Sweden in August 1642. The great Swedish minister,
+Oxenstjerna, obtained for him a pension, and a commission to furnish a
+plan for regulating the Swedish schools according to his own method.
+Devoting himself to the elaboration of his scheme, Comenius settled
+first at Elbing, and then at Lissa; but, at the burning of the latter
+city by the Poles, he lost nearly all his manuscripts, and he finally
+removed to Amsterdam, where he died in 1671.
+
+As an educationist, Comenius holds a prominent place in history. He was
+disgusted at the pedantic teaching of his own day, and he insisted that
+the teaching of words and things must go together. Languages should be
+taught, like the mother tongue, by conversation on ordinary topics;
+pictures, object lessons, should be used; teaching should go hand in
+hand with a happy life. In his course he included singing, economy,
+politics, world-history, geography, and the arts and handicrafts. He was
+one of the first to advocate teaching science in schools.
+
+As a theologian, Comenius was greatly influenced by Boehme. In his
+_Synopsis physicae ad lumen divinum reformatae_ he gives a physical
+theory of his own, said to be taken from the book of Genesis. He was
+also famous for his prophecies and the support he gave to visionaries.
+In his _Lux in tenebris_ he published the visions of Kotterus, Dabricius
+and Christina Poniatovia. Attempting to interpret the book of
+Revelation, he promised the millennium in 1672, and guaranteed
+miraculous assistance to those who would undertake the destruction of
+the Pope and the house of Austria, even venturing to prophesy that
+Cromwell, Gustavus Adolphus, and Rakoczy, prince of Transylvania, would
+perform the task. He also wrote to Louis XIV., informing him that the
+empire of the world should be his reward if he would overthrow the
+enemies of God.
+
+  Comenius also wrote against the Socinians, and published three
+  historical works--_Ratio disciplinae ordinisque in unitate fratrum
+  Bohemorum_, which was republished with remarks by Buddaeus, _Historia
+  persecutionum ecclesiae Bohemicae_ (1648), and _Martyrologium
+  Bohemicum_. See Raumer's _Geschichte der Pädogogik_, and Carpzov's
+  _Religionsuntersuchung der böhmischen und mährischen Brüder_.
+
+
+
+
+COMET (Gr. [Greek: komętęs], long-haired), in astronomy, one of a class
+of seemingly nebulous bodies, moving under the influence of the sun's
+attraction in very eccentric orbits. A comet is visible only in a small
+arc of its orbit near perihelion, differing but slightly from the arc
+of a parabola. An obvious but not sharp classification of comets is into
+bright comets visible to the naked eye, and telescopic comets which can
+be seen only with a telescope. The telescopic class is much the more
+numerous of the two, only from 20 to 30 bright comets usually appearing
+in any one century, while several telescopic comets, frequently 6 or 8,
+are generally observed in the course of a year.
+
+A bright comet consists of (1) a star-like nucleus; (2) a nebulous haze,
+called the _coma_, surrounding this nucleus, the latter fading into the
+haze by insensible gradations; (3) a tail or luminous stream flowing
+from the coma in a direction opposite to that of the sun. The nuclei and
+comae of different comets exhibit few peculiarities to the unaided
+vision except in respect to brightness; but the tails of comets differ
+widely, both in brightness and in extent. They range from a barely
+visible brush or feather of light to a phenomenon extending over a
+considerable arc of the heavens, which, comparatively bright near the
+head of the comet, becomes gradually fainter and more diffuse towards
+its end, fading out by gradations so insensible that a precise length
+cannot be assigned to it. When a telescopic comet is first discovered
+the nucleus is frequently invisible, the object presenting the
+appearance of a faint nebulous haze, scarcely distinguishable in aspect
+from a nebula. When the nucleus appears it may at first be only a
+comparatively faint condensation, and may or may not develop into a
+point of light as the comet approaches the sun. A tail also is generally
+not seen at great distances from the sun, but gradually develops as the
+comet approaches perihelion, to fade away again as the comet recedes
+from the sun.
+
+A few comets are known to revolve in orbits with a regular period,
+while, in the case of others, no evidence is afforded by observation
+that the orbit deviates from a parabola. Were the orbit a parabola or
+hyperbola the comet would never return (see ORBIT). Periodicity may be
+recognized in two ways: observations during the apparition may show that
+the motion is in an elliptic and not in a parabolic orbit; or a comet
+may have been observed at more than one return. In the latter case the
+comet is recognized as distinctly periodic, and therefore a member of
+the solar system. The shortest periods range between 3 and 10 years. The
+majority of comets which have been observed are shown by observation to
+be periodic; the period is usually very long, being sometimes measured
+by centuries, but generally by thousands of years. It is conceivable
+that a comet might revolve in a hyperbolic orbit. Although there are
+several of these bodies observations on which indicate such an orbit,
+the deviation from the parabolic form has not in any case been so well
+marked as to be fully established. Circumstances lead to the
+classification of newly appearing comets as _expected_ and _unexpected_.
+An expected comet is a periodic one of which the return is looked for at
+a determinate time and in a certain region of the heavens. When this is
+not the case the comet is an unexpected one.
+
+_Physical Constitution of Comets._--The subject of the physical
+constitution of these bodies is one as to the details of which much
+uncertainty still exists. The considerations on which conclusions in
+this field rest are very various, and can best be set forth by beginning
+with what we may consider to be the best established facts.
+
+We must regard it as well established that comets are not, like planets
+and satellites, permanent in mass, but are continuously losing minute
+portions of the matter which belongs to them, through a progressive
+dissipation--at least when they are in the neighbourhood of the sun.
+When near perihelion the matter of a comet is seen to be undergoing a
+process in the nature of evaporation, successive envelopes of vapour
+rising from the nucleus to form the coma, and then gradually repelled
+from the sun to form the tail. If this process went on indefinitely
+every comet would, in the course of ages, be entirely dissipated. This
+result has actually happened in the case of some known comets, the best
+established example of which is that of Biela, in which the process of
+disintegration was clearly followed. As the amount of matter lost by a
+comet at any one return cannot be estimated, and may be very small, it
+is impossible to set any limit to the period during which its life may
+continue. It is still an unsettled question whether, in every case, the
+evaporation will ultimately cease, leaving a residuum as permanent as
+any other mass of matter.
+
+The next question in logical order is one of great difficulty. It is
+whether the nucleus of a comet is an opaque solid body, a cluster of
+such bodies, or a mass of particles of extreme tenuity. Some light is
+thrown on this and other questions by the spectroscope. This instrument
+shows in the spectrum of nearly every comet three bright bands,
+recognized as those of hydrocarbons. The obvious conclusion is that the
+light forming these bands is not reflected sunlight, but light radiated
+by the gaseous hydrocarbons. Since a gas at so great a distance from the
+sun cannot be heated to incandescence, the question arises how
+incandescence is excited. The generalizations of recent years growing
+out of the phenomena of radioactivity make it highly probable that the
+source is to be found in some form of electrical excitation, produced by
+electrons or other corpuscles thrown out by the sun. The resemblance of
+the cometary spectrum to the spectrum of hydrocarbons in the Geissler
+tube lends great plausibility to this view. It is remarkable that the
+great comet of 1882 also showed the bright lines of sodium with such
+intensity that they were observed in daylight by R. Copeland and W. O.
+Lohse. In addition to these gaseous spectra, all but the fainter comets
+show a continuous spectrum, crossed by the Fraunhofer lines, which is
+doubtless due to reflected sunlight. It happens that, since the
+spectroscope has been perfected, no comet of great brilliancy has been
+favourably situated for observation. Until the opportunity is offered,
+the conclusions to be derived from spectroscopic observation cannot be
+further extended.
+
+PLATE I.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--COMET 1892, I. (SWIFT), 1892, APRIL 26.
+    By permission of Lick Observatory (E. E. Barnard)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--COMET C, 1908, NOV. 16d. 13h. 10m.
+    By permission of Yerkes Observatory (E. E. Barnard).]
+
+PLATE II.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--HALLEY'S COMET, 1910, APRIL 27.
+    By permission of Helwân Observatory, Egypt.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--HALLEY'S COMET, 1910, MAY 4.
+    By permission of Yerkes Observatory (E. E. Barnard).]
+
+In the telescope the nucleus of a bright comet appears as an opaque
+mass, one or more seconds in diameter, the absolute dimensions comparing
+with those of the satellites of the planets, sometimes, indeed, equal to
+our moon. But the actual results of micrometric measures are found to
+differ very widely. In the case of Donati's comet of 1858 the nucleus
+seemed to grow smaller as perihelion was approached. This is evidently
+due to the fact that the coma immediately around the nucleus was so
+bright as apparently to form a part of it at considerable distances from
+the sun. G. P. Bond estimated the diameter of the actual nucleus at 500
+m. That the nucleus is a body of appreciable mass seems to be made
+probable by the fact that, except for the central attraction of such a
+body, a comet would speedily be dissipated by the different attractions
+of the sun on different parts of the mass, which would result in each
+particle pursuing an orbit of its own. It follows that there must be a
+mass sufficient to hold the parts of the comet, if not absolutely
+together, at least in each other's immediate neighbourhood. How great a
+central mass may be required for this is a subject not yet investigated.
+It might be supposed that the amount of matter must be sufficient to
+make the nucleus quite opaque. But two considerations based on
+observations militate against this view. One is that an opaque body,
+reflecting much sunlight, would show a brighter continuous spectrum than
+has yet been found in any comet. Another and yet more remarkable
+observation is on record which goes far to prove not only the tenuity,
+but the transparency of a cometary nucleus. The great comet of 1882 made
+a transit over the sun on the 17th of September, an occurrence unique in
+the history of astronomy. But the fact of the transit escaped attention
+except at the observatory of the Cape of Good Hope. Here the comet was
+watched by W. H. Finlay and by W. L. Elkin as it approached the sun, and
+was kept in sight until it came almost or quite in contact with the
+sun's disk, when it disappeared. It should, if opaque, have appeared a
+few minutes later, projected on the sun's disk; but not a trace of it
+could be seen. The sun was approaching Table Mountain at the critical
+moment, and its limb was undulating badly, making the detection of a
+minute point difficult. The possibility of a very small opaque nucleus
+is therefore still left open; yet the remarkable conclusion still holds,
+that, immediately around a possible central nucleus, the matter of the
+head of the comet was so rare as not to intercept any appreciable
+fraction of the sun's light. This result seems also to show that, with
+the possible exception of a very small central mass, what seems to
+telescopic vision as a nucleus is really only the central portion of the
+coma, which, as the distance from the centre increases, becomes less and
+less dense by imperceptible gradations.
+
+Another fact tending towards this same conclusion is that after this
+comet passed perihelion it showed several nuclei following each other.
+Evidently the powerful attraction of the sun had separated the parts of
+the apparent nucleus, which were following each other in nearly the same
+orbit. As they could not have been completely brought together again, we
+may suppose that in such cases the smaller nuclei were permanently
+separated from the main body. In addition to this, the remarkable
+similarity of the orbit of this comet to that of several others
+indicates a group of bodies moving in nearly the same orbit. The other
+members of the group were the great comets of 1843, 1880 and 1887. The
+latter, though so bright as to be conspicuous to the naked eye, showed
+no nucleus whatever. The closely related orbits of the four bodies are
+also remarkable for approaching nearer the sun at perihelion than does
+the orbit of any other known body. All of these comets pass through the
+matter of the sun's corona with a velocity of more than 100 m. per
+second without suffering any retardation. As it is beyond all reasonable
+probability that several independent bodies should have moved in orbits
+so nearly the same, the conclusion is that the comets were originally
+portions of one mass, which gradually separated in the course of ages by
+the powerful attraction of the sun as the collection successively passed
+the perihelion. It may be remarked that observations on the comet of
+1843 seemed to show a slight ellipticity of the orbit, corresponding to
+a period of several centuries; but the deviation of all the orbits from
+a parabola is too slight to be established by observations. The periods
+of the comets are therefore unknown except that they must be counted by
+centuries and possibly by thousands of years.
+
+Another fact which increases the complexity of the question is the
+well-established connexion of comets with meteoric showers. The shower
+of November 13-15, now known as the Leonids, which recurred for several
+centuries at intervals of about one-third of a century, are undoubtedly
+due to a stream of particles left behind by a comet observed in 1866.
+The same is true of Biela's comet, the disintegrated particles of which
+give rise to the Andromedids, and probably true also of the Perseids, or
+August meteors, the orbits of which have a great similarity to a comet
+seen in 1862. The general and well-established conclusion seems to be
+that, in addition to the visible features of a comet, every such body is
+followed in its orbit by a swarm of meteoric particles which must have
+been gradually detached and separated from it. (See METEOR.)
+
+The source of the repulsive force by which the matter forming the tail
+of a comet is driven away from the sun is another question that has not
+yet been decisively answered. Two causes have been suggested, of which
+one has only recently been brought to light. This is the repulsion of
+the sun's rays, a form of action the probability of which was shown by
+J. Clerk Maxwell in 1870, and which was experimentally established about
+thirty years later. The intensity of this action on a particle is
+proportional to the surface presented by the particle to the rays, and
+therefore to the square of its diameter, while its mass, and therefore
+its gravitation to the sun, are proportional to the cube of the
+diameter. It follows that if the size and mass of a particle in space
+are below a certain limit, the repulsion of the rays will exceed the
+attraction of the sun, and the particle will be driven off into space.
+But, in order that this repulsive force may act, the particles, however
+minute they may be, must be opaque. Moreover, theory shows that there is
+a lower as well as an upper limit to their magnitude, and that it is
+only between certain definable limits of magnitude that the force acts.
+Conceiving the particle to be of the density of water, and considering
+its diameter as a diminishing variable, theory shows that the repulsion
+will balance gravity when the diameter has reached 0.0015 of a
+millimetre. As the diameter is reduced below this limit the ratio of
+the repulsive to the attractive force increases, but soon reaches a
+maximum, after which it diminishes down to a diameter of 0.00007 mm.,
+when the two actions are again balanced. Below this limit the light
+speedily ceases to act. It follows that a purely gaseous body, such as
+would emit a characteristic bright line spectrum, would not be subject
+to the repulsion. We must therefore conclude that both the solid and
+gaseous forms of matter are here at play, and this view is consonant
+with the fact that the comet leaves behind it particles of meteoric
+matter.
+
+Another possible cause is electrical repulsion. The probability of this
+cause is suggested by recent discoveries in radioactivity and by the
+fact that the sun undoubtedly sends forth electrical emanations which
+may ionize the gaseous molecules rising from the nucleus, and lead to
+their repulsion from the sun, thus resulting in the phenomena of the
+tail. But well-established laws are not yet sufficiently developed to
+lead to definite conclusions on this point, and the question whether
+both causes are combined, and, if not, to which one the phenomena in
+question are mainly due, must be left to the future.
+
+A curious circumstance, which may be explained by a duplex character of
+the matter forming a cometary tail, is the great difference between the
+visual and photographic aspect of these bodies. The soft, delicate,
+feathery-like form which the comet with its tail presents to the eye is
+wanting in a photograph, which shows principally a round head with an
+irregularly formed tail much like the knotted stalk of a plant. It
+follows that the light emitted by the central axis of the tail greatly
+exceeds in actinic power the diffuse light around it. A careful
+comparison of the form and intensity of the photographic and visual
+tails may throw much light on the question of the constitution of these
+bodies, but no good opportunity of making the comparison has been
+afforded since the art of celestial photography has been brought to its
+present state of perfection.
+
+The main conclusion to which the preceding facts and considerations
+point is that the matter of a comet is partly solid and partly gaseous.
+The gaseous form is shown conclusively by the spectroscope, but in view
+of the extreme delicacy of the indications with this instrument no
+quantitative estimate of the gas can be made. As there is no central
+mass sufficient to hold together a continuous atmosphere of elastic gas
+of any sort, it seems probable that the gaseous molecules are only those
+rising from the coma, possibly by ordinary evaporation, but more
+probably by the action of the ultra-violet and other rays of the sun
+giving rise to an ionization of disconnected gaseous molecules. The
+matter cannot be wholly gaseous because in this case there could be no
+central force sufficient to keep the parts of the comet together.
+
+The facts also point to the conclusion that the solid matter of a comet
+is formed of a swarm or cloud of small disconnected masses, probably
+having much resemblance to the meteoric masses which are known to be
+flying through the solar system and possibly of the same general kind as
+these. The question whether there is any central solid of considerable
+mass is still undecided; it can only be said that if so, it is probably
+small relative to cosmic masses in general--more likely less than
+greater than 100 m. in diameter. The light of the comet therefore
+proceeds from two sources: one the incandescence of gases, the other the
+sunlight reflected from the solid parts. No estimate can be formed of
+the ratio between these two kinds of light until a bright comet shall be
+spectroscopically observed during an entire apparition.
+
+_Origin and Orbits of Comets._--The great difference which we have
+pointed out between comets and the permanent bodies of the solar system
+naturally suggested the idea that these bodies do not belong to that
+system at all, but are nebulous masses, scattered through the stellar
+spaces, and brought one by one into the sphere of the sun's attraction.
+The results of this view are easily shown to be incompatible with the
+observed facts. The sun, carrying the whole solar system with it, is
+moving through space with a speed of about 10 m. per second. If it
+approached a comet nearly at rest the result would be a relative motion
+of this amount which, as the comet came nearer, would be constantly
+increased, and would result in the comet describing relative to the sun
+a markedly hyperbolic orbit, deviating too widely from a parabola to
+leave any doubt, even in the most extreme cases. Moreover, a large
+majority of comets would then have their aphelia in the direction of the
+sun's motion, and therefore their perihelia in the opposite direction.
+Neither of these results corresponds to the fact. The conclusion is that
+if we regard a comet as a body not belonging to the solar system, it is
+at least a body which before its approach to the sun had the same motion
+through the stellar spaces that the sun has. As this unity of motion
+must have been maintained from the beginning, we may regard comets as
+belonging to the solar system in the sense of not being visitors from
+distant regions of space.
+
+The acceptance of this seemingly inevitable conclusion leads to another:
+that no comet yet known moves in a really hyperbolic orbit, but that the
+limit of eccentricity must be regarded as 1, or that of the parabola. It
+is true that seeming evidence of hyperbolic eccentricity is sometimes
+afforded by observations and regarded by some astronomers as sufficient.
+The objections to the reality of the hyperbolic orbit are two: (1) A
+comet moving in a decidedly hyperbolic orbit must have come from so
+great a distance within a finite time, say a few millions of years, as
+to have no relation to the sun, and must after its approach to the sun
+return into space, never again to visit our system. In this case the
+motion of the sun through space renders it almost infinitely improbable
+that the orbit would have been so nearly a parabola as all such orbits
+are actually found to be. (2) The apparent deviation from a very
+elongated ellipse has never been in any case greater than might have
+been the result of errors of observation on bodies of this class.
+
+This being granted, a luminous view of the causes which lead to the
+observed orbits of comets is readily gained by imagining these bodies to
+be formed of nebulous masses, which originally accompanied the sun in
+its journey through space, but at distances, in most cases, vastly
+greater than that of the farthest planet. Such a mass, when drawn
+towards the sun, would move round it in a nearly parabolic orbit,
+similar to the actual orbits of the great majority of comets. The period
+might be measured by thousands, tens of thousands, or hundreds of
+thousands of years, according to the distances of the comet in the
+beginning; but instead of bodies extraneous to the system, we should
+have bodies properly belonging to the system and making revolutions
+around the sun.
+
+Were it not for the effect of planetary attraction long periods like
+these would be the general rule, though not necessarily universal. But
+at every return to perihelion the motion of a comet will be to some
+extent either accelerated or retarded by the action of Jupiter or any
+other planet in the neighbourhood of which it may pass. Commonly the
+action will be so slight as to have little influence on the orbit and
+the time of revolution. But should the comet chance to pass the orbit of
+Jupiter just in front of the planet, its motion would be retarded and
+the orbit would be changed into one of shorter period. Should it pass
+behind the planet, its motion would be accelerated and its period
+lengthened. In such cases the orbit might be changed to a hyperbola, and
+then the comet would never return. It follows that there is a tendency
+towards a gradual but constant diminution in the total number of comets.
+If we call [Delta]e the amount by which the eccentricity of a cometary
+orbit is less than unity, [Delta]e will be an extremely minute fraction
+in the case of the original orbits. If we call ą[delta] the change which
+the eccentricity 1 - [Delta]e undergoes by the action of the planets
+during the passage of the comet through our system, it will leave the
+system with the eccentricity 1 - [Delta]e ą [delta]. The possibilities
+are even whether [delta] shall be positive or negative. If negative, the
+eccentricity will be diminished and the period shortened. If positive,
+and greater than [Delta]e, the eccentricity 1 - [Delta]e + [delta] will
+be greater than 1, and then the comet will be thrown into a hyperbolic
+orbit and become for ever a wanderer through the stellar spaces.
+
+The nearer a comet passes to a planet, especially to Jupiter, the
+greatest planet, the greater [delta] may be. If [delta] is a
+considerable negative fraction, the eccentricity will be so reduced that
+the comet will after the approach be one of short period. It follows
+that, however long the period of a comet may be, there is a possibility
+of its becoming one of short period if it approaches Jupiter. There have
+been several cases of this during the past two centuries, the most
+recent being that of Brooks's comet, 1889, V. Soon after its discovery
+this body was found to have a period of only about seven years. The
+question why it had not been observed at previous returns was settled
+after the orbit had been determined by computing its motion in the past.
+It was thus found that in October 1886 the comet had passed in the
+immediate neighbourhood of Jupiter, the action of which had been such as
+to change its orbit from one of long period to the short observed
+period. A similar case was that of Lexel's comet, seen in 1770.
+Originally moving in an unknown orbit, it encountered the planet
+Jupiter, made two revolutions round the sun, in the second of which it
+was observed, then again encountered the planet, to be thrown out of its
+orbit into one which did not admit of determination. The comet was never
+again found.
+
+A general conclusion which seems to follow from these conditions, and is
+justified by observations, so far as the latter go, is that comets are
+not to be regarded as permanent bodies like the planets, but that the
+conglomerations of matter which compose them are undergoing a process of
+gradual dissipation in space. This process is especially rapid in the
+case of the fainter periodic comets. It was first strikingly brought out
+in the case of Biela's comet. This object was discovered in 1772, was
+observed to be periodic after several revolutions had been made, and was
+observed with a fair degree of regularity at different returns until
+1852. At the previous apparition it was found to have separated into two
+masses, and in 1852 these masses were so widely separated that they
+might be considered as forming two comets. Notwithstanding careful
+search at times and places when the comet was due, no trace of it has
+since been seen. An examination of the table of periodic comets given at
+the end of this article will show that the same thing is probably true
+of several other comets, especially Brorsen's and Tempel's, which have
+each made several revolutions since last observed, and have been sought
+for in vain.
+
+In view of the seemingly inevitable dissipation of comets in the course
+of ages, and of the actually observed changes of their orbits by the
+attraction of Jupiter, the question arises whether the orbits of all
+comets of short period may not have been determined by the attraction of
+the planets, especially of Jupiter. In this case the orbit would, for a
+period of several centuries, have continued to nearly intersect that of
+the planet. We find, as a matter of fact, that several periodic comets
+either pass near Jupiter or have their aphelia in the neighbourhood of
+the orbit of Jupiter. The approach, however, is not sufficiently close
+to have led to the change unless in former times the proximity of the
+orbits was much greater than it is now. As the orbits of all the bodies
+of the solar system are subject to a slow secular change of their form
+and position, this may only show that it must have been thousands of
+years since the comet became one of short period. The two cases of most
+difficulty are those of Halley's and Encke's comets. The orbit of the
+former is so elongated and so inclined to the general plane of the
+planetary orbits that its secular variation must be very slow indeed.
+But it does not pass near the orbit of any planet except Venus; and even
+here the proximity is far from being sufficient to have produced an
+appreciable change in the period. The orbit of Encke's comet is entirely
+within the orbit of Jupiter, and it also cannot have passed near enough
+to a planet for thousands of years to have had its orbit changed by the
+action in question. It therefore seems difficult to regard these two
+comets as other than permanent members of the solar system.
+
+_Special Periodic Comets._--One of the most remarkable periodic comets
+with which we are acquainted is that known to astronomers as Halley's.
+Having perceived that the elements of the comet of 1682 were nearly the
+same as those of two comets which had respectively appeared in 1531 and
+1607, Edmund Halley concluded that all the three orbits belonged to the
+same comet, of which the periodic time was about 76 years. After a rough
+estimate of the perturbations it must sustain from the attraction of the
+planets, he predicted its return for 1757,--a bold prediction at that
+time, but justified by the event, for the comet again made its
+appearance as was expected, though it did not pass through its
+perihelion till the month of March 1759, the attraction of Jupiter and
+Saturn having caused, as was computed by Clairault previously to its
+return, a retardation of 618 days. This comet had been observed in 1066,
+and the accounts which have been preserved represent it as having then
+appeared to be four times the size of Venus, and to have shone with a
+light equal to a fourth of that of the moon. History is silent
+respecting it from that time till the year 1456, when it passed very
+near to the earth: its tail then extended over 60° of the heavens, and
+had the form of a sabre. It returned to its perihelion in 1835, and was
+well observed in almost every observatory. But its brightness was far
+from comparing with the glorious accounts of its former apparitions.
+That this should have been due to the process of dissipation does not
+seem possible in so short a period; we must therefore consider either
+that the earlier accounts are greatly exaggerated, or that the
+brightness of the comet is subject to changes from some unknown cause.
+Previous appearances of Halley's comet have been calculated by J. R.
+Hind, and more recently by P. H. Cowell and A. C. D. Crommelin of
+Greenwich, the latter having carried the comet back to 87 B.C. with
+certainty, and to 240 B.C. with fair probability. It was detected by Max
+Wolf at Heidelberg on plates exposed on Sept. 11, 1909, and subsequently
+on a Greenwich plate of Sept. 9.
+
+The known comet of shortest period bears the name of J. F. Encke, the
+astronomer who first investigated its orbit and showed its periodicity.
+It was originally discovered in 1789, but its periodicity was not
+recognized until 1818, after it had been observed at several returns.
+This comet has given rise to a longer series of investigations than any
+other, owing to Encke's result that the orbit was becoming smaller, and
+the revolutions therefore accelerated, by some unknown cause, of which
+the most plausible was a resisting medium surrounding the sun. As this
+comet is almost the only one that passes within the orbit of Mercury, it
+is quite possible that it alone would show the effect of such a medium.
+Recent investigations of this subject have been made at the Pulkova
+Observatory, first by F. E. von Asten and later by J. O. Backlund who,
+in 1909, was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
+for his researches in this field. During some revolutions there was
+evidence of a slight acceleration of the return, and during others there
+was not.
+
+The following is a list (compiled in 1909) of comets which are well
+established as periodic, through having been observed at one or more
+returns. In addition to what has already been said of several comets in
+this list the following remarks may be made. Tuttle's comet was first
+seen by P. F. A. Méchain in 1790, but was not recognized as periodic
+until found by Tuttle in 1858, when the resemblance of the two orbits
+led to the conclusion of the identity of the bodies, the period of which
+was soon made evident by continued observations. The comets of Pons and
+Olbers are remarkable for having an almost equal period. But their
+orbits are otherwise totally different, so that there does not seem to
+be any connexion between them. Brorsen's comet seems also to be
+completely dissipated, not having been seen since 1879.
+
+  _List of Periodic Comets observed at more than one Return._
+
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Designation.|    1st Perih.   |   Last Perih.   | Period|Least Dist.| Gr. Dist. |
+  |            |    Passage.     |   Passage obs.  | Years.|Ast. Units.|Ast. Units.|
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Halley      | 1456 June 8.2   | 1835 Nov. 15.9  | 75.9  |    0.58   |   35.42   |
+  |Biela       | 1772 Feb. 16.7  | 1852 Sept. 23.4 |  6.67 |    0.98   |    6.18   |
+  |Encke       | 1786 Jan. 30.9  | 1905 Jan. 11.4  |  3.29 |    0.34   |    4.08   |
+  |Tuttle      | 1790 Jan. 30.9  | 1899 May 4.5    | 13.78 |    1.03   |   10.53   |
+  |Poris       | 1812 Sept. 15.3 | 1884 Jan. 25.7  | 72.28 |    0.78   |   33.70   |
+  |Olbers      | 1815 April 26.0 | 1887 Oct. 8.5   | 73.32 |    1.21   |   33.99   |
+  |Winnecke    | 1819 July 18.9  | 1898 Mar. 20.4  |  5.67 |    0.77   |    5.55   |
+  |Faye        | 1843 Oct. 17.1  | 1896 Mar. 19.3  |  7.50 |    1.69   |    5.93   |
+  |De Vico     | 1844 Sept. 2.5  | 1894 Oct. 12.2  |  5.66 |    1.19   |    5.01   |
+  |Brorsen     | 1846 Feb. 11.1  | 1879 Mar. 30.5  |  5.52 |    0.65   |    5.63   |
+  |D'Arrest    | 1851 July 8.7   | 1897 May 21.7   |  6.56 |    1.17   |    5.71   |
+  |Tempel I.   | 1867 May 23.9   | 1879 May 7.0    |  5.84 |    1.56   |    4.82   |
+  |Tempel-Swift| 1869 Nov. 18.8  | 1891 Nov. 15.0  |  5.51 |    1.06   |    5.16   |
+  |Tempel II.  | 1873 June 25.2  | 1904 Nov. 10.5  |  5.28 |    1.34   |    4.66   |
+  |Wolf        | 1884 Nov. 17.8  | 1898 July 4.6   |  6.80 |    1.59   |    5.57   |
+  |Finlay      | 1886 Nov. 22.4  | 1893 July 12.2  |  6.64 |    0.99   |    6.17   |
+  |Brooks      | 1889 Sept. 30.3 | 1903 Dec. 6.5   |  7.10 |    1.95   |    5.44   |
+  |Holmes      | 1892 June 13.2  | 1899 April 28.1 |  6.89 |    2.14   |    4.50   |
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+-----------+-----------+
+
+There are also a number of cases in which a comet has been observed
+through one apparition, and found to be apparently periodic, but which
+was not seen to return at the end of its supposed period. In some of
+these cases it seems likely that the comet passed near the planet
+Jupiter and thus had its orbit entirely changed. It is possible that in
+other cases the apparent periodicity is due to the unavoidable errors of
+observation to which, owing to their diffused outline, the nuclei of
+comets are liable.     (S. N.)
+
+
+
+
+COMET-SEEKER, a small telescope (q.v.) adapted especially to searching
+for comets: commonly of short focal length and large aperture, in order
+to secure the greatest brilliancy of light.
+
+
+
+
+COMILLA, or KUMILLA, a town of British India, headquarters of Tippera
+district in Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated on the river Gumti, with
+a station on the Assam-Bengal railway, 96 m. from the coast terminus at
+Chittagong. Pop. (1901) 19,169. The town has many large tanks and an
+English church, built in 1875.
+
+
+
+
+COMINES, or COMMINES (Flem. _Komen_), a town of western Flanders, 13 m.
+N.N.W. of Lille by rail. It is divided by the river Lys, leaving one
+part on French (department of Nord), the other on Belgian territory
+(province of West Flanders). Pop. of the French town 6359 (1906); of the
+Belgian town, 6453 (1904). The former has a belfry of the 14th century,
+restored in the 17th and 19th centuries, and remains of a chateau.
+Comines carries on the spinning of flax, wool and cotton.
+
+
+
+
+COMITIA, the name applied, always in technical and generally in popular
+phraseology, to the most formal types of gathering of the sovereign
+people in ancient Rome. It is the plural of _comitium_, the old
+"meeting-place" (Lat. _cum_, together, _ire_, to go) on the north-west
+of the Forum. The Romans had three words for describing gatherings of
+the people. These were _concilium_, _comitia_ and _contio_. Of these
+concilium had the most general significance. It could be applied to any
+kind of meeting and is often used to describe assemblies in foreign
+states. It was, therefore, a word that might be employed to denote an
+organized gathering of a portion of the Roman people such as the plebs,
+and in this sense is contrasted with _comitia_, which when used strictly
+should signify an assembly of the whole people. Thus the Roman
+draughtsman who wishes to express the idea "magistrates of any kind as
+president of assemblies" writes "Magistratus queiquomque comitia
+conciliumve habebit" (_Lex Latina tabulae Bantinae_, l. 5), and
+formalism required that a magistrate who summoned only a portion of the
+people to meet him should, in his summons, use the word _concilium_.
+This view is expressed by Laelius Felix, a lawyer probably of the age of
+Hadrian, when he writes "Is qui non universum populum, sed partem
+aliquam adesse jubet, non comitia, sed concilium edicere debet"
+(Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, xv. 27). But popular phraseology did not
+conform to this canon, and _comitia_, which gained in current Latin the
+sense of "elections" was sometimes used of the assemblies of the plebs
+(see the instances in Botsford, distinction between _Comitia_ and
+_Concilium_, p. 23). The distinction between _comitia_ and _contio_ was
+more clearly marked. Both were formal assemblies convened by a
+magistrate; but while, in the case of the _comitia_, the magistrate's
+purpose was to ask a question of the people and to elicit their binding
+response, his object in summoning a _contio_ was merely to bring the
+people together either for their instruction or for a declaration of his
+will as expressed in an edict ("contionem habere est verba facere ad
+populum sine ulla rogatione," Gell. op. cit. xiii. 6). The word comitia
+merely means "meetings."
+
+The earliest _comitia_ was one organized on the basis of parishes
+(_curiae_) and known in later times as the _comitia curiata_. The
+_curia_ voted as a single unit and thus furnished the type for that
+system of group-voting which runs through all the later organization of
+the popular assemblies. This _comitia_ must originally have been
+composed exclusively of patricians (q.v.); but there is reason to
+believe that, at an early period of the Republic, it had, in imitation
+of the centuriate organization, come to include plebeians (see CURIA).
+The organization which gave rise to the _comitia centuriata_ was the
+result of the earliest steps in the political emancipation of the plebs.
+Three stages in this process may be conjectured. In the first place the
+plebeians gained full rights of ownership and transfer, and could thus
+become freeholders of the land which they occupied and of the
+appurtenances of this land (_res mancipi_). This legal capacity rendered
+them liable to military service as heavy-armed fighting men, and as such
+they were enrolled in the military units called _centuriae_. When the
+enrolment was completed the whole host (_exercitus_) was the best
+organized and most representative gathering that Rome could show. It
+therefore either usurped, or became gradually invested with voting
+powers, and gained a range of power which for two centuries (508-287
+B.C.) made it the dominant assembly in the state. But its aristocratic
+organization, based as this was on property qualifications which gave
+the greatest voting power to the richest men, prevented it from being a
+fitting channel for the expression of plebeian claims. Hence the plebs
+adopted a new political organization of their own. The tribunate called
+into existence a purely plebeian assembly, firstly, for the election of
+plebeian magistrates; secondly, for jurisdiction in cases where these
+magistrates had been injured; thirdly, for presenting petitions on
+behalf of the plebs through the consuls to the _comitia centuriata_.
+This right of petitioning developed into a power of legislation. The
+stages of the process (marked by the Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C.,
+the Publilian law of 339 B.C., and the Hortensian law of 287 B.C.) are
+unknown; but it is probable that the two first of the laws progressively
+weakened the discretionary power of senate and consuls in admitting such
+petitions; and that the Hortensian law fully recognized the right of
+resolutions of the plebs (_plebiscita_) to bind the whole community. The
+plebeian assembly, which had perhaps originally met by _curiae_, was
+organized on the basis of the territorial tribes in 471 B.C. This change
+suggested a renewed organization of the whole people for comitial
+purposes. The _comitia tributa populi_ was the result. This assembly
+seems to have been already in existence at the epoch of the Twelve
+Tables in 451 B.C., its electoral activity is perhaps attested in 447
+B.C., and it appears as a legislative body in 357 B.C.
+
+In spite of the formal differences of these four assemblies and the real
+distinction springing from the fact that patricians were not members of
+the plebeian bodies, the view which is appropriate to the developed
+Roman constitution is that the people expressed its will equally through
+all, although the mode of expression varied with the channel. This will
+was in theory unlimited. It was restricted only by the conservatism of
+the Roman, by the condition that the initiative must always be taken by
+a magistrate, by the _de facto_ authority of the senate, and by the
+magisterial veto which the senate often had at its command (see SENATE).
+There were no limitations on the legislative powers of the _comitia_
+except such as they chose to respect or which they themselves created
+and might repeal. They never during the Republican period lost the right
+of criminal jurisdiction, in spite of the fact that so many spheres of
+this jurisdiction had been assigned in perpetuity to standing
+commissions (_quaestiones perpetuae_). This power of judging exercised
+by the assemblies had in the main developed from the use of the right of
+appeal (_provocatio_) against the judgments of the magistrates. But it
+is probable that, in the developed procedure, where it was known that
+the judgment pronounced might legally give rise to the appeal, the
+magistrate pronounced no sentence, but brought the case at once before
+the people. The case was then heard in four separate _contiones_. After
+these hearings the _comitia_ gave its verdict. Finally, the people
+elected to every magistracy with the exception of the occasional offices
+of Dictator and Interrex. The distribution of these functions amongst
+the various _comitia_, and the differences in their organization, were
+as follows:--
+
+The _comitia curiata_ had in the later Republic become a merely formal
+assembly. Its main function was that of passing the _lex curiata_ which
+was necessary for the ratification both of the _imperium_ of the higher
+magistracies of the people, and of the _potestas_ of those of lower
+rank. This assembly also met, under the name of the _comitia calata_ and
+under the presidency of the pontifex maximus, for certain religious
+acts. These were the inauguration of the rex sacrorum and the flamens,
+and that abjuration of hereditary worship (_detestatio sacrorum_) which
+was made by a man who passed from his clan (_gens_) either by an act of
+adrogation (see ROMAN LAW and ADOPTION) or by transition from the
+patrician to the plebeian order. For the purpose of passing the _lex
+curiata_, and probably for its other purposes as well, this _comitia_
+was in Cicero's day represented by but thirty lictors (Cic. _de Lege
+Agraria_, ii. 12, 31).
+
+The _comitia centuriata_ could be summoned and presided over only by the
+magistrates with _imperium_. The consuls were its usual presidents for
+elections and for legislation, but the praetors summoned it for purposes
+of jurisdiction. It elected the magistrates with _imperium_ and the
+censors, and alone had the power of declaring war. According to the
+principle laid down in the Twelve Tables (Cicero, _de Legibus_, iii. 4.
+11) capital cases were reserved for this assembly. It was not frequently
+employed as a legislative body after the two assemblies of the tribes,
+which were easier to summon and organize, had been recognized as
+possessing sovereign rights. The internal structure of the _comitia
+centuriata_ underwent a great change during the Republic--a change which
+has been conjecturally attributed to the censorship of Flaminius in 220
+B.C. (Mommsen, _Staatsrecht_, iii. p. 270). In the early scheme, at a
+time when a pecuniary valuation had replaced land and its appurtenances
+(_res mancipi_) as the basis of qualification, five divisions
+(_classes_) were recognized whose property was assessed respectively at
+100,000, 75,000, 50,000, 25,000 and 11,000 (or 12,500) asses. The first
+class contained 80 centuries; the second, third and fourth 20 each; the
+fifth 30. Added to these were the 18 centuries of knights (see EQUITES).
+The combined vote of the first class and the knights was thus
+represented by 98 centuries; that of the whole of the other _classes_
+(including 4 or 5 centuries of professional corporations connected with
+the army, such as the _fabri_ and 1 century of _proletarii_, i.e. of all
+persons below the minimum census) was represented by 95 or 96 centuries.
+Thus the upper classes in the community possessed more than half the
+votes in the assembly. The newer scheme aimed at a greater equality of
+voting power; but it has been differently interpreted. The
+interpretation most usually accepted, which was first suggested by
+Pantagathus, a 17th-century scholar, is based on the view that the five
+_classes_ were distributed over the tribes in such a manner that there
+were 2 centuries of each class in a single tribe. As the number of the
+tribes was 35, the total number of centuries would be 350. To these we
+must add 18 centuries of knights, 4 of _fabri_, &c., and 1 of
+_proletarii_. Here the first class and the knights command but 88 votes
+out of a total of 373. Mommsen's interpretation (_Staatsrecht_, iii. p.
+275) was different. He allowed the 70 votes for the 70 centuries of the
+first class, but thought that the 280 centuries of the other classes
+were so combined as to form only 100 votes. The total votes in the
+comitia would thus be 70 + 100 + 5 (_fabri_, &c.) + 18 (knights), i.e.
+193, as in the earlier arrangement. In 88 B.C. a return was made to the
+original and more aristocratic system by a law passed by the consuls
+Sulla and Pompeius. At least this seems to be the meaning of Appian
+(_Bellum Civile_, i. 59) when he says [Greek: esęgounto ... tas
+cheirotonias mę kata phylas alla kata lochous ... gignesthai]. But this
+change was not permanent as the more liberal system prevails in the
+Ciceronian period.
+
+The _comitia tributa_ was in the later Republic the usual organ for laws
+passed by the whole people. Its presidents were the magistrates of the
+people, usually the consuls and praetors, and, for purposes of
+jurisdiction, the curule aediles. It elected these aediles and other
+lower magistrates of the people. Its jurisdiction was limited to
+monetary penalties.
+
+The _concilium plebis_, although voting, like this last assembly, by
+tribes, could be summoned and presided over only by plebeian
+magistrates, and never included the patricians. Its utterances
+(_plebiscita_) had the full force of law; it elected the tribunes of the
+plebs and the plebeian aediles, and it pronounced judgment on the
+penalties which they proposed. The right of this assembly to exercise
+capital jurisdiction was questioned; but it possessed the undisputed
+right of pronouncing outlawry (_aquae et ignis interdictio_) against any
+one already in exile (Livy xxv. 4, and xxvi. 3).
+
+When the tenure of the religious colleges--formerly filled up by
+co-optation--was submitted to popular election, a change effected by a
+_lex Domitia_ of 104 B.C., a new type of _comitia_ was devised for this
+purpose. The electoral body was composed of 17 tribes selected by lot
+from the whole body of 35.
+
+There was a body of rules governing the _comitia_ which were concerned
+with the time and place of meeting, the forms of promulgation and the
+methods of voting. Valid meetings might be held on any of the 194
+"comitial" days of the year which were not market or festal days
+(_nundinae, feriae_). The _comitia curiata_ and the two assemblies of
+the tribes met within the walls, the former usually in the Comitium, the
+latter in the Forum or on the Area Capitolii; but the elections at these
+assemblies were in the later Republic held in the Campus Martius outside
+the walls. The _comitia centuriata_ was by law compelled to meet outside
+the city and its gathering place was usually the Campus. Promulgation
+was required for the space of 3 _nundinae_ (i.e. 24 days) before a
+matter was submitted to the people. The voting was preceded by a
+_contio_ at which a limited debate was permitted by the magistrate. In
+the assemblies of the _curiae_ and the tribes the voting of the groups
+took place simultaneously, in that of the centuries in a fixed order. In
+elections as well as in legislative acts an absolute majority was
+required, and hence the candidate who gained a mere relative majority
+was not returned.
+
+The _comitia_ survived the Republic. The last known act of comitial
+legislation belongs to the reign of Nerva (A.D. 96-98). After the
+essential elements in the election of magistrates had passed to the
+senate in A.D. 14, the formal announcement of the successful candidates
+(_renuntiatio_) still continued to be made to the popular assemblies.
+Early in the 3rd century Dio Cassius still saw the _comitia centuriata_
+meeting with all its old solemnities (Dio Cassius lviii. 20).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Mommsen, _Römisches Staatsrecht_, iii. p. 300 foll.
+  (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887), and _Römische Forschungen_, Bd. i. (Berlin,
+  1879); Soltau, _Entstehung und Zusammensetzung der altrömischen
+  Volksversammlungen_, and _Die Gültigkeit der Plebiscite_ (Berlin,
+  1884); Huschke, _Die Verfassung des Königs Servius Tullius als
+  Grundlage zu einer römischen Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Heidelberg,
+  1838); Borgeaud, _Le Plébiscite dans l'antiquité. Grčce et Rome_
+  (Geneva, 1838); Greenidge, _Roman Public Life_, p. 65 foll., 102, 238
+  foll. and App. i. (1901); G. W. Botsford, _Roman Assemblies_ (1909).
+       (A. H. J. G.)
+
+
+
+
+COMITY (from the Lat. _comitas_, courtesy, from _cemis_, friendly,
+courteous), friendly or courteous behaviour; a term particularly used in
+international law, in the phrase "comity of nations," for the courtesy
+of nations towards each other. This has been held by some authorities to
+be the basis for the recognition by courts of law of the judgments and
+rules of law of foreign tribunals (see INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE).
+"Comity of nations" is sometimes wrongly used, from a confusion with the
+Latin _comes_, a companion, for the whole body or company of nations
+practising such international courtesy.
+
+
+
+
+COMMA (Gr. [Greek: komma], a thing stamped or cut off, from [Greek:
+koptein], to strike), originally, in Greek rhetoric, a short clause,
+something less than the "colon"; hence a mark (,), in punctuation, to
+show the smallest break in the construction of a sentence. The mark is
+also used to separate numerals, mathematical symbols and the like.
+Inverted commas, or "quotation-marks," i.e. pairs of commas, the first
+inverted, and the last upright, are placed at the beginning and end of a
+sentence or word quoted, or of a word used in a technical or
+conventional sense; single commas are similarly used for quotations
+within quotations. The word is also applied to comma-shaped objects,
+such as the "comma-bacillus," the causal agent in cholera.
+
+
+
+
+COMMANDEER (from the South African Dutch _kommanderen_, to command),
+properly, to compel the performance of military duty in the field,
+especially of the military service of the Boer republics (see COMMANDO);
+also to seize property for military purposes; hence used of any
+peremptory seizure for other than military purposes.
+
+
+
+
+COMMANDER, in the British navy, the title of the second grade of
+captains. He commands a small vessel, or is second in command of a large
+one. A staff commander is entrusted with the navigation of a large ship,
+and ranks above a navigating lieutenant. Since 1838 the officer next in
+rank to a captain in the U.S. navy has been called commander.
+
+
+
+
+COMMANDERY (through the Fr. _commanderie_, from med. Lat. _commendaria_,
+a trust or charge), a division of the landed property in Europe of the
+Knights Hospitallers (see St John of Jerusalem). The property of the
+order was divided into "priorates," subdivided into "bailiwicks," which
+in turn were divided into "commanderies"; these were placed in charge of
+a "commendator" or commander. The word is also applied to the emoluments
+granted to a commander of a military order of knights.
+
+
+
+
+COMMANDO, a Portuguese word meaning "command," adopted by the Boers in
+South Africa through whom it has come into English use, for military and
+semi-military expeditions against the natives. More particularly a
+"commando" was the administrative and tactical unit of the forces of the
+former Boer republics, "commandeered" under the law of the constitutions
+which made military service obligatory on all males between the ages of
+sixteen and sixty. Each "commando" was formed from the burghers of
+military age of an electoral district.
+
+
+
+
+COMMEMORATION, a general term for celebrating some past event. It is
+also the name for the annual act, or _Encaenia_, the ceremonial closing
+of the academic year at Oxford University. It consists of a Latin
+oration in commemoration of benefactors and founders; of the recitation
+of prize compositions in prose and verse, and the conferring of honorary
+degrees upon English or foreign celebrities. The ceremony, which is
+usually on the third Wednesday after Trinity Sunday, is held in the
+Sheldonian Theatre, in Broad St., Oxford. "Commencement" is the term for
+the equivalent ceremony at Cambridge, and this is also used in the case
+of American universities.
+
+
+
+
+COMMENDATION (from the Lat. _commendare_, to entrust to the charge of,
+or to procure a favour for), approval, especially when expressed to one
+person on behalf of another, a recommendation. The word is used in a
+liturgical sense for an office commending the souls of the dying and
+dead to the mercies of God. In feudal law the term is applied to the
+practice of a freeman placing himself under the protection of a lord
+(see FEUDALISM), and in ecclesiastical law to the granting of benefices
+_in commendam_. A benefice was held _in commendam_ when granted either
+temporarily until a vacancy was filled up, or to a layman, or, in case
+of a monastery or abbey, to a secular cleric to enjoy the revenues and
+privileges for life (see ABBOT), or to a bishop to hold together with
+his see. An act of 1836 prohibited the holding of benefices _in
+commendam_ in England.
+
+
+
+
+COMMENTARII (Lat. = Gr. [Greek: hypomnęmata]), notes to assist the
+memory, memoranda. This original idea of the word gave rise to a variety
+of meanings: notes and abstracts of speeches for the assistance of
+orators; family memorials, the origin of many of the legends introduced
+into early Roman history from a desire to glorify a particular family;
+diaries of events occurring in their own circle kept by private
+individuals,--the day-book, drawn up for Trimalchio in Petronius
+(_Satyricon_, 53) by his _actuarius_ (a slave to whom the duty was
+specially assigned) is quoted as an example; memoirs of events in which
+they had taken part drawn up by public men,--such were the
+"Commentaries" of Caesar on the Gallic and Civil wars, and of Cicero on
+his consulship. Different departments of the imperial administration and
+certain high functionaries kept records, which were under the charge of
+an official known as a _commentariis_ (cf. _a secretis_, _ab
+epistulis_). Municipal authorities also kept a register of their
+official acts.
+
+The _Commentarii Principis_ were the register of the official acts of
+the emperor. They contained the decisions, favourable or unfavourable,
+in regard to certain citizens; accusations brought before him or ordered
+by him; lists of persons in receipt of special privileges. These must be
+distinguished from the _commentarii diurni_, a daily court-journal. At a
+later period records called _ephemerides_ were kept by order of the
+emperor; these were much used by the Scriptores Historiae Augustae (see
+AUGUSTAN HISTORY). The _Commentarii Senatus_, only once mentioned
+(Tacitus, _Annals_, xv. 74) are probably identical with the Acta Senatus
+(q.v.). There were also Commentarii of the priestly colleges: (a)
+_Pontificum_, collections of their decrees and responses for future
+reference, to be distinguished from their _Annales_, which were
+historical records, and from their _Acta_, minutes of their meetings;
+(b) _Augurum_, similar collections of augural decrees and responses; (c)
+_Decemvirorum_; (d) _Fratrum Arvalium_. Like the priests, the
+magistrates also had similar notes, partly written by themselves, and
+partly records of which they formed the subject. But practically nothing
+is known of these _Commentarii Magistratuum_. Mention should also be
+made of the _Commentarii Regum_, containing decrees concerning the
+functions and privileges of the kings, and forming a record of the acts
+of the king in his capacity of priest. They were drawn up in historical
+times like the so-called _leges regiae_ (_jus Papirianum_), supposed to
+contain the decrees and decisions of the Roman kings.
+
+  See the exhaustive article by A. von Premerstein in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopädie_ (1901); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Lit._
+  (Eng. trans.), pp. 72, 77-79; and the concise account by H. Thédenat
+  in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités_.
+
+
+
+
+COMMENTRY, a town of central France, in the department of Allier, 42 m.
+S.W. of Moulins by the Orléans railway. Pop. (1906) 7581. Commentry
+gives its name to a coalfield over 5000 acres in extent, and has
+important foundries and forges.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCE (Lat. _commercium_, from _cum_, together, and _merx_,
+merchandise), in its general acceptation, the international traffic in
+goods, or what constitutes the foreign trade of all countries as
+distinct from their domestic trade.
+
+In tracing the history of such dealings we may go back to the early
+records found in the Hebrew Scriptures. Such a transaction as that of
+Abraham, for example, weighing down "four hundred shekels of silver,
+_current with the merchant_," for the field of Ephron, is suggestive of
+a group of facts and ideas indicating an advanced condition of
+commercial intercourse,--property in land, sale of land, arts of mining
+and purifying metals, the use of silver of recognized purity as a common
+medium of exchange, and merchandise an established profession, or
+division of labour. That other passage in which we read of Joseph being
+sold by his brethren for twenty pieces of silver to "a company of
+Ishmaelites, coming from Gilead, with their camels bearing spicery and
+balm and myrrh to Egypt," extends our vision still farther, and shows us
+the populous and fertile Egypt in commercial relationship with Chaldaea,
+and Arabians, foreign to both, as intermediaries in their traffic,
+generations before the Hebrew commonwealth was founded.
+
+The first foreign merchants of whom we read, carrying goods and bags of
+silver from one distant region to another, were the southern Arabs,
+reputed descendants of Ishmael and Esau. The first notable navigators
+and maritime carriers of goods were the Phoenicians. In the commerce of
+the ante-Christian ages the Jews do not appear to have performed any
+conspicuous part. Both the agricultural and the theocratic constitution
+of their society were unfavourable to a vigorous prosecution of foreign
+trade. In such traffic as they had with other nations they were served
+on their eastern borders by Arabian merchants, and on the west and south
+by the Phoenician shippers. The abundance of gold, silver and other
+precious commodities gathered from distant parts, of which we read in
+the days of greatest Hebrew prosperity, has more the character of spoils
+of war and tributes of dependent states than the conquest by free
+exchange of their domestic produce and manufacture. It was not until the
+Jews were scattered by foreign invasions, and finally cast into the
+world by the destruction of Jerusalem, that they began to develop those
+commercial qualities for which they have since been famous.
+
+
+  Primary conditions of commerce.
+
+There are three conditions as essential to extensive international
+traffic as diversity of natural resources, division of labour,
+accumulation of stock, or any other primal element--(1) means of
+transport, (2) freedom of labour and exchange, and (3) security; and in
+all these conditions the ancient world was signally deficient.
+
+The great rivers, which became the first seats of population and empire,
+must have been of much utility as channels of transport, and hence the
+course of human power of which they are the geographical delineation,
+and probably the idolatry with which they were sometimes honoured. Nor
+were the ancient rulers insensible of the importance of opening roads
+through their dominions, and establishing post and lines of
+communication, which, though primarily for official and military
+purposes, must have been useful to traffickers and to the general
+population. But the free navigable area of great rivers is limited, and
+when diversion of traffic had to be made to roads and tracks through
+deserts, there remained the slow and costly carriage of beasts of
+burden, by which only articles of small bulk and the rarest value could
+be conveyed with any hope of profit. Corn, though of the first
+necessity, could only be thus transported in famines, when beyond price
+to those who were in want, and under this extreme pressure could only be
+drawn from within a narrow sphere, and in quantity sufficient to the
+sustenance of but a small number of people. The routes of ancient
+commerce were thus interrupted and cut asunder by barriers of transport,
+and the farther they were extended became the more impassable to any
+considerable quantity or weight of commodities. As long as navigation
+was confined to rivers and the shores of inland gulfs and seas, the
+oceans were a _terra incognita_, contributing nothing to the facility or
+security of transport from one part of the world to another, and leaving
+even one populous part of Asia as unapproachable from another as if they
+had been in different hemispheres. The various routes of trade from
+Europe and north-western Asia to India, which have been often referred
+to, are to be regarded more as speculations of future development than
+as realities of ancient history. It is not improbable that the ancient
+traffic of the Red Sea may have been extended along the shores of the
+Arabian Sea to some parts of Hindustan, but that vessels braved the
+Indian Ocean and passed round Cape Comorin into the Bay of Bengal, 2000
+or even 1000 years before mariners had learned to double the Cape of
+Good Hope, is scarcely to be believed. The route by the Euxine and the
+Caspian Sea has probably never in any age reached India. That by the
+Euphrates and the Persian Gulf is shorter, and was besides the more
+likely from passing through tracts of country which in the most remote
+times were seats of great population. There may have been many merchants
+who traded on all these various routes, but that commodities were passed
+in bulk over great distances is inconceivable. It may be doubted whether
+in the ante-Christian ages there was any heavy transport over even 500
+m., save for warlike or other purposes, which engaged the public
+resources of imperial states, and in which the idea of commerce, as now
+understood, is in a great measure lost.
+
+The advantage which absolute power gave to ancient nations in their
+warlike enterprises, and in the execution of public works of more or
+less utility, or of mere ostentation and monumental magnificence, was
+dearly purchased by the sacrifice of individual freedom, the right to
+labour, produce and exchange under the steady operation of natural
+economic principles, which more than any other cause vitalizes the
+individual and social energies, and multiplies the commercial resource
+of communities. Commerce in all periods and countries has obtained a
+certain freedom and hospitality from the fact that the foreign merchant
+has something desirable to offer; but the action of trading is
+reciprocal, and requires multitudes of producers and merchants, as free
+agents, on both sides, searching out by patient experiment wants more
+advantageously supplied by exchange than by direct production, before it
+can attain either permanence or magnitude, or can become a vital element
+of national life. The ancient polities offered much resistance to this
+development, and in their absolute power over the liberty, industry and
+property of the masses of their subjects raised barriers to the
+extension of commerce scarcely less formidable than the want of means of
+communication itself. The conditions of security under which foreign
+trade can alone flourish equally exceeded the resources of ancient
+civilization. Such roads as exist must be protected from robbers, the
+rivers and seas from pirates; goods must have safe passage and safe
+storage, must be held in a manner sacred in the territories through
+which they pass, be insured against accidents, be respected even in the
+madness of hostilities; the laws of nations must give a guarantee on
+which traders can proceed in their operations with reasonable
+confidence; and the governments, while protecting the commerce of their
+subjects with foreigners as if it were their own enterprise, must in
+their fiscal policy, and in all their acts, be endued with the highest
+spirit of commercial honour. Every great breach of this security stops
+the continuous circulation, which is the life of traffic and of the
+industries to which it ministers. But in the ancient records we see
+commerce exposed to great risks, subject to constant pillage, hunted
+down in peace and utterly extinguished in war. Hence it became necessary
+that foreign trade should itself be an armed force in the world; and
+though the states of purely commercial origin soon fell into the same
+arts and wiles as the powers to which they were opposed, yet their
+history exhibits clearly enough the necessity out of which they arose.
+Once organized, it was inevitable that they should meet intrigue with
+intrigue, and force with force. The political empires, while but
+imperfectly developing industry and traffic within their own
+territories, had little sympathy with any means of prosperity from
+without. Their sole policy was either to absorb under their own spirit
+and conditions of rule, or to destroy, whatever was rich or great beyond
+their borders. Nothing is more marked in the past history of the world
+than this struggle of commerce to establish conditions of security and
+means of communication with distant parts. When almost driven from the
+land, it often found both on the sea; and often, when its success had
+become brilliant and renowned, it perished under the assault of stronger
+powers, only to rise again in new centres and to find new channels of
+intercourse.
+
+
+  Carthage.
+
+  Roman conquests.
+
+  Palmyra.
+
+While Rome was giving laws and order to the half-civilized tribes of
+Italy, Carthage, operating on a different base, and by other methods,
+was opening trade with less accessible parts of Europe. The strength of
+Rome was in her legions, that of Carthage in her ships; and her ships
+could cover ground where the legions were powerless. Her mariners had
+passed the mythical straits into the Atlantic, and established the port
+of Cadiz. Within the Mediterranean itself they founded Carthagena and
+Barcelona on the same Iberian peninsula, and ahead of the Roman legions
+had depots and traders on the shores of Gaul. After the destruction of
+Tyre, Carthage became the greatest power in the Mediterranean, and
+inherited the trade of her Phoenician ancestors with Egypt, Greece and
+Asia Minor, as well as her own settlements in Sicily and on the European
+coasts. An antagonism between the great naval and the great military
+power, whose interests crossed each other at so many points, was sure to
+occur; and in the three Punic wars Carthage measured her strength with
+that of Rome both on sea and on land with no unequal success. But a
+commercial state impelled into a series of great wars has departed from
+its own proper base; and in the year 146 B.C. Carthage was so totally
+destroyed by the Romans that of the great city, more than 20 m. in
+circumference, and containing at one period near a million of
+inhabitants, only a few thousands were found within its ruined walls. In
+the same year Corinth, one of the greatest of the Greek capitals and
+seaports, was captured, plundered of vast wealth and given to the flames
+by a Roman consul. Athens and her magnificent harbour of the Piraeus
+fell into the same hands 60 years later. It may be presumed that trade
+went on under the Roman conquests in some degree as before; but these
+were grave events to occur within a brief period, and the spirit of the
+seat of trade in every case having been broken, and its means and
+resources more or less plundered and dissipated--in some cases, as in
+that of Carthage, irreparably--the most necessary commerce could only
+proceed with feeble and languid interest under the military, consular
+and proconsular licence of Rome at that period. Tyre, the great seaport
+of Palestine, having been destroyed by Alexander the Great, Palmyra, the
+great inland centre of Syrian trade, was visited with a still more
+complete annihilation by the Roman Emperor Aurelian within little more
+than half a century after the capture and spoliation of Athens. The
+walls were razed to their foundations; the population--men, women,
+children and the rustics round the city--were all either massacred or
+dispersed; and the queen Zenobia was carried captive to Rome. Palmyra
+had for centuries, as a centre of commercial intercourse and transit,
+been of great service to her neighbours, east and west. In the wars of
+the Romans and Parthians she was respected by both as an asylum of
+common interests which it would have been simple barbarity to invade or
+injure; and when the Parthians were subdued, and Palmyra became a Roman
+_annexe_, she continued to flourish as before. Her relations with Rome
+were more than friendly; they became enthusiastic and heroic; and her
+citizens having inflicted signal chastisement on the king of Persia for
+the imprisonment of the emperor Valerian, the admiration of this conduct
+at Rome was so great that their spirited leader Odaenathus, the husband
+of Zenobia, was proclaimed Augustus, and became co-emperor with
+Gallienus. It is obvious that the destruction of Palmyra must not only
+have doomed Palestine, already bereft of her seaports, to greater
+poverty and commercial isolation than had been known in long preceding
+ages, but have also rendered it more difficult to Rome herself to hold
+or turn to any profitable account her conquests in Asia; and, being an
+example of the policy of Rome to the seats of trade over nearly the
+whole ancient world, it may be said to contain in graphic characters a
+presage of what came to be the actual event--the collapse and fall of
+the Roman empire itself.
+
+
+  Venice.
+
+The repeated invasions of Italy by the Goths and Huns gave rise to a
+seat of trade in the Adriatic, which was to sustain during more than a
+thousand years a history of unusual splendour. The Veneti cultivated
+fertile lands on the Po, and built several towns, of which Padua was the
+chief. They appear from the earliest note of them in history to have
+been both an agricultural and trading people; and they offered a rich
+prey to the barbarian hordes when these broke through every barrier into
+the plains of Italy. Thirty years before Attila razed the neighbouring
+city of Aquileia, the consuls and senate of Padua, oppressed and
+terrified by the prior ravages of Alaric, passed a decree for erecting
+Rialto, the largest of the numerous islets at the mouth of the Po, into
+a chief town and port, not more as a convenience to the islanders than
+as a security for themselves and their goods. But every fresh incursion,
+every new act of spoliation by the dreaded enemies, increased the flight
+of the rich and the industrious to the islands, and thus gradually arose
+the second Venice, whose glory was so greatly to exceed that of the
+first. Approachable from the mainland only by boats, through river
+passes easily defended by practised sailors against barbarians who had
+never plied an oar, the Venetian refugees could look in peace on the
+desolation which swept over Italy; their warehouses, their markets,
+their treasures were safe from plunder; and stretching their hands over
+the sea, they found in it fish and salt, and in the rich possessions of
+trade and territory which it opened to them more than compensation for
+the fat lands and inland towns which had long been their home. The
+Venetians traded with Constantinople, Greece, Syria and Egypt. They
+became lords of the Morea, and of Candia, Cyprus and other islands of
+the Levant. The trade of Venice with India, though spoken of, was
+probably never great. But the crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries
+against the Saracens in Palestine extended her repute more widely east
+and west, and increased both her naval and her commercial resources. It
+is enough, indeed, to account for the grandeur of Venice that in course
+of centuries, from the security of her position, the growth and energy
+of her population, and the regularity of her government at a period when
+these sources of prosperity were rare, she became the great emporium of
+the Mediterranean--all that Carthage, Corinth and Athens had been in a
+former age on a scene the most remarkable in the world for its fertility
+and facilities of traffic,--and that as Italy and other parts of the
+Western empire became again more settled her commerce found always a
+wider range. The bridge built from the largest of the islands to the
+opposite bank became the "Rialto," or famous exchange of Venice, whose
+transactions reached farther, and assumed a more consolidated form, than
+had been known before. There it was where the first public bank was
+organized; that bills of exchange were first negotiated, and funded debt
+became transferable; that finance became a science and book-keeping an
+art. Nor must the effect of the example of Venice on other cities of
+Italy be left out of account. Genoa, following her steps, rose into
+great prosperity and power at the foot of the Maritime Alps, and became
+her rival, and finally her enemy. Naples, Gaeta, Florence, many other
+towns of Italy, and Rome herself, long after her fall, were encouraged
+to struggle for the preservation of their municipal freedom, and to
+foster trade, arts and navigation, by the brilliant success set before
+them on the Adriatic; but Venice, from the early start she had made, and
+her command of the sea, had the commercial pre-eminence.
+
+
+  The middle ages.
+
+The state of things which arose on the collapse of the Roman empire
+presents two concurrent facts, deeply affecting the course of trade--(1)
+the ancient seats of industry and civilization were undergoing constant
+decay, while (2) the energetic races of Europe were rising into more
+civilized forms and manifold vigour and copiousness of life. The fall of
+the Eastern division of the empire prolonged the effect of the fall of
+the Western empire; and the advance of the Saracens over Asia Minor,
+Syria, Greece, Egypt, over Cyprus and other possessions of Venice in the
+Mediterranean, over the richest provinces of Spain, and finally across
+the Hellespont into the Danubian provinces of Europe, was a new
+irruption of barbarians from another point of the compass, and revived
+the calamities and disorders inflicted by the successive invasions of
+Goths, Huns and other Northern tribes. For more than ten centuries the
+naked power of the sword was vivid and terrible as flashes of lightning
+over all the seats of commerce, whether of ancient or more modern
+origin. The feudal system of Europe, in organizing the open country
+under military leaders and defenders subordinated in possession and
+service under a legal system to each other and to the sovereign power,
+must have been well adapted to the necessity of the times in which it
+spread so rapidly; but it would be impossible to say that the feudal
+system was favourable to trade, or the extension of trade. The
+commercial spirit in the feudal, as in preceding ages, had to find for
+itself places of security, and it could only find them in towns, armed
+with powers of self-regulation and defence, and prepared, like the
+feudal barons themselves, to resist violence from whatever quarter it
+might come. Rome, in her best days, had founded the municipal system,
+and when this system was more than ever necessary as the bulwark of arts
+and manufactures, its extension became an essential element of the whole
+European civilization. Towns formed themselves into leagues for mutual
+protection, and out of leagues not infrequently arose commercial
+republics. The Hanseatic League, founded as early as 1241, gave the
+first note of an increasing traffic between countries on the Baltic and
+in northern Germany, which a century or two before were sunk in isolated
+barbarism. From Lübeck and Hamburg, commanding the navigation of the
+Elbe, it gradually spread over 85 towns, including Amsterdam, Cologne
+and Frankfort in the south, and Danzig, Königsberg and Riga in the
+north. The last trace of this league, long of much service in protecting
+trade, and as a means of political mediation, passed away in the
+erection of the German empire (1870), but only from the same cause that
+had brought about its gradual dissolution--the formation of powerful
+and legal governments--which, while leaving to the free cities their
+municipal rights, were well capable of protecting their mercantile
+interests. The towns of Holland found lasting strength and security from
+other causes. Their foundations were laid as literally in the sea as
+those of Venice had been. They were not easily attacked whether by sea
+or land, and if attacked had formidable means of defence. The Zuyder
+Zee, which had been opened to the German Ocean in 1282, carried into the
+docks and canals of Amsterdam the traffic of the ports of the Baltic, of
+the English Channel and of the south of Europe, and what the seas did
+for Amsterdam from without the Rhine and the Maese did for Dort and
+Rotterdam from the interior. By the Union of Utrecht in 1579 Holland
+became an independent republic, and for long after, as it had been for
+some time before, was the greatest centre of maritime traffic in Europe.
+The rise of the Dutch power in a low country, exposed to the most
+destructive inundations, difficult to cultivate or even to inhabit,
+affords a striking illustration of those conditions which in all times
+have been found specially favourable to commercial development, and
+which are not indistinctly reflected in the mercantile history of
+England, preserved by its insular position from hostile invasions, and
+capable by its fleets and arms to protect its goods on the seas and the
+rights of its subjects in foreign lands.
+
+The progress of trade and productive arts in the middle ages, though not
+rising to much international exchange, was very considerable both in
+quality and extent. The republics of Italy, which had no claim to rival
+Venice or Genoa in maritime power or traffic, developed a degree of art,
+opulence and refinement commanding the admiration of modern times; and
+if any historian of trans-Alpine Europe, when Venice had already
+attained some greatness, could have seen it five hundred years
+afterwards, the many strong towns of France, Germany and the Low
+Countries, the great number of their artizans, the products of their
+looms and anvils, and their various cunning workmanship, might have
+added many a brilliant page to his annals. Two centuries before England
+had discovered any manufacturing quality, or knew even how to utilize
+her most valuable raw materials, and was importing goods from the
+continent for the production of which she was soon to be found to have
+special resources, the Flemings were selling their woollen and linen
+fabrics, and the French their wines, silks and laces in all the richer
+parts of the British Islands. The middle ages placed the barbarous
+populations of Europe under a severe discipline, trained them in the
+most varied branches of industry, and developed an amount of handicraft
+and ingenuity which became a solid basis for the future. But trade was
+too walled in, too much clad in armour, and too incessantly disturbed by
+wars and tumults, and violations of common right and interest, to exert
+its full influence over the general society, or even to realize its most
+direct advantages. It wanted especially the freedom and mobility
+essential to much international increase, and these it was now to
+receive from a series of the most pregnant events.
+
+
+  Opening of a new era.
+
+The mariner's compass had become familiar in the European ports about
+the beginning of the 14th century, and the seamen of Italy, Portugal,
+France, Holland and England entered upon a more enlightened and
+adventurous course of navigation. The Canary Islands were sighted by a
+French vessel in 1330, and colonized in 1418 by the Portuguese, who two
+years later landed on Madeira. In 1431 the Azores were discovered by a
+shipmaster of Bruges. The Atlantic was being gradually explored. In
+1486, Diaz, a Portuguese, steering his course almost unwittingly along
+the coast of Africa, came upon the land's-end of that continent; and
+eleven years afterwards Vasco da Gama, of the same nation, not only
+doubled the Cape of Good Hope, but reached India. About the same period
+Portuguese travellers penetrated to India by the old time-honoured way
+of Suez; and a land which tradition and imagination had invested with
+almost fabulous wealth and splendour was becoming more real to the
+European world at the moment when the expedition of Vasco da Gama had
+made an oceanic route to its shores distinctly visible. One can hardly
+now realize the impression made by these discoveries in an age when the
+minds of men were awakening out of a long sleep, when the printing press
+was disseminating the ancient classical and sacred literature, and when
+geography and astronomy were subjects of eager study in the seats both
+of traffic and of learning. But their practical effect was seen in
+swiftly-succeeding events. Before the end of the century Columbus had
+thrice crossed the Atlantic, touched at San Salvador, discovered
+Jamaica, Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien, and had seen the waters
+of the Orinoco in South America. Meanwhile Cabot, sent out by England,
+had discovered Newfoundland, planted the English flag on Labrador, Nova
+Scotia and Virginia, and made known the existence of an expanse of land
+now known as Canada. This tide of discovery by navigators flowed on
+without intermission. But the opening of a maritime route to India and
+the discovery of America, surprising as these events must have been at
+the time, were slow in producing the results of which they were a sure
+prognostic. The Portuguese established in Cochin the first European
+factory in India a few years after Vasco da Gama's expedition, and other
+maritime nations of Europe traced a similar course. But it was not till
+1600 that the English East India Company was established, and the
+opening of the first factory of the Company in India must be dated some
+ten or eleven years later. So also it was one thing to discover the two
+Americas, and another, in any real sense, to possess or colonize them,
+or to bring their productions into the general traffic and use of the
+world. Spain, following the stroke of the valiant oar of Columbus, found
+in Mexico and Peru remarkable remains of an ancient though feeble
+civilization, and a wealth of gold and silver mines, which to Europeans
+of that period was fascinating from the rarity of the precious metals in
+their own realms, and consequently gave to the Spanish colonizations and
+conquests in South America an extraordinary but unsolid prosperity. The
+value of the precious metals in Europe was found to fall as soon as they
+began to be more widely distributed, a process in itself at that period
+of no small tediousness; and it was discovered further, after a century
+or two, that the production of gold and silver is limited like the
+production of other commodities for which they exchange, and only
+increased in quantity at a heavier cost, that is only reduced again by
+greater art and science in the process of production. Many difficulties,
+in short, had to be overcome, many wars to be waged, and many deplorable
+errors to be committed, in turning the new advantages to account. But
+given a maritime route to India and the discovery of a new world of
+continent and islands in the richest tropical and sub-tropical
+latitudes, it could not be difficult to foresee that the course of trade
+was to be wholly changed as well as vastly extended.
+
+
+  Maritime route to India.
+
+The substantial advantage of the oceanic passage to India by the Cape of
+Good Hope, as seen at the time, was to enable European trade with the
+East to escape from the Moors, Algerines and Turks who now swarmed round
+the shores of the Mediterranean, and waged a predatory war on ships and
+cargoes which would have been a formidable obstacle even if traffic,
+after running this danger, had not to be further lost, or filtered into
+the smallest proportions, in the sands of the Isthmus, and among the
+Arabs who commanded the navigation of the Red and Arabian Seas. Venice
+had already begun to decline in her wars with the Turks, and could
+inadequately protect her own trade in the Mediterranean. Armed vessels
+sent out in strength from the Western ports often fared badly at the
+hands of the pirates. European trade with India can scarcely be said,
+indeed, to have yet come into existence. The maritime route was round
+about, and it lay on the hitherto almost untrodden ocean, but the ocean
+was a safer element than inland seas and deserts infested by the
+lawlessness and ferocity of hostile tribes of men. In short, the
+maritime route enabled European traders to see India for themselves, to
+examine what were its products and its wants, and by what means a
+profitable exchange on both sides could be established; and on this
+basis of knowledge, ships could leave the ports of their owners in
+Europe with a reasonable hope, via the Cape, of reaching the places to
+which they were destined without transhipment or other intermediary
+obstacle. This is the explanation to be given of the joy with which the
+Cape of Good Hope route was received, as well as the immense influence
+it exerted on the future course and extension of trade, and of the no
+less apparent satisfaction with which it was to some extent discarded in
+favour of the ancient line, via the Mediterranean, Isthmus of Suez and
+the Red Sea.
+
+
+  Discovery of America.
+
+The maritime route to India was the discovery to the European nations of
+a "new world" quite as much as the discovery of North and South America
+and their central isthmus and islands. The one was the far, populous
+Eastern world, heard of from time immemorial, but with which there had
+been no patent lines of communication. The other was a vast and
+comparatively unpeopled solitude, yet full of material resources, and
+capable in a high degree of European colonization. America offered less
+resistance to the action of Europe than India, China and Japan; but on
+the other hand this new populous Eastern world held out much attraction
+to trade. These two great terrestrial discoveries were contemporaneous;
+and it would be difficult to name any conjuncture of material events
+bearing with such importance on the history of the world. The Atlantic
+Ocean was the medium of both; and the waves of the Atlantic beat into
+all the bays and tidal rivers of western Europe. The centre of
+commercial activity was thus physically changed; and the formative power
+of trade over human affairs was seen in the subsequent phenomena--the
+rise of great seaports on the Atlantic seaboard, and the ceaseless
+activity of geographical exploration, manufactures, shipping and
+emigration, of which they became the outlets.
+
+
+  Increase of trading settlements and colonies.
+
+The Portuguese are entitled to the first place in utilizing the new
+sources of wealth and commerce. They obtained Macao as a settlement from
+the Chinese as early as 1537, and their trading operations followed
+close on the discoveries of their navigators on the coast of Africa, in
+India and in the Indian Archipelago. Spain spread her dominion over
+Central and South America, and forced the labour of the subject natives
+into the gold and silver mines, which seemed in that age the chief prize
+of her conquests. France introduced her trade in both the East and West
+Indies, and was the first to colonize Canada and the Lower Mississippi.
+The Dutch founded New York in 1621; and England, which in boldness of
+naval and commercial enterprize had attained high rank in the reign of
+Elizabeth, established the thirteen colonies which became the United
+States, and otherwise had a full share in all the operations which were
+transforming the state of the world. The original disposition of affairs
+was destined to be much changed by the fortune of war; and success in
+foreign trade and colonization, indeed, called into play other qualities
+besides those of naval and military prowess. The products of so many new
+countries--tissues, dyes, metals, articles of food, chemical
+substances--greatly extended the range of European manufacture. But in
+addition to the mercantile faculty of discovering how they were to be
+exchanged and wrought into a profitable trade, their use in arts and
+manufactures required skill, invention and aptitude for manufacturing
+labour, and those again, in many cases, were found to depend on abundant
+possession of natural materials, such as coal and iron. In old and
+populous countries, like India and China, modern manufacture had to meet
+and contend with ancient manufacture, and had at once to learn from and
+improve economically on the established models, before an opening could
+be made for its extension. In many parts of the New World there were
+vast tracts of country, without population or with native races too wild
+and savage to be reclaimed to habits of industry, whose resources could
+only be developed by the introduction of colonies of Europeans; and
+innumerable experiments disclosed great variety of qualification among
+the European nations for the adventure, hardship and perseverance of
+colonial life. There were countries which, whatever their fertility of
+soil or favour of climate, produced nothing for which a market could be
+found; and products such as the sugar-cane and the seed of the cotton
+plant had to be carried from regions where they were indigenous to other
+regions where they might be successfully cultivated, and the art of
+planting had to pass through an ordeal of risk and speculation. There
+were also countries where no European could labour; and the ominous
+work of transporting African negroes as slaves into the colonies--begun
+by Spain in the first decade of the 16th century, followed up by
+Portugal, and introduced by England in 1562 into the West Indies, at a
+later period into New England and the Southern States, and finally
+domiciled by royal privilege of trade in the Thames and three or more
+outports of the kingdom,--after being done on an elaborate scale, and
+made the basis of an immense superstructure of labour, property and
+mercantile interest over nearly three centuries, had, under a more just
+and ennobling view of humanity, to be as elaborately undone at a future
+time.
+
+These are some of the difficulties that had to be encountered in
+utilizing the great maritime and geographical conquests of the new
+epoch. But one cannot leave out of view the obstacles, arising from
+other sources, to what might be expected to be the regular and easy
+course of affairs. Commerce, though an undying and prevailing interest
+of civilized countries, is but one of the forces acting on the policy of
+states, and has often to yield the pace to other elements of national
+life. It were needless to say what injury the great but vain and
+purposeless wars of Louis XIV. of France inflicted in that country, or
+how largely the fruitful and heroic energies of England were absorbed in
+the civil wars between Charles and the Parliament, to what poverty
+Scotland was reduced, or in what distraction and savagery Ireland was
+kept by the same course of events. The grandeur of Spain in the
+preceding century was due partly to the claim of her kings to be Holy
+Roman emperors, in which imperial capacity they entailed intolerable
+mischief on the Low Countries and on the commercial civilization of
+Europe, and partly to their command of the gold and silver mines of
+Mexico and Peru, in an eager lust of whose produce they brought cruel
+calamities on a newly-discovered continent where there were many traces
+of antique life, the records of which perished in their hands or under
+their feet. These ephemeral causes of greatness removed, the hollowness
+of the situation was exposed; and Spain, though rich in her own natural
+resources, was found to be actually poor--poor in number of people, poor
+in roads, in industrial art, and in all the primary conditions of
+interior development. An examination of the foreign trade of Europe two
+centuries after the opening of the maritime route to India and the
+discovery of America would probably give more reason to be surprised at
+the smallness than the magnitude of the use that had been made of these
+events.
+
+
+  19th century.
+
+By the beginning of the 19th century the world had been well explored.
+Colonies had been planted on every coast; great nations had sprung up in
+vast solitudes or in countries inhabited only by savage or decadent
+races of men; the most haughty and exclusive of ancient nations had
+opened their ports to foreign merchantmen; and all parts of the world
+been brought into habitual commercial intercourse. The seas, subdued by
+the progress of navigation to the service of man, had begun to yield
+their own riches in great abundance and the whale, seal, herring, cod
+and other fisheries, prosecuted with ample capital and hardy seamanship,
+had become the source of no small traffic in themselves. The lists of
+imports and exports and of the places from which they flowed to and from
+the centres of trade, as they swelled in bulk from time to time, show
+how busily and steadily the threads of commerce had been weaving
+together the labour and interests of mankind, and extending a security
+and bounty of existence unknown in former ages. The 19th century
+witnessed an extension of the commercial relations of mankind of which
+there was no parallel in previous history. The heavy debts and taxes,
+and the currency complications in which the close of the Napoleonic wars
+left the European nations, as well as the fall of prices which was the
+necessary effect of the sudden closure of a vast war expenditure and
+absorption of labour, had a crippling effect for many years on trading
+energies. Yet even under such circumstances commerce is usually found,
+on its well-established modern basis, to make steady progress from one
+series of years to another. The powers of production had been greatly
+increased by a brilliant development of mechanical arts and inventions.
+The United States had grown into a commercial nation of the first rank.
+The European colonies and settlements were being extended, and
+assiduously cultivated, and were opening larger and more varied markets
+for manufactures. In 1819 the first steamboat crossed the Atlantic from
+New York to Liverpool, and a similar adventure was accomplished from
+England to India in 1825--events in themselves the harbingers of a new
+era in trade. China, after many efforts, was opened under treaty to an
+intercourse with foreign nations which was soon to attain surprising
+dimensions. These various causes supported the activity of commerce in
+the first four decades; but the great movement which made the 19th
+century so remarkable was chiefly disclosed in practical results from
+about 1840. The outstanding characteristics of the 19th century were the
+many remarkable inventions which so widened the field of commerce by the
+discovery of new and improved methods of production, the highly
+organized division of labour which tended to the same end, and, above
+all, the powerful forces of steam navigation, railways and telegraphs.
+
+Commerce has thus acquired a security and extension, in all its most
+essential conditions, of which it was void in any previous age. It can
+hardly ever again exhibit that wandering course from route to route, and
+from one solitary centre to another, which is so characteristic of its
+ancient history, because it is established in every quarter of the
+globe, and all the seas and ways are open to it on terms fair and equal
+to every nation. Wherever there is population, industry, resource, art
+and skill, there will be international trade. Commerce will have many
+centres, and one may relatively rise or relatively fall; but such decay
+and ruin as have smitten many once proud seats of wealth into dust
+cannot again occur without such cataclysms of war, violence and disorder
+as the growing civilization and reason of mankind, and the power of law,
+right and common interest forbid us to anticipate. But the present
+magnitude of commerce devolves serious work on all who are engaged in
+it. If in the older times it was thought that a foreign merchant
+required to be not only a good man of business, but even a statesman, it
+is evident that all the higher faculties of the mercantile profession
+must still more be called into request when imports and exports are
+reckoned by hundreds instead of fives or tens of millions, when the
+markets are so much larger and more numerous, the competition so much
+more keen and varied, the problems to be solved in every course of
+transaction so much more complex, the whole range of affairs to be
+overseen so immensely widened. It is not a company of merchants, having
+a monopoly, and doing whatever they please, whether right or wrong, that
+now hold the commerce of the world in their hands, but large communities
+of free merchants in all parts of the world, affiliated to manufacturers
+and producers equally free, each under strong temptation to do what may
+be wrong in the pursuit of his own interest, and the only security of
+doing right being to follow steady lights of information and economic
+science common to all. Easy transport of goods by land and sea, prompt
+intelligence from every point of the compass, general prevalence of
+mercantile law and safety, have all been accomplished; and the world is
+opened to trade. But intellectual grasp of principles and details, and
+the moral integrity which is the root of all commercial success, are
+severely tested in this vaster sphere.
+
+  See TRADE ORGANIZATION; ECONOMICS; COMMERCIAL TREATIES, and the
+  sections under the headings of countries.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCE, the name of a card-game. Any number can play with an ordinary
+pack. There are several variations of the game, but the following is a
+common one. Each player receives three cards, and three more are turned
+up as a "pool." The first player may exchange one or two of his cards
+for one or two of the exposed cards, putting his own, face upwards, in
+their place. His object is to "make his hand" (see below), but if he
+changes all three cards at once he cannot change again. The next player
+can do likewise, and so on. Usually there are as many rounds as there
+are players, and a fresh card is added to the pool at the beginning of
+each. If a player passes once he cannot exchange afterwards. When the
+rounds are finished the hands are shown, the holder of the best either
+receiving a stake from all the others, or, supposing each has started
+with three "lives," taking one life from the lowest. The hands, in order
+of merit, are: (i.) _Tricon_--three similar cards, three aces ranking
+above three kings, and so on. (ii.) _Sequence_--three cards of the same
+suit in consecutive order; the highest sequence is the best. (iii.)
+_Flush_--three cards of the same suit, the highest "point" wins, i.e.
+the highest number of pips, ace counting eleven and court-cards ten.
+(iv.) _Pair_--two similar cards, the highest pair winning. (v.)
+_Point_--the largest number of pips winning, as in "flush," but there is
+no restriction as to suit. Sometimes "pair" and "point" are not
+recognized. A popular variation of Commerce is _Pounce Commerce_. In
+this, if a player has already three similar cards, e.g. three nines, and
+the fourth nine comes into the pool, he says "Pounce!" and takes it,
+thus obtaining a hand of four, which is higher than any hand of three:
+whenever a pounce occurs, a new card is turned up from the pack.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCIAL COURT, in England, a court presided over by a single judge of
+the king's bench division, for the trial, as expeditiously as may be, of
+commercial cases. By the Rules of the Supreme Court, Order xviii. a
+(made in November 1893), a plaintiff was allowed to dispense with
+pleadings altogether, provided that the indorsement of his writ of
+summons contained a statement sufficient to give notice of his claim, or
+of the relief or remedy required in the action, and stating that the
+plaintiff intended to proceed to trial without pleadings. The judge
+might, on the application of the defendant, order a statement of claim
+to be delivered, or the action to proceed to trial without pleadings,
+and if necessary particulars of the claim or defence to be delivered.
+Out of this order grew the commercial court. It is not a distinct court
+or division or branch of the High Court, and is not regulated by any
+special rules of court made by the rule committee. It originated in a
+notice issued by the judges of the queen's bench division, in February
+1895 (see W.N., 2nd of March 1895), the provisions contained in which
+represent only "a practice agreed on by the judges, who have the right
+to deal by convention among themselves with this mode of disposing of
+the business in their courts" (per Lord Esher in _Barry_ v. _Peruvian
+Corporation_, 1896, 1 Q. B. p. 209). A separate list of causes of a
+commercial character is made and assigned to a particular judge, charged
+with commercial business, to whom all applications before the trial are
+made. The 8th paragraph is as follows:--
+
+  Such judge may at any time after appearance and without pleadings make
+  such order as he thinks fit for the speedy determination, in
+  accordance with existing rules, of the questions really in controversy
+  between the parties.
+
+Practitioners before Sir George Jessel, at the rolls, in the years 1873
+to 1880, will be reminded of his mode of ascertaining the point in
+controversy and bringing it to a speedy determination. Obviously the
+scheme is only applicable to cases in which there is some single issue
+of law or fact, or the case depends on the construction of some contract
+or other instrument or section of an act of parliament, and such issue
+or question is either agreed upon by the parties or at once
+ascertainable by the judge. The success of the scheme also depends
+largely on the personal qualities of the judge to whom the list is
+assigned. Under the able guidance of Mr (afterwards Lord) Justice Mathew
+(d. 1908), the commercial court became very successful in bringing cases
+to a speedy and satisfactory determination without any technicality or
+unnecessary expense.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCIAL LAW, a term used rather indefinitely to include those main
+rules and principles which, with more or less minor differences,
+characterize the commercial transactions and customs of most European
+countries. It includes within its compass such titles as principal and
+agent; carriage by land and sea; merchant shipping; guarantee; marine,
+fire, life and accident insurance; bills of exchange, partnership, &c.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCIAL TREATIES. A commercial treaty is a contract between states
+relative to trade. It is a bilateral act whereby definite arrangements
+are entered into by each contracting party towards the other--not mere
+concessions. As regards technical distinctions, an "agreement," an
+"exchange of notes," or a "convention" properly applies to one specific
+subject; whereas a "treaty" usually comprises several matters, whether
+commercial or political.
+
+In ancient times foreign intercourse, trade and navigation were in many
+instances regulated by international arrangements. The text is extant of
+treaties of commerce and navigation concluded between Carthage and Rome
+in 509 and 348 B.C. Aristotle mentions that nations were connected by
+commercial treaties; and other classical writers advert to these
+engagements. Under the Roman empire the matters thus dealt with became
+regulated by law, or by usages sometimes styled laws. When the
+territories of the empire were contracted, and the imperial authority
+was weakened, some kind of international agreements again became
+necessary. At Constantinople in the 10th century treaties cited by
+Gibbon protected "the person, effects and privileges of the Russian
+merchant"; and, in western Europe, intercourse, trade and navigation
+were carried on, at first tacitly by usage derived from Roman times, or
+under verbal permission given to merchants by the ruler to whose court
+they resorted. Afterwards, security in these transactions was afforded
+by means of formal documents, such as royal letters, charters, laws and
+other instruments possessing the force of government measures. Instances
+affecting English commercial relations are the letter of Charlemagne in
+796, the Brabant Charter of 1305, and the Russian ukase of 1569.
+Medieval treaties of truce or peace often contained a clause permitting
+in general terms the renewal of personal and commercial communication as
+it subsisted before the war. This custom is still followed. But these
+medieval arrangements were precarious: they were often of temporary
+duration, and were usually only effective during the lifetime of the
+contracting sovereigns.
+
+Passing over trade agreements affecting the Eastern empire, the modern
+commercial treaty system came into existence in the 12th century. Genoa,
+Pisa and Venice were then well-organized communities, and were in keen
+rivalry. Whenever their position in a foreign country was strong, a
+trading centre was established, and few or no specific engagements were
+made on their part. But in serious competition or difficulty another
+course was adopted: a formal agreement was concluded for the better
+security of their commerce and navigation. The arrangements of 1140
+between Venice and Sicily; the Genoese conventions of 1149 with
+Valencia, of 1161 with Morocco, and of 1181 with the Balearic Islands;
+the Pisan conventions of 1173 with Sultan Saladin, and of 1184 with the
+Balearic Islands, were the earliest Western commercial treaties. Such
+definite arrangements, although still of a personal character, were soon
+perceived to be preferable to general provisions in a treaty of truce or
+peace. They afforded also greater security than privileges enjoyed under
+usage; or under grants of various kinds, whether local or royal. The
+policy thus inaugurated was adopted gradually throughout Europe. The
+first treaties relative to the trade of the Netherlands were between
+Brabant and Holland in 1203, Holland and Utrecht in 1204, and Brabant
+and Cologne in 1251. Early northern commercial treaties are those
+between Riga and Smolensk 1229, and between Lübeck and Sweden 1269. The
+first commercial relations between the Hanse Towns and foreign countries
+were arrangements made by gilds of merchants, not by public authorities
+as a governing body. For a long period the treaty system did not
+entirely supersede conditions of intercourse between nations dependent
+on permission.
+
+The earliest English commercial treaty is that with Norway in 1217. It
+provides "ut mercatores et homines qui sunt de potestate vestra liberč
+et sine impedimento terram nostram adire possint, et homines et
+mercatores nostri similiter vestram." These stipulations are in due
+treaty form. The next early English treaties are:--with Flanders, 1274
+and 1314; Portugal, 1308, 1352 and 1386; Baltic Cities, 1319 and 1388;
+Biscay and Castile, 1351; Burgundy, 1417 and 1496; France, 1471, 1497
+and 1510; Florence, 1490. The commercial treaty policy in England was
+carried out systematically under Henry IV. and Henry VII. It was
+continued under James I. to extend to Scotland English trading
+privileges. The results attained in the 17th century were--regularity in
+treaty arrangements; their durable instead of personal nature; the
+conversion of permissive into perfect rights; questions as to contraband
+and neutral trade stated in definite terms. Treaties were at first
+limited to exclusive and distinct engagements between the contracting
+states; each treaty differing more or less in its terms from other
+similar compacts. Afterwards by extending to a third nation privileges
+granted to particular countries, the _most favoured nation article_
+began to be framed, as a unilateral engagement by a particular state.
+The Turkish capitulations afford the earliest instances; and the treaty
+of 1641 between the Netherlands and Portugal contains the first European
+formula. Cromwell continued the commercial treaty policy partly in order
+to obtain a formal recognition of the commonwealth from foreign powers.
+His treaty of 1654 with Sweden contains the first reciprocal "most
+favoured nation clause":--Article IV. provides that the people, subjects
+and inhabitants of either confederate "shall have and possess in the
+countries, lands, dominions and kingdoms of the other as full and ample
+privileges, and as many exemptions, immunities and liberties, as any
+foreigner doth or shall possess in the dominions and kingdoms of the
+said confederate." The government of the Restoration replaced and
+enlarged the Protectorate arrangements by fresh agreements. The general
+policy of the commonwealth was maintained, with further provisions on
+behalf of colonial trade. In the new treaty of 1661 with Sweden the
+privileges secured were those which "any foreigner whatsoever doth or
+shall enjoy in the said dominions and kingdoms on both sides."
+
+In contemporary treaties France obtained from Spain (1659) that French
+subjects should enjoy the same liberties as had been granted to the
+English; and England obtained from Denmark (1661) that the English
+should not pay more or greater customs than the people of the United
+Provinces and other foreigners, the Swedes only excepted. The colonial
+and navigation policy of the 17th century, and the proceedings of Louis
+XIV., provoked animosities and retaliatory tariffs. During the War of
+the Spanish Succession the Methuen Treaty of 1703 was concluded.
+Portugal removed prohibitions against the importation of British
+woollens; Great Britain engaged that Portuguese wines should pay
+one-third less duty than the rate levied on French wines. At the peace
+of Utrecht in 1713 political and commercial treaties were concluded.
+England agreed to remove prohibitions on the importation of French
+goods, and to grant most favoured nation treatment in relation to goods
+and merchandise of the like nature from any other country in Europe; the
+French general tariff of the 18th of September 1664, was to be again put
+in force for English trade. The English provision was at variance with
+the Methuen Treaty. A violent controversy arose as to the relative
+importance in 1713 of Anglo-Portuguese or Anglo-French trade. In the end
+the House of Commons, by a majority of 9, rejected the bill to give
+effect to the commercial treaty of 1713; and trade with France remained
+on an unsatisfactory footing until 1786. The other commercial treaties
+of Utrecht were very complete in their provisions, equal to those of the
+present time; and contained most favoured nation articles--England
+secured in 1715 reduction of duties on woollens imported into the
+Austrian Netherlands; and trading privileges in Spanish America.
+Moderate import duties for woollens were obtained in Russia by the
+commercial treaty of 1766. In the meanwhile the Bourbon family compact
+of the 15th of August 1761 assured national treatment for the subjects
+of France, Spain and the Two Sicilies, and for their trade in the
+European territories of the other two states; and most favoured nation
+treatment as regards any special terms granted to any foreign country.
+The first commercial treaties concluded by the United States with
+European countries contained most favoured nation clauses: this policy
+has been continued by the United States, but the wording of the clause
+has often varied.
+
+In 1786 France began to effect tariff reform by means of commercial
+treaties. The first was with Great Britain, and it terminated the
+long-continued tariff warfare. But the wars of the French Revolution
+swept away these reforms, and brought about a renewal of hostile
+tariffs. Prohibitions and differential duties were renewed, and
+prevailed on the continent until the sixth decade of the 19th century.
+In 1860 a government existed in France sufficiently strong and liberal
+to revert to the policy of 1786. The bases of the Anglo-French treaty of
+1860, beyond its most favoured nation provisions, were in France a
+general transition from prohibition or high customs duties to a moderate
+tariff; in the United Kingdom abandonment of all protective imposts, and
+reduction of duties maintained for fiscal purposes to the lowest rates
+compatible with these exigencies. Other European countries were obliged
+to obtain for their trade the benefit of the conventional tariff thus
+established in France, as an alternative to the high rates inscribed in
+the general tariff. A series of commercial treaties was accordingly
+concluded by different European states between 1861 and 1866, which
+effected further reductions of customs duties in the several countries
+that came within this treaty system. In 1871 the Republican government
+sought to terminate the treaties of the empire. The British negotiators
+nevertheless obtained the relinquishment of the attempt to levy
+protective duties under the guise of compensation for imposts on raw
+materials; the duration of the treaty of 1860 was prolonged; and
+stipulations better worded than those before in force were agreed to for
+shipping and most favoured nation treatment. In 1882, however, France
+terminated her existing European tariff treaties. Belgium and some other
+countries concluded fresh treaties, less liberal than those of the
+system of 1860, yet much better than anterior arrangements. Great
+Britain did not formally accept these higher duties; the treaty of the
+28th of February 1882, with France, which secured most favoured nation
+treatment in other matters, provided that customs duties should be
+"henceforth regulated by the internal legislation of each of the two
+states." In 1892 France also fell out of international tariff
+arrangements; and adopted the system of double columns of customs
+duties--one, of lower rates, to be applied to the goods of all nations
+receiving most favoured treatment; and the other, of higher rates, for
+countries not on this footing. Germany then took up the treaty tariff
+policy; and between 1891 and 1894 concluded several commercial treaties.
+
+International trade in Europe in 1909 was regulated by a series of
+tariffs which came into operation, mainly on the initiative of Germany
+in 1906. Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, Rumania,
+Russia, Servia and Switzerland, were parties to them. Their object and
+effect was protectionist. The British policy then became one of
+obtaining modifications to remedy disadvantages to British trade, as was
+done in the case of Bulgaria and Rumania. An important series of
+commercial arrangements had been concluded between 1884 and 1900
+respecting the territories and spheres of interest of European powers in
+western, central and eastern Africa. In these regions exclusive
+privileges were not claimed; most favoured nation treatment was
+recognized, and there was a disposition to extend national treatment to
+all Europeans and their trade.
+
+The Turkish _Capitulations_ (q.v.) are grants made by successive sultans
+to Christian nations, conferring rights and privileges in favour of
+their subjects resident or trading in the Ottoman dominions, following
+the policy towards European states of the Eastern empire. In the first
+instance capitulations were granted separately to each Christian state,
+beginning with the Genoese in 1453, which entered into pacific relations
+with Turkey. Afterwards new capitulations were obtained which summed up
+in one document earlier concessions, and added to them in general terms
+whatever had been conceded to one or more other states; a stipulation
+which became a most favoured nation article. The English capitulations
+date from 1569, and then secured the same treatment as the Venetians,
+French, Poles and the subjects of the emperor of Germany; they were
+revised in 1675, and as then settled were confirmed by treaties of
+subsequent date "now and for ever." Capitulations signify that which is
+arranged under distinct "headings"; the Turkish phrase is "ahid nameh,"
+whereas a treaty is "mouahedé"--the latter does, and the former does
+not, signify a reciprocal engagement. Thus, although the Turkish
+capitulations are not in themselves treaties, yet by subsequent
+confirmation they have acquired the force of commercial treaties of
+perpetual duration as regards substance and principles, while details,
+such as rates of customs duties, may, by mutual consent, be varied from
+time to time.
+
+The _most favoured nation_ article already referred to concedes to the
+state in the treaty with which it is concluded whatever advantages in
+the matters comprised within its stipulations have been allowed to any
+foreign or third state. It does not in itself directly confer any
+particular rights, but sums up the whole of the rights in the matters
+therein mentioned which have been or may be granted to foreign
+countries. The value of the privileges under this article accordingly
+varies with the conditions as to these rights in each state which
+concedes this treatment.
+
+  The article is drafted in different form:
+
+  (1) That contracting states A. and B. agree to extend to each other
+  whatever rights and privileges they concede to countries C. and D., or
+  to C. and D. and any other country. The object in this instance is to
+  ensure specifically to B. and A. whatever advantages C. and D. may
+  possess. A recent instance is Article XI. of the treaty of May 10,
+  1871, between France and Germany, which binds them respectively to
+  extend to each other whatever advantages they grant to Austria,
+  Belgium, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia and Switzerland.
+
+  (2) The present general formula: A. and B. agree to extend to each
+  other whatever advantages they concede to any third country; and
+  engage that no other or higher duties shall be levied on the
+  importation into A. and B. respectively of goods the produce or
+  manufacture of B. and A. than are levied on the like goods the produce
+  or manufacture of any third country the most favoured in this respect.
+  There is a similar clause in regard to exportation.
+
+  (3) The conditional or reciprocity formula, often used in the 18th and
+  in the early part of the 19th century, namely, that whenever A. and B.
+  make special concessions in return for corresponding concessions, B.
+  and A. respectively are either excluded from participation therein, or
+  must make some additional equivalent concession in order to
+  participate in those advantages.
+
+  It may further be observed that the word "like" relates to the goods
+  themselves, to their material or quality, not to conditions of
+  manufacture, mode of conveyance or anything beyond the fact of their
+  precise description; small local facilities allowed to traffic between
+  conterminous land districts are not at variance with this article.
+
+  A recent complete and concise English formula is that of Article 2 of
+  the treaty of commerce and navigation of the 31st of October 1905,
+  with Rumania. "The contracting parties agree that, in all matters
+  relating to commerce, navigation and industry, any privilege, favour
+  or immunity which either contracting party has actually granted, or
+  may hereafter grant, to the subjects or citizens of any other foreign
+  state, shall be extended immediately and unconditionally to the
+  subjects of the other; it being their intention that the commerce,
+  navigation and industry of each country shall be placed, in all
+  respects, on the footing of the most favoured nation."
+
+_Colonies._--The application of commercial treaties to colonies depends
+upon the wording of each treaty. The earlier colonial policy of European
+states was to subordinate colonial interests to those of the mother
+country, to reserve colonial trade for the mother country, and to
+abstain from engagements contrary to these general rules. France,
+Portugal and Spain have adhered in principle to this policy. Germany and
+Holland have been more liberal. The self-government enjoyed by the
+larger British colonies has led since 1886 to the insertion of an
+article in British commercial and other treaties whereby the assent of
+each of these colonies, and likewise of India, is reserved before they
+apply to each of these possessions. And further, the fact that certain
+other British colonies are now within the sphere of commercial
+intercourse controlled by the United States, has since 1891 induced the
+British government to enter into special agreements on behalf of
+colonies for whose products the United States is now the chief market.
+As regards the most favoured nation article, it is to be remembered that
+the mother country and colonies are not distinct--not foreign or
+third--countries with respect to each other. The most favoured nation
+article, therefore, does not preclude special arrangements between the
+mother country and colonies, nor between colonies.
+
+_Termination._--Commercial treaties are usually concluded for a term of
+years, and either lapse at the end of this period, or are terminable
+then, or subsequently, if either state gives the required notice. When a
+portion of a country establishes its independence, for example the
+several American republics, according to present usage foreign trade is
+placed on a uniform most favoured nation footing, and fresh treaties
+are entered into to regulate the commercial relations of the new
+communities. In the case of former Turkish provinces, the capitulations
+remain in force in principle until they are replaced by new engagements.
+If one state is absorbed into another, for instance Texas into the
+United States, or when territory passes by conquest, for instance Alsace
+to Germany, the commercial treaties of the new supreme government take
+effect. In administered territories, as Cyprus and formerly Bosnia, and
+in protected territories, it depends on the policy of the administering
+power how far the previous fiscal system shall remain in force. When the
+separate Italian states were united into the kingdom of Italy in 1861,
+the commercial engagements of Sardinia superseded those of the other
+states, but fresh treaties were concluded by the new kingdom to place
+international relations on a regular footing. When the German empire was
+established under the king of Prussia in 1871, the commercial
+engagements of any state which were at variance with a Zollverein treaty
+were superseded by that treaty.
+
+_Scope._--The scope of commercial treaties is well expressed by Calvo in
+his work on international law. They provide for the importation,
+exportation, transit, transhipment and bonding of merchandise; customs
+tariffs; navigation charges; quarantine; the admission of vessels to
+roadsteads, ports and docks; coasting trade; the admission of consuls
+and their rights; fisheries; they determine the local position of the
+subjects of each state in the other country in regard to residence,
+property, payment of taxes or exemptions, and military service;
+nationality; and a most favoured nation clause. They usually contain a
+termination, and sometimes a colonial article. Some of the matters
+enumerated by Calvo--consular privileges, fisheries and nationality--are
+now frequently dealt with by separate conventions. Contraband and
+neutral trade are not included as frequently as they were in the 18th
+century.
+
+The preceding statement shows that commercial treaties afford to
+foreigners, personally, legal rights, and relief from technical
+disabilities: they afford security to trade and navigation, and regulate
+other matters comprised in their provisions. In Europe the general
+principles established by the series of treaties 1860-1866 hold good,
+namely, the substitution of uniform rates of customs duties for
+prohibitions or differential rates. The disadvantages urged are that
+these treaties involve government interference and bargaining, whereas
+each state should act independently as its interests require, that they
+are opposed to free trade, and restrict the fiscal freedom of the
+legislature. It may be observed that these objections imply some
+confusion of ideas. All contracts may be designated bargains, and some
+of the details of commercial treaties in Calvo's enumeration enter
+directly into the functions of government; moreover, countries cannot
+remain isolated. If two countries agree by simultaneous action to adopt
+fixed rates of duty, this agreement is favourable to commerce, and it is
+not apparent how it is contrary, even to free trade principles.
+Moreover, security in business transactions, a very important
+consideration, is provided.
+
+Our conclusions are--
+
+(1) that under the varying jurisprudence of nations commercial treaties
+are adopted by common consent;
+
+(2) that their provisions depend upon the general and fiscal policy of
+each state;
+
+(3) that tariff arrangements, if judiciously settled, benefit trade;
+
+(4) that commercial treaties are now entered into by all states; and
+that they are necessary under present conditions of commercial
+intercourse between nations.     (C. M. K.*)
+
+  See the British parliamentary _Return_ (Cd. 4080) of all commercial
+  treaties between various countries in force on Jan. 1, 1908.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCY, a town of north-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Meuse, on the left bank of the Meuse, 26 m. E. of
+Bar-le-Duc by rail. Pop. (1906) 5622. Commercy possesses a château of
+the 17th century, now used as cavalry barracks, a Benedictine convent
+occupied by a training-college for primary teachers, and a communal
+college for boys. A statue of Dom Calmet, the historian, born in the
+vicinity, stands in one of the squares. The industries include
+iron-working and the manufacture of nails, boots and shoes, embroidery
+and hosiery. The town has trade in cattle, grain and wood, and is well
+known for its cakes (_madeleines_). Commercy dates back to the 9th
+century, and at that time its lords were dependent on the bishop of
+Metz. In 1544 it was besieged by Charles V. in person. For some time the
+lordship was in the hands of François Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz,
+who lived in the town for a number of years, and there composed his
+memoirs. From him it was purchased by Charles IV., duke of Lorraine. In
+1744 it became the residence of Stanislas, king of Poland, who spent a
+great deal of care on the embellishment of the town, castle and
+neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERS (from Lat. _commercium_), the German term for the German
+students' social gatherings held annually on occasions such as the
+breaking-up of term and the anniversary of the university's founding. A
+Commers consists of speeches and songs and the drinking of unlimited
+quantities of beer. The arrangements are governed by officials
+(_Chargierte_) elected by the students from among themselves. Strict
+rules as to drinking exist, and the chairman after each speech calls for
+what is called a salamander (_ad exercitium Salamandris bibite,
+tergite_). All rise and having emptied their glasses hammer three times
+on the table with them. On the death of a student, his memory is
+honoured with a salamander, the glasses being broken to atoms at the
+close.
+
+
+
+
+COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE (c. 1445-c. 1511), French historian, called the
+father of modern history, was born at the castle of Renescure, near
+Hazebrouck in Flanders, a little earlier than 1447. He lost both father
+and mother in his earliest years. In 1463 his godfather, Philip V., duke
+of Burgundy, summoned him to his court, and soon after transferred him
+to the household of his son, afterwards known as Charles the Bold. He
+speedily acquired considerable influence over Charles, and in 1468 was
+appointed chamberlain and councillor; consequently when in the same year
+Louis XI. was entrapped at Péronne, Commines was able both to soften the
+passion of Charles and to give useful advice to the king, whose life he
+did much to save. Three years later he was charged with an embassy to
+Louis, who gained him over to himself by many brilliant promises, and in
+1472 he left Burgundy for the court of France. He was at once made
+chamberlain and councillor; a pension of 6000 livres was bestowed on
+him; he received the principality of Talmont, the confiscated property
+of the Amboise family, over which the family of La Trémoille claimed to
+have rights. The king arranged his marriage with Hélčne de Chambes, who
+brought him the fine lordship of Argenton, and Commines took the name
+d'Argenton from then (27th of January 1473). He was employed to carry
+out the intrigues of Louis in Burgundy, and spent several months as
+envoy in Italy. On his return he was received with the utmost favour,
+and in 1479 obtained a decree confirming him in possession of his
+principality.
+
+On the death of Louis in 1483 a suit was commenced against Commines by
+the family of La Trémoille, and he was cast in heavy damages. He plotted
+against the regent, Anne of Beaujeu, and joined the party of the duke of
+Orleans, afterwards Louis XII. Having attempted to carry off the king,
+Charles VIII., and so free him from the tutelage of his sister, he was
+arrested, and put in one of his old master's iron cages at Loches. In
+1489 he was banished to one of his own estates for ten years, and made
+to give bail to the amount of 10,000 crowns of gold for his good
+behaviour. Recalled to the council in 1492, he strenuously opposed the
+Italian expedition of Charles VIII., in which, however, he took part,
+notably as representing the king in the negotiations which resulted in
+the treaty of Vercelli. During the rest of his life, notwithstanding the
+accession of Louis XII., whom he had served as duke of Orleans, he held
+no position of importance; and his last days were disturbed by lawsuits.
+He died at Argenton on the 18th of October, probably in 1511. His wife
+Hélčne de Chambes survived him till 1532; their tomb is now in the
+Louvre.
+
+The _Memoirs_, to which Commines owes his reputation as a statesman and
+man of letters, were written during his latter years. The graphic style
+of his narrative and above all the keenness of his insight into the
+motives of his contemporaries, an insight undimmed by undue regard for
+principles of right and wrong, make this work one of the great classics
+of history. His portrait of Louis XI. remains unique, in that to such a
+writer was given such a subject. Scott in _Quentin Durward_ gives an
+interesting picture of Commines, from whom he largely draws.
+Sainte-Beuve, after speaking of Commines as being in date the first
+truly modern writer, and comparing him with Montaigne, says that his
+history remains the definitive history of his time, and that from it all
+political history took its rise. None of this applause is undeserved,
+for the pages of Commines abound with excellences. He analyses motives
+and pictures manners; he delineates men and describes events; his
+reflections are pregnant with suggestiveness, his conclusions strong
+with the logic of facts.
+
+The _Memoirs_ divided themselves into two parts, the first from the
+reign of Louis XI., 1464-1483, the second on the Italian expedition and
+the negotiations at Venice leading to the Vercelli treaty, 1494-1495.
+The first part was written between 1489 and 1491, while Commines was at
+the château of Dreux, the second from 1495 to 1498. Seven MSS. are
+known, derived from a single holograph, and as this was undoubtedly
+badly written, the copies were inaccurate; the best is that which
+belonged to Anne de Polignac, niece of Commines, and it is the only one
+containing books vii. and viii.
+
+The best edition of Commines is the one edited by B. de Mandrot and
+published at Paris in 1901-1903. For this edition the author used a
+manuscript hitherto unknown and more complete than the others, and in
+his introduction he gives an account of the life of Commines.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Memoirs_ remained in MS. till 1524, when part of
+  them were printed by Galliot du Pré, the remainder first seeing light
+  in 1525. Subsequent editions were put forth by Denys Sauvage in 1552,
+  by Denys Godefroy in 1649, and by Lenglet Dufresnoy in 1747. Those of
+  Mademoiselle Dupont (1841-1848) and of M. de Chantelauze (1881) have
+  many merits, but the best was given by Bernard de Mandrot: _Memoirs de
+  Philippe de Commynes_, from the MS. of Anne de Polignac (1901).
+  Various translations of Commines into English have appeared, from that
+  of T. Danett in 1596 to that, based on the Dupont edition, which was
+  printed in Bohn's series in 1855.     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+COMMISSARIAT, the department of an army charged with the provision of
+supplies, both food and forage, for the troops. The supply of military
+stores such as ammunition is not included in the duties of a
+commissariat. In almost every army the duties of transport and supply
+are performed by the same corps of departmental troops.
+
+
+
+
+COMMISSARY (from Med. Lat. _commissarius_, one to whom a charge or trust
+is committed), generally, a representative; e.g., the emperor's
+representative who presided in his absence over the imperial diet; and
+especially, an ecclesiastical official who exercises in special
+circumstances the jurisdiction of a bishop (q.v.); in the Church of
+England this jurisdiction is exercised in a Consistory Court (q.v.),
+except in Canterbury, where the court of the diocesan as opposed to the
+metropolitan jurisdiction of the archbishop is called a commissary
+court, and the judge is the commissary general of the city and diocese
+of Canterbury. When a see is vacant the jurisdiction is exercised by a
+"special commissary" of the metropolitan. Commissary is also a general
+military term for an official charged with the duties of supply,
+transport and finance of an army. In the 17th and 18th centuries the
+_commissaire des guerres_, or _Kriegskommissär_ was an important
+official in continental armies, by whose agency the troops, in their
+relation to the civil inhabitants, were placed upon semi-political
+control. In French military law, _commissaires du gouvernement_
+represent the ministry of war on military tribunals, and more or less
+correspond to the British judge-advocate (see COURT-MARTIAL).
+
+
+
+
+COMMISSION (from Lat. _commissio_, _committere_), the action of
+committing or entrusting any charge or duty to a person, and the charge
+or trust thus committed, and so particularly an authority, or the
+document embodying such authority, given to some person to act in a
+particular capacity. The term is thus applied to the written authority
+to command troops, which the sovereign or president, as the ultimate
+commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces, grants to persons
+selected as officers, or to the similar authority issued to certain
+qualified persons to act as justices of the peace. For the various
+commissions of assize see ASSIZE. The word is also used of the order
+issued to a naval officer to take the command of a ship of war, and when
+manned, armed and fully equipped for active service she is said to be
+"put in commission."
+
+In the law of evidence (q.v.) the presence of witnesses may, for certain
+necessary causes, be dispensed with by the order of the court, and the
+evidence be taken by a commissioner. Such evidence in England is said to
+be "on commission" (see R.S.C. Order XXXVII.). Such causes may be
+illness, the intention of the witness to leave the country before the
+trial, residence out of the country or the like. Where the witness is
+out of the jurisdiction of the court, and his place of residence is a
+foreign country where objection is taken to the execution of a
+commission, or is a British colony or India, "letters of request" for
+the examination of the witness are issued, addressed to the head of the
+tribunal in the foreign country, or to the secretary of state for the
+colonies or for India.
+
+Where the functions of an office are transferred from an individual to a
+body of persons, the body exercising these delegated functions is
+generally known as a commission and the members as commissioners; thus
+the office of lord high admiral of Great Britain is administered by a
+permanent board, the lords of the admiralty. Such a delegation may be
+also temporary, as where the authority under the great seal to give the
+royal assent to legislation is issued to lords commissioners. Similarly
+bodies of persons or single individuals may be specially charged with
+carrying out particular duties; these may be permanent, such as the
+Charity Commission or the Ecclesiastical and Church Estates Commission,
+or may be temporary, such as various international bodies of inquiry,
+like the commission which met in Paris in 1905 to inquire into the North
+Sea incident (see DOGGER BANK), or such as the various commissions of
+inquiry, royal, statutory or departmental, of which an account is given
+below.
+
+A commission may be granted by one person to another to act as his
+agent, and particularly in business; thus the term is applied to that
+method of business in which goods are entrusted to an agent for sale,
+the remuneration being a percentage on the sales. This percentage is
+known as the "commission," and hence the word is extended to all
+remuneration which is based on a percentage on the value of the work
+done. The right of an agent to remuneration in the form of a
+"commission" is always founded upon an express or implied contract
+between himself and his principal. Such a contract may be implied from
+custom or usage, from the conduct of the principal or from the
+circumstances of the particular case. Such commissions are only payable
+on transactions directly resulting from agency and may be payable though
+the principal acquires no benefit. In order to claim remuneration an
+agent must be legally qualified to act in the capacity in which he
+claims remuneration. He cannot recover in respect of unlawful or
+wagering transactions, or in cases of misconduct or breach of duty.
+
+_Secret Commissions._--The giving of a commission, in the sense of a
+bribe or unlawful payment to an agent or employé in order to influence
+him in relation to his principal's or employer's affairs, has grown to
+considerable proportions in modern times; it has been rightly regarded
+as a gross breach of trust upon the part of employés and agents,
+inasmuch as it leads them to look to their own interests rather than to
+those of their employers. In order to suppress this bribing of employés
+the English legislature in 1906 passed the Prevention of Corruption Act,
+which enacts that if an agent corruptly accepts or obtains for himself
+or for any other person any gift or consideration as an inducement or
+reward for doing or forbearing to do any act or business, or for showing
+or forbearing to show favour or disfavour to any person in relation to
+his principal's affairs, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour and shall
+be liable on conviction or indictment to imprisonment with or without
+hard labour for a term not exceeding two years, or to a fine not
+exceeding Ł500, or to both, or on summary conviction to imprisonment not
+exceeding four months with or without hard labour or to a fine not
+exceeding Ł50, or both. The act also applies the same punishment to any
+person who corruptly gives or offers any gift or consideration to an
+agent. Also if a person knowingly gives an agent, or if an agent
+knowingly uses, any receipt, account or document with intent to mislead
+the principal, they are guilty of a misdemeanour and liable to the
+punishment already mentioned. For the purposes of the act
+"consideration" includes valuable consideration of any kind, and "agent"
+includes any person employed by or acting for another. No prosecution
+can be instituted without the consent of the attorney-general, and every
+information must be upon oath.
+
+Legislation to the same effect has been adopted in Australia. A federal
+act was passed in 1905 dealing with secret commissions, and in the same
+year both Victoria and Western Australia passed drastic measures to
+prevent the giving or receiving corruptly of commissions. The Victorian
+act applies to trustees, executors, administrators and liquidators as
+well as to agents. Both the Victorian and the Western Australian acts
+enact that gifts to the parent, wife, child, partner or employer of an
+agent are to be deemed gifts to the agent unless the contrary is proved;
+also that the custom of any trade or calling is not in itself a defence
+to a prosecution.
+
+_Commissions of Inquiry_, i.e. commissions for the purpose of eliciting
+information as to the operation of laws, or investigating particular
+matters, social, educational, &c., are distinguished, according to the
+terms of their appointment, as _royal_, _statutory_ and _departmental_.
+A royal commission in England is appointed by the crown, and the
+commissions usually issue from the office of the executive government
+which they specially concern. The objects of the inquiry are carefully
+defined in the warrant constituting the commission, which is termed the
+"reference." The commissioners give their services gratuitously, but
+where they involve any great degree of professional skill compensation
+is allowed for time and labour. The expenses incurred are provided out
+of money annually voted for the purpose. Unless expressly empowered by
+act of parliament, a commission cannot compel the production of
+documents or the giving of evidence, nor can it administer an oath. A
+commission may hold its sittings in any part of the United Kingdom, or
+may institute and conduct experiments for the purpose of testing the
+utility of invention, &c. When the inquiry or any particular portion of
+it is concluded, a report is presented to the crown through the home
+department. All the commissioners, if unanimous, sign the report, but
+those who are unable to agree with the majority can record their
+dissent, and express their individual opinions, either in paragraphs
+appended to the report or in separately signed memoranda.
+
+Statutory commissions are created by acts of parliament, and, with the
+exception that they are liable to have their proceedings questioned in
+parliament, have absolute powers within the limits of their prescribed
+functions and subject to the provisions of the act defining the same.
+Departmental commissions or committees are appointed either by a
+treasury minute or by the authority of a secretary of state, for the
+purpose of instituting inquiries into matters of official concern or
+examining into proposed changes in administrative arrangements. They are
+generally composed of two or more permanent officials of the department
+concerned in the investigation, along with a subordinate member of the
+administration. Reports of such committees are usually regarded as
+confidential documents.
+
+  A full account of the procedure in royal commissions will be found in
+  A. Todd's _Parliamentary Government in England_, vol. ii.
+
+
+
+
+COMMISSIONAIRE, the designation of an attendant, messenger or
+subordinate employé in hotels on the continent of Europe, whose chief
+duty is to attend at railway stations, secure customers, take charge of
+their luggage, carry out the necessary formalities with respect to it
+and have it sent on to the hotel. They are also employed in Paris as
+street messengers, light porters, &c. The Corps of Commissionaires, in
+England, is an association of pensioned soldiers of trustworthy
+character, founded in 1859 by Captain Sir Edward Walter, K.C.B.
+(1823-1904). It was first started in a very small way, with the
+intention of providing occupation for none but wounded soldiers. The
+nucleus of the corps consisted of eight men, each of whom had lost a
+limb. The demand, however, for neat, uniformed, trusty men, to perform
+certain light duties, encouraged the founder to extend his idea, and the
+corps developed into a large self-supporting organization. In 1906 there
+were over 3000 members of the corps, more than 2000 of whom served in
+London. Out-stations were established in various large towns of the
+kingdom, and the corps extended its operations also to the colonies.
+
+
+
+
+COMMISSIONER, in general an officer appointed to carry out some
+particular work, or to discharge the duty of a particular office; one
+who is a member of a commission (q.v.). In this sense the word is
+applied to members of a permanently constituted department of the
+administration, as civil service commissioners, commissioners of income
+tax, commissioners in lunacy, &c. It is also the title given to the
+heads of or important officials in various governmental departments, as
+commissioner of customs. In some British possessions in Africa and the
+Pacific the head of the government is styled high commissioner. In India
+a commissioner is the chief administrative official of a division which
+includes several districts. The office does not exist in Madras, where
+the same duties are discharged by a board of revenue, but is found in
+most of the other provinces. The commissioner comes midway between the
+local government and the district officer. In the regulation provinces
+the district officer is called a collector (q.v.), and in the
+non-regulation provinces a deputy-commissioner. In the former he must
+always be a member of the covenanted civil service, but in the latter he
+may be a military officer.
+
+A chief commissioner is a high Indian official, governing a province
+inferior in status to a lieutenant-governorship, but in direct
+subordination to the governor-general in council. The provinces which
+have chief commissioners are the Central Provinces and Berar, the
+North-West Frontier Province and Coorg. The agent to the
+governor-general of Baluchistan is also chief commissioner of British
+Baluchistan, the agent to the governor-general of Rajputana is also
+chief commissioner of the British district of Ajmere-Merwara, and there
+is a chief commissioner of the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Several
+provinces, such as the Punjab, Oudh, Burma and Assam, were administered
+by chief commissioners before they were raised to the status of
+lieutenant-governorships (see LIEUTENANT).
+
+A commissioner for oaths in England is a solicitor appointed by the lord
+chancellor to administer oaths to persons making affidavits for the
+purpose of any cause or matter. The Commissioner for Oaths Act 1889
+(with an amending act 1891), amending and consolidating various other
+acts, regulates the appointment and powers of such commissioners. In
+most large towns the minimum qualification for appointment is six years'
+continuous practice, and the application must be supported by two
+barristers, two solicitors and at least six neighbours of the applicant.
+The charge made by commissioners for every oath, declaration,
+affirmation or attestation upon honour is one shilling and sixpence; for
+marking each exhibit (a document or other thing sworn to in an affidavit
+and shown to a deponent when being sworn), one shilling.
+
+
+
+
+COMMITMENT, in English law, a precept or warrant _in writing_, made and
+issued by a court or judicial officer (including, in cases of treason,
+the privy council or a secretary of state), directing the conveyance of
+a person named or sufficiently described therein to a prison or other
+legal place of custody, and his detention therein for a time specified,
+or until the person to be detained has done a certain act specified in
+the warrant, e.g. paid a fine imposed upon him on conviction. Its
+character will be more easily grasped by reference to a form now in use
+under statutory authority:--
+
+  In the county of A, Petty Sessional Division of B.
+
+  To each and all of the constables of the county of A and the governor
+  of His Majesty's Prison at C.
+
+  E. F. hereinafter called the defendant has this day been convicted
+  before the court of summary jurisdiction sitting at D.
+
+  (Here the conviction and adjudication is stated.)
+
+  You the said constables are hereby commanded to convey the defendant
+  to the said prison, and there deliver him to the governor thereof
+  together with this warrant: and you the governor of the said prison to
+  receive the defendant into your custody and keep him to hard labour
+  for the space of three calendar months.
+
+    Dated                  Signature and seal of a justice of the peace.
+
+A commitment as now understood differs from "committal," which is the
+decision of a court to send a person to prison, and not the document
+containing the directions to executive and ministerial officers of the
+law which are consequent on the decision. An interval must necessarily
+elapse between the decision to commit and the making out of the warrant
+of commitment, during which interval the detention in custody of the
+person committed is undoubtedly legal. A commitment differs also from a
+warrant of arrest (_mandat d'amener_), in that it is not made until
+after the person to be detained has actually appeared, or has been
+summoned, before the court which orders committal, to answer to some
+charge.
+
+If not always, at any rate since 1679, a warrant of commitment has been
+necessary to justify officers of the law in conveying a prisoner to gaol
+and a gaoler in receiving and detaining him there. It is ordinarily
+essential to a valid commitment that it should contain a specific
+statement of the particular cause of the detention ordered. To this the
+chief, if not the only exception, is in the case of commitments by order
+of either House of Parliament (May, _Parl. Pr._, 11th ed., 63, 70, 90).
+Commitments by justices of the peace must be under their hands and
+seals. Commitments by a court of record if formally drawn up are under
+the seal of the court.
+
+Every person in custody is entitled, under the Habeas Corpus Act 1679,
+to receive within six hours of demand from the officer in whose custody
+he is, a copy of any warrant of commitment under which he is detained,
+and may challenge its legality by application for a writ of habeas
+corpus.
+
+So far as concerns the acts of justices and tribunals of limited
+jurisdiction, the stringency of the rules as to commitments is an
+important aid to the liberty of the subject.
+
+In the case of superior courts no statutory forms of commitment exist,
+and the same formalities are not so strictly enforced. Committal of a
+person present in court for contempt of the court is enforced by his
+immediate arrest by the tipstaff as soon as committal is ordered, and he
+may be detained in prison on a memorandum of the clerk or registrar of
+the court while a formal order is being drawn up. And in the case of
+persons sentenced at assizes and quarter sessions the only written
+authority for enforcement is a calendar of the prisoners tried, on which
+the sentences are entered up, signed by the presiding judge.
+
+Commitments are usually made by courts of criminal jurisdiction in
+respect of offences against the criminal law, but are also occasionally
+made as a punishment for disobedience to the orders made in a civil
+court, e.g. where a judgment debtor having means to pay refuses to
+satisfy the judgment debt, or in cases where the person committed has
+been guilty of a direct contempt of the court.
+
+The expenses of executing a warrant of commitment, so far as not paid by
+the prisoner, are defrayed out of the parliamentary grants for the
+maintenance of prisons.
+
+
+
+
+COMMITTEE (from _committé_, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of _commettre_,
+Lat. _committere_, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent _comité_ is
+derived from the Eng.), a person or body of persons to whom something is
+"committed" or entrusted. The term is used of a person or persons to
+whom the charge of the body ("committee of the person") or of the
+property and business affairs ("committee of the estate") of a lunatic
+is committed by the court (see INSANITY). In this sense the English
+usage is to pronounce the word _commi-ttee_. The more common meaning of
+"committee" (pronounced _commítt-y_) is that of a body of persons
+elected or appointed to consider and deal with certain matters of
+business, specially or generally referred to it.
+
+
+
+
+COMMODIANUS, a Christian Latin poet, who flourished about A.D. 250. The
+only ancient writers who mention him are Gennadius, presbyter of
+Massilia (end of 5th century), in his _De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis_,
+and Pope Gelasius in _De libris recipiendis et non recipiendis_, in
+which his works are classed as _Apocryphi_, probably on account of
+certain heterodox statements contained in them. Commodianus is supposed
+to have been an African. As he himself tells us, he was originally a
+heathen, but was converted to Christianity when advanced in years, and
+felt called upon to instruct the ignorant in the truth. He was the
+author of two extant Latin poems, _Instructiones_ and _Carmen
+apologeticum_ (first published in 1852 by J. B. Pitra in the
+_Spicilegium Solesmense_, from a MS. in the Middlehill collection, now
+at Cheltenham, supposed to have been brought from the monastery of
+Bobbio). The _Instructiones_ consist of 80 poems, each of which is an
+acrostic (with the exception of 60, where the initial letters are in
+alphabetical order). The initials of 80, read backwards, give
+Commodianus Mendicus Christi. The _Apologeticum_, undoubtedly by
+Commodianus, although the name of the author (as well as the title) is
+absent from the MS., is free from the acrostic restriction. The first
+part of the _Instructiones_ is addressed to the heathens and Jews, and
+ridicules the divinities of classical mythology; the second contains
+reflections on Antichrist, the end of the world, the Resurrection, and
+advice to Christians, penitents and the clergy. In the _Apologeticum_
+all mankind are exhorted to repent, in view of the approaching end of
+the world. The appearance of Antichrist, identified with Nero and the
+Man from the East, is expected at an early date. Although they display
+fiery dogmatic zeal, the poems cannot be considered quite orthodox. To
+the classical scholar the metre alone is of interest. Although they are
+professedly written in hexameters, the rules of quantity are sacrificed
+to accent. The first four lines of the _Instructiones_ may be quoted by
+way of illustration:
+
+  "Praefatio nostra viam erranti demonstrat,
+   Respectumque bonum, cum venerit saeculi meta,
+   Aeternum fieri, quod discredunt inscia corda:
+   Ego similiter erravi tempore multo."
+
+These _versus politici_ (as they are called) show that the change was
+already passing over Latin which resulted in the formation of the
+Romance languages. The use of cases and genders, the construction of
+verbs and prepositions, and the verbal forms exhibit striking
+irregularities. The author, however, shows an acquaintance with Latin
+poets--Horace, Virgil, Lucretius.
+
+  The best edition of the text is by B. Dombart (Vienna, 1887), and a
+  good account of the poems will be found in M. Manitius, _Geschichte
+  der christlich-lateinischen Poesie_ (1891), with bibliography, to
+  which may be added G. Boissier, "Commodien," in the _Mélanges Renier_
+  (1887); H. Brewer, _Kommodian von Gaza_ (Paderborn, 1906); L. Vernier,
+  "La Versification latine populaire en Afrique," in _Revue de
+  philologie_, xv. (1891); and C. E. Freppel, _Commodien, Arnobe,
+  Lactance_ (1893). Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng.
+  trans., 384), should also be consulted.
+
+
+
+
+COMMODORE (a form of "commander"; in the 17th century the term
+"commandore" is used), a temporary rank in the British navy for an
+officer in command of a squadron. There are two kinds, one with and the
+other without a captain below him in his ship, the first holding the
+temporary rank, pay, &c., of a rear-admiral, the other that of captain.
+It is also given as a courtesy title to the senior officer of a squadron
+of more than three vessels. In the United States navy "commodore" was a
+courtesy title given to captains who had been in command of a squadron.
+In 1862 it was made a commissioned rank, but was abolished in 1899. The
+name is given to the president of a yacht club, as of the Royal Yacht
+Squadron, and to the senior captain of a fleet of merchant vessels.
+
+
+
+
+COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS (161-192), also called Marcus
+Antoninus, emperor of Rome, son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina, was
+born at Lanuvium on the 31st of August 161. In spite of a careful
+education he soon showed a fondness for low society and amusement. At
+the age of fifteen he was associated by his father in the government. On
+the death of Aurelius, whom he had accompanied in the war against the
+Quadi and Marcomanni, he hastily concluded peace and hurried back to
+Rome (180). The first years of his reign were uneventful, but in 183 be
+was attacked by an assassin at the instigation of his sister Lucilla
+and many members of the senate, which felt deeply insulted by the
+contemptuous manner in which Commodus treated it. From this time he
+became tyrannical. Many distinguished Romans were put to death as
+implicated in the conspiracy, and others were executed for no reason at
+all. The treasury was exhausted by lavish expenditure on gladiatorial
+and wild beast combats and on the soldiery, and the property of the
+wealthy was confiscated. At the same time Commodus, proud of his bodily
+strength and dexterity, exhibited himself in the arena, slew wild
+animals and fought with gladiators, and commanded that he should be
+worshipped as the Roman Hercules. Plots against his life naturally began
+to spring up. That of his favourite Perennis, praefect of the praetorian
+guard, was discovered in time. The next danger was from the people, who
+were infuriated by the dearth of corn. The mob repelled the praetorian
+guard, but the execution of the hated minister Cleander quieted the
+tumult. The attempt also of the daring highwayman Maternus to seize the
+empire was betrayed; but at last Eclectus the emperor's chamberlain,
+Laetus the praefect of the praetorians, and his mistress Marcia, finding
+their names on the list of those doomed to death, united to destroy him.
+He was poisoned, and then strangled by a wrestler named Narcissus, on
+the 31st of December 192. During his reign unimportant wars were
+successfully carried on by his generals Clodius Albinus, Pescennius
+Niger and Ulpius Marcellus. The frontier of Dacia was successfully
+defended against the Scythians and Sarmatians, and a tract of territory
+reconquered in north Britain. In 1874 a statue of Commodus was dug up at
+Rome, in which he is represented as Hercules--a lion's skin on his head,
+a club in his right and the apples of the Hesperides in his left hand.
+
+  See Aelius Lampridius, Herodian, and fragments in Dio Cassius; H.
+  Schiller, _Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit_; J. Zürcher,
+  "Commodus" (1868, in Büdinger's _Untersuchungen zur römischen
+  Kaisergeschichte_, a criticism of Herodian's account); Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopädie_, ii. 2464 ff. (von Rohden); Heer, "Der historische
+  Wert des Vita Commodi" (_Philologus_, Supplementband ix.).
+
+
+
+
+COMMON LAW, like "civil law," a phrase with many shades of meaning, and
+probably best defined with reference to the various things to which it
+is opposed. It is contrasted with statute law, as law not promulgated by
+the sovereign body; with equity, as the law prevailing between man and
+man, unless when the court of chancery assumed jurisdiction; and with
+local or customary law, as the general law for the whole realm,
+tolerating variations in certain districts and under certain conditions.
+It is also sometimes contrasted with civil, or canon, or international
+law, which are foreign systems recognized in certain special courts only
+and within limits defined by the common law. As against all these
+contrasted kinds of law, it may be described broadly as the universal
+law of the realm, which applies wherever they have not been introduced,
+and which is supposed to have a principle for every possible case.
+Occasionally, it would appear to be used in a sense which would exclude
+the law developed by at all events the more modern decisions of the
+courts.
+
+Blackstone divides the civil law of England into _lex scripta_ or
+statute law, and _lex non scripta_ or common law. The latter, he says,
+consists of (1) general customs, which are the common law strictly so
+called, (2) particular customs prevailing in certain districts, and (3)
+laws used in particular courts. The first is the law by which
+"proceedings and determinations in the king's ordinary courts of justice
+are guided and directed." That the eldest son alone is heir to his
+ancestor, that a deed is of no validity unless sealed and delivered,
+that wills shall be construed more favourably and deeds more strictly,
+are examples of common law doctrines, "not set down in any written
+statute or ordinance, but depending on immemorial usage for their
+support." The validity of these usages is to be determined by the
+judges--"the depositaries of the law, the living oracles who must decide
+in all cases of doubt, and who are bound by an oath to decide according
+to the law of the land." Their judgments are preserved as records, and
+"it is an established rule to abide by former precedents where the same
+points come again in litigation." The extraordinary deference paid to
+precedents is the source of the most striking peculiarities of the
+English common law. There can be little doubt that it was the rigid
+adherence of the common law courts to established precedent which caused
+the rise of an independent tribunal administering justice on more
+equitable principles--the tribunal of the chancellor, the court of
+chancery. And the old common law courts--the king's bench, common pleas
+and exchequer--were always, as compared with the court of chancery,
+distinguished for a certain narrowness and technicality of reasoning. At
+the same time the common law was never a fixed or rigid system. In the
+application of old precedents to the changing circumstances of society,
+and in the development of new principles to meet new cases, the common
+law courts displayed an immense amount of subtlety and ingenuity, and a
+great deal of sound sense. The continuity of the system was not less
+remarkable than its elasticity. Two great defects of form long
+disfigured the English law. One was the separation of common law and
+equity. The Judicature Act of 1873 remedied this by merging the
+jurisdiction of all the courts in one supreme court, and causing
+equitable principles to prevail over those of the common law where they
+differ. The other is the overwhelming mass of precedents in which the
+law is embedded. This can only be removed by some well-conceived scheme
+of the nature of a code or digest; to some extent this difficulty has
+been overcome by such acts as the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, the
+Partnership Act 1890 and the Sale of Goods Act 1893.
+
+The English common law may be described as a pre-eminently national
+system. Based on Saxon customs, moulded by Norman lawyers, and jealous
+of foreign systems, it is, as Bacon says, as mixed as the English
+language and as truly national. And like the language, it has been taken
+into other English-speaking countries, and is the foundation of the law
+in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+COMMON LODGING-HOUSE, "a house, or part of a house, where persons of the
+poorer classes are received for gain, and in which they use one or more
+rooms in common with the rest of the inmates, who are not members of one
+family, whether for eating or sleeping" (_Langdon_ v. _Broadbent_, 1877,
+37 L.T. 434; _Booth_ v. _Ferrett_, 1890, 25 Q.B.D. 87). There is no
+statutory definition of the class of houses in England intended to be
+included in the expression "common lodging-house," but the above
+definition is very generally accepted as embracing those houses which,
+under the Public Health and other Acts, must be registered and
+inspected. The provisions of the Public Health Act 1875 are that every
+urban and rural district council must keep registers showing the names
+and residences of the keepers of all common lodging-houses in their
+districts, the situation of every such house, and the number of lodgers
+authorized by them to be received therein. They may require the keeper
+to affix and keep undefaced and legible a notice with the words
+"registered common lodging-house" in some conspicuous place on the
+outside of the house, and may make by-laws fixing the number of lodgers,
+for the separation of the sexes, for promoting cleanliness and
+ventilation, for the giving of notices and the taking of precautions in
+case of any infectious disease, and generally for the well ordering of
+such houses. The keeper of a common lodging-house is required to
+limewash the walls and ceilings twice a year--in April and October--and
+to provide a proper water-supply. The whole of the house must be open at
+all times to the inspection of any officer of a council. The county of
+London (except the city) is under the Common Lodging Houses Acts 1851
+and 1853, with the Sanitary Act 1866 and the Sanitary Law Amendment Act
+1874. The administration of these acts was, from 1851 to 1894, in the
+hands of the chief commissioner of police, when it was transferred to
+the London County Council.
+
+
+
+
+COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF, sometimes called _The Order of Geneva_ or _Knox's
+Liturgy_, a directory for public worship in the Reformed Church in
+Scotland. In 1557 the Scottish Protestant lords in council enjoined the
+use of the English Common Prayer, i.e. the Second Book of Edward VI.
+Meanwhile, at Frankfort, among British Protestant refugees, a
+controversy was going on between the upholders of the English liturgy
+and the French Reformed Order of Worship respectively. By way of
+compromise John Knox and other ministers drew up a new liturgy based
+upon earlier Continental Reformed Services, which was not deemed
+satisfactory, but which on his removal to Geneva he published in 1556
+for the use of the English congregations in that city. The Geneva book
+made its way to Scotland, and was used here and there by Reformed
+congregations. Knox's return in 1559 strengthened its position, and in
+1562 the General Assembly enjoined the uniform use of it as the "Book of
+Our Common Order" in "the administration of the Sacraments and
+solemnization of marriages and burials of the dead." In 1564 a new and
+enlarged edition was printed in Edinburgh, and the Assembly ordered that
+"every Minister, exhorter and reader" should have a copy and use the
+Order contained therein not only for marriage and the sacraments but
+also "in Prayer," thus ousting the hitherto permissible use of the
+Second Book of Edward VI. at ordinary service. "The rubrics as retained
+from the Book of Geneva made provision for an extempore prayer before
+the sermon, and allowed the minister some latitude in the other two
+prayers. The forms for the special services were more strictly imposed,
+but liberty was also given to vary some of the prayers in them. The
+rubrics of the Scottish portion of the book are somewhat stricter, and,
+indeed, one or two of the Geneva rubrics were made more absolute in the
+Scottish emendations; but no doubt the 'Book of Common Order' is best
+described as a discretionary liturgy."
+
+It will be convenient here to give the contents of the edition printed
+by Andrew Hart at Edinburgh in 1611, and described (as was usually the
+case) as _The Psalmes of David in Meeter, with the Prose, whereunto is
+added Prayers commonly used in the Kirke, and private houses; with a
+perpetuall Kalendar and all the Changes of the Moone that shall happen
+for the space of Six Yeeres to come_. They are as follows:--
+
+(i.) The Calendar; (ii.) The names of the Faires of Scotland; (iii.) The
+Confession of Faith used at Geneva and received by the Church of
+Scotland; (iv.-vii.) Concerning the election and duties of Ministers,
+Elders and Deacons, and Superintendent; (viii.) An order of
+Ecclesiastical Discipline; (ix.) The Order of Excommunication and of
+Public Repentance; (x.) The Visitation of the Sick; (xi.) The Manner of
+Burial; (xii.) The Order of Public Worship--Forms of Confession and
+Prayer after Sermon; (xiii.) Other Public Prayers; (xiv.) The
+Administration of the Lord's Supper; (xv.) The Form of Marriage; (xvi.)
+The Order of Baptism; (xvii.) A Treatise on Fasting with the order
+thereof; (xviii.) The Psalms of David; (xix.) Conclusions or Doxologies;
+(xx.) Hymns--metrical versions of the Decalogue, Magnificat, Apostles'
+Creed, &c.; (xxi.) Calvin's Catechism; (xxii. and xxiii.) Prayers for
+Private Houses and Miscellaneous Prayers, e.g. for a man before he
+begins his work.
+
+The Psalms and Catechism together occupy more than half the book. The
+chapter on burial is significant. In place of the long office of the
+Catholic Church we have simply this statement:--"The corpse is
+reverently brought to the grave, accompanied with the Congregation,
+without any further ceremonies: which being buried, the Minister (if he
+be present and required) goeth to the Church, if it be not far off, and
+maketh some comfortable exhortation to the people, touching death and
+resurrection." This (with the exception of the bracketed words) was
+taken over from the Book of Geneva. The Westminster Directory which
+superseded the Book of Common Order also enjoins interment "without any
+ceremony," such being stigmatized as "no way beneficial to the dead and
+many ways hurtful to the living." Civil honours may, however, be
+rendered.
+
+Revs. G. W. Sprott and Thomas Leishman, in the introduction to their
+edition of the Book of Common Order, and of the Westminster Directory
+published in 1868, collected a valuable series of notices as to the
+actual usage of the former book for the period (1564-1645) during which
+it was enjoined by ecclesiastical law. Where ministers were not
+available suitable persons (often old priests, sometimes schoolmasters)
+were selected as readers. Good contemporary accounts of Scottish worship
+are those of W. Cowper (1568-1619), bishop of Galloway, in his _Seven
+Days' Conference between a Catholic Christian and a Catholic Roman_
+(_c._ 1615), and Alexander Henderson in _The Government and Order of the
+Church of Scotland_ (1641). There was doubtless a good deal of variety
+at different times and in different localities. Early in the 17th
+century under the twofold influence of the Dutch Church, with which the
+Scottish clergy were in close connexion, and of James I.'s endeavours to
+"justle out" a liturgy which gave the liberty of "conceiving" prayers,
+ministers began in prayer to read less and extemporize more.
+
+Turning again to the legislative history, in 1567 the prayers were done
+into Gaelic; in 1579 parliament ordered all gentlemen and yeomen holding
+property of a certain value to possess copies. The assembly of 1601
+declined to alter any of the existing prayers but expressed a
+willingness to admit new ones. Between 1606 and 1618 various attempts
+were made under English and Episcopal influence, by assemblies
+afterwards declared unlawful, to set aside the "Book of Common Order."
+The efforts of James I., Charles I. and Archbishop Laud proved
+fruitless; in 1637 the reading of Laud's draft of a new form of service
+based on the English prayer book led to riots in Edinburgh and to
+general discontent in the country. The General Assembly of Glasgow in
+1638 abjured Laud's book and took its stand again by the Book of Common
+Order, an act repeated by the assembly of 1639, which also demurred
+against innovations proposed by the English separatists, who objected
+altogether to liturgical forms, and in particular to the Lord's Prayer,
+the _Gloria Patri_ and the minister kneeling for private devotion in the
+pulpit. An Aberdeen printer named Raban was publicly censured for having
+on his own authority shortened one of the prayers. The following years
+witnessed a counter attempt to introduce the Scottish liturgy into
+England, especially for those who in the southern kingdom were inclined
+to Presbyterianism. This effort culminated in the Westminster Assembly
+of divines which met in 1643, at which six commissioners from the Church
+of Scotland were present, and joined in the task of drawing up a Common
+Confession, Catechism and Directory for the three kingdoms. The
+commissioners reported to the General Assembly of 1644 that this Common
+Directory "is so begun ... that we could not think upon any particular
+Directory for our own Kirk." The General Assembly of 1645 after careful
+study approved the new order. An act of Assembly on the 3rd of February
+and an act of parliament on the 6th of February ordered its use in every
+church, and henceforth, though there was no act setting aside the "Book
+of Common Order," the Westminster Directory was of primary authority.
+The Directory was meant simply to make known "the general heads, the
+sense and scope of the Prayers and other parts of Public Worship," and
+if need be, "to give a help and furniture." The act of parliament
+recognizing the Directory was annulled at the Restoration and the book
+has never since been acknowledged by a civil authority in Scotland. But
+General Assemblies have frequently recommended its use, and worship in
+Presbyterian churches is largely conducted on the lines of the
+Westminster Assembly's Directory.
+
+The modern _Book of Common Order_ or _Euchologion_ is a compilation
+drawn from various sources and issued by the Church Service Society, an
+organization which endeavours to promote liturgical usages within the
+Established Church of Scotland.
+
+
+
+
+COMMONPLACE, a translation of the Gr. [Greek: koivňs tópos], i.e. a
+passage or argument appropriate to several cases; a "common-place book"
+is a collection of such passages or quotations arranged for reference
+under general heads either alphabetically or on some method of
+classification. To such a book the name _adversaria_ was given, which is
+an adaptation of the Latin _adversaria scripta_, notes written on one
+side, the side opposite (_adversus_), of a paper or book. From its
+original meaning the word came to be used as meaning something
+hackneyed, a platitude or truism, and so, as an adjective, equivalent to
+trivial or ordinary. It was first spelled as two words, then with a
+hyphen, and so still in the sense of a "common-place book."
+
+
+
+
+COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF, formerly one of the three English common law
+courts at Westminster--the other two being the king's bench and
+exchequer. The court of common pleas was an offshoot of the Curia Regis
+or king's council. Previous to Magna Carta, the king's council,
+especially that portion of it which was charged with the management of
+judicial and revenue business, followed the king's person. This, as far
+as private litigation was concerned, caused great inconvenience to the
+unfortunate suitors whose plaints awaited the attention of the court,
+for they had, of necessity, also to follow the king from place to place,
+or lose the opportunity of having their causes tried. Accordingly, Magna
+Carta enacted that common pleas (_communia placita_) or causes between
+subject and subject, should be held in some fixed place and not follow
+the court. This place was fixed at Westminster. The court was presided
+over by a chief (_capitalis justiciarius de communi banco_) and four
+puisne judges. The jurisdiction of the common pleas was, by the
+Judicature Act 1873, vested in the king's bench division of the High
+Court of Justice.
+
+
+
+
+COMMONS,[1]
+
+
+  Early history.
+
+the term for the lands held in commonalty, a relic of the system on
+which the lands of England were for the most part cultivated during the
+middle ages. The country was divided into vills, or townships--often,
+though not necessarily, or always, coterminous with the parish. In each
+stood a cluster of houses, a village, in which dwelt the men of the
+township, and around the village lay the arable fields and other lands,
+which they worked as one common farm. Save for a few small inclosures
+near the village--for gardens, orchards or paddocks for young stock--the
+whole township was free from permanent fencing. The arable lands lay in
+large tracts divided into compartments or fields, usually three in
+number, to receive in constant rotation the triennial succession of
+wheat (or rye), spring crops (such as barley, oats, beans or peas), and
+fallow. Low-lying lands were used as meadows, and there were sometimes
+pastures fed according to fixed rules. The poorest land of the township
+was left waste--to supply feed for the cattle of the community, fuel,
+wood for repairs, and any other commodity of a renewable or practically
+inexhaustible character.[2] This waste land is the common of our own
+days.
+
+It would seem likely that at one time there was no division, as between
+individual inhabitants or householders, of any of the lands of the
+township, but only of the products. But so far back as accurate
+information extends the arable land is found to be parcelled out, each
+householder owning strips in each field. These strips are always long
+and narrow, and lie in sets parallel with one another. The plough for
+cultivating the fields was maintained at the common expense of the
+village, and the draught oxen were furnished by the householders. From
+the time when the crop was carried till the next sowing, the field lay
+open to the cattle of the whole vill, which also had the free run of the
+fallow field throughout the year. But when two of the three fields were
+under crops, and the meadows laid up for hay, it is obvious that the
+cattle of the township required some other resort for pasturage. This
+was supplied by the waste or common. Upon it the householder turned out
+the oxen and horses which he contributed to the plough, and the cows and
+sheep, which were useful in manuring the common fields,--in the words of
+an old law case: "horses and oxen to plough the land, and cows and sheep
+to compester it." Thus the use of the common by each householder was
+naturally measured by the stock which he kept for the service of the
+common fields; and when, at a later period, questions arose as to the
+extent of the rights on the common, the necessary practice furnished the
+rule, that the commoner could turn out as many head of cattle as he
+could keep by means of the lands which were parcelled out to him,--the
+rule of levancy and couchancy, which has come down to the present day.
+
+
+  Status of township.
+
+In the earliest post-conquest times the vill or township is found to be
+associated with an over-lord. There has been much controversy on the
+question, whether the vill originally owned its lands free from any
+control, and was subsequently reduced to a state of subjection and to a
+large extent deprived of its ownership, or whether its whole history has
+been one of gradual emancipation, the ownership of the waste, or
+common, now ascribed by the law to the lord being a remnant of his
+ownership of all the lands of the vill. (See MANOR.)
+
+At whatever date the over-lord first appeared, and whatever may have
+been the personal relations of the villagers to him from time to time
+after his appearance, there can be hardly any doubt that the village
+lands, whether arable, meadow or waste, were substantially the property
+of the villagers for the purposes of use and enjoyment. They resorted
+freely to the common for such purposes as were incident to their system
+of agriculture, and regulated its use amongst themselves. The idea that
+the common was the "lord's waste," and that he had the power to do what
+he liked with it, subject to specific and limited qualifying rights in
+others, was, there is little doubt, the creation of the Norman lawyers.
+
+
+  Statutes of Merton and Westminster the Second.
+
+One of the earliest assertions of the lord's proprietary interest in
+waste lands is contained in the Statute of Merton, a statute which, it
+is well to notice, was passed in one of the first assemblies of the
+barons of England, before the commons of the realm were summoned to
+parliament. This statute, which became law in the year 1235, provided
+"that the great men of England (which had enfeoffed knights and their
+freeholders of small tenements in their great manors)" might "make their
+profit of their lands, wastes, woods and pastures," if they left
+sufficient pasture for the service of the tenements they had granted.
+Some fifty years later, another statute, that of Westminster the Second,
+supplemented the Statute of Merton by enabling the lord of the soil to
+inclose common lands, not only against his own tenants, but against
+"neighbours" claiming pasture there. These two pieces of legislation
+undoubtedly mark the growth of the doctrine which converted the
+over-lord's territorial sway into property of the modern kind, and a
+corresponding loosening of the hold of the rural townships on the wastes
+of their neighbourhood. To what extent the two acts were used, it is
+very difficult to say. We know, from later controversies, that they made
+no very great change in the system on which the country was cultivated,
+a system to which, as we have seen, commons were essential. In some
+counties, indeed, inclosures had, by the Tudor period, made greater
+progress than in others. T. Tusser, in his eulogium on inclosed farming,
+cites Suffolk and Essex as inclosed counties by way of contrast to
+Norfolk, Cambridgeshire and Leicestershire, where the open or "champion"
+(champain) system prevailed. The Statutes of Merton and Westminster may
+have had something to do with the progress of inclosed farming; but it
+is probable that their chief operation lay in furnishing the lord of the
+manor with a farm on the new system, side by side with the common
+fields, or with a deer park.
+
+
+  The Black Death.
+
+The first event which really endangered the village system was the
+coming of the Black Death. This scourge is said to have swept away half
+the population of the country. The disappearance, by no means uncommon,
+of a whole family gave the over-lord of the vill the opportunity of
+appropriating, by way of escheat, the holding of the household in the
+common fields. The land-holding population of the townships and the
+persons interested in the commons were thus sensibly diminished.
+
+During the Wars of the Roses the small cultivator is thought to have
+again made headway. But his diminished numbers, and the larger interest
+which the lords had acquired in the lands of each vill, no doubt
+facilitated the determined attack on the common-field system which
+marked the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI.
+
+
+  The Tudor agrarian revolution.
+
+This attack, which had for its chief object the conversion of arable
+land into pasture for the sake of sheep-breeding, was the outcome of
+many causes. It was no longer of importance to a territorial magnate to
+possess a large body of followers pledged to his interests by their
+connexion with the land. On the other hand, wool commanded a high price,
+and the growth of towns and of foreign commerce supplied abundant
+markets. At the same time the confiscation of the monastic possessions
+introduced a race of new over-lords--not bound to their territories by
+any family traditions, and also tended to spread the view that the
+strong hand was its own justification. In order to keep large flocks
+and send many bales of wool to market, each landowner strove to increase
+his range of pasture, and with this view to convert the arable fields of
+his vill into grass land. There is abundant evidence both from the
+complaints of writers such as Latimer and Sir Thomas More, and from the
+Statutes and royal commissions of the day, that large inclosures were
+made at this time, and that the process was effected with much injustice
+and accompanied by great hardship. "Where," says Bishop Latimer in one
+of his courageous and vigorous denunciations of "inclosers and
+rent-raisers," "there have been many householders and inhabitants, there
+is now but a shepherd and his dog." In the full tide of this movement,
+and despite Latimer's appeals, the Statutes of Merton and Westminster
+the Second were confirmed and re-enacted. Both common fields and commons
+no doubt disappeared in many places; and the country saw the first
+notable instalment of inclosure. But from the evidence of later years it
+is clear that a very large area of the country was still cultivated on
+the common-field system for another couple of centuries. When inclosure
+on any considerable scale again came into favour, it was effected on
+quite different principles; and before describing what was essentially a
+modern movement, it will be convenient to give a brief outline of the
+principles of law applicable to commons at the present day.
+
+
+  Rights of common.
+
+_Law._--The distinguishing feature in law of common land is, that it is
+land the soil of which belongs to one person, and from which certain
+other persons take certain profits--for example, the bite of the grass
+by the mouth of cattle, or gorse, bushes or heather for fuel or litter.
+The right to take such a profit is a right of common; the right to feed
+cattle on common land is a right of common of pasture; while the right
+of cutting bushes, gorse or heather (more rarely of lopping trees) is
+known as a right of common of _estovers_ (_estouviers_) or _botes_
+(respectively from the Norman-French _estouffer_, and the Saxon _botan_,
+to furnish). Another right of common is that of _turbary_, or the right
+to cut turf or peat for fuel. There are also rights of taking sand,
+gravel or loam for the repair and maintenance of land. The persons who
+enjoy any of these rights are called commoners.
+
+From the sketch of the common-field system of agriculture which has been
+given, we shall readily infer that a large proportion of the commons of
+the country, and of the peculiarities of the law relating to commons,
+are traceable to that system. Thus, common rights are mostly attached
+to, or enjoyed with, certain lands or houses. A right of common of
+pasture usually consists of the right to turn out as many cattle as the
+farm or other private land of the commoner can support in winter; for,
+as we have seen, the enjoyment of the common, in the village system,
+belonged to the householders of the village, and was necessarily
+measured by their holdings in the common fields. The cattle thus
+commonable are said to be _levant_ and _couchant_, i.e. uprising and
+down-lying on the land. But it has now been decided that they need not
+in fact be so kept. At the present day a commoner may turn out any
+cattle belonging to him, wherever they are kept, provided they do not
+exceed in number the head of cattle which can be supported by the stored
+summer produce of the land in respect of which the right is claimed,
+together with any winter herbage it produces. The animals which a
+commoner may usually turn out are those which were employed in the
+village system--horses, oxen, cows and sheep. These animals are termed
+commonable animals. A right may be claimed for other animals, such as
+donkeys, pigs and geese; but they are termed non-commonable, and the
+right can only be established on proof of special usage. A right of
+pasture attached to land in the way we have described is said to be
+_appendant_ or _appurtenant_ to such land. Common of pasture appendant
+to land can only be claimed for commonable cattle; and it is held to
+have been originally attached only to arable land, though in claiming
+the right no proof that the land was originally arable is necessary.
+This species of common right is, in fact, the direct survival of the use
+by the village householder of the common of the township; while common
+of pasture appurtenant represents rights which grew up between
+neighbouring townships, or, in later times, by direct grant from the
+owner of the soil of the common to some other landowner, or (in the case
+of copyholders) by local custom.
+
+The characteristic of connexion with house or land also marks other
+rights of common. Thus a right of taking gorse or bushes, or of lopping
+wood for fuel, called _fire-bote_, is limited to the taking of such fuel
+as may be necessary for the hearths of a particular house, and no more
+may be taken than is thus required. The same condition applies to common
+of _turbary_, which in its more usual form authorizes the commoner to
+cut the heather, which grows thickly upon poor soils, with the roots and
+adhering earth, to a depth of about 9 in. Similarly, wood taken for the
+repairs of buildings (_house-bote_), or of hedges (_hedge-bote_ or
+_hey-bote_), must be limited in quantity to the requirements of the
+house, farm buildings and hedges of the particular property to which the
+right is attached. And heather taken for litter cannot be taken in
+larger quantities than is necessary for manuring the lands in respect of
+which the right is enjoyed. It is illegal to take the wood or heather
+from the common, and to sell it to any one who has not himself a right
+to take it. So, also, a right of digging sand, gravel, clay or loam is
+usually appurtenant to land, and must be exercised with reference to the
+repair of the roads, or the improvement of the soil, of the particular
+property to which the right is attached.
+
+We have already alluded to the fact that, in Norman and later days,
+every vill or township was associated with some over-lord,--some one
+responsible to the crown, either directly or through other superior
+lords, for the holding of the land and the performance of certain duties
+of defence and military support. To this lord the law has assigned the
+ownership of the soil of the common of the vill; and the common has for
+many centuries been styled the waste of the manor. The trees and bushes
+on the common belong to the lord, subject to any rights of lopping or
+cutting which the commoners may possess. The ground, sand and subsoil
+are his, and even the grass, though the commoners have the right to take
+it by the mouths of their cattle. To the over-lord, also, was assigned a
+seignory over all the other lands of the vill; and the vill came to be
+termed his manor. At the present day it is the manorial system which
+must be invoked in most cases as the foundation of the curiously
+conflicting rights which co-exist on a common. (See MANOR.)
+
+
+  Manorial commons.
+
+Within the bounds of a manor, speaking generally, there are three
+classes of persons possessing an interest in the land, viz.:--
+
+(a) Persons holding land freely of the manor, or freehold tenants.
+
+(b) Persons holding land of the manor by copy of court roll, or copyhold
+tenants.
+
+(c) Persons holding from the lord of the manor, by lease or agreement,
+or from year to year, land which was originally demesne, or which was
+once freehold or copyhold and has come into the lord's hands by escheat
+or forfeiture.
+
+Amongst the first two classes we usually find the majority of the
+commoners on the wastes or commons of the manor. To every freehold
+tenant belongs a right of common of pasture on the commons, such right
+being "appendant" to the land which he holds freely of the manor. This
+right differs from most other rights of common in the characteristic
+that actual exercise of the right need not be proved. When once it is
+shown that certain land is held freely of the manor, it follows of
+necessity that a right of common of pasture for commonable cattle
+attaches to the land, and therefore belongs to its owner, and may be
+exercised by its occupant. "Common appendant," said the Elizabethan
+judges, "is of common right, and commences by operation of law and in
+favour of tillage."
+
+Now this is exactly what we saw to be the case with reference to the use
+of the common of the vill by the householder cultivating the arable
+fields. The use was a necessity, not depending upon the habits of this
+or that householder; it was a use for commonable cattle only, and was
+connected with the tillage of the arable lands. It seems almost
+necessarily to follow that the freehold tenants of the manor are the
+representatives of the householders of the vill. However this may be, it
+is amongst the freehold tenants of the manor that we must first look for
+commoners on the waste of the manor.
+
+Owing, however, to the light character of the services rendered by the
+freeholders, the connexion of their lands with the manor is often
+difficult to prove. Copyhold tenure, on the other hand, cannot be lost
+sight of; and in many manors copyholders are numerous, or were, till
+quite recently. Copyholders almost invariably possess a right of common
+on the waste of the manor; and when (as is usual) they exist side by
+side with freeholders, their rights are generally of the same character.
+They do not, however, exist as of common right, without proof of usage,
+but by the custom of the manor. Custom has been defined by a great judge
+(Sir George Jessel, M.R., in _Hammerton_ v. _Honey_) as local law. Thus,
+while the freehold tenants enjoy their rights by the general law of the
+land, the copyholders have a similar enjoyment by the local law of the
+manor. This, again, is what one might expect from the ancient
+constitution of a village community. The copyholders, being originally
+serfs, had no rights at law; but as they had a share in the tillage of
+the land, and gradually became possessed of strips in the common fields,
+or of other plots on which they were settled by the lord, they were
+admitted by way of indulgence to the use of the common; and the practice
+hardened into a custom. As might be expected, there is more variety in
+the details of the rights they exercise. They may claim common for
+cattle which are not commonable, if the custom extends to such cattle;
+and their claim is not necessarily connected with arable land.
+
+In the present day large numbers of copyhold tenements have been
+enfranchised, i.e. converted into freehold. The effect of this step is
+to sever all connexion between the land enfranchised and the manor of
+which it was previously held. Technically, therefore, the common rights
+previously enjoyed in respect of the land would be gone. When, however,
+there is no indication of any intention to extinguish such rights, the
+courts protect the copyholders in their continued enjoyment; and when an
+enfranchisement is effected under the statutes passed in modern years,
+the rights are expressly preserved. The commoners on a manorial common
+then will be, prima facie, the freeholders and copyholders of the manor,
+and the persons who own lands which were copyhold of the manor but have
+been enfranchised.
+
+The occupants of lands belonging to the lord of the manor, though they
+usually turn out their cattle on the common, do so by virtue of the
+lord's ownership of the soil of the common, and can, as a rule, make no
+claim to any right of common as against the lord, even though the
+practice of turning out may have obtained in respect of particular lands
+for a long series of years. When, however, lands have been sold by the
+lord of the manor, although no right of common attached by law to such
+lands in the lord's hands, their owners may subsequently enjoy such a
+right, if it appears from the language of the deeds of conveyance, and
+all the surrounding circumstances, that there was an intention that the
+use of the common should be enjoyed by the purchaser. The rules on this
+point are very technical; it is sufficient here to indicate that lands
+bought from a lord of a manor are not necessarily destitute of common
+rights.
+
+
+  Rights of common not connected with manorial system.
+
+So far we have considered common rights as they have arisen out of the
+manorial system, and out of the still older system of village
+communities. There may, however, be rights of common quite unconnected
+with the manorial system. Such rights may be proved either by producing
+a specific grant from the owner of the manor or by long usage. It is
+seldom that an actual grant is produced, although it would seem likely
+that such grants were not uncommon at one time. But a claim founded on
+actual user is by no means unusual. Such a claim may be based (a) on
+immemorial usage, i.e. usage for which no commencement later than the
+coronation of Richard I. (1189) can be shown, (b) on a presumed modern
+grant which has been lost, or (c) (in some cases) on the Prescription
+Act 1832. There are special rules applicable to each kind of claim.
+
+A right of common not connected with the manorial system may be, and
+usually is, attached to land; it may be measured, like a manorial right,
+by levancy and couchancy, or it may be limited to a fixed number of
+animals. Rights of the latter character seem to have been not uncommon
+in the middle ages. In one of his sermons against inclosure, Bishop
+Latimer tells us his father "had walk (i.e. right of common) for 100
+sheep." This may have been a right in gross, but was more probably
+attached to the "farm of Ł3 or Ł4 by year at the uttermost" which his
+father held. A right of common appurtenant may be sold separately, and
+enjoyed by a purchaser independently of the tenement to which it was
+originally appurtenant. It then becomes a right of common in gross.
+
+A right of common in gross is a right enjoyed irrespective of the
+ownership or occupancy of any lands. It may exist by express grant, or
+by user implying a modern lost grant, or by immemorial usage. It must be
+limited to a certain number of cattle, unless the right is claimed by
+actual grant. Such rights seldom arise in connexion with commons in the
+ordinary sense, but are a frequent incident of regulated or stinted
+pastures; the right is then generally known as a cattle-gate or
+beast-gate.
+
+There may be rights over a common which exclude the owner of the soil
+from all enjoyment of some particular product of the common. Thus a
+person, or a class of persons, may be entitled to the whole of the corn,
+grass, underwood, or sweepage, (i.e. everything which falls to the sweep
+of the scythe) of a tract of land, without possessing any ownership in
+the land itself, or in the trees or mines. Such a right is known as a
+right of sole vesture.
+
+A more limited right of the same character is a right of sole
+pasturage--the exclusive right to take everything growing on the land in
+question by the mouths of cattle, but not in any other way. Either of
+these rights may exist throughout the whole year, or during part only. A
+right of sole common pasturage and herbage was given to a certain class
+of commoners in Ashdown Forest on the partition of the forest at the end
+of the 18th century.
+
+
+  Rights in common fields.
+
+We have seen that the common arable fields and common meadows of a vill
+were thrown open to the stock of the community between harvest and
+seed-time. There is still to be found, here and there, a group of arable
+common fields, and occasionally a piece of grass land with many of the
+characteristics of a common, which turns out to be a common field or
+meadow. The Hackney Marshes and the other so-called commons of Hackney
+are really common fields or common meadows, and along the valley of the
+Lea a constant succession of such meadows is met with. They are still
+owned in parcels marked by metes; the owners have the right to grow a
+crop of hay between Lady day and Lammas day; and from Lammas to March
+the lands are subject to the depasturage of stock. In the case of some
+common fields and meadows the right of feed during the open time belongs
+exclusively to the owners; in others to a larger class, such as the
+owners and occupiers of all lands within the bounds of the parish.
+Anciently, as we have seen, the two classes would be identical. In some
+places newcomers not owning strips in the fields were admitted to the
+right of turn out; in others, not. Hence the distinction. Similar
+divergences of practice will be found to exist in Switzerland at the
+present day; _nieder-gelassene_, or newcomers, are in some communes
+admitted to all rights, while, in others, privileges are reserved to the
+_bürger_, or old inhabitant householders.
+
+
+  Rights in royal forests.
+
+Some of the largest tracts of waste land to be found in England are the
+waste or commonable lands of royal forests or chases. The thickets and
+pastures of Epping Forest, now happily preserved for London under the
+guardianship of the city corporation, and the noble woods and
+far-stretching heaths of the New Forest, will be called to mind. Cannock
+Chase, unhappily inclosed according to law, though for the most part
+still lying waste, Dartmoor, and Ashdown Forest in Sussex, are other
+instances; and the list might be greatly lengthened. Space will not
+permit of any description of the forest system; it is enough, in this
+connexion, to say that the common rights in a forest were usually
+enjoyed by the owners and occupiers of land within its bounds (the class
+may differ in exact definition, but is substantially equivalent to this)
+without reference to manorial considerations. Epping Forest was saved by
+the proof of this right. It is often said that the right was given, or
+confirmed, to the inhabitants in consideration of the burden of
+supporting the deer for the pleasure of the king or of the owner of the
+chase. It seems more probable that the forest law prevented the growth
+of the manorial system, and with it those rules which have tended to
+restrict the class of persons entitled to enjoy the waste lands of the
+district.
+
+
+  Prevention of inclosure.
+
+We have seen that in the case of each kind of common there is a division
+of interest. The soil belongs to one person; other persons are entitled
+to take certain products of the soil. This division of interest
+preserves the common as an open space. The commoners cannot inclose,
+because the land does not belong to them. The owner of the soil cannot
+inclose, because inclosure is inconsistent with the enjoyment of the
+commoners' rights. At a very early date it was held that the right of a
+commoner proceeded out of every part of the common, so that the owner of
+the soil could not set aside part for the commoner and inclose the rest.
+The Statutes of Merton and Westminster the Second were passed to get
+over this difficulty. But under these statutes the burden of proving
+that sufficient pasture was left was thrown upon the owner of the soil;
+such proof can very seldom be given. Moreover, the statutes have never
+enabled an inclosure to be made against commoners entitled to _estovers_
+or _turbary_. It seems clear that the statutes had become obsolete in
+the time of Edward VI., or they would not have been re-enacted. And we
+know that the zealous advocates of inclosure in the 18th century
+considered them worthless for their purposes. Practically it may be
+taken that, save where the owner of the soil of a common acquires all
+the lands in the township (generally coterminous with the parish) with
+which the common is connected, an inclosure cannot legally be effected
+by him. And even in the latter case it may be that rights of common are
+enjoyed in respect of lands outside the parish, and that such rights
+prevent an inclosure.
+
+
+  The modern Inclosure Act.
+
+_Modern Inclosure._--When, therefore, the common-field system began to
+fall out of gear, and the increase of population brought about a demand
+for an increased production of corn, it was felt to be necessary to
+resort to parliament for power to effect inclosure. The legislation
+which ensued was based on two principles. One was that all persons
+interested in the open land to be dealt with should receive a
+proportionate equivalent in inclosed land; the other, that inclosure
+should not be prevented by the opposition, or the inability to act, of a
+small minority. Assuming that inclosure was desirable, no more equitable
+course could have been adopted, though in details particular acts may
+have been objectionable. The first act was passed in 1709; but the
+precedent was followed but slowly, and not till the middle of the 18th
+century did the annual number of acts attain double figures. The
+high-water mark was reached in the period from 1765 to 1785, when on an
+average forty-seven acts were passed every year. From some cause,
+possibly the very considerable expense attending upon the obtaining of
+an act, the numbers then began slightly to fall off. In the year 1793 a
+board of agriculture, apparently similar in character to the chambers of
+commerce of our own day, was established. Sir John Sinclair was its
+president, and Arthur Young, the well-known agricultural reformer, was
+its secretary. Owing to the efforts of this body, and of a select
+committee appointed by the House of Commons on Sinclair's motion, the
+first General Inclosure Act was passed in 1801. This act would at the
+present day be called an Inclosure Clauses Act. It contained a number of
+provisions applicable to inclosures, which could be incorporated by
+reference, in a private bill. By this means, it was hoped, the length
+and complexity, and consequently the expense, of inclosure bills would
+be greatly diminished. Under the stimulus thus applied inclosure
+proceeded apace. In the year 1801 no less than 119 acts were passed, and
+the total area inclosed probably exceeded 300,000 acres. Three
+inclosures in the Lincolnshire Fens account for over 53,000 acres. As
+before, the movement after a time spent its force, the annual average of
+acts falling to about twelve in the decade 1830-1840. Another
+parliamentary committee then sat to consider how inclosure might be
+promoted; and the result was the Inclosure Act 1845, which, though much
+amended by subsequent legislation, still stands on the statute-book. The
+chief feature of that act was the appointment of a permanent commission
+to make in each case all the inquiries previously made (no doubt
+capriciously and imperfectly) by committees of the two Houses. The
+commission, on being satisfied of the propriety of an inclosure was to
+draw up a provisional order prescribing the general conditions on which
+it was to be carried out, and this order was to be submitted to
+parliament by the government of the day for confirmation. It is believed
+that these inclosure orders afford the first example of the provisional
+order system of legislation, which has attained such large proportions.
+
+Again inclosure moved forward, and between 1845 and 1869 (when it
+received a sudden check) 600,000 acres passed through the hands of the
+inclosure commission. Taking the whole period of about a century and a
+half, when parliamentary inclosure was in favour, and making an estimate
+of acreage where the acts do not give it, the result may be thus
+summarized:--
+
+                                                 Acres.
+  From 1709 to 1797                            2,744,926
+    "  1801 to 1842                            1,307,964
+    "  1845 to 1869                              618,000
+  Add for Forests inclosed under Special Acts    100,000
+                                               ---------
+                                               4,770,890
+
+The total area of England being 37,000,000 acres, we shall probably not
+be far wrong in concluding that about one acre in every seven was
+inclosed during the period in question. During the first period, the
+lands inclosed consisted mainly of common arable fields; during the
+second, many great tracts of moor and fen were reduced to severalty
+ownership. In the third period, inclosure probably related chiefly to
+the ordinary manorial common; and it seems likely that, on the whole,
+England would have gained, had inclosure stopped in 1845.
+
+
+  Open Space movement.
+
+As a fact it stopped in 1869. Before the inclosure commission had been
+in existence twenty years the feeling of the nation towards commons
+began to change. The rapid growth of towns, and especially of London,
+and the awakening sense of the importance of protecting the public
+health, brought about an appreciation of the value of commons as open
+spaces. Naturally, the metropolis saw the birth of this sentiment. An
+attempted inclosure in 1864 of the commons at Epsom and Wimbledon
+aroused strong opposition; and a select committee of the House of
+Commons was appointed to consider how the London commons could best be
+preserved. The Metropolitan Board of Works, then in the vigour of youth,
+though eager to become the open-space authority for London, could make
+no better suggestion than that all persons interested in the commons
+should be bought out, that the board should defray the expense by
+selling parts for building, and should make parks of what was left. Had
+this advice been followed, London would probably have lost two-thirds of
+the open space which she now enjoys. Fortunately a small knot of men,
+who afterwards formed the Commons Preservation Society, took a broader
+and wiser view. Chief amongst them were the late Philip Lawrence, who
+acted as solicitor to the Wimbledon opposition, and subsequently
+organized the Commons Preservation Society, George Shaw-Lefevre,
+chairman of that society since its foundation, the late John Locke, and
+the late Lord Mount Temple (then Mr W. F. Cowper). They urged that the
+conflict of legal interests, which is the special characteristic of a
+common, might be trusted to preserve it as an open space, and that all
+that parliament could usefully do, was to restrict parliamentary
+inclosure, and to pass a measure of police for the protection of commons
+as open spaces. The select committee adopted this view. On their report,
+was passed the Metropolitan Commons Act 1866, which prohibited any
+further parliamentary inclosures within the metropolitan police area,
+and provided means by which a common could be put under local
+management. The lords of the manors in which the London commons lay felt
+that their opportunity of making a rich harvest out of land, valuable
+for building, though otherwise worthless, was slipping away; and a
+battle royal ensued. Inclosures were commenced, and the Statute of
+Merton prayed in aid. The public retorted by legal proceedings taken in
+the names of commoners. These proceedings--which culminated in the
+mammoth suit as to Epping Forest, with the corporation of London as
+plaintiffs and fourteen lords of manors as defendants--were uniformly
+successful; and London commons were saved. By degrees the manorial
+lords, seeing that they could not hope to do better, parted with their
+interest for a small sum to some local authority; and a large area of
+the common land, not only in the county of London, but in the suburbs,
+is now in the hands of the representatives of the ratepayers, and is
+definitely appropriated to the recreation of the public.
+
+
+  Amendment of Statue of Merton.
+
+Moreover, the Commons Preservation Society was able to base, upon the
+uniform success of the commoners in the law courts, a plea for the
+amendment of the law. The Statute of Merton, we have seen, purports to
+enable the lord of the soil to inclose a common, if he leaves sufficient
+pasture for the commoners. This statute was constantly vouched in the
+litigation about London commons; but in no single instance was an
+inclosure justified by virtue of its provisions. It thus remained a trap
+to lords of manors, and a source of controversy and expense. In the year
+1893 Lord Thring, at the instance of the Commons Preservation Society,
+carried through parliament the Commons Law Amendment Act, which provided
+that in future no inclosure under the Statute of Merton should be valid,
+unless made with the consent of the Board of Agriculture, which was to
+consider the expediency of the inclosure from a public point of view.
+
+
+  Rural commons.
+
+The movement to preserve commons as open spaces soon spread to the rural
+districts. Under the Inclosure Act of 1845 provision was made for the
+allotment of a part of the land to be inclosed for field gardens for the
+labouring poor, and for recreation. But those who were interested in
+effecting an inclosure often convinced the inclosure commissioners that
+for some reason such allotments would be useless. To such an extent did
+the reservation of such allotments become discredited that, in 1869, the
+commission proposed to parliament the inclosure of 13,000 acres, with
+the reservation of only one acre for recreation, and none at all for
+field gardens. This proposal attracted the attention of Henry Fawcett,
+who, after much inquiry and consideration, came to the conclusion that
+inclosures were, speaking generally, doing more harm than good to the
+agricultural labourer, and that, under such conditions as the
+commissioners were prescribing, they constituted a serious evil. With
+characteristic intrepidity he opposed the annual inclosure bill (which
+had come to be considered a mere form) and moved for a committee on the
+whole subject. The ultimate result was the passing, seven years later,
+of the Commons Act 1876. This measure, introduced by a Conservative
+government, laid down the principle that an inclosure should not be
+allowed unless distinctly shown to be for the benefit, not merely of
+private persons, but of the neighbourhood generally and the public. It
+imposed many checks upon the process, and following the course already
+adopted in the case of metropolitan commons, offered an alternative
+method of making commons more useful to the nation, viz. their
+management and regulation as open spaces. The effect of this legislation
+and of the changed attitude of the House of Commons towards inclosure
+has been almost to stop that process, except in the case of common
+fields or extensive mountain wastes.
+
+
+  Regulation.
+
+We have alluded to the regulation of commons as open spaces. The primary
+object of this process is to bring a common under the jurisdiction of
+some constituted authority, which may make by-laws, enforceable in a
+summary way before the magistrates of the district, for its protection,
+and may appoint watchers or keepers to preserve order and prevent wanton
+mischief. There are several means of attaining this object. Commons
+within the metropolitan police district--the Greater London of the
+registrar-general--are in this respect in a position by themselves.
+Under the Metropolitan Commons Acts, schemes for their local management
+may be made by the Board of Agriculture (in which the inclosure
+commission is now merged) without the consent either of the owner of the
+soil or the commoners--who, however, are entitled to compensation if
+they can show that they are injuriously affected. Outside the
+metropolitan police district a provisional order for regulation may be
+made under the Commons Act 1876, with the consent of the owner of the
+soil and of persons representing two-thirds in value of all the
+interests in the common. And under an act passed in 1899 the council of
+any urban or rural district may, with the approval of the Board of
+Agriculture and without recourse to parliament, make a scheme for the
+management of any common within its district, provided no notice of
+dissent is served on the board by the lord of the manor or by persons
+representing one-third in value of such interests in the common as are
+affected by the scheme. There is yet another way of protecting a common.
+A parish council may, by agreement, acquire an interest in it, and may
+make by-laws for its regulation under the Local Government Act 1894. The
+acts of 1894 and 1899 undoubtedly proceed on right lines. For, with the
+growth of efficient local government, commons naturally fall to be
+protected and improved by the authority of the district.
+
+
+  Statistics.
+
+It remains to say a word as to the extent of common land still remaining
+open in England and Wales. In 1843 it was estimated that there were
+still 10,000,000 acres of common land and common-field land. In 1874
+another return made by the inclosure commission made a guess of
+2,632,772. These two returns were made from the same materials, viz. the
+tithe commutation awards. As less than 700,000 acres had been inclosed
+in the intervening period, it is obvious that the two estimates are
+mutually destructive. In July 1875 another version was given in the
+Return of Landowners (generally known as the Modern Domesday Book),
+compiled from the valuation lists made for the purposes of rating. This
+return put the commons of the country (not including common fields) at
+1,542,648 acres. It is impossible to view any of these returns as
+accurate. Those compiled from the tithe commutation awards are based
+largely on estimates, since there are many parishes where the tithes had
+not been commuted. On the other hand, the valuation lists do not show
+waste and unoccupied land (which is not rated), and consequently the
+information as to such lands in the Return of Landowners was based on
+any materials which might happen to be at the disposal of the clerk of
+the guardians. All we can say, therefore, is that the acreage of the
+remaining common land of the country is probably somewhere between
+1,500,000 and 2,000,000 acres. It is most capriciously distributed. In
+the Midlands there is very little to be found, while in a county of poor
+soil, like Surrey, nearly every parish has its common, and there are
+large tracts of heath and moor. In 1866, returns were made to parliament
+by the overseers of the poor of the commons within 15 and within 25 m.
+of Charing Cross. The acreage within the larger area was put at 38,450
+acres, and within the smaller at 13,301; but owing to the difference of
+opinion which sometimes prevails upon the question, whether land is
+common or not, and the carelessness of some parish authorities as to the
+accuracy of their returns, even these figures cannot be taken as more
+than approximately correct. The metropolitan police district, within
+which the Metropolitan Commons Acts are in force, approaches in extent
+to a circle of 15 miles' radius. Within this district nearly 12,000
+acres of common land have been put under local management, either by
+means of the Commons Acts or under special legislation. London is
+fortunate in having secured so much recreation ground on its borders.
+But when the enormous population of the capital and its rapid growth and
+expansion are considered, the conclusion is inevitable, that not one
+acre of common land within an easy railway journey of the metropolis can
+be spared.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Marshall, _Elementary and Practical Treatise on Landed
+  Property_ (London, 1804); F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_
+  (Cambridge, 1897); _Borough and Township_ (Cambridge, 1898); F.
+  Seebohm, _The English Village Community_ (London, 1883); Williams,
+  Joshua, _Rights of Common_ (London, 1880); C. I. Elton, _A Treatise on
+  Commons and Waste Lands_ (1868); T. E. Scrutton, _On Commons and
+  Common Fields_ (1887); H. R. Woolrych, _Rights of Common_ (1850); G.
+  Shaw-Lefevre, _English Commons and Forests_ (London, 1894); Sir W.
+  Hunter, _The Preservation of Open Spaces_ (London, 1896); "The
+  Movements for the Inclosure and Preservation of Open Lands," _Journal
+  of the Royal Statistical Society_, vol. lx. part ii. (June 1897);
+  _Returns to House of Commons_ (1843), No. 325; (1870), No. 326;
+  (1874), No. 85; _Return of Landowners_ (1875); _Annual Reports of
+  Inclosure Commission and Board of Agriculture_; Revised Statutes and
+  Statutes at large.     (R. H.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the commons (_communitates_) in a socio-political sense see
+    REPRESENTATION and PARLIAMENT.
+
+  [2] There is an entry on the court rolls of the manor of Wimbledon of
+    the division amongst the inhabitants of the vill of the crab-apples
+    growing on the common.
+
+
+
+
+COMMONWEALTH, a term generally synonymous with commonweal, i.e. public
+welfare, but more particularly signifying a form of government in which
+the general public have a direct voice. "The Commonwealth" is used in a
+special sense to denote the period in English history between the
+execution of Charles I. in 1649 and the Restoration in 1660.
+Commonwealth is also the official designation in America of the states
+of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky. The Commonwealth
+of Australia is the title of the federation of Australian colonies
+carried out in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+COMMUNE (Med. Lat. _communia_, Lat. _communis_, common), in its most
+general sense, a group of persons acting together for purposes of
+self-government, especially in towns. (See BOROUGH, and COMMUNE,
+MEDIEVAL, below.) "Commune" (Fr. _commune_, Ital. _comune_, Ger.
+_Gemeinde_, &c.) is now the term generally applied to the smallest
+administrative division in many European countries. (See the sections
+dealing with the administration of these countries under their several
+headings.) "The Commune" is the name given to the period of the history
+of Paris from March 18 to May 28, 1871, during which the commune of
+Paris attempted to set up its authority against the National Assembly at
+Versailles. It was a political movement, intended to replace the
+centralized national organization by one based on a federation of
+communes. Hence the "communists" were also called "federalists." It had
+nothing to do with the social theories of Communism (q.v.). (See FRANCE:
+_HISTORY_.)
+
+
+
+
+COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL. Under this head it is proposed to give a short
+account of the rise and development of towns in central and western
+continental Europe since the downfall of the Roman Empire. All these,
+including also the British towns (for which, however, see BOROUGH), may
+be said to have formed one unity, inasmuch as all arose under similar
+conditions, economic, legal and political, irrespective of local
+peculiarities. Kindred economic conditions prevailed in all the former
+provinces of the Western empire, while new law concepts were everywhere
+introduced by the Germanic invaders. It is largely for the latter reason
+that it seems advisable to begin with an account of the German towns,
+the term German to correspond to the limits of the old kingdom of
+Germany, comprising the present empire, German Austria, German
+Switzerland, Holland and a large portion of Belgium. In their
+development the problem, as it were, worked out least tainted by foreign
+interference, showing at the same time a rich variety in detail; and it
+may also be said that their constitutional and economic history has been
+more thoroughly investigated than any other.
+
+Like the others, the German towns should be considered from three points
+of view, viz. as jurisdictional units, as self-administrative units and
+as economic units. One of the chief distinguishing features of early as
+opposed to modern town-life is that each town formed a jurisdictional
+district distinct from the country around. Another trait, more in
+accordance with the conditions of to-day, is that local self-government
+was more fully developed and strongly marked in the towns than without.
+And, thirdly, each town in economic matters followed a policy as
+independent as possible of that of any other town or of the country in
+general. The problem is, how this state of things arose.
+
+From this point of view the German towns may be divided into two main
+classes: those that gradually resuscitated on the ruins of former Roman
+cities in the Rhine and Danube countries, and those that were newly
+founded at a later date in the interior.[1] Foremost in importance among
+the former stand the episcopal cities. Most of these had never been
+entirely destroyed during the Germanic invasion. Roman civic
+institutions perished; but probably parts of the population survived,
+and small Christian congregations with their bishops in most cases seem
+to have weathered all storms. Much of the city walls presumably remained
+standing, and within them German communities soon settled.
+
+In the 10th century it became the policy of the German emperors to hand
+over to the bishops full jurisdictional and administrative powers within
+their cities. The bishop henceforward directly or indirectly appointed
+all officers for the town's government. The chief of these was usually
+the _advocatus_ or _Vogt_, some neighbouring noble who served as the
+proctor of the church in all secular affairs. It was his business to
+preside three times a year over the chief law-court, the so-called
+_echte_ or _ungebotene Ding_, under the cognizance of which fell all
+cases relating to real property, personal freedom, bloodshed and
+robbery. For the rest of the legal business and as president of the
+ordinary court he appointed a _Schultheiss_, _centenarius_ or
+_causidicus_. Other officers were the _Burggraf_[2] or _praefectus_ for
+military matters, including the preservation of the town's defences,
+walls, moat, bridges and streets, to whom also appertained some
+jurisdiction over the craft-gilds in matters relating to their crafts;
+further the customs-officer or _teleonarius_ and the mint-master or
+_monetae magister_. It was not, however, the fact of their being placed
+under the bishop that constituted these towns as separate jurisdictional
+units. The chief feature rather is the existence within their walls of a
+special law, distinct in important points from that of the country at
+large. The towns enjoyed a special peace, as it was called, i.e.
+breaches of the peace were more severely punished if committed in a town
+than elsewhere. Besides, the inhabitants might be sued before the town
+court only, and to fugitives from the country who had taken refuge in
+the town belonged a similar privilege. This special legal status
+probably arose from the towns being considered in the first place as the
+king's fortresses[3] or burgs (see BOROUGH), and, therefore, as
+participating in the special peace enjoyed by the king's palace. Hence
+the terms "burgh," "borough" in English, _baurgs_ in Gothic, the
+earliest Germanic designations for a town; "burgher," "burgess" for its
+inhabitants. What struck the townless early Germans most about the Roman
+towns was their mighty walls. Hence they applied to all fortified
+habitations the term in use for their own primitive fortifications; the
+walls remained with them the main feature distinguishing a town from a
+village; and the fact of the town being a fortified place, likewise
+necessitated the special provisions mentioned for maintaining the peace.
+
+The new towns in the interior of Germany were founded on land belonging
+to the founder, some ecclesiastical or lay lord, and frequently
+adjoining the cathedral close of one of the new sees or the lord's
+castle, and they were laid out according to a regular plan. The most
+important feature was the market-square, often surrounded by arcades
+with stalls for the sale of the principal commodities, and with a number
+of straight streets leading thence to the city gates.[4] As for the
+fortifications, some time naturally passed before they were completed.
+Furthermore, the governmental machinery would be less complex than in
+the older towns. The legal peculiarities distinguishing town and
+country, on the other hand, may be said to have been conferred on the
+new towns in a more clearly defined form from the beginning.
+
+An important difference lay in the mode of settlement. There is evidence
+that in the quondam Roman towns the German newcomers settled much as in
+a village, i.e. each full member of the community had a certain portion
+of arable land allotted to him and a share in the common. Their pursuits
+would at first be mainly agricultural. The new towns, on the other hand,
+general economic conditions having meanwhile begun to undergo a marked
+change, were founded with the intention of establishing centres of
+trade. Periodical markets, weekly or annual, had preceded them, which
+already enjoyed the special protection of the king's ban, acts of
+violence against traders visiting them or on their way towards them
+being subject to special punishment. The new towns may be regarded as
+markets made permanent. The settlers invited were merchants (_mercatores
+personati_) and handicraftsmen. The land now allotted to each member of
+the community was just large enough for a house and yard, stabling and
+perhaps a small garden (50 by 100 ft. at Freiburg, 60 by 100 ft. at
+Bern). These building plots were given as free property or, more
+frequently, at a merely nominal rent (_Wurtzins_) with the right of free
+disposal, the only obligation being that of building a house. All that
+might be required besides would be a common for the pasture of the
+burgesses' cattle.
+
+The example thus set was readily followed in the older towns. The
+necessary land was placed at the disposal of new settlers, either by the
+members of the older agricultural community, or by the various churches.
+The immigrants were of widely differing status, many being serfs who
+came either with or without their lords' permission. The necessity of
+putting a stop to belated prosecutions on this account in the town court
+led to the acceptance of the rule that nobody who had lived in a town
+undisturbed for the term of a year and a day could any longer be claimed
+by a lord as his serf. But even those who had migrated into a town with
+their lords' consent could not very well for long continue in serfdom.
+When, on the other hand, certain bishops attempted to treat all
+new-comers to their city as serfs, the emperor Henry V. in charters for
+Spires and Worms proclaimed that in these towns all serf-like conditions
+should cease. This ruling found expression in the famous saying:
+_Stadtluft macht frei_, "town-air renders free." As may be imagined,
+this led to a rapid increase in population, mainly during the 11th to
+13th centuries. There would be no difficulty for the immigrants to find
+a dwelling, or to make a living, since most of them would be versed in
+one or other of the crafts in practice among villagers.
+
+The most important further step in the history of the towns was the
+establishment of an organ of self-government, the town-council (_Rat_,
+_consilium_, its members, _Ratmänner_, _consules_, less frequently
+_consiliarii_), with one, two or more burgomasters (_Bürgermeister_,
+_magistri civium_, _proconsules_) at its head. (It was only after the
+Renaissance that the town-council came to be styled _senate_, and the
+burgomasters in Latin documents, _consules_.) As _units of local
+government_ the towns must be considered as originally placed on the
+same legal basis as the villages, viz. as having the right of taking
+care of all common interests below the cognizance of the public courts
+or of those of their lord.[5] In the towns, however, this right was
+strengthened at an early date by the _jus negotiale_. At least as early
+as the beginning of the 11th century, but probably long before that
+date, mercantile communities claimed the right, confirmed by the
+emperors, of settling mercantile disputes according to a law of their
+own, to the horror of certain conservative-minded clerics.[6]
+Furthermore, in the rapidly developing towns, opportunities for the
+exercise of self-administrative functions constantly increased. The new
+self-governing body soon began to legislate in matters of local
+government, imposing fines for the breach of its by-laws. Thus it
+assumed a jurisdiction, partly concurrent with that of the lord, which
+it further extended to breaches of the peace. And, finally, it raised
+funds by means of an excise-duty, _Ungeld_ (cf. the English _malatolta_)
+or _Accise_, _Zeise_. In the older and larger towns it soon went beyond
+what the bishops thought proper to tolerate; conflicts ensued; and in
+the 13th century several bishops obtained decrees in the imperial court,
+either to suppress the _Rat_ altogether, or to make it subject to their
+nomination, and more particularly to abolish the _Ungeld_, as
+detrimental to episcopal finances. In the long run, however, these
+attempts proved of little avail.
+
+Meanwhile the tendency towards self-government spread even to the lower
+ranks of town society, resulting in the establishment of craft-gilds.
+From a very early period there is reason to believe merchants among
+themselves formed gilds for social and religious purposes, and for the
+furtherance of their economic interests. These gilds would, where they
+existed, no doubt also influence the management of town affairs; but
+nowhere has the _Rat_, as used to be thought, developed out of a gild,
+nor has the latter anywhere in Germany played a part at all similar in
+importance to that of the English gild merchant, the only exception
+being for a time the _Richerzeche_, or Gild of the Rich of Cologne, from
+early times by far the largest, the richest, and the most important
+trading centre among German cities, and therefore provided with an
+administration more complex, and in some respects more primitive, than
+any other. On the other hand, the most important commodities offered for
+sale in the market had been subject to official examination already in
+Carolingian times. Bakers', butchers', shoemakers' stalls were grouped
+together in the market-place to facilitate control, and with the same
+object in view a master was appointed for each craft as its responsible
+representative. By and by these crafts or "offices" claimed the right of
+electing their master and of assisting him in examining the goods, and
+even of framing by-laws regulating the quality of the wares and the
+process of their manufacture. The bishops at first resented these
+attempts at self-management, as they had done in the case of the town
+council, and imperial legislation in their interests was obtained. But
+each craft at the same time formed a society for social, beneficial and
+religious purposes, and, as these were entirely in accordance with the
+wishes of the clerical authorities, the other powers could not in the
+long run be withheld, including that of forcing all followers of any
+craft to join the gild (_Zunftzwang_). Thus the official inspection of
+markets, community of interests on the part of the craftsmen, and
+co-operation for social and religious ends, worked together in the
+formation of craft-gilds. It is not suggested that in each individual
+town the rise of the gilds was preceded by an organization of crafts on
+the part of the lord and his officers; but it is maintained that as a
+general thing voluntary organization could hardly have proceeded on such
+orderly lines as on the whole it did, unless the framework had in the
+first instance been laid down by the authorities: much as in modern
+times the working together in factories has practically been an
+indispensable preliminary to the formation of trade unions. Much less
+would the principle of forced entrance have found such ready acceptance
+both on the part of the authorities and on that of the men, unless it
+had previously been in full practice and recognition under the system of
+official market-control. The different names for the societies, viz.
+_fraternitas_, _Brüderschaft_, _officium_, _Amt_, _condictum_, _Zunft_,
+_unio_, _Innung_, do not signify different kinds of societies, but only
+different aspects of the same thing. The word _Gilde_ alone forms an
+exception, inasmuch as, generally speaking, it was used by merchant
+gilds only.[7]
+
+From an early date the towns, more particularly the older episcopal
+cities, took a part in imperial politics. Legally the bishops were in
+their cities mere representatives of the imperial government. This fact
+found formal expression mainly in two ways. The _Vogt_, although
+appointed by the bishop, received the "ban," i.e. the power of having
+justice executed, which he passed on to the lesser officers, from the
+king or emperor direct. Secondly, whenever the emperor held a _curia
+generalis_ (or general assembly, or diet) in one of the episcopal
+cities, and for a week before and after, all jurisdictional and
+administrative power reverted to him and his immediate officers. The
+citizens on their part clung to this connexion and made use of it
+whenever their independence was threatened by their bishops, who
+strongly inclined to consider themselves lords of their cathedral
+cities, much as if these had been built on church-lands. As early as
+1073, therefore, we find the citizens of Worms successfully rising
+against their bishop in order to provide the emperor Henry IV. with a
+refuge against the rebellious princes. Those of Cologne made a similar
+attempt in 1074. But a second class of imperial cities (_Reichsstädte_),
+much more numerous than the former, consisted of those founded on
+demesne-land belonging either to the Empire or to one of the families
+who rose to imperial rank. This class was largely reinforced, when after
+the extinction of the royal house of Hohenstaufen in the 13th century, a
+great number of towns founded by them on their demesne successfully
+claimed immediate subjection to the crown. About this time, during the
+interregnum, a federation of more than a hundred towns was formed,
+beginning on the Rhine, but spreading as far as Bremen in the north,
+Zürich in the south, and Regensburg in the east, with the object of
+helping to preserve the peace. After the death of King William in 1256,
+they resolved to recognize no king unless unanimously elected. This
+league was joined by a powerful group of princes and nobles and found
+recognition by the prince-electors of the Empire; but for want of
+leadership it did not stand the test, when Richard of Cornwall and
+Alphonso of Castile were elected rival kings in 1257.[8] In the
+following centuries the imperial cities in south Germany, where most of
+them were situated, repeatedly formed leagues to protect their interests
+against the power of the princes and the nobles, and destructive wars
+were waged; but no great political issue found solution, the relative
+position of the parties after each war remaining much what it had been
+before. On the part of the towns this was mainly due to lack of
+leadership and of unity of purpose. At the time of the Reformation the
+imperial towns, like most of the others, stood forward as champions of
+the new cause and did valuable service in upholding and defending it.
+After that, however, their political part was played out, mainly because
+they proved unable to keep up with modern conditions of warfare. It
+should be stated that seven among the episcopal cities, viz. Cologne,
+Mainz, Worms, Spires, Strassburg, Basel and Regensburg, claimed a
+privileged position as "Free Cities," but neither is the ground for this
+claim clearly established, nor its nature well defined. The general
+obligations of the imperial cities towards the Empire were the payment
+of an annual fixed tax and the furnishing of a number of armed men for
+imperial wars, and from these the above-named towns claimed some measure
+of exemption. Some of the imperial cities lost their independence at an
+early date, as unredeemed pledges to some prince who had advanced money
+to the emperor. Others seceded as members of the Swiss Confederation.
+But a considerable number survived until the reorganization of the
+Empire in 1803. At the peace in 1815, however, only four were spared,
+namely, Frankfort, Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck, these being practically
+the only ones still in a sufficiently flourishing and economically
+independent position to warrant such preferential treatment. But finally
+Frankfort, having chosen the wrong side in the war of 1866, was annexed
+by Prussia, and only the three seaboard towns remain as full members of
+the new confederate Empire under the style of _Freie und Hansestädte_.
+But until modern times most of the larger _Landstädte_ or mesne-towns
+for all intents and purposes were as independent under their lords as
+the imperial cities were under the emperor. They even followed a foreign
+policy of their own, concluded treaties with foreign powers or made war
+upon them. Nearly all the _Hanseatic towns_ belonged to this category.
+With others like Bremen, Hamburg and Magdeburg, it was long in the
+balance which class they belonged to. All towns of any importance,
+however, were for a considerable time far ahead of the principalities in
+administration. It was largely this fact that gave them power. When,
+therefore, from about the 15th century the princely territories came to
+be better organized, much of the _raison d'ętre_ for the exceptional
+position held by the towns disappeared. The towns from an early date
+made it their policy to suppress the exercise of all handicrafts in the
+open country. On the other hand, they sought an increase of power by
+extending rights of citizenship to numerous individual inhabitants of
+the neighbouring villages (_Pfalbürger_, a term not satisfactorily
+explained). By this and other means, e.g. the purchase of estates by
+citizens, many towns gradually acquired a considerable territory. These
+tendencies both princes and lesser nobles naturally tried to thwart, and
+the mediate towns or _Landstädte_ were finally brought to stricter
+subjection, at least in the greater principalities such as Austria and
+Brandenburg. Besides, the less favourably situated towns suffered
+through the concentration of trade in the hands of their more fortunate
+sisters. But the economic decay and consequent loss of political
+influence among both imperial and territorial towns must be chiefly
+ascribed to inner causes.
+
+Certain leading political economists, notably K. Bücher (_Die
+Bevölkerung von Frankfurt a. M. im 14ten und 15ten Jahrhundert_, i.,
+Tübingen, 1886; _Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft_, 5th ed., Tübingen,
+1906), and, in a modified form, W. Sombart (_Der moderne Kapitalismus_,
+2 vols., Leipzig, 1902), have propounded the doctrine of one gradual
+progression from an agricultural state to modern capitalistic
+conditions. This theory, however, is nothing less than an outrage on
+history. As a matter of fact, as far as modern Europe is concerned,
+there has twice been a progression, separated by a period of
+retrogression, and it is to the latter that Bücher's picture of the
+agricultural and strictly protectionist town (the _geschlossene
+Stadtwirtschaft_) of the 14th and 15th centuries belongs, while
+Sombart's notion of an entire absence of a spirit of capitalistic
+enterprise before the middle of the 15th century in Europe north of the
+Alps, or the 14th century in Italy, is absolutely fantastic.[9] The
+period of the rise of cities till well on in the 13th century was
+naturally a period of expansion and of a considerable amount of freedom
+of trade. It was only afterwards that a protectionist spirit gained the
+upper hand, and each town made it its policy to restrict as far as
+possible the trade of strangers. In this revolution the rise of the
+lower strata of the population to power played an important part.
+
+The craft-gilds had remained subordinate to the _Rat_, but by-and-by
+they claimed a share in the government of the towns. Originally any
+inhabitant holding a certain measure of land, freehold or subject to the
+mere nominal ground-rent above-mentioned, was a full citizen
+independently of his calling, the clergy and the lord's retainers and
+servants of whatever rank, who claimed exemption from scot and lot, to
+use the English formula, alone excepted. The majority of the artisans,
+however, were not in this happy position. Moreover, the town council,
+instead of being freely elected, filled up vacancies in its ranks by
+co-optation, with the result that all power became vested in a limited
+number of rich families. Against this state of things the crafts
+rebelled, alleging mismanagement, malversation and the withholding of
+justice. During the 14th and 15th centuries revolutions and
+counter-revolutions, sometimes accompanied by considerable slaughter,
+were frequent, and a great variety of more democratic constitutions were
+tried. Zürich, however, is the only German place where a kind of
+_tyrannis_, so frequent in Italy, came to be for a while established. On
+the whole it must be said that in those towns where the democratic party
+gained the upper hand an unruly policy abroad and a narrow-minded
+protection at home resulted. An inclination to hasty measures of war and
+an unwillingness to observe treaties among the democratic towns of
+Swabia were largely responsible for the disasters of the war of the
+Swabian League in the 14th century. At home, whereas at first markets
+had been free and open to any comer, a more and more protective policy
+set in, traders from other towns being subjected more and more to
+vexatious restrictions. It was also made increasingly difficult to
+obtain membership in the craft-gilds, high admission fees and so-called
+masterpieces being made a condition. Finally, the number of members
+became fixed, and none but members' sons and sons-in-law, or members'
+widows' husbands were received. The first result was the formation of a
+numerous proletariate of life-long assistants and of men and women
+forcibly excluded from following any honest trade; and the second
+consequence, the economic ruin of the town to the exclusive advantage of
+a limited number. From the end of the 15th century population in many
+towns decreased, and not only most of the smaller ones, but even some
+once important centres of trade, sank to the level almost of villages.
+Those cities, on the other hand, where the mercantile community remained
+in power, like Nuremberg and the seaboard towns, on the whole followed a
+more enlightened policy, although even they could not quite keep clear
+of the ever-growing protective tendencies of the time. Many even of the
+richer towns, notably Nuremberg, ran into debt irretrievably, owing
+partly to an exorbitant expenditure on magnificent public buildings and
+extensive fortifications, calculated to resist modern instruments of
+destruction, partly to a faulty administration of the public debt. From
+the 13th century the towns had issued ("sold," as it was called)
+annuities, either for life or for perpetuity in ever-increasing number,
+until it was at last found impossible to raise the funds necessary to
+pay them.
+
+One of the principal achievements of the towns lay in the field of
+_legislation_. Their law was founded originally on the general national
+(or provincial) law, on custom, and on special privilege. New
+foundations were regularly provided by their lord with a charter
+embodying the most important points of the special law of the town in
+question. This miniature code would thenceforth be developed by means of
+statutes passed by the town council. The codification of the law of
+Augsburg in 1276 already fills a moderate volume in print (ed. by
+Christian Meyer, Augsburg, 1872). Later foundations were frequently
+referred by their founders to the nearest existing town of importance,
+though that might belong to a different lord. Afterwards, if a question
+in law arose which the court of a younger town found itself unable to
+answer, the court next senior in affiliation was referred to, which in
+turn would apply to the court above, until at last that of the original
+mother town was reached, whose decision was final. This system was
+chiefly developed in the colonial east, where most towns were affiliated
+directly or indirectly either to Lübeck or to Magdeburg; but it was by
+no means unknown in the home country. A number of collections of such
+judgments (_Schöffensprüche_) have been published. It is also worth
+mentioning that it was usual to read the police by-laws of a town at
+regular intervals to the assembled citizens in a morning-speech
+(_Morgenspraehe_).[10]
+
+To turn to _Italy_, the country for so many centuries in close political
+connexion with Germany, the foremost thing to be noted is that here the
+towns grew to even greater independence, many of them in the end
+acknowledging no overlord whatever after the yoke of the German kings
+had been shaken off. On the other hand, nearly all of them in the long
+run fell under the sway of some local tyrant-dynasty.
+
+From Roman times the country had remained thickly studded with towns,
+each being the seat of a bishop. From this arose their most important
+peculiarity. For it was largely due to an identification of dioceses and
+municipal territories that the nobles of the surrounding country took up
+their headquarters in the cities, either voluntarily or because forced
+to do so by the citizens, who made it their policy thus to turn possible
+opponents into partisans and defenders. In Germany, on the other hand,
+nobles and knights were carefully shut out so long as the town's
+independence was at stake, the members of a princely garrison being
+required to take up their abode in the citadel, separated from the town
+proper by a wall. Only in the comparatively few cathedral cities this
+rule does not obtain. It will be seen that, in consequence of this,
+municipal life in Italy was from the first more complex, the main
+constituent parts of the population being the _capitani_, or greater
+nobles, the _valvassori_, or lesser nobles (knights) and the people
+(_popolo_). Furthermore, the bishops being in most cases the exponents
+of the imperial power, the struggle for freedom from the latter ended in
+a radical riddance from all temporal episcopal government as well.
+Foremost in this struggle stood the cities of Lombardy, most of which
+all through the barbarian invasions had kept their walls in repair and
+maintained some importance as economic centres, and whose _popolo_
+largely consisted of merchants of some standing. As early as the 8th
+century the laws of the Langobard King Aistulf distinguished three
+classes of merchants (_negotiantes_), among whom the _majores et
+potentes_ were required to keep themselves provided with horse, lance,
+shield and a cuirass. The valley of the Po formed the main artery of
+trade between western Europe and the East, Milan being besides the point
+of convergence for all Alpine passes west of the Brenner (the St
+Gotthard, however, was not made accessible until early in the 13th
+century). Lombard merchants soon spread all over western Europe, a chief
+source of their ever-increasing wealth being their employment as bankers
+of the papal see.
+
+The struggle against the bishops, in which a clamour for a reform of
+clerical life and a striving for local self-government were strangely
+interwoven, had raged for a couple of generations when King Henry V.,
+great patron of municipal freedom as he was, legalized by a series of
+charters the _status quo_ (Cremona, 1114, Mantua, 1116). But under his
+weak successors the independence of the cities reached such a pitch as
+to be manifestly intolerable to an energetic monarch like Frederick I.
+Besides, the more powerful among them would subdue or destroy their
+weaker neighbours, and two parties were formed, one headed by Milan, the
+other by Cremona. Como and Lodi complained of the violence used to them
+by the former city. Therefore in 1158 a commission was appointed
+embracing four Roman legists as representatives of the emperor, as well
+as those of fourteen towns, to examine into the imperial and municipal
+rights. The claims of the imperial government, jurisdictional and other,
+were acknowledged, only such rights of self-government being admitted as
+could be shown to be grounded on imperial charters. But when it came to
+carrying into effect these Roncaglian decrees, a general rising
+resulted. Milan was besieged by the emperor and destroyed in 1162 in
+accordance with the verdict of her rivals. Nevertheless, after a defeat
+at Legnano in 1176, Frederick was forced to renounce all pretensions to
+interference with the government of the cities, merely retaining an
+overlordship that was not much more than formal (peace of Constance in
+1183). All through this war the towns had been supported by Pope
+Alexander III. Similarly under Frederick II. the renewal of the struggle
+between emperor and pope dovetailed with a fresh outbreak of the war
+with the cities, who feared lest an imperial triumph over the church
+would likewise threaten their independence. The emperor's death finally
+decided the issue in their favour.
+
+Constitutionally, municipal freedom was based on the formation of a
+commune headed by elected consuls, usually to the number of twelve,
+representing the three orders of _capitani_, _valvassori_ and _popolo_.
+Frequently, however, the number actually wielding power was much more
+restricted, and their position altogether may rather be likened to that
+of their Roman predecessors than to that of their German contemporaries.
+In all important matters they asked the advice and support of "wise
+men," _sapientes, discretiores, prudentes_, as a body called the
+_credenza_, while the popular assembly (_parlamentum, concio, consilium
+generale_) was the true sovereign. The consuls with the assistance of
+_judices_ also presided in the law-courts; but besides the consuls of
+the commune there were _consules de placitis_ specially appointed for
+jurisdictional purposes.
+
+In spite of these multifarious safeguards, however, family factions
+early destroyed the fabric of liberty, especially as, just as there was
+an imperial, or Ghibelline, and a papal, or Guelph party among the
+cities as a whole, thus also within each town each faction would allege
+adherence to and claim support by one or other of the great
+world-powers. To get out of the dilemma of party-government, resort was
+thereupon had to the appointment as chief magistrate of a _podestŕ_ from
+among the nobles or knights of a different part of the country not mixed
+up with the local feuds. But the end was in most cases the establishment
+of the despotism of some leading family, such as the Visconti at Milan,
+the Gonzaga at Mantua, the della Scala in Verona and the Carrara in
+Padua.
+
+In Tuscany, the historic rôle of the cities, with the exception of Pisa,
+begins at a later date, largely owing to the overlordship of the
+powerful margraves of the house of Canossa and their successors, who
+here represented the emperor. Pisa, however, together with Genoa, all
+through the 11th century distinguished itself by war waged in the
+western Mediterranean and its isles against the Saracens. Both cities,
+along with Venice, but especially the Genoese, also did excellent
+service in reducing the Syrian coast towns still in the hands of the
+Turks in the reigns of Kings Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. of Jerusalem,
+while more particularly Pisa with great constancy placed her fleet at
+the disposal of the Hohenstaufen emperors for warfare with Sicily.
+
+Meanwhile communes with consuls at their head were formed in Tuscany
+much as elsewhere. On the other hand the Tuscan cities managed to
+prolong the reign of liberty to a much later epoch, no _podestŕ_ ever
+quite succeeding here in his attempts to establish the rule of his
+dynasty. Even when in the second half of the 15th century the Medici in
+Florence attained to power, the form at least of a republic was still
+maintained, and not till 1531 did one of them, supported by Charles V.,
+assume the ducal title.
+
+Long before the last stage, the rule of _signori_, was reached, however,
+the commune as originally constituted had everywhere undergone radical
+changes. As early as the 13th century the lower orders among the
+inhabitants formed an organization under officers of their own, side by
+side with that of the commune, which was controlled by the great and the
+rich; e.g. at Florence the people in 1250 rose against the turbulent
+nobles and chose a _capitano del popolo_ with twelve _anziani_, two from
+each of the six city-wards (_sestieri_), as his council. The _popolo_
+itself was divided into twenty armed companies, each under a
+_gonfaloniere_. But later the _arti_ (craft-gilds), some of whom,
+however, can be shown to have existed under consuls of their own as
+early as 1203, attained supreme importance, and in 1282 the government
+was placed in the hands of their _priori_, under the name of the
+_signoria_. The Guelph nobles were at first admitted to a share in the
+government, on condition of their entering a gild, but in 1293 even this
+privilege was withdrawn. The _ordinamenti della giustizia_ of that year
+robbed the nobility of all political power. The lesser or lower _arti_,
+on the other hand, were conceded a full share in it, and a _gonfaloniere
+della giustizia_ was placed at the head of the militia. In the 14th
+century twelve _buoni uomini_ representing the wards (_sestieri_) were
+superadded, all these dignitaries holding office for two months only.
+And besides all these, there existed three competing chief justices and
+commanders of the forces called in from abroad and holding office for
+six months, viz. the _podestŕ_, the _capitano del popolo_, and the
+_esecutore della giustizia_. In spite of all this complicated machinery
+of checks and balances, revolution followed upon revolution, nor could
+an occasional reign of terror be prevented like that of the Signore
+Gauthier de Brienne, duke of Athens (1342-1343). It was not till after a
+rising of the lowest order of all, the industrial labourers, had been
+suppressed in 1378 (_tumulto dei Ciompi_, the wool-combers), that
+quieter times ensued under the wise leadership, first of the Albizzi and
+finally of the Medici.
+
+The history of the other Tuscan towns was equally tumultuous, all of
+them save Lucca, after many fitful changes finally passing under the
+sway of Florence, or the grand-duchy of Tuscany, as the state was now
+called. Pisa, one time the mightiest, had been crushed between its
+inland neighbour and its maritime rival Genoa (battle of Meloria, 1282).
+
+Apart in its constitutional development from all other towns in Italy,
+and it might be added, in Europe, stands Venice. Almost alone among
+Italian cities its origin does not go back to Roman times. It was not
+till the invasions of Hun and Langobard that fugitives from the Venetian
+mainland took refuge among the poor fishermen on the small islands in
+the lagoons and on the _lido_--the narrow stretch of coast-line which
+separates the lagoons from the Adriatic--some at Grado, some at
+Malamocco, others on Rialto. A number of small communities was formed
+under elected tribunes, acknowledging as their sovereign the emperor at
+Constantinople. Treaties of commerce were concluded with the Langobard
+kings, thus assuring a market for the sale of imports from the East and
+for the purchase of agricultural produce. Just before or after A.D. 700
+the young republic seems to have thrown off the rule of the Byzantine
+_dux Histriae et Venetiae_ and elected a duke (_doge_) of its own, in
+whom was vested the executive power, the right to convoke the popular
+assembly (_concio_) and appoint tribunes and justices. Political unity
+was thus established, but it was not till after another century of civil
+war that Rialto was definitely chosen the seat of government and thus
+the foundation of the present city laid. After a number of attempts to
+establish a hereditary dukedom, Duke Domenico Flabianico in 1032 passed
+a law providing that no duke was to appoint his successor or procure him
+to be elected during his own lifetime. Besides this two councils were
+appointed without whose consent nothing of importance was to be done.
+After the murder by the people of Duke Vitale Michiel in 1172, who had
+suffered naval defeat, it was deemed necessary to introduce a stricter
+constitutional order. According to the orthodox account, some details of
+which have, however, recently been impugned,[11] the irregular popular
+meeting was replaced by a great council of from 450 to 480 members
+elected annually by special appointed electors in equal proportion from
+each of the six wards. One of the functions of this body was to appoint
+most of the state officials or their electors. There was also an
+executive council of six, one from each ward. Besides these, the duke,
+who was henceforward elected by a body of eleven electors from among the
+aristocracy, would invite persons of prominence (the _pregadi_) in order
+to secure their assent and co-operation, whenever a measure of
+importance was to be placed before the great council. Only under
+extraordinary circumstances the _concio_ was still to be called. The
+tenure of the duke's office was for life. The general tendency of
+constitutional development in Venice henceforward ran in an exactly
+opposite direction to that of all other Italian cities towards a growing
+restriction of popular rights, until in 1296 the great council was for
+all future time closed to all but the descendants of a limited number of
+noble families, whose names were in that year entered in the Golden
+Book. It still remained to appoint a board to superintend the executive
+power. These were the _avvogadori di commune_, and, since Tiepolo's
+conspiracy in 1310, the _Consiglio dei Dieci_, the Council of Ten, which
+controlled the whole of the state, and out of which there developed in
+the 16th century the state inquisition.
+
+While in all prominent Italian cities the leading classes of the
+community were largely made up of merchants, in Venice the nobility was
+entirely commercial. The marked steadiness in the evolution of the
+Venetian constitution is no doubt largely due to this fact. Elsewhere
+the presence of large numbers of turbulent country nobles furnished the
+first germ for the unending dissensions which ruined such promising
+beginnings. In Venice, on the contrary, its businesslike habits of mind
+led the ruling class to make what concessions might seem needful, while
+both the masses and the head of the state were kept in due subjection to
+the laws. Too much stability, however, finally changed into stagnation,
+and decay followed. The foreign policy of Venice was likewise mainly
+dictated by commercial motives, the chief objectives being commercial
+privilege in the Byzantine empire and in the Frankish states in the
+East, domination of the Adriatic, occupation of a sufficient hinterland
+on the _terra firma_, non-sufferance of the rivalry of Genoa, and,
+finally, maintenance of trade-supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean
+through a series of alternating wars and treaties with Turkey, the
+lasting monument of which was the destruction of the Parthenon in 1685
+by a Venetian bomb. At last the proud republic surrendered to Napoleon
+without a stroke.
+
+The cities of southern Italy do not here call for special attention.
+Several of them developed a certain amount of independence and free
+institutions, and took an important part in trade with the East, notably
+so Amalfi. But after incorporation in the Norman kingdom all individual
+history for them came to an end.
+
+Rome, finally, derived its importance from being the capital of the
+popes and from its proud past. From time to time spasmodic attempts were
+made to revive the forms of the ancient republic, as under Arnold of
+Brescia in the 12th and by Niccolň di Rienzo in the 14th century; but
+there was no body of stalwart, self-reliant citizens to support such
+measures: nothing but turbulent nobles on the one hand and a rabble on
+the other.
+
+In no country is there such a clear grouping of the towns on
+geographical lines as in _France_, these geographical lines, of course,
+having in the first instance been drawn by historical causes. Another
+feature is the extent to which, in the unruly times preceding the civic
+movement, serfdom had spread among the inhabitants even of the towns
+throughout the greater part of the country, and the application of
+feudal ideas to town government. In some other respects the constitution
+of the cities in the south of France, as will be seen, has more in
+common with that of the Italian communes, and that of the northern
+French towns with those of Germany, than the constitutions of the
+various groups of French towns have among each other.
+
+In the group of the _villes consulaires_, comprising all important towns
+in the south, the executive was, as in Italy, in the hands of a body of
+_consules_, whose number in most cases rose to twelve. They were elected
+for the term of one year and re-eligible only after an interval, and
+they were supported by a municipal council (_commune consilium,
+consilium magnum_ or _secretum_ or _generale_, or _colloquium_) and a
+general assembly (_parlamentum, concio, commune consilium, commune,
+universitas civium_), which, however, as a rule was far from comprising
+the whole body of citizens. Another feature which these southern towns
+had in common with their Italian neighbours was the prominent part
+played by the native nobility. The relations with the clergy were
+generally of a more friendly character than in the north, and in some
+cases the bishop or archbishop even retained a considerable influence in
+the management of the town's affairs. Dissensions among the citizens, or
+between the nobles and the bourgeois, frequently ended in the adoption
+of a _podestat_. And in several cities of the Languedoc, each of the two
+classes composing the population retained its separate laws and customs.
+It is matter of dispute whether vestiges of Roman institutions had
+survived in these parts down to the time when the new constitutions
+sprang into being; but all investigators are pretty well agreed that in
+no case did such remnants prove of any practical importance. Roman law,
+however, was never quite superseded by Germanic law, as appears from the
+_statuts municipaux_. In the improvement and expansion of these statutes
+a remarkable activity was displayed by means of an annual _correctio
+statutorum_ carried out by specially appointed _statutores_. In the
+north, on the other hand, the _carta communiae_, forming as it were the
+basis of the commune's existence, seems to have been considered almost
+as something sacred and unchangeable.
+
+The constitutional history of the communes in northern France in a
+number of points widely differed from that of these _villes
+consulaires_. First of all the movement for their establishment in most
+cases was to a far greater degree of a revolutionary character. These
+revolutions were in the first place directed against the bishops; but
+the position both of the higher clergy and of the nobility was here of a
+nature distinctly more hostile to the aspirations of the citizens than
+it was in the south. As a result the clergy and the nobles were excluded
+from all membership of the commune, except inasmuch as that those
+residing in the town might be required to swear not to conspire against
+it. The commune (_communia, communa, communio, communitas, conjuratio,
+confoederatio_) was formed by an oath of mutual help (_sacramentum,
+juramentum communiae_). The members were described as _jurati_ (also
+_burgenses, vicini, amici_), although in some communes that term was
+reserved for the members of the governing body. None but men of free and
+legitimate birth, and free from debt and contagious or incurable disease
+were received. The members of the governing body were styled _jurés_
+(_jurati_), _pairs_ (_pares_) or _échevins_ (_scabini_). The last was,
+however, as in Germany, more properly the title of the jurors in the
+court of justice, which in many cases remained in the hands of the lord.
+In some cases the town council developed out of this body; but in the
+larger cities, like Rouen, several councils worked and all these names
+were employed side by side. The number of the members of the governing
+body proper varies from twelve to a hundred, and its functions were both
+judicial and administrative. There was also known an arrangement
+corresponding to the German _alte und sitzende Rat_, viz. of retired
+members who could be called in to lend assistance on important
+occasions. The most striking distinction, however, as against the
+_villes consulaires_ was the elevation of the president of the body to
+the position of _maire_ or _mayeur_ (sometimes also called _prévôt_,
+_praepositus_). As elsewhere, at first none but the civic aristocracy
+were admitted to take part in the management of the town's affairs; but
+from the end of the 13th century a share had to be conceded to
+representatives of the crafts. Dissatisfaction, however, was not easily
+allayed; the lower orders applied for the intervention of the king; and
+that effectively put an end to political freedom. This tendency of
+calling in state help marks a most striking difference as against the
+policy followed by the German towns, where all classes appear to have
+been always far too jealous of local independence. The result for the
+nation was in the one case despotism, equality and order, in the other
+individual liberty and an inability to move as a whole. At an earlier
+stage the king had frequently come to the assistance of the communes in
+their struggle with their lords. By-and-by the king's confirmation came
+to be considered necessary for their lawful existence. This proved a
+powerful lever for the extension of the king's authority. It may seem
+strange that in France the towns never had recourse to those interurban
+leagues which played so important a part in Italian and in German
+history.
+
+These two varieties, the _communes_ and the _villes consulaires_
+together form the group of _villes libres_. As opposed to these stand
+the _villes franches_, also called _villes prévotales_ after the chief
+officer, _villes de bourgeoisie_ or _villes soumises_. They make up by
+far the majority of French towns, comprising all those situated in the
+centre of the kingdom, and also a large number in the north and the
+south. They are called _villes franches_ on account of their possessing
+a franchise, a charter limiting the services due by the citizens to
+their lord, but political status they had little or none. According to
+the varying extent of the liberties conceded them, there may be
+distinguished towns governed by an elective body and more or less fully
+authorized to exercise jurisdiction; towns possessing some sort of
+municipal organization, but no rights of jurisdiction, except that of
+simple police; and, thirdly, those governed entirely by seignorial
+officers. To this last class belong some of the most important cities in
+France, wherever the king had power enough to withhold liberties deemed
+dangerous and unnecessary. On the other hand, towns of the first
+category often come close to the _villes libres_. A strict line of
+demarcation, however, remains in the mutual oath which forms the basis
+of the civic community in both varieties of the latter, and in the fact
+that the _ville libre_ stands to its lord in the relation of vassal and
+not in that of an immediate possession. But however _complčtement
+assujettie_ Paris might be, its organization, naturally, was immensely
+more complex than that of hundreds of smaller places which, formally,
+might stand in an identical relationship to their lords. Like other
+_villes franches_ under the king, Paris was governed by a _prévôt_
+(provost), but certain functions of self-government for the city were
+delegated to the company of the _marchands de l'eau, mercatores aquae_,
+also called _mercatores ansati_, that is, the gild of merchants whose
+business lay down the river Seine, in other words, a body naturally
+exclusive, not, however, to the citizens as such. At their head stood a
+_prévôt des marchands_ and four _eschevins de la marchandise_. Other
+_prud'hommes_ were occasionally called in, and from 1296 _prévôt_ and
+_échevins_, appointed twenty-four councillors to form with themselves a
+_parloir aux bourgeois_. The crafts of Paris were organized in
+_métiers_, whose masters were appointed, some by the _prévôt de Paris_,
+and some by certain great officers of the court. In the tax rolls of
+A.D. 1292 to 1300 no fewer than 448 names of crafts occur, while the
+_Livre des métiers_ written in 1268 by Étienne de Boileau, then _prévôt
+de Paris_, enumerates 101 organized bodies of tradesmen or women and
+artisans. Among the duties of these bodies, as elsewhere, was the _guet_
+or night-watch, which necessitated a military organization under
+_quartiniers, cinquantainiers_ and _dixainiers_. This gave them a
+certain power. But both their revolutions, under the _prévôt des
+marchands_, Étienne Marcel, after the battle of Maupertuis, and again in
+1382, were extremely short-lived, and the only tangible result was a
+stricter subjection to the king and his officers.
+
+An exceptional position among the cities of France is taken up by those
+of _Flanders_, more particularly the three "Great Towns," Bruges, Ghent
+and Ypres, whose population was Flemish, i.e. German. They sprang up at
+the foot of the count's castles and rose in close conjunction with his
+power. On the accession of a new house they made their power felt as
+early as 1128. Afterwards the counts of the house of Dampierre fell into
+financial dependence on the burghers, and therefore allied themselves
+with the rising artisans, led by the weavers. These, however, proved far
+more unruly, bloody conflicts ensued, and for a considerable period the
+three great cities ruled the whole of Flanders with a high hand. Their
+influence in the foreign relations of the country was likewise great, it
+being in their interest to keep up friendly relations with England, on
+whose wool the flourishing state of the staple industry of Flanders
+depended. It is a remarkable fact that the historical position taken up
+by these cities, which politically belonged to France, is much more akin
+to the part played by the German towns, whereas Cambrai, whose
+population was French, is the only city politically situated in Germany,
+where a commune came to be established.
+
+In the _Spanish peninsula_, the chief importance of the numerous small
+towns lay in the part they played as fortresses during the unceasing
+wars with the Moors. The kings therefore extended special privileges
+(_fueros_) to the inhabitants, and they were even at an early date
+admitted to representation in the Cortes (parliament). Of greater
+individual importance than all the rest was Barcelona. Already in 1068
+Count Berengarius gave the city a special law (_usatici_) based on its
+ancient usages, and from the 14th century its commercial code (_libro
+del consolat del mar_) became influential all over southern Europe.
+
+The constitutions of the _Scandinavian_ towns were largely modelled on
+those of Germany, but the towns never attained anything like the same
+independence. Their dependence on the royal government most strongly
+comes out in the fact of their being uniformly regulated by royal law in
+each of the three kingdoms. In Sweden particularly, German merchants by
+law took an equal share in the government of the towns. In Denmark their
+influence was also great, and only in Norway did they remain in the
+position of foreigners in spite of their famous settlement at Bergen.
+The details, as well as those of the German settlement at Wisby and on
+the east coast of the Baltic, belong rather to the history of the
+Hanseatic League (q.v.). Denmark appears to be the only one of the three
+kingdoms where gilds at an early date played a part of importance.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The only book dealing with the subject in general, viz.
+  K. D. Hüllmann, _Städtewesen des Mittelalters_ (4 vols., Bonn,
+  1826-1828), is quite antiquated. For Germany it is best to consult
+  Richard Schröder, _Lehrbruch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (5th ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1907), §§ 51 and 56, where a bibliography as complete as need
+  be is given, both of monographs dealing with various aspects of the
+  question, and of works on the history of individual towns. The latter
+  alone covers two large octavo pages of small print. As a sort of
+  complement to Schröder's chapters may be considered, F. Keutgen,
+  _Urkunden zur städtischen Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1901 =
+  _Ausgewählte Urkunden zur deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte_, by G. von
+  Below and F. Keutgen, vol. i.), a collection of 437 select charters
+  and other documents, with a very full index. The great work of G. L.
+  von Maurer, _Geschichte der Städteverfassung von Deutschland_ (4 thick
+  vols., Erlangen, 1869-1871), contains an enormous mass of information
+  not always treated quite so critically as the present age requires.
+  There is an excellent succinct account for general readers by Georg
+  von Below, "Das ältere deutsche Städtewesen und Bürgertum,"
+  _Monographien zur Weltgeschichte_, vol. vi. (Bielefeld and Leipzig,
+  1898, illustrated). A number of the most important recent monographs
+  have been mentioned above. As fpr Italy, the most valuable general
+  work for the early times is still Carl Hegel, _Geschichte der
+  Städteverfassung von Italien seit der Zeit der römischen Herrschaft
+  bis zum Ausgang des zwölften Jahrhunderts_ (2 small vols., Leipzig,
+  1847, price second-hand, M. 40), in which it was for the first time
+  fully proved that there is no connexion between Roman and modern
+  municipal constitutions. For the period from the 13th century it will
+  perhaps be best to consult W. Assmann, _Geschichte des Mittelalters_,
+  3rd ed., by L. Viereck, dritte Abteilung, _Die letzten beiden
+  Jahrhunderts des Mittelalters: Deutschland, die Schweiz, und Italien_,
+  by R. Fischer, R. Scheppig and L. Viereck (Brunswick, 1906). In this
+  volume, pp. 679-943 contain an excellent account of the various
+  Italian states and cities during that period, with a full bibliography
+  for each. Among recent critical contributions to the history of
+  individual towns, the following works deserve to be specially
+  mentioned: Robert Davidsohn, _Geschichte von Florenz_ (Berlin,
+  1896-1908); down to the beginning of the 14th century; the same,
+  _Forschungen zur Geschichte von Florenz_ (vols. i.-iv., Berlin,
+  1896-1908); Heinrich Kretschmayr, _Geschichte von Venedig_ (vol. i.,
+  Gotha, 1905, to 1205). For France, there are the works by Achille
+  Luchaire, _Les Communes françaises ŕ l'époque des Capétiens directs_
+  (Paris, 1890), and Paul Viollet, "Les Communes françaises au moyen
+  âge," _Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres_,
+  tome xxxvi. (Paris, 1900). There are, of course, also accounts in the
+  great works on French institutions by Flach, Glasson, Viollet,
+  Luchaire, but perhaps the one in Luchaire's _Manuel des institutions
+  françaises, période des Capétiens directs_ (Paris, 1892) deserves
+  special recommendation. Another valuable account for France north of
+  the Loire is that contained in the great work by Karl Hegel, _Städte
+  und Gilden der germanischen Völker im Mittelaller_ (2 vols., Leipzig,
+  1891; see _English Historical Review_, viii. 120-127). Of course,
+  there are also numerous monographs, among which the following may be
+  mentioned: Édouard Bonvalot, _Le Tiers État d'aprčs la charte de
+  Beaumont et ses filiales_ (Paris, 1884); and A. Giry, _Les
+  Ętablissements de Rouen_ (2 vols., Paris, 1883-1885); also a
+  collection of documents by Gustave Fagniez, _Documents relatifs ŕ
+  l'histoire de l'industrie et du commerce en France_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1898, 1900). Some valuable works on the commercial history of southern
+  Europe should still be mentioned, such as W. Heyd, _Geschichte des
+  Levantehandels im Mittelalter_ (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1879; French
+  edition by Furcy Raynaud, 2 vols., Paris, 1885 seq., improved by the
+  author), recognized as a standard work; Adolf Schaube,
+  _Handelsgeschichte der romanischen Völker des Mittelmeergebietes bis
+  zum Ende der Kreuzzüge_ (Munich and Berlin, 1906); Aloys Schulte,
+  _Geschichte des mittelalterlichen Handels und Verkehrs zwischen
+  Westdeutschland und Italien mit Ausschluss Venedigs_ (2 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1900); L. Goldschmidt, _Universalgesdiichte des
+  Handelsrechts_ (vol. i., Stuttgart, 1891). As for the Scandinavian
+  towns, the best guide is perhaps the book by K. Hegel, _Städte und
+  Gilden der germanischen Völker_, already mentioned; but see also
+  Dietrich Schäfer, "Der Stand der Geschichtswissenschaft im
+  skandinavischen Norden," _Internationale Wochenschrift_, November 16,
+  1907.     (F. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] As to the former, see S. Rietschel, _Die Civitas auf deutschem
+    Boden bis zum Ausgange der Karolingerzeit_ (Leipzig, 1894); and, for
+    the newly founded towns, the same author, _Markt und Stadt in ihrem
+    rechtlichen Verhältnis_ (Leipzig, 1897).
+
+  [2] About the _Burggraf_, see S. Rietschel, _Das Burggrafenamt und die
+    hohe Gerichtsbarkeit in den deutschen Bischofsstädten während des
+    früheren Mittelalters_ (Leipzig, 1905).
+
+  [3] As to the towns as fortresses, see also F. Keutgen,
+    _Untersuchungen über den Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung_
+    (Leipzig, 1895); and "Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung"
+    (_Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum_, &c, N.F. vol. v.).
+
+  [4] See S. Rietschel, _Markt und Stadt_, and J. Fritz, _Deutsche
+    Stadtanlagen_ (Strassburg, 1894).
+
+  [5] G. von Below, _Die Entstehung der deutschen Stadtgemeinde_
+    (Düsseldorf, 1889); and _Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung_
+    (Düsseldorf, 1892).
+
+  [6] F. Keutgen, _Urkunden zur städtischen Verfassungsgeschichte_, No.
+    74 and No. 75 (Berlin, 1901).
+
+  [7] F. Keutgen, _Ämter und Zünfte_ (Jena, 1903).
+
+  [8] J. Weizsäcker, _Der rheinische Bund_ (Tübingen, 1879).
+
+  [9] G. v. Below, _Der Untergang der mittelalterlichen Stadtwirtschaft;
+    Über Theorien der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Völker_; F.
+    Keutgen, "Hansische Handelsgesellschaften, vornehmlich des 14ten
+    Jahrhunderts," in _Vierteljahrsschrift für Sozial- und
+    Wirtschaftsgeschichte_, vol. iv. (1906).
+
+  [10] On this whole subject see Richard Schröder, _Lehrbuch der
+    deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (5th ed., Leipzig, 1907), § 56, "Die
+    Stadtrechte." Also Charles Gross, _The Gild Merchant_ (Oxford, 1890),
+    vol. i. Appendix E, "Affiliation of Medieval Boroughs."
+
+  [11] H. Kretschmayr, _Geschichte von Venedig_, vol. i. (Gotha, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+COMMUNISM, the name loosely given to schemes of social organizations
+depending on the abolition of private property and its absorption into
+the property of a community as such. It is a form of what is now
+generally called socialism (q.v.), the terminology of which has varied a
+good deal according to time and place; but the expression "communism"
+may be conveniently used, as opposed to "socialism" in its wider
+political sense, or to the political and municipal varieties known as
+"collectivism," "state socialism," &c., in order to indicate more
+particularly the historical schemes propounded or put into practice for
+establishing certain ideally arranged communities composed of
+individuals living and working on the basis of holding their property in
+common. It has nothing, of course, to do with the Paris Commune,
+overthrown in May 1871, which was a political and not an economic
+movement. Communistic schemes have been advocated in almost every age
+and country, and have to be distinguished from mere anarchism or from
+the selfish desire to transfer other people's property into one's own
+pockets. The opinion that a communist is merely a man who has no
+property to lose, and therefore advocates a redistribution of wealth, is
+contrary to the established facts as to those who have historically
+supported the theory of communism. The Corn-law Rhymer's lines on this
+subject are amusing, but only apply to the baser sort:--
+
+  "What is a Communist!  One that hath yearnings
+   For equal division of unequal earnings.
+   Idler or bungler, or both, he is willing
+   To fork out his penny and pocket your shilling."
+
+This is the communist of hostile criticism--a criticism, no doubt,
+ultimately based on certain fundamental facts in human nature, which
+have usually wrecked communistic schemes of a purely altruistic type in
+conception. But the great communists, like Plato, More, Saint-Simon,
+Robert Owen, were the very reverse of selfish or idle in their aims; and
+communism as a force in the historical evolution of economic and social
+opinion must be regarded on its ideal side, and not merely in its
+lapses, however natural the latter may be in operation, owing to the
+defects of human character. As a theory it has inspired not only some of
+the finest characters in history, but also much of the gradual evolution
+of economic organization--especially in the case of co-operation (q.v.);
+and its opportunities have naturally varied according to the state of
+social organization in particular countries. The communism of the early
+Christians, for instance, was rather a voluntary sharing of private
+property than any abnegation of property as such. The Essenes and the
+Therapeutae, however, in Palestine, had a stricter form of communism,
+and the former required the surrender of individual property; and in the
+middle ages various religious sects, followed by the monastic orders,
+were based on the communistic principle.
+
+Communistic schemes have found advocates in almost every age and in many
+different countries. The one thing that is shared by all communists,
+whether speculative or practical, is deep dissatisfaction with the
+economic conditions by which they are surrounded. In Plato's _Republic_
+the dissatisfaction is not limited to merely economic conditions. In his
+examination of the body politic there is hardly any part which he can
+pronounce to be healthy. He would alter the life of the citizens of his
+state from the very moment of birth. Children are to be taken away from
+their parents and nurtured under the supervision of the state. The old
+nursery tales, "the blasphemous nonsense with which mothers fool the
+manhood out of their children," are to be suppressed. Dramatic and
+imitative poetry are not to be allowed. Education, marriage, the number
+of births, the occupations of the citizens are to be controlled by the
+guardians or heads of the state. The most perfect equality of conditions
+and careers is to be preserved; the women are to have similar training
+with the men, no careers and no ambition are to be forbidden to them;
+the inequalities and rivalries between rich and poor are to cease,
+because all will be provided for by the state. Other cities are divided
+against themselves. "Any ordinary city, however small, is in fact two
+cities, one the city of the poor, the other of the rich, at war with one
+another" (_Republic_, bk. iv. p. 249, Jowett's translation). But this
+ideal state is to be a perfect unit; although the citizens are divided
+into classes according to their capacity and ability, there is none of
+the exclusiveness of birth, and no inequality is to break the accord
+which binds all the citizens, both male and female, together into one
+harmonious whole. The marvellous comprehensiveness of the scheme for the
+government of this ideal state makes it belong as much to the modern as
+to the ancient world. Many of the social problems to which Plato draws
+attention are yet unsolved, and some are in process of solution in the
+direction indicated by him. He is not appalled by the immensity of the
+task which he has sketched out for himself and his followers. He admits
+that there are difficulties to be overcome, but he says in a sort of
+parenthesis, "Nothing great is easy." He refuses to be satisfied with
+half measures and patchwork reforms. "Enough, my friend! but what is
+enough while anything remains wanting?" These sentences indicate the
+spirit in which philosophical as distinguished from practical communists
+from the time of Plato till to-day have undertaken to reconstruct human
+society.
+
+Sir Thomas More's _Utopia_ has very many of the characteristics of _The
+Republic_. There is in it the same wonderful power of shaking off the
+prejudices of the place and time in which it was written. The government
+of Utopia is described as founded on popular election; community of
+goods prevailed, the magistrates distributed the instruments of
+production among the inhabitants, and the wealth resulting from their
+industry was shared by all. The use of money and all outward ostentation
+of wealth were forbidden. All meals were taken in common, and they were
+rendered attractive by the accompaniment of sweet strains of music,
+while the air was filled by the scent of the most delicate perfumes.
+More's ideal state differs in one important respect from Plato's. There
+was no community of wives in Utopia. The sacredness of the family
+relation and fidelity to the marriage contract were recognized by More
+as indispensable to the well-being of modern society. Plato,
+notwithstanding all the extraordinary originality with which he
+advocated the emancipation of women, was not able to free himself from
+the theory and practice of regarding the wife as part and parcel of the
+property of her husband. The fact, therefore, that he advocated
+community of property led him also to advocate community of wives. He
+speaks of "the _possession and use_ of women and children," and proceeds
+to show how this possession and use must be regulated in his ideal
+state. Monogamy was to him mere exclusive possession on the part of one
+man of a piece of property which ought to be for the benefit of the
+public. The circumstance that he could not think of wives otherwise than
+as the property of their husbands only makes it the more remarkable that
+he claimed for women absolute equality of training and careers. The
+circumstance that communists have so frequently wrecked their projects
+by attacking marriage and advocating promiscuous intercourse between the
+sexes may probably be traced to the notion which regards a wife as being
+a mere item among the goods and chattels of her husband. It is not
+difficult to find evidence of the survival of this ancient habit of
+mind. "I will be master of what is mine own," says Petruchio. "She is my
+goods, my chattels."
+
+The Perfectionists of Oneida, on the other hand, held that there was "no
+intrinsic difference between property in persons and property in things;
+and that the same spirit which abolished exclusiveness in regard to
+money would abolish, if circumstances allowed full scope to it,
+exclusiveness in regard to women and children" (Nordhoff's _Communistic
+Societies of the United States_). It is this notion of a wife as
+property that is responsible for the wild opinions communists have often
+held in favour of a community of wives and the break-up of family
+relations. If they could shake off this notion and take hold of the
+conception of marriage as a contract, there is no reason why their views
+on the community of property should lead them to think that this
+contract should not include mutual fidelity and remain in force during
+the life of the contracting parties. It was probably not this conception
+of the marriage relation so much as the influence of Christianity which
+led More to discountenance community of wives in Utopia. It is strange
+that the same influence did not make him include the absence of slavery
+as one of the characteristics of his ideal state. On the contrary,
+however, we find in Utopia the anomaly of slavery existing side by side
+with institutions which otherwise embody the most absolute personal,
+political and religious freedom. The presence of slaves in Utopia is
+made use of to get rid of one of the practical difficulties of
+communism, viz. the performance of disagreeable work. In a society where
+one man is as good as another, and the means of subsistence are
+guaranteed to all alike, it is easy to imagine that it would be
+difficult to ensure the performance of the more laborious, dangerous and
+offensive kinds of labour. In Utopia, therefore, we are expressly told
+that "all the uneasy and sordid services" are performed by slaves. The
+institution of slavery was also made supplementary to the criminal
+system of Utopia, as the slaves were for the most part men who had been
+convicted of crime; slavery for life was made a substitute for capital
+punishment.
+
+In many respects, however, More's views on the labour question were
+vastly in advance of his own time. He repeats the indignant protest of
+the _Republic_ that existing society is a warfare between rich and poor.
+"The rich," he says, "desire every means by which they may in the first
+place secure to themselves what they have amassed by wrong, and then
+take to their own use and profit, at the lowest possible price, the work
+and labour of the poor. And so soon as the rich decide on adopting these
+devices in the name of the public, then they become law." One might
+imagine these words had been quoted from the programme of The
+International (q.v.), so completely is their tone in sympathy with the
+hardships of the poor in all ages. More shared to the full the keen
+sympathy with the hopeless misery of the poor which has been the strong
+motive power of nearly all speculative communism. The life of the poor
+as he saw it was so wretched that he said, "Even a beast's life seems
+enviable!" Besides community of goods and equality of conditions, More
+advocated other means of ameliorating the condition of the people.
+Although the hours of labour were limited to six a day there was no
+scarcity, for in Utopia every one worked; there was no idle class, no
+idle individual even. The importance of this from an economic point of
+view is insisted on by More in a passage remarkable for the importance
+which he attaches to the industrial condition of women. "And this you
+will easily apprehend," he says, "if you consider how great a part of
+all other nations is quite idle. First, women generally do little, who
+are the half of mankind." Translated into modern language his proposals
+comprise universal compulsory education, a reduction of the hours of
+labour to six a day, the most modern principles of sanitary reform, a
+complete revision of criminal legislation, and the most absolute
+religious toleration. The romantic form which Sir Thomas More gave to
+his dream of a new social order found many imitators. The _Utopia_ may
+be regarded as the prototype of Campanella's _City of the Sun_,
+Harrington's _Oceana_, Bacon's _Nova Atlantis_, Defoe's _Essay on
+Projects_, Fénelon's _Voyage dans l'Île des Plaisirs_, and other works
+of minor importance.
+
+All communists have made a great point of the importance of universal
+education. All ideal communes have been provided by their authors with a
+perfect machinery for securing the education of every child. One of the
+first things done in every attempt to carry communistic theories into
+practice has been to establish a good school and guarantee education to
+every child. The first impulse to national education in the 19th century
+probably sprang from the very marked success of Robert Owen's schools in
+connexion with the cotton mills at New Lanark. Compulsory education,
+free trade, and law reform, the various movements connected with the
+improvement of the condition of women, have found their earliest
+advocates among theoretical and practical communists. The communists
+denounce the evils of the present state of society; the hopeless poverty
+of the poor, side by side with the self-regarding luxury of the rich,
+seems to them to cry aloud to Heaven for the creation of a new social
+organization. They proclaim the necessity of sweeping away the
+institution of private property, and insist that this great revolution,
+accompanied by universal education, free trade, a perfect administration
+of justice, and a due limitation of the numbers of the community, would
+put an end to half the self-made distress of humanity.
+
+The various communistic experiments in America are the most interesting
+in modern times, opportunities being naturally greater there for such
+deviations from the normal forms of regulations as compared with the
+closely organized states of Europe, and particularly in the means of
+obtaining land cheaply for social settlements with peculiar views. They
+have been classified by Morris Hillquit (_History of Socialism in the
+United States_, 1903) as (1) sectarian, (2) Owenite, (3) Fourieristic,
+(4) Icarian.
+
+1. The oldest of the sectarian group was the society of the Shakers
+(q.v.), whose first settlement at Watervliet was founded in 1776. The
+Harmony Society or Rappist Community was introduced into Pennsylvania by
+George Rapp (1770-1847) from Württemberg in 1804, and in 1815 they moved
+to a settlement (New Harmony) in Indiana, returning to Pennsylvania
+again in 1824, and founding the village of Economy, from which they were
+also known as Economites. Emigrants from Württemberg also founded the
+community of Zoar in Ohio in 1817, being incorporated in 1832 as the
+Society of Separatists of Zoar; it was dissolved in 1898. The Amana
+(q.v.) community, the strongest of all American communistic societies,
+originated in Germany in the early part of the 18th century as "the True
+Inspiration Society," and some 600 members removed to America in
+1842-1844. The Bethel (Missouri) and Aurora (Oregon) sister communities
+were founded by Dr Keil (1812-1877) in 1844 and 1856 respectively, and
+were dissolved in 1880 and 1881. The Oneida Community (q.v.), created by
+John Humphrey Noyes (1811-1886), the author of a famous _History of
+American Socialisms_ (1870), was established in 1848 as a settlement for
+the Society of Perfectionists. All these bodies had a religious basis,
+and were formed with the object of enjoying the free exercise of their
+beliefs, and though communistic in character they had no political or
+strictly economic doctrine to propagate.
+
+2. The Owenite communities rose under the influence of Robert Owen's
+work at New Lanark, and his propaganda in America from 1824 onwards, the
+principal being New Harmony (acquired from the Rappists in 1825); Yellow
+Springs, near Cincinnati, 1824; Nashoba, Tennessee, 1825; Haverstraw,
+New York, 1826; its short-lived successors, Coxsackie, New York, and the
+Kendal Community, Canton, Ohio, 1826. All these had more or less short
+existences, and were founded on Owen's theories of labour and economics.
+
+3. The Fourierist communities similarly were due to the Utopian
+teachings of the Frenchman Charles Fourier (q.v.), introduced into
+America by his disciple Albert Brisbane (1809-1890), author of _The
+Social Destiny of Man_ (1840), who was efficiently helped by Horace
+Greeley, George Ripley and others. The North American Phalanx, in New
+Jersey, was started in 1843 and lasted till 1855. Brook Farm (q.v.) was
+started as a Fourierist Phalanx in 1844, after three years' independent
+career, and became the centre of Fourierist propaganda, lasting till
+1847. The Wisconsin Phalanx, or Ceresco, was organized in 1844, and
+lasted till 1850. In Pennsylvania seven communities were established
+between 1843 and 1845, the chief of which were the Sylvania Association,
+the Peace Union Settlement, the Social Reform Unity, and the Leraysville
+Phalanx. In New York state the chief were the Clarkson Phalanx, the
+Sodus Bay Phalanx, the Bloomfield Association, and the Ontario Union. In
+Ohio the principal were the Trumbull Phalanx, the Ohio Phalanx, the
+Clermont Phalanx, the Integral Phalanx, and the Columbian Phalanx; and
+of the remainder the Alphadelphia Phalanx, in Michigan, was the
+best-known. It is pointed out by Morris Hillquit that while only two
+Fourierist Phalanxes were established in France, over forty were started
+in the United States.
+
+4. The Icarian communities were due to the communistic teachings of
+another Frenchman, Étienne Cabet (q.v.) (1788-1856), the name being
+derived from his social romance, _Voyage en Icarie_ (1840), sketching
+the advantages of an imaginary country called Icaria, with a
+co-operative system, and criticizing the existing social organization.
+It was his idea, in fact, of a Utopia. Robert Owen advised him to
+establish his followers, already numerous, in Texas, and thither about
+1500 went in 1848. But disappointment resulted, and their numbers
+dwindled to less than 500 in 1849; some 280 went to Nauvoo, Illinois;
+after a schism in 1856 some formed a new colony (1858) at Cheltenham,
+near St Louis; others went to Iowa, others to California. The last
+branch was dissolved in 1895.
+
+  See also the articles SOCIALISM; OWEN; SAINT-SIMON; FOURIER, &c.; and
+  the bibliography to SOCIALISM. The whole subject is admirably covered
+  in Morris Hillquit's work, referred to above; and see also Noyes's
+  _History of American Socialisms_ (1870); Charles Nordhoff's
+  _Communistic Societies of the United States_ (1875); and W. A. Hinds's
+  _American Communities_ (1878; 2nd edition, 1902), a very complete
+  account.
+
+
+
+
+COMMUTATION (from Lat. _commutare_, to change), a process of exchanging
+one thing for another, particularly of one method of payment for
+another, such as payment in money for payment in kind or by service, or
+of payment of a lump sum for periodical payments; for various kinds of
+such substitution see ANNUITY; COPYHOLD and TITHES. The word is also
+used similarly of the substitution of a lesser sentence on a criminal
+for a greater. In electrical engineering, the word is applied to the
+reversal of the course of an electric current, the contrivance for so
+doing being known as a "commutator" (see DYNAMO). In America, a
+"commutation ticket" on a railway is one which allows a person to travel
+at a lower rate over a particular route for a certain time or for a
+certain number of times; the person holding such a ticket is known as a
+"commuter."
+
+
+
+
+COMNENUS, the name of a Byzantine family which from 1081 to 1185
+occupied the throne of Constantinople. It claimed a Roman origin, but
+its earliest representatives appear as landed proprietors in the
+district of Castamon (mod. _Kastamuni_) in Paphlagonia. Its first member
+known in Byzantine history is Manuel Eroticus Comnenus, an able general
+who rendered great services to Basil II. (976-1025) in the East. At his
+death he left his two sons Isaac and John in the care of Basil, who gave
+them a careful education and advanced them to high official positions.
+The increasing unpopularity of the Macedonian dynasty culminated in a
+revolt of the nobles and the soldiery of Asia against its feeble
+representative Michael VI. Stratioticus, who abdicated after a brief
+resistance. Isaac was declared emperor, and crowned in St Sophia on the
+2nd of September 1057. For the rulers of this dynasty see ROMAN EMPIRE,
+LATER, and separate articles.
+
+With Andronicus I. (1183-1185) the rule of the Comneni proper at
+Constantinople came to an end. A younger line of the original house,
+after the establishment of the Latins at Constantinople in 1204, secured
+possession of a fragment of the empire in Asia Minor, and founded the
+empire of Trebizond (q.v.), which lasted till 1461, when David Comnenus,
+the last emperor, was deposed by Mahommed II.
+
+  For a general account of the family and its alleged survivors see
+  article "Komnenen," by G. F. Hertzberg, in Ersch and Gruber's
+  _Allgemeine Encyklopädie_, and an anonymous monograph, _Précis
+  historique de la maison impériale des Comnčnes_ (Amsterdam, 1784);
+  and, for the history of the period, the works referred to under ROMAN
+  EMPIRE, LATER.
+
+
+
+
+COMO (anc. _Comum_), a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, the
+capital of the province of Como, situated at the S. end of the W. branch
+of the Lake of Como, 30 m. by rail N. by W. of Milan. Pop. (1881)
+25,560; (1905) 34,272 (town), 41,124 (commune). The city lies in a
+valley enclosed by mountains, the slopes of which command fine views of
+the lake. The old town, which preserves its rectangular plan from Roman
+times, is enclosed by walls, with towers constructed in the 12th
+century. The cathedral, built entirely of marble, occupies the site of
+an earlier church, and was begun in 1396, from which period the nave
+dates: the façade belongs to 1457-1486, while the east of the exterior
+was altered into the Renaissance style, and richly decorated with
+sculptures by Tommaso Rodari in 1487-1526. The dome is an unsuitable
+addition of 1731 by the Sicilian architect Filippo Juvara (1685-1735),
+and its baroque decorations spoil the effect of the fine Gothic
+interior. It contains some good pictures and fine tapestries. In the
+same line as the façade of the cathedral are the Broletto (in black and
+white marble), dating from 1215, the seat of the original rulers of the
+commune, and the massive clock-tower. The Romanesque church of S.
+Abondio outside the town was founded in 1013 and consecrated in 1095; it
+has two fine campanili, placed at the ends of the aisles close to the
+apse. It occupies the site of the 5th-century church of SS. Peter and
+Paul. Near it is the Romanesque church of S. Carpoforo. Above it is the
+ruined castle of Baradello. The churches of S. Giacomo (1095-1117) and
+S. Fedele (12th century), both in the town, are also Romanesque, and the
+apses have external galleries. The Palazzo Giovio contains the Museo
+Civico. Como is a considerable tourist resort, and the steamboat traffic
+on the lake is largely for travellers. A climate station is established
+on the hill of Brunate (2350 ft.) above the town to the E., reached by a
+funicular railway. The Milanese possess many villas here. Como is an
+industrial town, having large silk factories and other industries (see
+LOMBARDY). It is connected with Milan by two lines of railway, one via
+Monza (the main line, which goes on to Chiasso--Swiss frontier--and the
+St Gotthard), the other via Saronno and also with Lecco and Varese.
+
+Of the Roman Comum little remains above ground; a portion of its S.E.
+wall was discovered and may be seen in the garden of the Liceo Volta, 88
+ft. within the later walls: later fortifications (but previous to 1127),
+largely constructed with Roman inscribed sepulchral urns and other
+fragments, had been superimposed on it. Thermae have also been
+discovered (see V. Barelli in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1880, 333; 1881,
+333; 1882, 285). The inscriptions, on the other hand, are numerous, and
+give an idea of its importance. The statements as to the tribe which
+originally possessed it are various. It belonged to Gallia Cisalpina,
+and first came into contact with Rome in 196 B.C., when M. Claudius
+Marcellus conquered the Insubres and the Comenses. In 89 B.C., having
+suffered damage from the Raetians, it was restored by Cn. Pompeius
+Strabo, and given Latin rights with the rest of Gallia Transpadana.
+Shortly after this 3000 colonists seem to have been sent there; 5000
+were certainly sent by Caesar in 59 B.C., and the place received the
+name Novum Comum. It appears in the imperial period as a _municipium_,
+and is generally spoken of as Comum simply. The place was prosperous; it
+had an important iron industry; and the banks of the lake were, as now,
+dotted with villas. It was also important as the starting-point for the
+journey across the lake in connexion with the Splugen and Septimer
+passes (see CHIAVENNA). It was the birthplace of both the elder and the
+younger Pliny, the latter of whom founded baths and a library here and
+gave money for the support of orphan children. There was a _praefectus
+classis Comensis_ under the late empire, and it was regarded as a strong
+fortress. See Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, Suppl.
+Heft i. (Stuttgart, 1903), 326.
+
+Como suffered considerably from the early barbarian invasions, many of
+the inhabitants taking refuge on the Isola Comacina off Sala, but
+recovered in Lombard times. It was from that period that the _magistri
+Comacini_ formed a privileged corporation of architects and sculptors,
+who were employed in other parts of Italy also, until, at the end of the
+11th century, individuals began to come more to the front (G. T.
+Rivoira, _Origini del l'architettura Lombarda_, Rome, 1901, i. 127 f.).
+Como then became subject to the archbishops of Milan, but gained its
+freedom towards the end of the 11th century. At the beginning of the
+12th century war broke out between Como and Milan, and after a ten
+years' war Como was taken and its fortifications dismantled in 1127. In
+1154, however, it took advantage of the arrival of Barbarossa, and
+remained faithful to him throughout the whole war of the Lombard League.
+After frequent struggles with Milan, it fell under the power of the
+Visconti in 1335. In 1535, like the rest of Lombardy, it fell under
+Spanish dominion, and in 1714 under Austrian. Thenceforth it shared the
+fortunes of Milan, becoming in the Napoleonic period the chief town of
+the department of the Lario. Its silk industry and its position at the
+entrance to the Alpine passes gave it some importance even then. It bore
+a considerable part in the national risings of 1848-1859 against
+Austrian rule. (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+COMO, Lake of (the _Lacus Larius_ of the Romans, and so sometimes called
+Lario to the present day, though in the 4th century it is already termed
+_Lacus Comacinus_), one of the most celebrated lakes in Lombardy,
+Northern Italy. It lies due N. of Milan and is formed by the Adda that
+flows through the Valtelline to the north end of the lake (here falls in
+the Maira or Mera, coming from the Val Bregaglia) and flows out of it at
+its south-eastern extremity, on the way to join the Po. Its area is 55˝
+sq. m., it is about 43 m. from end to end (about 30˝ m. from the north
+end of Bellagio), it is from 1 to 2˝ m. in breadth, its surface is 653
+ft. above the sea, and its greatest depth is 1365 ft. A railway line now
+runs along its eastern shore from Colico to Lecco (24˝ m.), while on its
+western shore Menaggio is reached by a steam tramway from Porlezza on
+the Lake of Lugano (8 m.). Colico, at the northern extremity, is by rail
+17 m. from Chiavenna and 42 m. from Tirano, while at its southern end
+Como (on the St Gotthard line) is 32 m. from Milan, and Lecco about the
+same distance. The lake fills a remarkable depression which has been
+cut through the limestone ranges that enclose it, and once doubtless
+extended as far as Chiavenna, the Lake of Mezzola being a surviving
+witness of its ancient bed. Towards the south the promontory of Bellagio
+divides the lake into two arms. That to the south-east ends at Lecco and
+is the true outlet, for the south-western arm, ending at Como, is an
+enclosed bay. During the morning the _Tivano_ wind blows from the north,
+while in the afternoon the _Breva_ wind blows from the south. But, like
+other Alpine lakes, the Lake of Como is exposed to sudden violent
+storms. Its beauties have been sung by Virgil and Claudian, while the
+two Plinys are among the celebrities associated with the lake. The
+shores are bordered by splendid villas, while perhaps the most lovely
+spot on it is Bellagio, built in an unrivalled position. Among the other
+villages that line the lake, the best-known are Varenna (E.) and
+Menaggio (W.), nearly opposite one another, while Cadenabbia (W.) faces
+Bellagio.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+COMONFORT, IGNACIO (1812-1863), a Mexican soldier and politician, who,
+after occupying a variety of civil and military posts, was in December
+1855 made provisional president by Alvarez, and from December 1857 was
+for a few weeks constitutional president. (See MEXICO.)
+
+
+
+
+COMORIN, CAPE, a headland in the state of Travancore, forming the
+extreme southern point of the peninsula of India. It is situated in 8°
+4' 20" N., 77° 35' 35" E., and is the terminating point of the western
+Ghats. The village of Comorin, with the temple of Kanniyambal, the
+"virgin goddess," on the coast at the apex of the headland, is a
+frequented place of pilgrimage.
+
+
+
+
+COMORO ISLANDS, a group of volcanic islands belonging to France, in the
+Indian Ocean, at the northern entrance of the Mozambique Channel midway
+between Madagascar and the African continent. The following table of the
+area and population of the four largest islands gives one of the sets of
+figures offered by various authorities:--
+
+  +-------------------+-------------+--------------+
+  |                   | Area sq. m. |  Population. |
+  +-------------------+-------------+--------------+
+  | Great Comor       |     385     |    50,000    |
+  | Anjuan or Johanna |     145     |    12,000    |
+  | Mayotte           |     140     |    11,000    |
+  | Moheli            |      90     |     9,000    |
+  |                   +-------------+--------------+
+  |        Total      |     760     |    82,000    |
+  +-------------------+-------------+--------------+
+
+There are besides a large number of islets of coral formation.
+Particulars of the four islands named follow.
+
+1. Great Comoro, or Angazia, the largest and most westerly, has a length
+of about 38 m., with a width of about 12 m. Near its southern extremity
+it rises into a fine dome-shaped volcanic mountain, Kartola (Karthala),
+which is over 8500 ft. high, and is visible for more than 100 m. Up to
+about 6000 ft. it is clothed with dense vegetation. Eruptions are
+recorded for the years 1830, 1855 and 1858; and another eruption
+occurred in 1904. In the north the ground rises gradually to a plateau
+some 2000 ft. above the sea; from this plateau many regularly shaped
+truncated cones rise another 2000 ft. The centre of the island consists
+of a desert field of lava streams, about 1600 ft. high. The chief towns
+are Maroni (pop. about 2000), Itzanda and Mitsamuli; the first, situated
+at the head of a bay in 11° 40' S., being the seat of the French
+administrator.
+
+2. Anjuan, or Johanna, next in size, lies E. by S. of Comoro. It is some
+30 m. long by 20 at its greatest breadth. The land rises in a succession
+of richly wooded heights till it culminates in a central peak, upwards
+of 5000 ft. above the sea, in 12° 14' S., 44° 27' E. The former capital,
+Mossamondu, on the N.W. coast, is substantially built of stone,
+surrounded by a wall, and commanded by a dilapidated citadel; it is the
+residence of the sultan and of the French administrator. There is a
+small but safe anchorage at Pomony, on the S. side, formerly used as a
+coal depot by ships of the British navy.
+
+3. Mayotte, about 21 m. long by 6 or 7 m. broad, is surrounded by an
+extensive and dangerous coral reef. The principal heights on its
+extremely irregular surface are: Mavegani Mountain, which rises in two
+peaks to a maximum of 2164 ft., and Uchongin, 2100 ft. The French
+headquarters are on the islet of Zaudzi, which lies within the reef in
+12° 46' S., 45° 20' E. There are substantial government buildings and
+store-houses. On the mainland opposite Zaudzi is Msapéré, the chief
+centre of trade. Mayotte was devastated in 1898 by a cyclone of great
+severity.
+
+4. Moheli or Mohilla lies S. of and between Anjuan and Grand Comoro. It
+is 15 m. long and 7 or 8 m. at its maximum breadth. Unlike the other
+three it has no peaks, but rises gradually to a central ridge about 1900
+ft. in height. Fomboni (pop. about 2000) in the N.W. and Numa Choa in
+the S.W. are the chief towns.
+
+All the islands possess a very fertile soil; there are forests of
+coco-nut palms, and among the products are rice, maize, sweet-potatoes,
+yams, coffee, cotton, vanilla and various tropical fruits, the papaw
+tree being abundant. The fauna is allied to that of Madagascar rather
+than to the mainland of Africa; it includes some land birds and a
+species of lemur peculiar to the islands. Large numbers of cattle and
+sheep, the former similar to the small species at Aden, are reared as
+well as, in Great Comoro, the zebra. Turtles are caught in abundance
+along the coasts, and form an article of export. The climate is in
+general warm, but not torrid nor unsuitable for Europeans. The dry
+season lasts from May to the end of October, the rest of the year being
+rainy. The natives are of mixed Malagasy, Negro and Arab blood. The
+majority are Mahommedans. The European inhabitants, mostly French,
+number about 600. There are some 200 British Indians, traders, in the
+islands. The external trade of the islands has developed since the
+annexation of Madagascar to France, and is of the value of about
+Ł100,000 a year. Sugar refineries, distilleries of rum, and sawmills are
+worked in Mayotte by French settlers. Cane sugar and vanilla are the
+chief exports. The islands are regularly visited by vessels of the
+Messageries Maritimes fleet, and a coaling station for the French navy
+has been established.
+
+The islands were first visited by Europeans in the 16th century; they
+are marked on the map of Diego Ribero made in 1527. At that time, and
+for long afterwards, the dominant influence in, and the civilization of,
+the islands was Arab. According to tradition the islands were first
+peopled by Arab voyagers driven thither by tempests. The petty sultans
+who exercised authority were notorious slave traders. A Sakalava chief
+who had been driven from Madagascar by the Hovas took refuge in Mayotte
+_c._ 1830, and, with the aid of the sultan of Johanna, conquered the
+island, which for a century had been given over to civil war. French
+naval officers having reported on the strategic value of Mayotte,
+Admiral de Hell, governor of Réunion, sent an officer there in 1841, and
+a treaty was negotiated ceding the island to France. Possession was
+taken in 1843, the sultan of Johanna renouncing his claims in the same
+year. In 1886 the sultans of the other three islands were placed under
+French protection, France fearing that otherwise the islands would be
+taken by Germany. The French experienced some difficulty with the
+natives, but by 1892 had established their position. The islands, as
+regulated by the decree of the 9th of April 1908, are under the supreme
+authority of the governor-general of Madagascar. The local
+administration is in the hands of an official who himself governs
+Mayotte but is represented in the other islands by administrators. On
+the council which assists the governor are two nominated native
+notables. In 1910 the sultan of Great Comoro ceded his sovereign rights
+to France. In Anjuan the native government is continued under French
+supervision. The budgets of the four islands in 1904 came to some
+Ł30,000, that of Mayotte being about half the total. The chief sources
+of revenue are poll and house taxes, and, in Mayotte, a land tax.
+
+The _Iles Glorieuses_, three islets 160 m. N.E. of Mayotte, with a
+population of some 20 souls engaged in the collection of guano and the
+capture of turtles, were in 1892 annexed to France and placed under the
+control of the administrator of Mayotte.
+
+  See _Notice sur Mayotte et les Comores_, by Emile Vienne, one of the
+  memoirs on the French colonies prepared for the Paris Exhibition of
+  1900; _Le Sultanat d'Anjouan_, by Jules Repiquet (Paris, 1901), a
+  systematic account of the geography, ethnology and history of Johanna;
+  _Les colonies françaises_ (Paris, 1900), vol. ii. pp. 179-197, in
+  which the story of the archipelago is set forth by various writers; an
+  account of the islands by A. Voeltzkow in the _Zeitschrift_ of the
+  Berlin Geog. Soc. (No. 9, 1906), and _Carte des Iles Comores_, by A.
+  Meunier (Paris, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+COMPANION (through the O. Fr. _compaignon_ or _compagnon_, from the Late
+Lat. _companio_,--_cum_, with, and _panis_, bread,--one who shares meals
+with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat.
+_compagnus_, one of the same _pagus_ or district), a mess-mate or
+"comrade" (a term which itself has a similar origin, meaning one who
+shares the same _camera_ or room). "Companion" is particularly used of
+soldiers, as in the expression "companion in arms," and so is the title
+of the lowest rank in a military or other order of knighthood; the word
+is also used of a person who lives with another in a paid position for
+the sake of company, and is looked on rather as a friend than a servant;
+and of a pair or match, as of pictures and the like. Similar in ultimate
+origin but directly adapted from the Fr. _chambre de la compagne_, and
+Ital. _camera della compagna_, the storeroom for provisions on board
+ship, is the use of "companion" for the framed windows over a hatchway
+on the deck of a ship, and also for the hooded entrance-stairs to the
+captain's cabin.
+
+
+
+
+COMPANY, one of a number of words like "partnership," "union," "gild,"
+"society," "corporation," denoting--each with its special shade of
+meaning--the association of individuals in pursuit of some common
+object. The taking of meals together was, as the word signifies (_cum_,
+with, _panis_, bread,) a characteristic of the early company. Gild had a
+similar meaning: but this characteristic, though it survives in the
+Livery company (see LIVERY COMPANIES), has in modern times disappeared.
+The word "company" is now monopolized--in British usage--by two great
+classes of companies--(1) the joint stock company, constituted under the
+Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, which consolidated the various acts
+from 1862 to 1907, and (2) the "public company," constituted under a
+special act to carry on some work of public utility, such as a railway,
+docks, gasworks or waterworks, and regulated by the Companies Clauses
+Acts 1845 and 1863.
+
+
+1. _Joint Stock Companies._
+
+The joint stock company may be defined as an association of persons
+incorporated to promote by joint contributions to a common stock the
+carrying on of some commercial enterprise. Associations formed not for
+"the acquisition of gain" but to promote art, science, religion, charity
+or some other useful or philanthropic object, though they may be
+constituted under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, seldom call
+themselves companies, but adopt some name more appropriate to express
+their objects, such as society, club, institute, college or chamber. The
+joint stock company has had a long history which can only be briefly
+sketched here. The name of "joint stock company" is--or was--used to
+distinguish such a company from the "regulated company," which did not
+trade on a joint stock but was in the nature of a trade gild, the
+members of which had a monopoly of foreign trade with particular
+countries or places (see Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, bk. v. ch. i.
+pt. iii.).
+
+The earliest kind of joint stock company is the chartered (see CHARTERED
+COMPANIES). The grant of a charter is one of the exclusive privileges of
+the crown, and the crown has from time to time exercised it in
+furtherance of trading enterprise. Examples of such grants are the
+Merchant Adventurers of England, chartered by Richard II. (1390); the
+East India Co., chartered by Queen Elizabeth (1600); the Bank of
+England, chartered by William and Mary (1694); the Hudson's Bay Co.; the
+Royal African Co.; the notorious South Sea Co.; and in later times the
+New Zealand Co., the North Borneo Co., and the Royal Niger Co. Chartered
+companies had, however, several disadvantages. A charter was not easily
+obtainable. It was costly. The members could not be made personally
+liable for the debts of the company: and once created--though only for
+defined objects--such a company was invested with entire independence
+and could not be kept to the conditions imposed by the grant, which was
+against public policy. A new form of commercial association was wanted,
+free from these defects, and it was found in the common law
+company--the lineal ancestor of the modern trading company. The common
+law company was not an incorporated association: it was simply a great
+partnership with transferable shares. Companies of this kind multiplied
+rapidly towards the close of the 17th century and the beginning of the
+18th century, but they were regarded with strong disfavour by the law,
+for reasons not very intelligible to modern notions; the chief of these
+reasons being that such companies purported to act as corporate bodies,
+raised transferable stock, used charters for purposes not warranted by
+the grant, and were--or were supposed to be--dangerous and mischievous,
+tending (in the words of the preamble of the Bubble Act) to "the common
+grievance, prejudice and inconvenience of His Majesty's subjects or
+great numbers of them in trade, commerce or other lawful affairs." They
+were too often--and this no doubt was the real ground of the prejudice
+against them--utilized by unprincipled persons to promote fantastic and
+often fraudulent schemes. Matthew Green, in his poem "The Spleen," notes
+how
+
+  "Wrecks appear each day,
+   And yet fresh fools are cast away."
+
+The result was that by the act (6 Geo. I. c. 18) commonly known as the
+Bubble Act (1719) such companies were declared to be common nuisances
+and indictable as such. But the act, though it remained on the statute
+book for more than one hundred years and was not formally repealed till
+1825, proved quite ineffectual to check the growth of joint stock
+enterprise, and the legislature, finding that such companies had to be
+tolerated, adopted the wiser course of regulating what it could not
+repress. One great inconvenience of these common law trading companies
+arose from their being unincorporated. They were formed of large
+fluctuating bodies of individuals, and a person dealing with them did
+not know with whom he was contracting or whom he was to sue. This evil
+the legislature sought to rectify by empowering the crown to grant to
+companies by letters patent without incorporation the privilege of suing
+and being sued by a public officer. Ten years afterwards--in 1844--a
+more important line of policy was adopted, and all companies with some
+exceptions were enabled to obtain a certificate of incorporation without
+applying for a charter or special act. The act of 1862 carried this
+policy one step farther by prohibiting all associations of more than
+twenty persons from carrying on business without registering under the
+act. These were all useful amendments, but they were amendments of form
+rather than substance. The real vitality of joint stock enterprise lies
+in the co-operative principle, and the natural growth and expansion of
+this fruitful principle was checked until the middle of the 19th century
+by the notorious risks attaching to unlimited liability. In the case of
+an ordinary partnership, though their liability is unlimited (or was
+until the Limited Partnerships Act 1907), the partners can generally
+tell what risks they are incurring. Not so the shareholders of a
+company. They delegate the management of their business to a board of
+directors, and they may easily find themselves committed by the fraud or
+folly of its members to engagements which in the days of unlimited
+liability meant ruin. Failures like those of Overend and Gurney, and of
+the Glasgow Bank, caused widespread misery and alarm. It was not until
+limited liability had been grafted on the stock of the co-operative
+system that the real potency of the principle of industrial co-operation
+became apparent. We owe the adoption of the limited liability principle
+to the clear-sightedness of Lord Sherbrooke--then Mr Robert Lowe--and to
+the vigorous advocacy of Lord Bramwell. We owe it to Lord Bramwell also
+that the principle was made a feasible one. The practical difficulty was
+how to bring home to persons dealing with the company notice that the
+liability of the shareholders was limited. Lord Bramwell solved the
+problem by a happy suggestion--"write it on my tombstone," he said
+humorously to a friend. This was that the company should add to its name
+the word "Limited "--paint it up on its premises, and use it on all
+invoices, bills, promissory notes and other documents. The proposal was
+adopted by the Legislature and has worked successfully. While limited
+companies have been multiplying at the rate of over 4000 a year, the
+unlimited company has become practically an extinct species. The growth
+of limited companies is, indeed, one of the most striking phenomena of
+our day. Their number may be estimated at quite 40,000. Their paid-up
+capital amounts to the stupendous sum of Ł1,850,000,000 and, what is
+even more significant, as the 1st Viscount Goschen remarks in his
+_Essays and Addresses_, is that "the number of shareholders has grown in
+a much greater ratio than the colossal growth of the aggregate capital.
+The profits and risks of nearly every kind of business have been spread
+from year to year over fresh thousands of individuals, and the middle
+class with moderate incomes are more and more participating in that
+accumulation of wealth from business of every description which formerly
+built up the fortunes of individual traders or of bankers or of single
+families."
+
+It is with the limited company then--the company limited by shares--as
+the normal type and incomparably the most important, that this article
+mainly deals.
+
+_Companies Limited by Shares._--The Companies Act 1862, was intended to
+constitute a comprehensive code of law applicable to joint stock trading
+companies for the whole of the United Kingdom. Recognizing the mischief
+above alluded to--of trading concerns being carried on by large and
+fluctuating bodies, the act begins by declaring that no company,
+association or partnership, consisting of more than twenty persons, or
+ten in the case of banking, shall be formed after the commencement of
+the act for the purpose of carrying on any business which has for its
+object the acquisition of gain by the company, association or
+partnership, or by the individual members thereof, unless it is
+registered as a company under the act, or is formed in pursuance of some
+other act of parliament or of letters patent, or is a company engaged in
+working mines within and subject to the jurisdiction of the Stannaries.
+Broadly speaking, the meaning of the act is that all commercial
+undertakings, as distinguished from literary or charitable associations,
+shall be registered. "Business" has a more extensive signification than
+"trade." Having thus cleared the ground the act goes on to provide in
+what manner a company may be formed under the act. The machinery is
+simple, and is described as follows:--
+
+"Any seven or more persons associated for any lawful purpose may, by
+subscribing their names to a memorandum of association and otherwise
+complying with the requisitions of this act in respect of registration,
+form an incorporated company with or without limited liability" (§ 6).
+It is not necessary that the subscribers should be traders nor will the
+fact that six of the subscribers are mere dummies, clerks or nominees of
+the seventh affect the validity of the company; so the House of Lords
+decided in _Salomon_ v. _Salomon & Co._, 1897, A. C. 22.
+
+
+  Memorandum of Association.
+
+The document to be subscribed--the Memorandum of
+Association--corresponds, in the case of companies formed under the
+Companies Act 1862, to the charter or deed of settlement in the case of
+other companies. The form of it is given in the schedule to the act, and
+varies slightly according as the company is limited by shares or
+guarantee, or is unlimited. (See the 3rd schedule to the Consolidation
+Act 1908, forms A, B, C, D.) It is required to state, in the case of a
+company limited by shares, the five following matters:--
+
+1. The name of the proposed company, with the addition of the word
+"limited" as the last word in such name.
+
+2. The part of the United Kingdom, whether England, Scotland or Ireland,
+in which the registered office of the company is proposed to be situate.
+
+3. The objects for which the proposed company is to be established.
+
+4. A declaration that the liability of the members is limited.
+
+5. The amount of capital with which the company proposes to be
+registered, divided into shares of a certain fixed amount.
+
+No subscriber of the memorandum is to take less than one share, and each
+subscriber is to write opposite his name the number of shares he takes.
+
+These five matters the legislature has deemed of such intrinsic
+importance that it has required them to be set out in the company's
+Memorandum of Association. They are the essential conditions of
+incorporation, and as such they must not only be stated, but the policy
+of the legislature has made them with certain exceptions unalterable.
+
+The most important of these five conditions is the third, and its
+importance consists in this, that the objects defined in the memorandum
+circumscribe the sphere of the company's activities. This principle,
+which is one of public policy and convenience, and is known as the
+"_ultra vires_ doctrine," carries with it important consequences,
+because every act done or contract made by a company _ultra vires_, i.e.
+in excess of its powers, is absolutely null and void. The policy, too,
+is a sound one. Shareholders contribute their money on the faith that it
+is to be employed in prosecuting certain objects, and it would be a
+violation of good faith if the company, i.e. the majority of
+shareholders, were to be allowed to divert it to something quite
+different. So strict is the rule that not even the consent of every
+individual shareholder can give validity to an _ultra vires_ act.
+
+
+  Articles of Association.
+
+The articles of association are the regulations for internal management
+of the company--the terms of the partnership agreed upon by the
+shareholders among themselves. A model or specimen set of articles known
+as Table A was given by the Companies Act 1862, and is appended in a
+revised form to the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908. When a company
+is to be registered the memorandum of association accompanied by a copy
+of the articles is taken to the office of the registrar of joint stock
+companies at Somerset House, together with the following documents:--
+
+1. A list of persons who have consented to be directors of the company
+(fee stamp 5s.).
+
+2. A statutory declaration by a solicitor of the High Court engaged in
+the formation of the company, or by a person named in the articles of
+association as a director or secretary of the company, that the
+requisitions of the act in respect of registration and of matters
+precedent and incidental thereto have been complied with (fee stamp
+5s.).
+
+3. A statement as to the nominal share capital (stamped with an _ad
+valorem_ duty of 5s. per Ł100).
+
+4. If no prospectus is to be issued, a company must now (Companies Act
+1907, s. 1; Consolidation Act 1908, s. 82) in lieu thereof file with the
+registrar a statement, in the form prescribed by the 1st schedule to the
+act, of all the material facts relating to the company. Till this has
+been done the company cannot allot any shares or debentures.
+
+If these documents are in order the registrar registers the company and
+issues a certificate of incorporation (see Companies (Consolidation) Act
+1908, sect. 82); on registration, the memorandum and articles of
+association become public documents, and any person may inspect them on
+payment of a fee of one shilling. This has important consequences,
+because every person dealing with the company is presumed to be
+acquainted with its constitution, and to have read its memorandum and
+articles. The articles also, upon registration, bind the company and its
+members to the same extent as if each member had subscribed his name and
+affixed his seal to them.
+
+The total cost of registering a company with a capital of Ł1000 is about
+Ł7; Ł10,000 about Ł34; Ł100,000 about Ł280.
+
+
+  Capital.
+
+The capital which is required to be stated in the memorandum of
+association, and which represents the amount which the company is
+empowered to issue, is what is known as the nominal capital. This
+nominal capital must be distinguished from the subscribed capital.
+Subscribed capital is the aggregate amount agreed to be paid by those
+who have taken shares in the company. Under the Companies Act 1900,
+Companies Act 1908, s. 85, a "minimum subscription" may be fixed by the
+articles, and if it is the directors cannot go to allotment on less: if
+it is not, then the whole of the capital offered for subscription must
+be subscribed. A company may increase its capital, consolidate it,
+subdivide it into shares of smaller amount and convert paid-up shares
+into stock. It may also, with the sanction of the court, otherwise
+reorganize its capital (Companies Act 1907, s. 39; Companies
+(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 45), and for this purpose modify its
+Memorandum of Association; but a limited company cannot reduce its
+capital either by direct or indirect means without the sanction of the
+court. The inviolability of the capital is a condition of
+incorporation--the price of the privilege of trading with limited
+liability, and by no subterfuge will a company be allowed to evade this
+cardinal rule of policy, either by paying dividends out of capital, or
+buying its own shares, or returning money to shareholders. But the
+prohibition against reduction means that the capital must not be reduced
+by the voluntary act of the company, not that a company's capital must
+be kept intact. It is embarked in the company's business, and it must
+run the risks of such business. If part of it is lost there is no
+obligation on the company to replace it and to cease paying dividends
+until such lost capital is repaid. The company may in such a case write
+off the lost capital and go on trading with the reduced amount. But for
+this purpose the sanction of the court must be obtained by petition.
+
+
+  Shares.
+
+A share is an aliquot part of a company's nominal capital. The amount
+may be anything from 1s. to Ł1000. The tendency of late years has been
+to keep the denomination low, and so to appeal to a wider public. Shares
+of Ł100, or even Ł10, are now the exception. The most common amount is
+either Ł1 or Ł5. Shares are of various kinds--ordinary, preference,
+deferred, founders' and management. Into what classes of shares the
+original capital of the company shall be divided, what shall be the
+amount of each class, and their respective rights, privileges and
+priorities, are matters for the consideration of the promoters of the
+company, and must depend on its special circumstances and requirements.
+
+A company may issue preference shares even if there is no mention of
+them in the Memorandum of Association, and any preference or special
+privilege so given to a class of shares cannot be interfered with on any
+reorganization of capital except by a resolution passed by a majority of
+shareholders of that class representing three-fourths of the capital of
+that class (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 45). The preference
+given may be as to dividends only, or as to dividends and capital. The
+dividend, again, may be payable out of the year's profits only, or it
+may be cumulative, that is, a deficiency in one year is to be made good
+out of the profits of subsequent years. Prima facie, a preferential
+dividend is cumulative. For issuing preference shares the question for
+the directors is, what must be offered to attract investors. Preference
+shareholders are given by the Companies Act 1907, s. 23; Companies
+(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 114, the right to inspect balance sheets.
+Founders' shares--which originated with private companies--are shares
+which usually take the whole or half the profits after payment of a
+dividend of 7 or 10% to the ordinary shareholders. They are much less in
+favour than they used to be.
+
+
+  Promoters and promotion.
+
+The machinery of company formation is generally set in motion by a
+person known as a promoter. This is a term of business, not law. It
+means, to use Chief Justice Cockburn's words, a person "who undertakes
+to form a company with reference to a given project and to set it going,
+and who takes the necessary steps to accomplish that purpose." Whether
+what a person has done towards this end constitutes him a promoter or
+not, is a question of fact; but once an affirmative conclusion is
+reached, equity clothes such promoter with a fiduciary relation towards
+the company which he has been instrumental in creating. This doctrine is
+now well established, and its good sense is apparent when once the
+position of the promoter towards the company is understood.
+Promoters--to use Lord Cairns's language in _Erlanger_ v. _New Sombrero
+Phosphate Co._, 3 A. C. 1236--"have in their hands the creation and
+moulding of the company. They have the power of defining how and when
+and in what shape and under what supervision it shall start into
+existence and begin to act as a trading corporation." Such a control
+over the destinies of the company involves correlative obligations
+towards it, and one of these obligations is that the promoter must not
+take advantage of the company's helplessness. A promoter may sell his
+property to the company, but he must first see that the company is
+furnished with an independent board of directors to protect its
+interests and he must make full and fair disclosure of his interest in
+order that the company may determine whether it will or will not
+authorize its trustee or agent (for such the promoter in equity is) to
+make a profit out of the sale. It is not a sufficient disclosure in such
+a case for the promoter merely to refer in the prospectus to a contract
+which, if read by the shareholders, would inform them of his interest.
+They are under no obligation to inquire. It is for the promoter to bring
+home notice, not constructive but actual, to the shareholders.
+
+When a company is promoted for acquiring property--to work a mine or
+patent, for instance, or carry on a going business--the usual course is
+for the promoter to frame a draft agreement for the sale of the property
+to the company or to a trustee on its behalf. The memorandum and
+articles of the intended company are then prepared, and an article is
+inserted authorizing or requiring the directors to adopt the draft
+agreement for sale. In pursuance of this authority the directors at the
+first meeting after incorporation take the draft agreement into
+consideration; and if they approve, adopt it. Where they do so in the
+exercise of an honest and independent judgment, no exception can be
+taken to the transaction; but where the directors happen to be nominees
+of the promoter, perhaps qualified by him and acting in his interest,
+the situation is obviously open to grave abuse. It is not too much,
+indeed, to say that the fastening of an onerous or improvident contract
+on a company at its start, by interested promoters acting in collusion
+with the directors, has been the principal cause of the scandals
+associated with company promotion.
+
+Concurrently with the adoption of the contract for the acquisition of
+the property which is the company's _raison d'ętre_, the directors have
+to consider how they will best get the company's capital subscribed.
+Down to the passing of the Companies Act 1900 the usual mode of doing
+this was to issue a prospectus inviting the public to subscribe for
+shares. After the act of 1900 the prospectus fell into general disuse.
+In the year 1903, out of a total of 3596 companies which registered,
+only 358 issued a prospectus, the directors preferring, it would seem,
+to place the share capital through the medium of brokers, financial
+agents and other intermediaries rather than run the risk of incurring,
+personally, liability under the stringent provisions for disclosure
+contained in the act (s. 10). Of late the prospectus has, however,
+returned into favour. Under the act of 1907, incorporated in the
+Consolidation Act 1908 (s. 82), a company, if it does not issue a
+prospectus, must file a statement of all the material facts relating to
+the company.
+
+
+  Prospectus.
+
+A prospectus is an invitation to the public to take shares on the faith
+of the statements therein contained, and is thus the basis of the
+agreement to take the shares; there therefore rests on those who are
+responsible for its issue an obligation to act with the most perfect
+good faith--_uberrima fides_--and this obligation has been repeatedly
+emphasized by judges of the highest eminence. (See the observations of
+Kindersley, V.C., in _New Brunswick Railway Co._ v. _Muggeridge_, 1860,
+1 Dr. & Sm. 383, and of Lord Herschell in _Derry_ v. _Peek_, 1889, 14 A.
+C. 376.) Directors must be perfectly candid with the public; they must
+not only state what they do state with strict and scrupulous accuracy,
+but they must not omit any fact which, if disclosed, would falsify the
+statements made. This is the general obligation of directors when
+issuing a prospectus; but on this general obligation the legislature has
+engrafted special requirements. By the Companies Act 1867, it required
+the dates and names of the parties to any contract entered into by the
+company or its promoters or directors before the issue of the
+prospectus, to be disclosed in the prospectus; otherwise the prospectus
+was to be deemed fraudulent. This enactment was repealed by the
+Companies Act 1900, but only in favour of more stringent provisions
+incorporated in the Consolidation Act of 1908. Now, not only is every
+prospectus to be signed and filed with the registrar of Joint Stock
+Companies before it can be issued, but the prospectus must set forth a
+long and elaborate series of particulars about the company--the
+contents of the Memorandum of Association, with the names of the
+signatories, the share qualification (if any) of the directors, the
+minimum subscription on which the directors may proceed to allotment,
+the shares and debentures issued otherwise than for cash, the names and
+addresses of the vendors, the amount paid for underwriting the company,
+the amount of preliminary expenses, of promotion money (if any), and the
+interest (if any) of every director in the promotion or in property to
+be acquired by the company. Neglect of this statutory duty of disclosure
+will expose directors to personal liability. For false or fraudulent
+statements--as distinguished from non-disclosure--in a prospectus
+directors are liable in an action of deceit or under the Directors'
+Liability Act 1890, now incorporated in the act of 1908. This act was
+passed to meet the decision of the House of Lords in _Peek_ v. _Derry_
+(12 A. C. 337), that a director could not be made liable in an action of
+deceit for an untrue statement in a prospectus, unless the plaintiff
+could prove that the director had made the untrue statement
+fraudulently. The Directors' Liability Act enacted in substance that
+when once a prospectus is proved to contain a material statement of fact
+which is untrue, the persons responsible for the prospectus are to be
+liable to pay compensation to any one who has subscribed on the faith of
+the prospectus, unless they can prove that they had reasonable ground to
+believe, and did in fact believe, the statement to be true. Actions
+under this act have been rare, but their rarity may be due to the act
+having had the effect of making directors more careful in their
+statements.
+
+
+  Allotment of shares.
+
+Before the passing of the Companies Act 1900, it was a matter for
+directors' discretion on what subscription they should go to allotment.
+They often did so on a scandalously inadequate subscription. To remedy
+this abuse the Companies Act 1900 (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908,
+s. 85) provided that no allotment of any share capital offered to the
+public for subscription is to be made unless the amount fixed by the
+memorandum and articles of association and named in the prospectus as
+"the minimum subscription" upon which the directors may proceed to
+allotment has been subscribed and the application moneys--which must not
+be less than 5% of the nominal amount of the share--paid to and received
+by the company. If no minimum is fixed the whole amount of the share
+capital offered for subscription must have been subscribed before the
+directors can go to allotment. The "minimum subscription" is to be
+reckoned exclusively of any amount payable otherwise than in cash. If
+these conditions are not complied with within forty days the application
+moneys must be returned. Any "waiver clause" or contract to waive
+compliance with the section is to be void.
+
+An allotment of shares made in contravention of these provisions is
+irregular and voidable at the option of the applicant for shares within
+one month after the first or statutory meeting of the company (Companies
+(Consolidation) Act, s. 86). Even when a company has got what under the
+name of the "minimum subscription" the directors deem enough capital for
+its enterprise, it cannot now commence business or make any binding
+contract or exercise any borrowing powers until it has obtained a
+certificate entitling it to commence business (Companies (Consolidation)
+Act 1908, s. 87). To obtain this certificate the company must have
+fulfilled certain statutory conditions, which are briefly these:--
+
+  (a) The company must have allotted shares to the amount of not less
+  than the "minimum subscription."
+
+  (b) Every director must have paid up his shares in the same proportion
+  as the other members of the company.
+
+  (c) A statutory declaration, made by the secretary of the company or
+  one of the directors, must have been filed with the registrar of joint
+  stock companies, that these conditions have been complied with.
+
+These conditions fulfilled, the company gets its certificate and starts
+on its business career, carrying on its business through the agency of
+directors, as to whose powers and duties see DIRECTORS.
+
+
+  Meetings.
+
+The Companies Act as consolidated in the act of 1908, and the
+regulations under them, treat the directors of a company as the persons
+in whom the management of the company's affairs is vested. But they also
+contemplate the ultimate controlling power as residing in the
+shareholders. A controlling power of this kind can only assert itself
+through general meetings; and that it may have proper opportunities of
+doing so, every company is required to hold a general meeting, commonly
+called the statutory meeting, within--as fixed by the Companies Act
+1900--three months from the date at which it is entitled to commence
+business. This first statutory meeting acquired new significance under
+the Companies Act of 1900 and marks an important stage in the early
+history of a company. Seven days before it takes place the directors are
+required to send round to the members a certified report informing them
+of the general state of the company's affairs--the number of shares
+allotted, cash received for them, and names and addresses of the
+members, the amount of preliminary expenses, the particulars of any
+contract to be submitted to the meeting, &c. Furnished with this report
+the members come to the meeting in a position to discuss and exercise an
+intelligent judgment upon the state and prospects of the company.
+Besides the statutory meeting a company must hold one general meeting at
+least in every calendar year, and not more than fifteen months after the
+holding of the last preceding general meeting (Companies (Consolidation)
+Act 1908, s. 64). This annual general meeting is usually called the
+ordinary general meeting. Other meetings are extraordinary general
+meetings. Notices convening a general meeting must inform the
+shareholders of the particular business to be transacted; otherwise any
+resolutions passed at the meeting will be invalidated. Voting is
+generally regulated by the articles. Sometimes a vote is given to a
+shareholder for every share held by him, but more often a scale is
+adopted; for instance, one vote is given for every share up to ten, with
+an additional vote for every five shares beyond the first ten shares up
+to one hundred, and an additional vote for every ten shares beyond the
+first hundred. In default of any regulations, every member has one vote
+only. Sometimes preference shareholders are given no vote at all. A poll
+may be demanded on any special resolution by three persons unless the
+articles require five (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 69).
+
+
+  Agreement for shares.
+
+A contract to take shares is like any other contract. It is constituted
+by offer, acceptance and communication of the acceptance to the offerer.
+The offer in the case of shares is usually in the form of an application
+in writing to the company, made in response to a prospectus, requesting
+the company to allot the applicant a certain number of shares in the
+undertaking on the terms of the prospectus, and agreeing to accept the
+shares, or any smaller number, which may be allotted to the applicant.
+An allottee is under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 86,
+entitled to rescind his contract where the allotment is irregular, e.g.
+where the minimum subscription has not been obtained. When an
+application is accepted the shares are allotted, and a letter of
+allotment is posted to the applicant. Allotment is the usual, but not
+the only, evidence of acceptance. As soon as the letter of allotment is
+posted the contract is complete, even though the letter never reaches
+the applicant. An application for shares can be withdrawn at any time
+before acceptance. As soon as the contract is complete, it is the duty
+of the company to enter the shareholder's name in the register of
+members, and to issue to him a certificate under the seal of the
+company, evidencing his title to the shares.
+
+
+  Register of members.
+
+The register of members plays an important part in the scheme of the
+company system, under the Companies Act 1862. The principle of limited
+liability having been once adopted by the legislature, justice required
+not only that such limitation of liability should be brought home by
+every possible means to persons dealing with the company, but also that
+such persons should know as far as possible what was the limited capital
+which was the sole fund available to satisfy their claims--what amount
+had been called up, what remained uncalled, who were the persons to pay,
+and in what amounts. These data might materially assist a person
+dealing with the company in determining, whether he would give it credit
+or not; in any case they are matters which the public had a right to
+know. The legislature, recognizing this, has exacted as a condition of
+the privilege of trading with limited liability that the company shall
+keep a register with those particulars in it, which shall be accessible
+to the public at all reasonable times. In order that this register may
+be accurate, and correspond with the true liability of membership for
+the time being, the court is empowered under the Companies Act 1862, and
+the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 32, to rectify it in a
+summary way, on application by motion, by ordering the name of a person
+to be entered on or removed therefrom. This power can be exercised by
+the court, whether the dispute as to membership is one between the
+company and an alleged member, or between one alleged member and
+another, but the machinery of the section is not meant to be used to try
+claims to rescind agreements to take shares. The proper proceeding in
+such cases is by action.
+
+
+  Payment for shares.
+
+The same policy of guarding against an abuse of limited liability is
+evinced in the Companies Act 1862, which required that shares in the
+case of a limited company should be paid for in full. The legislature
+has allowed such companies to trade with limited liability, but the
+price of the privilege is that the limited capital to which alone the
+creditors can look shall at least be a reality. It is therefore _ultra
+vires_ for a limited company to issue its shares at a discount; but
+there was nothing in the Companies Act 1862 which required that the
+shares of a limited company, though they must be paid up in full, must
+be paid up in cash. They might be paid "in meal or in malt," and it
+accordingly became common for shares to be allotted in payment for
+furniture, plate, advertisements or services. The result was that the
+consideration was often illusory, shares being issued to be paid for in
+some commodity which had no certain criterion of value. To remedy this
+evil the legislature enacted in the Companies Act 1867, s. 25, that
+every share in any company should be held subject to the payment of the
+whole amount thereof in cash, unless otherwise determined by a contract
+in writing filed with the registrar of joint stock companies at or
+before the issue of the shares. This section not infrequently caused
+hardship where shares had been honestly paid for in the equivalent of
+cash, but owing to inadvertence no contract had been filed; and it was
+repealed by the Companies Act 1900, and the old law restored. In
+reverting to the earlier law, and allowing shares to be paid for in any
+adequate consideration, the legislature has, however, exacted a
+safeguard. It has required the company to file with the registrar of
+joint stock companies a return stating, in the case of shares allotted
+in whole or in part for a consideration other than cash, the number of
+the shares so allotted, and the nature of the consideration--property,
+services, &c.--for which they have been allotted.
+
+Though every share carries with it the liability to pay up the full
+amount in cash or its equivalent, the liability is only to pay when and
+if the directors call for it to be paid up. A call must fix the time and
+place for payment, otherwise it is bad.
+
+
+  Rescission of agreement.
+
+When a person takes shares from a company on the faith of a prospectus
+containing any false or fraudulent representations of fact material to
+the contract, he is entitled to rescind the contract. The company cannot
+keep a contract obtained by the misrepresentation or fraud of its
+agents. This is an elementary principle of law. The misrepresentation,
+for purposes of rescission, need not be fraudulent; it is sufficient
+that it is false in fact: fraud or recklessness of assertion will give
+the shareholder a further remedy by action of deceit, or under the
+Directors' Liability Act 1890 (see _supra_); but, to entitle a
+shareholder to rescind, he must show that he took the shares on the
+faith or partly on the faith of the false representation: if not, it was
+innocuous. A shareholder claiming to rescind must do so promptly. It is
+too late to commence proceedings after a winding-up has begun.
+
+
+
+  Transfer of shares.
+
+The shares or other interest of any member in a company are personal
+estate and may be transferred in the manner provided by the regulations
+of the company. As Lord Blackburn said, one of the chief objects when
+joint stock companies were established was that the shares should be
+capable of being easily transferred; but though every shareholder has a
+prima facie right to transfer his shares, this right is subject to the
+regulations of the company, and the company may and usually does by its
+regulations require that a transfer shall receive the approval of the
+board of directors before being registered,--the object being to secure
+the company against having an insolvent or undesirable shareholder (the
+nominee perhaps of a rival company) substituted for a solvent and
+acceptable one. This power of the directors to refuse a transfer must
+not, however, be exercised arbitrarily or capriciously. If it were, it
+would amount to a confiscation of the shares. Directors, for instance,
+cannot veto a transfer because they disapprove of the purpose for which
+it is being made (e.g. to multiply votes), if there is no objection to
+the transferee.
+
+
+  Blank transfers.
+
+It is a common and convenient practice to deposit share or stock
+certificates with bankers and others to secure an advance. When this is
+done the share or stock certificate is usually accompanied by a blank
+transfer--that is, a transfer executed by the shareholder borrower, but
+with a blank left for the name of the transferee. The handing over by
+the borrower of such blank transfer signed by him is an implied
+authority to the banker, or other pledgee, if the loan is not paid, to
+fill in the blank with his name and get himself registered as the owner.
+
+
+  Dividends.
+
+A company can only pay dividends out of profits--which have been defined
+as the "earnings of a concern after deducting the expenses of earning
+them." To pay dividends out of capital is not only _ultra vires_ but
+illegal, as constituting a return of capital to shareholders. Before
+paying dividends, directors must take reasonable care to secure the
+preparation of proper balance-sheets and estimates, and must exercise
+their judgment as business men on the balance-sheets and estimates
+submitted to them. If they fail to do this, and pay dividends out of
+capital, they will not be held excused, unless the court should think
+that they ought to be under the new discretion given to the court by ss.
+32-34 of the Companies Act 1907 (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s.
+279). The onus is on them to show that the dividends have been paid out
+of profits. The court as a rule does not interfere with the discretion
+of directors in the matter of paying dividends, unless they are doing
+something _ultra vires_.
+
+
+  Auditors.
+
+By the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, ss. 112, 113, incorporating
+provisions of the act of 1900 (ss. 21-23), as amended by the act of 1907
+(s. 19), the legislature has made strict provisions for the appointment
+and remuneration of auditors by a company, and has defined their rights
+and duties. Prior to the act of 1900 audit clauses, except in the case
+of banking companies, were left to the articles of association and were
+not matter of statutory obligation.
+
+
+  Private companies.
+
+The "private company" may best be described as an incorporated
+partnership. The term is statutorily defined--for the first time--by s.
+37 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 121 of the Consolidating Act of 1908).
+Individual traders and trading firms have in recent years become much
+more alive to the advantages offered by incorporation. They have
+discovered that incorporation gives them the protection of limited
+liability; that it prevents dislocation of a business by the death,
+bankruptcy or lunacy of any of its members; that it enables a trader to
+distribute among the members of his family interests in his business on
+his decease through the medium of shares; that it facilitates borrowing
+on debentures or debenture stock, and with a view to secure these
+advantages thousands of traders have converted their businesses into
+limited companies. To so large an extent has this been done that private
+companies now form one-third of the whole number of companies
+registered.
+
+A private company does not appeal to the public to subscribe its
+capital, but in the main features of its constitution a private company
+differs little from a public one. It is only in one or two particulars
+that special provisions are requisite. It is generally desired for
+instance: (1) to keep all the shares among the members--the partners or
+the family--and not to let them get into the hands of the public; and
+(2) to give the principal shareholders, the original partners, a
+paramount control over the management. For this purpose it is usual to
+provide specially in the articles that no share shall be transferred to
+a stranger so long as any member is willing to purchase it at a fair
+value; that a member desirous of transferring his shares shall give
+notice to the company; that the company shall offer the shares to the
+other members; that if within a certain period the company finds a
+purchaser the shares shall be transferred to him, and that in case of
+dispute the value shall be settled by arbitration or shall be such a sum
+as the auditor certifies to be in his opinion the fair value. So in
+regard to the management it is common to provide that the owner or
+owners of the business shall be entitled to hold office as directors for
+a term of years or for life, provided he or they continue to hold a
+certain number of shares; or an owner is empowered to authorize his
+executors or trustees whilst holding a certain number of shares to
+appoint directors. Directors holding office on these special terms are
+described as "governing" or "permanent" or "life" directors. This union
+of interest and management in the same persons gives a private company
+an unquestionable advantage over a public company.
+
+The so-called "one-man company" is merely a variety of the private
+company. The fact that a company is formed by one man, with the aid of
+six dummy subscribers, is not in itself (as was at one time supposed) a
+fraud on the policy of the Companies Act, but it is occasionally used
+for the purpose of committing a fraud, as where an insolvent trader
+turns himself into a limited company in order to evade bankruptcy; and
+it is to an abuse of this kind that the term "one-man company" owes its
+opprobrious signification.
+
+_Companies Limited by Guarantee._--The second class of limited companies
+are those limited by guarantee, as distinguished from those limited by
+shares. In the company limited by guarantee each member agrees, in the
+event of a winding-up, to contribute a certain amount to the
+assets,--Ł5, Ł1 or 10s.--whatever may be the amount of the guarantee.
+The peculiarity of this form of company is that the interests of the
+members of a guarantee company are not expressed in any terms of nominal
+money value like the shares of other companies, a form of constitution
+designed, as stated by Lord Thring, the draftsman of the Companies Act
+1862, to give a superior elasticity to the company. The property of the
+company simply belongs to the company in certain fractional amounts.
+This makes it convenient for clubs, syndicates and other associations
+which do not require the interest of members to be expressed in terms of
+cash.
+
+_Companies not for Gain._--Associations formed to promote commerce, art,
+science, religion, charity or any other useful object may, with the
+sanction of the Board of Trade, register under the Companies Act 1862,
+with limited liability, but without the addition of the word "Limited,"
+upon proving to the board that it is the intention of the association to
+apply the profits or income of the association in promoting its objects,
+and not in payment of dividends to members (C.A. 1867, s. 23). This
+licence was made revocable by s. 42 of the Companies Act 1907
+(Consolidation Act of 1908, ss. 19, 20). In lieu of the word "Company,"
+the association may adopt as part of its name some such title as
+chamber, club, college, guild, institute or society. The power given by
+this section has proved very useful, and many kinds of associations have
+availed themselves of it, such as medical institutes, law societies,
+nursing homes, chambers of commerce, clubs, high schools,
+archaeological, horticultural and philosophical societies. The guarantee
+form (see _supra_) is well adapted for associations of this kind
+intended as they usually are to be supported by annual subscriptions. No
+such association can hold more than two acres of land without the
+licence of the Board of Trade.
+
+_Cost-Book Mining Companies._--These are in substance mining
+partnerships. They derive their name from the fact of the partnership
+agreement, the expenses and receipts of the mine, the names of the
+shareholders, and any transfers of shares being entered in a
+"cost-book." The affairs of the company are managed by an agent known as
+a "purser," who from time to time makes calls on the members for the
+expenses of working. A cost-book company is not bound to register under
+the Companies Act 1862, but it may do so.
+
+
+  Winding-up.
+
+  Voluntary.
+
+A company once incorporated under the Companies Act 1862 cannot be put
+an end to except through the machinery of a winding-up, though the name
+of a company which is commercially defunct may be struck off the
+register of joint stock companies by the registrar (s. 242 of the
+Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, incorporating s. 7 of the act of
+1880, as amended by s. 26 of the act of 1900). Winding-up is of two
+kinds: (1) voluntary winding-up, either purely voluntary or carried on
+under the supervision of the court; and (2) winding-up by the court. Of
+these voluntary winding-up is by far the more common. Of the companies
+that come to an end 90% are so wound up; and this is in accordance with
+the policy of the legislature, evinced throughout the Companies Acts,
+that shareholders should manage their own affairs--winding-up being one
+of such affairs. A voluntary winding-up is carried out by the
+shareholders passing a special resolution requiring the company to be
+wound up voluntarily, or an extraordinary resolution (now defined by s.
+182 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908) to the effect that it has
+been proved to the shareholders' satisfaction that the company cannot,
+by reason of its liabilities, continue its business, and that it is
+advisable to wind it up (C.A. 1862, s. 129). The resolution is generally
+accompanied by the appointment of a liquidator. In a purely voluntary
+winding-up there is a power given by s. 138 for the company or any
+contributory to apply to the court in any matter arising in the
+winding-up, but seemingly by an oversight of the legislature the same
+right was not given to creditors. This was rectified by the Companies
+Act 1900, s. 25. Section 27 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 188 of the
+Consolidation Act 1908) further provides for the liquidator under a
+voluntary winding-up summoning a meeting of creditors to determine on
+the choice of a liquidator. A creditor may also in a proper case obtain
+an order for continuing the voluntary winding-up under the supervision
+of the court. Such an order has the advantage of operating as a stay of
+any actions or executions pending against the company. Except in these
+respects, the winding-up remains a voluntary one. The court does not
+actively intervene unless set in motion; but it requires the liquidator
+to bring his accounts into chambers every quarter, so that it may be
+informed how the liquidation is proceeding. When the affairs of the
+company are fully wound up, the liquidator calls a meeting, lays his
+accounts before the shareholders, and the company is dissolved by
+operation of law three months after the date of the meeting (C.A. 1862,
+ss. 142, 143).
+
+
+  By the court.
+
+Irrespective of voluntary winding-up, the legislature has defined
+certain events in which a company formed under the Companies Act 1862
+may be wound up by the court. These events are: (1) when the company has
+passed a resolution requiring the company to be wound up by the court;
+(2) when the company does not commence its business within a year or
+suspends it for a year; (3) when the members are reduced to less than
+seven; (4) when the company is unable to pay its debts, and (5) whenever
+the court is of opinion that it is just and equitable that the company
+should be wound up (C.A. 1862, s. 79; s. 129 of the Consolidation Act
+1908). A petition for the purpose may be presented either by a creditor,
+a contributory or the company itself. Where the petition is presented by
+a creditor who cannot obtain payment of his debt, a winding-up order is
+_ex debito justitiae_ as against the company or shareholders, but not as
+against the wishes of a majority of creditors. A winding-up order is not
+to be refused because the company's assets are over mortgaged (Companies
+Act 1907, s. 29; s. 141 of Consolidation Act 1908).
+
+The procedure on the making of a winding-up order is now governed by ss.
+7, 8, 9 of the Winding-up Act 1890. The official receiver, as
+liquidator pro tem., requires a statement of the affairs of the company
+verified by the directors, and on it reports to the court as to the
+causes of the company's failure and whether further inquiry is
+desirable. If he further reports that in his opinion fraud has been
+committed in the promotion or formation of the company by a particular
+person, the court may order such person to be publicly examined.
+
+A liquidator's duty is to protect, collect, realize and distribute the
+company's assets in due course of administration; and for this purpose
+he advertises for creditors, makes calls on contributories, sues
+debtors, takes misfeasance proceedings, if necessary, against directors
+or promoters, and carries on the company's business--supposing the
+goodwill to be an asset of value--with a view to selling it as a going
+concern. He may be assisted, like a trustee in bankruptcy, by a
+committee of inspection, composed of creditors and contributories.
+
+When the affairs of the company have been completely wound up the court
+is, by s. 111 of the Companies Act 1862 (s. 127 of the act of 1908), to
+make an order that the company be dissolved from the date of such order,
+and the company is dissolved accordingly. A company which has been
+dissolved may, where necessary, on petition to the court be reinstated
+on the register (Companies Act 1880, s. 1).
+
+
+  Reconstruction.
+
+A large number of companies now wind up only to reconstruct. The reasons
+for a reconstruction are generally either to raise fresh capital, or to
+get rid of onerous preference shares, or to enlarge the scope of the
+company's objects, which is otherwise impracticable owing to the
+unalterability of the Memorandum of Association. Reconstructions are
+carried out in one of three ways: (1) by sale and transfer of the
+company's undertaking and assets to a new company, under a power to sell
+contained in the company's memorandum of association, or (2) by sale and
+transfer under s. 161 of the Companies Act 1862; or (3) by a scheme of
+arrangement, sanctioned by the court, under the Joint Stock Companies
+Arrangements Act 1870, as amended by the Companies Act 1907, s. 38 (C.A.
+1908, s. 192).
+
+The first of these modes is now the most in favour.
+
+
+  Wrongs by a company.
+
+A company, though a mere legal abstraction, without mind or will, may,
+it is now well settled, be liable in damages for malicious prosecution,
+for nuisance, for fraud, for negligence, for trespass. The sense of the
+thing is that the "company" is a _nomen collectivum_ for the members. It
+is they who have put the directors there to carry on their business and
+they must be answerable, collectively, for what is done negligently,
+fraudulently or maliciously by their agents.
+
+
+_2. Public Companies._
+
+Besides trading companies there is another large class, exceeding in
+their number even trading companies, which for shortness may be called
+public companies, that is to say, companies constituted by special act
+of parliament for the purpose of constructing and carrying on
+undertakings of public utility, such as railways, canals, harbours,
+docks, waterworks, gasworks, bridges, ferries, tramways, drainage,
+fisheries or hospitals. The objects of such companies nearly always
+involve an interference with the rights of private persons, often
+necessitate the commission of a public nuisance, and require therefore
+the sanction of the legislature. For this purpose a special act has to
+be obtained. A private bill to authorize the undertaking is introduced
+before one or other of the Houses of Parliament, considered in
+committee, and either passed or rejected like a public bill. These
+parliamentary (private bill) committees are tribunals acknowledging
+certain rules of policy, taking evidence from witnesses and hearing
+arguments from professional advocates. In many of these special acts,
+dealing as they do with a similar subject matter, similar provisions are
+required, and to avoid repetition and secure uniformity the legislature
+has passed certain general acts--codes of law for particular subject
+matters frequently recurring--which can be incorporated by reference in
+any special act with the necessary modifications. Thus the Companies
+Clauses Acts 1845, 1863 and 1869 supply the general powers and
+provisions which are commonly inserted in the constitution of such
+public company, regulating the distribution of capital, the transfer of
+shares, payment of calls, borrowing and general meetings. The Lands
+Clauses Consolidation Act 1845 supplies the machinery for the compulsory
+taking of land incident to most undertakings of a public character. The
+Railway Clauses Consolidation Act, the Waterworks Clauses Acts 1847 and
+1863, the Gasworks Clauses Act 1847, and the Electric Lighting (Clauses)
+Act 1899 are other codes of law designed for incorporation in special
+acts creating companies for the construction of railways or the supply
+of water, gas or electric light. A distinguishing feature of these
+companies is that, being sanctioned by the legislature for undertakings
+of public utility, the policy of the law will not allow them to be
+broken up or destroyed by creditors. It gives creditors only a
+charge--by a receiver--on the earnings of the undertaking--the "fruit of
+the tree."
+
+
+_3. British Companies Abroad._
+
+The status of British companies trading abroad, so far as Germany,
+France, Belgium, Greece, Italy and Spain are concerned, is expressly
+recognized in a series of conventions entered into between those
+countries and Great Britain. The value of the convention with France has
+been much impaired by the interpretation put upon the words of it by the
+court of cassation in _La Construction Lim_. According to this case the
+nationality of a company depends not on its place of origin but on where
+it has its centre of affairs, its principal establishment. The result is
+that a company registered in Britain under the Companies Acts may be
+transmuted by a French court into a French company in direct violation
+of the convention. The convention with Germany, which is in similar
+terms to that with France, has also been narrowed by judicial
+construction. The "power of exercising all their rights" given by the
+convention to British companies has been construed to mean that a
+British company will be recognized as a corporate body in Germany, but
+it does not follow from the terms of the convention that any British
+company may as a matter of course establish a branch and carry on
+business within the German empire. It must still get permission to
+trade, permission to hold land. It must register itself in the communal
+register. It must pay stamp duties.
+
+Foreign companies may found an affiliated company or have a branch
+establishment in Italy, provided they publish their memorandum and
+articles and the names of their directors. Where no convention exists
+the status of an immigrant corporation depends upon international
+comity, which allows foreign corporations, as it does foreign persons,
+to sue, to make contracts and hold real estate, in the same way as
+domestic corporations or citizens; provided the stranger corporation
+does not offend against the policy of the state in which it seeks to
+trade.
+
+There is, however, a growing practice now for states to impose by
+express legislation conditions on foreign corporations coming to do
+business within their territory. These conditions are mainly directed to
+securing that the immigrant corporation shall make known its
+constitution and shall be amenable to the jurisdiction of the courts of
+the country where it trades. Thus, by the law of Western Australia--to
+take a typical instance,--a foreign company is not to commence or carry
+on business until it empowers some person to act as its attorney to sue
+and be sued and has an office or place of business within the state, to
+be approved of by the registrar, where all legal proceedings may be
+served. New Zealand, Manitoba and many other states have adopted similar
+precautions; and by the Companies Act 1907, s. 35; C.A. 1908, s. 274
+foreign companies having a place of business within the United Kingdom
+are required to file with the registrar of joint stock companies a copy
+of the company's charter or memorandum and articles, a list of
+directors, and the names and addresses of one or more persons authorized
+to accept service of process. Special conditions of a more stringent
+nature are often imposed in the case of particular classes of companies
+of a quasi-public character, such as banking companies, building
+societies or insurance companies. Regulations of this kind are
+perfectly legitimate and necessary. They are in truth only an
+application of the law of vagrancy to corporations, and have their
+analogy in the restrictions now generally imposed by states on the
+immigration of aliens.
+
+
+_4. Company Law outside the United Kingdom._
+
+_Australia._--Company law in Australia and in New Zealand follows very
+closely the lines of company legislation in the United Kingdom.
+
+In New South Wales the law is consolidated by Act No. 40 of 1899,
+amended 1900 and 1906. In Victoria the law is contained in the Acts Nos.
+1074 of 1890 and 355 of 1896; in Queensland in a series of Acts--No. 4
+of 1863, No. 18 of 1899, No. 10 of 1891, No. 24 of 1892, No. 3 of 1893,
+No. 19 of 1894 and No. 21 of 1896; in South Australia in No. 56 of 1892,
+amended by No. 576 of 1893; in Tasmania by Nos. 22 of 1869, 19 of 1895
+and 3 of 1896; in Western Australia by No. 8 of 1893, amended 1897 and
+1898.
+
+In New Zealand the law was consolidated in 1903.
+
+_Canada._--The act governing joint stock companies in Canada is the
+Companies Act 1902, amended 1904. It empowers the secretary of state by
+letters patent to grant a charter to any number of persons not less than
+five for any objects other than railway or telegraph lines, banking or
+insurance.
+
+Applicants must file an application--analogous to the British memorandum
+of association--showing certain particulars--the purposes of
+incorporation, the place of business, the amount of the capital stock,
+the number of shares and the amount of each, the names and addresses of
+the applicants, the amount of stock taken by each and the amount and
+mode of payment. Other provisions may also be embodied. A company cannot
+commence business until 10% of its authorized capital has been
+subscribed and paid for. The word "limited" as part of the company's
+name is--as in the case of British companies--to be conspicuously
+exhibited and used in all documents. The directors are not to be less
+than three or more than fifteen, and must be holders of stock. Directors
+are jointly and severally liable to the clerks, labourers and servants
+of the company for six months' wages. Borrowing powers may be taken by a
+vote of holders of two-thirds in value of the subscribed stock of the
+company.
+
+_South Africa._--In Cape Colony the law is contained in No. 25 of 1892,
+amended 1895 and 1906; it follows English law.
+
+In Natal the law is contained in Nos. 10 of 1864, 18 of 1865, 19 of 1893
+and 3 of 1896.
+
+In the Orange Free State in Law Ch. 100 and Nos. 2 and 4 of 1892.
+
+For the Transvaal see Nos. 5 of 1874, 6 of 1874, 1 of 1894 and 30 of
+1904.
+
+In Rhodesia companies are regulated by the Companies Ordinance 1895--a
+combination of the Cape Companies Act 1892, and the British Companies
+Acts 1862-1890.
+
+_France._--There are two kinds of limited liability companies in
+France--the _société en commandite_ and the _société anonyme_. The
+_société en commandite_ corresponds in some respects to the British
+private company or limited partnership, but with this difference, that
+in the _société en commandite_ the managing partner is under unlimited
+liability of creditors; the sleeping partner's liability is limited to
+the amount of his capital. The French equivalent of the English ordinary
+joint stock company is the _société anonyme_. The minimum number of
+subscribers necessary to form such a company is (as in the case of a
+British trading company) seven, but, unlike a British company, the
+_société anonyme_ is not legally constituted unless the whole capital is
+subscribed and one-fourth of each share paid up. Another precaution
+unknown to British practice is that assets, not in money, brought into a
+company are subject to verification of value by a general meeting. The
+minimum nominal value of shares, where the company's capital is less
+than 200,000 fcs., is 25 fcs.; where the capital is more than 200,000
+fcs., 100 fcs. The _société_ is governed by articles which appoint the
+directors, and there is one general meeting held every year. A _société
+anonyme_ may, since 1902, issue preference shares. The doctrine that a
+corporation never dies has no place in French law. A _société anonyme_
+may come to an end.
+
+_Germany._--In Germany the class of companies most nearly corresponding
+to English companies limited by shares are "share companies"
+(_Aktiengesellschaften_) and "commandite companies" with a share capital
+(_Kommanditgesellschaften auf Aktien_). Since 1892 a new form of
+association has come into existence known by the name of partnership
+with limited liability (_Gesellschaften mit beschrankter Haftung_),
+which has largely superseded the commandite company.
+
+[Sidenote: The "share company."]
+
+In forming this paid-up company certain preliminary steps have to be
+taken before registration:--
+
+  1. The articles must be agreed on;
+
+  2. A managing board and a board of supervision must be appointed;
+
+  3. The whole of the share capital must be allotted and 25%, at least,
+  must be paid up in coin or legal tender notes;
+
+  4. Reports on the formation of the company must be made by certain
+  persons; and
+
+  5. Certain documents must be filed in the registry.
+
+In all cases where shares are issued for any consideration, not being
+payment in full in cash, or in which contracts for the purchase of
+property have been entered into, the promoters must sign a declaration
+in which they must state on what grounds the prices agreed to be given
+for such property appear to be justified. In the great majority of cases
+shares are issued in certificates to bearer. The amount of such a
+share--to bearer--must as a general rule be not less than Ł50, but
+registered shares of Ł10 may be issued. Balance sheets have to be
+published periodically.
+
+
+  Limited partnerships.
+
+Partnerships with limited liability may be formed by two or more
+members. The articles of partnership must be signed by all the members,
+and must contain particulars as to the amount of the capital and of the
+individual shares. If the liability on any shares is not to be satisfied
+in cash this also must be stated. The capital of a limited partnership
+must amount to Ł1000. Shares must be registered. Insolvent companies in
+Germany are subject to the bankruptcy law in the same manner as natural
+persons.
+
+For further information see a memorandum on German companies printed in
+the appendix to the _Report of Lord Davey's Committee on the Amendment
+of Company Law_, pp. 13-26.
+
+_Italy._--Commercial companies in Italy are of three kinds:--(1) General
+partnerships, in which the members are liable for all debts incurred;
+(2) companies in _accomodita_, in which some members are liable to an
+unlimited extent and others within certain limits; (3) joint stock
+companies, in which the liability is limited to the capital of the
+company and no member is liable beyond the amount of his holding. None
+of these companies needs authority from the government for its
+constitution; all that is needed is a written agreement brought before
+the public in the ways indicated in the code (Art. 90 et seq.). In joint
+stock companies the trustees (directors) must give security. They are
+appointed by a general meeting for a period not exceeding four years
+(Art. 124). The company is not constituted until the whole of its
+capital is subscribed, and until three-tenths of the capital at least
+has been actually paid up. When a company's capital is diminished by
+one-third, the trustees must call the members together and consult as to
+what is to be done.
+
+An ordinary meeting is held once at least every year. Shares may not be
+made payable "to bearer" until fully paid up (Art. 166). A company may
+issue debentures if this is agreed to by a certain majority (Art. 172).
+One-twentieth, at least, of the dividends of the company must be added
+to the reserve fund, until this has become equal to one-fifth of the
+company's capital (Art. 182). Three or five assessors--members or
+non-members--keep watch over the way in which the company is carried on.
+
+_United States._--In the United States the right to create corporations
+is a sovereign right, and as such is exercisable by the several states
+of the Union. The law of private corporations must therefore be sought
+in some fifty collections or groups of statutory and case-made rules.
+These collections or groups of rules differ in many cases essentially
+from each other. The acts regulating business corporations generally
+provide that the persons proposing to form a corporation shall sign and
+acknowledge an instrument called the articles of association, setting
+forth the name of the corporation, the object for which it is to be
+formed, the principal place of business, the amount of its capital
+stock, and the number of shares into which it is to be divided, and the
+duration of its corporate existence. These articles are filed in the
+office of the secretary of state or in designated courts of record, and
+a certificate is then issued reciting that the provisions of the act
+have been complied with, and thereupon the incorporators are vested with
+corporate existence and the general powers incident thereto. This
+certificate is the charter of the corporation. The power to make bylaws
+is usually vested in the stockholders, but it may be conferred by the
+certificate on the directors. Stockholders remain liable until their
+subscriptions are fully paid. Nothing but money is considered payment of
+capital stock except where property is purchased. Directors must usually
+be stockholders.
+
+The right of a state to forfeit a corporation's charter for misuser or
+non-user of its franchises is an implied term of the grant of
+incorporation. Corporations are liable for every wrong they commit, and
+in such cases cannot set up by way of protection the doctrine of _ultra
+vires_.
+
+  See for authorities _Commentaries on the Law of Private Corporations_,
+  by Seymour D. Thompson, LL.D., 6 vols.; Beach on _Corporations_, and
+  the _American Encyclopaedia of Law_.     (E. MA.)
+
+
+
+
+COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, a term employed to designate the study of the
+structure of man as compared with that of lower animals, and sometimes
+the study of lower animals in contra-distinction to human anatomy; the
+term is now falling into desuetude, and lingers practically only in the
+titles of books or in the designation of university chairs. The change
+in terminology is chiefly the result of modern conceptions of zoology.
+From the point of view of structure, man is one of the animals; all
+investigations into anatomical structure must be comparative, and in
+this work the subject is so treated throughout. See ANATOMY and ZOOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+COMPARETTI, DOMENICO (1835-   ), Italian scholar, was born at Rome on the
+27th of June 1835. He studied at the university of Rome, took his degree
+in 1855 in natural science and mathematics, and entered his uncle's
+pharmacy as assistant. His scanty leisure was, however, given to study.
+He learned Greek by himself, and gained facility in the modern language
+by conversing with the Greek students at the university. In spite of all
+disadvantages, he not only mastered the language, but became one of the
+chief classical scholars of Italy. In 1857 he published, in the
+_Rheinisches Museum_, a translation of some recently discovered
+fragments of Hypereides, with a dissertation on that orator. This was
+followed by a notice of the annalist Granius Licinianus, and one on the
+oration of Hypereides on the Lamian War. In 1859 he was appointed
+professor of Greek at Pisa on the recommendation of the duke of
+Sermoneta. A few years later he was called to a similar post at
+Florence, remaining emeritus professor at Pisa also. He subsequently
+took up his residence in Rome as lecturer on Greek antiquities and
+greatly interested himself in the Forum excavations. He was a member of
+the governing bodies of the academies of Milan, Venice, Naples and
+Turin. The list of his writings is long and varied. Of his works in
+classical literature, the best known are an edition of the _Euxenippus_
+of Hypereides, and monographs on Pindar and Sappho. He also edited the
+great inscription which contains a collection of the municipal laws of
+Gortyn in Crete, discovered on the site of the ancient city. In the
+_Kalewala and the Traditional Poetry of the Finns_ (English translation
+by I. M. Anderton, 1898) he discusses the national epic of Finland and
+its heroic songs, with a view to solving the problem whether an epic
+could be composed by the interweaving of such national songs. He comes
+to a negative conclusion, and applies this reasoning to the Homeric
+problem. He treats this question again in a treatise on the so-called
+Peisistratean edition of Homer (_La Commissione omerica di Pisistrato_,
+1881). His _Researches concerning the Book of Sindib[=a]d_ have been
+translated in the _Proceedings_ of the Folk-Lore Society. His _Vergil
+in the Middle Ages_ (translated into English by E. F. Benecke, 1895)
+traces the strange vicissitudes by which the great Augustan poet became
+successively grammatical fetich, Christian prophet and wizard. Together
+with Professor Alessandro d'Ancona, Comparetti edited a collection of
+Italian national songs and stories (9 vols., Turin, 1870-1891), many of
+which had been collected and written down by himself for the first time.
+
+
+
+
+COMPASS (Fr. _compas_, ultimately from Lat. _cum_, with, and _passus_,
+step), a term of which the evolution of the various meanings is obscure;
+the general sense is "measure" or "measurement," and the word is used
+thus in various derived meanings--area, boundary, circuit. It is also
+more particularly applied to a mathematical instrument ("pair of
+compasses") for measuring or for describing a circle, and to the
+mariner's compass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Compass Card.]
+
+The mariner's compass, with which this article is concerned, is an
+instrument by means of which the directive force of that great magnet,
+the Earth, upon a freely-suspended needle, is utilized for a purpose
+essential to navigation. The needle is so mounted that it only moves
+freely in the horizontal plane, and therefore the horizontal component
+of the earth's force alone directs it. The direction assumed by the
+needle is not generally towards the geographical north, but diverges
+towards the east or west of it, making a horizontal angle with the true
+meridian, called the magnetic variation or declination; amongst mariners
+this angle is known as the variation of the compass. In the usual
+navigable waters of the world the variation alters from 30° to the east
+to 45° to the west of the geographical meridian, being westerly in the
+Atlantic and Indian oceans, easterly in the Pacific. The vertical plane
+passing through the longitudinal axis of such a needle is known as the
+magnetic meridian. Following the first chart of lines of equal variation
+compiled by Edmund Halley in 1700, charts of similar type have been
+published from time to time embodying recent observations and corrected
+for the secular change, thus providing seamen with values of the
+variation accurate to about 30' of arc. Possessing these data, it is
+easy to ascertain by observation the effects of the iron in a ship in
+disturbing the compass, and it will be found for the most part in every
+vessel that the needle is deflected from the magnetic meridian by a
+horizontal angle called the deviation of the compass; in some directions
+of the ship's head adding to the known variation of the place, in other
+directions subtracting from it. Local magnetic disturbance of the needle
+due to magnetic rocks is observed on land in all parts of the world, and
+in certain places extends to the land under the sea, affecting the
+compasses on board the ships passing over it. The general direction of
+these disturbances in the northern hemisphere is an attraction of the
+north-seeking end of the needle; in the southern hemisphere, its
+repulsion. The approaches to Cossack, North Australia; Cape St Francis,
+Labrador; the coasts of Madagascar and Iceland, are remarkable for such
+disturbance of the compass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Admiralty Compass (Frame and Needles).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Thomson's (Lord Kelvin's) Compass (Frame and
+Needles).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of Thomson's Compass Bowl. C, aluminium
+cap with sapphire centre; N, N', needles; P, pivot stem with pivot.]
+
+The compass as we know it is the result of the necessities of
+navigation, which have increased from century to century. It consists of
+five principal parts--the card, the needles, the bowl, a jewelled cap
+and the pivot. The card or "fly," formerly made of cardboard, now
+consists of a disk either of mica covered with paper or of paper alone,
+but in all cases the card is divided into points and degrees as shown in
+fig. 1. The outer margin is divided into degrees with 0° at north and
+south, and 90° at east and west; the 32 points with half and quarter
+points are seen immediately within the degrees. The north point is
+marked with _fleur de lis_, and the principal points, N.E., E., S.E.,
+&c., with their respective names, whilst the intermediate points in the
+figure have also their names engraved for present information. The arc
+contained between any two points is 11° 15'. The mica card is generally
+mounted on a brass framework, F F, with a brass cap, C, fitted with a
+sapphire centre and carrying four magnetized needles, N, N, N, N, as in
+fig. 2. The more modern form of card consists of a broad ring of paper
+marked with degrees and points, as in fig. 1, attached to a frame like
+that in fig. 3, where an outer aluminium ring, A A, is connected by 32
+radial silk threads to a central disk of aluminium, in the centre of
+which is a round hole designed to receive an aluminium cap with a highly
+polished sapphire centre worked to the form of an open cone. To direct
+the card eight short light needles, N N, are suspended by silk threads
+from the outer ring. The magnetic axis of any system of needles must
+exactly coincide with the axis passing through the north and south
+points of the card. Single needles are never used, two being the least
+number, and these so arranged that the moment of inertia about every
+diameter of the card shall be the same. The combination of card, needles
+and cap is generally termed "the card"; on the continent of Europe it is
+called the "rose." The section of a compass bowl in fig. 4 shows the
+mounting of a Thomson card on its pivot, which in common with the pivots
+of most other compasses is made of brass, tipped with osmium-iridium,
+which although very hard can be sharply pointed and does not corrode.
+Fig. 4 shows the general arrangement of mounting all compass cards in
+the bowl. In fig. 5 another form of compass called a liquid or spirit
+compass is shown partly in section. The card nearly floats in a bowl
+filled with distilled water, to which 35% of alcohol is added to prevent
+freezing; the bowl is hermetically sealed with pure india-rubber, and a
+corrugated expansion chamber is attached to the bottom to allow for the
+expansion and contraction of the liquid. The card is a mica disk, either
+painted as in fig. 1, or covered with linen upon which the degrees and
+points are printed, the needles being enclosed in brass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Liquid Compass.
+
+  A, Bowl, partly in section.     N, Hole for filling, with screw plug.
+  B, Expansion chamber.           O, O, Magnetic needles.
+  D, The glass.                   P, Buoyant chamber.
+  G, Gimbal ring.                 Q, Iridium pivot.
+  L, Nut to expand chamber when   R, Sapphire cap.
+      filling bowl.               S, Mica card.]
+  M, Screw connector.
+
+Great steadiness of card under severe shocks and vibrations, combined
+with a minimum of friction in the cap and pivot, is obtained with this
+compass. All compasses are fitted with a gimbal ring to keep the bowl
+and card level under every circumstance of a ship's motion in a seaway,
+the ring being connected with the binnacle or pedestal by means of
+journals or knife edges. On the inside of every compass bowl a vertical
+black line is drawn, called the "lubber's point," and it is imperative
+that when the compass is placed in the binnacle the line joining the
+pivot and the lubber's point be parallel to the keel of the vessel.
+Thus, when a degree on the card is observed opposite the lubber's point,
+the angle between the direction in which the ship is steering and the
+north point of the compass or course is at once seen; and if the
+magnetic variation and the disturbing effects of the ship's iron are
+known, the desired angle between the ship's course and the geographical
+meridian can be computed. In every ship a position is selected for the
+navigating or standard compass as free from neighbouring iron as
+possible, and by this compass all courses are shaped and bearings taken.
+It is also provided with an azimuth circle or mirror and a shadow pin or
+style placed in the centre of the glass cover, by either of which the
+variable angle between the compass north and true north, called the
+"total error," or variation and deviation combined, can be observed. The
+binnacles or pedestals for compasses are generally constructed of wood
+about 45 in. high, and fitted to receive and alter at pleasure the
+several magnet and soft iron correctors. They are also fitted with
+different forms of suspension in which the compass is mounted to obviate
+the mechanical disturbance of the card caused by the vibration of the
+hull in ships driven by powerful engines.
+
+The effects of the iron and steel used in the construction of ships upon
+the compass occupied the attention of the ablest physicists of the 19th
+century, with results which enable navigators to conduct their ships
+with perfect safety. The hull of an iron or steel ship is a magnet, and
+the distribution of its magnetism depends upon the direction of the
+ship's head when building, this result being produced by induction from
+the earth's magnetism, developed and impressed by the hammering of the
+plates and frames during the process of building. The disturbance of the
+compass by the magnetism of the hull is generally modified, sometimes
+favourably, more often unfavourably, by the magnetized fittings of the
+ship, such as masts, conning towers, deck houses, engines and boilers.
+Thus in every ship the compass needle is more or less subject to
+deviation differing in amount and direction for every azimuth of the
+ship's head. This was first demonstrated by Commander Matthew Flinders
+by experiments made in H.M.S. "Investigator" in 1800-1803, and in 1810
+led that officer to introduce the practice of placing the ship's head on
+each point of the compass, and noting the amount of deviation whether to
+the east or west of the magnetic north, a process which is in full
+exercise at the present day, and is called "swinging ship." When
+speaking of the magnetic properties of iron it is usual to adopt the
+terms "soft" and "hard." Soft iron is iron which becomes instantly
+magnetized by induction when exposed to any magnetic force, but has no
+power of retaining its magnetism. Hard iron is less susceptible of being
+magnetized, but when once magnetized it retains its magnetism
+permanently. The term "iron" used in these pages includes the "steel"
+now commonly employed in shipbuilding. If an iron ship be swung when
+upright for deviation, and the mean horizontal and vertical magnetic
+forces at the compass positions be also observed in different parts of
+the world, mathematical analysis shows that the deviations are caused
+partly by the permanent magnetism of hard iron, partly by the transient
+induced magnetism of soft iron both horizontal and vertical, and in a
+lesser degree by iron which is neither magnetically hard nor soft, but
+which becomes magnetized in the same manner as hard iron, though it
+gradually loses its magnetism on change of conditions, as, for example,
+in the case of a ship, repaired and hammered in dock, steaming in an
+opposite direction at sea. This latter cause of deviation is called
+sub-permanent magnetism. The horizontal directive force on the needle on
+board is nearly always less than on land, sometimes much less, whilst in
+armour-plated ships it ranges from .8 to .2 when the directive force on
+land = 1.0. If the ship be inclined to starboard or to port additional
+deviation will be observed, reaching a maximum on north and south
+points, decreasing to zero on the east and west points. Each ship has
+its own magnetic character, but there are certain conditions which are
+common to vessels of the same type.
+
+Instead of observing the deviation solely for the purposes of correcting
+the indications of the compass when disturbed by the iron of the ship,
+the practice is to subject all deviations to mathematical analysis with
+a view to their mechanical correction. The whole of the deviations when
+the ship is upright may be expressed nearly by five co-efficients, A, B,
+C, D, E. Of these A is a deviation constant in amount for every
+direction of the ship's head. B has reference to horizontal forces
+acting in a longitudinal direction in the ship, and caused partly by the
+permanent magnetism of hard iron, partly by vertical induction in
+vertical soft iron either before or abaft the compass. C has reference
+to forces acting in a transverse direction, and caused by hard iron. D
+is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron, the direction of
+which passes continuously under or over the compass. E is due to
+transient induction in horizontal soft iron unsymmetrically placed with
+regard to the compass. When data of this character have been obtained
+the compass deviations may be mechanically corrected to within
+1°--always adhering to the principal that "like cures like." Thus the
+part of B caused by the permanent magnetism of hard iron must be
+corrected by permanent magnets horizontally placed in a fore and aft
+direction; the other part caused by vertical soft iron by means of bars
+of vertical soft iron, called Flinders bars, before or abaft the
+compass. C is compensated by permanent magnets athwart-ships and
+horizontal; D by masses of soft iron on both sides of the compass, and
+generally in the form of cast-iron spheres, with their centres in the
+same horizontal plane as the needles; E is usually too small to require
+correction; A is fortunately rarely of any value, as it cannot be
+corrected. The deviation observed when the ship inclines to either side
+is due--(1) to hard iron acting vertically upwards or downwards; (2) to
+vertical soft iron immediately below the compass; (3) to vertical
+induction in horizontal soft iron when inclined. To compensate (1)
+vertical magnets are used; (3) is partly corrected by the soft iron
+correctors of D; (2) and the remaining part of (3) cannot be
+conveniently corrected for more than one geographical position at a
+time. Although a compass may thus be made practically correct for a
+given time and place, the magnetism of the ship is liable to changes on
+changing her geographical position, and especially so when steaming at
+right angles or nearly so to the magnetic meridian, for then
+sub-permanent magnetism is developed in the hull. Some vessels are more
+liable to become sub-permanently magnetized than others, and as no
+corrector has been found for this source of deviation the navigator must
+determine its amount by observation. Hence, however carefully a compass
+may be placed and subsequently compensated, the mariner has no safety
+without constantly observing the bearings of the sun, stars or distant
+terrestrial objects, to ascertain its deviation. The results of these
+observations are entered in a compass journal for future reference when
+fog or darkness prevails.
+
+Every compass and corrector supplied to the ships of the British navy is
+previously examined in detail at the Compass Observatory established by
+the admiralty at Deptford. A trained observer acting under the
+superintendent of compasses is charged with this important work. The
+superintendent, who is a naval officer, has to investigate the magnetic
+character of the ships, to point out the most suitable positions for the
+compasses when a ship is designed, and subsequently to keep himself
+informed of their behaviour from the time of the ship's first trial. A
+museum containing compasses of various types invented during the 19th
+century is attached to the Compass Observatory at Deptford.
+
+  The mariner's compass during the early part of the 19th century was
+  still a very imperfect instrument, although numerous inventors had
+  tried to improve it. In 1837 the Admiralty Compass Committee was
+  appointed to make a scientific investigation of the subject, and
+  propose a form of compass suitable alike for azimuth and steering
+  purposes. The committee reported in July 1840, and after minor
+  improvements by the makers the admiralty compass, the card of which is
+  shown in figs. 1 and 2, was adopted by the government. Until 1876,
+  when Sir William Thomson introduced his patent compass, this compass
+  was not only the regulation compass of the British navy, but was
+  largely used in other countries in the same or a modified form. The
+  introduction of powerful engines causing serious vibration to compass
+  cards of the admiralty type, coupled with the prevailing desire for
+  larger cards, the deviation of which could also be more conveniently
+  compensated, led to the gradual introduction of the Thomson compass.
+  Several important points were gained in the latter: the quadrantal
+  deviation could be finally corrected for all latitudes; frictional
+  error at the cap and pivot was reduced to a minimum, the average
+  weight of the card being 200 grains; the long free vibrational period
+  of the card was found to be favourable to its steadiness when the
+  vessel was rolling. The first liquid compass used in England was
+  invented by Francis Crow, of Faversham, in 1813. It is said that the
+  idea of a liquid compass was suggested to Crow by the experience of
+  the captain of a coasting vessel whose compass card was oscillating
+  wildly until a sea broke on board filling the compass bowl, when the
+  card became steady. Subsequent improvements were made by E. J. Dent,
+  and especially by E. S. Ritchie, of Boston, Massachusetts. In 1888 the
+  form of liquid compass (fig. 5) now solely used in torpedo boats and
+  torpedo boat destroyers was introduced. It has also proved to be the
+  most trustworthy compass under the shock of heavy gun fire at present
+  available. The deflector is an instrument designed to enable an
+  observer to reduce the deviations of the compass to an amount not
+  exceeding 2° during fogs, or at any time when bearings of distant
+  objects are not available. It is certain that if the directive forces
+  on the north, east, south and west points of a compass are equal,
+  there can be no deviation. With the deflector any inequality in the
+  directive force can be detected, and hence the power of equalizing the
+  forces by the usual soft iron and magnet correctors. Several kinds of
+  deflector have been invented, that of Lord Kelvin (Sir William
+  Thomson) being the simplest, but Dr Waghorn's is also very effective.
+  The use of the deflector is generally confined to experts.
+
+  _The Magnetism of Ships._--In 1814 Flinders first showed (see
+  Flinders's _Voyage_, vol. ii. appx. ii.) that the abnormal values of
+  the variation observed in the wood-built ships of his day was due to
+  deviation of the compass caused by the iron in the ship; that the
+  deviation was zero when the ship's head was near the north and south
+  points; that it attained its maximum on the east and west points, and
+  varied as the sine of the azimuth of the ship's head reckoned from the
+  zero points. He also described a method of correcting deviation by
+  means of a bar of vertical iron so placed as to correct the deviation
+  nearly in all latitudes. This bar, now known as a "Flinders bar," is
+  still in general use. In 1820 Dr T. Young (see Brande's _Quarterly
+  Journal_, 1820) investigated mathematically the magnetism of ships. In
+  1824 Professor Peter Barlow (1776-1862) introduced his correcting
+  plate of _soft_ iron. Trials in certain ships showed that their
+  magnetism consisted partly of hard iron, and the use of the plate was
+  abandoned. In 1835 Captain E. J. Johnson, R.N., showed from
+  experiments in the iron steamship "Garry Owen" that the vessel acted
+  on an external compass as a magnet. In 1838 Sir G. B. Airy
+  magnetically examined the iron steamship "Rainbow" at Deptford, and
+  from his mathematical investigations (see _Phil. Trans._, 1839)
+  deduced his method of correcting the compass by permanent magnets and
+  soft iron, giving practical rules for the same in 1840. Airy's and
+  Flinders's correctors form the basis of all compass correctors to this
+  day. In 1838 S. D. Poisson published his _Memoir on the Deviations of
+  the Compass caused by the Iron in a Vessel_. In this he gave equations
+  resulting from the hypothesis that the magnetism of a ship is partly
+  due to the permanent magnetism of hard iron and partly to the
+  transient induced magnetism of soft iron; that the latter is
+  proportional to the intensity of the inducing force, and that the
+  length of the needle is infinitesimally small compared to the distance
+  of the surrounding iron. From Poisson's equations Archibald Smith
+  deduced the formulae given in the _Admiralty Manual for Deviations of
+  the Compass_ (1st ed., 1862), a work which has formed the basis of
+  numerous other manuals since published in Great Britain and other
+  countries. In view of the serious difficulties connected with the
+  inclining of every ship, Smith's formulae for ascertaining and
+  providing for the correction of the heeling error with the ship
+  upright continue to be of great value to safe navigation. In 1855 the
+  Liverpool Compass Committee began its work of investigating the
+  magnetism of ships of the mercantile marine, resulting in three
+  reports to the Board of Trade, all of great value, the last being
+  presented in 1861.
+
+  See also MAGNETISM, and NAVIGATION; articles on Magnetism of Ships and
+  Deviations of the Compass, _Phil. Trans._, 1839-1883, _Journal United
+  Service Inst._, 1859-1889, _Trans. Inst. Nav. Archit._,
+  1860-1861-1862, _Report of Brit. Assoc._, 1862, _London Quarterly
+  Rev._, 1865; also _Admiralty Manual_, edit. 1862-1863-1869-1893-1900;
+  and Towson's _Practical Information on Deviations of the Compass_
+  (1886).     (E. W. C.)
+
+
+_History of the Mariner's Compass._
+
+The discovery that a lodestone, or a piece of iron which has been
+touched by a lodestone, will direct itself to point in a north and south
+position, and the application of that discovery to direct the navigation
+of ships, have been attributed to various origins. The Chinese, the
+Arabs, the Greeks, the Etruscans, the Finns and the Italians have all
+been claimed as originators of the compass. There is now little doubt
+that the claim formerly advanced in favour of the Chinese is
+ill-founded. In Chinese history we are told how, in the sixty-fourth
+year of the reign of Hwang-ti (2634 B.C.), the emperor Hiuan-yuan, or
+Hwang-ti, attacked one Tchi-yeou, on the plains of Tchou-lou, and
+finding his army embarrassed by a thick fog raised by the enemy,
+constructed a chariot (Tchi-nan) for indicating the south, so as to
+distinguish the four cardinal points, and was thus enabled to pursue
+Tchi-yeou, and take him prisoner. (Julius Klaproth, _Lettre ŕ M. le
+Baron Humboldt sur l'invention de la boussole_, Paris, 1834. See also
+Mailla, _Histoire générale de la Chine_, tom. i. p. 316, Paris, 1777.)
+But, as other versions of the story show, this account is purely
+mythical. For the south-pointing chariots are recorded to have been
+first devised by the emperor Hian-tsoung (A.D. 806-820); and there is no
+evidence that they contained any magnet. There is no genuine record of a
+Chinese marine compass before A.D. 1297, as Klaproth admits. No
+sea-going ships were built in China before 139 B.C. The earliest
+allusion to the power of the lodestone in Chinese literature occurs in a
+Chinese dictionary, finished in A.D. 121, where the lodestone is defined
+as "a stone with which an attraction can be given to a needle," but this
+knowledge is no more than that existing in Europe at least five hundred
+years before. Nor is there any nautical significance in a passage which
+occurs in the Chinese encyclopaedia, _Poei-wen-yun-fou_, in which it is
+stated that under the Tsin dynasty, or between A.D. 265 and 419, "there
+were ships indicating the south."
+
+The Chinese, Sir J. F. Davis informs us, once navigated as far as India,
+but their most distant voyages at present extend not farther than Java
+and the Malay Islands to the south (_The Chinese_, vol. iii. p. 14,
+London, 1844). According to an Arabic manuscript, a translation of which
+was published by Eusebius Renaudot (Paris, 1718), they traded in ships
+to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in the 9th century. Sir G. L. Staunton,
+in vol. i. of his _Embassy to China_ (London, 1797), after referring to
+the early acquaintance of the Chinese with the property of the magnet to
+point southwards, remarks (p. 445), "The nature and the cause of the
+qualities of the magnet have at all times been subjects of contemplation
+among the Chinese. The Chinese name for the compass is _ting-nan-ching_,
+or needle pointing to the south; and a distinguishing mark is fixed on
+the magnet's southern pole, as in European compasses upon the northern
+one." "The sphere of Chinese navigation," he tells us (p. 447), "is too
+limited to have afforded experience and observation for forming any
+system of laws supposed to govern the variation of the needle.... The
+Chinese had soon occasion to perceive how much more essential the
+perfection of the compass was to the superior navigators of Europe than
+to themselves, as the commanders of the 'Lion' and 'Hindostan,' trusting
+to that instrument, stood out directly from the land into the sea." The
+number of points of the compass, according to the Chinese, is
+twenty-four, which are reckoned from the south pole; the form also of
+the instrument they employ is different from that familiar to Europeans.
+The needle is peculiarly poised, with its point of suspension a little
+below its centre of gravity, and is exceedingly sensitive; it is seldom
+more than an inch in length, and is less than a line in thickness. "It
+may be urged," writes Mr T. S. Davies, "that the different manner of
+constructing the needle amongst the Chinese and European navigators
+shows the independence of the Chinese of us, as theirs is the worse
+method, and had they copied from us, they would have used the better
+one" (Thomson's _British Annual_, 1837, p. 291). On the other hand, it
+has been contended that a knowledge of the mariner's compass was
+communicated by them directly or indirectly to the early Arabs, and
+through the latter was introduced into Europe. Sismondi has remarked
+(_Literature of Europe_, vol. i.) that it is peculiarly characteristic
+of all the pretended discoveries of the middle ages that when the
+historians mention them for the first time they treat them as things in
+general use. Gunpowder, the compass, the Arabic numerals and paper, are
+nowhere spoken of as discoveries, and yet they must have wrought a total
+change in war, in navigation, in science, and in education. G.
+Tiraboschi (_Storia della letteratura italiana_, tom. iv. lib. ii. p.
+204, et seq., ed. 2., 1788), in support of the conjecture that the
+compass was introduced into Europe by the Arabs, adduces their
+superiority in scientific learning and their early skill in navigation.
+He quotes a passage on the polarity of the lodestone from a treatise
+translated by Albertus Magnus, attributed by the latter to Aristotle,
+but apparently only an Arabic compilation from the works of various
+philosophers. As the terms _Zoron_ and _Aphron_, used there to signify
+the south and north poles, are neither Latin nor Greek, Tiraboschi
+suggests that they may be of Arabian origin, and that the whole passage
+concerning the lodestone may have been added to the original treatise by
+the Arabian translators.
+
+Dr W. Robertson asserts (_Historical Disquisition concerning Ancient
+India_, p. 227) that the Arabs, Turks and Persians have no original name
+for the compass, it being called by them _Bossola_, the Italian name,
+which shows that the thing signified is foreign to them as well as the
+word. The Rev. G. P. Badger has, however, pointed out (_Travels of
+Ludovico di Varthema_, trans. J. W. Jones, ed. G. P. Badger, Hakluyt
+Soc, 1863, note, pp. 31 and 32) that the name of Bushla or Busba, from
+the Italian _Bussola_, though common among Arab sailors in the
+Mediterranean, is very seldom used in the Eastern seas,--_Daďrah_ and
+_Beit el-Ibrah_ (the Circle, or House of the Needle) being the ordinary
+appellatives in the Red Sea, whilst in the Persian Gulf
+_Kiblah-n[=a]meh_ is in more general use. Robertson quotes Sir J.
+Chardin as boldly asserting "that the Asiatics are beholden to us for
+this wonderful instrument, which they had from Europe a long time before
+the Portuguese conquests. For, first, their compasses are exactly like
+ours, and they buy them of Europeans as much as they can, scarce daring
+to meddle with their needles themselves. Secondly, it is certain that
+the old navigators only coasted it along, which I impute to their want
+of this instrument to guide and instruct them in the middle of the
+ocean.... I have nothing but argument to offer touching this matter,
+having never met with any person in Persia or the Indies to inform me
+when the compass was first known among them, though I made inquiry of
+the most learned men in both countries. I have sailed from the Indies to
+Persia in Indian ships, when no European has been aboard but myself. The
+pilots were all Indians, and they used the forestaff and quadrant for
+their observations. These instruments they have from us, and made by our
+artists, and they do not in the least vary from ours, except that the
+characters are Arabic. The Arabs are the most skilful navigators of all
+the Asiatics or Africans; but neither they nor the Indians make use of
+charts, and they do not much want them; some they have, but they are
+copied from ours, for they are altogether ignorant of perspective." The
+observations of Chardin, who flourished between 1643 and 1713, cannot be
+said to receive support from the testimony of some earlier authorities.
+That the Arabs must have been acquainted with the compass, and with the
+construction and use of charts, at a period nearly two centuries
+previous to Chardin's first voyage to the East, may be gathered from the
+description given by Barros of a map of all the coast of India, shown to
+Vasco da Gama by a Moor of Guzerat (about the 15th of July 1498), in
+which the bearings were laid down "after the manner of the Moors," or
+"with meridians and parallels very small (or close together), without
+other bearings of the compass; because, as the squares of these
+meridians and parallels were very small, the coast was laid down by
+these two bearings of N. and S., and E. and W., with great certainty,
+without that multiplication of bearings of the points of the compass
+usual in our maps, which serves as the root of the others." Further, we
+learn from Osorio that the Arabs at the time of Gama "were instructed in
+so many of the arts of navigation, that they did not yield much to the
+Portuguese mariners in the science and practice of maritime matters."
+(See _The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama_, Hakluyt Soc, 1869; note to
+chap. xv. by the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley, p. 138.) Also the Arabs that
+navigated the Red Sea at the same period are shown by Varthema to have
+used the mariner's chart and compass (_Travels_, p. 31).
+
+Again, it appears that compasses of a primitive description, which can
+hardly be supposed to have been brought from Europe, were employed in
+the East Indies certainly as early as several years previous to the
+close of the 16th century. In William Barlowe's _Navigator's Supply_,
+published in 1597, we read:--"Some fewe yeeres since, it so fell out
+that I had severall conferences with two East Indians which were brought
+into England by master Candish [Thomas Cavendish], and had learned our
+language: The one of them was of Mamillia [Manila] in the Isle of Luzon,
+the other of Miaco in Japan. I questioned with them concerning their
+shipping and manner of sayling. They described all things farre
+different from ours, and shewed, that in steade of our Compas, they use
+a magneticall needle of sixe ynches long, and longer, upon a pinne in a
+dish of white _China_ earth filled with water; In the bottome whereof
+they have two crosse lines, for the foure principall windes; the rest of
+the divisions being reserved to the skill of their Pilots." Bailak
+Kibdjaki, also, an Arabian writer, shows in his _Merchant's Treasure_, a
+work given to the world in 1282, that the magnetized needle, floated on
+water by means of a splinter of wood or a reed, was employed on the
+Syrian seas at the time of his voyage from Tripoli to Alexandria (1242),
+and adds:--"They say that the captains who navigate the Indian seas use,
+instead of the needle and splinter, a sort of fish made out of hollow
+iron, which, when thrown into the water, swims upon the surface, and
+points out the north and south with its head and tail" (Klaproth,
+_Lettre_, p. 57). E. Wiedemann, in _Erlangen Sitzungsberichte_ (1904, p.
+330), translates the phrase given above as splinter of wood, by the term
+wooden cross. Furthermore, although the sailors in the Indian vessels in
+which Niccola de' Conti traversed the Indian seas in 1420 are stated to
+have had no compass, still, on board the ship in which Varthema, less
+than a century later, sailed from Borneo to Java, both the mariner's
+chart and compass were used; it has been questioned, however, whether in
+this case the compass was of Eastern manufacture (_Travels of
+Varthema_, Introd. xciv, and p. 249). We have already seen that the
+Chinese as late as the end of the 18th century made voyages with
+compasses on which but little reliance could be placed; and it may
+perhaps be assumed that the compasses early used in the East were mostly
+too imperfect to be of much assistance to navigators, and were therefore
+often dispensed with on customary routes. The Arab traders in the Levant
+certainly used a floating compass, as did the Italians before the
+introduction of the pivoted needle; the magnetized piece of iron being
+floated upon a small raft of cork or reeds in a bowl of water. The
+Italian name of _calamita_, which still persists, for the magnet, and
+which literally signifies a frog, is doubtless derived from this
+practice.
+
+The simple water-compass is said to have been used by the Coreans so
+late as the middle of the 18th century; and Dr T. Smith, writing in the
+_Philosophical Transactions_ for 1683-1684, says of the Turks (p. 439),
+"They have no genius for Sea-voyages, and consequently are very raw and
+unexperienced in the art of Navigation, scarce venturing to sail out of
+sight of land. I speak of the natural _Turks_, who trade either into the
+_black Sea_ or some part of the _Morea_, or between _Constantinople_ and
+_Alexandria_, and not of the Pyrats of _Barbary_, who are for the most
+part Renegado's, and learnt their skill in Christendom. ... The Turkish
+compass consists but of 8 points, the four Cardinal and the four
+Collateral." That the value of the compass was thus, even in the latter
+part of the 17th century, so imperfectly recognized in the East may
+serve to explain how in earlier times that instrument, long after the
+first discovery of its properties, may have been generally neglected by
+navigators.
+
+The Arabic geographer, Edrisi, who lived about 1100, is said by Boucher
+to give an account, though in a confused manner, of the polarity of the
+magnet (Hallam, _Mid. Ages_, vol. iii. chap. 9, part 2); but the
+earliest definite mention as yet known of the use of the mariner's
+compass in the middle ages occurs in a treatise entitled _De
+utensilibus_, written by Alexander Neckam in the 12th century. He speaks
+there of a needle carried on board ship which, being placed on a pivot,
+and allowed to take its own position of repose, shows mariners their
+course when the polar star is hidden. In another work, _De naturis
+rerum_, lib. ii. c. 89, he writes,--"Mariners at sea, when, through
+cloudy weather in the day which hides the sun, or through the darkness
+of the night, they lose the knowledge of the quarter of the world to
+which they are sailing, touch a needle with the magnet, which will turn
+round till, on its motion ceasing, its point will be directed towards
+the north" (W. Chappell, _Nature_, No. 346, June 15, 1876). The
+magnetical needle, and its suspension on a stick or straw in water, are
+clearly described in _La Bible Guiot_, a poem probably of the 13th
+century, by Guiot de Provins, wherein we are told that through the
+magnet (_la manette_ or _l'amaničre_), an ugly brown stone to which iron
+turns of its own accord, mariners possess an art that cannot fail them.
+A needle touched by it, and floated by a stick on water, turns its point
+towards the pole-star, and a light being placed near the needle on dark
+nights, the proper course is known (_Hist. littéraire de la France_,
+tom. ix. p. 199; Barbazan, _Fabliaux_, tom. ii. p. 328). Cardinal
+Jacques de Vitry, bishop of Acon in Palestine, in his _History_ (cap.
+89), written about the year 1218, speaks of the magnetic needle as "most
+necessary for such as sail the sea";[1] and another French crusader, his
+contemporary, Vincent de Beauvais, states that the adamant (lodestone)
+is found in Arabia, and mentions a method of using a needle magnetized
+by it which is similar to that described by Kibdjaki. In 1248 Hugo de
+Bercy notes a change in the construction of compasses, which are now
+supported on two floats in a glass cup. From quotations given by Antonio
+Capmany (_Questiones Criticas_) from the _De contemplatione_ of Raimon
+Lull, of the date 1272, it appears that the latter was well acquainted
+with the use of the magnet at sea;[2] and before the middle of the 13th
+century Gauthier d'Espinois alludes to its polarity, as if generally
+known, in the lines:--
+
+  "Tous autresi comme l'aimant decoit [detourne]
+   L'aiguillette par force de vertu,
+   A ma dame tor le mont [monde] retenue
+   Qui sa beauté connoit et aperçoit."
+
+Guido Guinizzelli, a poet of the same period, writes:--"In those parts
+under the north are the mountains of lodestone, which give the virtue to
+the air of attracting iron; but because it [the lodestone] is far off,
+[it] wishes to have the help of a similar stone to make it [the virtue]
+work, and to direct the needle towards the star."[3] Brunetto Latini
+also makes reference to the compass in his encyclopaedia _Livres dou
+trésor_, composed about 1260 (Livre i. pt. ii. ch. cxx.):--"Por ce
+nagent li marinier ŕ l'enseigne des estoiles qui i sont, que il apelent
+tramontaines, et les gens qui sont en Europe et es parties decŕ nagent ŕ
+la tramontaine de septentrion, et li autre nagent ŕ cele de midi. Et qui
+n'en set la verité, praigne une pierre d'aimant, et troverez que ele a
+ij faces: l'une qui gist vers l'une tramontaine, et l'autre gist vers
+l'autre. Et ŕ chascune des ij faces la pointe d'une aguille vers cele
+tramontaine ŕ cui cele face gist. Et por ce seroient li marinier deceu
+se il ne se preissent garde" (p. 147, Paris edition, 1863). Dante
+(_Paradiso_, xii. 28-30) mentions the pointing of the magnetic needle
+toward the pole star. In Scandinavian records there is a reference to
+the nautical use of the magnet in the _Hauksbók_, the last edition of
+the _Landnámabók_ (Book of the Colonization of Iceland):--"Floki, son of
+Vilgerd, instituted a great sacrifice, and consecrated three ravens
+which should show him the way (to Iceland); for at that time no men
+sailing the high seas had lodestones up in northern lands."
+
+Haukr Erlendsson, who wrote this paragraph about 1300, died in 1334; his
+edition was founded on material in two earlier works, that of Styrmir
+Karason (who died 1245), which is lost, and that of Hurla Thordson (died
+1284) which has no such paragraph. All that is certain is a knowledge of
+the nautical use of the magnet at the end of the 13th century. From T.
+Torfaeus we learn that the compass, fitted into a box, was already in
+use among the Norwegians about the middle of the 13th century (_Hist.
+rer. Norvegicarum_, iv. c. 4, p. 345, Hafniae, 1711); and it is probable
+that the use of the magnet at sea was known in Scotland at or shortly
+subsequent to that time, though King Robert, in crossing from Arran to
+Carrick in 1306, as Barbour writing in 1375 informs us, "na nedill had
+na stane," but steered by a fire on the shore. Roger Bacon (_Opus majus_
+and _Opus minus_, 1266-1267) was acquainted with the properties of the
+lodestone, and wrote that if set so that it can turn freely (swimming on
+water) it points toward the poles; but he stated that this was not due
+to the pole-star, but to the influence of the northern region of the
+heavens.
+
+The earliest unquestionable description of a pivoted compass is that
+contained in the remarkable _Epistola de magnete_ of Petrus Peregrinus
+de Maricourt, written at Lucera in 1269 to Sigerus de Foncaucourt.
+(First printed edition Augsburg, 1558. See also Bertelli in
+Boncompagni's _Bollettino di bibliografia_, t. i., or S. P. Thompson in
+_Proc. British Academy_, vol. ii.) Of this work twenty-eight MSS. exist;
+seven of them being at Oxford. The first part of the epistle deals
+generally with magnetic attractions and repulsions, with the polarity of
+the stone, and with the supposed influence of the poles of the heavens
+upon the poles of the stone. In the second part Peregrinus describes
+first an improved floating compass with fiducial line, a circle
+graduated with 90 degrees to each quadrant, and provided with movable
+sights for taking bearings. He then describes a new compass with a
+needle thrust through a pivoted axis, placed in a box with transparent
+cover, cross index of brass or silver, divided circle, and an external
+"rule" or alhidade provided with a pair of sights. In the Leiden MS. of
+this work, which for long was erroneously ascribed to one Peter Adsiger,
+is a spurious passage, long believed to mention the variation of the
+compass.
+
+Prior to this clear description of a pivoted compass by Peregrinus in
+1269, the Italian sailors had used the floating magnet, probably
+introduced into this region of the Mediterranean by traders belonging to
+the port of Amalfi, as commemorated in the line of the poet Panormita:--
+
+  "Prima dedit nautis usum magnetis Amalphis."
+
+This opinion is supported by the historian Flavius Blondus in his
+_Italia illustrata_, written about 1450, who adds that its certain
+origin is unknown. In 1511 Baptista Pio in his _Commentary_ repeats the
+opinion as to the invention of the use of the magnet at Amalfi as
+related by Flavius. Gyraldus, writing in 1540 (_Libellus de re
+nautica_), misunderstanding this reference, declared that this
+observation of the direction of the magnet to the poles had been handed
+down as discovered "by a certain Flavius." From this passage arose a
+legend, which took shape only in the 17th century, that the compass was
+invented in the year 1302 by a person to whom was given the fictitious
+name of Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi.
+
+From the above it will have been evident that, as Barlowe remarks
+concerning the compass, "the lame tale of one Flavius at Amelphus, in
+the kingdome of Naples, for to have devised it, is of very slender
+probabilitie"; and as regards the assertion of Dr Gilbert, of Colchester
+(_De magnete_, p. 4, 1600), that Marco Polo introduced the compass into
+Italy from the East in 1260,[4] we need only quote the words of Sir H.
+Yule (_Book of Marco Polo_):--"Respecting the mariner's compass and
+gunpowder, I shall say nothing, as no one now, I believe, imagines Marco
+to have had anything to do with their introduction."
+
+When, and by whom, the compass card was added is a matter of conjecture.
+Certainly the _Rosa Ventorum_, or _Wind-rose_, is far older than the
+compass itself; and the naming of the eight principal "winds" goes back
+to the Temple of the Winds in Athens built by Andronicus Cyrrhestes. The
+earliest known wind-roses on the _portulani_ or sailing charts of the
+Mediterranean pilots have almost invariably the eight principal points
+marked with the initials of the principal winds, Tramontano, Greco,
+Levante, Scirocco, Ostro, Africo (or Libeccio), Ponente and Maestro, or
+with a cross instead of L, to mark the east point. The north point,
+indicated in some of the oldest compass cards with a broad arrow-head or
+a spear, as well as with a T for Tramontano, gradually developed by a
+combination of these, about 1492, into a _fleur de lis_, still
+universal. The cross at the east continued even in British compasses
+till about 1700. Wind-roses with these characteristics are found in
+Venetian and Genoese charts of early 14th century, and are depicted
+similarly by the Spanish navigators. The naming of the intermediate
+subdivisions making up the thirty-two points or rhumbs of the compass
+card is probably due to Flemish navigators; but they were recognized
+even in the time of Chaucer, who in 1391 wrote, "Now is thin Orisonte
+departed in xxiiii partiez by thi azymutz, in significacion of xxiiii
+partiez of the world: al be it so that ship men rikne thilke partiez in
+xxxii" (_Treatise on the Astrolabe_, ed. Skeat, Early English Text Soc.,
+London, 1872). The mounting of the card upon the needle or "flie," so as
+to turn with it, is probably of Amalphian origin. Da Buti, the Dante
+commentator, in 1380 says the sailors use a compass at the middle of
+which is pivoted a wheel of light paper to turn on its pivot, on which
+wheel the needle is fixed and the star (wind-rose) painted. The placing
+of the card at the bottom of the box, fixed, below the needle, was
+practised by the compass-makers of Nuremberg in the 16th century, and by
+Stevinus of Bruges about 1600. The gimbals or rings for suspension
+hinged at right-angles to one another, have been erroneously attributed
+to Cardan, the proper term being _cardine_, that is hinged or pivoted.
+The earliest description of them is about 1604. The term _binnacle_,
+originally _bittacle_, is a corruption of the Portuguese abitacolo, to
+denote the housing enclosing the compass, probably originating with the
+Portuguese navigators.
+
+The improvement of the compass has been but a slow process. _The Libel
+of English Policie_, a poem of the first half of the 15th century, says
+with reference to Iceland (chap. x.)--
+
+  "Out of Bristowe, and costes many one,
+   Men haue practised by nedle and by stone
+   Thider wardes within a litle while."
+
+     Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_, p. 201 (London, 1599).
+
+From this it would seem that the compasses used at that time by English
+mariners were of a very primitive description. Barlowe, in his treatise
+_Magnetical Advertisements_, printed in 1616 (p. 66), complains that
+"the Compasse needle, being the most admirable and usefull instrument of
+the whole world, is both amongst ours and other nations for the most
+part, so bungerly and absurdly contrived, as nothing more." The form he
+recommends for the needle is that of "a true circle, having his Axis
+going out beyond the circle, at each end narrow and narrower, unto a
+reasonable sharpe point, and being pure steele as the circle it selfe
+is, having in the middest a convenient receptacle to place the capitell
+in." In 1750 Dr Gowan Knight found that the needles of merchant-ships
+were made of two pieces of steel bent in the middle and united in the
+shape of a rhombus, and proposed to substitute straight steel bars of
+small breadth, suspended edgewise and hardened throughout. He also
+showed that the Chinese mode of suspending the needle conduces most to
+sensibility. In 1820 Peter Barlow reported to the Admiralty that half
+the compasses in the British Navy were mere lumber and ought to be
+destroyed. He introduced a pattern having four or five parallel straight
+strips of magnetized steel fixed under a card, a form which remained the
+standard admiralty type until the introduction of the modern Thomson
+(Kelvin) compass in 1876.     (F. H. B.; S. P. T.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Adamas in India reperitur ... Ferrum occulta quadam natura ad se
+    trahit. Acus ferrea postquam adamantem contigerit, ad stellam
+    septentrionalem ... semper convertitur, unde valde necessarius est
+    navigantibus in mari.
+
+  [2] Sicut acus per naturam vertitur ad septentrionem dum sit tacta a
+    magnete.--Sicut acus nautica dirigit marinarios in sua navigatione.
+
+  [3] Ginguené, _Hist. lit. de l'Italie_, t. i. p. 413.
+
+  [4] "According to all the texts he returned to Venice in 1295 or, as
+    is more probable, in 1296."--Yule.
+
+
+
+
+COMPASS PLANT, a native of the North American prairies, which takes its
+name from the position assumed by the leaves. These turn their edges to
+north and south, thus avoiding the excessive mid-day heat, while getting
+the full benefit of the morning and evening rays. The plant is known
+botanically as _Silphium laciniatum_, and belongs to the natural order
+Compositae. Another member of the same order, _Lactuca Scariola_, which
+has been regarded as the origin of the cultivated lettuce (_L. sativa_),
+behaves in the same way when growing in dry exposed places; it is a
+native of Europe and northern Asia which has got introduced into North
+America.
+
+
+
+
+COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL (1843-   ), French educationalist, was born at
+Albi. He entered the École Normale Supérieure in 1862 and became
+professor of philosophy. In 1876 he was appointed professor in the
+Faculty of Letters of Toulouse, and upon the creation of the École
+normale d'institutrices at Fontenay aux Roses he became teacher of
+pedagogy (1880). From 1881 to 1889 he was deputy for Lavaur in the
+chamber, and took an active part in the discussions on public education.
+Defeated at the elections of 1889, he was appointed rector of the
+academy of Poitiers in 1890, and five years later to the academy of
+Lyons. His principal publications are his _Histoire critique des
+doctrines de l'éducation en France_ (1879); _Éléments d'éducation
+civique_ (1881), a work placed on the index at Rome, but very widely
+read in the primary schools of France; _Cours de pédagogie théorique et
+pratique_ (1885, 13th ed., 1897); _The Intellectual and Moral
+Development of the Child_, in English (2 vols., New York, 1896-1902);
+and a series of monographs on _Les Grands Éducateurs_.
+
+
+
+
+COMPENSATION (from Lat. _compensare_, to weigh one thing against
+another), a term applied in English law to a number of different forms
+of legal reparation; e.g. under the Forfeiture Act 1870 (s. 4), for loss
+of property caused by felony, or--under the Riot (Damages) Act 1886--to
+persons whose property has been stolen, destroyed or injured by rioters
+(see RIOT). It is due, under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1906,
+for agricultural improvements (see LANDLORD AND TENANT; cf. also
+Allotments and Small Holdings), and under the Workmen's Compensation Act
+1906 to workmen, in respect of accidents in the course of their
+employment (see EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY); and under the Licensing Act 1904,
+to the payments to be made on the extinction of licences to sell
+intoxicants. The term "Compensation water" is used to describe the
+water given from a reservoir in compensation for water abstracted from a
+stream, under statutory powers, in connexion with public works (see
+WATER SUPPLY). As to the use of the word "compensation" in horology, see
+CLOCK; WATCH.
+
+Compensation, in its most familiar sense, is however a _nomen juris_ for
+the reparation or satisfaction made to the owners of property which is
+taken by the state or by local authorities or by the promoters of
+parliamentary undertakings, under statutory authority, for public
+purposes. There are two main legal theories on which such appropriation
+of private property is justified. The American may be taken as a
+representative illustration of the one, and the English of the other.
+Though not included in the definition of "eminent domain," the necessity
+for compensation is recognized as incidental to that power. (See Eminent
+Domain, under which the American law of compensation, and the closely
+allied doctrine of _expropriation pour cause d'utilité_ publique of
+French law, and the law of other continental countries, are discussed.)
+The rule of English constitutional law, on the other hand, is that the
+property of the citizen cannot be seized for purposes which are really
+"public" without a fair pecuniary equivalent being given to him; and, as
+the money for such compensation must come from parliament, the practical
+result is that the seizure can only be effected under legislative
+authority. An action for illegal interference with the property of the
+subject is not maintainable against officials of the crown or government
+sued in their official capacity or as an official body. But crown
+officials may be sued in their individual capacity for such
+interference, even if they acted with the authority of the government
+(cp. _Raleigh_ v. _Goschen_ [1898], 1 Ch. 73).
+
+_Law of England._--Down to 1845 every act authorizing the purchase of
+lands had, in addition to a number of common form clauses, a variety of
+special clauses framed with a view to meeting the particular
+circumstances with which it dealt. In 1845, however, a statute based on
+the recommendations of a select committee, appointed in the preceding
+year, was passed; the object being to diminish the bulk of the special
+acts, and to introduce uniformity into private bill legislation by
+classifying the common form clauses, embodying them in general statutes,
+and facilitating their incorporation into the special statutes by
+reference. The statute by which this change was initiated was the Lands
+Clauses Consolidation Act 1845; and the policy has been continued by a
+series of later statutes which, together with the act of 1845, are now
+grouped under the generic title of the Lands Clauses Acts.
+
+The public purposes for which lands are taken are threefold. Certain
+public departments, such as the war office and the admiralty, may
+acquire lands for national purposes (see the Defence Acts 1842 to 1873;
+and the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1860, s. 7). Local authorities
+are enabled to exercise similar powers for an enormous variety of
+municipal purposes, e.g. the housing of the working classes, the
+improvement of towns, and elementary and secondary education. Lastly,
+the promoters of public undertakings of a commercial character, such as
+railways and harbours, carry on their operations under statutes in which
+the provisions of the Lands Clauses Acts are incorporated.
+
+Lands may be taken under the Lands Clauses Acts either by agreement or
+compulsorily. The first step in the proceedings is a "notice to treat,"
+or intimation by the promoters of their readiness to purchase the land,
+coupled with a demand for particulars as to the estate and the interests
+in it. The landowner on whom the notice is served may meet it by
+agreeing to sell, and the terms may then be settled by consent of the
+parties themselves, or by arbitration, if they decide to have recourse
+to that mode of adjusting the difficulty. If the property claimed is a
+house, or other building or manufactory, the owner has a statutory right
+to require the promoters by a counternotice to take the whole, even
+although a part would serve their purpose. This rule, however, is, in
+modern acts, often modified by special clauses. On receipt of the
+counter-notice the promoters must either assent to the requirement
+contained in it, or abandon their notice to treat. On the other hand,
+if the landowner fails within twenty-one days after receipt of the
+notice to treat to give the particulars which it requires, the promoters
+may proceed to exercise their compulsory powers and to obtain assessment
+of the compensation to be paid. As a general rule, it is a condition
+precedent to the exercise of these powers by a company that the capital
+of the undertaking should be fully subscribed. Compensation, under the
+Lands Clauses Acts, is assessed in four different modes:--(1) by
+justices, where the claim does not exceed Ł50, or a claimant who has no
+greater interest than that of a tenant for a year, or from year to year,
+is required to give up possession before the expiration of his tenancy;
+(2) by arbitration (a) when the claim exceeds Ł50, and the claimant
+desires arbitration, and the interest is not a yearly tenancy, (b) when
+the amount has been ascertained by a surveyor, and the claimant is
+dissatisfied, (c) when superfluous lands are to be sold, and the parties
+entitled to pre-emption and the promoters cannot agree as to the price.
+(Lands become "superfluous" if taken compulsorily on an erroneous
+estimate of the area needed, or if part only was needed and the owner
+compelled the promoters under the power above mentioned to take the
+whole, or in cases of abandonment); (3) by a jury, when the claim
+exceeds Ł50, and (a) the claimant does not signify his desire for
+arbitration, or no award has been made within the prescribed time, or
+(b) the claimant applies in writing for trial by jury; (4) by surveyors,
+nominated by justices, where the owner is under disability, or does not
+appear at the appointed time, or the claim is in respect of commonable
+rights, and a committee has not been appointed to treat with the
+promoters.
+
+Promoters are not allowed without the consent of the owner to enter upon
+lands which are the subject of proceedings under the Lands Clauses Acts,
+except for the purpose of making a survey, unless they have executed a
+statutory bond and made a deposit, at the Law Courts Branch of the Bank
+of England, as security for the performance of the conditions of the
+bond.
+
+_Measure of Value._--(1) Where land is taken, the basis on which
+compensation is assessed is the commercial value of the land to the
+owner at the date of the notice to treat. Potential value may be taken
+into account, and also good-will of the property in a business. This
+rule, however, excludes any consideration of the principle of
+"betterment." (2) Where land, although not taken, is "injuriously
+affected" by the works of the promoters, compensation is payable for
+loss or damage resulting from any act, legalized by the promoters'
+statutory powers, which would otherwise have been actionable, or caused
+by the execution (not the use) of the works authorized by the
+undertaking.
+
+The following examples of how land may be "injuriously affected," so as
+to give a right to compensation under the acts, may be given:--narrowing
+or obstructing a highway which is the nearest access to the lands in
+question; interference with a right of way; substantial interference
+with ancient lights; noise of children outside a board school.
+
+_Scotland and Ireland._--The Lands Clauses Act 1845 extends to Ireland.
+There is a Scots enactment similar in character (Lands Clauses
+[Scotland] Act 1845). The principles and practice of the law of
+compensation are substantially the same throughout the United Kingdom.
+
+_India and the British Colonies._--Legislation analogous to the Lands
+Clauses Acts is in force in India (Land Acquisition Act 1894 [Act I of
+1894]) and in most of the colonies (see western Australia, Lands
+Resumption Act 1894 [58 Vict. No. 33], Victoria, Lands Compensation Act
+1890 [54 Vict. No. 1109]; New Zealand, Public Works Act 1894 [58 Vict.
+No. 42]; Ontario [Revised Stats. 1897, c. 37]).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_English Law_: Balfour Browne and Allan, _Compensation_
+  (2nd ed., London, 1903); Cripps, _Compensation_ (5th edition, London,
+  1905); Hudson, _Compensation_ (London, 1906); Boyle and Waghorn,
+  _Compensation_ (London, 1903); Lloyd, _Compensation_ (6th ed. by
+  Brooks, London, 1895); Clifford, _Private Bill Legislation_, London,
+  1885 (vol. i.), 1887 (vol. ii.) _Scots Law_: Deas, _Law of Railways in
+  Scotland_ (ed. by Ferguson; Edinburgh, 1897); Rankine, _Law of
+  Landownership_ (3rd ed., 1891).     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+COMPIČGNE, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Oise, 52 m. N.N.E. of Paris on the Northern railway
+between Paris and St Quentin. Pop. (1906) 14,052. The town, which is a
+favourite summer resort, stands on the north-west border of the forest
+of Compičgne and on the left bank of the Oise, less than 1 m. below its
+confluence with the Aisne. The river is crossed by a bridge built in the
+reign of Louis XV. The Rue Solférino, a continuation of the bridge
+ending at the Place de l'Hôtel de Ville, is the busy street of the town;
+elsewhere, except on market days, the streets are quiet. The hôtel de
+ville, with a graceful façade surmounted by a lofty belfry, is in the
+late Gothic style of the early 16th century and was completed in modern
+times. Of the churches, St Antoine (13th and 16th centuries) with some
+fine Renaissance stained glass, and St Jacques (13th and 15th
+centuries), need alone be mentioned. The remains of the ancient abbey of
+St Corneille are used as a military storehouse. Compičgne, from a very
+early period until 1870, was the occasional residence of the French
+kings. Its palace, one of the most magnificent structures of its kind,
+was erected, chiefly by Louis XV. and Louis XVI., on the site of a
+château of King Charles V. of France. It now serves as an art museum. It
+has two façades, one overlooking the Place du Palais and the town, the
+other, more imposing, facing towards a fine park and the forest, which
+is chiefly of oak and beech and covers over 36,000 acres. Compičgne is
+the seat of a subprefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, a communal college, library and hospital. The industries
+comprise boat-building, rope-making, steam-sawing, distilling and the
+manufacture of chocolate, machinery and sacks and coarse coverings, and
+at Margny, a suburb, there are manufactures of chemicals and felt hats.
+Asparagus is cultivated in the environs. There is considerable trade in
+timber and coal, chiefly river-borne.
+
+Compičgne, or as it is called in the Latin chronicles, Compendium, seems
+originally to have been a hunting-lodge of the early Frankish kings. It
+was enriched by Charles the Bald with two castles, and a Benedictine
+abbey dedicated to Saint Corneille, the monks of which retained down to
+the 18th century the privilege of acting for three days as lords of
+Compičgne, with full power to release prisoners, condemn the guilty, and
+even inflict sentence of death. It was in Compičgne that King Louis I.
+the Debonair was deposed in 833; and at the siege of the town in 1430
+Joan of Arc was taken prisoner by the English. A monument to her faces
+the hôtel de ville. In 1624 the town gave its name to a treaty of
+alliance concluded by Richelieu with the Dutch; and it was in the palace
+that Louis XV. gave welcome to Marie Antoinette, that Napoleon I.
+received Marie Louise of Austria, that Louis XVIII. entertained the
+emperor Alexander of Russia, and that Leopold I., king of the Belgians,
+was married to the princess Louise. In 1814 Compičgne offered a stubborn
+resistance to the Prussian troops. Under Napoleon III. it was the annual
+resort of the court during the hunting season. From 1870 to 1871 it was
+one of the headquarters of the German army.
+
+
+
+
+COMPLEMENT (Lat. _complementum_, from _complere_, to fill up), that
+which fills up or completes anything, e.g. the number of men necessary
+to man a ship. In geometry, the complement of an angle is the difference
+between the angle and a right angle; the complements of a parallelogram
+are formed by drawing parallel to adjacent sides of a parallelogram two
+lines intersecting on a diagonal; four parallelograms are thus formed,
+and the two not about the diagonal of the original parallelogram are the
+complements of the parallelogram. In analysis, a complementary function
+is a partial solution to a differential equation (q.v.); complementary
+operators are reciprocal or inverse operators, i.e. two operations A and
+B are complementary when both operating on the same figure or function
+leave it unchanged. A "complementary colour" is one which produces white
+when mixed with another (see COLOUR). In Spanish the word _cumplimento_
+was used in a particular sense of the fulfilment of the duties of polite
+behaviour and courtesy, and it came through the French and Italian forms
+into use in English, with a change in spelling to "compliment," with the
+sense of an act of politeness, especially of a polite expression of
+praise, or of social regard and greetings. The word "comply," meaning
+to act in accordance with wishes, orders or conditions, is also derived
+from the same origin, but in sense is connected with "ply" or "pliant,"
+from Lat. _plicare_, to bend, with the idea of subserviently yielding to
+the wishes of another.
+
+
+
+
+COMPLUVIUM (from Lat. _compluere_, to flow together, i.e. in reference
+to the rain being collected and falling through), in architecture, the
+Latin term for the open space left in the roof of the atrium of a Roman
+house for lighting it and the rooms round (see CAVAEDIUM).
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITAE, the name given to the largest natural order of flowering
+plants, containing about one-tenth of the whole number and characterized
+by the crowding of the flowers into heads. The order is cosmopolitan,
+and the plants show considerable variety in habit. The great majority,
+including most British representatives, are herbaceous, but in the
+warmer parts of the world shrubs and arborescent forms also occur; the
+latter are characteristic of the flora of oceanic islands. In herbaceous
+plants the leaves are often arranged in a rosette on a much shortened
+stem, as in dandelion, daisy and others; when the stem is elongated the
+leaves are generally alternate. The root is generally thickened,
+sometimes, as in dahlia, tuberous; root and stem contain oil passages,
+or, as in lettuce and dandelion, a milky white latex. The flowers are
+crowded in heads (_capitula_) which are surrounded by an involucre of
+green bracts,--these protect the head of flowers in the bud stage,
+performing the usual function of a calyx. The enlarged top of the axis,
+the receptacle, is flat, convex or conical, and the flowers open in
+centripetal succession. In many cases, as in the sunflower or daisy, the
+outer or ray-florets are larger and more conspicuous than the inner, or
+disk-florets; in other cases, as in dandelion, the florets are all
+alike. Ray-florets when present are usually pistillate, but neuter in
+some genera (as _Centaurea_); the disk-florets are hermaphrodite. The
+flower is epigynous; the calyx is sometimes absent, or is represented by
+a rim on the top of the ovary, or takes the form of hairs or bristles
+which enlarge in the fruiting stage to form the pappus by means of which
+the seed is dispersed. The corolla, of five united petals, is regular
+and tubular in shape as in the disk-florets, or irregular when it is
+either strap-shaped (ligulate), as in the ray-florets of daisy, &c., or
+all the florets of dandelion, or more rarely two-lipped. The five
+stamens are attached to the interior of the corolla-tube; the filaments
+are free; the anthers are joined (syngenesious) to form a tube round the
+single style, which ends in a pair of stigmas. The inferior ovary
+contains one ovule (attached to the base of the chamber), and ripens to
+form a dry one-seeded fruit; the seed is filled with the straight
+embryo.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+
+  1. Flower head of Marigold.      3. Head of fruits, nat. size.
+  2. Same in vertical section.     4. A single fruit.]
+
+The flower-heads are an admirable example of an adaptation for
+pollination by aid of insects. The crowding of the flowers in heads
+ensures the pollination of a large number as the result of a single
+insect visit. Honey is secreted at the base of the style, and is
+protected from rain or dew and the visits of short-lipped insects by the
+corolla-tube, the length of which is correlated with the length of
+proboscis of the visiting insect. When the flower opens, the two stigmas
+are pressed together below the tube formed by the anthers, the latter
+split on the inside, and the pollen fills the tube; the style gradually
+lengthens and carries the pollen out of the anther tube, and finally the
+stigmas spread and expose their receptive surface which has hitherto
+been hidden, the two being pressed together. Thus the life history of
+the flower falls into two stages, an earlier or male and a later or
+female. This favours cross-pollination as compared with
+self-pollination. In many cases there is a third stage, as in dandelion,
+where the stigmas finally curl back so that they touch any pollen grains
+which have been left on the style, thus ensuring self-pollination if
+cross-pollination has not been effected.
+
+The devices for distribution of the fruit are very varied. Frequently
+there is a hairy or silky pappus forming a tuft of hairs, as in thistle
+or coltsfoot, or a parachute-like structure as in dandelion; these
+render the fruit sufficiently light to be carried by the wind. In
+_Bidens_ the pappus consists of two or more stiff-barbed bristles which
+cause the fruit to cling to the coats of animals. Occasionally, as in
+sunflower or daisy, the fruits bear no special appendage and remain on
+the head until jerked off.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Flowering shoot of Cornflower. 1. Disk-floret in
+vertical section.]
+
+Compositae are generally considered to represent the most highly
+developed order of flowering plants. By the massing of the flowers in
+heads great economy is effected in the material required for one flower,
+as conspicuousness is ensured by the association; economy of time on the
+part of the pollinating insect is also effected, as a large number of
+flowers are visited at one time. The floral mechanism is both simple and
+effective, favouring cross-pollination, but ensuring self-pollination
+should that fail. The means of seed-distribution are also very
+effective.
+
+A few members of the order are of economic value, e.g. _Lactuca_
+(lettuce; q.v.), _Cichorium_ (chicory; q.v.), _Cynara_ (artichoke and
+cardoon; q.v.), _Helianthus_ (Jerusalem artichoke). Many are cultivated
+as garden or greenhouse plants, such as _Solidago_ (golden rod),
+_Ageratum_, Aster (q.v.) (Michaelmas daisy), _Helichrysum_
+(everlasting), _Zinnia, Rudbeckia, Helianthus_ (sunflower), _Coreopsis_,
+Dahlia (q.v.), _Tagetes_ (French and African marigold), _Gaillardia,
+Achillea_ (yarrow), _Chrysanthemum, Pyrethrum_ (feverfew; now generally
+included under _Chrysanthemum_), _Tanacetum_ (tansy), _Arnica,
+Doronicum, Cineraria Calendula_ (common marigold) (fig. 1), _Echinops_
+(globe thistle), _Centaurea_ (cornflower) (fig. 2). Some are of
+medicinal value, such as _Anthemis_ (chamomile), _Artemisia_ (wormwood),
+_Tussilago_ (coltsfoot), _Arnica_. Insect powder is prepared from
+species of _Pyrethrum_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_).
+
+  1. Disk-floret.               3. Ray-floret.
+  2. Same cut vertically.       4. Fruit with pappus.]
+
+The order is divided into two suborders:--_Tubuliflorae_, characterized
+by absence of latex, and the florets of the disk being not ligulate, and
+_Liguliflorae_, characterized by presence of latex and all the florets
+being ligulate. The first suborder contains the majority of the genera,
+and is divided into a number of tribes, characterized by the form of the
+anthers and styles, the presence or absence of scales on the receptacle,
+and the similarity or otherwise of the florets of one and the same head.
+The order is well represented in Britain, in which forty-two genera are
+native. These include some of the commonest weeds, such as dandelion
+(_Taraxacum Dens-leonis_), daisy (_Bellis perennis_), groundsel (fig. 3)
+(_Senecio vulgaris_) and ragwort (_S. Jacobaea_); coltsfoot (_Tussilago
+Farfara_) is one of the earliest plants to flower, and other genera are
+_Chrysanthemum_ (ox-eye daisy and corn-marigold), _Arctium_ (burdock),
+_Centaurea_ (knapweed and cornflower), _Carduus_ and _Cnicus_
+(thistles), _Hieracium_ (hawkweed), _Sonchus_ (sow-thistle), _Achillea_
+(yarrow, or milfoil, and sneezewort), _Eupatorium_ (hemp-agrimony),
+_Gnaphalium_ (cudweed), _Erigeron_ (fleabane), _Solidago_ (golden-rod),
+_Anthemis_ (may-weed and chamomile), _Cichorium_ (chicory), _Lapsana_
+(nipplewort), _Crepis_ (hawk's-beard), _Hypochaeris_ (cat's-ear), and
+_Tragopogon_ (goat's-beard).
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITE ORDER, in architecture, a compound of the Ionic and Corinthian
+orders (see ORDER), the chief characteristic of which is found in the
+capital (q.v.), where a double row of acanthus leaves, similar to those
+carved round the Corinthian capital, has been added under the Ionic
+volutes. The richer decoration of the Ionic capital had already been
+employed in those of the Erechtheum, where the necking was carved with
+the palmette or honeysuckle. Similar decorated Ionic capitals were found
+in the forum of Trajan. The earliest example of the Composite capital is
+found in the arch of Titus at Rome. The entablature was borrowed from
+that of the Corinthian order.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITION (Lat. _compositio_, from _componere_, to put together), the
+action of putting together and combining, and the product of such
+action. There are many applications of the word. In philology it is used
+of the putting together of two distinct words to form a single word; and
+in grammar, of the combination of words into sentences, and sentences
+into periods, and then applied to the result of such combination, and to
+the art of producing a work in prose or verse, or to the work itself. In
+music "composition" is used both of the art of combining musical sounds
+in accordance with the rules of musical form, and, more generally, of
+the whole art of creation or invention. The name "composer" is thus
+particularly applied to the musical creator in general. In the other
+fine arts the word is more strictly used of the balanced arrangement of
+the parts of a picture, of a piece of sculpture or a building, so that
+they should form one harmonious whole. The word also means an agreement
+or an adjustment of differences between two or more parties, and is thus
+the best general term to describe the agreement, often called by the
+equivalent German word "Ausgleich," between Austria and Hungary in 1867.
+A more particular use is the legal one, for an agreement by which a
+creditor agrees to take from his debtor a sum less than his debt in
+satisfaction of the whole (see BANKRUPTCY). In logic "composition" is
+the name given to a fallacy of equivocation, where what is true
+distributively of each member of a class is inferred to be true of the
+whole class collectively. The fallacy of "division" is the converse of
+this, where what is true of a term used collectively is inferred to be
+true of its several parts. A common source of these errors in reasoning
+is the confusion between the collective and distributive meanings of the
+word "all." Composition, often shortened to "compo," is the name given
+to many materials compounded of more than one substance, and is used in
+various trades and manufactures, as in building, for a mixture, such as
+stucco, cement and plaster, for covering walls, &c., often made to
+represent stone or marble; a similar moulded compound is employed to
+represent carved wood.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOUND (from Lat. _componere_, to combine or put together), a
+combination of various elements, substances or ingredients, so as to
+form one composite whole. A "chemical compound" is a substance which can
+be resolved into simple constituents, as opposed to an element which
+cannot be so resolved (see CHEMISTRY); a word is said to be a "compound"
+when it is made up of different words or parts of different words. The
+term is also used in an adjectival form with many applications; a
+"compound engine" is one where the expansion of the steam is effected in
+two or more stages (see STEAM-ENGINE); in zoology, the "compound eye"
+possessed by insects and crustacea is one which is made up of several
+_ocelli_ or simple eyes, set together so that the whole has the
+appearance of being faceted (see EYE); in botany, the "compound leaf"
+has two or more separate blades on a common leaf-stalk; in surgery, in a
+"compound fracture" the skin is broken as well as the bone, and there is
+a communication between the two. There are many mathematical and
+arithmetical uses of the term, particularly of those forms of addition,
+multiplication, division and subtraction which deal with quantities of
+more than one denomination. Compound interest is interest paid upon
+interest, the accumulation of interest forming, as it were, a secondary
+principal. The verb "to compound" is used of the arrangement or
+settlement of differences, and especially of an agreement made to accept
+or to pay part of a debt in full discharge of the whole, and thus of the
+arrangement made by an insolvent debtor with his creditors (see
+BANKRUPTCY); similarly of the substitution of one payment for annual or
+other periodic payments,--thus subscriptions, university or other dues,
+&c., may be "compounded"; a particular instance of this is the system of
+"compounding" for rates, where the occupier of premises pays an
+increased rent, and the owner makes himself responsible for the payment
+of the rates. The householder who thus compounds with the owner of the
+premises he occupies is known as a "compound householder." The payment
+of poor rate forming part of the qualification necessary for the
+parliamentary franchise in the United Kingdom, various statutes, leading
+up to the Compound Householders Act 1851, have enabled such occupiers to
+claim to be placed on the rate. In law, to compound a felony is to agree
+with the felon not to prosecute him for his crime, in return for
+valuable consideration, or, in the case of a theft, on return of the
+goods stolen. Such an agreement is a misdemeanour and is punishable with
+fine and imprisonment.
+
+The name "compounders" was given during the reign of William III. of
+England to the members of a Jacobite faction, who were prepared to
+restore James II. to the throne, on the condition of an amnesty and an
+undertaking to preserve the constitution. Until 1853, in the university
+of Oxford, those possessing private incomes of a certain amount paid
+special dues for their degrees, and were known as Grand and Petty
+Compounders.
+
+The corruption "compound" (from the Malay _kampung_ or _kampong_, a
+quarter of a village) is the name applied to the enclosed ground,
+whether garden or waste, which surrounds an Anglo-Indian house. In India
+the European quarter, as a rule, is separate from the native quarter,
+and consists of a number of single houses, each standing in a compound,
+sometimes many acres in extent.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOUND PIER, the architectural term given to a clustered column or
+pier which consists of a centre mass or newel, to which engaged or
+semi-detached shafts have been attached, in order to perform, or to
+suggest the performance of, certain definite structural objects, such as
+to carry arches of additional orders, or to support the transverse or
+diagonal ribs of a vault, or the tie beam of an important roof. In these
+cases, though performing different functions, the drums of the pier are
+often cut out of one stone. There are, however, cases where the shafts
+are detached from the pier and coupled to it by armulets at regular
+heights, as in the Early English period.
+
+
+
+
+COMPRADOR (a Portuguese word used in the East, derived from the Lat.
+_comparare_, to procure), originally a native servant in European
+households in the East, but now the name given to the native managers in
+European business houses in China, and also to native contractors
+supplying ships in the Philippines and elsewhere in the East.
+
+
+
+
+COMPRESSION, in astronomy, the deviation of a heavenly body from the
+spherical form, called also the "ellipticity." It is numerically
+expressed by the ratio of the differences of the axes to the major axis
+of the spheroid. The compression or "flattening" of the earth is about
+1/298, which means that the ratio of the equatorial to the polar axis is
+298:297 (see Earth, Figure of the). In engineering the term is applied
+to the arrangement by which the exhaust valve of a steam-engine is made
+to close, shutting a portion of the exhaust steam in the cylinder,
+before the stroke of the piston is quite complete. This steam being
+compressed as the stroke is completed, a cushion is formed against which
+the piston does work while its velocity is being rapidly reduced, and
+thus the stresses in the mechanism due to the inertia of the
+reciprocating parts are lessened. This compression, moreover, obviates
+the shock which would otherwise be caused by the admission of the fresh
+steam for the return stroke. In internal combustion engines it is a
+necessary condition of economy to compress the explosive mixture before
+it is ignited: in the Otto cycle, for instance, the second stroke of the
+piston effects the compression of the charge which has been drawn into
+the cylinder by the first forward stroke.
+
+
+
+
+COMPROMISE (pronounced _cómpr[)o]mize_; through Fr. from Lat.
+_compromittere_), a term, meaning strictly a joint agreement, which has
+come to signify such a settlement as involves a mutual adjustment, with
+a surrender of part of each party's claim. From the element of danger
+involved has arisen an invidious sense of the word, imputing discredit,
+so that being "compromised" commonly means injured in reputation.
+
+
+
+
+COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850, in American history, a series of measures
+the object of which was the settlement of five questions in dispute
+between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the United States.
+Three of these questions grew out of the annexation of Texas and the
+acquisition of western territory as a result of the Mexican War. The
+settlers who had flocked to California after the discovery of gold in
+1848 adopted an anti-slavery state constitution on the 13th of October
+1849, and applied for admission into the Union. In the second place it
+was necessary to form a territorial government for the remainder of the
+territory acquired from Mexico, including that now occupied by Nevada
+and Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. The
+fundamental issue was in regard to the admission of slavery into, or the
+exclusion of slavery from, this region. Thirdly, there was a dispute
+over the western boundary of Texas. Should the Rio Grande be the line of
+division north of Mexico, or should an arbitrary boundary be established
+farther to the eastward; in other words, should a considerable part of
+the new territory be certainly opened to slavery as a part of Texas, or
+possibly closed to it as a part of the organized territorial section?
+Underlying all of these issues was of course the great moral and
+political problem as to whether slavery was to be confined to the
+south-eastern section of the country or be permitted to spread to the
+Pacific. The two questions not growing out of the Mexican War were in
+regard to the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia,
+and the passage of a new fugitive slave law.
+
+Congress met on the 3rd of December 1849. Neither faction was strong
+enough in both houses to carry out its own programme, and it seemed for
+a time that nothing would be done. On the 29th of January 1850 Henry
+Clay presented the famous resolution which constituted the basis of the
+ultimate compromise. His idea was to combine the more conservative
+elements of both sections in favour of a settlement which would concede
+the Southern view on two questions, the Northern view on two, and
+balance the fifth. Daniel Webster supported the plan in his great speech
+of the 7th of March, although in doing so he alienated many of his
+former admirers. Opposed to the conservatives were the extremists of the
+North, led by William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase, and those of the
+South, led by Jefferson Davis. Most of the measures were rejected and
+the whole plan seemed likely to fail, when the situation was changed by
+the death of President Taylor and the accession of Millard Fillmore on
+the 9th of July 1850. The influence of the administration was now thrown
+in favour of the compromise. Under a tacit understanding of the
+moderates to vote together, five separate bills were passed, and were
+signed by the president between 9th and 20th September 1850. California
+was admitted as a free state, and the slave trade was abolished in the
+District of Columbia; these were concessions to the North. New Mexico
+(then including the present Arizona) and Utah were organized without any
+prohibition of slavery (each being left free to decide for or against,
+on admission to statehood), and a rigid fugitive slave law was enacted;
+these were concessions to the South. Texas (q.v.) was compelled to give
+up much of the western land to which it had a good claim, and received
+in return $10,000,000.
+
+This legislation had several important results. It helped to postpone
+secession and Civil War for a decade, during which time the North-West
+was growing more wealthy and more populous, and was being brought into
+closer relations with the North-East. It divided the Whigs into "Cotton
+Whigs" and "Conscience Whigs," and in time led to the downfall of the
+party. In the third place, the rejection of the Wilmot Proviso and the
+acceptance (as regards New Mexico and Utah) of "Squatter Sovereignty"
+meant the adoption of a new principle in dealing with slavery in the
+territories, which, although it did not apply to the same territory, was
+antagonistic to the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The sequel was the
+repeal of the Missouri Compromise in the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854.
+Fourthly, the enforcement of the fugitive slave law aroused a feeling of
+bitterness in the North which helped eventually to bring on the war, and
+helped to make it, when it came, quite as much an anti-slavery crusade
+as a struggle for the preservation of the Union. Finally, although Clay
+for his support of the compromises and Seward and Chase for their
+opposition have gained in reputation, Webster has been selected as the
+special target for hostile criticism. The Compromise Measures are
+sometimes spoken of collectively as the Omnibus Bill, owing to their
+having been grouped originally--when first reported (May 8) to the
+Senate--into one bill.
+
+  The best account of the above Compromises is to be found in J. F.
+  Rhodes, _History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850_,
+  vol. i. (New York, 1896).     (W. R. S.*)
+
+
+
+
+COMPSA (mod. _Conza_), an ancient city of the Hirpini, near the sources
+of the Aufidus, on the boundary of Lucania and not far from that of
+Apulia, on a ridge 1998 ft. above sea-level. It was betrayed to Hannibal
+in 216 B.C. after the defeat of Cannae, but recaptured two years later.
+It was probably occupied by Sulla in 89 B.C., and was the scene of the
+death of T. Annius Milo in 48 B.C. Most authorities (cf. Hülsen in
+Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, Stuttgart, 1901, iv. 797) refer Caes.
+_Bell. civ._ iii. 22, and Plin. _Hist. Nat._ ii. 147, to this place,
+supposing the MSS. to be corrupt. The usual identification of the site
+of Milo's death with Cassano on the Gulf of Taranto must therefore be
+rejected. In imperial times, as inscriptions show, it was a
+_municipium_, but it lay far from any of the main high-roads. There are
+no important ancient remains.
+
+
+
+
+COMPTON, HENRY (1632-1713), English divine, was the sixth and youngest
+son of the second earl of Northampton. He was educated at Queen's
+College, Oxford, and then travelled in Europe. After the restoration of
+Charles II. he became cornet in a regiment of horse, but soon quitted
+the army for the church. After a further period of study at Cambridge
+and again at Oxford, he held various livings. He was made bishop of
+Oxford in 1674, and in the following year was translated to the see of
+London. He was also appointed a member of the Privy Council, and
+entrusted with the education of the two princesses--Mary and Anne. He
+showed a liberality most unusual at the time to Protestant dissenters,
+whom he wished to reunite with the established church. He held several
+conferences on the subject with the clergy of his diocese; and in the
+hope of influencing candid minds by means of the opinions of unbiassed
+foreigners, he obtained letters treating of the question (since printed
+at the end of Stillingfleet's _Unreasonableness of Separation_) from Le
+Moyne; professor of divinity at Leiden, and the famous French Protestant
+divine, Jean Claude. But to Roman Catholicism he was strongly opposed.
+On the accession of James II. he consequently lost his seat in the
+council and his deanery in the Chapel Royal; and for his firmness in
+refusing to suspend John Sharp, rector of St Giles's-in-the-Fields,
+whose anti-papal writings had rendered him obnoxious to the king, he was
+himself suspended. At the Revolution Compton embraced the cause of
+William and Mary; he performed the ceremony of their coronation; his old
+position was restored to him; and among other appointments, he was
+chosen as one of the commissioners for revising the liturgy. During the
+reign of Anne he remained a member of the privy council, and was one of
+the commissioners appointed to arrange the terms of the union of England
+and Scotland; but, to his bitter disappointment, his claims to the
+primacy were twice passed over. He died at Fulham on the 7th of July
+1713. He had conspicuous defects both in spirit and intellect, but was
+benevolent and philanthropic. He was a successful botanist. He
+published, besides several theological works, _A Translation from the
+Italian of the Life of Donna Olympia Maladichini, who governed the
+Church during the time of Pope Innocent X., which was from the year 1644
+to 1655_ (1667), and _A Translation from the French of the Jesuits'
+Intrigues_ (1669).
+
+
+
+
+COMPTROLLER, the title of an official whose business primarily was to
+examine and take charge of accounts, hence to direct or control, e.g.
+the English comptroller of the household, comptroller and
+auditor-general (head of the exchequer and audit department),
+comptroller-general of patents, &c., comptroller-general (head of the
+national debt office). On the other hand, the word is frequently spelt
+_controller_, as in controller of the navy, controller or head of the
+stationery office. The word is used in the same sense in the United
+States, as comptroller of the treasury, an official who examines
+accounts and signs drafts, and comptroller of the currency, who
+administers the law relating to the national banks.
+
+
+
+
+COMPURGATION (from Lat. _compurgare_, to purify completely), a mode of
+procedure formerly employed in ecclesiastical courts, and derived from
+the canon law (_compurgatio canonica_), by which a clerk who was accused
+of crime was required to make answers on the oath of himself and a
+certain number of other clerks (compurgators) who would swear to his
+character or innocence. The term is more especially applied to a
+somewhat similar procedure, the old Teutonic or Anglo-Saxon mode of
+trial by oath-taking or oath-helping (see JURY).
+
+
+
+
+COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANÇOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857),
+French Positive philosopher, was born on the 19th of January 1798 at
+Montpellier, where his father was a receiver-general of taxes for the
+district. He was sent for his earliest instruction to the school of the
+town, and in 1814 was admitted to the École Polytechnique. His youth
+was marked by a constant willingness to rebel against merely official
+authority; to genuine excellence, whether moral or intellectual, he was
+always ready to pay unbounded deference. That strenuous application
+which was one of his most remarkable gifts in manhood showed itself in
+his youth, and his application was backed or inspired by superior
+intelligence and aptness. After he had been two years at the École
+Polytechnique he took a foremost part in a mutinous demonstration
+against one of the masters; the school was broken up, and Comte like the
+other scholars was sent home. To the great dissatisfaction of his
+parents, he resolved to return to Paris (1816), and to earn his living
+there by giving lessons in mathematics. Benjamin Franklin was the
+youth's idol at this moment. "I seek to imitate the modern Socrates," he
+wrote to a school friend, "not in talents, but in way of living. You
+know that at five-and-twenty he formed the design of becoming perfectly
+wise and that he fulfilled his design. I have dared to undertake the
+same thing, though I am not yet twenty." Though Comte's character and
+aims were as far removed as possible from Franklin's type, neither
+Franklin nor any man that ever lived could surpass him in the heroic
+tenacity with which, in the face of a thousand obstacles, he pursued his
+own ideal of a vocation.
+
+For a moment circumstances led him to think of seeking a career in
+America, but a friend who preceded him thither warned him of the purely
+practical spirit that prevailed in the new country. "If Lagrange were to
+come to the United States, he could only earn his livelihood by turning
+land surveyor." So Comte remained in Paris, living as he best could on
+something less than Ł80 a year, and hoping, when he took the trouble to
+break his meditations upon greater things by hopes about himself, that
+he might by and by obtain an appointment as mathematical master in a
+school. A friend procured him a situation as tutor in the house of
+Casimir Périer. The salary was good, but the duties were too
+miscellaneous, and what was still worse, there was an end of the
+delicious liberty of the garret. After a short experience of three weeks
+Comte returned to neediness and contentment. He was not altogether
+without the young man's appetite for pleasure; yet when he was only
+nineteen we find him wondering, amid the gaieties of the carnival of
+1817, how a gavotte or a minuet could make people forget that thirty
+thousand human beings around them had barely a morsel to eat.
+
+Towards 1818 Comte became associated as friend and disciple with
+Saint-Simon, who was destined to exercise a very decisive influence upon
+the turn of his speculation. In after years he so far forgot himself as
+to write of Saint-Simon as a depraved quack, and to deplore his
+connexion with him as purely mischievous. While the connexion lasted he
+thought very differently. Saint-Simon is described as the most estimable
+and lovable of men, and the most delightful in his relations; he is the
+worthiest of philosophers. Even at the very moment when Comte was
+congratulating himself on having thrown off the yoke, he honestly admits
+that Saint-Simon's influence has been of powerful service in his
+philosophic education. "I certainly," he writes to his most intimate
+friend, "am under great personal obligations to Saint-Simon; that is to
+say, he helped in a powerful degree to launch me in the philosophical
+direction that I have now definitely marked out for myself, and that I
+shall follow without looking back for the rest of my life." Even if
+there were no such unmistakable expressions as these, the most cursory
+glance into Saint-Simon's writings is enough to reveal the thread of
+connexion between the ingenious visionary and the systematic thinker. We
+see the debt, and we also see that when it is stated at the highest
+possible, nothing has really been taken either from Comte's claims as a
+powerful original thinker, or from his immeasurable pre-eminence over
+Saint-Simon in intellectual grasp and vigour and coherence. As high a
+degree of originality may be shown in transformation as in invention, as
+Moličre and Shakespeare have proved in the region of dramatic art. In
+philosophy the conditions are not different. _Il faut prendre son bien
+oů on le trouve._
+
+It is no detriment to Comte's fame that some of the ideas which he
+recombined and incorporated in a great philosophic structure had their
+origin in ideas that were produced almost at random in the incessant
+fermentation of Saint-Simon's brain. Comte is in no true sense a
+follower of Saint-Simon, but it was undoubtedly Saint-Simon who launched
+him, to take Comte's own word, by suggesting the two starting-points of
+what grew into the Comtist system--first, that political phenomena are
+as capable of being grouped under laws as other phenomena; and second,
+that the true destination of philosophy must be social, and the true
+object of the thinker must be the reorganization of the moral, religious
+and political systems. We can readily see what an impulse these
+far-reaching conceptions would give to Comte's meditations. There were
+conceptions of less importance than these, in which it is impossible not
+to feel that it was Saint-Simon's wrong or imperfect idea that put his
+young admirer on the track to a right and perfected idea. The subject is
+not worthy of further discussion. That Comte would have performed some
+great intellectual achievement, if Saint-Simon had never been born, is
+certain. It is hardly less certain that the great achievement which he
+did actually perform was originally set in motion by Saint-Simon's
+conversation, though it was afterwards directly filiated with the
+fertile speculations of A. R. J. Turgot and Condorcet. Comte thought
+almost as meanly of Plato as he did of Saint-Simon, and he considered
+Aristotle the prince of all true thinkers; yet their vital difference
+about Ideas did not prevent Aristotle from calling Plato master.
+
+After six years the differences between the old and the young
+philosopher grew too marked for friendship. Comte began to fret under
+Saint-Simon's pretensions to be his director. Saint-Simon, on the other
+hand, perhaps began to feel uncomfortably conscious of the superiority
+of his disciple. The occasion of the breach between them (1824) was an
+attempt on Saint-Simon's part to print a production of Comte's as if it
+were in some sort connected with Saint-Simon's schemes of social
+reorganization. Not only was the breach not repaired, but long
+afterwards Comte, as we have said, with painful ungraciousness took to
+calling the encourager of his youth by very hard names.
+
+
+  Marriage.
+
+In 1825 Comte married a Mdlle Caroline Massin. His marriage was one of
+those of which "magnanimity owes no account to prudence," and it did not
+turn out prosperously. His family were strongly Catholic and royalist,
+and they were outraged by his refusal to have the marriage performed
+other than civilly. They consented, however, to receive his wife, and
+the pair went on a visit to Montpellier. Madame Comte conceived a
+dislike to the circle she found there, and this was the too early
+beginning of disputes which lasted for the remainder of their union. In
+the year of his marriage we find Comte writing to the most intimate of
+his correspondents:--"I have nothing left but to concentrate my whole
+moral existence in my intellectual work, a precious but inadequate
+compensation; and so I must give up, if not the most dazzling, still the
+sweetest part of my happiness." He tried to find pupils to board with
+him, but only one pupil came, and he was soon sent away for lack of
+companions. "I would rather spend an evening," wrote the needy
+enthusiast, "in solving a difficult question, than in running after some
+empty-headed and consequential millionaire in search of a pupil." A
+little money was earned by an occasional article in _Le Producteur_, in
+which he began to expound the philosophic ideas that were now maturing
+in his mind. He announced a course of lectures (1826), which it was
+hoped would bring money as well as fame, and which were to be the first
+dogmatic exposition of the Positive Philosophy. A friend had said to
+him, "You talk too freely, your ideas are getting abroad, and other
+people use them without giving you the credit; put your ownership on
+record." The lectures attracted hearers so eminent as Humboldt the
+cosmologist, Poinsot the geometer and Blainville the physiologist.
+
+
+  Serious illness.
+
+Unhappily, after the third lecture of the course, Comte had a severe
+attack of cerebral derangement, brought on by intense and prolonged
+meditation, acting on a system that was already irritated by the chagrin
+of domestic discomfort. He did not recover his health for more than a
+year, and as soon as convalescence set in he was seized by so profound
+a melancholy at the disaster which had thus overtaken him, that he threw
+himself into the Seine. Fortunately he was rescued, and the shock did
+not stay his return to mental soundness. One incident of this painful
+episode is worth mentioning. Lamennais, then in the height of his
+Catholic exaltation, persuaded Comte's mother to insist on her son being
+married with the religious ceremony, and as the younger Madame Comte
+apparently did not resist, the rite was duly performed, in spite of the
+fact that Comte was at the time raving mad. Philosophic assailants of
+Comtism have not always resisted the temptation to recall the
+circumstance that its founder was once out of his mind. As has been
+justly said, if Newton once suffered a cerebral attack without
+forfeiting our veneration for the _Principia_, Comte may have suffered
+in the same way, and still not have forfeited our respect for Positive
+Philosophy and Positive Polity.
+
+
+  Official work.
+
+In 1828 the lectures were renewed, and in 1830 was published the first
+volume of the _Course of Positive Philosophy_. The sketch and ground
+plan of this great undertaking had appeared in 1826. The sixth and last
+volume was published in 1842. The twelve years covering the publication
+of the first of Comte's two elaborate works were years of indefatigable
+toil, and they were the only portion of his life in which he enjoyed a
+certain measure, and that a very modest measure, of material prosperity.
+In 1833 he was appointed examiner of the boys who in the various
+provincial schools aspired to enter the École Polytechnique at Paris.
+This and two other engagements as a teacher of mathematics secured him
+an income of some Ł400 a year. He made M. Guizot, then Louis Philippe's
+minister, the important proposal to establish a chair of general history
+of the sciences. If there are four chairs, he argued, devoted to the
+history of philosophy, that is to say, the minute study of all sorts of
+dreams and aberrations through the ages, surely there ought to be at
+least one to explain the formation and progress of our real knowledge?
+This wise suggestion, still unfulfilled, was at first welcomed,
+according to Comte's own account, by Guizot's philosophic instinct, and
+then repulsed by his "metaphysical rancour."
+
+Meanwhile Comte did his official work conscientiously, sorely as he
+grudged the time which it took from the execution of the great object of
+his thoughts. "I hardly know if even to you," he writes to his wife, "I
+dare disclose the sweet and softened feeling that comes over me when I
+find a young man whose examination is thoroughly satisfactory. Yes,
+though you may smile, the emotion would easily stir me to tears if I
+were not carefully on my guard." Such sympathy with youthful hope, in
+union with industry and intelligence, shows that Comte's dry and austere
+manner veiled the fires of a generous social emotion. It was this which
+made him add to his labours the burden of delivering every year from
+1831 to 1848 a course of gratuitous lectures on astronomy for a popular
+audience. The social feeling that inspired this disinterested act showed
+itself in other ways. He suffered imprisonment rather than serve in the
+national guard; his position was that though he would not take arms
+against the new monarchy of July, yet being a republican he would take
+no oath to defend it. The only amusement that Comte permitted himself
+was a visit to the opera. In his youth he had been a playgoer, but he
+shortly came to the conclusion that tragedy is a stilted and bombastic
+art, and after a time comedy interested him no more than tragedy. For
+the opera he had a genuine passion, which he gratified as often as he
+could, until his means became too narrow to afford even that single
+relaxation.
+
+Of his manner and personal appearance we have the following account from
+one who was his pupil:--"Daily as the clock struck eight on the horologe
+of the Luxembourg, while the ringing hammer on the bell was yet audible,
+the door of my room opened, and there entered a man, short, rather
+stout, almost what one might call sleek, freshly shaven, without vestige
+of whisker or moustache. He was invariably dressed in a suit of the most
+spotless black, as if going to a dinner party; his white neck-cloth was
+fresh from the laundress's hands, and his hat shining like a racer's
+coat. He advanced to the arm-chair prepared for him in the centre of the
+writing-table, laid his hat on the left-hand corner; his snuff-box was
+deposited on the same side beside the quire of paper placed in readiness
+for his use, and dipping the pen twice into the ink-bottle, then
+bringing it to within an inch of his nose to make sure it was properly
+filled, he broke silence: 'We have said that the chord AB,' &c. For
+three-quarters of an hour he continued his demonstration, making short
+notes as he went on, to guide the listener in repeating the problem
+alone; then, taking up another cahier which lay beside him, he went over
+the written repetition of the former lesson. He explained, corrected or
+commented till the clock struck nine; then, with the little finger of
+the right hand brushing from his coat and waistcoat the shower of
+superfluous snuff which had fallen on them, he pocketed his snuff-box,
+and resuming his hat, he as silently as when he came in made his exit by
+the door which I rushed to open for him."
+
+
+  Completion of "Positive Philosophy."
+
+In 1842, as we have said, the last volume of the _Positive Philosophy_
+was given to the public. Instead of that contentment which we like to
+picture as the reward of twelve years of meritorious toil devoted to the
+erection of a high philosophic edifice, Comte found himself in the midst
+of a very sea of small troubles, of that uncompensated kind that harass
+without elevating, and waste a man's spirit without softening or
+enlarging it. First, the jar of temperament between Comte and his wife
+had become so unbearable that they separated (1842). We know too little
+of the facts to allot blame to either of them. In spite of one or two
+disadvantageous facts in her career, Madame Comte seems to have
+uniformly comported herself towards her husband with an honourable
+solicitude for his well-being. Comte made her an annual allowance, and
+for some years after the separation they corresponded on friendly terms.
+Next in the list of the vexations was a lawsuit with his publisher. The
+publisher had inserted in the sixth volume a protest against a certain
+footnote, in which Comte had used some hard words about Arago. Comte
+threw himself into the suit with an energy worthy of Voltaire and won
+it. Third, and worst of all, he had prefixed a preface to the sixth
+volume, in which he went out of his way to rouse the enmity of the men
+on whom depended his annual re-election to the post of examiner for the
+Polytechnic school. The result was that he lost the appointment, and
+with it one-half of his very modest income. This was the occasion of an
+episode, which is of more than merely personal interest.
+
+
+  J. S. Mill.
+
+Before 1842 Comte had been in correspondence with J. S. Mill, who had
+been greatly impressed by Comte's philosophic ideas; Mill admits that
+his own _System of Logic_ owes many valuable thoughts to Comte, and
+that, in the portion of that work which treats of the logic of the moral
+sciences, a radical improvement in the conceptions of logical method was
+derived from the _Positive Philosophy_. Their correspondence, which was
+full and copious, turned principally upon the two great questions of the
+equality between men and women, and of the expediency and constitution
+of a sacerdotal or spiritual order. When Comte found himself straitened,
+he confided the entire circumstances to Mill. As might be supposed by
+those who know the affectionate anxiety with which Mill regarded the
+welfare of any one whom he believed to be doing good work in the world,
+he at once took pains to have Comte's loss of income made up to him,
+until Comte should have had time to repair that loss by his own
+endeavour. Mill persuaded Grote, Molesworth, and Raikes Currie to
+advance the sum of Ł240. At the end of the year (1845) Comte had taken
+no steps to enable himself to dispense with the aid of the three
+Englishmen. Mill applied to them again, but with the exception of Grote,
+who sent a small sum, they gave Comte to understand that they expected
+him to earn his own living. Mill had suggested to Comte that he should
+write articles for the English periodicals, and expressed his own
+willingness to translate any such articles from the French. Comte at
+first fell in with the plan, but he speedily surprised and disconcerted
+Mill by boldly taking up the position of "high moral magistrate," and
+accusing the three defaulting contributors of a scandalous falling away
+from righteousness and a high mind. Mill was chilled by these
+pretensions; and the correspondence came to an end. There is something
+to be said for both sides. Comte, regarding himself as the promoter of a
+great scheme for the benefit of humanity, might reasonably look for the
+support of his friends in the fulfilment of his designs. But Mill and
+the others were fully justified in not aiding the propagation of a
+doctrine in which they might not wholly concur. Comte's subsequent
+attitude of censorious condemnation put him entirely in the wrong.
+
+From 1845 to 1848 Comte lived as best he could, as well as made his wife
+her allowance, on an income of Ł200 a year. His little account books of
+income and outlay, with every item entered down to a few hours before
+his death, are accurate and neat enough to have satisfied an ancient
+Roman householder. In 1848, through no fault of his own, his salary was
+reduced to Ł80. Littré and others, with Comte's approval, published an
+appeal for subscriptions, and on the money thus contributed Comte
+subsisted for the remaining nine years of his life. By 1852 the subsidy
+produced as much as Ł200 a year. It is worth noticing that Mill was one
+of the subscribers, and that Littré continued his assistance after he
+had been driven from Comte's society by his high pontifical airs. We are
+sorry not to be able to record any similar trait of magnanimity on
+Comte's part. His character, admirable as it is for firmness, for
+intensity, for inexorable will, for iron devotion to what he thought the
+service of mankind, yet offers few of those softening qualities that
+make us love good men and pity bad ones.
+
+
+  Literary method.
+
+It is best to think of him only as the intellectual worker, pursuing in
+uncomforted obscurity the laborious and absorbing task to which he had
+given up his whole life. His singularly conscientious fashion of
+elaborating his ideas made the mental strain more intense than even so
+exhausting a work as the abstract exposition of the principles of
+positive science need have been. He did not write down a word until he
+had first composed the whole matter in his mind. When he had thoroughly
+meditated every sentence, he sat down to write, and then, such was the
+grip of his memory, the exact order of his thoughts came back to him as
+if without an effort, and he wrote down precisely what he had intended
+to write, without the aid of a note or a memorandum, and without check
+or pause. For example, he began and completed in about six weeks a
+chapter in the _Positive Philosophy_ (vol. v. ch. 55) which would fill
+forty pages of this Encyclopaedia. When we reflect that the chapter is
+not narrative, but an abstract exposition of the guiding principles of
+the movements of several centuries, with many threads of complex thought
+running along side by side all through the speculation, then the
+circumstances under which it was reduced to literary form are really
+astonishing. It is hardly possible, however, to share the admiration
+expressed by some of Comte's disciples for his style. We are not so
+unreasonable as to blame him for failing to make his pages picturesque
+or thrilling; we do not want sunsets and stars and roses and ecstasy;
+but there is a certain standard for the most serious and abstract
+subjects. When compared with such philosophic writing as Hume's,
+Diderot's, Berkeley's, then Comte's manner is heavy, laboured,
+monotonous, without relief and without light. There is now and then an
+energetic phrase, but as a whole the vocabulary is jejune; the sentences
+are overloaded; the pitch is flat. A scrupulous insistence on making his
+meaning clear led to an iteration of certain adjectives and adverbs,
+which at length deadened the effect beyond the endurance of all but the
+most resolute students. Only the interest of the matter prevents one
+from thinking of Rivarol's ill-natured remark upon Condorcet, that he
+wrote with opium on a page of lead. The general effect is impressive,
+not by any virtues of style, for we do not discern one, but by reason of
+the magnitude and importance of the undertaking, and the visible
+conscientiousness and the grasp with which it is executed. It is by
+sheer strength of thought, by the vigorous perspicacity with which he
+strikes the lines of cleavage of his subject, that he makes his way
+into the mind of the reader; in the presence of gifts of this power we
+need not quarrel with an ungainly style.
+
+
+  Hygične cérébrale.
+
+Comte pursued one practice which ought to be mentioned in connexion with
+his personal history, the practice of what he style _hygične cérébrale_.
+After he had acquired what he considered to be a sufficient stock of
+material, and this happened before he had completed the _Positive
+Philosophy_, he abstained from reading newspapers, reviews, scientific
+transactions and everything else, except two or three poets (notably
+Dante) and the _Imitatio Christi_. It is true that his friends kept him
+informed of what was going on in the scientific world. Still this
+partial divorce of himself from the record of the social and scientific
+activity of his time, though it may save a thinker from the deplorable
+evils of dispersion, moral and intellectual, accounts in no small
+measure for the exaggerated egoism, and the absence of all feeling for
+reality, which marked Comte's later days.
+
+
+  Madame de Vaux.
+
+In 1845 Comte made the acquaintance of Madame Clotilde de Vaux, a lady
+whose husband had been sent to the galleys for life. Very little is
+known about her qualities. She wrote a little piece which Comte rated so
+preposterously as to talk about George Sand in the same sentence; it is
+in truth a flimsy performance, though it contains one or two gracious
+thoughts. There is true beauty in the saying--"_It is unworthy of a
+noble nature to diffuse its pain._" Madame de Vaux's letters speak well
+for her good sense and good feeling, and it would have been better for
+Comte's later work if she had survived to exert a wholesome restraint on
+his exaltation. Their friendship had only lasted a year when she died
+(1846), but the period was long enough to give her memory a supreme
+ascendancy in Comte's mind. Condillac, Joubert, Mill and other eminent
+men have shown what the intellectual ascendancy of a woman can be. Comte
+was as inconsolable after Madame de Vaux's death as D'Alembert after the
+death of Mademoiselle L'Espinasse. Every Wednesday afternoon he made a
+reverential pilgrimage to her tomb, and three times every day he invoked
+her memory in words of passionate expansion. His disciples believe that
+in time the world will reverence Comte's sentiment about Clotilde de
+Vaux, as it reveres Dante's adoration of Beatrice--a parallel that Comte
+himself was the first to hit upon. Yet we cannot help feeling that it is
+a grotesque and unseemly anachronism to apply in grave prose, addressed
+to the whole world, those terms of saint and angel which are touching
+and in their place amid the trouble and passion of the great mystic
+poet. Whatever other gifts Comte may have had--and he had many of the
+rarest kind,--poetic imagination was not among them, any more than
+poetic or emotional expression was among them. His was one of those
+natures whose faculty of deep feeling is unhappily doomed to be
+inarticulate, and to pass away without the magic power of transmitting
+itself.
+
+
+  Positive Polity.
+
+Comte lost no time, after the completion of his _Course of Positive
+Philosophy_, in proceeding with the _System of Positive Polity_, for
+which the earlier work was designed to be a foundation. The first volume
+was published in 1851, and the fourth and last in 1854. In 1848, when
+the political air was charged with stimulating elements, he founded the
+Positive Society, with the expectation that it might grow into a reunion
+as powerful over the new revolution as the Jacobin Club had been in the
+revolution of 1789. The hope was not fulfilled, but a certain number of
+philosophic disciples gathered round Comte, and eventually formed
+themselves, under the guidance of the new ideas of the latter half of
+his life, into a kind of church, for whose use was drawn up the
+_Positivist Calendar_ (1849), in which the names of those who had
+advanced civilization replaced the titles of the saints. Gutenberg and
+Shakespeare were among the patrons of the thirteen months in this
+calendar. In the years 1849, 1850 and 1851 Comte gave three courses of
+lectures at the Palais Royal. They were gratuitous and popular, and in
+them he boldly advanced the whole of his doctrine, as well as the direct
+and immediate pretensions of himself and his system. The third course
+ended in the following uncompromising terms--"In the name of the Past
+and of the Future, the servants of Humanity--both its philosophical and
+its practical servants--come forward to claim as their due the general
+direction of this world. Their object is to constitute at length a real
+Providence in all departments,--moral, intellectual and material.
+Consequently they exclude once for all from political supremacy all the
+different servants of God--Catholic, Protestant or Deist--as being at
+once behindhand and a cause of disturbance." A few weeks after this
+invitation, a very different person stepped forward to constitute
+himself a real Providence.
+
+In 1852 Comte published the _Catechism of Positivism_. In the preface to
+it he took occasion to express his approval of Louis Napoleon's _coup
+d'état_ of the 2nd of December,--"a fortunate crisis which has set aside
+the parliamentary system and instituted a dictatorial republic."
+Whatever we may think of the political sagacity of such a judgment, it
+is due to Comte to say that he did not expect to see his dictatorial
+republic transformed into a dynastic empire, and, next, that he did
+expect from the Man of December freedom of the press and of public
+meeting. His later hero was the emperor Nicholas, "the only statesman in
+Christendom,"--as unlucky a judgment as that which placed Dr Francia in
+the Comtist Calendar.
+
+
+  Death.
+
+In 1857 he was attacked by cancer, and died peaceably on the 5th of
+September of that year. The anniversary is celebrated by ceremonial
+gatherings of his French and English followers, who then commemorate the
+name and the services of the founder of their religion. By his will he
+appointed thirteen executors who were to preserve his rooms at 10 rue
+Monsieur-le-Prince as the headquarters of the new religion of Humanity.
+
+
+  Comte's philosophic consistency.
+
+  Early writing.
+
+In proceeding to give an Outline of Comte's system, we shall consider
+the _Positive Polity_ as the more or less legitimate sequel of the
+_Positive Philosophy_, notwithstanding the deep gulf which so eminent a
+critic as J. S. Mill insisted upon fixing between the earlier and the
+later work. There may be, as we think there is, the greatest difference
+in their value, and the temper is not the same, nor the method. But the
+two are quite capable of being regarded, and for the purposes of an
+account of Comte's career ought to be regarded, as an integral whole.
+His letters when he was a young man of one-and-twenty, and before he had
+published a word, show how strongly present the social motive was in his
+mind, and in what little account he should hold his scientific works, if
+he did not perpetually think of their utility for the species. "I feel,"
+he wrote, "that such scientific reputation as I might acquire would give
+more value, more weight, more useful influence to my political sermons."
+In 1822 he published a _Plan of the Scientific Works necessary to
+reorganize Society_. In this he points out that modern society is
+passing through a great crisis, due to the conflict of two opposing
+movements,--the first, a disorganizing movement owing to the break-up of
+old institutions and beliefs; the second, a movement towards a definite
+social state, in which all means of human prosperity will receive their
+most complete development and most direct application. How is this
+crisis to be dealt with? What are the undertakings necessary in order to
+pass successfully through it towards an organic state? The answer to
+this is that there are two series of works. The first is theoretic or
+spiritual, aiming at the development of a new principle of co-ordinating
+social relations, and the formation of the system of general ideas which
+are destined to guide society. The second work is practical or temporal;
+it settles the distribution of power, and the institutions that are most
+conformable to the spirit of the system which has previously been
+thought out in the course of the theoretic work. As the practical work
+depends on the conclusions of the theoretical, the latter must obviously
+come first in order of execution.
+
+In 1826 this was pushed farther in a most remarkable piece called
+_Considerations on the Spiritual Power_--the main object of which is to
+demonstrate the necessity of instituting a spiritual power, distinct
+from the temporal power and independent of it. In examining the
+conditions of a spiritual power proper for modern times, he indicates in
+so many terms the presence in his mind of a direct analogy between his
+proposed spiritual power and the functions of the Catholic clergy at the
+time of its greatest vigour and most complete independence,--that is to
+say, from about the middle of the 11th century until towards the end of
+the 13th. He refers to de Maistre's memorable book, _Du Pape_, as the
+most profound, accurate and methodical account of the old spiritual
+organization, and starts from that as the model to be adapted to the
+changed intellectual and social conditions of the modern time. In the
+_Positive Philosophy_, again (vol. v. p. 344), he distinctly says that
+Catholicism, reconstituted as a system on new intellectual foundations,
+would finally preside over the spiritual reorganization of modern
+society. Much else could be quoted to the same effect. If unity of
+career, then, means that Comte, from the beginning designed the
+institution of a spiritual power, and the systematic reorganization of
+life, it is difficult to deny him whatever credit that unity may be
+worth, and the credit is perhaps not particularly great. Even the
+readaptation of the Catholic system to a scientific doctrine was plainly
+in his mind thirty years before the final execution of the _Positive
+Polity_, though it is difficult to believe that he foresaw the religious
+mysticism in which the task was to land him. A great analysis was to
+precede a great synthesis, but it was the synthesis on which Comte's
+vision was centred from the first. Let us first sketch the nature of the
+analysis. Society is to be reorganized on the base of knowledge. What is
+the sum and significance of knowledge? That is the question which
+Comte's first master-work professes to answer.
+
+
+  Law of the Three States.
+
+The _Positive Philosophy_ opens with the statement of a certain law of
+which Comte was the discoverer, and which has always been treated both
+by disciples and dissidents as the key to his system. This is the Law of
+the Three States. It is as follows. Each of our leading conceptions,
+each branch of our knowledge, passes successively through three
+different phases; there are three different ways in which the human mind
+explains phenomena, each way following the other in order. These three
+stages are the Theological, the Metaphysical and the Positive.
+Knowledge, or a branch of knowledge, is in the Theological state, when
+it supposes the phenomena under consideration to be due to immediate
+volition, either in the object or in some supernatural being. In the
+Metaphysical state, for volition is substituted abstract force residing
+in the object, yet existing independently of the object; the phenomena
+are viewed as if apart from the bodies manifesting them; and the
+properties of each substance have attributed to them an existence
+distinct from that substance. In the Positive state, inherent volition
+or external volition and inherent force or abstraction personified have
+both disappeared from men's minds, and the explanation of a phenomenon
+means a reference of it, by way of succession or resemblance, to some
+other phenomenon,--means the establishment of a relation between the
+given fact and some more general fact. In the Theological and
+Metaphysical state men seek a cause or an essence; in the Positive they
+are content with a law. To borrow an illustration from an able English
+disciple of Comte:--"Take the phenomenon of the sleep produced by opium.
+The Arabs are content to attribute it to the 'will of God.' Moličre's
+medical student accounts for it by a _soporific principle_ contained in
+the opium. The modern physiologist knows that he cannot account for it
+at all. He can simply observe, analyse and experiment upon the phenomena
+attending the action of the drug, and classify it with other agents
+analogous in character."--(_Dr Bridges._)
+
+The first and greatest aim of the Positive Philosophy is to advance the
+study of society into the third of the three stages,--to remove social
+phenomena from the sphere of theological and metaphysical conceptions,
+and to introduce among them the same scientific observation of their
+laws which has given us physics, chemistry, physiology. Social physics
+will consist of the conditions and relations of the facts of society,
+and will have two departments,--one, statical, containing the laws of
+order; the other dynamical, containing the laws of progress. While
+men's minds were in the theological state, political events, for
+example, were explained by the will of the gods, and political authority
+based on divine right. In the metaphysical state of mind, then, to
+retain our instance, political authority was based on the sovereignty of
+the people, and social facts were explained by the figment of a falling
+away from a state of nature. When the positive method has been finally
+extended to society, as it has been to chemistry and physiology, these
+social facts will be resolved, as their ultimate analysis, into
+relations with one another, and instead of seeking causes in the old
+sense of the word, men will only examine the conditions of social
+existence. When that stage has been reached, not merely the greater
+part, but the whole, of our knowledge will be impressed with one
+character, the character, namely, of positivity or scientificalness; and
+all our conceptions in every part of knowledge will be thoroughly
+homogeneous. The gains of such a change are enormous. The new
+philosophical unity will now in its turn regenerate all the elements
+that went to its own formation. The mind will pursue knowledge without
+the wasteful jar and friction of conflicting methods and mutually
+hostile conceptions; education will be regenerated; and society will
+reorganize itself on the only possible solid base--a homogeneous
+philosophy.
+
+
+  Classification of sciences.
+
+The _Positive Philosophy_ has another object besides the demonstration
+of the necessity and propriety of a science of society. This object is
+to show the sciences as branches from a single trunk,--is to give to
+science the ensemble or spirit or generality hitherto confined to
+philosophy, and to give to philosophy the rigour and solidity of
+science. Comte's special object is a study of social physics, a science
+that before his advent was still to be formed; his second object is a
+review of the methods and leading generalities of all the positive
+sciences already formed, so that we may know both what system of inquiry
+to follow in our new science, and also where the new science will stand
+in relation to other knowledge.
+
+The first step in this direction is to arrange scientific method and
+positive knowledge in order, and this brings us to another cardinal
+element in the Comtist system, the classification of the sciences. In
+the front of the inquiry lies one main division, that, namely, between
+speculative and practical knowledge. With the latter we have no concern.
+Speculative or theoretic knowledge is divided into abstract and
+concrete. The former is concerned with the laws that regulate phenomena
+in all conceivable cases: the latter is concerned with the application
+of these laws. Concrete science relates to objects or beings; abstract
+science to events. The former is particular or descriptive; the latter
+is general. Thus, physiology is an abstract science; but zoology is
+concrete. Chemistry is abstract; mineralogy is concrete. It is the
+method and knowledge of the abstract sciences that the Positive
+Philosophy has to reorganize in a great whole.
+
+Comte's principle of classification is that the dependence and order of
+scientific study follows the dependence of the phenomena. Thus, as has
+been said, it represents both the objective dependence of the phenomena
+and the subjective dependence of our means of knowing them. The more
+particular and complex phenomena depend upon the simpler and more
+general. The latter are the more easy to study. Therefore science will
+begin with those attributes of objects which are most general, and pass
+on gradually to other attributes that are combined in greater
+complexity. Thus, too, each science rests on the truths of the sciences
+that precede it, while it adds to them the truths by which it is itself
+constituted. Comte's series or hierarchy is arranged as follows:--(1)
+Mathematics (that is, number, geometry, and mechanics), (2) Astronomy,
+(3) Physics, (4) Chemistry, (5) Biology, (6) Sociology. Each of the
+members of this series is one degree more special than the member before
+it, and depends upon the facts of all the members preceding it, and
+cannot be fully understood without them. It follows that the crowning
+science of the hierarchy, dealing with the phenomena of human society,
+will remain longest under the influence of theological dogmas and
+abstract figments, and will be the last to pass into the positive stage.
+You cannot discover the relations of the facts of human society without
+reference to the conditions of animal life; you cannot understand the
+conditions of animal life without the laws of chemistry; and so with the
+rest.
+
+
+  The double key of positive philosophy.
+
+This arrangement of the sciences, and the Law of the Three States, are
+together explanatory of the course of human thought and knowledge. They
+are thus the double key of Comte's systematization of the philosophy of
+all the sciences from mathematics to physiology, and his analysis of
+social evolution, which is the base of sociology. Each science
+contributes its philosophy. The co-ordination of all these partial
+philosophies produces the general Positive Philosophy. "Thousands had
+cultivated science, and with splendid success; not one had conceived the
+philosophy which the sciences when organized would naturally evolve. A
+few had seen the necessity of extending the scientific method to all
+inquiries, but no one had seen how this was to be effected.... The
+Positive Philosophy is novel as a philosophy, not as a collection of
+truths never before suspected. Its novelty is the organization of
+existing elements. Its very principle implies the absorption of all that
+great thinkers had achieved; while incorporating their results it
+extended their methods.... What tradition brought was the results; what
+Comte brought was the organization of these results. He always claimed
+to be the founder of the Positive Philosophy. That he had every right to
+such a title is demonstrable to all who distinguish between the positive
+sciences and the philosophy which co-ordinated the truths and methods of
+these sciences into a doctrine."--_G. H. Lewes._
+
+
+  Criticism on Comte's classification.
+
+Comte's classification of the sciences has been subjected to a vigorous
+criticism by Herbert Spencer. Spencer's two chief points are these:--(1)
+He denies that the principle of the development of the sciences is the
+principle of decreasing generality; he asserts that there are as many
+examples of the advent of a science being determined by increasing
+generality as by increasing speciality. (2) He holds that any grouping
+of the sciences in a succession gives a radically wrong idea of their
+genesis and their interdependence; no true filiation exists; no science
+develops itself in isolation; no one is independent, either logically or
+historically. Littré, by far the most eminent of the scientific
+followers of Comte, concedes a certain force to Spencer's objections,
+and makes certain secondary modifications in the hierarchy in
+consequence, while still cherishing his faith in the Comtist theory of
+the sciences. J. S. Mill, while admitting the objections as good, if
+Comte's arrangement pretended to be the only one possible, still holds
+the arrangement as tenable for the purpose with which it was devised. G.
+H. Lewes asserts against Spencer that the arrangement in a series is
+necessary, on grounds similar to those which require that the various
+truths constituting a science should be systematically co-ordinated
+although in nature the phenomena are intermingled.
+
+The first three volumes of the _Positive Philosophy_ contain an
+exposition of the partial philosophies of the five sciences that precede
+sociology in the hierarchy. Their value has usually been placed very low
+by the special followers of the sciences concerned; they say that the
+knowledge is second-hand, is not coherent, and is too confidently taken
+for final. The Comtist replies that the task is philosophic; and is not
+to be judged by the minute accuracies of science. In these three volumes
+Comte took the sciences roughly as he found them. His eminence as a man
+of science must be measured by his only original work in that
+department,--the construction, namely, of the new science of society.
+This work is accomplished in the last three volumes of the _Positive
+Philosophy_, and the second and third volumes of the _Positive Polity_.
+The Comtist maintains that even if these five volumes together fail in
+laying down correctly and finally the lines of the new science, still
+they are the first solution of a great problem hitherto unattempted.
+"Modern biology has got beyond Aristotle's conception; but in the
+construction of the biological science, not even the most
+unphilosophical biologist would fail to recognize the value of
+Aristotle's attempt. So for sociology. Subsequent sociologists may have
+conceivably to remodel the whole science, yet not the less will they
+recognize the merit of the first work which has facilitated their
+labours."--_Congreve._
+
+
+  Sociological conceptions.
+
+  Method.
+
+We shall now briefly describe Comte's principal conceptions in
+sociology, his position in respect to which is held by himself, and by
+others, to raise him to the level of Descartes or Leibnitz. Of course
+the first step was to approach the phenomena of human character and
+social existence with the expectation of finding them as reducible to
+general laws as the other phenomena of the universe, and with the hope
+of exploring these laws by the same instruments of observation and
+verification as had done such triumphant work in the case of the latter.
+Comte separates the collective facts of society and history from the
+individual phenomena of biology; then he withdraws these collective
+facts from the region of external volition, and places them in the
+region of law. The facts of history must be explained, not by
+providential interventions, but by referring them to conditions inherent
+in the successive stages of social existence. This conception makes a
+science of society possible. What is the method? It comprises, besides
+observation and experiment (which is, in fact, only the observation of
+abnormal social states), a certain peculiarity of verification. We begin
+by deducing every well-known historical situation from the series of its
+antecedents. Thus we acquire a body of empirical generalizations as to
+social phenomena, and then we connect the generalizations with the
+positive theory of human nature. A sociological demonstration lies in
+the establishment of an accordance between the conclusions of historical
+analysis and the preparatory conceptions of biological theory. As Mill
+puts it:--"If a sociological theory, collected from historical evidence,
+contradicts the established general laws of human nature; if (to use M.
+Comte's instances) it implies, in the mass of mankind, any very decided
+natural bent, either in a good or in a bad direction; if it supposes
+that the reason, in average human beings, predominates over the desires,
+or the disinterested desires over the personal,--we may know that
+history has been misinterpreted, and that the theory is false. On the
+other hand, if laws of social phenomena, empirically generalized from
+history, can, when once suggested, be affiliated to the known laws of
+human nature; if the direction actually taken by the developments and
+changes of human society, can be seen to be such as the properties of
+man and of his dwelling-place made antecedently probable, the empirical
+generalizations are raised into positive laws, and sociology becomes a
+science." The result of this method, is an exhibition of the events of
+human experience in co-ordinated series that manifest their own
+graduated connexion.
+
+Next, as all investigation proceeds from that which is known best to
+that which is unknown or less well known, and as, in social states, it
+is the collective phenomenon that is more easy of access to the observer
+than its parts, therefore we must consider and pursue all the elements
+of a given social state together and in common. The social organization
+must be viewed and explored as a whole. There is a nexus between each
+leading group of social phenomena and other leading groups; if there is
+a change in one of them, that change is accompanied by a corresponding
+modification of all the rest. "Not only must political institutions and
+social manners, on the one hand, and manners and ideas, on the other, be
+always mutually connected; but further, this consolidated whole must be
+always connected by its nature with the corresponding state of the
+integral development of humanity, considered in all its aspects of
+intellectual, moral and physical activity."--_Comte._
+
+
+  Decisive Importance of Intellectual development.
+
+Is there any one element which communicates the decisive impulse to all
+the rest,--any predominating agency in the course of social evolution?
+The answer is that all the other parts of social existence are
+associated with, and drawn along by, the contemporary condition of
+intellectual development. The Reason is the superior and preponderant
+element which settles the direction in which all the other faculties
+shall expand. "It is only through the more and more marked influence of
+the reason over the general conduct of man and of society, that the
+gradual march of our race has attained that regularity and persevering
+continuity which distinguish it so radically from the desultory and
+barren expansion of even the highest animal orders, which share, and
+with enhanced strength, the appetites, the passions, and even the
+primary sentiments of man." The history of intellectual development,
+therefore, is the key to social evolution, and the key to the history of
+intellectual development is the Law of the Three States.
+
+Among other central thoughts in Comte's explanation of history are
+these:--The displacement of theological by positive conceptions has been
+accompanied by a gradual rise of an industrial régime out of the
+military régime;--the great permanent contribution of Catholicism was
+the separation which it set up between the temporal and the spiritual
+powers;--the progress of the race consists in the increasing
+preponderance of the distinctively human elements over the animal
+elements;--the absolute tendency of ordinary social theories will be
+replaced by an unfailing adherence to the relative point of view, and
+from this it follows that the social state, regarded as a whole, has
+been as perfect in each period as the co-existing condition of humanity
+and its environment would allow.
+
+The elaboration of these ideas in relation to the history of the
+civilization of the most advanced portion of the human race occupies two
+of the volumes of the _Positive Philosophy_, and has been accepted by
+very different schools as a masterpiece of rich, luminous, and
+far-reaching suggestion. Whatever additions it may receive, and whatever
+corrections it may require, this analysis of social evolution will
+continue to be regarded as one of the great achievements of human
+intellect.
+
+
+  Social dynamics in the Positive Polity.
+
+The third volume of the _Positive Polity_ treats of social dynamics, and
+takes us again over the ground of historic evolution. It abounds with
+remarks of extraordinary fertility and comprehensiveness; but it is
+often arbitrary; and its views of the past are strained into coherence
+with the statical views of the preceding volume. As it was composed in
+rather less than six months, and as the author honestly warns us that he
+has given all his attention to a more profound co-ordination, instead of
+working out the special explanations more fully, as he had promised, we
+need not be surprised if the result is disappointing to those who had
+mastered the corresponding portion of the _Positive Philosophy_. Comte
+explains the difference between his two works. In the first his "chief
+object was to discover and demonstrate the laws of progress, and to
+exhibit in one unbroken sequence the collective destinies of mankind,
+till then invariably regarded as a series of events wholly beyond the
+reach of explanation, and almost depending on arbitrary will. The
+present work, on the contrary, is addressed to those who are already
+sufficiently convinced of the certain existence of social laws, and
+desire only to have them reduced to a true and conclusive system."
+
+
+  The Positivist system.
+
+  The Religion of humanity.
+
+The main principles of the Comtian system are derived from the _Positive
+Polity_ and from two other works,--the _Positivist Catechism: a Summary
+Exposition of the Universal Religion, in Twelve Dialogues between a
+Woman and a Priest of Humanity_; and, second, _The Subjective Synthesis_
+(1856), which is the first and only volume of a work upon mathematics
+announced at the end of the _Positive Philosophy_. The system for which
+the _Positive Philosophy_ is alleged to have been the scientific
+preparation contains a Polity and a Religion; a complete arrangement of
+life in all its aspects, giving a wider sphere to Intellect, Energy and
+Feeling than could be found in any of the previous organic
+types,--Greek, Roman or Catholic-feudal. Comte's immense superiority
+over such prae-Revolutionary utopians as the Abbé Saint Pierre, no less
+than over the group of post-revolutionary Utopians, is especially
+visible in this firm grasp of the cardinal truth that the improvement of
+the social organism can only be effected by a moral development, and
+never by any changes in mere political mechanism, or any violences in
+the way of an artificial redistribution of wealth. A moral
+transformation must precede any real advance. The aim, both in public
+and private life, is to secure to the utmost possible extent the
+victory of the social feeling over self-love, or Altruism over
+Egoism.[1] This is the key to the regeneration of social existence, as
+it is the key to that unity of individual life which makes all our
+energies converge freely and without wasteful friction towards a common
+end. What are the instruments for securing the preponderance of
+Altruism? Clearly they must work from the strongest element in human
+nature, and this element is Feeling or the Heart. Under the Catholic
+system the supremacy of Feeling was abused, and the Intellect was made
+its slave. Then followed a revolt of Intellect against Sentiment. The
+business of the new system will be to bring back the Intellect into a
+condition, not of slavery, but of willing ministry to the Feelings. The
+subordination never was, and never will be, effected except by means of
+a religion, and a religion, to be final, must include a harmonious
+synthesis of all our conceptions of the external order of the universe.
+The characteristic basis of a religion is the existence of a Power
+without us, so superior to ourselves as to command the complete
+submission of our whole life. This basis is to be found in the Positive
+stage, in Humanity, past, present and to come, conceived as the Great
+Being.
+
+  "A deeper study of the great universal order reveals to us at length
+  the ruling power within it of the true Great Being, whose destiny it
+  is to bring that order continually to perfection by constantly
+  conforming to its laws, and which thus best represents to us that
+  system as a whole. This undeniable Providence, the supreme dispenser
+  of our destinies, becomes in the natural course the common centre of
+  our affections, our thoughts, and our actions. Although this Great
+  Being evidently exceeds the utmost strength of any, even of any
+  collective, human force, its necessary constitution and its peculiar
+  function endow it with the truest sympathy towards all its servants.
+  The least amongst us can and ought constantly to aspire to maintain
+  and even to improve this Being. This natural object of all our
+  activity, both public and private, determines the true general
+  character of the rest of our existence, whether in feeling or in
+  thought; which must be devoted to love, and to know, in order rightly
+  to serve, our Providence, by a wise use of all the means which it
+  furnishes to us. Reciprocally this continued service, whilst
+  strengthening our true unity, renders us at once both happier and
+  better."
+
+
+  Remarks on the religion.
+
+The exaltation of Humanity into the throne occupied by the Supreme Being
+under monotheistic systems made all the rest of Comte's construction
+easy enough. Utility remains the test of every institution, impulse,
+act; his fabric becomes substantially an arch of utilitarian
+propositions, with an artificial Great Being inserted at the top to keep
+them in their place. The Comtist system is utilitarianism crowned by a
+fantastic decoration. Translated into the plainest English, the position
+is as follows: "Society can only be regenerated by the greater
+subordination of politics to morals, by the moralization of capital, by
+the renovation of the family, by a higher conception of marriage and so
+on. These ends can only be reached by a heartier development of the
+sympathetic instincts. The sympathetic instincts can only be developed
+by the Religion of Humanity." Looking at the problem in this way, even a
+moralist who does not expect theology to be the instrument of social
+revival, might still ask whether the sympathetic instincts will not
+necessarily be already developed to their highest point, before people
+will be persuaded to accept the religion, which is at the bottom hardly
+more than sympathy under a more imposing name. However that may be, the
+whole battle--into which we shall not enter--as to the legitimateness of
+Comtism as a religion turns upon this erection of Humanity into a Being.
+The various hypotheses, dogmas, proposals, as to the family, to capital,
+&c., are merely propositions measurable by considerations of utility and
+a balance of expediencies. Many of these proposals are of the highest
+interest, and many of them are actually available; but there does not
+seem to be one of them of an available kind, which could not equally
+well be approached from other sides, and even incorporated in some
+radically antagonistic system. Adoption, for example, as a practice for
+improving the happiness of families and the welfare of society, is
+capable of being weighed, and can in truth only be weighed, by
+utilitarian considerations, and has been commended by men to whom the
+Comtist religion is naught. The singularity of Comte's construction, and
+the test by which it must be tried, is the transfer of the worship and
+discipline of Catholicism to a system in which "the conception of God is
+superseded" by the abstract idea of Humanity, conceived as a kind of
+Personality.
+
+And when all is said, the invention does not help us. We have still to
+settle what _is_ for the good of Humanity, and we can only do that in
+the old-fashioned way. There is no guidance in the conception. No
+effective unity can follow from it, because you can only find out the
+right and wrong of a given course by summing up the advantages and
+disadvantages, and striking a balance, and there is nothing in the
+Religion of Humanity to force two men to find the balance on the same
+side. The Comtists are no better off than other utilitarians in judging
+policy, events, conduct.
+
+
+  The worship and discipline.
+
+The particularities of the worship, its minute and truly ingenious
+re-adaptations of sacraments, prayers, reverent signs, down even to the
+invocation of a New Trinity, need not detain us. They are said, though
+it is not easy to believe, to have been elaborated by way of Utopia. If
+so, no Utopia has ever yet been presented in a style so little
+calculated to stir the imagination, to warm the feelings, to soothe the
+insurgency of the reason. It is a mistake to present a great body of
+hypotheses--if Comte meant them for hypotheses--in the most dogmatic and
+peremptory form to which language can lend itself. And there is no more
+extraordinary thing in the history of opinion than the perversity with
+which Comte has succeeded in clothing a philosophic doctrine, so
+intrinsically conciliatory as his, in a shape that excites so little
+sympathy and gives so much provocation. An enemy defined Comtism as
+Catholicism _minus_ Christianity, to which an able champion retorted by
+calling it Catholicism _plus_ Science. Comte's Utopia has pleased the
+followers of the Catholic, just as little as those of the scientific,
+spirit.
+
+
+  The priesthood.
+
+The elaborate and minute systematization of life, proper to the religion
+of Humanity, is to be directed by a priesthood. The priests are to
+possess neither wealth nor material power; they are not to command, but
+to counsel; their authority is to rest on persuasion, not on force. When
+religion has become positive, and society industrial, then the influence
+of the church upon the state becomes really free and independent, which
+was not the case in the middle ages. The power of the priesthood rests
+upon special knowledge of man and nature; but to this intellectual
+eminence must also be added moral power and a certain greatness of
+character, without which force of intellect and completeness of
+attainment will not receive the confidence they ought to inspire. The
+functions of the priesthood are of this kind:--To exercise a systematic
+direction over education; to hold a consultative influence over all the
+important acts of actual life, public and private; to arbitrate in cases
+of practical conflict; to preach sermons recalling those principles of
+generality and universal harmony which our special activities dispose us
+to ignore; to order the due classification of society; to perform the
+various ceremonies appointed by the founder of the religion. The
+authority of the priesthood is to rest wholly on voluntary adhesion, and
+there is to be perfect freedom of speech and discussion. This provision
+hardly consists with Comte's congratulations to the tsar Nicholas on the
+"wise vigilance" with which he kept watch over the importation of
+Western books.
+
+
+  Women.
+
+From his earliest manhood Comte had been powerfully impressed by the
+necessity of elevating the condition of women. (See remarkable passage
+in his letters to M. Valat, pp. 84-87.) His friendship with Madame de
+Vaux had deepened the impression, and in the reconstructed society women
+are to play a highly important part. They are to be carefully excluded
+from public action, but they are to do many more important things than
+things political. To fit them for their functions, they are to be raised
+above material cares, and they are to be thoroughly educated. The
+family, which is so important an element of the Comtist scheme of
+things, exists to carry the influence of woman over man to the highest
+point of cultivation. Through affection she purifies the activity of
+man. "Superior in power of affection, more able to keep both the
+intellectual and the active powers in continual subordination to
+feeling, women are formed as the natural intermediaries between Humanity
+and man. The Great Being confides specially to them its moral
+Providence, maintaining through them the direct and constant cultivation
+of universal affection, in the midst of all the distractions of thought
+or action, which are for ever withdrawing men from its influence....
+Beside the uniform influence of every woman on every man, to attach him
+to Humanity, such is the importance and the difficulty of this ministry
+that each of us should be placed under the special guidance of one of
+these angels, to answer for him, as it were, to the Great Being. This
+moral guardianship may assume three types,--the mother, the wife and the
+daughter; each having several modifications, as shown in the concluding
+volume. Together they form the three simple modes of solidarity, or
+unity with contemporaries,--obedience, union and protection--as well as
+the three degrees of continuity between ages, by uniting us with the
+past, the present and the future. In accordance with my theory of the
+brain, each corresponds with one of our three altruistic
+instincts--veneration, attachment and benevolence."
+
+
+  Conclusion.
+
+How the positive method of observation and verification of real facts
+has landed us in this, and much else of the same kind, is extremely hard
+to guess. Seriously to examine an encyclopaedic system, that touches
+life, society and knowledge at every point, is evidently beyond the
+compass of such an article as this. There is in every chapter a whole
+group of speculative suggestions, each of which would need a long
+chapter to itself to elaborate or to discuss. There is at least one
+biological speculation of astounding audacity, that could be examined in
+nothing less than a treatise. Perhaps we have said enough to show that
+after performing a great and real service to thought Comte almost
+sacrificed his claims to gratitude by the invention of a system that, as
+such, and independently of detached suggestions, is markedly retrograde.
+But the world will take what is available in Comte, while forgetting
+that in his work which is as irrational in one way as Hegel is in
+another.
+
+  See also the article POSITIVISM.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Works, Editions and Translations: Cours de philosophie
+  positive_ (6 vols., Paris, 1830-1842; 2nd ed. with preface by E.
+  Littré, Paris, 1864; 5th ed., 1893-1894; Eng. trans. Harriet
+  Martineau, 2 vols., London, 1853; 3 vols. London and New York, 1896);
+  _Discours sur l'esprit positif_ (Paris, 1844; Eng. trans. with
+  explanation E. S. Beesley, 1905); _Ordre et progrčs_ (ib. 1848);
+  _Discours sur l'ensemble de positivisme_ (1848, Eng. trans. J. H.
+  Bridges, London, 1852); _Systčme de politique positive, ou Traité de
+  sociologie_ (4 vols., Paris, 1852-1854; ed. 1898; Eng. trans. with
+  analysis and explanatory summary by Bridges, F. Harrison, E. S.
+  Beesley and others, 1875-1879); _Catéchisme positiviste_ (Paris, 1852;
+  3rd ed., 1890; Eng. trans. R. Congreve, Lond. 1858, 3rd ed., 1891);
+  _Appel aux Conservateurs_ (Paris, 1855 and 1898); _Synthčse
+  subjective_ (1856 and 1878); _Essai de philos. mathématique_ (Paris,
+  1878); P. Descours and H. Gordon Jones, _Fundamental Principles of
+  Positive Philos._ (trans. 1905), with biog. preface by E. S. Beesley.
+  The Letters of Comte have been published as follows:--the letters to
+  M. Valat and J. S. Mill, in _La Critique philosophique_ (1877);
+  correspondence with Mde. de Vaux (ib., 1884); _Correspondance inédite
+  d'Aug. Comte_ (1903 foll.); _Lettres inédites de J. S. Mill ŕ Aug.
+  Comte publ. avec les résponses de Comte_ (1899).
+
+  _Criticism._--J. S. Mill, _Auguste Comte and Positivism_; J. H.
+  Bridges' reply to Mill, _The Unity of Comte's Life and Doctrines_
+  (1866); Herbert Spencer's essay on the _Genesis of Science_ and
+  pamphlet on _The Classification of the Sciences_; Huxley's "Scientific
+  Aspects of Positivism," in his _Lay Sermons_; R. Congreve, _Essays
+  Political, Social and Religious_ (1874); J. Fiske, _Outlines of Cosmic
+  Philosophy_ (1874); G. H. Lewes, _History of Philosophy_, vol. ii.;
+  Edward Caird, _The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte_ (Glasgow,
+  1885); Hermann Gruber, _Aug. Comte der Begründer des Positivismus.
+  Sein Leben und seine Lehre_ (Freiburg, 1889) and _Der Positivismus vom
+  Tode Aug. Comtes bis auf unsere Tage, 1857-1891_ (Freib. 1891); L.
+  Lévy-Bruhl, _La Philosophie d'Aug. Comte_ (Paris, 1900); H. D. Hutton,
+  _Comte's Theory of Man's Future_ (1877), _Comte, the Man and the
+  Founder_ (1891), _Comte's Life and Work_ (1892); E. de Roberty, _Aug.
+  Comte et Herbert Spencer_ (Paris, 1894); J. Watson, _Comte, Mill and
+  Spencer. An outline of Philos._ (1895 and 1899); Millet, _La
+  Souveraineté d'aprčs Aug. Comte_ (1905); L. de Montesquieu Fezensac,
+  _Le Systčme politique d'Aug. Comte_ (1907); G. Dumas, _Psychologie de
+  deux Messies positivistes_ (1905).     (J. Mo.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For Comte's place in the history of ethical theory see ETHICS.
+
+
+
+
+COMUS (from [Greek: kômos], revel, or a company of revellers), in the
+later mythology of the Greeks, the god of festive mirth. In classic
+mythology the personification does not exist; but Comus appears in the
+[Greek: Eikónes], or _Descriptions of Pictures_, of Philostratus, a
+writer of the 3rd century A.D. as a winged youth, slumbering in a
+standing attitude, his legs crossed, his countenance flushed with wine,
+his head--which is sunk upon his breast--crowned with dewy flowers, his
+left hand feebly grasping a hunting spear, his right an inverted torch.
+Ben Jonson introduces Comus, in his masque entitled _Pleasure reconciled
+to Virtue_ (1619), as the portly jovial patron of good cheer, "First
+father of sauce and deviser of jelly." In the _Comus, sive Phagesiposia
+Cimmeria; Somnium_ (1608, and at Oxford, 1634), a moral allegory by a
+Dutch author, Hendrik van der Putten, or Erycius Puteanus, the
+conception is more nearly akin to Milton's, and Comus is a being whose
+enticements are more disguised and delicate than those of Jonson's
+deity. But Milton's Comus is a creation of his own. His story is one
+
+  "Which never yet was heard in tale or song
+   From old or modern bard, in hall or bower."
+
+Born from the loves of Bacchus and Circe, he is "much like his father,
+but his mother more"--a sorcerer, like her, who gives to travellers a
+magic draught that changes their human face into the "brutal form of
+some wild beast," and, hiding from them their own foul disfigurement,
+makes them forget all the pure ties of life, "to roll with pleasure in a
+sensual sty."
+
+
+
+
+COMYN, JOHN (d. c. 1300), Scottish baron, was a son of John Comyn (d.
+1274), justiciar of Galloway, who was a nephew of the constable of
+Scotland, Alexander Comyn, earl of Buchan (d. 1289), and of the powerful
+and wealthy Walter Comyn, earl of Mentieth (d. 1258). With his uncle the
+earl of Buchan, the elder Comyn took a prominent part in the affairs of
+Scotland during the latter part of the 13th century, and he had
+interests and estates in England as well as in his native land. He
+fought for Henry III. at Northampton and at Lewes, and was afterwards
+imprisoned for a short time in London. The younger Comyn, who had
+inherited the lordship of Badenoch from his great-uncle the earl of
+Mentieth, was appointed one of the guardians of Scotland in 1286, and
+shared in the negotiations between Edward I. and the Scots in 1289 and
+1290. When Margaret, the Maid of Norway, died in 1290, Comyn was one of
+the claimants for the Scottish throne, but he did not press his
+candidature, and like the other Comyns urged the claim of John de
+Baliol. After supporting Baliol in his rising against Edward I., Comyn
+submitted to the English king in 1296; he was sent to reside in England,
+but returned to Scotland shortly before his death.
+
+Comyn's son, JOHN COMYN (d. 1306), called the "red Comyn," is more
+famous. Like his father he assisted Baliol in his rising against Edward
+I., and he was for some time a hostage in England. Having been made
+guardian of Scotland after the battle of Falkirk in 1298 he led the
+resistance to the English king for about five years, and then early in
+1304 made an honourable surrender. Comyn is chiefly known for his
+memorable quarrel with Robert the Bruce. The origin of the dispute is
+uncertain. Doubtless the two regarded each other as rivals; Comyn may
+have refused to join in the insurrection planned by Bruce. At all events
+the pair met at Dumfries in January 1306; during a heated altercation
+charges of treachery were made, and Comyn was stabbed to death either by
+Bruce or by his followers.
+
+Another member of the Comyn family who took an active part in Scottish
+affairs during these troubled times is JOHN COMYN, earl of Buchan (d. c.
+1313). This earl, a son of Earl Alexander, was constable of Scotland,
+and was first an ally and then an enemy of Robert the Bruce.
+
+
+
+
+CONACRE (a corruption of corn-acre), in Ireland, a system of letting
+land, mostly in small patches, and usually for the growth of potatoes as
+a kind of return instead of wages. It is now practically obsolete.
+
+
+
+
+CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1802-1891), American Biblical scholar, was
+born at Brandon, Vermont, on the 13th of December 1802. Graduating at
+Middlebury College in 1823, he became tutor in the Columbian University
+(now George Washington University) from 1825 to 1827, professor of
+Greek, Latin and German at Waterville College (now Colby College) from
+1827 to 1833, professor of biblical literature and criticism in Hamilton
+(New York) Theological Institute from 1835 to 1851, and professor of
+Hebrew and of Biblical exegesis in Rochester Theological Seminary from
+1851 to 1857. From 1857 to 1875 he was employed by the American Bible
+Union on the revision of the New Testament (1871). He married in 1830
+Hannah O'Brien Chaplin (1809-1865), who was herself the author of _The
+Earnest Man_, a biography of Adoniram Judson (1855), and of _The History
+of the English Bible_ (1859), besides being her husband's able assistant
+in his Hebrew studies. He died in Brooklyn, New York, on the 30th of
+April 1891. Conant was the foremost Hebrew scholar of his time in
+America. His treatise, _The Meaning and Use of "Baptizein"
+Philologically and Historically Investigated_ (1860), an "appendix to
+the revised version of the Gospel by Matthew," is a valuable summary of
+the evidence for Baptist doctrine. He translated and edited Gesenius's
+_Hebrew Grammar_ (1839; 1877), and published revised versions with notes
+of _Job_ (1856), _Genesis_ (1868), _Psalms_ (1871), _Proverbs_ (1872),
+_Isaiah_ i.-xiii. 22 (1874), and _Historical Books of the Old Testament,
+Joshua to II. Kings_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+CONATION (from Lat. _conari_, to attempt, strive), a psychological term,
+originally chosen by Sir William Hamilton (_Lectures on Metaphysics_,
+pp. 127 foll.), used generally of an attitude of mind involving a
+tendency to take _action_, e.g. when one decides to remove an object
+which is causing a painful sensation, or to try to interrupt an
+unpleasant train of thought. This use of the word tends to lay emphasis
+on the mind as self-determined in relation to external objects. Another
+less common use of the word is to describe the pleasant or painful
+sensations which accompany muscular activity; the _conative_ phenomena,
+thus regarded, are psychic changes brought about by external causes.
+
+The chief difficulty in connexion with Conation is that of
+distinguishing it from Feeling, a term of very vague significance both
+in technical and in common usage. Thus the German psychologist F.
+Brentano holds that no real distinction can be made. He argues that the
+mental process from sorrow or dissatisfaction, through hope for a change
+and courage to act, up to the voluntary determination which issues in
+action, is a single homogeneous whole (_Psychologie_, pp. 308-309). The
+mere fact, however, that the series is continuous is no ground for not
+distinguishing its parts; if it were so, it would be impossible to
+distinguish by separate names the various colours in the solar spectrum,
+or indeed perception from conception. A more material objection,
+moreover, is that, in point of fact, the feeling of pleasure or pain
+roused by a given stimulus is specifically different from, and indeed
+may not be followed by, the determination to modify or remove it.
+Pleasure and pain, i.e. hedonic sensation _per se_, are essentially
+distinct from appetition and aversion; the pleasures of hearing music or
+enjoying sunshine are not in general accompanied by any volitional
+activity. It is true that painful sensations are generally accompanied
+by definite aversion or a tendency to take action, but the cases of
+positive pleasure are amply sufficient to support a distinction.
+Therefore, though in ordinary language such phrases as "feeling
+aversion" are quite legitimate, accurate psychology compels us to
+confine "feeling" to states of consciousness in which no conative
+activity is present, i.e. to the psychic phenomena of pleasure or pain
+considered in and by themselves. The study of such phenomena is
+specifically described as Hedonics (Gr. [Greek: hędonę], pleasure) or
+Algedonics (Gr. [Greek: algędôn], pain); the latter term was coined by
+H. R. Marshall (in _Pain, Pleasure and Aesthetics_, 1894), but has not
+been generally used.
+
+The problem of conation is closely related to that of Attention (q.v.),
+which indeed, regarded as active consciousness, implies conation (G. T.
+Ladd, _Psychology_, 1894, p. 213). Thus, whenever the mind deliberately
+focusses itself upon a particular object, there is implied a psychic
+effort (for the relation between Attention and Conation, see G. F.
+Stout, _Analytic Psychology_, book i. chap. vi.). All conscious action,
+and in a less degree even unconscious or reflex action, implies
+attention; when the mind "attends" to any given external object, the
+organ through the medium of which information regarding that object is
+conveyed to the mind is set in motion. (See PSYCHOLOGY.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCA, SEBASTIANO (1679-1764), Italian painter of the Florentine school,
+was born at Gaeta, and studied at Naples under Francesco Solimena. In
+1706, along with his brother Giovanni, who acted as his assistant, he
+settled at Rome, where for several years he worked in chalk only, to
+improve his drawing. He was patronized by the Cardinal Ottoboni, who
+introduced him to Clement XI.; and a Jeremiah painted in the church of
+St John Lateran was rewarded by the pope with knighthood and by the
+cardinal with a diamond cross. His fame grew quickly, and he received
+the patronage of most of the crowned heads of Europe. He painted till
+near the day of his death, and left behind him an immense number of
+pictures, mostly of a brilliant and showy kind, which are distributed
+among the churches of Italy. Of these the Probatica, or Pool of Siloam,
+in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala, at Siena, is considered the
+finest.
+
+
+
+
+CONCARNEAU, a fishing port of western France in the department of
+Finistčre, 14 m. by road S.E. of Quimper. Pop. (1906) 7887. The town
+occupies a picturesque situation on an inlet opening into the Bay of La
+Foręt. The old portion stands on an island, and is surrounded by
+ramparts, parts of which are believed to date from the 14th century. It
+is an important centre of the sardine, mackerel and lobster fisheries.
+Sardine-preserving, boat-building and the manufacture of sardine-boxes
+are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+CONCEPCIÓN, a province of southern Chile, lying between the provinces of
+Maule and Ńuble on the N. and Bio-Bio on the S., and extending from the
+Pacific to the Argentine boundary. Its outline is very irregular, the
+Itata river forming its northern boundary, and the Bio-Bio and one of
+its tributaries a part of its southern boundary. Area (estimated) 3252
+sq. m.; pop. (1895) 188,190. Concepción is the most important province
+of southern Chile because of its advantageous commercial position,
+fertility and productive industries. Its coast is indented by two large
+well-sheltered bays, Talcahuano and Arauco, the former having the ports
+of Talcahuano, Penco and El Tomé, and the latter Coronel and Lota. Its
+railway communications are good, and the Bio-Bio, which crosses its S.W.
+corner, has 100 m. of navigable channel. The province produces wheat and
+manufactures flour for export; its wines are reputed the best in Chile,
+cattle are bred in large numbers, wool is produced, and considerable
+timber is shipped. Near the coast are extensive deposits of coal, which
+is shipped from Lota and Coronel, the former being the site of the most
+productive coal-mine in South America. The climate is mild and the
+rainfall is abundant. Large copper-smelting and glass works have been
+established at Lota because of its coal resources. The valley of the
+Itata is largely devoted to vine cultivation, and the port of this
+district, El Tomé, is noted for its wine vaults and trade. It also
+possesses a small woollen factory. The principal towns are on the coast
+and had in 1895 the following populations: Talcahuano, 10,431; Lota,
+9797 (largely operatives in the mines and smelting works); Coronel,
+4575; and El Tomé, 3977.
+
+
+
+
+CONCEPCIÓN, a city of southern Chile, capital of a province and
+department of the same name, on the right bank of the Bio-Bio river, 7
+m. above its mouth, and 355 m. S.S.W. of Santiago by rail. Pop. (1895)
+39,837; (1902, estimated) 49,351. It is the commercial centre of a rich
+agricultural region, but because of obstructions at the mouth of the
+Bio-Bio its trade passes in great part through the port of Talcahuano, 8
+m. distant by rail. The small port of Penco, situated on the same bay
+and 10 m. distant by rail, also receives a part of the trade because of
+official restrictions at Talcahuano. Concepción is one of the southern
+termini of the Chilean central railway, by which it is connected with
+Santiago to the N., with Valdivia and Puerto Montt to the S., and with
+the port of Talcahuano. Another line extends southward through the
+Chilean coal-producing districts to Curanilhué, crossing the Bio-Bio by
+a steel viaduct 6000 ft. long on 62 skeleton piers; and a short line of
+10 m. runs northward to Penco. The Bio-Bio is navigable above the city
+for 100 m. and considerable traffic comes through this channel. The
+districts tributary to Concepción produce wheat, wine, wool, cattle,
+coal and timber, and among the industrial establishments of the city are
+flour mills, furniture and carriage factories, distilleries and
+breweries. The city is built on a level plain but little above the
+sea-level, and is laid out in regular squares with broad streets. It is
+an episcopal see with a cathedral and several fine churches, and is the
+seat of a court of appeal. The city was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in
+1550, and received the singular title of "La Concepción del Nuevo
+Extremo." It was located on the bay of Talcahuano where the town of
+Penco now stands, about 9 m. from its present site, but was destroyed by
+earthquakes in 1570, 1730 and 1751, and was then (1755) removed to the
+margin of the Bio-Bio. In 1835 it was again laid in ruins, a graphic
+description of which is given by Charles Darwin in _The Voyage of H.M.S.
+Beagle_. The city was twice burned by the Araucanians during their long
+struggle against the Spanish colonists.
+
+
+
+
+CONCEPCIÓN, or VILLA CONCEPCIÓN, the principal town and a river port of
+northern Paraguay, on the Paraguay river, 138 m. (234 m. by river) N. of
+Asunción, and about 345 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1895, estimate)
+10,000, largely Indians and mestizos. It is an important commercial
+centre, and a port of call for the river steamers trading with the
+Brazilian town of Corumbá, Matto Grosso. It is the principal point for
+the exportation of Paraguay tea, or "yerba maté" (_Ilex paraguayensis_).
+The town has a street railway and telephone service, a national college,
+a public school, a market, and some important commercial establishments.
+The neighbouring country is sparsely settled and produces little except
+forest products. Across the river, in the Paraguayan Chaco, is an
+English missionary station, whose territory extends inland among the
+Indians for many miles.
+
+
+
+
+CONCEPT[1] (Lat. _conceptus_, a thought, from _concipere_, to take
+together, combine in thought; Ger. _Begriff_), in philosophy, a term
+applied to a general idea derived from and considered apart from the
+particulars observed by the senses. The mental process by which this
+idea is obtained is called abstraction (q.v.). By the comparison, for
+instance, of a number of boats, the mind abstracts a certain common
+quality or qualities in virtue of which the mind affirms the general
+idea of "boat." Thus the connotation of the term "boat," being the sum
+of those qualities in respect of which all boats are regarded as alike,
+whatever their individual peculiarities may be, is described as a
+"concept." The psychic process by which a concept is affirmed is called
+"Conception," a term which is often loosely used in a concrete sense for
+"Concept" itself. It is also used even more loosely as synonymous in the
+widest sense with "idea," "notion." Strictly, however, it is contrasted
+with "perception," and implies the mental reconstruction and combination
+of sense-given data. Thus when one carries one's thoughts back to a
+series of events, one constructs a psychic whole made up of parts which
+take definite shape and character by their mutual interrelations. This
+process is called _conceptual synthesis_, the possibility of which is a
+_sine qua non_ for the exchange of information by speech and writing. It
+should be noticed that this (very common) psychological interpretation
+of "conception" differs from the metaphysical or general philosophical
+definition given above, in so far as it includes mental presentations in
+which the universal is not specifically distinguished from the
+particulars. Some psychologists prefer to restrict the term to the
+narrower use which excludes all mental states in which particulars are
+cognized, even though the universal be present also.
+
+In biology conception is the coalescence of the male and female
+generative elements, producing pregnancy.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word "conceit" in its various senses ("idea," "plan," "fancy,"
+    "imagination," and, by modern extension, an overweening sense of one's
+    own value) is likewise derived ultimately from the Latin _concipere_.
+    It appears to have been formed directly from the English derivative
+    "conceive" on the analogy of "deceit" from "deceive." According to the
+    _New English Dictionary_ there is no intermediate form in Old French.
+
+
+
+
+CONCEPTUALISM (from "Concept"), in philosophy, a term applied by modern
+writers to a scholastic theory of the nature of universals, to
+distinguish it from the two extremes of Nominalism and Realism. The
+scholastic philosophers took up the old Greek problem as to the nature
+of true reality--whether the general idea or the particular object is
+more truly real. Between Realism which asserts that the _genus_ is more
+real than the _species_, and that particulars have no reality, and
+Nominalism according to which _genus_ and _species_ are merely names
+(_nomina, flatus vocis_), Conceptualism takes a mean position. The
+conceptualist holds that universals have a real existence, but only in
+the mind, as the concepts which unite the individual things: e.g. there
+is in the mind a general notion or idea of boats, by reference to which
+the mind can decide whether a given object is, or is not, a boat. On the
+one hand "boat" is something more than a mere sound with a purely
+arbitrary conventional significance; on the other it has, apart from
+particular things to which it applies, no reality; its reality is purely
+abstract or conceptual. This theory was enunciated by Abelard in
+opposition to Roscellinus (nominalist) and William of Champeaux
+(realist). He held that it is only by becoming a predicate that the
+class-notion or general term acquires reality. Thus similarity
+(_conformitas_) is observed to exist between a number of objects in
+respect of a particular quality or qualities. This quality becomes real
+as a mental concept when it is predicated of all the objects possessing
+it ("quod de pluribus natum est praedicari"). Hence Abelard's theory is
+alternatively known as Sermonism (_sermo_, "predicate"). His statement
+of this position oscillates markedly, inclining sometimes towards the
+nominalist, sometimes towards the realist statement, using the arguments
+of the one against the other. Hence he is described by some as a
+realist, by others as a nominalist. When he comes to explain that
+objective similarity in things which is represented by the class-concept
+or general term, he adopts the theological Platonic view that the ideas
+which are the archetypes of the qualities exist in the mind of God. They
+are, therefore, _ante rem, in re_ and _post rem_, or, as Avicenna stated
+it, _universalia ante multiplicitatem, in multiplicitate, post
+multiplicitatem_. (See LOGIC, METAPHYSICS.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCERT (through the French from Lat. CON-, with, and _certare_, to
+strive), a term meaning, in general, co-operation, agreement or union;
+the more specific usages being, in music, for a public performance by
+instrumentalists, vocalists or both combined, and in diplomacy, for an
+understanding or agreement for common action between two or more states,
+whether defined by treaty or not. The term "Concert of Europe" has been
+commonly applied, since the congress of Vienna (1814-1815), to the
+European powers consulting or acting together in questions of common
+interest. (See ALLIANCE and EUROPE: _HISTORY_.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCERTINA, or MELODION (Fr. _concertina_, Ger. _Ziehharmonica_ or
+_Bandoneon_), a wind instrument of the seraphine family with free reeds,
+forming a link in the evolution of the harmonium from the mouth organ,
+intermediate links being the cheng and the accordion. The concertina
+consists of two hexagonal or rectangular keyboards connected by a long
+expansible bellows of many folds similar to that of the accordion. The
+keyboards are furnished with rows of knobs, which, on being pressed down
+by the fingers, open valves admitting the air compressed by the bellows
+to the free reeds, which are thus set in vibration. These free reeds
+consist of narrow tongues of brass riveted by one end to the inside
+surface of the keyboard, and having their free ends slightly bent, some
+outwards, some inwards, the former actuated by suction when the bellows
+are expanded, the latter by compression. The pitch of the note depends
+upon the length and thickness of the reeds, reduction of the length
+tending to sharpen the pitch of the note, while reduction of the
+thickness lowers it. The bellows being unprovided with a valve can only
+draw in and emit the air through the reed valves. In order to produce
+the sound, the concertina is held horizontally between the hands, the
+bellows being by turns compressed and expanded. The English concertina,
+invented and patented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1829, the year of the
+reputed invention of the accordion (q.v.), is constructed with a double
+action, the same note being produced on compressing and expanding the
+bellows, whereas in the German concertina or accordion two different
+notes are given out. Concertinas are made in complete families--treble,
+tenor, bass and double bass, having a combined total range of nearly
+seven octaves. The compass is as follows:--
+
+[Illustration: Treble concertina, double action]
+
+[Illustration: Tenor concertina, single action]
+
+[Illustration: Bass concertina, single action]
+
+[Illustration: Double bass concertina, single action]
+
+The timbre of the concertina is penetrating but soft, and capable of the
+most delicate gradations of tone. This quality is due to a law of
+acoustics governing the vibration of free reeds by means of which
+_fortes_ and _pianos_ are obtained by varying the pressure of the wind,
+as is also the case with the double reed or the single or beating reed,
+while the pressure of the reed with the lips combined with greater
+pressure of wind produces the harmonic overtones which are not given out
+by free reeds. The English concertina possesses one peculiarity which
+renders it unsuitable for playing with instruments tuned according to
+the law of equal temperament, such as the pianoforte, harmonium or
+melodion, i.e. it has enharmonic intervals between G# and A# and between
+D[flat] and E[flat]. The German concertina is not constructed according
+to this system; its compass extends down to C or even B[flat], but it is
+not provided with double action. It is possible on the English
+concertina to play diatonic and chromatic passages or arpeggios in
+legato or staccato style with rapidity, shakes single and double in
+thirds; it is also possible to play in parts as on the pianoforte or
+organ and to produce very rich chords. Concertos were written for
+concertina with orchestra by Molique and Regondi, a sonata with piano by
+Molique, while Tschaikowsky scored in his second orchestral suite for
+four accordions.
+
+The aeola, constructed by the representatives of the original firm of
+Wheatstone, is a still more artistically developed concertina, having
+among other improvements steel reeds instead of brass, which increase
+the purity and delicacy of the timbre.
+
+  See also ACCORDION; CHENG; HARMONIUM; Free-Reed Vibrator.     (K. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCERTO (Lat. _concertus_, from _certare_, to strive, also confused
+with _concentus_), in music, a term which appears as early as the
+beginning of the 17th century, at first as a title of no very definite
+meaning, but which early acquired a sense justified by its etymology and
+became applied chiefly to compositions in which unequal instrumental or
+vocal forces are brought into opposition.
+
+Although by Bach's time the concerto as a polyphonic instrumental form
+was thoroughly established, the term frequently appears in the autograph
+title-pages of his church cantatas, even when the cantata contains no
+instrumental prelude. Indeed, so entirely does the actual concerto form,
+as Bach understands it, depend upon the opposition of masses of tone
+unequal in volume with a compensating inequality in power of commanding
+attention, that Bach is able to rewrite an instrumental movement as a
+chorus without the least incongruity of style. A splendid example of
+this is the first chorus of a university festival cantata, _Vereinigte
+Zwietracht der wechselnden Saiten_, the very title of which ("united
+contest of turn-about strings") is a perfect definition of the earlier
+form of _concerto grosso_, in which the chief mass of the orchestra was
+opposed, not to a mere solo instrument, but to a small group called the
+_concertino_, or else the whole work was for a large orchestral mass in
+which tutti passages alternate with passages in which the whole
+orchestra is dispersed in every possible kind of grouping. But the
+special significance of this particular chorus is that it is arranged
+from the second movement of the first Brandenburg concerto; and that
+while the orchestral material is unaltered except for transposition of
+key, enlargement of force and substitution of trumpets and drums for the
+original horns, the whole chorus part has been evolved from the solo
+part for a kit violin (_violino piccolo_). This admirably illustrates
+Bach's grasp of the true idea of a concerto, namely, that whatever the
+relations may be between the forces in respect of volume or sound, the
+whole treatment of the form must depend upon the healthy relation of
+function between that force which commands more and that which commands
+less attention. _Ceteris paribus_ the individual, suitably placed, will
+command more attention than the crowd, whether in real life, drama or
+instrumental music. And in music the human voice, with human words, will
+thrust any orchestral force into the background, the moment it can make
+itself heard at all. Hence it is not surprising that the earlier
+concerto forms should show the closest affinity (not only in general
+aesthetic principle, but in many technical details) with the form of the
+vocal aria, as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti. And the treatment of the
+orchestra is, _mutatis mutandis_, exactly the same in both. The
+orchestra is entrusted with a highly pregnant and short summary of the
+main contents of the movement, and the solo, or the groups corresponding
+thereto, will either take up this material or first introduce new themes
+to be combined with it, and, in short, enter into relations with the
+orchestra very like those between the actors and the chorus in Greek
+drama. If the aria before Mozart may be regarded as a single large
+melody expanded by the device of the ritornello so as to give full
+expression to the power of a singer against an instrumental
+accompaniment, so the polyphonic concerto form may be regarded as an
+expansion of the aria form to a scale worthy of the larger and purely
+instrumental forces employed, and so rendered capable of absorbing large
+polyphonic and other types of structure incompatible with the lyric idea
+of the aria. The _da capo_ form, by which the aria had attained its full
+dimensions through the addition of a second strain in foreign keys
+followed by the original strain _da capo_, was absorbed by the
+polyphonic concerto on an enormous scale, both in first movements and
+finales (see Bach's Klavier concerto in E, Violin concerto in E, first
+movement), while for slow movements the _ground bass_ (see VARIATIONS),
+diversified by changes of key (Klavier concerto in D minor), the more
+melodic types of binary form, sometimes with the repeats ornamentally
+varied or inverted (Concerto for 3 klaviers in D minor, Concerto for
+klavier, flute and violin in A minor), and in finales the _rondo_ form
+(Violin concerto in E major, Klavier concerto in F minor) and the binary
+form (3rd Brandenburg concerto) may be found.
+
+When conceptions of musical form changed and the modern sonata style
+arose, the peculiar conditions of the concerto gave rise to problems the
+difficulty of which only the highest classical intellects could
+appreciate or solve. The number and contrast of the themes necessary to
+work out a first movement of a sonata are far too great to be contained
+within the single musical sentence of Bach's and Handel's ritornello,
+even when it is as long as the thirty bars of Bach's Italian concerto (a
+work in which every essential of the polyphonic concerto is reproduced
+on the harpsichord by means of the contrasts between its full register
+on the lower of its two keyboards and its solo stops on both). Bach's
+sons had taken shrewd steps in forming the new style; and Mozart, as a
+boy, modelled himself closely on Johann Christian Bach, and by the time
+he was twenty was able to write concerto ritornellos that gave the
+orchestra admirable opportunity for asserting its character and resource
+in the statement in charmingly epigrammatic style of some five or six
+sharply contrasted themes, afterwards to be worked out with additions by
+the solo with the orchestra's co-operation and intervention. As the
+scale of the works increases the problem becomes very difficult, because
+the alternation between solo and tutti easily produces a sectional type
+of structure incompatible with the high degree of organization required
+in first movements; yet frequent alternation is evidently necessary, as
+the orchestral solo is audible only above a very subdued orchestral
+accompaniment, and it would be highly inartistic to use the orchestra
+for no other purpose. Hence in the classical concerto the ritornello is
+never abandoned, in spite of the enormous dimensions to which the sonata
+style expanded it. And though from the time of Mendelssohn onwards most
+composers have seemed to regard it as a conventional impediment easily
+abandoned, it may be doubted whether any modern concerto, except the
+four magnificent examples of Brahms, and Dr Joachim's Hungarian
+concerto, possesses first movements in which the orchestra seems to
+enjoy breathing space. And certainly in the classical concerto the entry
+of the solo instrument, after the long opening tutti, is always dramatic
+in direct proportion to its delay. The great danger in handling so long
+an orchestral prelude is that the work may for some minutes be
+indistinguishable from a symphony and thus the entry of the solo may be
+unexpected without being inevitable. This is especially the case if the
+composer has treated his opening tutti like the exposition of a sonata
+movement, and made a deliberate transition from his first group of
+themes to a second group in a complementary key, even if the transition
+is only temporary, as in Beethoven's C minor concerto. Mozart keeps his
+whole tutti in the tonic, relieved only by his mastery of sudden
+subsidiary modulation; and so perfect is his marshalling of his
+resources that in his hands a tutti a hundred bars long passes by with
+the effect of a splendid pageant, of which the meaning is evidently
+about to be revealed by the solo. After the C minor concerto, Beethoven
+grasped the true function of the opening tutti and enlarged it to his
+new purposes. With an interesting experiment of Mozart's before him, he,
+in his G major concerto, _Op. 53_, allowed the solo player to state the
+opening theme, making the orchestra enter _pianissimo_ in a foreign key,
+a wonderful incident which has led to the absurd statement that he
+"abolished the opening tutti," and that Mendelssohn in so doing has
+"followed his example." In this concerto he also gave considerable
+variety of key to the opening tutti by the use of an important theme
+which executes a considerable series of modulations, an entirely
+different thing from a deliberate modulation from material in one key to
+material in another. His fifth and last pianoforte concerto, in E flat,
+commonly called the "Emperor," begins with a rhapsodical introduction of
+extreme brilliance for the solo player, followed by a tutti of unusual
+length which is confined to the tonic major and minor with a strictness
+explained by the gorgeous modulations with which the solo subsequently
+treats the second subject. In this concerto Beethoven also dispenses
+with the only really conventional feature of the form, namely, the
+_cadenza_, a custom elaborated from the operatic aria, in which the
+singer was allowed to extemporize a flourish on a pause near the end. A
+similar pause was made in the final ritornello of a concerto, and the
+soloist was supposed to extemporize what should be equivalent to a
+symphonic coda, with results which could not but be deplorable unless
+the player (or cadenza writer) were either the composer himself, or
+capable of entering into his intentions, like Joachim, who has written
+the finest extant cadenza of classical violin concertos.
+
+Brahms's first concerto in D minor, _Op. 15_, was the result of an
+immense amount of work, and, though on a mass of material originally
+intended for a symphony, was nevertheless so perfectly assimilated into
+the true concerto form that in his next essay, the violin concerto, _Op.
+77_, he had no more to learn, and was free to make true innovations. He
+succeeds in presenting the contrasts even of remote keys so immediately
+that they are serviceable in the opening tutti and give the form a wider
+range in definitely functional key than any other instrumental music.
+Thus in the opening tutti of the D minor concerto the second subject is
+announced in B flat minor. In the B flat pianoforte concerto, _Op. 83_,
+it appears in D minor, and in the double concerto, _Op. 102_, for violin
+and violoncello in A minor it appears in F major. In none of these cases
+is it in the key in which the solo develops it, and it is reached with
+a directness sharply contrasted with the symphonic deliberation with
+which it is approached in the solo. In the violin concerto, _Op. 77_,
+Brahms develops a counterplot in the opposition between solo and
+orchestra, inasmuch as after the solo has worked out its second subject
+the orchestra bursts in, not with the opening ritornello, but with its
+own version of the material with which the solo originally entered. In
+other words we have now not only the development by the solo of material
+stated by the orchestra but also a counter-development by the orchestra
+of material stated by the solo. This concerto is, on the other hand,
+remarkable as being the last in which a blank space is left for a
+cadenza, Brahms having in his friend Joachim a kindred spirit worthy of
+such trust. In the pianoforte concerto in B flat, and in the double
+concerto,[1] _Op. 102_, the idea of an introductory statement in which
+the solo takes part before the opening tutti is carried out on a large
+scale, and in the double concerto both first and second subjects are
+thus suggested. It is unnecessary to speak of the other movements of
+concerto form, as the sectional structure that so easily results from
+the opposition between solo and orchestra is not of great disadvantage
+to slow movements and finales, which accordingly do not show important
+differences from the ordinary types of symphonic and chamber music. The
+scherzo, on the other hand, is normally of too small a range of contrast
+for successful adaptation to concerto form, and the solitary great
+example of its use is the second movement of Brahms's B flat pianoforte
+concerto.
+
+Nothing is more easy to handle with inartistic or pseudo-classic
+effectiveness than the opposition between a brilliant solo player and an
+orchestra; and, as the inevitable tendency of even the most artistic
+concerto has been to exhaust the resources of the solo instrument in the
+increased difficulty of making a proper contrast between solo and
+orchestra, so the technical difficulty of concertos has steadily
+increased until even in classical times it was so great that the
+orthodox definition of a concerto is that it is "an instrumental
+composition designed to show the skill of an executant, and one which is
+almost invariably accompanied by orchestra." This idea is in flat
+violation of the whole history and aesthetics of the form, which can
+never be understood by means of a study of averages. In art the average
+is always false, and the individual organization of the greatest
+classical works is the only sound basis for generalizations, historic or
+aesthetic.     (D. F. T.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Double and triple concertos are concertos with two or three solo
+    players. A concerto for several solo players is called a concertante.
+
+
+
+
+CONCH (Lat. _concha_, Gr. [Greek: konchę]), a shell, particularly one of
+a mollusc; hence the term "conchology," the science which deals with
+such shells, more used formerly when molluscs were studied and
+classified according to the shell formation; the word is chiefly now
+used for the collection of shells (see MOLLUSCA, and such articles as
+GASTROPODA, MALACOSTRACA, &c.). Large spiral conchs have been from early
+times used as a form of trumpet, emitting a very loud sound. They are
+used in the West Indies and the South Sea Islands. The Tritons of
+ancient mythology are represented as blowing such "wreathed horns." In
+anatomy, the term _concha_ or "conch" is used of the external ear, or of
+the hollowed central part leading to the meatus; and, in architecture,
+it is sometimes given to the half dome over the semicircular apse of the
+basilica. In late Roman work at Baalbek and Palmyra and in Renaissance
+buildings shells are frequently carved in the heads of circular niches.
+A low class of the negro or other inhabitants of the Bahamas and the
+Florida Keys are sometimes called "Conches" or "Conks" from the
+shell-fish which form their staple food.
+
+
+
+
+CONCHOID (Gr. [Greek: konchę], shell, and [Greek: eidos], form), a plane
+curve invented by the Greek mathematician Nicomedes, who devised a
+mechanical construction for it and applied it to the problem of the
+duplication of the cube, the construction of two mean proportionals
+between two given quantities, and possibly to the trisection of an angle
+as in the 8th lemma of Archimedes. Proclus grants Nicomedes the credit
+of this last application, but it is disputed by Pappus, who claims that
+his own discovery was original. The conchoid has been employed by later
+mathematicians, notably Sir Isaac Newton, in the construction of various
+cubic curves.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The conchoid is generated as follows:--Let O be a fixed point and BC a
+fixed straight line; draw any line through O intersecting BC in P and
+take on the line PO two points X, X', such that PX = PX' = a constant
+quantity. Then the locus of X and X' is the conchoid. The conchoid is
+also the locus of any point on a rod which is constrained to move so
+that it always passes through a fixed point, while a fixed point on the
+rod travels along a straight line. To obtain the equation to the curve,
+draw AO perpendicular to BC, and let AO = a; let the constant quantity
+PX = PX' = b. Then taking O as pole and a line through O parallel to BC
+as the initial line, the polar equation is r = a cosec [theta] ą b, the
+upper sign referring to the branch more distant from O. The cartesian
+equation with A as origin and BC as axis of x is x˛y˛ = (a + y)˛ (b˛ -
+y˛). Both branches belong to the same curve and are included in this
+equation. Three forms of the curve have to be distinguished according to
+the ratio of a to b. If a be less than b, there will be a node at O and
+a loop below the initial point (curve 1 in the figure); if a equals b
+there will be a cusp at O (curve 2); if a be greater than b the curve
+will not pass through O, but from the cartesian equation it is obvious
+that O is a conjugate point (curve 3). The curve is symmetrical about
+the axis of y and has the axis of x for its asymptote.
+
+
+
+
+CONCIERGE (a French word of unknown origin; the Latinized form was
+_concergius_ or _concergerius_), originally the guardian of a house or
+castle, in the middle ages a court official who was the custodian of a
+royal palace. In Paris, when the _Palais de la Cité_ ceased about 1360
+to be a royal residence and became the seat of the courts of justice,
+the _Conciergerie_ was turned into a prison. In modern usage a
+"concierge" is a hall-porter or janitor.
+
+
+
+
+CONCINI, CONCINO (d. 1617), COUNT DELLA PENNA, MARSHAL D'ANCRE, Italian
+adventurer, minister of King Louis XIII. of France, was a native of
+Florence. He came to France in the train of Marie de' Medici, and
+married the queen's lady-in-waiting, Leonora Dori, known as Galigai. The
+credit which his wife enjoyed with the queen, his wit, cleverness and
+boldness made his fortune. In 1610 he had purchased the marquisate of
+Ancre and the position of first gentleman-in-waiting. Then he obtained
+successively the governments of Amiens and of Normandy, and in 1614 the
+bâton of marshal. From then first minister of the realm, he abandoned
+the policy of Henry IV., compromised his wise legislation, allowed the
+treasury to be pillaged, and drew upon himself the hatred of all
+classes. The nobles were bitterly hostile to him, particularly Condé,
+with whom he negotiated the treaty of Loudun in 1616, and whom he had
+arrested in September 1616. This was done on the advice of Richelieu,
+whose introduction into politics was favoured by Concini. But Louis
+XIII., incited by his favourite Charles d'Albert, due de Luynes, was
+tired of Concini's tutelage. The baron de Vitry received in the king's
+name the order to imprison him. Apprehended on the bridge of the Louvre,
+Concini was killed by the guards on the 24th of April 1617. Leonora was
+accused of sorcery and sent to the stake in the same year.
+
+  In 1767 appeared at Brescia a _De Concini vita_, by D. Sandellius. On
+  the rôle of Concini see the _Histoire de France_, published under the
+  direction of E. Lavisse, vol. vi. (1905), by Mariéjol.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLAVE (Lat. _conclave_, from _cum_, together, and _clavis_, a key),
+strictly a room, or set of rooms, locked with a key; in this sense the
+word is now obsolete in English, though the _New English Dictionary_
+gives an example of its use so late as 1753. Its present loose
+application to any private or close assembly, especially ecclesiastical,
+is derived from its technical application to the assembly of cardinals
+met for the election of the pope, with which this article is concerned.
+
+Conclave is the name applied to that system of strict seclusion to which
+the electors of the pope have been and are submitted, formerly as a
+matter of necessity, and subsequently as the result of a legislative
+enactment; hence the word has come to be used of the electoral assembly
+of the cardinals. This system goes back only as far as the 12th century.
+
+_Election of the Popes in Antiquity._--The very earliest episcopal
+nominations, at Rome as elsewhere, seem without doubt to have been made
+by the direct choice of the founders of the apostolic Christian
+communities. But this exceptional method was replaced at an early date
+by that of election. At Rome the method of election was the same as in
+other towns: the Roman clergy and people and the neighbouring bishops
+each took part in it in their several capacities. The people would
+signify their approbation or disapprobation of the candidates more or
+less tumultuously, while the clergy were, strictly speaking, the
+electoral body, met to elect for themselves a new head, and the bishops
+acted as presidents of the assembly and judges of the election. The
+choice had to meet with general consent; but we can well imagine that in
+an assembly of such size, in which the candidates were acclaimed rather
+than elected by counting votes, the various functions were not very
+distinct, and that persons of importance, whether clerical or lay, were
+bound to influence the elections, and sometimes decisively. Moreover,
+this form of election lent itself to cabals; and these frequently gave
+rise to quarrels, sometimes involving bloodshed and schisms, i.e. the
+election of antipopes, as they were later called. Such was the case at
+the elections of Cornelius (251), Damasus (366), Boniface (418),
+Symmachus (498), Boniface II. (530) and others. The remedy for this
+abuse was found in having recourse, more or less freely, to the support
+of the civil power. The emperor Honorius upheld Boniface against his
+competitor Eulalius, at the same time laying down that cases of
+contested election should henceforth be decided by a fresh election; but
+this would have been a dangerous method and was consequently never
+applied. Theodoric upheld Symmachus against Laurentius because he had
+been elected first and by a greater majority. The accepted fact soon
+became law, and John II. recognized (532) the right of the Ostrogothic
+court of Ravenna to ratify the pontifical elections. Justinian succeeded
+to this right together with the kingdom which he had destroyed; he
+demanded, together with the payment of a tribute of 3000 golden
+_solidi_, that the candidate elected should not receive the episcopal
+consecration till he had obtained the confirmation of the emperor. Hence
+arose long vacancies of the See, indiscreet interference in the
+elections by the imperial officials, and sometimes cases of simony and
+venality. This bondage became lighter in the 7th century, owing rather
+to the weakening of the imperial power than to any resistance on the
+part of the popes.
+
+_9th to 12th Centuries._--From the emperors of the East the power
+naturally passed to those of the West, and it was exercised after 824 by
+the descendants of Charlemagne, who claimed that the election should not
+proceed until the arrival of their envoys. But this did not last long;
+at the end of the 9th century, Rome, torn by factions, witnessed the
+scandal of the posthumous condemnation of Formosus. This deplorable
+state of affairs lasted almost without interruption till the middle of
+the 11th century. When the emperors were at Rome, they presided over the
+elections; when they were away, the rival factions of the barons, the
+Crescentii and the Alberici especially, struggled for the spiritual
+power as they did for the temporal. During this period were seen cases
+of popes imposed by a faction rather than elected, and then, at the
+mercy of sedition, deposed, poisoned and thrown into prison, sometimes
+to be restored by force of arms.
+
+
+  Election reserved to the cardinals.
+
+The influence of the Ottos (962-1002) was a lesser evil; that of the
+emperor Otto III. was even beneficial, in that it led to the election of
+Gerbert (Silvester II., in 999). But this was only a temporary check in
+the process of decadence, and in 1146 Clement II., the successor of the
+worthless Benedict IX., admitted that henceforth not only the
+consecration but even the _election_ of the Roman pontiffs could only
+take place in presence of the emperor. In fact, after the death of
+Clement II. the delegates of the Roman clergy did actually go to Polden
+to ask Henry III. to give them a pope, and similar steps were taken
+after the death of Damasus II., who reigned only twenty days.
+Fortunately on this occasion Henry III. appointed, just before his
+death, a man of high character, his cousin Bruno, bishop of Toul, who
+presented himself in Rome in company with Hildebrand. From this time
+began the reform. Hildebrand had the elections of Victor II. (1055),
+Stephen IX. (1057), and Nicholas II. (1058) carried out according to the
+canonical form, including the imperial ratification. The celebrated bull
+_In nomine Domini_ of the 13th of April 1059 determined the electoral
+procedure; it is curious to observe how, out of respect for tradition,
+it preserves all the former factors in the election though their scope
+is modified: "In the first place, the cardinal bishops shall carefully
+consider the election together, then they shall consult with the
+cardinal clergy, and afterwards the rest of the clergy and the people
+shall by giving their assent confirm the new election." The election,
+then, is reserved to the members of the higher clergy, to the cardinals,
+among whom the cardinal bishops have the preponderating position. The
+consent of the rest of the clergy and the people is now only a
+formality. The same was the case of the imperial intervention, in
+consequence of the phrase: "Saving the honour and respect due to our
+dear son Henry (Henry IV.), according to the concession we have made to
+him, and equally to his successors, who shall receive this right
+personally from the Apostolic See." Thus the emperor has no rights save
+those he has received as a concession from the Holy See. Gregory VII.,
+it is true, notified his election to the emperor; but as he set up a
+series of five antipopes, none of Gregory's successors asked any more
+for the imperial sanction. Further, by this bull, the emperors would
+have to deal with the _fait accompli_; for it provided that, in the
+event of disturbances aroused by mischievous persons at Rome preventing
+the election from being carried out there freely and without bias, the
+cardinal bishops, together with a small number of the clergy and of the
+laity, should be empowered to go and hold the election where they should
+think fit; that should difficulties of any sort prevent the enthronement
+of the new pope, the pope elect would be empowered immediately to act as
+if he were actually pope. This legislation was definitely accepted by
+the emperor by the concordat of Worms (1119).
+
+A limited electoral body lends itself to more minute legislation than a
+larger body; the college for electing the pope, thus reduced so as to
+consist in practice of the cardinals only, was subjected as time went on
+to laws of increasing severity. Two points of great importance were
+established by Alexander III. at the Lateran Council of 1179. The
+constitution _Licet de vitanda discordia_ makes all the cardinals
+equally electors, and no longer mentions the lower clergy or the people;
+it also requires a majority of two-thirds of the votes to decide an
+election. This latter provision, which still holds good, made imperial
+antipopes henceforth impossible.
+
+
+  The conclave.
+
+Abuses nevertheless arose. An electoral college too small in numbers,
+which no higher power has the right of forcing to haste, can prolong
+disagreements and draw out the course of the election for a long time.
+It is this period during which we actually find the Holy See left vacant
+most frequently for long spaces of time. The longest of these, however,
+gave an opportunity for reform and the remedy was found in the conclave,
+i.e. in the forced and rigid seclusion of the electors. As a matter of
+fact, this method had previously been used, but in a mitigated form: in
+1216, on the death of Innocent III., the people of Perugia had shut up
+the cardinals; and in 1241 the Roman magistrates had confined them
+within the "Septizonium"; they took two months, however, to perform the
+election. Celestine IV. died after eighteen days, and this time, in
+spite of the seclusion of the cardinals, there was an interregnum of
+twenty months. After the death of Clement IV. in 1268, the cardinals, of
+whom seventeen were gathered together at Viterbo, allowed two years to
+pass without coming to an agreement; the magistrates of Viterbo again
+had recourse to the method of seclusion: they shut up the electors in
+the episcopal palace, blocking up all outlets; and since the election
+still delayed, the people removed the roof of the palace and allowed
+nothing but bread and water to be sent in. Under the pressure of famine
+and of this strict confinement, the cardinals finally agreed, on the 1st
+of September 1271, to elect Gregory X., after an interregnum of two
+years, nine months and two days.
+
+
+  Laws made by Gregory X.
+
+Taught by experience, the new pope considered what steps could be taken
+to prevent the recurrence of such abuses; in 1274, at the council of
+Lyons, he promulgated the constitution _Ubi periculum_, the substance of
+which was as follows: At the death of the pope, the cardinals who were
+present are to await their absent colleagues for ten days; they are then
+to meet in one of the papal palaces in a closed conclave; none of them
+is to have to wait on him more than one servant, or two at most if he
+were ill; in the conclave they are to lead a life in common, not even
+having separate cells; they are to have no communication with the outer
+world, under pain of excommunication for any who should attempt to
+communicate with them; food is to be supplied to the cardinals through a
+window which would be under watch; after three days, their meals are to
+consist of a single dish only; and after five days, of bread and water,
+with a little wine. During the conclave the cardinals are to receive no
+ecclesiastical revenue. No account is to be taken of those who are
+absent or have left the conclave. Finally, the election is to be the
+sole business of the conclave, and the magistrates of the town where it
+was held are called upon to see that these provisions be observed.
+Adrian V. and John XX. were weak enough to suspend the constitution _Ubi
+periculum_; but the abuses at once reappeared; the Holy See was again
+vacant for long periods; this further proof was therefore decisive, and
+Celestine V., who was elected after a vacancy of more than two years,
+took care, before abdicating the pontificate, to revive the constitution
+of Gregory X., which was inserted in the Decretals (lib. i. tit. vi.,
+_de election._ cap. 3).
+
+
+  Julius II.
+
+Since then the laws relating to the conclave have been observed, even
+during the great schism; the only exception was the election of Martin
+V., which was performed by the cardinals of the three obediences, to
+which the council of Constance added five prelates of each of the six
+nations represented in that assembly. The same was the case up to the
+16th century. At this period the Italian republics, later Spain, and
+finally the other powers, took an intimate interest in the choice of the
+holder of what was a considerable political power; and each brought more
+or less honest means to bear, sometimes that of simony. It was against
+simony that Julius II. directed the bull _Cum tam divino_ (1503), which
+directed that simoniacal election of the pope should be declared null;
+that any one could attack it; that men should withdraw themselves from
+the obedience of a pope thus elected; that simoniacal agreements should
+be invalid; that the guilty cardinals should be excommunicate till their
+death, and that the rest should proceed immediately to a new election.
+The purpose of this measure was good, but the proposed remedy extremely
+dangerous; it was fortunately never applied. Similarly, Paul IV.
+endeavoured by severe punishments to check the intriguing and plotting
+for the election of a new pope while his predecessor was still living;
+but the bull _Cum secundum_ (1558) was of no effect.
+
+
+  Pius IV.
+
+  Gregory XV.
+
+Pius IV. undertook the task of reforming and completing the legislation
+of the conclave. The bull _In eligendis_ (of October 1st, 1562), signed
+by all the cardinals, is a model of precision and wisdom. In addition to
+the points already stated, we may add the following: that every day
+there was to be a scrutiny, i.e. a solemn voting by specially prepared
+voting papers (concealing the name of the voter, and to be opened only
+in case of an election being made at that scrutiny), and that this was
+to be followed by the "accessit," i.e. a second voting, in which the
+cardinals might transfer their suffrages to those who had obtained the
+greatest number of votes in the first. Except in case of urgent matters,
+the election was to form the whole business of the conclave. The cells
+were to be assigned by lot. The functionaries of the conclave were to be
+elected by the secret vote of the Sacred College. The most stringent
+measures were to be taken to ensure seclusion. The bull _Aeterni Patris_
+of Gregory XV. (15th of November 1621) is a collection of minute
+regulations. In it is the rule compelling each cardinal, before giving
+his vote, to take the oath that he will elect him whom he shall judge to
+be the most worthy; it also makes rules for the forms of voting and of
+the voting papers, for the counting, the scrutiny, and in fact all the
+processes of the election. A second bull, _Decet Romanum Pontificem_, of
+the 12th of March 1622, fixed the ceremonial of the conclave with such
+minuteness that it has not been changed since.
+
+All previous legislation concerning the conclave was codified and
+renewed by Pius X.'s bull, _Vacante Sede Apostolico_ (Dec. 25, 1904),
+which abrogates the earlier texts, except Leo XIII.'s constitution
+_Praedecessores Nostri_ (May 24, 1882), authorizing occasional
+derogations in circumstances of difficulty, e.g. the death of a pope
+away from Rome or an attempt to interfere with the liberty of the Sacred
+College. The bull of Pius X. is rather a codification than a reform, the
+principal change being the abolition of the scrutiny of accession and
+the substitution of a second ordinary scrutiny during the same session.
+
+On some occasions exceptional circumstances have given rise to
+transitory measures. In 1797 and 1798 Pius VI. authorized the cardinals
+to act contrary to such of the laws concerning the conclave as a
+majority of them should decide not to observe, as being impossible in
+practice. Similarly Pius IX., by means of various acts which remained
+secret up till 1892, had taken the most minute precautions in order to
+secure a free and rapid election, and to avoid all interference on the
+part of the secular powers. We know that the conclaves in which Leo
+XIII. and Pius X. were elected enjoyed the most complete liberty, and
+the hypothetical measures foreseen by Pius IX. were not applied.
+
+
+  The conclave at Rome.
+
+Until after the Great Schism the conclaves were held in various towns
+outside of Rome; but since then they have all been held in Rome, with
+the single exception of the conclave of Venice (1800), and in most cases
+in the Vatican.
+
+
+  Modern procedure.
+
+There was no place permanently established for the purpose, but
+removable wooden cells were installed in the various apartments of the
+palace, grouped around the Sistine chapel, in which the scrutinies took
+place. The arrangements prepared in the Quirinal in 1823 did duty only
+three times, and for the most recent conclaves it was necessary to
+arrange an inner enclosure within the vast but irregular palace of the
+Vatican. Each cardinal is accompanied by a clerk or secretary, known for
+this reason as a conclavist, and by one servant only. With the officials
+of the conclave, this makes about two hundred and fifty persons who
+enter the conclave and have no further communication with the outer
+world save by means of turning-boxes. Since 1870 the solemn ceremonies
+of earlier times have naturally not been seen; for instance the
+procession which used to celebrate the entry into conclave; or the daily
+arrival in procession of the clergy and the brotherhoods to enquire at
+the "rota" (turning-box) of the auditors of the Rota: "Habemusne
+Pontificem?" and their return accompanied by the chanting of the "_Veni
+Creator_"; or the "Marshal of the Holy Roman Church and perpetual
+guardian of the conclave" visiting the churches in state. But a crowd
+still collects morning and evening in the great square of St Peter's,
+towards the time of the completion of the vote, to look for the smoke
+which rises from the burning of the voting-papers after each session;
+when the election has not been effected, a little straw is burnt with
+the papers, and the column of smoke then apprises the spectators that
+they have still no pope. Within the conclave, the cardinals, alone in
+the common hall, usually the Sistine chapel, proceed morning and evening
+to their double vote, the direct vote and the "accessit." Sometimes
+these sessions have been very numerous; for example, in 1740, Benedict
+XIV. was only elected after 255 scrutinies; on other occasions, however,
+and notably in the case of the last few popes, a well-defined majority
+has soon been evident, and there have been but few scrutinies. Each vote
+is immediately counted by three scrutators, appointed in rotation, the
+most minute precautions being taken to ensure that the voting shall be
+secret and sincere. When one cardinal has at last obtained two-thirds of
+the votes, the dean of the cardinals formally asks him whether he
+accepts his election, and what name he wishes to assume. As soon as he
+has accepted, the first "obedience" or "adoration" takes place, and
+immediately after the first cardinal deacon goes to the _Loggia_ of St
+Peter's and announces the great news to the assembled people. The
+conclave is dissolved; on the following day take place the two other
+"obediences," and the election is officially announced to the various
+governments. If the pope be not a bishop (Gregory XVI. was not), he is
+then consecrated; and finally, a few days after his election, takes
+place the coronation, from which the pontificate is officially dated.
+The pope then receives the tiara with the triple crown, the sign of his
+supreme spiritual authority. The ceremony of the coronation goes back to
+the 9th century, and the tiara, in the form of a high conical cap, is
+equally ancient (see TIARA).
+
+
+  The right of veto.
+
+In conclusion, a few words should be said with regard to the right of
+_veto_. In the 16th and 17th centuries the character of the conclaves
+was determined by the influence of what were then known as the
+"factions," i.e. the formation of the cardinals into groups according to
+their nationality or their relations with one of the Catholic courts of
+Spain, France or the Empire, or again according as they favoured the
+political policy of the late pope or his predecessor. These groups
+upheld or opposed certain candidates. The Catholic courts naturally
+entrusted the cardinals "of the crown," i.e. those of their nation, with
+the mission of removing, as far as lay in their power, candidates who
+were distasteful to their party; the various governments could even make
+public their desire to exclude certain candidates. But they soon claimed
+an actual right of formal and direct exclusion, which should be notified
+in the conclave in their name by a cardinal charged with this mission,
+and should have a decisive effect; this is what has been called the
+right of veto. We cannot say precisely at what time during the 16th
+century this transformation of the practice into a right, tacitly
+accepted by the Sacred College, took place; it was doubtless felt to be
+less dangerous formally to recognize the right of the three sovereigns
+each to object to one candidate, than to face the inconvenience of
+objections, such as were formulated on several occasions by Philip II.,
+which, though less legal in form, might apply to an indefinite number of
+candidates. The fact remains, however, that it was a right based on
+custom, and was not supported by any text or written concession; but the
+diplomatic right was straightforward and definite, and was better than
+the intrigues of former days. During the 19th century Austria exercised,
+or tried to exercise, the right of veto at all the conclaves, except
+that which elected Leo XIII. (1878); it did so again at the conclave of
+1903. On the 2nd of August Cardinal Rampolla had received twenty-nine
+votes, when Cardinal Kolzielsko Puzina, bishop of Cracow, declared that
+the Austrian government opposed the election of Cardinal Rampolla; the
+Sacred College considered that it ought to yield, and on the 4th of
+August elected Cardinal Sarto, who took the name of Pius X. By the bull
+_Commissum Nobis_ (January 20, 1904), Pius X. suppressed all right of
+"veto" or "exclusion" on the part of the secular governments, and
+forbade, under pain of excommunication reserved to the future pope, any
+cardinal or conclavist to accept from his government the charge of
+proposing a "veto," or to exhibit it to the conclave under any form.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best and most complete work is Lucius Lector, _Le
+  Conclave, origine, histoire, organisation, législation ancienne et
+  moderne_ (Paris, 1894). See also Ferraris, _Prompta Bibliotheca, s. v.
+  Papa_, art. i.; Moroni, _Dizionario di erudizione
+  storico-ecclesiastica, s. v. Conclave, Conclavisti, Cella, Elezione,
+  Esclusiva_; Bouix, _De Curia Romana_, part i. c. x.; _De Papa_, part
+  vii. (Paris, 1859, 1870); Barbier de Montault, _Le Conclave_ (Paris,
+  1878). On the conclave of Leo XIII., R. de Cesare, _Conclave di Leone
+  XIII._ (Rome, 1888). On the conclave of Pius X.: an eye-witness (Card.
+  Mathieu), _Les Derniers Jours de Léon XIII et le conclave_ (Paris,
+  1904). See further, for the right of veto: Phillips, _Kirchenrecht_,
+  t. v. p. 138; Sägmüller, _Die Papstwahlen und die Staate_ (Tübingen,
+  1890); _Die Papstwahlbullen und das staatliche Recht des Exclusive_
+  (Tübingen, 1892); Wahrmund, _Ausschliessungsrecht der katholischen
+  Staaten_ (Vienna, 1888).     (A. Bo.*)
+
+
+
+
+CONCORD, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 20
+m. N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1900) 5652; (1910, U.S. census) 6421. Area 25
+sq. m. It is traversed by the Boston & Maine railway. Where the Sudbury
+and Assabet unite to form the beautiful little Concord river, celebrated
+by Thoreau, is the village of Concord, straggling, placid and beautiful,
+full of associations with the opening of the War of Independence and
+with American literature. Of particular interest is the "Old Manse,"
+built in 1765 for Rev. William Emerson, in which his grandson R. W.
+Emerson wrote _Nature_, and Hawthorne his _Mosses from an Old Manse_,
+containing a charming description of the building and its associations.
+At Concord there is a state reformatory, whose inmates, about 800 in
+number, are employed in manufacturing various articles, but otherwise
+the town has only minor business and industrial interests. The
+introduction of the "Concord" grape, first produced here by Ephraim Bull
+in 1853, is said to have marked the beginning of the profitable
+commercial cultivation of table grapes in the United States. Concord was
+settled and incorporated as a township in 1635, and was (with Dedham)
+the first settlement in Massachusetts back from the sea-coast. A county
+convention at Concord village in August 1774 recommended the calling of
+the first Provincial Congress of Massachusetts--one of the first
+independent legislatures of America--which assembled here on the 11th of
+October 1774, and again in March and April 1775. The village became
+thereafter a storehouse of provisions and munitions of war, and hence
+became the objective of the British expedition that on the 19th of April
+1775 opened with the armed conflict at Lexington (q.v.) the American War
+of Independence. As the British proceeded to Concord the whole country
+was rising, and at Concord about 500 minute-men confronted the British
+regulars who were holding the village and searching for arms and stores.
+Volleys were exchanged, the British retreated, the minute-men hung on
+their flanks and from the hillsides shot them down, driving their
+columns on Lexington. A granite obelisk, erected in 1837, when Emerson
+wrote his ode on the battle, marks the spot where the first British
+soldiers fell; while across the stream a fine bionze "Minute-Man" (1875)
+by D. C. French (a native of Concord) marks the spot where once "the
+embattled farmers stood and fired the shot heard round the world"
+(Emerson). Concord was long one of the shire-townships of Middlesex
+county, losing this honour in 1867. The village is famous as the home of
+R. W. Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry D. Thoreau, Louisa M. Alcott
+and her father, A. Bronson Alcott, who maintained here from 1879 to 1888
+(in a building still standing) the Concord school of philosophy, which
+counted Benjamin Peirce, W. T. Harris, Mrs J. W. Howe, T. W. Higginson,
+Professor William James and Emerson among its lecturers. Emerson,
+Hawthorne, Thoreau and the Alcotts are buried here in the beautiful
+Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. Of the various orations (among others one by
+Edward Everett in 1825) that have been delivered at Concord
+anniversaries perhaps the finest is that of George William Curtis,
+delivered in 1875.
+
+  See A. S. Hudson, _The History of Concord_, vol. i. (Concord, 1904);
+  G. B. Bartlett, _Concord: Historic, Literary and Picturesque_ (Boston,
+  1885); and Mrs J. L. Swayne, _Story of Concord_ (Boston, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CONCORD, a city and the county-seat of Cabarrus county, North Carolina,
+U.S.A., on the Rocky river, about 150 m. W.S.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890)
+4339; (1900) 7910 (1789 negroes); (1910) 8715. It is served by the
+Southern railway. Concord is situated in a cotton-growing region, and
+its chief interest is in the manufacture of cotton goods. The city is
+the seat of Scotia seminary (for negro girls), founded in 1870 and under
+the care of the Presbyterian Board of Missions for Freedmen, Pittsburgh
+Pa. Concord was laid out in 1793 and was first incorporated in 1851.
+
+
+
+
+CONCORD, the capital of New Hampshire, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Merrimack county, on both sides of the Merrimac river, about 75 m. N.W.
+of Boston, Massachusetts. Pop. (1890) 17,004; (1900) 19,632, of whom
+3813 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 21,497. Concord is served by the
+Boston & Maine railway. The area of the city in 1906 was 45.16 sq. m.
+Concord has broad streets bordered with shade trees; and has several
+parks, including Penacook, White, Rollins and the Contoocook river.
+Among the principal buildings are the state capitol, the state library,
+the city hall, the county court-house, the post-office, a public library
+(17,000 vols.), the state hospital, the state prison, the Centennial
+home for the aged, the Margaret Pillsbury memorial hospital, the Rolfe
+and Rumford asylum for orphan girls, founded by Count Rumford's
+daughter, and some fine churches, including the Christian Science church
+built by Mrs Eddy. There are a soldiers' memorial arch, a statue of
+Daniel Webster by Thomas Ball, and statues of John P. Hale, John Stark,
+and Commodore George H. Perkins, the last by Daniel C. French; and at
+Penacook, 6 m. N.W. of Concord, there is a monument to Hannah Dustin
+(see HAVERHILL). Among the educational institutions are the well-known
+St Paul's school for boys (Protestant Episcopal, 1853), about 2 m. W. of
+the city, and St Mary's school for girls (Protestant Episcopal, 1885).
+From 1847 to 1867 Concord was the seat of the Biblical Institute
+(Methodist Episcopal), founded in Newbury, Vermont, in 1841, removed to
+Boston as the Boston Theological Seminary in 1867, and after 1871 a part
+of Boston University. The city has various manufactures, including flour
+and grist mill products, silver ware, cotton and woollen goods,
+carriages, harnesses and leather belting, furniture, wooden ware, pianos
+and clothing; the Boston & Maine Railroad has a large repair shop in the
+city, and there are valuable granite quarries in the vicinity. In 1905
+Concord ranked third among the cities of the state in the value of its
+factory products, which was $6,387,372, being an increase of 51.7% since
+1900. When first visited by the English settlers, the site of Concord
+was occupied by Penacook Indians; a trading post was built here about
+1660. In 1725 Massachusetts granted the land in this vicinity to some of
+her citizens; but this grant was not recognized by New Hampshire, whose
+legislature issued (1727) a grant (the Township of Bow) overlapping the
+Massachusetts grant, which was known as Penacook or Penny Cook. The New
+Hampshire grantees undertook to establish here a colony of Londonderry
+Irish; but the Massachusetts settlers were firmly established by the
+spring of 1727, Massachusetts definitely assumed jurisdiction in 1731,
+and in 1734 her general court incorporated the settlement under the name
+of Rumford. The conflicting rights of Rumford and Bow gave rise to one
+of the most celebrated of colonial land cases, and although the New
+Hampshire authorities enforced their claims of jurisdiction, the privy
+council in 1755 confirmed the Rumford settlers in their possession. In
+1765 the name was changed to the "parish of Concord," and in 1784 the
+town of Concord was incorporated. Here, for some years before the War of
+American Independence, lived Benjamin Thompson, later Count Rumford. In
+1778 and again in 1781-1782 a state constitutional convention met here;
+the first New Hampshire legislature met at Concord in 1782; the
+convention which ratified for New Hampshire the Federal Constitution met
+here in 1788; and in 1808 the state capital was definitely established
+here. The New Hampshire _Patriot_, founded here in 1808 (and for twenty
+years edited) by Isaac Hill (1788-1851), who was a member of the United
+States Senate in 1831-1836, and governor of New Hampshire in 1836-1839,
+became one of the leading exponents of Jacksonian Democracy in New
+England. In 1814 the Middlesex Canal, connecting Concord with Boston,
+was completed. A city charter granted by the legislature in 1849 was not
+accepted by the city until 1853.
+
+  See J. O. Lyford, _The History of Concord, New Hampshire_ (City
+  History Commission) (2 vols., Concord, 1903); _Concord Town Records,
+  1732-1820_ (Concord, 1894); J. B. Moore, _Annals of Concord,
+  1726-1823_ (Concord, 1824); and Nathaniel Bouton, _The History of
+  Concord_ (Concord, 1856).
+
+
+
+
+CONCORD, BOOK OF (_Liber Concordiae_), the collective documents of the
+Lutheran confession, consisting of the _Confessio Augustana_, the
+_Apologia Confessionis Augustanae_, the _Articula Smalcaldici_, the
+_Catechismi Major et Minor_ and the _Formula Concordiae_. This last was
+a formula issued on the 25th of June 1580 (the jubilee of the Augsburg
+Confession) by the Lutheran Church in an attempt to heal the breach
+which, since the death of Luther, had been widening between the extreme
+Lutherans and the Crypto-Calvinists. Previous attempts at concord had
+been made at the request of different rulers, especially by Jacob Andreä
+with his Swabian Concordia in 1573, and Abel Scherdinger with the
+Maulbronn Formula in 1575. In 1576 the elector of Saxony called a
+conference of theologians at Torgau to discuss these two efforts and
+from them produce a third. The _Book of Torgau_ was evolved, circulated
+and criticized; a new committee, prominent on which was Martin Chemnitz,
+sitting at Bergen near Magdeburg, considered the criticisms and finally
+drew up the _Formula Concordiae_. It consists of (a) the "Epitome," (b)
+the "Solid Repetition and Declaration," each part comprising twelve
+articles; and was accepted by Saxony, Württemberg, Baden among other
+states, but rejected by Hesse, Nassau and Holstein. Even the free cities
+were divided, Hamburg and Lübeck for, Bremen and Frankfort against.
+Hungary and Sweden accepted it, and so finally did Denmark, where at
+first it was rejected, and its publication made a crime punishable by
+death. In spite of this very limited reception the _Formula Concordiae_
+has always been reckoned with the five other documents as of
+confessional authority.
+
+  See P. Schaff, _Creeds of Christendom_, i. 258-340, iii. 92-180.
+
+
+
+
+CONCORDANCE (Late Lat. _concordantia_, harmony, from _cum_, with, and
+_cor_, heart), literally agreement, harmony; hence derivatively a
+citation of parallel passages, and specifically an alphabetical
+arrangement of the words contained in a book with citations of the
+passages in which they occur. Concordances in this last sense were first
+made for the Bible. Originally the word was only used in this connexion
+in the plural _concordantiae_, each group of parallel passages being
+properly a _concordantia_. The Germans distinguish between concordances
+of things and concordances of words, the former indexing the subject
+matter of a book ("real" concordance), the latter the words ("verbal"
+concordance).
+
+The original impetus to the making of concordances was due to the
+conviction that the several parts of the Bible are consistent with each
+other, as parts of a divine revelation, and may be combined as
+harmonious elements in one system of spiritual truth. To Anthony of
+Padua (1195-1231) ancient tradition ascribes the first concordance, the
+anonymous _Concordantiae Morales_, of which the basis was the Vulgate.
+The first authentic work of the kind was due to Cardinal Hugh of St
+Cher, a Dominican monk (d. 1263), who, in preparing for a commentary on
+the Scriptures, found the need of a concordance, and is reported to have
+used for the purpose the services of five hundred of his brother monks.
+This concordance was the basis of two which succeeded in time and
+importance, one by Conrad of Halberstadt (fl. c. 1290) and the other by
+John of Segovia in the next century. This book was published in a
+greatly improved and amplified form in the middle of the 19th century by
+David Nutt, of London, edited by T. P. Dutripon. The first Hebrew
+concordance was compiled in 1437-1445 by Rabbi Isaac Nathan b. Kalonymus
+of Arles. It was printed at Venice in 1523 by Daniel Bomberg, in Basel
+in 1556, 1569 and 1581. It was published under the title _Meir Natib_,
+"The Light of the Way." In 1556 it was translated into Latin by Johann
+Reuchlin, but many errors appeared in both the Hebrew and the Latin
+edition. These were corrected by Marius de Calasio, a Franciscan friar,
+who published a four volume folio _Concordantiae Sacr. Bibl. Hebr. et
+Latin._ at Rome, 1621, much enlarged, with proper names included.
+Another concordance based on Nathan's was Johann Buxtorf the elder's
+_Concordantiae Bibl. Ebraicae nova et artificiosa methodo dispositae_,
+Basel, 1632. It marks a stage in both the arrangement and the knowledge
+of the roots of words, but can only be used by those who know the
+massoretic system, as the references are made by Hebrew letters and
+relate to rabbinical divisions of the Old Testament. Calasio's
+concordance was republished in London under the direction of William
+Romaine in 1747-1749, in four volumes folio, under the patronage of all
+the monarchs of Europe and also of the pope. In 1754 John Taylor, D.D.,
+a Presbyterian divine in Norwich, published in two volumes the _Hebrew
+Concordance adapted to the English Bible_, disposed after the manner of
+Buxtorf. This was the most complete and convenient concordance up to the
+date of its publication. In the middle of the 19th century Dr Julius
+Fürst issued a thoroughly revised edition of Buxtorf's concordance. The
+_Hebräischen und chaldäischen Concordanz zu den Heiligen Schriften Alten
+Testaments_ (Leipzig, 1840) carried forward the development of the
+concordance in several directions. It gave (1) a corrected text founded
+on Hahn's Vanderhoogt's Bible; (2) the Rabbinical meanings; (3)
+explanations in Latin, and illustrations from the three Greek versions,
+the Aramaic paraphrase, and the Vulgate; (4) the Greek words employed by
+the Septuagint as renderings of the Hebrew; (5) notes on philology and
+archaeology, so that the concordance contained a Hebrew lexicon. An
+English translation by Dr Samuel Davidson was published in 1867. A
+revised edition of Buxtorf's work with additions from Fürst's was
+published by B. Bär (Stettin, 1862). A new concordance embodying the
+matter of all previous works with lists of proper names and particles
+was published by Solomon Mandelkern in Leipzig (1896); a smaller edition
+of the same, without quotations, appeared in 1900. There are also
+concordances of Biblical proper names by G. Brecher (Frankfort-on-Main,
+1876) and Schusslovicz (Wilna, 1878).
+
+A _Concordance to the Septuagint_ was published at Frankfort in 1602 by
+Conrad Kircher of Augsburg; in this the Hebrew words are placed in
+alphabetical order and the Greek words by which they are translated are
+placed under them. A Septuagint concordance, giving the Greek words in
+alphabetical order, was published in 1718 in two volumes by Abraham
+Tromm, a learned minister at Groningen, then in the eighty-fourth year
+of his age. It gives the Greek words in alphabetical order; a Latin
+translation; the Hebrew word or words for which the Greek term is used
+by the Septuagint; then the places where the words occur in the order of
+the books and chapters; at the end of the quotations from the Septuagint
+places are given where the word occurs in Aquila, Symmachus and
+Theodotion, the other Greek translations of the O. T.; and the words of
+the Apocrypha follow in each case. Besides an index to the Hebrew and
+Chaldaic words there is another index which contains a lexicon to the
+_Hexapla_ of Origen. In 1887 (London) appeared the _Handy Concordance of
+the Septuagint giving various readings from Codices Vaticanus,
+Alexandrinus, Sinaiticus and Ephraemi, with an appendix of words from
+Origen's Hexapla, not found in the above manuscripts_, by G. M., without
+quotations. A work of the best modern scholarship was brought out in
+1897 by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, entitled _A Concordance to the
+Septuagint and the other Greek versions of the Old Testament including
+the Apocryphal Books_, by Edwin Hatch and H. A. Redpath, assisted by
+other scholars; this was completed in 1900 by a list of proper names.
+
+_The first Greek concordance_ to the New Testament was published at
+Basel in 1546 by Sixt Birck or Xystus Betuleius (1500-1554), a
+philologist and minister of the Lutheran Church. This was followed by
+Stephen's concordance (1594) planned by Robert Stephens and published by
+Henry, his son. Then in 1638 came Schmied's [Greek: tamieion], which has
+been the basis of subsequent concordances to the New Testament. Erasmus
+Schmied or Schmid was a Lutheran divine who was professor of Greek in
+Wittenberg, where he died in 1637. Revised editions of the [Greek:
+tamieion] were published at Gotha in 1717, and at Glasgow in 1819 by the
+University Press. In the middle of the 19th century Charles Hermann
+Bruder brought out a beautiful edition (Tauchnitz) with many
+improvements. The _apparatus criticus_ was a triumph of New Testament
+scholarship. It collates the readings of Erasmus, R. Stephens' third
+edition, the Elzevirs, Mill, Bengel, Webster, Knapp, Tittman, Scholz,
+Lachmann. It also gives a selection from the most ancient patristic
+MSS. and from various interpreters. No various reading of critical value
+is omitted. An edition of Bruder with readings of Samuel Prideaux
+Tregelles was published in 1888 under the editorship of Westcott and
+Hort. The _Englishman's Greek Concordance of the New Testament_, and the
+_Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance_, are books intended to put
+the results of the above-mentioned works at the service of those who
+know little Hebrew or Greek. Every word in the Bible is given in Hebrew
+or Greek, the word is transliterated, and then every passage in which it
+occurs is given--the word, however it may be translated, being
+italicized. They are the work of George V. Wigram assisted by W. Burgh
+and superintended by S. P. Tregelles, B. Davidson and W. Chalk (1843;
+2nd ed. 1860). Another book which deserves mention is, _A Concordance to
+the Greek Testament with the English version to each word; the principal
+Hebrew roots corresponding to the Greek words of the Septuagint, with
+short critical notes and an index_, by John Williams, LL.D., Lond. 1767.
+
+In 1884 Robert Young, author of an analytical concordance mentioned
+below, brought out a _Concordance to the Greek New Testament with a
+dictionary of Bible Words and Synonyms_: this contains a concise
+concordance to eight thousand changes made in the Revised Testament.
+Another important work of modern scholarship is the _Concordance to the
+Greek Testament_, edited by the Rev. W. F. Moulton and A. E. Geden,
+according to the texts adopted by Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, and
+the English revisers.
+
+The first concordance to the English version of the New Testament was
+published in London, 1535, by Thomas Gybson. It is a black-letter volume
+entitled _The Concordance of the New Testament most necessary to be had
+in the hands of all soche as delyte in the communicacion of any place
+contayned in ye New Testament_.
+
+The first English concordance of the entire Bible was John Marbeck's, _A
+Concordance, that is to saie, a worke wherein by the order of the
+letters of the A.B.C. ye maie redely find any worde conteigned in the
+whole Bible, so often as it is there expressed or mentioned_, Lond.
+1550. Although Robert Stephens had divided the Bible into verses in
+1545, Marbeck does not seem to have known this and refers to the
+chapters only. In 1550 also appeared Walter Lynne's translation of the
+concordance issued by Bullinger, Jude, Pellican and others of the
+Reformers. Other English concordances were published by Cotton, Newman,
+and in abbreviated forms by John Downham or Downame (cd. 1652), Vavasor
+Powell (1617-1670), Jackson and Samuel Clarke (1626-1701). In 1737
+Alexander Cruden (q.v.), a London bookseller, born and educated in
+Aberdeen, published his _Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of
+the Old and New Testament, to which is added a concordance to the books
+called Apocrypha_. This book embodied, was based upon and superseded all
+its predecessors. Though the first edition was not remunerative, three
+editions were published during Cruden's life, and many since his death.
+Cruden's work is accurate and full, and later concordances only
+supersede his by combining an English with a Greek and Hebrew
+concordance. This is done by the _Critical Greek and English
+Concordance_ prepared by C. F. Hudson, H. A. Hastings and Ezra Abbot,
+LL.D., published in Boston, Mass., and by the _Critical Lexicon and
+Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament_, by E. L. Bullinger,
+1892. The _Interpreting Concordance to the New Testament_, edited by
+James Gall, shows the Greek original of every word, with a glossary
+explaining the Greek words of the New Testament, and showing their
+varied renderings in the Authorized Version. The most convenient of
+these is _Young's Analytical Concordance_, published in Edinburgh in
+1879, and since revised and reissued. It shows (1) the original Hebrew
+or Greek of any word in the English Bible; (2) the literal and primitive
+meaning of every such original word; (3) thoroughly reliable parallel
+passages. There is a _Students' Concordance to the Revised Version of
+the New Testament_ showing the changes embodied in the revision,
+published under licence of the universities; and a concordance to the
+Revised Version by J. A. Thoms for the Christian Knowledge Society.
+
+Biblical concordances having familiarized students with the value and
+use of such books for the systematic study of an author, the practice of
+making concordances has now become common. There are concordances to the
+works of Shakespeare, Browning and many other writers.     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCORDAT (Lat. _concordatum_, agreed upon, from _con-_, together, and
+_cor_, heart), a term originally denoting an agreement between
+ecclesiastical persons or secular persons, but later applied to a pact
+concluded between the ecclesiastical authority and the secular authority
+on ecclesiastical matters which concern both, and, more specially, to a
+pact concluded between the pope, as head of the Catholic Church, and a
+temporal sovereign for the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in the
+territory of such sovereign. It is to concordats in this later sense
+that this article refers.
+
+No one now questions the profound distinction that exists between the
+two powers, spiritual and temporal, between the church and the state.
+Yet these two societies are none the less in inevitable relation. The
+same men go to compose both; and the church, albeit pursuing a spiritual
+end, cannot dispense with the aid of temporal property, which in its
+nature depends on the organization of secular society. It follows of
+necessity that there are some matters which may be called "mixed," and
+which are the legitimate concern of the two powers, such as church
+property, places of worship, the appointment and the emoluments of
+ecclesiastical dignitaries, the temporal rights and privileges of the
+secular and regular clergy, the regulation of public worship, and the
+like. The existence of such mixed matters gives rise to inevitable
+conflicts of jurisdiction, which may lead, and sometimes have led, to
+civil war. It is, therefore, to the general interest that all these
+matters should be settled pacifically, by a common accord; and hence
+originated those conventions between the two powers which are known by
+the significant name of concordat, the official name being _pactum
+concordatum_ or _solemnis conventio_. In theory these agreements may
+result from the spontaneous and pacific initiative of the contracting
+parties, but in reality their object has almost always been to terminate
+more or less acute conflicts and remedy more or less disturbed
+situations. It is for this reason that concordats always present a
+clearly marked character of mutual concession, each of the two powers
+renouncing certain of its claims in the interests of peace.
+
+For the purposes of a concordat the state recognizes the official
+_status_ of the church and of its ministers and tribunals; guarantees it
+certain privileges; and sometimes binds itself to secure for it
+subsidies representing compensation for past spoliations. The pope on
+his side grants the temporal sovereign certain rights, such as that of
+making or controlling the appointment of dignitaries; engages to proceed
+in harmony with the government in the creation of dioceses or parishes;
+and regularizes the situation produced by the usurpation of church
+property &c. The great advantage of concordats--indeed their principal
+utility--consists in transforming necessarily unequal unilateral claims
+into contractual obligations analogous to those which result from an
+international convention. Whatever the obligations of the state towards
+the ecclesiastical society may be in pure theory, in practice they
+become more precise and stable when they assume the nature of a
+bilateral convention by which the state engages itself with regard to a
+third party. And reciprocally, whatever may be the absolute rights of
+the ecclesiastical society over the appointment of its dignitaries, the
+administration of its property, and the government of its adherents, the
+exercise of these rights is limited and restricted by the stable
+engagements and concessions of the concordatory pact, which bind the
+head of the church with regard to the nations.
+
+A concordat may assume divers forms,--historically, three. The most
+common in modern times is that of a diplomatic convention debated
+between the authorized mandatories of the high contracting parties and
+subsequently ratified by the latter; as, for example, the French
+concordat of 1801. Or, secondly, the concordat may result from two
+identical separate acts, one emanating from the pope and the other from
+the sovereign; this was the form of the first true concordat, that of
+Worms, in 1122. A third form was employed in the case of the concordat
+of 1516 between Leo X. and Francis I. of France; a papal bull published
+the concordat in the form of a concession by the pope, and it was
+afterwards accepted and published by the king as law of the country. The
+shades which distinguish these three forms are not without significance,
+but they in no way detract from the contractual character of concordats.
+
+Since concordats are contracts they give rise to that special mutual
+obligation which results from every agreement freely entered into; for a
+contract is binding on both parties to it. Concordats are undoubtedly
+conventions of a particular nature. They may make certain concessions or
+privileges once given without any corresponding obligation; they
+constitute for a given country a special ecclesiastical law; and it is
+thus that writers have sometimes spoken of concordats as privileges.
+Again, it is quite certain that the spiritual matters upon which
+concordats bear do not concern the two powers in the same manner and in
+the same degree; and in this sense concordats are not perfectly equal
+agreements. Finally, they do not assume the contracting parties to be
+totally independent, i.e. regard is had to the existence of anterior
+rights or duties. But with these reservations it must unhesitatingly be
+said that concordats are bilateral or synallagmatic contracts, from
+which results an equal mutual obligation for the two parties, who enter
+into a juridical engagement towards each other. Latterly certain
+Catholics have questioned this equality of the concordatory obligation,
+and have aroused keen discussion. According to Maurice de Bonald (_Deux
+questions sur le concordat de 1801_, Geneva, 1871), who exaggerates the
+view of Cardinal Tarquini (_Instit. juris publ. eccl._, 1862 and 1868),
+concordats would be pure privileges granted by the pope; the pope would
+not be able to enter into agreements on spiritual matters or impose
+restraints upon the power of his successors; and consequently he would
+not bind himself in any juridical sense and would be able freely to
+revoke concordats, just as the author of a privilege can withdraw it at
+his pleasure. This exaggerated argument found a certain number of
+supporters, several of whom nevertheless sensibly weakened it. But the
+best canonists, from the Roman professor De Angelis (_Prael. juris
+canon._ i. 106) onwards, and all jurists, have victoriously refuted this
+theory, either by insisting on the principles common to all agreements
+or by citing the formal text of several concordats and papal acts, which
+are as explicit as possible. They have thus upheld the true contractual
+nature of concordats and the mutual juridical obligation which results
+from them.
+
+The foregoing statements must not be taken to mean that concordats are
+in their nature perpetual, and that they cannot be broken or denounced.
+They have the perpetuity of conventions which contain no time
+limitation; but, like every human convention, they can be denounced, in
+the form in use for international treaties, and for good reasons, which
+are summed up in the exigencies of the general good of the country.
+Nevertheless, there is no example of a concordat having been denounced
+or broken by the popes, whereas several have been denounced or broken by
+the civil powers, sometimes in the least diplomatic manner, as in the
+case of the French concordat in 1905. The rupture of the concordat at
+once terminates the obligations which resulted from it on both sides;
+but it does not break off all relation between the church and the state,
+since the two societies continue to coexist on the same territory. To
+the situation defined by concordat, however, succeeds another situation,
+more or less uncertain and more or less strained, in which the two
+powers legislate separately on mixed matters, sometimes not without
+provoking conflicts.
+
+We cannot describe in detail the objects of concordatory conventions.
+They bear upon very varied matters,[1] and we must confine ourselves
+here to a brief _résumé_. In the first place is the official recognition
+by the state of the Catholic religion and its ministers. Sometimes the
+Catholic religion is declared to be the state religion, and at least the
+free and public exercise of its worship is guaranteed. Several
+conventions guarantee the free communication of the bishops, clergy and
+laity with the Holy See; and this admits of the publication and
+execution of apostolic letters in matters spiritual. Others define those
+affairs of major importance which may be or must be referred to the Holy
+See by appeal, or the decision of which is reserved to the Holy See. On
+several occasions concordats have established a new division of
+dioceses, and provided that future erections or divisions should be made
+by a common accord. Analogous provisions have been made with regard to
+the territorial divisions within the dioceses; parishes have been
+recast, and the consent of the two authorities has been required for the
+establishment of new parishes. As regards candidates for ecclesiastical
+offices, the concordats concluded with Catholic nations regularly give
+the sovereign the right to nominate or present to bishoprics, often also
+to other inferior benefices, such as canonries, important parishes and
+abbeys; or at least the choice of the ecclesiastical authority is
+submitted to the approval of the civil power. In all cases canonical
+institution (which confers ecclesiastical jurisdiction) is reserved to
+the pope or the bishops. In countries where the head of the state is not
+a Catholic, the bishops are regularly elected by the chapters, but the
+civil power has the right to strike out objectionable names from the
+list of candidates which is previously submitted to it. Other
+conventions secure the exercise of the jurisdiction of the bishops in
+their diocese, and determine precisely their authority over seminaries
+and other ecclesiastical establishments of instruction and education, as
+well as over public schools, so far as concerns the teaching of
+religion. Certain concordats deal with the orders and congregations of
+monks and nuns with a view to subjecting them to a certain control while
+securing to them the legal exercise of their activities. Ecclesiastical
+immunities, such as reservation of the criminal cases of the clergy,
+exemption from military service and other privileges, are expressly
+maintained in a certain number of pacts. One of the most important
+subjects is that of church property. An agreement is come to as to the
+conditions on which pious foundations are able to be made; the measure
+in which church property shall contribute to the public expenses is
+indicated; and, in the 19th century, the position of those who have
+acquired confiscated church property is regularized. In exchange for
+this surrender by the church of its ancient property the state engages
+to contribute to the subsistence of the ministers of public worship, or
+at least of certain of them.
+
+Scholars agree in associating the earliest concordats with the
+celebrated contest about investitures (q.v.), which so profoundly
+agitated Christian Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. The first in
+date is that which was concluded for England with Henry I. in 1107 by
+the efforts of St Anselm. The convention of Sutri of 1111 between Pope
+Paschal II. and the emperor Henry V. having been rejected, negotiations
+were resumed by Pope Calixtus II. and ended in the concordat of Worms
+(1122), which was confirmed in 1177 by the convention between Alexander
+III. and the emperor Frederick I. In this concordat a distinction was
+made between spiritual investiture, by the ring and pastoral staff, and
+lay or feudal investiture, by the sceptre. The emperor renounced
+investiture by ring and staff, and permitted canonical elections; the
+pope on his part recognized the king's right to perform lay investiture
+and to assist at elections. Analogous to this convention was the
+concordat concluded between Nicholas IV. and the king of Portugal in
+1289.
+
+The lengthy discussions on ecclesiastical benefices in Germany ended
+finally in the concordat of Vienna, promulgated by Nicholas V. in 1448.
+Already at the council of Constance attempts had been made to reduce the
+excessive papal reservations and taxes in the matter of benefices,
+privileges which had been established under the Avignon popes and during
+the Great Schism; for example, Martin V. had had to make with the
+different nations special arrangements which were valid for five years
+only, and by which he renounced the revenues of vacant benefices. The
+council of Basel went further: it suppressed annates and all the
+benefice reservations which did not appear in the _Corpus Juris_.
+Eugenius IV. repudiated the Basel decrees, and the negotiations
+terminated in what was called the "concordat of the princes," which was
+accepted by Eugenius IV. on his death-bed (bulls of February 5 and 7,
+1447). In February 1448 Nicholas V. concluded the arrangement, which
+took the name of the concordat of Vienna. This concordat, however, was
+not received as law of the Empire. In Germany the concessions made to
+the pope and the reservations maintained by him in the matter of taxes
+and benefices were deemed excessive, and the prolonged discontent which
+resulted was one of the causes of the success of the Lutheran
+Reformation.
+
+In France the opposition to the papal exactions had been still more
+marked. In 1438 the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges adopted and put into
+practice the Basel decrees, and in spite of the incessant protests of
+the Holy See the Pragmatic was observed throughout the 15th century,
+even after its nominal abolition by Louis XI. in 1461. The situation was
+modified by the concordat of Bologna, which was personally negotiated by
+Leo X. and Francis I. of France at Bologna in December 1515, inserted in
+the bull _Primitiva_ (August 18, 1516), and promulgated as law of the
+realm in 1517, but not without rousing keen opposition. All bishoprics,
+abbeys and priories were in the royal nomination, the canonical
+institution belonging to the pope. The pope preserved the right to
+nominate to vacant benefices _in curia_ and to certain benefices of the
+chapters, but all the others were in the nomination of the bishops or
+other inferior collators. However, the exercise of the pope's right of
+provision still left considerable scope for papal intervention, and the
+pope retained the annates.
+
+In the 17th century we have only to mention the concordat between Urban
+VIII. and the emperor Ferdinand II. for Bohemia in 1640. In the 18th
+century concordats are numerous: there are two for Spain, in 1737 and
+1753; two for the duchy of Milan, in 1757 and 1784; one for Poland, in
+1736; five for Sardinia and Piedmont, in 1727, 1741, 1742, 1750 and
+1770; and one for the kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1741.
+
+After the political and territorial upheavals which marked the end of
+the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, all these concordats
+either fell to the ground or had to be recast. In the 19th century we
+find a long series of concordats, of which a good number are still in
+force. The first in date and importance is that of 1801, concluded for
+France between Napoleon, First Consul, and Pius VII. after laborious
+negotiations. Save in the provisions relating to ecclesiastical
+benefices, all the property of which had been confiscated, it reproduced
+the concordat of 1516. The pope condoned those who had acquired church
+property; and by way of compensation the government engaged to give the
+bishops and curés suitable salaries. The concordat was solemnly
+promulgated on Easter Day 1802, but the government had added to it
+unilateral provisions of Gallican tendencies, which were known as the
+Organic Articles. After having been the law of the Church of France for
+a century, it was denounced by the French government in 1905. It
+remains, however, partly in force for Belgium and Alsace-Lorraine, which
+formed part of French territory in 1801.
+
+We conclude with a brief chronological survey of the concordats during
+the 19th century, some now abrogated or replaced, others maintained. It
+must be observed that the denunciation of a concordat by a nation does
+not necessarily entail the separation of the church and the state in
+that country or the rupture of diplomatic relations with Rome.
+
+1803. For the Italian republic, between Napoleon and Pius VII.,
+analogous to the French concordat; abrogated.
+
+1813. It is impossible to designate as a concordat the concessions which
+were wrested by violence from Pius VII. when ill and in seclusion at
+Fontainebleau, and which he at once retracted.
+
+1817. For Bavaria; still in force.
+
+1817. New French concordat, in which Louis XVIII. endeavoured to revive
+the concordat of 1516; but it was not put to the vote in the chambers,
+and never came into force.
+
+1817. For Piedmont, completed in 1836 and 1841; was suppressed, like
+all other Italian concordats, by the formation of the kingdom of Italy.
+
+1818. For the Two Sicilies, completed in 1834; lasted until the invasion
+of the kingdom of Naples by Piedmont.
+
+1821. For Prussia; still in force.
+
+1821. For the Rhine provinces not incorporated in Prussia, with the
+special object of regulating episcopal elections; concerned Württemberg,
+Baden, Hesse, Saxony, Nassau, Frankfort, the Hanseatic towns, Oldenburg
+and Waldeck. This first concordat was immediately suspended, and was not
+ratified until 1827; it is partially maintained. It had to be replaced
+by new concordats concluded with Württemberg in 1857 and the grand-duchy
+of Baden in 1859; but these conventions, not having been ratified by
+those countries, never came into force.
+
+1824. For the kingdom of Hanover; maintained.
+
+1827. For Belgium and Holland; abandoned by a common accord.
+
+1828 and 1845. For Switzerland, for the reorganization of the bishoprics
+of Basel and Soleure; in force.
+
+1847. For Russia, never applied by Russia. It was followed by several
+partial conventions.
+
+1851. For Tuscany; lasted until the formation of the kingdom of Italy.
+
+1851. For Spain, completed in 1859 and 1888; in force.
+
+A convention on the religious orders was concluded in 1904, but had not
+received the assent of the Senate in 1908.
+
+1855. For Austria; denounced in 1870. Several of its provisions are
+maintained by unilateral Austrian laws. The emperor of Austria continues
+to nominate to bishoprics by virtue of rights anterior to this
+concordat.
+
+1857. For Portugal, completed in 1886 for the Portuguese possessions in
+the Indies; in force.
+
+1886. For Montenegro; in force.
+
+The numerous concordats concluded towards the middle of the 19th century
+with several of the South American republics either have not come into
+force or have been denounced and replaced by a more or less pacific
+modus vivendi.
+
+  For texts see Vincenzio Nussi, _Quinquaginta conventiones de rebus
+  ecclesiasticis_ (Rome, 1869; Mainz, 1870); Branden, _Concordata inter
+  S. Sedem et inclytam nationem Germaniae_, &c. (undated). On the nature
+  and obligation of concordats see Mgr. Giobbio, _I Concordati_ (Monza,
+  1900); _idem, Lezioni di diplomazia ecclesiastica_ (Rome, 1899-1903);
+  Cardinal Cavagnis, _Institutiones juris publici ecclesiastici_ (Rome,
+  1906). For the French concordats see A. Baudrillard, _Quatre cents ans
+  de concordat_ (Paris, 1905); Boulay de la Meurthe, _Documents sur la
+  négociation du concordat et sur les autres rapports de la France avec
+  le Saint-Sičge_ (Paris, 1891-1905); Cardinal Mathieu, _Le Concordat de
+  1801_ (Paris, 1903); E. Sevestre, _Le Concordat de 1801, l'histoire,
+  le texte, la destinée_ (Paris, 1905). On the relations between the
+  church and the state in various countries see Vering, _Kirchenrecht_,
+  §§ 30-53.     (A. Bo.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] These are arranged under thirty-five distinct heads in Nussi's
+    _Quinquaginta conventiones de rebus ecclesiasticis_ (Rome, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+CONCORDIA, a Roman goddess, the personification of peace and goodwill.
+Several temples in her honour were erected at Rome, the most ancient
+being one on the Capitol, dedicated to her by Camillus (367 B.C.),
+subsequently restored by Livia, the wife of Augustus, and consecrated by
+Tiberius (A.D. 10). Other temples were frequently built to commemorate
+the restoration of civil harmony. Offerings were made to Concordia on
+the birthdays of emperors, and Concordia Augusta was worshipped as the
+promoter of harmony in the imperial household. Concordia was represented
+as a matron holding in her right hand a _patera_ or an olive branch, and
+in her left a _cornu copiae_ or a sceptre. Her symbols were two hands
+joined together, and two serpents entwined about a herald's staff.
+
+
+
+
+CONCORDIA (mod. _Concordia Sagittaria_), an ancient town of Venetia, in
+Italy, 16 ft. above sea-level, 31 m. W. of Aquileia, at the junction of
+roads to Altinum and Patavium, to Opitergium (and thence either to
+Vicetia and Verona, or Feltria and Tridentum), to Noricum by the valley
+of the Tilaventus (Tagliamento), and to Aquileia. It was a mere village
+until the time of Augustus, who made it a colony. Under the later empire
+it was one of the most important towns of Italy; it had a strong
+garrison and a factory of missiles for the army. The cemetery of the
+garrison has been excavated since 1873, and a large number of important
+inscriptions, the majority belonging to the end of the 4th and the
+beginning of the 5th centuries, have been discovered. It was taken and
+destroyed by Attila in A.D. 452. Considerable remains of the ancient
+town have been found--parts of the city walls, the sites of the forum
+and the theatre, and probably that of the arms factory. The objects
+found are preserved at Portogruaro, 1ź m. to the N. The see of Concordia
+was founded at an early period, and transferred in 1339 to Portogruaro,
+where it still remains. The baptistery of Concordia was probably erected
+in 1100.
+
+  See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, iv. (Stuttgart,
+  1901) 830.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCRETE (Lat. _concretus_, participle of _concrescere_, to grow
+together), a term used in various technical senses with the general
+significance of combination, conjunction, solidity. Thus the building
+material made up of separate substances combined into one is known as
+concrete (see below). In mathematics and music, the adjective has been
+used as synonymous with "continuous" as opposed to "discrete," i.e.
+"separate," "discontinuous." This antithesis is no doubt influenced by
+the idea that the two words derive from a common origin, whereas
+"discrete" is derived from the Latin _discernere_. In logic and also in
+common language concrete terms are those which signify persons or things
+as opposed to abstract terms which signify qualities, relations,
+attributes (so J. S. Mill). Thus the term "man" is concrete, while
+"manhood" and "humanity" are abstract, the names of the qualities
+implied. Confusions between abstract and concrete terms are frequent;
+thus the word "relation," which is strictly an abstract term implying
+connexion between two things or persons, is often used instead of the
+correct term "relative" for people related to one another. Concrete
+terms are further subdivided as Singular, the names of things regarded
+as individuals, and General or Common, the names which a number of
+things bear in common in virtue of their possession of common
+characteristics. These latter terms, though concrete in so far as they
+denote the persons or things which are known by them (see DENOTATION),
+have also an abstract sense when viewed connotatively, i.e. as implying
+the quality or qualities in isolation from the individuals. The
+ascription of adjectives to the class of concrete terms, upheld by J. S.
+Mill, has been disputed on the ground that adjectives are applied both
+to concrete and to abstract terms. Hence some logicians make a separate
+class for adjectives, as being the names neither of things nor of
+qualities, and describe them as Attributive terms.
+
+
+
+
+CONCRETE, the name given to a building material consisting generally of
+a mixture of broken stone, sand and some kind of cement. To these is
+added water, which combining chemically with the cement conglomerates
+the whole mixture into a solid mass, and forms a rough but strong
+artificial stone. It has thus the immense advantage over natural stone
+that it can be easily moulded while wet to any desired shape or size.
+Moreover, its constituents can be obtained in almost any part of the
+world, and its manufacture is extremely simple. On account of these
+properties, builders have come to give it a distinct preference over
+stone, brick, timber and other building materials. So popular has it
+become that besides being used for massive constructions like
+breakwaters, dock walls, culverts, and for foundations of buildings,
+lighthouses and bridges, it is also proving its usefulness to the
+architect and engineer in many other ways. A remarkable extension of the
+use of concrete has been made possible by the introduction of scientific
+methods of combining it with steel or iron. The floors and even the
+walls of important buildings are made of this combination, and long span
+bridges, tall factory chimneys, and large water-tanks are among the many
+novel uses to which it has been put. Piles made of steel concrete are
+driven into the ground with blows that would shatter the best of timber.
+A fuller description of the combination of steel and concrete will be
+given later.
+
+
+  Constituents.
+
+The constituents of concrete are sometimes spoken of as the _matrix_ and
+the _aggregate_, and these terms, though somewhat old-fashioned, are
+convenient. The matrix is the lime or cement, whose chemical action
+with the added water causes the concrete to solidify; and the aggregate
+is the broken stone or hard material which is embedded in the matrix.
+The matrix most commonly used is Portland cement, by far the best and
+strongest of them all. The subject of its manufacture and examination is
+a most important and interesting one, and the special article dealing
+with it should be studied (see CEMENT), Here it will only be said that
+before using Portland cement very careful tests should be made to
+ascertain its quality and condition. Moreover, it should be kept in a
+damp-proof store for a few weeks; and when taken out for use it should
+be mixed and placed in position as quickly as possible, because rain, or
+even moist air, spoils it by causing it to set prematurely. The oldest
+of all the matrices is lime, and many splendid examples of its use by
+the Romans still exist. It has been to a great extent superseded by
+Portland cement, on account of the much greater strength of the latter,
+though lime concrete is still used in many places for dry foundations
+and small structures. To be of service the lime should be what is known
+as "hydraulic," that is, not pure or "fat," but containing some
+argillaceous matter, and should be carefully slaked with water before
+being mixed with the aggregate. To ensure this being properly done, the
+lumps of lime should be broken up small, and enough water to slake them
+should be added, the lime then being allowed to rest for about
+forty-eight hours, when the water changes the particles of quicklime to
+hydrate of lime, and breaks up the hard lumps into a powder. The
+hydrated lime, after being passed through a fine screen to sort out any
+lumps unaffected by the water, is ready for concrete making, and if not
+required at once should be stored in a dry place. Other matrices are
+slag cement, a comparatively recent invention, and some other natural
+and artificial cements which find occasional advocates. Materials like
+tar and pitch are sometimes employed as a matrix; they are used hot and
+without water, the solidifying action being due to cooling and to
+evaporation of the mineral oils contained in them. Whatever matrix is
+used, it is almost invariably "diluted" with sand, the grains of which
+become coated with the finer particles of the matrix. The sand should be
+coarse-grained and hard. It should be free from dirt--that is to say,
+free from clay or soft mud, for instance, which prevents the cement
+adhering to its particles, or again from sewage matter or any substance
+which will chemically destroy the matrix. The grains should show no
+signs of decay, and by preference should be of an angular shape. The
+sand obtained by crushing granite and hard stones is excellent. When
+lime is used as a matrix, certain natural earths such as pozzuolana or
+trass, or, failing these, powdered bricks or tiles, may be used instead
+of sand with great advantage. They have the property of entering into
+chemical combination with the lime, forming a hard setting compound, and
+increasing the hardness of the resulting concrete.
+
+The commonest aggregates are broken stone and natural flint gravel.
+Broken bricks or tiles and broken furnace slag are sometimes used, the
+essential points being that the aggregate should be hard, clean and
+sound. Generally speaking, broken stones will be rough and angular,
+whereas the stones in flint gravel will be comparatively smooth and
+round. It might be supposed, therefore, that the broken stone will
+necessarily be the better aggregate, but this does not always follow.
+Experience shows that, although spherical pebbles are to be avoided,
+Portland cement adheres tightly to smooth flint surfaces, and that rough
+stones often give a less compact concrete than smooth ones on account of
+the difficulty of bedding them into the matrix when laying the concrete.
+In mixing concrete there is always a tendency for the stones to separate
+themselves from the sand and cement, and to form "pockets" of
+honeycombed concrete which are neither water-tight nor strong. These are
+much more liable to occur when the stones are flat and angular than when
+they are round. Modern engineers favour the practice of having the
+stones of various sizes instead of being uniform, because if these sizes
+are wisely proportioned the whole mixture can be made more solid, and
+the rough "pockets" avoided. For first-class work, however, and
+especially in steel concrete, it is customary to reject very large
+stones, and to insist that all shall pass through a ring 7/8 of an inch
+in diameter.
+
+The water, like all the other constituents of concrete, should be clean
+and free from vegetable matter. At one time sea-water was thought to be
+injurious, but modern investigation finds no objection to it except on
+the score of appearance, efflorescence being more likely to occur when
+it is used.
+
+Sometimes in massive concrete structures large and heavy stones as big
+as a man can lift are buried in the concrete after it is laid in
+position but while it is still wet. The stones should be hard and clean,
+and care must be taken that they are completely surrounded. Such
+concrete is known as _rubble concrete_.
+
+
+  Proportions.
+
+In proportioning the quantities of matrix to aggregate the ideal to be
+aimed at is to get a concrete in which the voids or air-spaces shall be
+as small as possible; and as the lime or cement is usually by far the
+most expensive item, it is desirable to use as little of it as is
+consistent with strength. When natural flint gravel containing both
+stones and sand is used, it is usual to mix so much gravel with so much
+lime or cement. The proportions in practice generally run from 3 to 1
+for very strong work, down to 12 to 1 for unimportant work. Some
+engineers have the sand separated from the stones by screens or sieves
+and then remixed in definite proportions. When stones and sand are
+obtained from different sources, their relative proportions have to be
+decided upon. A common way of doing this is first to choose a proportion
+of sand to cement, which will probably vary from 1 to 1 up to 4 to 1. It
+then remains to determine what proportion of stones should be added. For
+this purpose a large can, whose volume is known, is filled loosely with
+stones, and the volume of the voids between them is determined by
+measuring how much water the can will hold in addition to the stones. It
+is then assumed that the quantity of sand and cement should be equal to
+the voids. Moreover, the volume of sand and cement together is generally
+assumed to be equal to that of the sand alone, as the cement to a large
+extent fills up voids in the sand. For example, suppose it is resolved
+to use 2 parts of sand to 1 of cement, and suppose that experiment shows
+that in a pailful of stones two-fifths of the volume consists of voids,
+then 2 parts of sand (or sand with cement) will fill voids in 5 parts of
+stones, and the proportion of cement, sand, stones becomes 1:2:5. There
+are several weak points in this reasoning, and a more accurate way of
+determining the best proportions is to try different mixtures of cement,
+stones and sand, filling them into different pails of the same size, and
+then ascertaining, by weighing the pails, which mixture is the densest.
+
+In determining the amount of water to be added, several things must be
+considered. The amount required to combine chemically with the cement is
+about 16% by weight, but in practice much more than this is used,
+because of loss by evaporation, and the difficulty of ensuring that the
+water shall be uniformly distributed. If the situation is cool, the
+stone hard, and the concrete carefully rammed directly it is laid down
+and kept moist with damp cloths, only just sufficient to moisten the
+whole mass is required. On the other hand, water should be given
+generously in hot weather, also when absorbent stone is used or when the
+concrete is not rammed. In these cases the concrete should be allowed to
+take all it can, but an excess of water which would flow away, carrying
+the cement with it, should be avoided.
+
+
+  Mixing.
+
+The thorough mixing of the constituents is a most important item in the
+production of good concrete. Its object is to distribute all the
+materials evenly throughout the mass, and it is performed in many
+different ways, both by hand and by machine. The relative values of hand
+and machine work are often discussed. Roughly it may be said that where
+a large mass of concrete is to be mixed at one or two places a good
+machine will be of great advantage. On the other hand, where the mixing
+platform has to be constantly shifted, hand mixing is the more
+convenient way. In hand mixing it is usual to measure out from gauge
+boxes the sand, stones and cement or lime in a heap on a wooden
+platform. Then they are turned once or twice in their dry state by men
+with shovels. Next water is carefully added, and the mixture again
+turned, when it is ready for depositing. For important work and
+especially for thin structures the number of turnings should be
+increased. Many types of mixing machines are obtainable; the favourite
+type is one in which the materials are placed in a large iron box which
+is made to rotate, thus tumbling the matrix and aggregate over each
+other again and again. Another simple apparatus is a large vertical pipe
+or shoot in which sloping baffle plates or shelves are placed at
+intervals. The materials are fed in at the top of the shoot and fall
+from shelf to shelf, the mixing being effected by the various shocks
+thus given. When mixed the concrete is carried at once to the position
+required, and if the matrix is quick-setting Portland cement this
+operation must not be delayed.
+
+
+  Moulds.
+
+One of the few drawbacks of concrete is that, unlike brickwork or
+masonry, it has nearly always to be deposited within moulds or framing
+which give it the required shape, and which are removed after it is set.
+Indeed, the trouble and expense of these moulds sometimes prohibit its
+use. It is essential that they shall be strong and stiff, so as not to
+yield at all from the pressure of the wet concrete. The moulds for the
+face of a wall consist generally of wooden shutters, leaning against
+upright timbers which are secured by horizontal or raking struts to firm
+ground, or to anything that will bear the weight. If a smooth and neat
+face is wanted other precautions must be taken. The shutters must be
+planed, and coated with a mixture of soap and oil, so as to come away
+easily after the concrete is set. Moreover, when depositing the
+concrete, a shovel or other tool must be worked between the wet concrete
+and the shutter. This draws sand and water to the face and prevents the
+rough stones from showing themselves. Sometimes rough concrete is
+rendered over with a plaster of cement and sand after the shutters have
+been removed, but this is liable to peel off and should be avoided.
+
+
+  Depositing.
+
+The method of depositing depends on the situation. If for important
+walls, or for small scantlings such as steel concrete generally
+involves, the concrete should be deposited in quite small quantities and
+very carefully rammed into position. If for massive walls, it is usual
+to tip it out in large quantities from a barrow or wagon, and simply
+spread it in layers about a foot thick. Depositing concrete under water
+for breakwaters and bridge foundations requires special skill and
+special appliances. It is usually done in one of three ways:--(a) By
+moulding the concrete ashore into large blocks, which, when sufficiently
+hard, are lowered through the water into position by a crane or similar
+machine with the aid of divers. The most notable instance of this type
+of construction was at the port of Dublin, where Mr B. B. Stoney made
+blocks no less than 350 tons in weight. Each block formed a piece of the
+quay wall 12 ft. long and 27 ft. high, being made on shore and then
+deposited in position by floating sheers of special design. (b) By
+moulding the concrete into what are called "bag-blocks." In this system
+the concrete is filled into bags, which are at once lowered through the
+water like the blocks. But in this case the concrete being still wet can
+adapt itself more or less to the shape of the adjoining bags, and strong
+rough walls can be built in this way. Sometimes the bags are made of
+enormous size, as at Aberdeen breakwater, where the contents of each bag
+weighed 50 tons. The canvas was laid in a hopper barge and there filled
+with the concrete and sewn up. The enormous bag was then dropped through
+a door in the bottom of the barge upon the breakwater foundation. (c) By
+depositing the wet concrete through the water between temporary upright
+timber frames which form the two faces of the wall. In this case very
+great care has to be taken to prevent the cement from being washed away
+from the other constituents when passing through the water. Indeed, this
+is bound to happen more or less, but it is guarded against by lowering
+the concrete slowly in a special box, the bottom of which is opened as
+it reaches the ground on which the concrete is to be laid. This method
+can only be carried out in still water, and where strong and tight
+framing can be built which will prevent the concrete from escaping. For
+small work the box can be replaced by a canvas bag secured by a special
+tripping noose which can be loosened when the bag has reached the
+ground. The concrete escapes from the bag, which is then drawn up and
+refilled.
+
+
+  Strength.
+
+Concrete may be compared with other building materials like masonry or
+timber from various points of view, such as strength, durability,
+convenience of building, fire-resistance, appearance and cost. Its
+strength varies within very wide limits according to the quality and
+proportions of the constituents, and the skill shown in mixing and
+placing them. To give a rough idea, however, it may be said that its
+safe crushing load would be about ˝ cwt. per sq. in. for lime concrete,
+and 1 to 5 cwt. for Portland cement concrete. The safe tensile strength
+of Portland cement concrete would be something like one-tenth of its
+compressive strength, and might be far less. On this account it is usual
+to neglect the tensile strength of concrete in designing structures, and
+to arrange the material in such a way that tensile stresses are avoided.
+Hence slabs or beams of long span should not be built of plain concrete,
+though when reinforced with steel it is admirably adapted for these
+purposes.
+
+
+  Durability.
+
+In regard to durability good Portland cement concrete is one of the most
+durable materials known. Neither hot, cold, nor wet weather has
+practically any effect whatever upon it. Frost will not injure it after
+it has once set, though it is essential to guard it from frost during
+the operations of mixing and depositing. The same praise cannot,
+however, be given to lime concrete. Even though the best hydraulic lime
+be used it is wise to confine it to places where it is not exposed to
+the air, or to running water, and indeed for important structures the
+use of lime should be avoided. Good Portland cement is so much stronger
+than any lime that there are few situations where it is not cheaper as
+well as better to use the former, because, although cement is the more
+expensive matrix, a smaller proportion of it will suffice for use. Lime
+should never be used in work exposed to sea-water, or to water
+containing chemicals of any kind. Portland cement concrete, on the other
+hand, may be used without fear in sea-water, provided that certain
+reasonable precautions are taken. Considerable alarm was created about
+the year 1887 by the failure of two or three large structures of
+Portland cement concrete exposed to sea-water, both in England and other
+countries. The matter was carefully investigated, and it was found that
+the sulphate of magnesia in the sea-water has a decomposing action on
+Portland cements, especially those which contain a large proportion of
+lime or even of alumina. Indeed, no Portland cement is free from the
+liability to be decomposed by sea-water, and on a moderate scale this
+action is always going on more or less. But to ensure the permanence of
+structures in sea-water the great object is to choose a cement
+containing as little lime and alumina as possible, and free from
+sulphates such as gypsum; and more important still to proportion the
+sand and stones in the concrete in such a way that the structure is
+practically non-porous. If this is done there is really nothing to fear.
+On the other hand, if the concrete is rough and porous the sea-water
+will gradually eat into the heart of the structure, especially in a case
+like a dam, where the water, being higher on one side than the other,
+constantly forces its way through the rough material, and decomposes the
+Portland cement it contains.
+
+
+  Convenience and appearance.
+
+As regards its convenience for building purposes it may be said roughly
+that in "mass" work concrete is vastly more convenient than any other
+material. But concrete is hampered by the fact that the surface always
+has to be formed by means of wooden or other framing, and in the case of
+thin walls or floors this framing becomes a serious item, involving
+expense and delay. In appearance concrete can rarely if ever rival stone
+or brickwork. It is true that it can be moulded to any desired shape,
+but mouldings in concrete generally give the appearance of being
+unsatisfactory imitations of stone. Moreover, its colour is not
+pleasing. These defects will no doubt be overcome as concrete grows in
+popularity as a building material and its aesthetic treatment is better
+understood. Concrete pavings are being used in buildings of first
+importance, the aggregate being very carefully selected, and in many
+cases the whole mixture coloured by the use of pigments. Care must be
+taken in their selection, however, as certain colouring matters such as
+red lead are destructive to the cement. One of the great objections to
+the appearance of concrete is the fact that soon after its erection
+irregular cracks invariably appear on its surface. These cracks are
+probably due to shrinkage while setting, aggravated by changes in
+temperature. They occur no less in structures of masonry and brickwork,
+but in these cases they generally follow the joints, and are almost
+imperceptible. In the case of a smooth concrete face there are no joints
+to follow, and the cracks become an ugly feature. They are sometimes
+regulated by forming artificial "joints" in the structure by embedding
+strips of wood or sheet iron at regular intervals, thus forming "lines
+of weakness," at which the cracks therefore take place. A pleasing
+"rough" appearance can be given to concrete by brushing it over soon
+after it has set with a stiff brush dipped in water or dilute acid. Or,
+if hard, its surface can be picked all over with a bush hammer.
+
+
+  Resistance to fire.
+
+At one time Portland cement concrete was considered to be lacking in
+fireproof qualities, but now it is regarded as one of the best
+fire-resisting materials known. Although experiments on this matter are
+badly needed, there is little doubt that good steel concrete is very
+nearly indestructible by fire. The matrix should be Portland cement, and
+the nature of the aggregate is important. Cinders have been and are
+still much favoured for this purpose. The reason for this preference
+lies in the fact that being porous and full of air, they are a good
+non-conductor. But they are weak, and modern experience goes to show
+that a strong concrete is the best, and that probably materials like
+broken clamp bricks or burnt clay, which are porous and yet strong, are
+far better than cinders as a fireproof aggregate. Limestone should be
+avoided, as it soon splits under heat. The steel reinforcement is of
+immense importance in fireproof work, because, if properly designed, it
+enables the concrete to hold together and do its work even when it has
+been cracked by fire and water. On the other hand, the concrete, being a
+non-conductor, preserves the steel from being softened and twisted by
+excessive temperature.
+
+
+  Cost.
+
+Only very general remarks can be made on the subject of cost, as this
+item varies greatly in different situations and with the market price of
+the materials used. But in England it may be said that for massive work
+such as big walls and foundations concrete is nearly always cheaper than
+brickwork or masonry. On the other hand, for reasons already given, thin
+walls, such as house walls, will cost more in concrete. Steel concrete
+is even more difficult to generalize about, as its use is comparatively
+new, but even in the matter of first cost it is proving a serious rival
+to timber and to plate steel work, in floors, bridges and tanks, and to
+brickwork and plain concrete in structures such as culverts and
+retaining walls, towers and domes.
+
+_Artificial Stones._--There are many varieties of concrete known as
+"artificial stones" which can now be bought ready moulded into the form
+of paving slabs, wall blocks and pipes: they are both pleasing in
+appearance and very durable, being carefully made by skilled workmen.
+Granolithic, globe granite and synthetic stone are examples of these.
+Some, such as victoria stone, imperial stone and others, are hardened
+and rendered non-porous after manufacture by immersion in a solution of
+silicate of soda. Others, like Ford's silicate of limestone, are
+practically lime mortars of excellent quality, which can be carved and
+cut like a sandstone of fine quality.
+
+_Steel Concrete._--The introduction of steel concrete (also known as
+ferroconcrete, armoured concrete, or reinforced concrete) is generally
+attributed to Joseph Monier, a French gardener, who about the year 1868
+was anxious to build some concrete water basins. In order to reduce the
+thickness of the walls and floor he conceived the idea of strengthening
+them by building in a network of iron rods. As a matter of fact other
+inventors were at work before Monier, but he deserves much credit for
+having pushed his invention with vigour, and for having popularized the
+use of this invaluable combination. The important point of his idea was
+that it combined steel and concrete in such a way that the best
+qualities of each material were brought into play. Concrete is readily
+procured and easily moulded into shape. It has considerable compressive
+or crushing strength, but is somewhat deficient in shearing strength,
+and distinctly weak in tensile or pulling strength. Steel, on the other
+hand, is easily procurable in simple forms such as long bars, and is
+exceedingly strong. But it is difficult and expensive to work up into
+various forms. Concrete has been avoided for making beams, slabs and
+thin walls, just because its deficiency in tensile strength doomed it to
+failure in such structures. But if a concrete slab be "reinforced" with
+a network of small steel rods on its under surface where the tensile
+stresses occur (see fig. 1) its strength will be enormously increased.
+Thus the one point of weakness in the concrete slab is overcome by the
+addition of steel in its simplest form, and both materials are used to
+their best advantage. The scientific and practical value of this idea
+was soon seized upon by various inventors and others, and the number of
+patented systems of combining steel with concrete is constantly
+increasing. Many of them are but slight modifications of the older
+systems, and no attempt will be made here to describe them in full. In
+England it is customary to allow the patentee of one or other system to
+furnish his own designs, but this is as much because he has gained the
+experience needed for success as because of any special virtue in this
+or that system. The majority of these systems have emanated from France,
+where steel concrete is largely used. America and Germany adopted them
+readily, and in England some very large structures have been erected
+with this material.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Expanded Steel Concrete Slab.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Expanded Metal.
+                 Section through Intersection.]
+
+The concrete itself should always be the very best quality, and Portland
+cement should be used on account of its superiority to all others. The
+aggregate should be the best obtainable and of different sizes, the
+stones being freshly crushed and screened to pass through a 7/8 in.
+ring. Very special care should be taken so to proportion the sand as to
+make a perfectly impervious mixture. The proportions generally used are
+4 to 1 and 5 to 1 in the case of gravel concrete, or 1:2:4 or 1:2˝:6 in
+the case of broken stone concrete. But, generally speaking, in steel
+concrete the cost of the cement is but a small item of the whole
+expense, and it is worth while to be generous with it. If It is used in
+piles or structures where it is likely to be bruised the proportion of
+cement should be increased. The mixing and laying should all be done
+very thoroughly; the concrete should be rammed in position, and any old
+surface of concrete which has to be covered should be cleaned and coated
+with fresh cement.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Hennebique System.]
+
+The reinforcement mostly consists of mild steel and sometimes of wrought
+iron: steel, however, is stronger and generally cheaper, so that in
+English practice it holds the field. It should be mild and is usually
+specified to have a breaking (tensile) strength of 28 to 32 tons per sq.
+in., with an elongation of at least 20% in 8 in. Any bar should be
+capable of being bent cold to the shape of the letter U without breaking
+it. The steel is generally used in the form of long bars of circular
+section. At first it was feared that such bars would have a tendency to
+slip through the concrete in which they were embedded, but experiments
+have shown that if the bar is not painted but has a natural rusty
+surface a very considerable adhesion between the concrete and steel--as
+much as 2 cwt. per sq. in. of contact surface--may be relied upon. Many
+devices are used, however, to ensure the adhesion between concrete and
+bar being perfect. (1) In the Hennebique system of construction the bars
+are flattened at the end and split to form a "fish tail." (2) In the
+Ransome system round bars are rejected in favour of square bars, which
+have been twisted in a lathe in "barley sugar" fashion. (3) In the
+Habrick system a flat bar similarly twisted is used. (4) In the Thacher
+system a flat bar with projections like rivet heads is specially rolled
+for this purpose. (5) In the Kahn system a square bar with "branches" is
+used. (6) In the "expanded metal" system no bars are used, but instead a
+strong steel netting is manufactured in large sheets by special
+machinery. It is made by cutting a series of long slots at regular
+intervals in a plain steel plate, which is then forcibly stretched out
+sideways until the slots become diamond-shaped openings, and a trellis
+work of steel without any joints is the result (fig. 2).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. Hennebique System.]
+
+The structures in which steel concrete is used may be analysed as
+consisting essentially of (1) walls, (2) columns, (3) piles, (4) beams,
+(5) slabs, (6) arches. The designs differ considerably according to
+which of these purposes the structure is to fulfil.
+
+The effect of reinforcing _walls_ with steel is that they can be made
+much thinner. The steel reinforcement is generally applied in the form
+of vertical rods built in the wall at intervals, with lighter horizontal
+rods which cross the vertical ones, and thus form a network of steel
+which is buried in the concrete. These rods assist in taking the weight,
+and the whole network binds the concrete together and prevents it from
+cracking under a heavy load. The vertical rods should not be quite in
+the middle of the wall but near the inner and outer faces alternately.
+Care must be taken, however, that all the rods are covered by at least
+an inch of concrete to preserve them from damage by rust or fire. In
+the Cottancin system the concrete is replaced by bricks pierced with
+holes through which the vertical rods are threaded; the horizontal
+tie-rods are also used, but these do not merely cross the vertical ones,
+but are woven in and out of them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Steel and Concrete Pile (Williams System).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+_Columns_ have generally to bear a heavier weight than walls, and have
+to be correspondingly stronger. They have usually been made square with
+a vertical steel rod at each corner. To prevent these rods from
+spreading apart they must be tied together at frequent intervals. In
+some systems this is done by loops of stout wire connecting each rod to
+its neighbour, and placed one above the other about every 10 in. up the
+column (figs. 3 and 4). In other systems a stout wire is wound
+continuously in a spiral form round the four rods. Modern investigation
+goes to prove that the latter is theoretically the more economical way
+of using the steel, as the spiral binding wire acts like the binding of
+a wire gun, and prevents the concrete which it encloses from bursting
+even under very great loads.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+That steel concrete can be used for _piles_ is perhaps the most
+astonishing feature in this invention. The fact that a comparatively
+brittle material like concrete can be subjected not only to heavy loads
+but also to the jar and vibration from the blows of a heavy pile ram
+makes it appear as if its nature and properties had been changed by the
+steel reinforcement. In a sense this is undoubtedly the case. A. G.
+Considčre's experiments have shown that concrete when reinforced is
+capable of being stretched, without fracture, about twenty times as much
+as plain concrete. Most of the piles driven in Great Britain have been
+made on the Hennebique system with four or six longitudinal steel rods
+tied together by stirrups or loops at frequent intervals. Piles made on
+the Williams system have a steel rolled joist of I section buried in the
+heart of the pile, and round it a series of steel wire hoops at regular
+intervals (fig. 5). Whatever system is used, care must be taken not to
+batter the head of the pile to pieces with the heavy ram. To prevent
+this an iron "helmet" containing a lining of sawdust is fitted over the
+head of the pile. The sawdust adapts itself to the rough shape of the
+concrete, and deadens the blow to some extent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Stirrup (Hennebique System).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+But it is in the design of steel concrete _beams_ that the greatest
+ingenuity has been shown, and almost every patentee of a "system" has
+some new device for arranging the steel reinforcement to the best
+advantage. Concrete by itself, though strong in compression, can offer
+but little resistance to tensile and shearing stresses, and as these
+stresses always occur in beams the problem arises how best to arrange
+the steel so as to assist the concrete in bearing them. To meet tensile
+stresses the steel is nearly always inserted in the form of bars running
+along the beam. Figs. 6 to 9 show how they are arranged for different
+loading. In each case the object is to place the bars as nearly as
+possible where the tensile stresses occur. In cases where all the
+stresses are heavy, that portion of the beam which is under compression
+is similarly reinforced, though with smaller bars (figs. 10 and 11). But
+as these tension and compression bars are generally placed near the
+under and upper surface of the beam they are of little use in helping to
+resist the shearing stresses which are greatest at its neutral axis.
+(See BRIDGES.) These shearing stresses in a heavily loaded beam would
+cause it to split horizontally at or near the centre. To prevent this
+many ingenious devices have been introduced. (1) Perhaps one of the most
+efficient is a diagonal bracing of steel wire passing to and fro between
+the upper and lower bars and firmly secured to each by lapping or
+otherwise (fig. 12); this device is used in the Coignet and other French
+systems. (2) In the Hennebique system (which has found great favour in
+England) vertical bands or "stirrups," as they are generally called, of
+hoop steel are used (fig. 13). They are of U shape, and passing round
+the tension bars extend to the top of the beam (figs. 14 and 3). They
+are exceedingly thin, but being buried in concrete no danger of their
+perishing from rust is to be feared. (3) In the Boussiron system a
+similar stirrup is used, but instead of being vertical the two parts are
+spread so that each is slightly inclined. (4) In the Coularon system,
+the stirrups are inclined as in fig. 15, and consist of rods, the ends
+of which are hooked over the tension and compression bars. (5) In the
+Kahn system the stirrups are similarly arranged, but instead of being
+merely secured to the tension bar, they form an integral part of it like
+branches on a stem, the bar being rolled to a special section to admit
+of this. (6) In many systems such as the "expanded metal" system, the
+tension and compression rods together with the stirrups are all
+abandoned in favour of a single rolled steel joist of I section, buried
+in concrete (see fig. 16). Probably the weight of steel used in this way
+is excessive, but the joists are cheap, readily procurable and easy to
+handle.
+
+Floor _slabs_ may be regarded as wide and shallow beams, and the remarks
+made about the stresses in the one apply to the other also; accordingly,
+the various devices which are used for strengthening beams recur in the
+slabs. But in a thin slab, with its comparatively small span and light
+load, the concrete is generally strong enough to bear the shearing
+stresses unaided, and the reinforcement is devoted to assisting it where
+the tensile stresses occur. For this purpose many designers simply use
+the modification of the Monier system, consisting of a horizontal
+network of crossed steel rods buried in the concrete. "Expanded metal"
+too is admirably adapted for the purpose (fig. 1). In the Matrai system
+thin wires are used instead of rods, and are securely fastened to rolled
+steel joists, which form the beams on which the slabs rest; moreover,
+the wires instead of being stretched tight from side to side of the slab
+are allowed to sag as much as the thickness of the concrete will allow.
+In the Williams system small flat bars are used, which are not quite
+horizontal, but pass alternately over and under the rolled joists which
+support the slabs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+A concrete _arch_ is reinforced in much the same way as a wall, the
+stresses being somewhat similar. The reinforcing rods are generally laid
+both longitudinally and circumferentially. In the case of a culvert the
+circumferential rods are sometimes laid continuously in the form of a
+spiral as in the Bordenave system.
+
+  To those wishing to pursue the subject further, the following books
+  among others may be suggested:--Sabin, _Cement and Concrete_ (New
+  York); Taylor and Thompson, _Concrete, Plain and Reinforced_ (London);
+  Sutcliffe, _Concrete, Nature and Uses_ (London); Marsh and Dunn,
+  _Reinforced Concrete_ (London); Twelvetrees, _Concrete Steel_
+  (London); Paul Christophe, _Le Béton armé_ (Paris); Buel and Hill,
+  _Reinforced Concrete Construction_ (London).     (F. E. W.-S.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCRETION, in petrology, a name applied to nodular or irregularly
+shaped masses of various size occurring in a great variety of
+sedimentary rocks, differing in composition from the main mass of the
+rock, and in most cases obviously formed by some chemical process which
+ensued after the rock was deposited. As these bodies present so many
+variations in composition and in structure, it will conduce to clearness
+if some of the commonest be briefly adverted to. In sandstones there are
+often hard rounded lumps, which separate out when the rock is broken or
+weathered. They are mostly siliceous, but sometimes calcareous, and may
+differ very little in general appearance from the bulk of the sandstone.
+Through them the bedding passes uninterrupted, thus showing that they
+are not pebbles; often in their centres shells or fragments of plants
+are found. Argillaceous sandstones and flagstones very frequently
+contain "clay galls" or concretionary lumps richer in clay than the
+remainder of the rock. Nodules of pyrites and of marcasite are common in
+many clays, sandstones and marls. Their outer surfaces are tuberculate;
+internally they commonly have a radiate fibrous structure. Usually they
+are covered with a dark brown crust of limonite produced by weathering;
+occasionally imperfect crystalline faces may bound them. Not
+infrequently (e.g. in the Gault) these pyritous nodules contain altered
+fossils. In clays also siliceous and calcareous concretions are often
+found. They present an extraordinary variety of shapes, often
+grotesquely resembling figures of men or animals, fruits, &c, and have
+in many countries excited popular wonder, being regarded as of
+supernatural origin ("fairy-stones," &c.), and used as charms.
+
+Another type of concretion, very abundant in many clays and shales, is
+the "septarian nodule." These are usually flattened disk-shaped or
+ovoid, often lobulate externally like the surface of a kidney. When
+split open they prove to be traversed by a network of cracks, which are
+usually filled with calcite and other minerals. These white infillings
+of the fissures resemble partitions; hence the name from the Latin
+_septum_, a partition. Sometimes the cracks are partly empty. They vary
+up to half an inch in breadth, and are best seen when the nodule is cut
+through with a saw. These concretions may be calcareous or may consist
+of carbonate of iron. The former are common in some beds of the London
+Clay, and were formerly used for making cement. The clay-ironstone
+nodules or sphaerosiderites are very abundant in some Carboniferous
+shales, and have served in some places as iron ores. Some of the largest
+specimens are 3 ft. in diameter. In the centre of these nodules fossils
+are often found, e.g. coprolites, pieces of plants, fish teeth and
+scales. Phosphatic concretions are often present in certain limestones,
+clays, shelly sands and marls. They occur, for example, in the Cambridge
+Greensand, and at the base of certain of the Pliocene beds in the east
+of England. In many places they have been worked, under the name of
+"coprolite-beds," as sources of artificial manures. Bones of animals
+more or less completely mineralized are frequent in these phosphatic
+concretions, the commonest being fragments of extinct reptilia. Their
+presence points to a source for the phosphate of lime.
+
+Another very important series of concretionary structures are the flint
+nodules which occur in chalk, and the patches and bands of chert which
+are found in limestones. Flints consist of dark-coloured
+cryptocrystalline silica. They weather grey or white by the removal of
+their more soluble portions by percolating water. Their shapes are
+exceedingly varied, and often they are studded with tubercules and
+nodosities. Sometimes they have internal cavities, and very frequently
+they contain shells of echinoderms, molluscs, &c., partly or entirely
+replaced by silica, but preserving their original forms. Chert occurs in
+bands and tabular masses rather than in nodules; it often replaces
+considerable portions of a bed of limestone (as in the Carboniferous
+Limestones of Ireland). Corals and other fossils frequently occur in
+chert, and when sliced and microscopically examined both flint and chert
+often show silicified foraminifera, polyzoa &c., and sponge spicules.
+Flints in chalk frequently lie along joints which may be vertical or may
+be nearly horizontal and parallel to the bedding. Hence they increase
+the stratified appearance of natural exposures of chalk.
+
+It will be seen from the details given above that concretions may be
+calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous and phosphatic, and they may consist
+of carbonate or sulphide of iron. In the red clay of the deep sea bottom
+concretionary masses rich in manganese dioxide are being formed, and are
+sometimes brought up by the dredge. In clays large crystals of gypsum,
+having the shape of an arrow-head, are occasionally found in some
+numbers. They bear a considerable resemblance to some concretions, e.g.
+crystalline marcasite and pyrite nodules. These examples will indicate
+the great variety of substances which may give rise to concretionary
+structures.
+
+Some concretions are amorphous, e.g. phosphatic nodules; others are
+cryptocrystalline, e.g. flint and chert; others finely crystalline, e.g.
+pyrites, sphaerosiderite; others consist of large crystals, e.g. gypsum,
+barytes, pyrites and marcasite. From this it is clear that the formation
+of concretions is not closely dependent on any single inorganic
+substance, or on any type of crystalline structure. Concretions seem to
+arise from the tendency of chemical compounds to be slowly dissolved by
+interstitial water, either while the deposit is unconsolidated or at a
+later period. Certain nuclei, present in the rock, then determine
+reprecipitation of these solutions, and the deposit once begun goes on
+till either the supply of material for growth is exhausted, or the
+physical character of the bed is changed by pressure and consolidation
+till it is no longer favourable to further accretion. The process
+resembles the growth of a crystal in a solution by slowly attracting to
+itself molecules of suitable nature from the surrounding medium. But in
+the majority of cases it is not the crystalline forces, or not these
+alone, which attract the particles. The structure of a flint, for
+example, shows that the material had so little tendency to crystallize
+that it remained permanently in cryptocrystalline or sub-crystalline
+state. That the concretions grew in the solid sediment is proved by the
+manner in which lines of bedding pass through them and not round them.
+This is beautifully shown by many siliceous and calcareous nodules out
+of recent clays. That the sediment was in a soft condition may be
+inferred from the purity and perfect crystalline form of some of these
+bodies, e.g. gypsum, pyrites, marcasite. The crystals must have pushed
+aside the yielding matrix as they gradually enlarged. In deep-sea
+dredgings concretions of phosphate of lime and manganese dioxide are
+frequently brought up; this shows that concretionary action operates on
+the sea floor in muddy sediments, which have only recently been laid
+down. The phosphatic nodules seem to originate around the dead bodies of
+fishes, and manganese incrustations frequently enclose teeth of sharks,
+ear-bones of whales, &c. This recalls the occurrence of fossils in
+septarian nodules, flints, phosphatic concretions, &c., in the older
+strata. Probably the decomposing organic matter partly supplied
+substances for the growth of the nodules (phosphates, carbonates, &c.),
+partly acted as reducing agents, or otherwise determined mineral
+precipitation in those places where organic remains were mingled with
+the sediment.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCUBINAGE (Lat. _concubina_, a concubine; from _con-_, with, and
+_cubare_, to lie), the state of a man and woman cohabiting as married
+persons without the full sanctions of legal marriage. In early
+historical times, when marriage laws had scarcely advanced beyond the
+purely customary stage, the concubine was definitely recognized as a
+sort of inferior wife, differing from those of the first rank mainly by
+the absence of permanent guarantees. The history of Abraham's family
+shows us clearly that the concubine might be dismissed at any time, and
+her children were liable to be cast off equally summarily with gifts, in
+order to leave the inheritance free for the wife's sons (Genesis xxi. 9
+ff., xxv. 5 ff.).
+
+The Roman law recognized two classes of legal marriage: (1) with the
+definite public ceremonies of _confarreatio_ or _coemptio_, and (2)
+without any public form whatever and resting merely on the _affectio
+maritalis_, i.e. the fixed intention of taking a particular woman as a
+permanent spouse.[1] Next to these strictly lawful marriages came
+concubinage as a recognized legal status, so long as the two parties
+were not married and had no other concubines. It differed from the
+formless marriage in the absence (1) of _affectio maritalis_, and
+therefore (2) of full conjugal rights. For instance, the concubine was
+not raised, like the wife, to her husband's rank, nor were her children
+legitimate, though they enjoyed legal rights forbidden to mere bastards,
+e.g. the father was bound to maintain them and to leave them (in the
+absence of legitimate children) one-sixth of his property; moreover,
+they might be fully legitimated by the subsequent marriage of their
+parents.
+
+In the East, the emperor Leo the Philosopher (d. 911) insisted on formal
+marriage as the only legal status; but in the Western Empire concubinage
+was still recognized even by the Christian emperors. The early
+Christians had naturally preferred the formless marriage of the Roman
+law as being free from all taint of pagan idolatry; and the
+ecclesiastical authorities recognized concubinage also. The first
+council of Toledo (398) bids the faithful restrict himself "to a single
+wife or concubine, as it shall please him";[2] and there is a similar
+canon of the Roman synod held by Pope Eugenius II. in 826. Even as late
+as the Roman councils of 1052 and 1063, the suspension from communion of
+laymen who had a wife and a concubine _at the same time_ implies that
+mere concubinage was tolerated. It was also recognized by many early
+civil codes. In Germany "left-handed" or "morganatic" marriages were
+allowed by the Salic law between nobles and women of lower rank. In
+different states of Spain the laws of the later middle ages recognized
+concubinage under the name of _barragania_, the contract being
+lifelong, the woman obtaining by it a right to maintenance during life,
+and sometimes also to part of the succession, and the sons ranking as
+nobles if their father was a noble. In Iceland, the concubine was
+recognized in addition to the lawful wife, though it was forbidden that
+they should dwell in the same house. The Norwegian law of the later
+middle ages provided definitely that in default of legitimate sons, the
+kingdom should descend to illegitimates. In the Danish code of Valdemar
+II., which was in force from 1280 to 1683, it was provided that a
+concubine kept openly for three years shall thereby become a legal wife;
+this was the custom of _hand vesten_, the "handfasting" of the English
+and Scottish borders, which appears in Scott's _Monastery_. In Scotland,
+the laws of William the Lion (d. 1214) speak of concubinage as a
+recognized institution; and, in the same century, the great English
+legist Bracton treats the "concubina _legitima_" as entitled to certain
+rights.[3] There seems to have been at times a pardonable confusion
+between some quasi-legitimate unions and those marriages by mere word of
+mouth, without ecclesiastical or other ceremonies, which the church,
+after some natural hesitation, pronounced to be valid.[4] Another and
+more serious confusion between concubinage and marriage was caused by
+the gradual enforcement of clerical celibacy (see CELIBACY). During the
+bitter conflict between laws which forbade sacerdotal marriages and long
+custom which had permitted them, it was natural that the legislators and
+the ascetic party generally should studiously speak of the priests'
+wives as concubines, and do all in their power to reduce them to this
+position. This very naturally resulted in a too frequent substitution of
+clerical concubinage for marriage; and the resultant evils form one of
+the commonest themes of complaint in church councils of the later middle
+ages.[5] Concubinage in general was struck at by the concordat between
+the Pope Leo X. and Francis I. of France in 1516; and the council of
+Trent, while insisting on far more stringent conditions for lawful
+marriage than those which had prevailed in the middle ages, imposed at
+last heavy ecclesiastical penalties on concubinage and appealed to the
+secular arm for help against contumacious offenders (Sessio xxiv. cap.
+8).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Besides those quoted in the notes, the reader may
+  consult with advantage Du Cange's _Glossarium, s.v. Concubina_, the
+  article "Concubinat" in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.,
+  Freiburg i/B., 1884), and Dr H. C. Lea's _History of Sacerdotal
+  Celibacy_ (3rd ed., London, 1907).     (G. G. Co.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The difference between English and Scottish law, which once made
+    "Gretna Green marriages" so frequent, is due to the fact that Scotland
+    adopted the Roman law (which on this particular point was followed by
+    the whole medieval church).
+
+  [2] Gratian, in the 12th century, tried to explain this away by
+    assuming that concubinage here referred to meant a formless marriage;
+    but in 398 a church council can scarcely so have misused the technical
+    terms of the then current civil law (Gratian, _Decretum_, pars i.
+    dist. xxiv. c. 4).
+
+  [3] Bracton, _De Legibus_, lib. iii. tract. ii. c. 28, § I, and lib.
+    iv. tract. vi. c. 8, § 4.
+
+  [4] F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, _Hist. of English Law_, 2nd ed.
+    vol. ii. p. 370. In the case of Richard de Anesty, decided by papal
+    rescript in 1143, "a marriage solemnly celebrated in church, a
+    marriage of which a child had been born, was set aside as null in
+    favour of an earlier marriage constituted by a mere exchange of
+    consenting words" (ibid. p. 367; cf. the similar decretal of Alexander
+    III. on p. 371). The great medieval canon lawyer Lyndwood illustrates
+    the difficulty of distinguishing, even as late as the middle of the
+    15th century, between concubinage and a clandestine, though legal,
+    marriage. He falls back on the definition of an earlier canonist that
+    if the woman eats out of the same dish with the man, and if he takes
+    her to church, she may be presumed to be his wife; if, however, he
+    sends her to draw water and dresses her in vile clothing, she is
+    probably a concubine (_Provinciale_, ed. Oxon. 1679, p. 10, _s.v.
+    concubinarios_).
+
+  [5] It may be gathered from the Dominican C. L. Richard's _Analysis
+    Conciliorum_ (vol. ii., 1778) that there were more than 110 such
+    complaints in councils and synods between the years 1009 and 1528. Dr
+    Rashdall (_Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, vol. ii. p.
+    691, note) points out that a master of the university of Prague, in
+    1499, complained openly to the authorities against a bachelor for
+    assaulting his concubine.
+
+
+
+
+CONDÉ, PRINCES OF. The French title of prince of Condé, assumed from the
+ancient town of Condé-sur-l'Escaut, was borne by a branch of the house
+of Bourbon. The first who assumed it was the famous Huguenot leader,
+Louis de Bourbon (see below), the fifth son of Charles de Bourbon, duke
+of Vendôme. His son, Henry, prince of Condé (1552-1588), also belonged
+to the Huguenot party. Fleeing to Germany he raised a small army with
+which in 1575 he joined Alençon. He became leader of the Huguenots, but
+after several years' fighting was taken prisoner of war. Not long after
+he died of poison, administered, according to the belief of his
+contemporaries, by his wife, Catherine de la Trémouille. This event,
+among others, awoke strong suspicions as to the legitimacy of his heir
+and namesake, Henry, prince of Condé (1588-1646). King Henry IV.,
+however, did not take advantage of the scandal. In 1609 he caused the
+prince of Condé to marry Charlotte de Montmorency, whom shortly after
+Condé was obliged to save from the king's persistent gallantry by a
+hasty flight, first to Spain and then to Italy. On the death of Henry,
+Condé returned to France, and intrigued against the regent, Marie de'
+Medici; but he was seized, and imprisoned for three years (1616-1619).
+There was at that time before the court a plea for his divorce from his
+wife, but she now devoted herself to enliven his captivity at the cost
+of her own liberty. During the rest of his life Condé was a faithful
+servant of the king. He strove to blot out the memory of the Huguenot
+connexions of his house by affecting the greatest zeal against
+Protestants. His old ambition changed into a desire for the safe
+aggrandizement of his family, which he magnificently achieved, and with
+that end he bowed before Richelieu, whose niece he forced his son to
+marry. His son Louis, the great Condé, is separately noticed below.
+
+The next in succession was Henry Jules, prince of Condé (1643-1709), the
+son of the great Condé and of Clémence de Maillé, niece of Richelieu. He
+fought with distinction under his father in Franche-Comté and the Low
+Countries; but he was heartless, avaricious and undoubtedly insane. The
+end of his life was marked by singular hypochondriacal fancies. He
+believed at one time that he was dead, and refused to eat till some of
+his attendants dressed in sheets set him the example. His grandson,
+Louis Henry, duke of Bourbon (1692-1740), Louis XV.'s minister, did not
+assume the title of prince of Condé which properly belonged to him.
+
+The son of the duke of Bourbon, Louis Joseph, prince of Condé
+(1736-1818), after receiving a good education, distinguished himself in
+the Seven Years' War, and most of all by his victory at Johannisberg. As
+governor of Burgundy he did much to improve the industries and means of
+communication of that province. At the Revolution he took up arms in
+behalf of the king, became commander of the "army of Condé," and fought
+in conjunction with the Austrians till the peace of Campo Formio in
+1797, being during the last year in the pay of England. He then served
+the emperor of Russia in Poland, and after that (1800) returned into the
+pay of England, and fought in Bavaria. In 1800 Condé arrived in England,
+where he resided for several years. On the restoration of Louis XVIII.
+he returned to France. He died in Paris in 1818. He wrote _Essai sur la
+vie du grand Condé_ (1798).
+
+LOUIS HENRY JOSEPH, duke of Bourbon (1756-1830), son of the last named,
+was the last prince of Condé. Several of the earlier events of his life,
+especially his marriage with the princess Louise of Orleans, and the
+duel that the comte d'Artois provoked by raising the veil of the
+princess at a masked ball, caused much scandal. At the Revolution he
+fought with the army of the _emigrés_ in Liége. Between the return of
+Napoleon from Elba and the battle of Waterloo, he headed with no success
+a royalist rising in La Vendée. In 1829 he made a will by which he
+appointed as his heir the due d'Aumale, and made some considerable
+bequests to his mistress, the baronne de Feuchčres (q.v.). On the 27th
+of August 1830 he was found hanged on the fastening of his window. A
+crime was generally suspected, and the princes de Rohan, who were
+relatives of the deceased, disputed the will. Their petition, however,
+was dismissed by the courts.
+
+Two cadet branches of the house of Condé played an important part: those
+of Soissons and Conti. The first, sprung from Charles of Bourbon (b.
+1566), son of Louis I., prince of Condé, became extinct in the
+legitimate male line in 1641. The second took its origin from Armand of
+Bourbon, born in 1629, son of Henry II., prince of Condé, and survived
+up to 1814.
+
+  See Muret, _L'Histoire de l'armée de Condé_; Chamballand, _Vie de
+  Louis Joseph, prince de Condé_; Crétineau-Joly, _Histoire des trois
+  derniers princes de la maison de Condé_; and _Histoire des princes de
+  Condé_, by the due d'Aumale (translated by R. B. Borthwick, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+CONDÉ, LOUIS DE BOURBON, PRINCE OF (1530-1569), fifth son of Charles de
+Bourbon, duke of Vendôme, younger brother of Antoine, king of Navarre
+(1518-1562), was the first of the famous house of Condé (see above).
+After his father's death in 1537 Louis was educated in the principles of
+the reformed religion. Brave though deformed, gay but extremely poor for
+his rank, Condé was led by his ambition to a military career. He fought
+with distinction in Piedmont under Marshal de Brissac; in 1552 he forced
+his way with reinforcements into Metz, then besieged by Charles V.; he
+led several brilliant sorties from that town; and in 1554 commanded the
+light cavalry on the Meuse against Charles. In 1557 he was present at
+the battle of St Quentin, and did further good service at the head of
+the light horse. But the descendants of the constable de Bourbon were
+still looked upon with suspicion in the French court, and Condé's
+services were ignored. The court designed to reduce his narrow means
+still further by despatching him upon a costly mission to Philip II. of
+Spain. His personal griefs thus combined with his religious views to
+force upon him a rôle of political opposition. He was concerned in the
+conspiracy of Amboise, which aimed at forcing from the king the
+recognition of the reformed religion. He was consequently condemned to
+death, and was only saved by the decease of Francis II. At the accession
+of the boy-king Charles IX., the policy of the court was changed, and
+Condé received from Catherine de' Medici the government of Picardy. But
+the struggle between the Catholics and the Huguenots soon began once
+more, and henceforward the career of Condé is the story of the wars of
+religion (see FRANCE: _HISTORY_). He was the military as well as the
+political chief of the Huguenot party, and displayed the highest
+generalship on many occasions, and notably at the battle of St Denis. At
+the battle of Jarnac, with only 400 horsemen, Condé rashly charged the
+whole Catholic army. Worn out with fighting, he at last gave up his
+sword, and a Catholic officer named Montesquiou treacherously shot him
+through the head on the 13th of March 1569.
+
+
+
+
+CONDÉ, LOUIS II. DE BOURBON, PRINCE OF (1621-1686), called the Great
+Condé, was the son of Henry, prince of Condé, and Charlotte Marguerite
+de Montmorency, and was born at Paris on the 8th of September 1621. As a
+boy, under his father's careful supervision, he studied diligently at
+the Jesuits' College at Bourges, and at seventeen, in the absence of his
+father, he governed Burgundy. The duc d'Enghien, as he was styled during
+his father's lifetime, took part with distinction in the campaigns of
+1640 and 1641 in northern France while yet under twenty years of age.
+
+During the youth of Enghien all power in France was in the hands of
+Richelieu; to him even the princes of the blood had to yield; and Henry
+of Condé sought with the rest to win the cardinal's favour. Enghien was
+forced to conform. He was already deeply in love with Mlle. Marthe du
+Vigean, who in return was passionately devoted to him, yet, to flatter
+the cardinal, he was compelled by his father, at the age of twenty, to
+give his hand to Richelieu's niece, Claire Clémence de Maillé-Brézé, a
+child of thirteen. He was present with Richelieu during the dangerous
+plot of Cinq Mars, and afterwards fought in the siege of Perpignan
+(1642).
+
+In 1643 Enghien was appointed to command against the Spaniards in
+northern France. He was opposed by experienced generals, and the
+veterans of the Spanish army were accounted the finest soldiers in
+Europe; on the other hand, the strength of the French army was placed at
+his command, and under him were the best generals of the service. The
+great battle of Rocroy (May 18) put an end to the supremacy of the
+Spanish army and inaugurated the long period of French military
+predominance. Enghien himself conceived and directed the decisive
+attack, and at the age of twenty-two won his place amongst the great
+captains of modern times. After a campaign of uninterrupted success,
+Enghien returned to Paris in triumph, and in gallantry and intrigues
+strove to forget his enforced and hateful marriage. In 1644 he was sent
+with reinforcements into Germany to the assistance of Turenne, who was
+hard pressed, and took command of the whole army. The battle of Freiburg
+(Aug.) was desperately contested, but in the end the French army won a
+great victory over the Bavarians and Imperialists commanded by Count
+Mercy. As after Rocroy, numerous fortresses opened their gates to the
+duke. The next winter Enghien spent, like every other winter during the
+war, amid the gaieties of Paris. The summer campaign of 1645 opened with
+the defeat of Turenne by Mercy, but this was retrieved in the brilliant
+victory of Nördlingen, in which Mercy was killed, and Enghien himself
+received several serious wounds. The capture of Philipsburg was the most
+important of his other achievements during this campaign. In 1646
+Enghien served under the duke of Orleans in Flanders, and when, after
+the capture of Mardyck, Orleans returned to Paris, Enghien, left in
+command, captured Dunkirk (October 11th).
+
+It was in this year that the old prince of Condé died. The enormous
+power that fell into the hands of his successor was naturally looked
+upon with serious alarm by the regent and her minister. Condé's birth
+and military renown placed him at the head of the French nobility; but,
+added to that, the family of which he was chief was both enormously rich
+and master of no small portion of France. Condé himself held Burgundy,
+Berry and the marches of Lorraine, as well as other less important
+territory; his brother Conti held Champagne, his brother-in-law,
+Longueville, Normandy. The government, therefore, determined to permit
+no increase of his already overgrown authority, and Mazarin made an
+attempt, which for the moment proved successful, at once to find him
+employment and to tarnish his fame as a general. He was sent to lead the
+revolted Catalans. Ill-supported, he was unable to achieve anything,
+and, being forced to raise the siege of Lerida, he returned home in
+bitter indignation. In 1648, however, he received the command in the
+important field of the Low Countries; and at Lens (Aug. 19th) a battle
+took place, which, beginning with a panic in his own regiment, was
+retrieved by Condé's coolness and bravery, and ended in a victory that
+fully restored his prestige.
+
+In September of the same year Condé was recalled to court, for the
+regent Anne of Austria required his support. Influenced by the fact of
+his royal birth and by his arrogant scorn for the bourgeois, Condé lent
+himself to the court party, and finally, after much hesitation, he
+consented to lead the army which was to reduce Paris (Jan. 1649).
+
+On his side, insufficient as were his forces, the war was carried on
+with vigour, and after several minor combats their substantial losses
+and a threatening of scarcity of food made the Parisians weary of the
+war. The political situation inclined both parties to peace, which was
+made at Rueil on the 20th of March (see Fronde, The). It was not long,
+however, before Condé became estranged from the court. His pride and
+ambition earned for him universal distrust and dislike, and the personal
+resentment of Anne in addition to motives of policy caused the sudden
+arrest of Condé, Conti and Longueville on the 18th of January 1650. But
+others, including Turenne and his brother the duke of Bouillon, made
+their escape. Vigorous attempts for the release of the princes began to
+be made. The women of the family were now its heroes. The dowager
+princess claimed from the parlement of Paris the fulfilment of the
+reformed law of arrest, which forbade imprisonment without trial. The
+duchess of Longueville entered into negotiations with Spain; and the
+young princess of Condé, having gathered an army around her, obtained
+entrance into Bordeaux and the support of the parlement of that town.
+She alone, among the nobles who took part in the folly of the Fronde,
+gains our respect and sympathy. Faithful to a faithless husband, she
+came forth from the retirement to which he had condemned her, and
+gathered an army to fight for him. But the delivery of the princes was
+brought about in the end by the junction of the old Fronde (the party of
+the parlement and of Cardinal de Retz) and the new Fronde (the party of
+the Condés); and Anne was at last, in February 1651, forced to liberate
+them from their prison at Havre. Soon afterwards, however, another
+shifting of parties left Condé and the new Fronde isolated. With the
+court and the old Fronde in alliance against him, Condé found no
+resource but that of making common cause with the Spaniards, who were at
+war with France. The confused civil war which followed this step (Sept.
+1651) was memorable chiefly for the battle of the Faubourg St Antoine,
+in which Condé and Turenne, two of the foremost captains of the age,
+measured their strength (July 2, 1652), and the army of the prince was
+only saved by being admitted within the gates of Paris. La Grande
+Mademoiselle, daughter of the duke of Orleans, persuaded the Parisians
+to act thus, and turned the cannon of the Bastille on Turenne's army.
+Thus Condé, who as usual had fought with the most desperate bravery, was
+saved, and Paris underwent a new investment. This ended in the flight of
+Condé to the Spanish army (Sept. 1652), and thenceforward, up to the
+peace, he was in open arms against France, and held high command in the
+army of Spain. But his now fully developed genius as a commander found
+little scope in the cumbrous and antiquated system of war practised by
+the Spaniards, and though he gained a few successes, and man[oe]uvred
+with the highest possible skill against Turenne, his disastrous defeat
+at the Dunes near Dunkirk (14th of June 1658), in which an English
+contingent of Cromwell's veterans took part on the side of Turenne, led
+Spain to open negotiations for peace. After the peace of the Pyrenees in
+1659, Condé obtained his pardon (January 1660) from Louis, who thought
+him less dangerous as a subject than as possessor of the independent
+sovereignty of Luxemburg, which had been offered him by Spain as a
+reward for his services.
+
+Condé now realized that the period of agitation and party warfare was at
+an end, and he accepted, and loyally maintained henceforward, the
+position of a chief subordinate to a masterful sovereign. Even so, some
+years passed before he was recalled to active employment, and these
+years he spent on his estate at Chantilly. Here he gathered round him a
+brilliant company, which included many men of genius--Moličre, Racine,
+Boileau, La Fontaine, Nicole, Bourdaloue and Bossuet. About this time
+negotiations between the Poles, Condé and Louis were carried on with a
+view to the election, at first of Condé's son Enghien, and afterwards of
+Condé himself, to the throne of Poland. These, after a long series of
+curious intrigues, were finally closed in 1674 by the veto of Louis XIV.
+and the election of John Sobieski. The prince's retirement, which was
+only broken by the Polish question and by his personal intercession on
+behalf of Fouquet in 1664, ended in 1668. In that year he proposed to
+Louvois, the minister of war, a plan for seizing Franche-Comté, the
+execution of which was entrusted to him and successfully carried out. He
+was now completely re-established in the favour of Louis, and with
+Turenne was the principal French commander in the celebrated campaign of
+1672 against the Dutch. At the forcing of the Rhine passage at Tollhuis
+(June 12) he received a severe wound, after which he commanded in Alsace
+against the Imperialists. In 1673 he was again engaged in the Low
+Countries, and in 1674 he fought his last great battle at Seneff against
+the prince of Orange (afterwards William III. of England). This battle,
+fought on the 11th of August, was one of the hardest of the century, and
+Condé, who displayed the reckless bravery of his youth, had three horses
+killed under him. His last campaign was that of 1675 on the Rhine, where
+the army had been deprived of its general by the death of Turenne; and
+where by his careful and methodical strategy he repelled the invasion of
+the Imperial army of Montecucculi. After this campaign, prematurely worn
+out by the toils and excesses of his life, and tortured by the gout, he
+returned to Chantilly, where he spent the eleven years that remained to
+him in quiet retirement. In the end of his life he specially sought the
+companionship of Bourdaloue, Nicole and Bossuet, and devoted himself to
+religious exercises. He died on the 11th of November 1686 at the age of
+sixty-five. Bourdaloue attended him at his death-bed, and Bossuet
+pronounced his _éloge_.
+
+The earlier political career of Condé was typical of the great French
+noble of his day. Success in love and war, predominant influence over
+his sovereign and universal homage to his own exaggerated pride, were
+the objects of his ambition. Even as an exile he asserted the precedence
+of the royal house of France over the princes of Spain and Austria, with
+whom he was allied for the moment. But the Condé of 1668 was no longer a
+politician and a marplot; to be first in war and in gallantry was still
+his aim, but for the rest he was a submissive, even a subservient,
+minister of the royal will. It is on his military character, however,
+that his fame rests. This changed but little. Unlike his great rival
+Turenne, Condé was equally brilliant in his first battle and in his
+last. The one failure of his generalship was in the Spanish Fronde, and
+in this everything united to thwart his genius; only on the battlefield
+itself was his personal leadership as conspicuous as ever. That he was
+capable of waging a methodical war of positions may be assumed from his
+campaigns against Turenne and Montecucculi, the greatest generals of the
+predominant school. But it was in his eagerness for battle, his quick
+decision in action, and the stern will which sent his regiments to face
+the heaviest loss, that Condé is distinguished above all the generals of
+his time. In private life he was harsh and unamiable, seeking only the
+gratification of his own pleasures and desires. His enforced and
+loveless marriage embittered his life, and it was only in his last
+years, when he had done with ambition, that the more humane side of his
+character appeared in his devotion to literature.
+
+Condé's unhappy wife had some years before been banished to Châteauroux.
+An accident brought about her ruin. Her contemporaries, greedy as they
+were of scandal, refused to believe any evil of her, but the prince
+declared himself convinced of her unfaithfulness, placed her in
+confinement, and carried his resentment so far that his last letter to
+the king was to request him never to allow her to be released.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See, besides the numerous _Mémoires_ of the time, Puget
+  de la Serre, _Les Sičges, les batailles, &c., de Mr. le prince de
+  Condé_ (Paris, 1651); J. de la Brune, _Histoire de la vie, &c., de
+  Louis de Bourbon, prince de Condé_ (Cologne, 1694); P. Coste,
+  _Histoire de Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Hague, 1748); Desormeaux,
+  _Histoire de Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Paris, 1768); Turpin, _Vie de
+  Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Paris and Amsterdam, 1767); _Éloge militaire
+  de Louis de Bourbon_ (Dijon, 1772); _Histoire du grand Condé_, by A.
+  Lemercier (Tours, 1862); J. J. E. Roy (Lille, 1859); L. de Voivreuil
+  (Tours, 1846); Fitzpatrick, _The Great Condé_, and Lord Mahon, _Life
+  of Louis, prince of Condé_ (London, 1845). Works on the Condé family
+  by the prince de Condé and de Sevilinges (Paris, 1820), the due
+  d'Aumale, and Guibout (Rouen, 1856), should also be consulted.
+
+
+
+
+CONDÉ, the name of some twenty villages in France and of two towns of
+some importance. Of the villages, Condé-en-Brie (Lat. _Condetum_) is a
+place of great antiquity and was in the middle ages the seat of a
+principality, a sub-fief of that of Montmirail; Condé-sur-Aisne
+(_Condatus_) was given in 870 by Charles the Bald to the abbey of St
+Ouen at Rouen, gave its name to a seigniory during the middle ages, and
+possessed a priory of which the church and a 12th-century chapel remain;
+Condé-sur-Marne (_Condate_), once a place of some importance, preserves
+one of its parish churches, with a fine Romanesque tower. The two towns
+are:--
+
+1. CONDÉ-SUR-L'ESCAUT, in the department of Nord, at the junction of the
+canals of the Scheldt and of Condé-Mons. Pop. (1906) town, 2701;
+commune, 5310. It lies 7 m. N. by E. of Valenciennes and 2 m. from the
+Belgian frontier. It has a church dating from the middle of the 18th
+century. Trade is in coal and cattle. The industries include brewing,
+rope-making and boat-building, and there is a communal college. Condé
+(_Condate_) is of considerable antiquity, dating at least from the later
+Roman period. Taken in 1676 by Louis XIV., it definitely passed into the
+possession of France by the treaty of Nijmwegen two years later, and was
+afterwards fortified by Vauban. During the revolutionary war it was
+besieged and taken by the Austrians (1793); and in 1815 it again fell to
+the allies. It was from this place that the princes of Condé (q.v.) took
+their title. See Perron-Gelineau, _Condé ancien et moderne_ (Nantes,
+1887).
+
+2. CONDÉ-SUR-NOIREAU, in the department of Calvados, at the confluence
+of the Noireau and the Drouance, 33 m. S.S.W. of Caen on the Ouest-État
+railway. Pop. (1906) 5709. The town is the seat of a tribunal of
+commerce, a board of trade-arbitration and a chamber of arts and
+manufactures, and has a communal college. It is important for its
+cotton-spinning and weaving, and carries on dyeing, printing and
+machine-construction; there are numerous nursery-gardens in the
+vicinity. Important fairs are held in the town. The church of St Martin
+has a choir of the 12th and 15th centuries, and a stained-glass window
+(15th century) representing the Crucifixion. There is a statue to Dumont
+d'Urville, the navigator (b. 1790), a native of the town. Throughout the
+middle ages Condé (_Condatum_, _Condetum_) was the seat of an important
+castellany, which was held by a long succession of powerful nobles and
+kings, including Robert, count of Mortain, Henry II. and John of
+England, Philip Augustus of France, Charles II. (the Bad) and Charles
+III. of Navarre. The place was held by the English from 1417 to 1449. Of
+the castle some ruins of the keep survive. See L. Huet, _Hist. de
+Condé-sur-Noireau, ses seigneurs, son industrie, &c._ (Caen, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+CONDE, JOSÉ ANTONIO (1766-1820), Spanish Orientalist, was born at
+Peraleja (Cuenca) on the 28th of October 1766, and was educated at the
+university of Alcalá. His translation of Anacreon (1791) obtained him a
+post in the royal library in 1795, and in 1796-1797 he published
+paraphrases from Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, Sappho and Meleager. These
+were followed by a mediocre edition of the Arabic text of Edrisi's
+_Description of Spain_ (1799), with notes and a translation. Conde
+became a member of the Spanish Academy in 1802 and of the Academy of
+History in 1804, but his appointment as interpreter to Joseph Bonaparte
+led to his expulsion from both bodies in 1814. He escaped to France in
+February 1813, and returned to Spain in 1814, but was not allowed to
+reside at Madrid till 1816. Two years later he was re-elected by both
+academies; he died in poverty on the 12th of June 1820. His _Historia de
+la Dominación de los Árabes en Espańa_ was published in 1820-1821. Only
+the first volume was corrected by the author, the other two being
+compiled from his manuscript by Juan Tineo. This work was translated
+into German (1824-1825), French (1825) and English (1854). Conde's
+pretensions to scholarship have been severely criticized by Dozy, and
+his history is now discredited. It had, however, the merit of
+stimulating abler workers in the same field.
+
+
+
+
+CONDENSATION OF GASES.
+
+
+  Critical temperature.
+
+If the volume of a gas continually decreases at a constant temperature,
+for which an increasing pressure is required, two cases may occur:--(1)
+The volume may continue to be homogeneously filled. (2) If the substance
+is contained in a certain volume, and if the pressure has a certain
+value, the substance may divide into two different phases, each of which
+is again homogeneous. The value of the temperature T decides which case
+will occur. The temperature which is the limit above which the space
+will always be homogeneously filled, and below which the substance
+divides into two phases, is called the _critical temperature_ of the
+substance. It differs greatly for different substances, and if we
+represent it by Tc, the condition for the condensation of a gas is that
+T must be below Tc. If the substance is divided into two phases, two
+different cases may occur. The denser phase may be either a liquid or a
+solid. The limiting temperature for these two cases, at which the
+division into three phases may occur, is called the _triple point_. Let
+us represent it by T3; if the term "condensation of gases" is taken in
+the sense of "liquefaction of gases"--which is usually done--the
+condition for condensation is Tc > T > T3. The opinion sometimes held
+that for all substances T3 is the same fraction of Tc (the value being
+about ˝) has decidedly not been rigorously confirmed. Nor is this to
+be expected on account of the very different form of crystallization
+which the solid state presents. Thus for carbon dioxide, CO2, for which
+Tc = 304° on the absolute scale, and for which we may put T3 = 216°,
+this fraction is about 0.7; for water it descends down to 0.42, and for
+other substances it may be still lower.
+
+If we confine ourselves to temperatures between Tc and T3, the gas will
+pass into a liquid if the pressure is sufficiently increased. When the
+formation of liquid sets in we call the gas a _saturated vapour_. If the
+decrease of volume is continued, the gas pressure remains constant till
+all the vapour has passed into liquid. The invariability of the
+properties of the phases is in close connexion with the invariability of
+the pressure (called _maximum tension_). Throughout the course of the
+process of condensation these properties remain unchanged, provided the
+temperature remain constant; only the relative quantity of the two
+phases changes. Until all the gas has passed into liquid a further
+decrease of volume will not require increase of pressure. But as soon as
+the liquefaction is complete a slight decrease of volume will require a
+great increase of pressure, liquids being but slightly compressible.
+
+
+  Critical pressure.
+
+The pressure required to condense a gas varies with the temperature,
+becoming higher as the temperature rises. The highest pressure will
+therefore be found at Tc and the lowest at T3. We shall represent the
+pressure at Tc by pc. It is called the _critical pressure_. The pressure
+at T3 we shall represent by p3. It is called the _pressure of the triple
+point_. The values of Tc and pc for different substances will be found
+at the end of this article. The values of T3 and p3 are accurately known
+only for a few substances. As a rule p3 is small, though occasionally it
+is greater than 1 atmosphere. This is the case with CO2, and we may in
+general expect it if the value of T3/Tc is large. In this case there can
+only be a question of a real boiling-point (under the normal pressure)
+if the liquid can be supercooled.
+
+We may find the value of the pressure of the saturated vapour for each T
+in a geometrical way by drawing in the theoretical isothermal a straight
+line parallel to the v-axis in such a way that [int] v1 to v2 pdv will
+have the same value whether the straight line or the theoretical
+isothermal is followed. This construction, given by James Clerk Maxwell,
+may be considered as a result of the application of the general rules
+for coexisting equilibrium, which we owe to J. Willard Gibbs. The
+construction derived from the rules of Gibbs is as follows:--Construe
+the free energy at a constant temperature, i.e. the quantity - [int]pdv
+as ordinate, if the abscissa represents v, and determine the inclination
+of the double tangent. Another construction derived from the rules of
+Gibbs might be expressed as follows:--Construe the value of pv -
+[int]pdv as ordinate, the abscissa representing p, and determine the
+point of intersection of two of the three branches of this curve.
+
+As an approximate half-empirical formula for the calculation of the
+pressure,
+
+          p      /Tc-T\
+  -log10 --- = f( ---- )
+         pc      \ T  /
+
+may be used. It would follow from the law of corresponding states that
+in this formula the value of [int] is the same for all substances, the
+molecules of which do not associate to form larger molecule-complexes.
+In fact, for a great many substances, we find a value for f, which
+differs but little from 3, e.g. ether, carbon dioxide, benzene, benzene
+derivatives, ethyl chloride, ethane, &c. As the chemical structure of
+these substances differs greatly, and association, if it takes place,
+must largely depend upon the structure of the molecule, we conclude from
+this approximate equality that the fact of this value of [int] being
+equal to about 3 is characteristic for normal substances in which,
+consequently, association is excluded. Substances known to associate,
+such as organic acids and alcohols, have a sensibly higher value of f.
+Thus T. Estreicher (Cracow, 1896) calculates that for fluor-benzene f
+varies between 3.07 and 2.94; for ether between 3.0 and 3.1; but for
+water between 3.2 and 3.33, and for methyl alcohol between 3.65 and
+3.84, &c. For isobutyl alcohol [int] even rises above 4. It is, however,
+remarkable that for oxygen [int] has been found almost invariably equal
+to 2.47 from K. Olszewski's observations, a value which is appreciably
+smaller than 3. This fact makes us again seriously doubt the correctness
+of the supposition that [int] = 3 is a characteristic for
+non-association.
+
+
+  Critical volume.
+
+It is a general rule that the volume of saturated vapour decreases when
+the temperature is raised, while that of the coexisting liquid
+increases. We know only one exception to this rule, and that is the
+volume of water below 4° C. If we call the liquid volume v_l, and the
+vapour v_v, v_v - v_l decreases if the temperature rises, and becomes
+zero at Tc. The limiting value, to which vl and vv converge at Tc, is
+called the _critical volume_, and we shall represent it by v_c.
+According to the law of corresponding states the values both of v_l/v_c
+and vv/vc must be the same for all substances, if T/Tc has been taken
+equal for them all. According to the investigations of Sydney Young,
+this holds good with a high degree of approximation for a long series of
+substances. Important deviations from this rule for the values of vv/vl
+are only found for those substances in which the existence of
+association has already been discovered by other methods. Since the
+lowest value of T, for which investigations on v_l and v_v may be made,
+is the value of T3; and since T3/Tc, as has been observed above, is not
+the same for all substances, we cannot expect the smallest value of
+v_l/v_c to be the same for all substances. But for low values of T, viz.
+such as are near T3, the influence of the temperature on the volume is
+but slight, and therefore we are not far from the truth if we assume the
+minimum value of the ratio v_l/v_c as being identical for all normal
+substances, and put it at about 1/3. Moreover, the influence of the
+polymerization (association) on the liquid volume appears to be small,
+so that we may even attribute the value 1/3 to substances which are not
+normal. The value of v_v/v_c at T = T3 differs widely for different
+substances. If we take p3 so low that the law of Boyle-Gay Lussac may be
+applied, we can calculate v3/v_c by means of the formula p3ˇv3/T3 =
+kˇp_cˇv_c/Tc provided k be known. According to the observations of
+Sydney Young, this factor has proved to be 3.77 for normal substances.
+In consequence
+
+   v3         p_c T3
+   --- = 3.77 --- --.
+   v_c        p3  Tc
+
+A similar formula, but with another value of k, may be given for
+associating substances, provided the saturated vapour does not contain
+any complex molecules. But if it does, as is the case with acetic acid,
+we must also know the degree of association. It can, however, only be
+found by measuring the volume itself.
+
+
+  Rule of the rectilinear diameter.
+
+E. Mathias has remarked that the following relation exists between the
+densities of the saturated vapour and of the coexisting liquid:--
+
+                                   /    T \
+  [rho]l + [rho]v = 2[rho]c {1 + a(1 - --  ) },
+                                   \    Tc/
+
+and that, accordingly, the curve which represents the densities at
+different temperatures possesses a rectilinear diameter. According to
+the law of corresponding states, a would be the same for all substances.
+Many substances, indeed, actually appear to have a rectilinear diameter,
+and the value of a appears approximatively to be the same. In a _Mémoire
+présentę ŕ la société royale ŕ Ličge_, 15th June 1899, E. Mathias gives
+a list of some twenty substances for which a has a value lying between
+0.95 and 1.05. It had been already observed by Sydney Young that a is
+not perfectly constant even for normal substances. For associating
+substances the diameter is not rectilinear. Whether the value of a, near
+1, may serve as a characteristic for normal substances is rendered
+doubtful by the fact that for nitrogen a is found equal to 0.6813 and
+for oxygen to 0.8. At T = Tc/2, the formula of E. Mathias, if [rho]v be
+neglected with respect to [rho]l, gives the value 2 + a for
+[rho]l/[rho]c.
+
+
+  Latent heat.
+
+The heat required to convert a molecular quantity of liquid coexisting
+with vapour into saturated vapour at the same temperature is called
+_molecular latent heat_. It decreases with the rise of the temperature,
+because at a higher temperature the liquid has already expanded, and
+because the vapour into which it has to be converted is denser. At the
+critical temperature it is equal to zero on account of the identity of
+the liquid and the gaseous states. If we call the molecular weight m and
+the latent heat per unit of weight r, then, according to the law of
+corresponding states, mr/T is the same for all normal substances,
+provided the temperatures are corresponding. According to F. T. Trouton,
+the value of mr/T is the same for all substances if we take for T the
+boiling-point. As the boiling-points under the pressure of one
+atmosphere are generally not equal fractions of Tc, the two theorems are
+not identical; but as the values of p_c for many substances do not differ
+so much as to make the ratios of the boiling-points under the pressure
+of one atmosphere differ greatly from the ratios of Tc, an approximate
+confirmation of the law of Trouton may be compatible with an approximate
+confirmation of the consequence of the law of corresponding states. If
+we take the term boiling-point in a more general sense, and put T in the
+law of Trouton to represent the boiling-point under an arbitrary equal
+pressure, we may take the pressure equal to pc for a certain substance.
+For this substance mr/T would be equal to zero, and the values of mr/T
+would no longer show a trace of equality. At present direct trustworthy
+investigations about the value of r for different substances are
+wanting; hence the question whether as to the quantity mr/T the
+substances are to be divided into normal and associating ones cannot be
+answered. Let us divide the latent heat into heat necessary for internal
+work and heat necessary for external work. Let r' represent the former
+of these two quantities, then:--
+
+  r = r' + p(v_v - v_l).
+
+Then the same remark holds good for mr'/T as has been made for mr/T. The
+ratio between r and that part that is necessary for external work is
+given in the formula,
+
+        r        T dp
+  ------------ = ----.
+  p(v_v - v_l)   p dT
+
+By making use of the approximate formula for the vapour tension:--
+
+                 p            /Tc - T\
+  log_[epsilon] --- = [int]' (--------), we find--
+                p_c           \  T   /
+
+        r               Tc
+  ------------ = [int]' --.
+  p(v_v - v_l)          T
+
+At T = Tc we find for this ratio [int]', a value which, for normal
+substances is equal to 3/0.4343 = 7. At the critical temperature the
+quantities r and vv-vl are both equal to 0, but they have a finite
+ratio. As we may equate p(v_v - v_l) with pv_v = RT at very low
+temperatures, we get, if we take into consideration that R expressed in
+calories is nearly equal to 2/m, the value 2[int]'Tc = 14Tc as limiting
+value for mr for normal substances. This value for mr has, however,
+merely the character of a rough approximation--especially since the
+factor f' is not perfectly constant.
+
+
+  Nature of a liquid.
+
+All the phenomena which accompany the condensation of gases into liquids
+may be explained by the supposition, that the condition of aggregation
+which we call liquid differs only in quantity, and not in quality, from
+that which we call gas. We imagine a gas to consist of separate
+molecules of a certain mass [mu], having a certain velocity depending on
+the temperature. This velocity is distributed according to the law of
+probabilities, and furnishes a quantity of _vis viva_ proportional to
+the temperatures. We must attribute extension to the molecules, and they
+will attract one another with a force which quickly decreases with the
+distance. Even those suppositions which reduce molecules to centra of
+forces, like that of Maxwell, lead us to the result that the molecules
+behave in mutual collisions as if they had extension--an extension which
+in this case is not constant, but determined by the law of repulsion in
+the collision, the law of the distribution, and the value of the
+velocities. In order to explain capillary phenomena it was assumed so
+early as Laplace, that between the molecules of the same substance an
+attraction exists which quickly decreases with the distance. That this
+attraction is found in gases too is proved by the fall which occurs in
+the temperature of a gas that is expanded without performing external
+work. We are still perfectly in the dark as to the cause of this
+attraction, and opinion differs greatly as to its dependence on the
+distance. Nor is this knowledge necessary in order to find the influence
+of the attraction, for a homogeneous state, on the value of the external
+pressure which is required to keep the moving molecules at a certain
+volume (T being given). We may, viz., assume either in the strict sense,
+or as a first approximation, that the influence of the attraction is
+quite equal to a pressure which is proportional to the square of the
+density. Though this molecular pressure is small for gases, yet it will
+be considerable for the great densities of liquids, and calculation
+shows that we may estimate it at more than 1000 atmos., possibly
+increasing up to 10,000. We may now make the same supposition for a
+liquid as for a gas, and imagine it to consist of molecules, which for
+non-associating substances are the same as those of the rarefied vapour;
+these, if T is the same, have the same mean _vis viva_ as the vapour
+molecules, but are more closely massed together. Starting from this
+supposition and all its consequences, van der Waals derived the
+following formula which would hold both for the liquid state and for the
+gaseous state:--
+
+   /    a\
+  (p + -- )(v - b) = RT.
+   \   v˛/
+
+It follows from this deduction that for the rarefied gaseous state b
+would be four times the volume of the molecules, but that for greater
+densities the factor 4 would decrease. If we represent the volume of the
+molecules by [beta], the quantity b will be found to have the following
+form:--
+
+             {              /4[beta]\             /4[beta]\˛    }
+  b = 4[beta]{ 1 - [gamma]1( ------- ) + [gamma]2( ------- ) &c.}
+             {              \   v   /             \   v   /     }
+
+Only two of the successive coefficients [gamma]1, [gamma]2, &c., have
+been worked out, for the determination requires very lengthy
+calculations, and has not even led to definitive results (L. Boltzmann,
+_Proc. Royal Acad. Amsterdam_, March 1899). The latter formula supposes
+the molecules to be rigid spheres of invariable size. If the molecules
+are things which are compressible, another formula for b is found, which
+is different according to the number of atoms in the molecule (_Proc.
+Royal Acad. Amsterdam_, 1900-1901). If we keep the value of a and b
+constant, the given equation will not completely represent the net of
+isothermals of a substance. Yet even in this form it is sufficient as to
+the principal features. From it we may argue to the existence of a
+critical temperature, to a minimum value of the product pv, to the law
+of corresponding states, &c. Some of the numerical results to which it
+leads, however, have not been confirmed by experience. Thus it would
+follow from the given equation that p_cˇv_c/Tc = 3/8ˇpv/T, if the value
+of v is taken so great that the gaseous laws may be applied, whereas
+Sydney Young has found 1/3.77 for a number of substances instead of the
+factor 3/8. Again it follows from the given equation, that if a is
+thought to be independent of the temperature, Tc/p_cˇ(dp/dT)_c = 4
+whereas for a number of substances a value is found for it which is near
+7. If we assume with Clausius that a depends on the temperature, and has
+a value a'ˇ273/T, we find Tc/p_cˇ(dp/dT)_c = 7 That the accurate
+knowledge of the equation of state is of the highest importance is
+universally acknowledged, because, in connexion with the results of
+thermodynamics, it will enable us to explain all phenomena relating to
+ponderable matter. This general conviction is shown by the numerous
+efforts made to complete or modify the given equation, or to replace it
+by another, for instance, by R. Clausius, P. G. Tait, E. H. Amagat, L.
+Boltzmann, T. G. Jager, C. Dieterici, B. Galitzine, T. Rose Innes and M.
+Reinganum.
+
+If we hold to the supposition that the molecules in the gaseous and the
+liquid state are the same--which we may call the supposition of the
+identity of the two conditions of aggregation--then the heat which is
+given out by the condensation at constant T is due to the potential
+energy lost in consequence of the coming closer of the molecules which
+attract each other, and then it is equal to a(1/v_l - 1/v_v). If a should
+be a function of the temperature, it follows from thermodynamics that it
+would be equal to (a - Tˇda/dT)(1/v_l - 1/v_v). Not only in the case of
+liquid and gas, but always when the volume is diminished, a quantity of
+heat is given out equal to a(1/v1 - 1/v2) or (a -Tˇda/dT)(1/v1 - 1/v2).
+
+
+  Associating substances.
+
+If, however, when the volume is diminished at a given temperature, and
+also during the transition from the gaseous to the liquid state,
+combination into larger molecule-complexes takes place, the total
+internal heat may be considered as the sum of that which is caused by
+the combination of the molecules into greater molecule-complexes and by
+their approach towards each other. We have the simplest case of possible
+greater complexity when two molecules combine to one. From the course of
+the changes in the density of the vapour we assume that this occurs,
+e.g. with nitrogen peroxide, NO2, and acetic acid, and the somewhat
+close agreement of the observed density of the vapour with that which is
+calculated from the hypothesis of such an association to
+double-molecules, makes this supposition almost a certainty. In such
+cases the molecules in the much denser liquid state must therefore be
+considered as double-molecules, either completely so or in a variable
+degree depending on the temperature. The given equation of state cannot
+hold for such substances. Even though we assume that a and b are not
+modified by the formation of double-molecules, yet RT is modified, and,
+since it is proportional to the number of the molecules, is diminished
+by the combination. The laws found for normal substances will,
+therefore, not hold for such associating substances. Accordingly for
+substances for which we have already found an anormal density of the
+vapour, we cannot expect the general laws for the liquid state, which
+have been treated above, to hold good without modification, and in many
+respects such substances will therefore not follow the law of
+corresponding states. There are, however, also substances of which the
+anormal density of vapour has not been stated, and which yet cannot be
+ranged under this law, e.g. water and alcohols. The most natural thing,
+of course, is to ascribe the deviation of these substances, as of the
+others, to the fact that the molecules of the liquid are polymerized. In
+this case we have to account for the following circumstance, that
+whereas for NO2 and acetic acid in the state of saturated vapour the
+degree of association increases if the temperature falls, the reverse
+must take place for water and alcohols. Such a difference may be
+accounted for by the difference in the quantity of heat released by the
+polymerization to double-molecules or larger molecule-complexes. The
+quantity of heat given out when two molecules fall together may be
+calculated for NO2 and acetic acid from the formula of Gibbs for the
+density of vapour, and it proves to be very considerable. With this the
+following fact is closely connected. If in the pv diagram, starting from
+a point indicating the state of saturated vapour, a geometrical locus is
+drawn of the points which have the same degree of association, this
+curve, which passes towards isothermals of higher T if the volume
+diminishes, requires for the same change in T a greater diminution of
+volume than is indicated by the border-curve. For water and alcohols
+this geometrical locus will be found on the other side of the
+border-curve, and the polymerization heat will be small, i.e. smaller
+than the latent heat. For substances with a small polymerization heat
+the degree of association will continually decrease if we move along the
+border-curve on the side of the saturated vapour in the direction
+towards lower T. With this, it is perfectly compatible that for such
+substances the saturated vapour, e.g. under the pressure of one
+atmosphere, should show an almost normal density. Saturated vapour of
+water at 100° has a density which seems nearly 4% greater than the
+theoretical one, an amount which is greater than can be ascribed to the
+deviation from the gas-laws. For the relation between v, T, and x, if x
+represents the fraction of the number of double-molecules, the following
+formula has been found ("Moleculartheorie," _Zeits. Phys. Chem._, 1890,
+vol. v):
+
+      x(v - b)   2(E1 - E2)
+  log -------- = ---------- + C,
+      (1 - x)˛      R1T
+
+from which
+
+     T    /dv\      E1 - E2
+   ------( -- ) = -2-------,
+  (v - b) \dT/_x      R1T
+
+which may elucidate what precedes.
+
+
+  Condensation of substances with low Tc.
+
+By far the majority of substances have a value of Tc above the ordinary
+temperature, and diminution of volume (increase of pressure) is
+sufficient to condense such gaseous substances into liquids. If Tc is
+but little above the ordinary temperature, a great increase of pressure
+is in general required to effect condensation. Substances for which Tc
+is much higher than the ordinary temperature T0, e.g. Tc > 5/3 T0, occur
+as liquids, even without increase of pressure; that is, at the pressure
+of one atmosphere. The value 5/3 is to be considered as only a mean
+value, because of the inequality of p_c. The substances for which Tc is
+smaller than the ordinary temperature are but few in number. Taking the
+temperature of melting ice as a limit, these gases are in successive
+order: CH4, NO, O2, CO, N2 and H2 (the recently discovered gases argon,
+helium, &c., are left out of account). If these gases are compressed at
+0° centigrade they do not show a trace of liquefaction, and therefore
+they were long known under the name of "permanent gases." The discovery,
+however, of the critical temperature carried the conviction that these
+substances would not be "permanent gases" if they were compressed at
+much lower T. Hence the problem arose how "low temperatures" were to be
+brought about. Considered from a general point of view the means to
+attain this end may be described as follows: we must make use of the
+above-mentioned circumstance that heat disappears when a substance
+expands, either with or without performing external work. According as
+this heat is derived from the substance itself which is to be condensed,
+or from the substance which is used as a means of cooling, we may divide
+the methods for condensing the so-called permanent gases into two
+principal groups.
+
+
+  Liquids as means of cooling.
+
+In order to use a liquid as a cooling bath it must be placed in a
+vacuum, and it must be possible to keep the pressure of the vapour in
+that space at a small value. According to the boiling-law, the
+temperature of the liquid must descend to that at which the maximum
+tension of the vapour is equal to the pressure which reigns on the
+surface of the liquid. If the vapour, either by means of absorption or
+by an air-pump, is exhausted from the space, the temperature of the
+liquid and that of the space itself depend upon the value of the
+pressure which finally prevails in the space. From a practical point of
+view the value of T3 may be regarded as the limit to which the
+temperature falls. It is true that if the air is exhausted to the utmost
+possible extent, the temperature may fall still lower, but when the
+substance has become solid, a further diminution of the pressure in the
+space is of little advantage. At any rate, as a solid body evaporates
+only on the surface, and solid gases are bad conductors of heat, further
+cooling will only take place very slowly, and will scarcely neutralize
+the influx of heat. If the pressure p3 is very small, it is perhaps
+practically impossible to reach T3; if so, T3 in the following lines
+will represent the temperature practically attainable. There is thus for
+every gas a limit below which it is not to be cooled further, at least
+not in this way. If, however, we can find another gas for which the
+critical temperature is sufficiently above T3 of the first chosen gas,
+and if it is converted into a liquid by cooling with the first gas, and
+then treated in the same way as the first gas, it may in its turn be
+cooled down to (T3)2. Going on in this way, continually lower
+temperatures may be attained, and it would be possible to condense all
+gases, provided the difference of the successive critical temperatures
+of two gases fulfils certain conditions. If the ratio of the absolute
+critical temperatures for two gases, which succeed one another in the
+series, should be sensibly greater than 2, the value of T3 for the first
+gas is not, or not sufficiently, below the Tc of the second gas. This is
+the case when one of the gases is nitrogen, on which hydrogen would
+follow as second gas. Generally, however, we shall take atmospheric air
+instead of nitrogen. Though this mixture of N2 and O2 will show other
+critical phenomena than a simple substance, yet we shall continue to
+speak of a Tc for air, which is given at -140° C., and for which,
+therefore, Tc amounts to 133° absolute. The lowest T which may be
+expected for air in a highly rarefied space may be evaluated at 60°
+absolute--a value which is higher than the Tc for hydrogen. Without new
+contrivances it would, accordingly, not be possible to reach the
+critical temperature of H2. The method by which we try to obtain
+successively lower temperatures by making use of successive gases is
+called the "cascade method." It is not self-evident that by sufficiently
+diminishing the pressure on a liquid it may be cooled to such a degree
+that the temperature will be lowered to T3, if the initial temperature
+was equal to Tc, or but little below it, and we can even predict with
+certainty that this will not be the case for all substances. It is
+possible, too, that long before the triple point is reached the whole
+liquid will have evaporated. The most favourable conditions will, of
+course, be attained when the influx of heat is reduced to a minimum. As
+a limiting case we imagine the process to be isentropic. Now the
+question has become, Will an isentropic line, which starts from a point
+of the border-curve on the side of the liquid not far from the
+critical-point, remain throughout its descending course in the
+heterogeneous region, or will it leave the region on the side of the
+vapour? As early as 1878 van der Waals (_Verslagen Kon. Akad.
+Amsterdam_) pointed out that the former may be expected to be the case
+only for substances for which c_p/c_v is large, and the latter for those
+for which it is small; in other words, the former will take place for
+substances the molecules of which contain few atoms, and the latter for
+substances the molecules of which contain many atoms. Ether is an
+example of the latter class, and if we say that the quantity h (specific
+heat of the saturated vapour) for ether is found to be positive, we
+state the same thing in other words. It is not necessary to prove this
+theorem further here, as the molecules of the gases under consideration
+contain only two atoms and the total evaporation of the liquid is not to
+be feared.
+
+In the practical application of this cascade-method some variation is
+found in the gases chosen for the successive stages. Thus methyl
+chloride, ethylene and oxygen are used in the cryogenic laboratory of
+Leiden, while Sir James Dewar has used air as the last term. Carbonic
+acid is not to be recommended on account of the comparatively high value
+of T3. In order to prevent loss of gas a system of "circulation" is
+employed. This method of obtaining low temperatures is decidedly
+laborious, and requires very intricate apparatus, but it has the great
+advantage that very _constant_ low temperatures may be obtained, and can
+be regulated arbitrarily within pretty wide limits.
+
+
+  Cooling by expansion.
+
+In order to lower the temperature of a substance down to T3, it is not
+always necessary to convert it first into the liquid state by means of
+another substance, as was assumed in the last method for obtaining low
+temperatures. Its own expansion is sufficient, provided the initial
+condition be properly chosen, and provided we take care, even more than
+in the former method, that there is no influx of heat. Those conditions
+being fulfilled, we may, simply by adiabatic expansion, not only lower
+the temperature of some substances down to T3, but also convert them
+into the liquid state. This is especially the case with substances the
+molecules of which contain few atoms.
+
+Let us imagine the whole net of isothermals for homogeneous phases drawn
+in a pv diagram, and in it the border-curve. Within this border-curve, as
+in the heterogeneous region, the theoretical part of every isothermal
+must be replaced by a straight line. The isothermals may therefore be
+divided into two groups, viz. those which keep outside the heterogeneous
+region, and those which cross this region. Hence an isothermal, belonging
+to the latter group, enters the heterogeneous region on the liquid side,
+and leaves it at the same level on the vapour side. Let us imagine in the
+same way all the isentropic curves drawn for homogeneous states. Their
+form resembles that of isothermals in so far as they show a maximum and a
+minimum, if the entropy-constant is below a certain value, while if it is
+above this value, both the maximum and the minimum disappear, the
+isentropic line in a certain point having at the same time dp/dv and
+d˛p/dv˛ = 0 for this particular value of the constant. This point, which
+we might call the critical point of the isentropic lines, lies in the
+heterogeneous region, and therefore cannot be realized, since as soon as
+an isentropic curve enters this region its theoretical part will be
+replaced by an empiric part. If an isentropic curve crosses the
+heterogeneous region, the point where it enters this region must, just as
+for the isothermals, be connected with the point where it leaves the
+region by another curve. When c_p/c_v = k (the limiting value of c_p/c_v
+for infinite rarefaction is meant) approaches unity, the isentropic
+curves approach the isothermals and vice versa. In the same way the
+critical point of the isentropic curves comes nearer to that of the
+isothermals. And if k is not much greater than 1, e.g. k < 1.08, the
+following property of the isothermals is also preserved, viz. that an
+isentropic curve, which enters the heterogeneous region on the side of
+the liquid, leaves it again on the side of the vapour, not of course at
+the same level, but at a lower point. If, however, k is greater, and
+particularly if it is so great as it is with molecules of one or two
+atoms, an isentropic curve, which enters on the side of the liquid,
+however far prolonged, always remains within the heterogeneous region.
+But in this case all isentropic curves, if sufficiently prolonged, will
+enter the heterogeneous region. Every isentropic curve has one point of
+intersection with the border-curve, but only a small group intersect the
+border-curve in three points, two of which are to be found not far from
+the top of the border-curve and on the side of the vapour. Whether the
+sign of h (specific heat of the saturated vapour) is negative or
+positive, is closely connected with the preceding facts. For substances
+having k great, h will be negative if T is low, positive if T rises,
+while it will change its sign again before Tc is reached. The values of
+T, at which change of sign takes place, depend on k. The law of
+corresponding states holds good for this value of T for all substances
+which have the same value of k.
+
+Now the gases which were considered as permanent are exactly those for
+which k has a high value. From this it would follow that every adiabatic
+expansion, provided it be sufficiently continued, will bring such
+substances into the heterogeneous region, i.e. they can be condensed by
+adiabatic expansion. But since the final pressure must not fall below a
+certain limit, determined by experimental convenience, and since the
+quantity which passes into the liquid state must remain a fraction as
+large as possible, and since the expansion never can take place in such
+a manner that no heat is given out by the walls or the surroundings, it
+is best to choose the initial condition in such a way that the
+isentropic curve of this point cuts the border-curve in a point on the
+side of the liquid, lying as low as possible. The border-curve being
+rather broad at the top, there are many isentropic curves which
+penetrate the heterogeneous region under a pressure which differs but
+little from p_c. Availing himself of this property, K. Olszewski has
+determined p_c for hydrogen at 15 atmospheres. Isentropic curves, which
+lie on the right and on the left of this group, will show a point of
+condensation at a lower pressure. Olszewski has investigated this for
+those lying on the right, but not for those on the left.
+
+From the equation of state (p + a/v˛)(v-b) = RT, the equation of the
+isentropic curve follows as (p + a/v˛)(v-b)^k = C, and from this we may
+deduce T(v - b)^(k-1) = C'. This latter relation shows in how high a
+degree the cooling depends on the amount by which k surpasses unity, the
+change in v - b being the same.
+
+What has been said concerning the relative position of the border-curve
+and the isentropic curve may be easily tested for points of the
+border-curve which represent rarefied gaseous states, in the following
+way. Following the border-curve we found before [int]' Tc/T for the
+value of T/pˇdp/dT. Following the isentropic curve the value of T/p
+dp/dT is equal to k/(k - 1). If k/(k - 1) < [int]'Tc/T, the isentropic
+curve rises more steeply than the border-curve. If we take f' = 7 and
+choose the value of Tc/2 for T--a temperature at which the saturated
+vapour may be considered to follow the gas-laws--then k/(k - 1) = 14, or
+k = 1.07 would be the limiting value for the two cases. At any rate k =
+1.41 is great enough to fulfil the condition, even for other values of
+T. Cailletet and Pictet have availed themselves of this adiabatic
+expansion for condensing some permanent gases, and it must also be used
+when, in the cascade method, T3 of one of the gases lies above Tc of the
+next.
+
+
+  Linde's apparatus.
+
+A third method of condensing the permanent gases is applied in C. P. G.
+Linde's apparatus for liquefying air. Under a high pressure p1 a current
+of gas is conducted through a narrow spiral, returning through another
+spiral which surrounds the first. Between the end of the first spiral
+and the beginning of the second the current of gas is reduced to a much
+lower pressure p2 by passing through a tap with a fine orifice. On
+account of the expansion resulting from this sudden decrease of
+pressure, the temperature of the gas, and consequently of the two
+spirals, falls sensibly. If this process is repeated with another
+current of gas, this current, having been cooled in the inner spiral,
+will be cooled still further, and the temperature of the two spirals
+will become still lower. If the pressures p1 and p2 remain constant the
+cooling will increase with the lowering of the temperature. In Linde's
+apparatus this cycle is repeated over and over again, and after some
+time (about two or three hours) it becomes possible to draw off liquid
+air.
+
+The cooling which is the consequence of such a decrease of pressure was
+experimentally determined in 1854 by Lord Kelvin (then Professor W.
+Thomson) and Joule, who represent the result of their experiments in the
+formula
+
+                   p1 - p2
+  T1 - T2 = [gamma]-------.
+                      T˛
+
+In their experiments p2 was always 1 atmosphere, and the amount of p1
+was not large. It would, therefore, be certainly wrong, even though for
+a small difference in pressure the empiric formula might be
+approximately correct, without closer investigation to make use of it
+for the differences of pressure used in Linde's apparatus, where p1 =
+200 and p2 = 18 atmospheres. For the existence of a most favourable
+value of p1 is in contradiction with the formula, since it would follow
+from it that T1 - T2 would always increase with the increase of p1. Nor
+would it be right to regard as the cause for the existence of this most
+favourable value of p1 the fact that the heat produced in the
+compression of the expanded gas, and therefore p1/p2, must be kept as
+small as possible, for the simple reason that the heat is produced in
+quite another part of the apparatus, and might be neutralized in
+different ways.
+
+Closer examination of the process shows that if p2 is given, a most
+favourable value of p1 must exist for the cooling itself. If p1 is taken
+still higher, the cooling decreases again; and we might take a value for
+p1 for which the cooling would be zero, or even negative.
+
+  If we call the energy per unit of weight [epsilon] and the specific
+  volume v, the following equation holds:--
+
+       [epsilon]1 + p1v1 - p2v2 = [epsilon]2,
+
+  or   [epsilon]1 + p1v1 = [epsilon]2 + p2v2.
+
+  According to the symbols chosen by Gibbs, [chi]1 = [chi]2.
+
+  As [chi]1 is determined by T1 and p1, and [chi]2 by T2 and p2, we
+  obtain, if we take T1 and p2 as being constant,
+
+     /[delta][chi]1\           /[delta][chi]2\
+    (---------------)   dp1 = ( ------------- )  dT2.
+     \  [delta]p1  /_T1        \  [delta]T2  /_p2
+
+  If T_2 is to have a minimum value, we have
+
+     /[delta][chi]1\           /[delta][chi]1)\
+    (---------------) = 0, or ( -------------- ) = 0.
+     \  [delta]p1  /_T1        \  [delta]v1   /_T1
+
+  From this follows
+
+     /[delta][epsilon]1\      /[delta](p1v1)\
+    ( ----------------- )  + ( ------------- ) = 0.
+     \    [delta]v1    /_T1   \  [delta]v1  /_T1
+
+  As ([delta][epsilon]1/[delta]v1)T is positive, we shall have to take
+  for the maximum cooling such a pressure that the product p_v decreases
+  with v, viz. a pressure larger than that at which p_v has the minimum
+  value. By means of the equation of state mentioned already, we find
+  for the value of the specific volume that gives the greatest cooling
+  the formula
+
+       RT1b     2a
+    --------- = ---,
+    (v1 - b)˛   v1˛
+
+  and for the value of the pressure
+                _       _____ _   _     _____    _
+               |       / 4 T1  | |     / 4 T1     |
+    p1 = 27p_c | 1 -  / -- --  | | 3  / -- -- - 1 |.
+               |_   \/  27 Tc _| |_ \/  27 Tc    _|
+
+  If we take the value 2Tc for T1, as we may approximately for air when
+  we begin to work with the apparatus, we find for p1 about 8p_c, or
+  more than 300 atmospheres. If we take T1 = Tc, as we may at the end of
+  the process, we find p1 = 2.5p_c, or 100 atmospheres. The constant
+  pressure which has been found the most favourable in Linde's apparatus
+  is a mean of the two calculated pressures. In a theoretically perfect
+  apparatus we ought, therefore, to be able to regulate p1 according to
+  the temperature in the inner spiral.
+
+The critical temperatures and pressures of the permanent gases are given
+in the following table, the former being expressed on the absolute scale
+and the latter in atmospheres:--
+
+           Tc      p_c                    Tc      p_c
+
+  CH4    191.2°    55             CO    133.5°    35.5
+  NO     179.5°    71.2           N2    127°      35
+  O2     155°      50             Air   133°      39
+  Argon  152°      50.6           H2    32°       15
+
+The values of Tc and p_c for hydrogen are those of Dewar. They are in
+approximate accordance with those given by K. Olszewski. Liquid hydrogen
+was first collected by J. Dewar in 1898. Apparatus for obtaining
+moderate and small quantities have been described by M. W. Travers and
+K. Olszewski. H. Kamerlingh Onnes at Leiden has brought about a
+circulation yielding more than 3 litres per hour, and has made use of it
+to keep baths of 1.5 litre capacity at all temperatures between 20.2°
+and 13.7° absolute, the temperatures remaining constant within 0.01°.
+(See also LIQUID GASES.)     (J. D. v. d. W.)
+
+
+
+
+CONDENSER, the name given to many forms of apparatus which have for
+their object the concentration of matter, or bringing it into a smaller
+volume, or the intensification of energy. In chemistry the word is
+applied to an apparatus which cools down, or condenses, a vapour to a
+liquid; reference should be made to the article DISTILLATION for the
+various types in use, and also to GAS (_Gas Manufacture_) and COAL TAR;
+the device for the condensation of the exhaust steam of a steam-engine
+is treated in the article STEAM-ENGINE. In woollen manufactures,
+"condensation" of the wool is an important operation and is accomplished
+by means of a "condenser." The term is also given--generally as a
+qualification, e.g. condensing-syringe, condensing-pump,--to apparatus
+by which air or a vapour may be compressed. In optics a "condenser" is a
+lens, or system of lenses, which serves to concentrate or bring the
+luminous rays to a focus; it is specially an adjunct to the optical
+lantern and microscope. In electrostatics a condenser is a device for
+concentrating an electrostatic charge (see ELECTROSTATICS; LEYDEN JAR;
+ELECTROPHORUS).
+
+
+
+
+CONDER, CHARLES (1868-1909), English artist, son of a civil engineer,
+was born in London, and spent his early years in India. After an English
+education he went into the government service in Australia, but in 1890
+determined to devote himself to art, and studied for several years in
+Paris, where in 1893 he became an associate of the Société Nationale des
+Beaux-Arts. About 1895 his reputation as an original painter,
+particularly of Watteau-like designs for fans, spread among a limited
+circle of artists in London, mainly connected first with the New English
+Art Club, and later the International Society; and his unique and
+charming decorative style, in dainty pastoral scenes, gradually gave him
+a peculiar vogue among connoisseurs. Examples of his work were bought
+for the Luxembourg and other art galleries. Conder suffered much in
+later years from ill-health, and died on the 9th of February 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CONDILLAC, ÉTIENNE BONNOT DE (1715-1780), French philosopher, was born
+at Grenoble of a legal family on the 30th of September 1715, and, like
+his elder brother, the well-known political writer, abbé de Mably, took
+holy orders and became abbé de Mureau.[1] In both cases the profession
+was hardly more than nominal, and Condillac's whole life, with the
+exception of an interval as tutor at the court of Parma, was devoted to
+speculation. His works are _Essai sur l'origine des connaissances
+humaines_ (1746), _Traité des systčmes_ (1749), _Traité des sensations_
+(1754), _Traité des animaux_ (1755), a comprehensive _Cours d'études_
+(1767-1773) in 13 vols., written for the young Duke Ferdinand of Parma,
+a grandson of Louis XV., _Le Commerce et le gouvernement, considérés
+relativement l'un ŕ l'autre_ (1776), and two posthumous works, _Logique_
+(1781) and the unfinished _Langue des calculs_ (1798). In his earlier
+days in Paris he came much into contact with the circle of Diderot. A
+friendship with Rousseau, which lasted in some measure to the end, may
+have been due in the first instance to the fact that Rousseau had been
+domestic tutor in the family of Condillac's uncle, M. de Mably, at
+Lyons. Thanks to his natural caution and reserve, Condillac's relations
+with unorthodox philosophers did not injure his career; and he justified
+abundantly the choice of the French court in sending him to Parma to
+educate the orphan duke, then a child of seven years. In 1768, on his
+return from Italy, he was elected to the French Academy, but attended no
+meeting after his reception. He spent his later years in retirement at
+Flux, a small property which he had purchased near Beaugency, and died
+there on the 3rd of August 1780.
+
+Though Condillac's genius was not of the highest order, he is important
+both as a psychologist and as having established systematically in
+France the principles of Locke, whom Voltaire had lately made
+fashionable. In setting forth his empirical sensationism, Condillac
+shows many of the best qualities of his age and nation, lucidity,
+brevity, moderation and an earnest striving after logical method.
+Unfortunately it must be said of him as of so many of his
+contemporaries, "er hat die Theile in seiner Hand, fehlt leider nur der
+geistiger Band"; in the analysis of the human mind on which his fame
+chiefly rests, he has missed out the active and spiritual side of human
+experience. His first book, the _Essai sur l'origine des connaissances
+humaines_, keeps close to his English master. He accepts with some
+indecision Locke's deduction of our knowledge from two sources,
+sensation and reflection, and uses as his main principle of explanation
+the association of ideas. His next book, the _Traité des systčmes_, is a
+vigorous criticism of those modern systems which are based upon abstract
+principles or upon unsound hypotheses. His polemic, which is inspired
+throughout with the spirit of Locke, is directed against the innate
+ideas of the Cartesians, Malebranche's faculty--psychology, Leibnitz's
+monadism and preestablished harmony, and, above all, against the
+conception of substance set forth in the first part of the _Ethics_ of
+Spinoza. By far the most important of his works is the _Traité des
+sensations_, in which he emancipates himself from the tutelage of Locke
+and treats psychology in his own characteristic way. He had been led, he
+tells us, partly by the criticism of a talented lady, Mademoiselle
+Ferrand, to question Locke's doctrine that the senses give us intuitive
+knowledge of objects, that the eye, for example, judges naturally of
+shapes, sizes, positions and distances. His discussions with the lady
+had convinced him that to clear up such questions it was necessary to
+study our senses separately, to distinguish precisely what ideas we owe
+to each sense, to observe how the senses are trained, and how one sense
+aids another. The result, he was confident, would show that all human
+faculty and knowledge are transformed sensation only, to the exclusion
+of any other principle, such as reflection. The plan of the book is that
+the author imagines a statue organized inwardly like a man, animated by
+a soul which has never received an idea, into which no sense-impression
+has ever penetrated. He then unlocks its senses one by one, beginning
+with smell, as the sense that contributes least to human knowledge. At
+its first experience of smell, the consciousness of the statue is
+entirely occupied by it; and this occupancy of consciousness is
+attention. The statue's smell-experience will produce pleasure or pain;
+and pleasure and pain will thenceforward be the master-principle which,
+determining all the operations of its mind, will raise it by degrees to
+all the knowledge of which it is capable. The next stage is memory,
+which is the lingering impression of the smell-experience upon the
+attention: "memory is nothing more than a mode of feeling." From memory
+springs comparison: the statue experiences the smell, say, of a rose,
+while remembering that of a carnation; and "comparison is nothing more
+than giving one's attention to two things simultaneously." And "as soon
+as the statue has comparison it has judgment." Comparisons and judgments
+become habitual, are stored in the mind and formed into series, and thus
+arises the powerful principle of the association of ideas. From
+comparison of past and present experiences in respect of their
+pleasure-giving quality arises desire; it is desire that determines the
+operation of our faculties, stimulates the memory and imagination, and
+gives rise to the passions. The passions, also, are nothing but
+sensation transformed. These indications will suffice to show the
+general course of the argument in the first section of the _Traité des
+sensations_. To show the thoroughness of the treatment it will be enough
+to quote the headings of the chief remaining chapters: "Of the Ideas of
+a Man limited to the Sense of Smell," "Of a Man limited to the Sense of
+Hearing," "Of Smell and Hearing combined," "Of Taste by itself, and of
+Taste combined with Smell and Hearing," "Of a Man limited to the Sense
+of Sight." In the second section of the treatise Condillac invests his
+statue with the sense of touch, which first informs it of the existence
+of external objects. In a very careful and elaborate analysis, he
+distinguishes the various elements in our tactile experiences--the
+touching of one's own body, the touching of objects other than one's own
+body, the experience of movement, the exploration of surfaces by the
+hands: he traces the growth of the statue's perceptions of extension,
+distance and shape. The third section deals with the combination of
+touch with the other senses. The fourth section deals with the desires,
+activities and ideas of an isolated man who enjoys possession of all the
+senses; and ends with observations on a "wild boy" who was found living
+among bears in the forests of Lithuania. The conclusion of the whole
+work is that in the natural order of things everything has its source in
+sensation, and yet that this source is not equally abundant in all men;
+men differ greatly in the degree of vividness with which they feel; and,
+finally, that man is nothing but what he has acquired; all innate
+faculties and ideas are to be swept away. The last dictum suggests the
+difference that has been made to this manner of psychologizing by modern
+theories of evolution and heredity.
+
+Condillac's work on politics and history, contained, for the most part,
+in his _Cours d'études_, offers few features of interest, except so far
+as it illustrates his close affinity to English thought: he had not the
+warmth and imagination to make a good historian. In logic, on which he
+wrote extensively, he is far less successful than in psychology. He
+enlarges with much iteration, but with few concrete examples, upon the
+supremacy of the analytic method; argues that reasoning consists in the
+substitution of one proposition for another which is identical with it;
+and lays it down that science is the same thing as a well-constructed
+language, a proposition which in his _Langue des calculs_ he tries to
+prove by the example of arithmetic. His logic has in fact the good and
+bad points that we might expect to find in a sensationist who knows no
+science but mathematics. He rejects the medieval apparatus of the
+syllogism; but is precluded by his standpoint from understanding the
+active, spiritual character of thought; nor had he that interest in
+natural science and appreciation of inductive reasoning which form the
+chief merit of J. S. Mill. It is obvious enough that Condillac's
+anti-spiritual psychology, with its explanation of personality as an
+aggregate of sensations, leads straight to atheism and determinism.
+There is, however, no reason to question the sincerity with which he
+repudiates both these consequences. What he says upon religion is always
+in harmony with his profession; and he vindicated the freedom of the
+will in a dissertation that has very little in common with the _Traité
+des sensations_ to which it is appended. The common reproach of
+materialism should certainly not be made against him. He always asserts
+the substantive reality of the soul; and in the opening words of his
+_Essai_, "Whether we rise to heaven, or descend to the abyss, we never
+get outside ourselves--it is always our own thoughts that we perceive,"
+we have the subjectivist principle that forms the starting-point of
+Berkeley.
+
+As was fitting to a disciple of Locke, Condillac's ideas have had most
+importance in their effect upon English thought. In matters connected
+with the association of ideas, the supremacy of pleasure and pain, and
+the general explanation of all mental contents as sensations or
+transformed sensations, his influence can be traced upon the Mills and
+upon Bain and Herbert Spencer. And, apart from any definite
+propositions, Condillac did a notable work in the direction of making
+psychology a science; it is a great step from the desultory, genial
+observation of Locke to the rigorous analysis of Condillac,
+short-sighted and defective as that analysis may seem to us in the light
+of fuller knowledge. His method, however, of imaginative reconstruction
+was by no means suited to English ways of thinking. In spite of his
+protests against abstraction, hypothesis and synthesis, his allegory of
+the statue is in the highest degree abstract, hypothetical and
+synthetic. James Mill, who stood more by the study of concrete
+realities, put Condillac into the hands of his youthful son with the
+warning that here was an example of what to avoid in the method of
+psychology. In France Condillac's doctrine, so congenial to the tone of
+18th century philosophism, reigned in the schools for over fifty years,
+challenged only by a few who, like Maine de Biran, saw that it gave no
+sufficient account of volitional experience. Early in the 19th century,
+the romantic awakening of Germany had spread to France, and sensationism
+was displaced by the eclectic spiritualism of Victor Cousin.
+
+  Condillac's collected works were published in 1798 (23 vols.) and two
+  or three times subsequently; the last edition (1822) has an
+  introductory dissertation by A. F. Théry. The _Encyclopédie
+  méthodique_ has a very long article on Condillac (Naigeon).
+  Biographical details and criticism of the _Traité des systčmes_ in J.
+  P. Damiron's _Mémoires pour servir ŕ l'histoire de la philosophie au
+  dixhuitičme sičcle_, tome iii.; a full criticism in V. Cousin's _Cours
+  de l'histoire de la philosophie moderne_, ser. i. tome iii. Consult
+  also F. Rethoré, _Condillac ou l'empirisme et le rationalisme_ (1864);
+  L. Dewaule, _Condillac et la psychologie anglaise contemporaine_
+  (1891); histories of philosophy. (H. St.)
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] i.e. abbot _in commendam_ of the Premonstratensian abbey of Mureau
+in the Vosges. (Ed.)
+
+
+
+
+CONDITION (Lat. _condicio_, from _condicere_, to agree upon, arrange;
+not connected with _conditio_, from _condere, conditum_, to put
+together), a stipulation, agreement. The term is applied technically to
+any circumstance, action or event which is regarded as the indispensable
+prerequisite of some other circumstance, action or event. It is also
+applied generally to the sum of the circumstances in which a person is
+situated, and more specifically to favourable or prosperous
+circumstances; thus a person of wealth or birth is described as a person
+"of condition," or an athlete as being "in condition," i.e. physically
+fit, having gone through the necessary course of preliminary training.
+In all these senses there is implicit the idea of limitation or
+restraint imposed with a view to the attainment of a particular end.
+
+(1) _In Logic_, the term "condition" is closely related to "cause" in so
+far as it is applied to prior events, &c., in the absence of which
+another event would not take place. It is, however, different from
+"cause" inasmuch as it has a predominantly negative or passive
+significance. Hence the adjective "conditional" is applied to
+propositions in which the truth of the main statement is made to depend
+on the truth of another; these propositions are distinguished from
+categorical propositions, which simply state a fact, as being "composed
+of two categorical propositions united by a conjunction," e.g. if A is
+B, C is D. The second statement (the "consequent") is restricted or
+qualified by the first (the "antecedent"). By some logicians these
+propositions are classified as (1) Hypothetical, and (2) Disjunctive,
+and their function in syllogistic reasoning gives rise to the following
+classification of conditional arguments:--(a) Constructive hypothetical
+syllogism (_modus ponens_, "affirmative mood"): If A is B, C is D; but A
+is B; therefore C is D. (b) Destructive hypothetical syllogism (_modus
+tollens_, mood which "removes," i.e. the consequent): if A is B, C is D;
+but C is not D; therefore A is not B. In (a) the antecedent must be
+affirmed, in (b) the consequent must be denied; otherwise the arguments
+become fallacious. A second class of conditional arguments are
+disjunctive syllogisms consisting of (c) the _modus ponendo tollens_: A
+is either B or C; but A is B; therefore C is not D; and (d) _modus
+tollendo ponens_: A is either B or C; A is not B; therefore A is C. A
+more complicated conditional argument is the dilemma (q.v.).[1]
+
+The limiting or restrictive significance of "condition" has led to its
+use in metaphysical theory in contradistinction to the conception of
+absolute being, the _aseitas_ of the Schoolmen. Thus all finite things
+exist in certain relations not only to all other things but also to
+thought; in other words, all finite existence is "conditioned." Hence
+Sir Wm. Hamilton speaks of the "philosophy of the unconditioned," i.e.
+of thought in distinction to things which are determined by thought in
+relation to other things. An analogous distinction is made (cf. H. W. B.
+Joseph, _Introduction to Logic_, pp. 380 foll.) between the so-called
+universal laws of nature and conditional principles, which, though they
+are regarded as having the force of law, are yet dependent or
+derivative, i.e. cannot be treated as universal truths. Such principles
+hold good under present conditions, but other conditions might be
+imagined under which they would be invalid; they hold good only as
+corollaries from the laws of nature under existing conditions.
+
+(2) _In Law_, condition in its general sense is a restraint annexed to a
+thing, so that by the non-performance the party to it shall receive
+prejudice and loss, and by the performance commodity or advantage.
+Conditions may be either: (1) condition in a deed or _express_
+condition, i.e. the condition being expressed in actual words; or (2)
+condition in law or _implied_ condition, i.e. where, although no
+condition is actually expressed, the law implies a condition. The word
+is also used indifferently to mean either the event upon the happening
+of which some estate or obligation is to begin or end, or the provision
+or stipulation that the estate or obligation will depend upon the
+happening of the event. A condition may be of several kinds: (1) a
+condition _precedent_, where, for example, an estate is granted to one
+for life upon condition that, if the grantee pay the grantor a certain
+sum on such a day, he shall have the fee simple; (2) a condition
+_subsequent_, where, for example, an estate is granted in fee upon
+condition that the grantee shall pay a certain sum on a certain day, or
+that his estate shall cease. Thus a condition precedent gets or gains,
+while a condition subsequent keeps and continues. A condition may also
+be _affirmative_, that is, the doing of an act; _negative_, the not
+doing of an act; _restrictive, compulsory_, &c. The word is also used
+adjectivally in the sense set out above, as in the phrases "conditional
+legacy," "conditional limitation," "conditional promise," &c.; that is,
+the legacy, the limitation, the promise is to take effect only upon the
+happening of a certain event.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The terminology used above has not been adopted by all logicians.
+    "Conditional" has been used as equivalent to "hypothetical" in the
+    widest sense (including "disjunctive"); or narrowed down to be
+    synonymous with "conjunctive" (the condition being there more
+    explicit), as a subdivision of "hypothetical."
+
+
+
+
+CONDITIONAL FEE, at English common law, a fee or estate restrained in
+its form of donation to some particular heirs, as, to the heirs of a
+man's body, or to the heirs male of his body. It was called a
+conditional fee by reason of the condition expressed or implied in the
+donation of it, that if the donee died without such particular heirs,
+the land should revert to the donor. In other words, it was a fee simple
+on condition that the donee had issue, and as soon as such issue was
+born, the estate was supposed to become absolute by the performance of
+the condition. A conditional fee was converted by the statute _De Donis
+Conditionalibus_ into an estate tail (see REAL PROPERTY).
+
+
+
+
+CONDITIONAL LIMITATION, in law, a phrase used in two senses. (1) The
+qualification annexed to the grant of an estate or interest in land,
+providing for the determination of that grant or interest upon a
+particular contingency happening. An estate with such a limitation can
+endure only until the particular contingency happens; it is a present
+interest, to be divested on a future contingency. The grant of an estate
+to a man so long as he is parson of Dale, or while he continues
+unmarried, are instances of conditional limitations of estates for life.
+(2) A future use or interest in land limited to take effect upon a given
+contingency. For instance, a grant to N. and his heirs to the use of A.,
+provided that when C. returns from Rome the land shall go to the use of
+B. in fee simple. B. is said to take under a conditional limitation,
+operating by executory devise or springing or shifting use (see
+REMAINDER, REVERSION).
+
+
+
+
+CONDOM, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Gers, on the right bank of the Baďse, at its junction
+with the Gčle, 27 m. by road N.N.W. of Auch. Pop. (1906) town, 4046;
+commune, 6435. Two stone bridges unite Condom with its suburb on the
+left bank of the river. The streets are small and narrow and several old
+houses still remain, but to the east the town is bordered by pleasant
+promenades. The Gothic church of St Pierre, its chief building, was
+erected from 1506 to 1521, and was till 1790 a cathedral. The interior,
+which is without aisles or transept, is surrounded by lateral chapels.
+On the south is a beautifully sculptured portal. An adjoining cloister
+of the 16th century is occupied by the hôtel de ville. The former
+episcopal palace with its graceful Gothic chapel is used as a law-court.
+The sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal
+college, are among the public institutions. Brandy-distilling,
+wood-sawing, iron-founding and the manufacture of stills are among the
+industries. The town is a centre for the sale of Armagnac brandy and has
+commerce in grain and flour, much of which is river-borne.
+
+Condom (_Condomus_) was founded in the 8th century, but in 840 was
+sacked and burnt by the Normans. A monastery built here c. 900 by the
+wife of Sancho of Gascony was soon destroyed by fire, but in 1011 was
+rebuilt, by Hugh, bishop of Agen. Round this abbey the town grew up, and
+in 1317 was made into an episcopal see by Pope John XXII. The line of
+bishops, which included Bossuet (1668-1671), came to an end in 1790 when
+the see was suppressed. Condom was, during the middle ages, a fortress
+of considerable strength. During the Hundred Years' War, after several
+unsuccessful attempts, it was finally captured and held by the English.
+In 1569 it was sacked by the Huguenots under Gabriel, count of
+Montgomery.
+
+  A list of monographs, &c., on the abbey, see and town of Condom is
+  given s.v. in U. Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources. Topobibliogr_.
+  (Montbéliard, 1894-1899).
+
+
+
+
+CONDOR (_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_), an American vulture, and almost the
+largest of existing birds of flight, although by no means attaining the
+dimensions attributed to it by early writers. It usually measures about
+4 ft. from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail, and 9 ft.
+between the tips of its wings, while it is probable that the expanse of
+wing never exceeds 12 ft. The head and neck are destitute of feathers,
+and the former, which is much flattened above, is in the male crowned
+with a caruncle or comb, while the skin of the latter in the same sex
+lies in folds, forming a wattle. The adult plumage is of a uniform
+black, with the exception of a frill of white feathers nearly
+surrounding the base of the neck, and certain wing feathers which,
+especially in the male, have large patches of white. The middle toe is
+greatly elongated, and the hinder one but slightly developed, while the
+talons of all the toes are comparatively straight and blunt, and are
+thus of little use as organs of prehension. The female, contrary to the
+usual rule among birds of prey, is smaller than the male.
+
+The condor is a native of South America, where it is confined to the
+region of the Andes, from the Straits of Magellan to 4° north
+latitude,--the largest examples, it is said, being found about the
+volcano of Cayambi, situated on the equator. It is often seen on the
+shores of the Pacific, especially during the rainy season, but its
+favourite haunts for roosting and breeding are at elevations of 10,000
+to 16,000 ft. There, during the months of February and March, on
+inaccessible ledges of rock, it deposits two white eggs, from 3 to 4 in.
+in length, its nest consisting merely of a few sticks placed around the
+eggs. The period of incubation lasts for seven weeks, and the young are
+covered with a whitish down until almost as large as their parents. They
+are unable to fly till nearly two years old, and continue for a
+considerable time after taking wing to roost and hunt with their
+parents. The white ruff on the neck, and the similarly coloured feathers
+of the wing, do not appear until the completion of the first moulting.
+By preference the condor feeds on carrion, but it does not hesitate to
+attack sheep, goats and deer, and for this reason it is hunted down by
+the shepherds, who, it is said, train their dogs to look up and bark at
+the condors as they fly overhead. They are exceedingly voracious, a
+single condor of moderate size having been known, according to Orton, to
+devour a calf, a sheep and a dog in a single week. When thus gorged with
+food, they are exceedingly stupid, and may then be readily caught. For
+this purpose a horse or mule is killed, and the carcase surrounded with
+palisades to which the condors are soon attracted by the prospect of
+food, for the weight of evidence seems to favour the opinion that those
+vultures owe their knowledge of the presence of carrion more to sight
+than to scent. Having feasted themselves to excess, they are set upon by
+the hunters with sticks, and being unable, owing to the want of space
+within the pen, to take the run without which they are unable to rise on
+wing, they are readily killed or captured. They sleep during the greater
+part of the day, searching for food in the clearer light of morning and
+evening. They are remarkably heavy sleepers, and are readily captured by
+the inhabitants ascending the trees on which they roost, and noosing
+them before they awaken. Great numbers of condors are thus taken alive,
+and these, in certain districts, are employed in a variety of
+bull-fighting. They are exceedingly tenacious of life, and can exist, it
+is said, without food for over forty days. Although the favourite haunts
+of the condor are at the level of perpetual snow, yet it rises to a much
+greater height, Humboldt having observed it flying over Chimborazo at a
+height of over 23,000 ft. On wing the movements of the condor, as it
+wheels in majestic circles, are remarkably graceful. The birds flap
+their wings on rising from the ground, but after attaining a moderate
+elevation they seem to sail on the air, Charles Darwin having watched
+them for half an hour without once observing a flap of their wings.
+
+
+
+
+CONDORCET, MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS CARITAT, MARQUIS DE (1743-1794),
+French mathematician, philosopher and Revolutionist, was born at
+Ribemont, in Picardy, on the 17th of September 1743. He descended from
+the ancient family of Caritat, who took their title from Condorcet, near
+Nyons in Dauphiné, where they were long settled. His father dying while
+he was very young, his mother, a very devout woman, had him educated at
+the Jesuit College in Reims and at the College of Navarre in Paris,
+where he displayed the most varied mental activity. His first public
+distinctions were gained in mathematics. At the age of sixteen his
+performances in analysis gained the praise of D'Alembert and A. C.
+Clairaut, and at the age of twenty-two he wrote a treatise on the
+integral calculus which obtained warm approbation from competent judges.
+With his many-sided intellect and richly-endowed emotional nature,
+however, it was impossible for him to be a specialist, and least of all
+a specialist in mathematics. Philosophy and literature attracted him,
+and social work was dearer to him than any form of intellectual
+exercise. In 1769 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. His
+contributions to its memoirs are numerous, and many of them are on the
+most abstruse and difficult mathematical problems.
+
+Being of a very genial, susceptible and enthusiastic disposition, he was
+the friend of almost all the distinguished men of his time, and a
+zealous propagator of the religious and political views then current
+among the literati of France. D'Alembert, Turgot and Voltaire, for whom
+he had great affection and veneration, and by whom he was highly
+respected and esteemed, contributed largely to the formation of his
+opinions. His _Lettre d'un laboureur de Picardie ŕ M. N..._ (Necker) was
+written under the inspiration of Turgot, in defence of free internal
+trade in corn. Condorcet also wrote on the same subject the _Réflexions
+sur le commerce des blés_ (1776). His _Lettre d'un théologien_, &c., was
+attributed to Voltaire, being inspired throughout by the Voltairian
+anti-clerical spirit. He was induced by D'Alembert to take an active
+part in the preparation of the _Encyclopédie_. His _Éloges des
+Académiciens de l'Académie Royale des Sciences morts depuis 1666
+jusqu'en 1699_ (1773) gained him the reputation of being an eloquent and
+graceful writer. He was elected to the perpetual secretaryship of the
+Academy of Sciences in 1777, and to the French Academy in 1782. He was
+also member of the academies of Turin, St Petersburg, Bologna and
+Philadelphia. In 1785 he published his _Essai sur l'application de
+l'analyse aux probabilités des décisions prises ŕ la pluralité des
+voix_,--a remarkable work which has a distinguished place in the history
+of the doctrine of probability; a second edition, greatly enlarged and
+completely recast, appeared in 1804 under the title of _Éléments du
+calcul des probabilités et son application aux jeux de hazard, ŕ la
+loterie, et aux jugements des hommes, &c._ In 1786 he married Sophie de
+Grouchy, a sister of Marshal Grouchy, said to have been one of the most
+beautiful women of her time. Her _salon_ at the Hôtel des Monnaies,
+where Condorcet lived in his capacity as inspector-general of the mint,
+was one of the most famous of the time. In 1786 Condorcet published his
+_Vie de Turgot_, and in 1787 his _Vie de Voltaire_. Both works were
+widely and eagerly read, and are perhaps, from a merely literary point
+of view, the best of Condorcet's writings.
+
+The political tempest which had been long gathering over France now
+began to break and to carry everything before it. Condorcet was, of
+course, at once hurried along by it into the midst of the conflicts and
+confusion of the Revolution. He greeted with enthusiasm the advent of
+democracy, and laboured hard to secure and hasten its triumph. He was
+indefatigable in writing pamphlets, suggesting reforms, and planning
+constitutions. He was not a member of the States-General of 1789, but he
+had expressed his ideas in the electoral assembly of the noblesse of
+Mantes. The first political functions which he exercised were those of a
+member of the municipality of Paris (1790). He was next chosen by the
+Parisians to represent them in the Legislative Assembly, and then
+appointed by that body one of its secretaries. In this capacity he drew
+up most of its addresses, but seldom spoke, his pen being more effective
+than his tongue. He was the chief author of the address to the European
+powers when they threatened France with war. He was keenly interested in
+education, and, as a member of the committee of public instruction,
+presented to the Assembly (April 21 and 22, 1792) a bold and
+comprehensive scheme for the organization of a system of state education
+which, though more urgent questions compelled its postponement, became
+the basis of that adopted by the Convention, and thus laid the
+foundations on which the modern system of national education in France
+is built up. After the attempted flight of the king, in June 1791,
+Condorcet was one of the first to declare in favour of a republic, and
+it was he who drew up the memorandum which led the Assembly, on the 4th
+of September 1792, to decree the suspension of the king and the
+summoning of the National Convention. He had, meanwhile, resigned his
+offices and left the Hôtel des Monnaies; his declaration in favour of
+republicanism had alienated him from his former friends of the
+constitutional party, and he did not join the Jacobin Club, which had
+not yet declared against the monarchy. Though attached to no powerful
+political group, however, his reputation gave him great influence. At
+the elections for the Convention he was chosen for five departments, and
+took his seat for that of Aisne. He now became the most influential
+member of the committee on the constitution, and as "reporter" he
+drafted and presented to the Convention (February 15, 1793) a
+constitution, which was, however, after stormy debates, rejected in
+favour of that presented by Hérault de Séchelles. The work of
+constitution-making had been interrupted by the trial of Louis XVI.
+Condorcet objected to the assumption of judicial functions by the
+Convention, objected also on principle to the infliction of the death
+penalty; but he voted the king guilty of conspiring against liberty and
+worthy of any penalty short of death, and against the appeal to the
+people advocated by the Girondists. In the atmosphere of universal
+suspicion that inspired the Terror his independent attitude could not,
+however, be maintained with impunity. His severe and public criticism of
+the constitution adopted by the Convention, his denunciation of the
+arrest of the Girondists, and his opposition to the violent conduct of
+the Mountain, led to his being accused of conspiring against the
+Republic. He was condemned and declared to be _hors la loi_. Friends,
+sought for him an asylum in the house of Madame Vernet, widow of the
+sculptor and a near connexion of the painters of the same name. Without
+even asking his name, this heroic woman, as soon as she was assured that
+he was an honest man, said, "Let him come, and lose not a moment, for
+while we talk he may be seized." When the execution of the Girondists
+showed him that his presence exposed his protectress to a terrible
+danger, he resolved to seek a refuge elsewhere. "I am outlawed," he
+said, "and if I am discovered you will meet the same sad end as myself.
+I must not stay." Madame Vernet's reply deserves to be immortal, and
+should be given in her own words: "La Convention, Monsieur, a le droit
+de mettre hors la loi: elle n'a pas le pouvoir de mettre hors de
+l'humanité; vous resterez." From that time she had his movements
+strictly watched lest he should attempt to quit her house. It was partly
+to turn his mind from the idea of attempting this, by occupying it
+otherwise, that his wife and some of his friends, with the co-operation
+of Madame Vernet, prevailed on him to engage in the composition of the
+work by which he is best known--the _Esquisse d'un tableau historique
+des progrčs de l'esprit humain_. In his retirement Condorcet wrote also
+his justification, and several small works, such as the _Moyen
+d'apprendre ŕ compter sűrement et avec facilitę_, which he intended for
+the schools of the republic. Several of these works were published at
+the time, thanks to his friends; the rest appeared after his death.
+Among the latter was the admirable _Avis d'un proscrit ŕ sa fille_.
+While in hiding he also continued to take an active interest in public
+affairs. Thus, he wrote several important memoranda on the conduct of
+the war against the Coalition, which were laid before the Committee of
+Public Safety anonymously by a member of the Mountain named Marcoz, who
+lived in the same house as Condorcet without thinking it his duty to
+denounce him. In the same way he forwarded to Arbogast, president of the
+committee for public instruction, the solutions of several problems in
+higher mathematics.
+
+Certain circumstances having led him to believe that the house of Madame
+Vernet, 21 rue Servandoni, was suspected and watched by his enemies,
+Condorcet, by a fatally successful artifice, at last baffled the
+vigilance of his generous friend and escaped. Disappointed in finding
+even a night's shelter at the château of one whom he had befriended, he
+had to hide for three days and nights in the thickets and stone-quarries
+of Clamart. Oh the evening of the 7th of April 1794--not, as Carlyle
+says, on a "bleared May morning,"--with garments torn, with wounded leg,
+with famished looks, he entered a tavern in the village named, and
+called for an omelette. "How many eggs in your omelette?" "A dozen."
+"What is your trade?" "A carpenter." "Carpenters have not hands like
+these, and do not ask for a dozen eggs in an omelette." When his papers
+were demanded he had none to show; when his person was searched a Horace
+was found on him. The villagers seized him, bound him, haled him
+forthwith on bleeding feet towards Bourg-la-Reine; he fainted by the
+way, was set on a horse offered in pity by a passing peasant, and, at
+the journey's end, was cast into a cold damp cell. Next morning he was
+found dead on the floor. Whether he had died from suffering and
+exhaustion, from apoplexy or from poison, is an undetermined question.
+
+Condorcet was undoubtedly a most sincere, generous and noble-minded man.
+He was eager in the pursuit of truth, ardent in his love of human good,
+and ever ready to undertake labour or encounter danger on behalf of the
+philanthropic plans which his fertile mind contrived and his benevolent
+heart inspired. It was thus that he worked for the suppression of
+slavery, for the rehabilitation of the chevalier de La Barre, and in
+defence of Lally-Tollendal. He lived at a time when calumny was rife,
+and various slanders were circulated regarding him, but fortunately the
+slightest examination proves them to have been inexcusable fabrications.
+That while openly opposing royalty he was secretly soliciting the office
+of tutor to the Dauphin; that he was accessory to the murder of the duc
+de la Rochefoucauld; or that he sanctioned the burning of the literary
+treasures of the learned congregations, are stories which can be shown
+to be utterly untrue.
+
+His philosophical fame is chiefly associated with the _Esquisse ...
+des'progrčs_ mentioned above. With the vision of the guillotine before
+him, with confusion and violence around him, he comforted himself by
+trying to demonstrate that the evils of life had arisen from a
+conspiracy of priests and rulers against their fellows, and from the bad
+laws and institutions which they had succeeded in creating, but that the
+human race would finally conquer its enemies and free itself of its
+evils. His fundamental idea is that of a human perfectibility which has
+manifested itself in continuous progress in the past, and must lead to
+indefinite progress in the future. He represents man as starting from
+the lowest stage of barbarism, with no superiority over the other
+animals save that of bodily organization, and as advancing
+uninterruptedly, at a more or less rapid rate, in the path of
+enlightenment, virtue and happiness. The stages which the human race has
+already gone through, or, in other words, the great epochs of history,
+are regarded as nine in number. The first three can confessedly be
+described only conjecturally from general observations as to the
+development of the human faculties, and the analogies of savage life. In
+the first epoch, men are united into hordes of hunters and fishers, who
+acknowledge in some degree public authority and the claims of family
+relationship, and who make use of an articulate language. In the second
+epoch--the pastoral state--property is introduced, and along with it
+inequality of conditions, and even slavery, but also leisure to
+cultivate intelligence, to invent some of the simpler arts, and to
+acquire some of the more elementary truths of science. In the third
+epoch--the agricultural state--as leisure and wealth are greater, labour
+better distributed and applied, and the means of communication increased
+and extended, progress is still more rapid. With the invention of
+alphabetic writing the conjectural part of history closes, and the more
+or less authenticated part commences. The fourth and fifth epochs are
+represented as corresponding to Greece and Rome. The middle ages are
+divided into two epochs, the former of which terminates with the
+Crusades, and the latter with the invention of printing. The eighth
+epoch extends from the invention of printing to the revolution in the
+method of philosophic thinking accomplished by Descartes. And the ninth
+epoch begins with that great intellectual revolution, and ends with the
+great political and moral revolution of 1789, and is illustrious,
+according to Condorcet, through the discovery of the true system of the
+physical universe by Newton, of human nature by Locke and Condillac, and
+of society by Turgot, Richard Price and Rousseau. There is an epoch of
+the future--a tenth epoch,--and the most original part of Condorcet's
+treatise is that which is devoted to it. After insisting that general
+laws regulative of the past warrant general inferences as to the future,
+he argues that the three tendencies which the entire history of the past
+shows will be characteristic features of the future are:--(1) the
+destruction of inequality between nations; (2) the destruction of
+inequality between classes; and (3) the improvement of individuals, the
+indefinite perfectibility of human nature itself--intellectually,
+morally and physically. These propositions have been much misunderstood.
+The equality to which he represents nations and individuals as tending
+is not absolute equality, but equality of freedom and of rights. It is
+that equality which would make the inequality of the natural advantages
+and faculties of each community and person beneficial to all. Nations
+and men, he thinks, are equal, if equally free, and are all tending to
+equality because all tending to freedom. As to indefinite
+perfectibility, he nowhere denies that progress is conditioned both by
+the constitution of humanity and the character of its surroundings. But
+he affirms that these conditions are compatible with endless progress,
+and that the human mind can assign no fixed limits to its own
+advancement in knowledge and virtue, or even to the prolongation of
+bodily life. This theory explains the importance he attached to popular
+education, to which he looked for all sure progress.
+
+The book is pervaded by a spirit of excessive hopefulness, and contains
+numerous errors of detail, which are fully accounted for by the
+circumstances in which it was written. Its value lies entirely in its
+general ideas. Its chief defects spring from its author's narrow and
+fanatical aversion to all philosophy which did not attempt to explain
+the world exclusively on mechanical and sensational principles, to all
+religion whatever, and especially to Christianity and Christian
+institutions, and to monarchy. His ethical position, however, gives
+emphasis to the sympathetic impulses and social feelings, and had
+considerable influence upon Auguste Comte.
+
+Madame de Condorcet (b. 1764), who was some twenty years younger than
+her husband, was rendered penniless by his proscription, and compelled
+to support not only herself and her four years old daughter but her
+younger sister, Charlotte de Grouchy. After the end of the Jacobin
+Terror she published an excellent translation of Adam Smith's _Theory of
+Moral Sentiments_; in 1798 a work of her own, _Lettres sur la
+sympathie_; and in 1799 her husband's _Éloges des acadęmiciens_. Later
+she co-operated with Cabanis, who had married her sister, and with Garat
+in publishing the complete works of Condorcet (1801-1804). She adhered
+to the last to the political views of her husband, and under the
+Consulate and Empire her _salon_ became a meeting-place of those opposed
+to the autocratic régime. She died at Paris on the 8th of September
+1822. Her daughter was married, in 1807, to General O'Connor.
+
+  A _Biographie de Condorcet_, by M. F. Arago, is prefixed to A.
+  Condorcet-O'Connor's edition of Condorcet's works, in 12 volumes
+  (1847-1849). There is an able essay on Condorcet in Lord Morley of
+  Blackburn's _Critical Miscellanies_. On Condorcet as an historical
+  philosopher see Comte's _Cours de philosophie positive_, iv. 252-253,
+  and _Systčme de politique positive_, iv. Appendice Général, 109-111;
+  F. Laurent, _Études_, xii. 121-126, 89-110; and R. Flint, _Philosophy
+  of History in France and Germany_, i. 125-138. The _Mémoires de
+  Condorcet sur la Révolution française, extraits de sa correspondance
+  et de celles de ses amis_ (2 vols., Paris, Ponthieu, 1824), which were
+  in fact edited by F. G. de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, are spurious.
+  See also Dr J. F. E. Robinet, _Condorcet, sa vie et son [oe]uvre_, and
+  more especially L. Cahen, _Condorcet et la Révolution française_
+  (Paris, 1904). On Madame de Condorcet see Antoine Guillois, _La
+  Marquise de Condorcet, sa famille, son salon et ses [oe]uvres_ (Paris,
+  1897).
+
+
+
+
+CONDOTTIERE (plural, _condottieri_), an Italian term, derived ultimately
+from Latin _conducere_, meaning either "to conduct" or "to hire," for
+the leader of the mercenary military companies, often several thousand
+strong, which used to be hired out to carry on the wars of the Italian
+states. The word is often extended so as to include the soldiers as well
+as the leader of a company. The condottieri played a very important part
+in Italian history from the middle of the 13th to the middle of the 15th
+century. The special political and military circumstances of medieval
+Italy, and in particular the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines,
+brought it about that the condottieri and their leaders played a more
+conspicuous and important part in history than the "Free Companies"
+elsewhere. Amongst these circumstances the absence of a numerous feudal
+cavalry, the relative luxury of city life, and the incapacity of city
+militia for wars of aggression were the most prominent. From this it
+resulted that war was not merely the trade of the condottiere, but also
+his monopoly, and he was thus able to obtain whatever terms he asked,
+whether money payments or political concessions. These companies were
+recruited from wandering mercenary bands and individuals of all nations,
+and from the ranks of the many armies of middle Europe which from time
+to time overran Italy.
+
+Montreal d'Albarno, a gentleman of Provence, was the first to give them
+a definite form. A severe discipline and an elaborate organization were
+introduced within the company itself, while in their relations to the
+people the most barbaric licence was permitted. Montreal himself was put
+to death at Rome by Rienzi, and Conrad Lando succeeded to the command.
+The Grand Company, as it was called, soon numbered about 7000 cavalry
+and 1500 select infantry, and was for some years the terror of Italy.
+They seem to have been Germans chiefly. On the conclusion (1360) of the
+peace of Bretigny between England and France, Sir John Hawkwood (q.v.)
+led an army of English mercenaries, called the White Company, into
+Italy, which took a prominent part in the confused wars of the next
+thirty years. Towards the end of the century the Italians began to
+organize armies of the same description. This ended the reign of the
+purely mercenary company, and began that of the semi-national mercenary
+army which endured in Europe till replaced by the national standing army
+system. The first company of importance raised on the new basis was that
+of St George, originated by Alberigo, count of Barbiano, many of whose
+subordinates and pupils conquered principalities for themselves. Shortly
+after, the organization of these mercenary armies was carried to the
+highest perfection by Sforza Attendolo, condottiere in the service of
+Naples, who had been a peasant of the Romagna, and by his rival
+Brancaccio di Montone in the service of Florence. The army and the
+renown of Sforza were inherited by his son Francesco Sforza, who
+eventually became duke of Milan (1450). Less fortunate was another great
+condottiere, Carmagnola, who first served one of the Visconti, and then
+conducted the wars of Venice against his former masters, but at last
+awoke the suspicion of the Venetian oligarchy, and was put to death
+before the palace of St Mark (1432). Towards the end of the 15th
+century, when the large cities had gradually swallowed up the small
+states, and Italy itself was drawn into the general current of European
+politics, and became the battlefield of powerful armies--French, Spanish
+and German--the condottieri, who in the end proved quite unequal to the
+gendarmerie of France and the improved troops of the Italian states,
+disappeared.
+
+The soldiers of the condottieri were almost entirely heavy armoured
+cavalry (men-at-arms). They had, at any rate before 1400, nothing in
+common with the people among whom they fought, and their disorderly
+conduct and rapacity seem often to have exceeded that of other medieval
+armies. They were always ready to change sides at the prospect of higher
+pay. They were connected with each other by the interest of a common
+profession, and by the possibility that the enemy of to-day might be the
+friend and fellow-soldier of to-morrow. Further, a prisoner was always
+more valuable than a dead enemy. In consequence of all this their
+battles were often as bloodless as they were theatrical. Splendidly
+equipped armies were known to fight for hours with hardly the loss of a
+man (Zagonara, 1423; Molinella, 1467).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 6, Slice 7, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 7 ***
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+***** This file should be named 31950-8.txt or 31950-8.zip *****
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 7
+       "Columbus" to "Condottiere"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 11, 2010 [EBook #31950]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME VI SLICE VII<br /><br />
+Columbus to Condottiere</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 180%;">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">COLUMBUS</a> (city of Georgia, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">COMO (city of Italy)</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">COLUMBUS</a> (city of Indiana, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">COMO (lake of Italy)</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">COLUMBUS</a> (city of Mississippi, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">COMONFORT, IGNACIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">COLUMBUS</a> (city of Ohio, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">COMORIN, CAPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">COMORO ISLANDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">COLUMN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">COMPANION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">COLURE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">COMPANY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">COLUTHUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">COMPARATIVE ANATOMY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">COLVILLE, JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">COMPARETTI, DOMENICO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">COLVIN, JOHN RUSSELL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">COMPASS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">COLVIN, SIDNEY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">COMPASS PLANT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">COLWYN BAY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">COLZA OIL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">COMPENSATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">COMA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">COMPIČGNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">COMA BERENICES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">COMPLEMENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">COMACCHIO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">COMPLUVIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">COMANA</a> (city of Cappadocia)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">COMPOSITAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">COMANA</a> (city of Pontus)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">COMPOSITE ORDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">COMANCHES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">COMPOSITION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">COMAYAGUA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">COMPOUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">COMB</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">COMPOUND PIER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">COMBACONUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">COMPRADOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">COMBE, ANDREW</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">COMPRESSION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">COMBE, GEORGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">COMPROMISE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">COMBE, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">COMBE</a> (closed-in valley)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">COMPSA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">COMPTON, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">COMBES, ÉMILE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">COMPTROLLER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">COMBINATION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">COMPURGATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">COMTE, AUGUSTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">COMBUSTION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">COMUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">COMEDY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">COMYN, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">COMENIUS, JOHANN AMOS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CONACRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">COMET</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">COMET-SEEKER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CONATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">COMILLA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CONCA, SEBASTIANO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">COMINES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CONCARNEAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">COMITIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CONCEPCIÓN</a> (province of Chile)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">COMITY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CONCEPCIÓN</a> (city of Chile)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">COMMA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CONCEPCIÓN</a> (town of Paraguay)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">COMMANDEER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CONCEPT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">COMMANDER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CONCEPTUALISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">COMMANDERY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CONCERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">COMMANDO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CONCERTINA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">COMMEMORATION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CONCERTO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">COMMENDATION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CONCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">COMMENTARII</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CONCHOID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">COMMENTRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CONCIERGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">COMMERCE</a> (trade)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CONCINI, CONCINO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">COMMERCE</a> (card-game)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CONCLAVE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">COMMERCIAL COURT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CONCORD</a> (township of Massachusetts, U.S.A)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">COMMERCIAL LAW</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CONCORD</a> (city of North Carolina, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">COMMERCIAL TREATIES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CONCORD</a> (city of New Hampshire, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">COMMERCY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CONCORD, BOOK OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">COMMERS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CONCORDANCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">CONCORDAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">COMMISSARIAT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">CONCORDIA</a> (Roman goddess)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">COMMISSARY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">CONCORDIA</a> (town of Venetia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">COMMISSION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">CONCRETE</a> (solidity)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">COMMISSIONAIRE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">CONCRETE</a> (building material)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">COMMISSIONER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">CONCRETION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">COMMITMENT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">CONCUBINAGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">COMMITTEE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">CONDÉ, PRINCES OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">COMMODIANUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">CONDÉ, LOUIS DE BOURBON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">COMMODORE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">CONDÉ, LOUIS II. DE BOURBON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">CONDÉ</a> (villages of France)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">COMMON LAW</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">CONDE, JOSÉ ANTONIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">COMMON LODGING-HOUSE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">CONDENSATION OF GASES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">CONDENSER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">COMMONPLACE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">CONDER, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">CONDILLAC, ÉTIENNE BONNOT DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">COMMONS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">CONDITION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">COMMONWEALTH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">CONDITIONAL FEE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">COMMUNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">CONDITIONAL LIMITATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">CONDOM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">COMMUNISM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">CONDOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">COMMUTATION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">CONDORCET, CARITAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">COMNENUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">CONDOTTIERE</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBUS<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Muscogee county,
+Georgia, U.S.A., on the E. bank and at the head of navigation of
+the Chattahoochee river, about 100 m. S.S.W. of Atlanta.
+Pop. (1890) 17,303; (1900) 17,614, of whom 7267 were negroes;
+(1910, census) 20,554. There is also a considerable suburban
+population. Columbus is served by the Southern, the Central
+of Georgia, and the Seaboard Air Line railways, and three steamboat
+lines afford communication with Apalachicola, Florida.
+The city has a public library. A fall in the river of 115 ft.
+within a mile of the city furnishes a valuable water-power,
+which has been utilized for public and private enterprises. The
+most important industry is the manufacture of cotton goods;
+there are also cotton compresses, iron works, flour and woollen
+mills, wood-working establishments, &amp;c. The value of the city&rsquo;s
+factory products increased from $5,061,485 in 1900 to $7,079,702
+in 1905, or 39.9%; of the total value in 1905, $2,759,081, or
+39%, was the value of the cotton goods manufactured. There
+are many large factories just outside the city limits. Columbus
+was one of the first cities in the United States to maintain, at
+public expense, a system of trade schools. It has a large wholesale
+and retail trade. The city was founded in 1827 and was
+incorporated in 1828. In the latter year Mirabeau Buonaparte
+Lamar (1798-1859) established here the Columbus <i>Independent</i>,
+a State&rsquo;s-Rights newspaper. For the first twenty years the
+city&rsquo;s leading industry was trade in cotton. As this trade was
+diverted by the railways to Savannah, the water-power was
+developed and manufactories were established. During the
+Civil War the city ranked next to Richmond in the manufacture
+of supplies for the Confederate army. On the 16th of April
+1865 it was captured by a Union force under General James
+Harrison Wilson (b. 1837); 1200 Confederates were taken
+prisoners; large quantities of arms and stores were seized,
+and the principal manufactories and much other property were
+destroyed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBUS<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Bartholomew
+county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated on the E. fork of White river,
+a little S. of the centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 6719; (1900)
+8130, of whom 313 were foreign-born and 224 were of negro
+descent (1910 census) 8813. In 1900 the centre of population
+of the United States was 5 m. S.E. of Columbus. The
+city is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis,
+and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis railways,
+and is connected with Indianapolis and with Louisville, Ky.,
+by an electric interurban line. Columbus is situated in a
+fine farming region, and has extensive tanneries, threshing-machine
+and traction and automobile engine works, structural
+iron works, tool and machine shops, canneries and furniture
+factories. In 1905 the value of the city&rsquo;s factory product was
+$2,983,160, being 28.4% more than in 1900. The water-supply
+system and electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by
+the city.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBUS<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Lowndes county,
+Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Tombigbee river, at
+the head of steam navigation, 150. m. S.E. of Memphis, Tennessee.
+Pop. (1890) 4559; (1900) 6484 (3366 negroes); (1910) 8988.
+It is served by the Mobile &amp; Ohio and the Southern railways,
+and by passenger and freight steamboat lines. It has cotton
+and knitting mills, cotton-seed oil factories, machine shops, and
+wagon, stove, plough and fertilizer factories; and is a market
+and jobbing centre for a fertile agricultural region. It has a
+public library, and is the seat of the Mississippi Industrial
+Institute and College (1885) for women, the first state college for
+women&mdash;the successor of the Columbus Female Institute (1848)&mdash;of
+Franklin Academy (1821), and of the Union Academy (1873)
+for negroes. The site was first settled about 1818; the city was
+incorporated in 1821, and in 1830 it became the
+county-seat
+of the newly formed Lowndes county. During the Civil War
+the legislature met here in 1863 and 1865, and in the former
+year Governor Charles Clark (1810-1877) was inaugurated
+here.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBUS,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a city, a port of entry, the capital of Ohio, U.S.A.,
+and the county-seat of Franklin county, at the confluence of the
+Scioto and Olentangy rivers, near the geographical centre of the
+state, 120 m. N.E. of Cincinnati, and 138 m. S.S.W. of Cleveland.
+Pop. (1890) 88,150; (1900) 125,560, of whom 12,328 were
+foreign-born and 8201 were negroes; (1910) 181,511. Columbus
+is an important railway centre and is served by the
+Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St. Louis, the Pittsburg,
+Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis (Pennsylvania system), the
+Baltimore &amp; Ohio, the Ohio Central, the Norfolk &amp; Western, the
+Hocking Valley, and the Cleveland, Akron &amp; Columbus (Pennsylvania
+system) railways, and by nine interurban electric lines.
+It occupies a land area of about 17 sq. m., the principal portion
+being along the east side of the Scioto in the midst of an extensive
+plain. High Street, the principal business thoroughfare, is
+100 ft. wide, and Broad Street, on which are many of the finest
+residences, is 120 ft. wide, has four rows of trees, a roadway for
+heavy vehicles in the middle, and a driveway for carriages on
+either side.</p>
+
+<p>The principal building is the state capitol (completed in 1857)
+in a square of ten acres at the intersection of High and Broad
+streets. It is built in the simple Doric style, of grey limestone
+taken from a quarry owned by the state, near the city; is
+304 ft. long and 184 ft. wide, and has a rotunda 158 ft. high,
+on the walls of which are the original painting, by William Henry
+Powell (1823-1879), of O. H. Perry&rsquo;s victory on Lake Erie, and
+portraits of most of the governors of Ohio. Other prominent
+structures are the U.S. government and the judiciary buildings,
+the latter connected with the capitol by a stone terrace, the
+city hall, the county court house, the union station, the board
+of trade, the soldiers&rsquo; memorial hall (with a seating capacity of
+about 4500), and several office buildings. The city is a favourite
+meeting-place for conventions. Among the state institutions
+in Columbus are the university (see below), the penitentiary, a
+state hospital for the insane, the state school for the blind, and
+the state institutions for the education of the deaf and dumb
+and for feeble-minded youth. In the capitol grounds are monuments
+to the memory of Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes,
+James A. Garfield, William T. Sherman, Philip H. Sheridan,
+Salmon P. Chase, and Edwin M. Stanton, and a beautiful
+memorial arch (with sculpture by H. A. M&lsquo;Neil) to William
+McKinley.</p>
+
+<p>The city has several parks, including the Franklin of 90 acres,
+the Goodale of 44 acres, and the Schiller of 24 acres, besides
+the Olentangy, a well-equipped amusement resort on the banks
+of the river from which it is named, the Indianola, another
+amusement resort, and the United States military post and
+recruiting station, which occupies 80 acres laid out like a park.
+The state fair grounds of 115 acres adjoin the city, and there
+is also a beautiful cemetery of 220 acres.</p>
+
+<p>The Ohio State University (non-sectarian and co-educational),
+opened as the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College in 1873,
+and reorganized under its present name in 1878, is 3 m. north of
+the capitol. It includes colleges of arts, philosophy and science,
+of education (for teachers), of engineering, of law, of pharmacy,
+of agriculture and domestic science, and of veterinary medicine.
+It occupies a campus of 110 acres, has an adjoining farm of
+325 acres, and 18 buildings devoted to instruction, 2 dormitories,
+and a library containing (1906) 67,709 volumes, besides excellent
+museums of geology, zoology, botany and archaeology and
+history, the last being owned jointly by the university and by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span>
+the state archaeological and historical society. In 1908 the
+faculty numbered 175, and the students 2277. The institution
+owed its origin to federal land grants; it is maintained by the
+state, the United States, and by small fees paid by the students;
+tuition is free in all colleges except the college of law. The
+government of the university is vested in a board of trustees
+appointed by the governor of the state for a term of seven years.
+The first president of the institution (from 1873 to 1881) was
+the distinguished geologist, Edward Orton (1829-1899), who
+was professor of geology from 1873 to 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Other institutions of learning are the Capital University and
+Evangelical Lutheran Theological Seminary (Theological Seminary
+opened in 1830; college opened as an academy in 1850),
+with buildings just east of the city limits; Starling Ohio
+Medical College, a law school, a dental school and an art institute.
+Besides the university library, there is the Ohio state
+library occupying a room in the capitol and containing in 1908
+126,000 volumes, including a &ldquo;travelling library&rdquo; of about
+36,000 volumes, from which various organizations in different
+parts of the state may borrow books; the law library of the
+supreme court of Ohio, containing complete sets of English,
+Scottish, Irish, Canadian, United States and state reports,
+statutes and digests; the public school library of about 68,000
+volumes, and the public library (of about 55,000), which is
+housed in a marble and granite building completed in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus is near the Ohio coal and iron-fields, and has an
+extensive trade in coal, but its largest industrial interests are
+in manufactures, among which the more important are foundry
+and machine-shop products (1905 value, $6,259,579); boots
+and shoes (1905 value, $5,425,087, being more than one-sixtieth
+of the total product value of the boot and shoe industry in the
+United States, and being an increase from $359,000 in 1890);
+patent medicines and compounds (1905 value, $3,214,096);
+carriages and wagons (1905 value, $2,197,960); malt liquors
+(1905 value, $2,133,955); iron and steel; regalia and society
+emblems; steam-railway cars, construction and repairing; and
+oleo-margarine. In 1905 the city&rsquo;s factory products were valued
+at $40,435,531, an increase of 16.4% in five years. Immediately
+outside the city limits in 1905 were various large and important
+manufactories, including railway shops, foundries, slaughter-houses,
+ice factories and brick-yards. In Columbus there is a
+large market for imported horses. Several large quarries also
+are adjacent to the city.</p>
+
+<p>The waterworks are owned by the municipality. In 1904-1905
+the city built on the Scioto river a concrete storage dam,
+having a capacity of 5,000,000,000 gallons, and in 1908 it completed
+the construction of enormous works for filtering and
+softening the water-supply, and of works for purifying the flow
+of sewage&mdash;the two costing nearly $5,000,000. The filtering
+works include 6 lime saturators, 2 mixing or softening tanks,
+6 settling basins, 10 mechanical filters and 2 clear-water reservoirs.
+A large municipal electric-lighting plant was completed
+in 1908.</p>
+
+<p>The first permanent settlement within the present limits of
+the city was established in 1797 on the west bank of the Scioto,
+was named Franklinton, and in 1803 was made the county-seat.
+In 1810 four citizens of Franklinton formed an association to
+secure the location of the capital on the higher ground of the
+east bank; in 1812 they were successful and the place was laid
+out while still a forest. Four years later, when the legislature
+held its first session here, the settlement was incorporated as
+the Borough of Columbus. In 1824 the county-seat was removed
+here from Franklinton; in 1831 the Columbus branch of the
+Ohio Canal was completed; in 1834 the borough was made a
+city; by the close of the same decade the National Road extending
+from Wheeling to Indianapolis and passing through Columbus
+was completed; in 1871 most of Franklinton, which was never
+incorporated, was annexed, and several other annexations
+followed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. H. Studer, <i>Columbus, Ohio; its History and Resources</i>
+(Columbus, 1873); A. E. Lee, <i>History of the City of Columbus, Ohio</i>
+(New York, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> of Gades,
+writer on agriculture, contemporary of Seneca the philosopher,
+flourished about the middle of the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> His extant
+works treat, with great fulness and in a diffuse but not inelegant
+style which well represents the silver age, of the cultivation of
+all kinds of corn and garden vegetables, trees, flowers, the
+vine, the olive and other fruits, and of the rearing of cattle,
+birds, fishes and bees. They consist of the twelve books of the
+<i>De re rustica</i> (the tenth, which treats of gardening, being in
+dactylic hexameters in imitation of Virgil), and of a book <i>De
+arboribus</i>, the second book of an earlier and less elaborate work
+on the same subject.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best complete edition is by J. G. Schneider (1794). Of a new
+edition by K. J. Lundström, the tenth book appeared in 1902 and
+<i>De arboribus</i> in 1897. There are English translations by R. Bradley
+(1725), and anonymous (1745); and treatises, <i>De Columellae vita et
+scriptis</i>, by V. Barberet (1887), and G. R. Becher (1897), a compact
+dissertation with notes and references to authorities.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMN<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (Lat. <i>columna</i>), in architecture, a vertical support
+consisting of capital, shaft and base, used to carry a horizontal
+beam or an arch. The earliest example in wood (2684 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was
+that found at Kahun in Egypt by Professor Flinders Petrie,
+which was fluted and stood on a raised base, and in stone the
+octagonal shafts of the early temple at Deir-el-Bahri (c. 2850).
+In the tombs at Beni Hasan (2723 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) are columns of two
+kinds, the octagonal or polygonal shaft, and the reed or lotus
+column, the horizontal section of which is a quatrefoil. This
+became later the favourite type, but it was made circular on plan.
+In all these examples the column rests on a stone base. (See
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capital</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The column was employed in Assyria in small structures only,
+such as pavilions or porticoes. In Persia the column, employed
+to carry timber superstructures only, was very lofty, being
+sometimes 12 diameters high; the shaft was fluted, the number
+of flutes varying from 30 to 52.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest example of the Greek column is that represented
+in the temple fresco at Cnossus (c. 1600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), of which portions
+have been found. The columns were in cypress wood raised on
+a stone base and tapered downwards.<a name="FnAnchor_1a" id="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The same, though to a
+less degree, is found in the stone semi-detached columns which
+flank the doorway of the Tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae;
+the shafts of these columns were carved with the chevron
+design.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest Greek columns in stone as isolated features are
+those of the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse (early 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+the shafts of which were monoliths, but as a rule the Greek
+columns were all built of drums, sometimes as many as ten or
+twelve. There was no base to the Doric column, but the shafts
+were fluted, 20 flutes being the usual number. In the Archaic
+Temple of Diana at Ephesus there were 52 flutes. In the later
+examples of the Ionic order the shaft had 24 flutes. In the
+Roman temples the shafts were very often monoliths.</p>
+
+<p>Columns were occasionally used as supports for figures or
+other features. The Naxian column at Delphi of the Ionic
+order carried a sphinx. The Romans employed columns in
+various ways: the Trajan and the Antonine columns carried
+figures of the two emperors; the columna rostrata (260 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+in the Forum was decorated with the beaks of ships and was
+a votive column, the miliaria column marked the centre of
+Rome from which all distances were measured. In the same
+way the column in the Place Vendôme in Paris carries a statue
+of Napoleon I.; the monument of the Fire of London, a finial
+with flames sculptured on it; the duke of York&rsquo;s column
+(London), a statue of the duke of York.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of the Cretan and Mycenaean, all the
+shafts of the classic orders tapered from the bottom upwards,
+and about one-third up the column had an increment, known
+as the <i>entasis</i>, to correct an optical illusion which makes tapering
+shafts look concave; the proportions of diameter to height varied
+with the order employed. Thus, broadly speaking, a Roman
+Doric column will be eight, a Roman Ionic nine, a Corinthian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span>
+ten diameters in height. Except in rare cases, the columns
+of the Romanesque and Gothic styles were of equal diameter
+at top and bottom, and had no definite dimensions as regards
+diameter and height. They were also grouped together round
+piers which are known as clustered piers. When of exceptional
+size, as in Gloucester and Durham cathedrals, Waltham Abbey
+and Tewkesbury, they are generally called &ldquo;pillars,&rdquo; which was
+apparently the medieval term for column. The word <i>columna</i>,
+employed by Vitruvius, was introduced into England by the
+Italian writers of the Revival.</p>
+
+<p>In the Renaissance period columns were frequently banded,
+the bands being concentric with the column as in France, and
+occasionally richly carved as in Philibert De L&rsquo;Orme&rsquo;s work at the
+Tuileries. In England Inigo Jones introduced similar features,
+but with square blocks sometimes rusticated, a custom lately
+revived in England, but of which there are few examples either
+in Italy or Spain.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;column&rdquo; is used, by analogy with architecture,
+for any upright body or mass, in chemistry, anatomy, typography,
+&amp;c.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1a" id="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The tree-trunk used as a column was inverted to retain the sap;
+hence the shape.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLURE<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolos">&#954;&#972;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, shortened, and <span class="grk" title="oura">&#959;&#8016;&#961;&#940;</span>, tail), in
+astronomy, either of the two principal meridians of the celestial
+sphere, one of which passes through the poles and the two
+solstices, the other through the poles and the two equinoxes;
+hence designated as <i>solstitial colure</i> and <i>equinoxial colure</i>,
+respectively.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUTHUS,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Colluthus</span>, of Lycopolis in the Egyptian
+Thebaid, Greek epic poet, flourished during the reign of Anastasius
+I. (491-518). According to Suidas, he was the author of
+<i>Calydoniaca</i> (probably an account of the Calydonian boar hunt),
+<i>Persica</i> (an account of the Persian wars), and <i>Encomia</i> (laudatory
+poems). These are all lost, but his poem in some 400 hexameters
+on <i>The Rape of Helen</i> (<span class="grk" title="Harpagę Helenęs">&#902;&#961;&#960;&#945;&#947;&#8052; &#904;&#955;&#941;&#957;&#951;&#962;</span>) is still extant,
+having been discovered by Cardinal Bessarion in Calabria. The
+poem is dull and tasteless, devoid of imagination, a poor imitation
+of Homer, and has little to recommend it except its harmonious
+versification, based upon the technical rules of Nonnus. It
+related the history of Paris and Helen from the wedding of
+Peleus and Thetis down to the elopement and arrival at Troy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best editions are by Van Lennep (1747), G. F. Schäfer (1825),
+E. Abel (1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLVILLE, JOHN<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (c. 1540-1605), Scottish divine and author,
+was the son of Robert Colville of Cleish, in the county of Kinross.
+Educated at St Andrews University, he became a Presbyterian
+minister, but occupied himself chiefly with political intrigue,
+sending secret information to the English government concerning
+Scottish affairs. He joined the party of the earl of Gowrie, and
+took part in the Raid of Ruthven in 1582. In 1587 he for a
+short time occupied a seat on the judicial bench, and was commissioner
+for Stirling in the Scottish parliament. In December
+1591 he was implicated in the earl of Bothwell&rsquo;s attack on
+Holyrood Palace, and was outlawed with the earl. He retired
+abroad, and is said to have joined the Roman Church. He
+died in Paris in 1605. Colville was the author of several works,
+including an <i>Oratio Funebris</i> on Queen Elizabeth, and some
+political and religious controversial essays. He is said to be the
+author also of <i>The Historie and Life of King James the Sext</i>
+(edited by T. Thompson for the Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh,
+1825).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Colville&rsquo;s <i>Original Letters</i>, 1582-1603, published by the Bannatyne
+Club in 1858, contains a biographical memoir by the editor, David
+Laing.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLVIN, JOHN RUSSELL<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1807-1857), lieutenant-governor
+of the North-West Provinces of India during the mutiny of 1857,
+belonged to an Anglo-Indian family of Scottish descent, and was
+born in Calcutta on the 29th of May 1807. Passing through
+Haileybury he entered the service of the East India Company
+in 1826. In 1836 he became private secretary to Lord Auckland,
+and his influence over the viceroy has been held partly responsible
+for the first Afghan war of 1837; but it has since been
+shown that Lord Auckland&rsquo;s policy was dictated by the secret
+committee of the company at home. In 1853 Mr Colvin was
+appointed lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces
+by Lord Dalhousie. On the outbreak of the mutiny in 1857 he
+had with him at Agra only a weak British regiment and a native
+battery, too small a force to make head against the mutineers;
+and a proclamation which he issued to the natives was censured
+at the time for its clemency, but it followed the same lines as
+those adopted by Sir Henry Lawrence and subsequently followed
+by Lord Canning. Exhausted by anxiety and misrepresentation
+he died on the 9th of September, his death shortly preceding
+the fall of Delhi.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Sir Auckland Colvin</span> (1838-1908), followed him
+in a distinguished career in the same service, from 1858 to 1879.
+He was comptroller-general in Egypt (1880 to 1882), and financial
+adviser to the khedive (1883 to 1887), and from 1883 till 1892
+was back again in India, first as financial member of council,
+and then, from 1887, as lieutenant-governor of the North-West
+Provinces and Oudh. He was created K.C.M.G. in 1881, and
+K.C.S.I. in 1892, when he retired. He published <i>The Making
+of Modern Egypt</i> in 1906, and a biography of his father, in the
+&ldquo;Rulers of India&rdquo; series, in 1895. He died at Surbiton on the
+24th of March 1908.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLVIN, SIDNEY<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1845-&emsp;&emsp;), English literary and art
+critic, was born at Norwood, London, on the 18th of June 1845.
+A scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, he became a fellow of
+his college in 1868. In 1873 he was Slade professor of fine art,
+and was appointed in the next year to the directorship of the
+Fitzwilliam Museum. In 1884 he removed to London on his
+appointment as keeper of prints and drawings in the British
+Museum. His chief publications are lives of Landor (1881)
+and Keats (1887), in the English Men of Letters series; the
+Edinburgh edition of R. L. Stevenson&rsquo;s works (1894-1897);
+editions of the letters of Keats (1887), and of the <i>Vailima Letters</i>
+(1899), which R. L. Stevenson chiefly addressed to him; <i>A
+Florentine Picture-Chronicle</i> (1898), and <i>Early History of Engraving
+in England</i> (1905). But in the field both of art and of
+literature, Mr Colvin&rsquo;s fine taste, wide knowledge and high
+ideals made his authority and influence extend far beyond his
+published work.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLWYN BAY,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a watering-place of Denbighshire, N. Wales,
+on the Irish Sea, 40˝ m. from Chester by the London &amp; North-Western
+railway. Pop. of urban district of Colwyn Bay and
+Colwyn (1901) 8689. Colwyn Bay has become a favourite
+bathing-place, being near to, and cheaper than, the fashionable
+Llandudno, and being a centre for picturesque excursions.
+Near it is Llaneilian village, famous for its &ldquo;cursing well&rdquo;
+(St Eilian&rsquo;s, perhaps Aelianus&rsquo;). The stream Colwyn joins the
+Gwynnant. The name Colwyn is that of lords of Ardudwy; a
+Lord Colwyn of Ardudwy, in the 10th century, is believed to
+have repaired Harlech castle, and is considered the founder of
+one of the fifteen tribes of North Wales. Nant Colwyn is on the
+road from Carnarvon to Beddgelert, beyond Llyn y gader
+(gadair), &ldquo;chair pool,&rdquo; and what tourists have fancifully called
+Pitt&rsquo;s head, a roadside rock resembling, or thought to resemble,
+the great statesman&rsquo;s profile. Near this is Llyn y dywarchen
+(sod pool), with a floating island.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLZA OIL,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a non-drying oil obtained from the seeds of
+<i>Brassica campestris</i>, var. <i>oleifera</i>, a variety of the plant which
+produces Swedish turnips. Colza is extensively cultivated in
+France, Belgium, Holland and Germany; and, especially in
+the first-named country, the expression of the oil is an important
+industry. In commerce colza is classed with rape oil, to which
+both in source and properties it is very closely allied. It is a
+comparatively inodorous oil of a yellow colour, having a specific
+gravity varying from 0.912 to 0.920. The cake left after expression
+of the oil is a valuable feeding substance for cattle.
+Colza oil is extensively used as a lubricant for machinery, and
+for burning in lamps.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMA<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kôma">&#954;&#8182;&#956;&#945;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="koiman">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#956;&#8118;&#957;</span>, to put to sleep), a deep
+sleep; the term is, however, used in medicine to imply something
+more than its Greek origin denotes, namely, a complete and
+prolonged loss of consciousness from which a patient cannot be
+roused. There are various degrees of coma: in the slighter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span>
+forms the patient can be partially roused only to relapse again
+into a state of insensibility; in the deeper states, the patient
+cannot be roused at all, and such are met with in apoplexy,
+already described. Coma may arise abruptly in a patient who
+has presented no pre-existent indication of such a state occurring.
+Such a condition is called <i>primary coma</i>, and may result from
+the following causes:&mdash;(1) concussion, compression or laceration
+of the brain from head injuries, especially fracture of the skull;
+(2) from alcoholic and narcotic poisoning; (3) from cerebral
+haemorrhage, embolism and thrombosis, such being the causes
+of apoplexy. <i>Secondary coma</i> may arise as a complication in
+the following diseases:&mdash;diabetes, uraemia, general paralysis,
+meningitis, cerebral tumour and acute yellow atrophy of the
+liver; in such diseases it is anticipated, for it is a frequent cause
+of the fatal termination. The depth of insensibility to stimulus
+is a measure of the gravity of the symptom; thus the conjunctival
+reflex and even the spinal reflexes may be abolished,
+the only sign of life being the respiration and heart-beat, the
+muscles of the limbs being sometimes perfectly flaccid. A
+characteristic change in the respiration, known as Cheyne-Stokes
+breathing occurs prior to death in some cases; it indicates
+that the respiratory centre in the medulla is becoming exhausted,
+and is stimulated to action only when the venosity of the blood
+has increased sufficiently to excite it. The breathing consequently
+loses its natural rhythm, and each successive breath becomes
+deeper until a maximum is reached; it then diminishes in depth
+by successive steps until it dies away completely. The condition
+of apnoea, or cessation of breathing, follows, and as soon as the
+venosity of the blood again affords sufficient stimulus, the signs
+of air-hunger commence; this altered rhythm continues until
+the respiratory centre becomes exhausted and death ensues.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coma Vigil</i> is a state of unconsciousness met with in the
+algide stage of cholera and some other exhausting diseases. The
+patient&rsquo;s eyes remain open, and he may be in a state of low
+muttering delirium; he is entirely insensible to his surroundings,
+and neither knows nor can indicate his wants.</p>
+
+<p>There is a distinct word &ldquo;coma&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="komę">&#954;&#972;&#956;&#951;</span>, hair), which
+is used in astronomy for the envelope of a comet, and in botany
+for a tuft.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMA BERENICES<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (&ldquo;<span class="sc">Berenice&rsquo;s Hair</span>&rdquo;), in astronomy,
+a constellation of the northern hemisphere; it was first mentioned
+by Callimachus, and Eratosthenes (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), but is not
+included in the 48 asterisms of Ptolemy. It is said to have been
+named by Conon, in order to console Berenice, queen of Ptolemy
+Euergetes, for the loss of a lock of her hair, which had been
+stolen from a temple to Venus. This constellation is sometimes,
+but wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe. The most interesting
+member of this group is <i>24 Comae</i>, a fine, wide double star,
+consisting of an orange star of magnitude 5˝, and a blue star,
+magnitude 7.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMACCHIO,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
+Ferrara, 30 m. E.S.E. by road from the town of Ferrara, on the
+level of the sea, in the centre of the lagoon of Valli di Comacchio,
+just N. of the present mouth of the Reno. Pop. (1901) 7944
+(town), 10,745 (commune). It is built on no less than thirteen
+different islets, joined by bridges, and its industries are the
+fishery, which belongs to the commune, and the salt-works.
+The seaport of Magnavacca lies 4 m. to the east. Comacchio
+appears as a city in the 6th century, and, owing to its position
+in the centre of the lagoons, was an important fortress. It was
+included in the &ldquo;donation of Pippin&rdquo;; it was taken by the
+Venetians in 854, but afterwards came under the government
+of the archbishops of Ravenna; in 1299 it came under the
+dominion of the house of Este. In 1508 it became Venetian,
+but in 1597 was claimed by Clement VIII. as a vacant fief.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMANA,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a city of Cappadocia [frequently called <span class="sc">Chryse</span> or
+<span class="sc">Aurea</span>, <i>i.e.</i> the golden, to distinguish it from Comana in Pontus;
+mod. <i>Shahr</i>], celebrated in ancient times as the place where the
+rites of M&#257;-Enyo, a variety of the great west Asian Nature-goddess,
+were celebrated with much solemnity. The service
+was carried on in a sumptuous temple with great magnificence
+by many thousands of <i>hieroduli</i> (temple-servants). To defray
+expenses, large estates had been set apart, which yielded a more
+than royal revenue. The city, a mere apanage of the temple,
+was governed immediately by the chief priest, who was always
+a member of the reigning Cappadocian family, and took rank
+next to the king. The number of persons engaged in the service
+of the temple, even in Strabo&rsquo;s time, was upwards of 6000, and
+among these, to judge by the names common on local tombstones,
+were many of Persian race. Under Caracalla, Comana
+became a Roman colony, and it received honours from later
+emperors down to the official recognition of Christianity. The
+site lies at Shahr, a village in the Anti-Taurus on the upper
+course of the Sarus (Sihun), mainly Armenian, but surrounded
+by new settlements of Avshar Turkomans and Circassians. The
+place has derived importance both in antiquity and now from
+its position at the eastern end of the main pass of the western
+Anti-Taurus range, the Kuru Chai, through which passed the
+road from Caesarea-Mazaca (mod. <i>Kaisarieh</i>) to Melitene
+(Malatia), converted by Septimius Severus into the chief military
+road to the eastern frontier of the empire. The extant remains
+at Shahr include a theatre on the left bank of the river, a fine
+Roman doorway and many inscriptions; but the exact site
+of the great temple has not been satisfactorily identified. There
+are many traces of Severus&rsquo; road, including a bridge at Kemer,
+and an immense number of milestones, some in their original
+positions, others in cemeteries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See P. H. H. Massy in <i>Geog. Journ.</i> (Sept. 1905); E. Chantre,
+<i>Mission en Cappadocie</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMANA<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (mod. <i>Gumenek</i>), an ancient city of Pontus, said
+to have been colonized from Comana in Cappadocia. It stood
+on the river Iris (Tozanli Su or Yeshil Irmak), and from its
+central position was a favourite emporium of Armenian and
+other merchants. The moon-goddess was worshipped in the
+city with a pomp and ceremony in all respects analogous to those
+employed in the Cappadocian city. The slaves attached to the
+temple alone numbered not less than 6000. St John Chrysostom
+died there on the way to Constantinople from his exile at Cocysus
+in the Anti-Taurus. Remains of Comana are still to be seen
+near a village called Gumenek on the Tozanli Su, 7 m. from Tokat,
+but they are of the slightest description. There is a mound;
+and a few inscriptions are built into a bridge, which here spans
+the river, carrying the road from Niksar to Tokat.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMANCHES,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a tribe of North American Indians of Shoshonean
+stock, so called by the Spaniards, but known to the
+French as Padoucas, an adaptation of their Sioux name, and
+among themselves <i>nimenim</i> (people). They number some 1400,
+attached to the Kiowa agency, Oklahoma. When first met by
+Europeans, they occupied the regions between the upper waters
+of the Brazos and Colorado on the one hand, and the Arkansas
+and Missouri on the other. Until their final surrender in 1875
+the Comanches were the terror of the Mexican and Texan
+frontiers, and were always famed for their bravery. They were
+brought to nominal submission in 1783 by the Spanish general
+Anza, who killed thirty of their chiefs. During the 19th century
+they were always raiding and fighting, but in 1867, to the
+number of 2500, they agreed to go on a reservation. In 1872
+a portion of the tribe, the Quanhada or Staked Plain Comanches,
+had again to be reduced by military measures.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMAYAGUA,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> the capital of the department of Comayagua
+in central Honduras, on the right bank of the river Ulua, and
+on the interoceanic railway from Puerto Cortes to Fonseca Bay.
+Pop. (1900) about 8000. Comayagua occupies part of a fertile
+valley, enclosed by mountain ranges. Under Spanish rule it
+was a city of considerable size and beauty, and in 1827 its inhabitants
+numbered more than 18,000. A fine cathedral, dating
+from 1715, is the chief monument of its former prosperity, for
+most of the handsome public buildings erected in the colonial
+period have fallen into disrepair. The present city chiefly
+consists of low adobe houses and cane huts, tenanted by Indians.
+The university founded in 1678 has ceased to exist, but there
+is a school of jurisprudence. In the neighbourhood are many
+ancient Indian ruins (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central America</a></span>: <i>Archaeology</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Founded in 1540 by Alonzo Caceres, who had been instructed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span>
+by the Spanish government to find a site for a city midway
+between the two oceans, Valladolid la Nueva, as the town was first
+named, soon became the capital of Honduras. It received the
+privileges of a city in 1557, and was made an episcopal see in
+1561. Its decline dates from 1827, when it was burned by
+revolutionaries; and in 1854 its population had dwindled to
+2000. It afterwards suffered through war and rebellion, notably
+in 1872 and 1873, when it was besieged by the Guatemalans.
+In 1880 Tegucigalpa (<i>q.v.</i>), a city 37 m. east-south-east, superseded
+it as the capital of Honduras.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMB<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages,
+cf. Ger. <i>Kamm</i>, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in <span class="grk" title="gomphos">&#947;&#972;&#956;&#966;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, <i>gambhas</i>, a tooth), a toothed article
+of the toilet used for cleaning and arranging the hair, and also
+for holding it in place after it has been arranged; the word is
+also applied, from resemblance in form or in use, to various
+appliances employed for dressing wool and other fibrous substances,
+to the indented fleshy crest of a cock, and to the ridged
+series of cells of wax filled with honey in a beehive. Hair combs
+are of great antiquity, and specimens made of wood, bone and
+horn have been found in Swiss lake-dwellings. Among the
+Greeks and Romans they were made of boxwood, and in Egypt
+also of ivory. For modern combs the same materials are used,
+together with others such as tortoise-shell, metal, india-rubber
+and celluloid. There are two chief methods of manufacture.
+A plate of the selected material is taken of the size and thickness
+required for the comb, and on one side of it, occasionally on both
+sides, a series of fine slits are cut with a circular saw. This
+method involves the loss of the material cut out between the
+teeth. The second method, known as &ldquo;twinning&rdquo; or &ldquo;parting,&rdquo;
+avoids this loss and is also more rapid. The plate of
+material is rather wider than before, and is formed into two
+combs simultaneously, by the aid of a twinning machine. Two
+pairs of chisels, the cutting edges of which are as long as the
+teeth are required to be and are set at an angle converging
+towards the sides of the plate, are brought down alternately
+in such a way that the wedges removed from one comb form
+the teeth of the other, and that when the cutting is complete
+the plate presents the appearance of two combs with their teeth
+exactly inosculating or dovetailing into each other. In india-rubber
+combs the teeth are moulded to shape and the whole
+hardened by vulcanization.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMBACONUM,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kumbakonam</span>, a city of British India, in
+the Tanjore district of Madras, in the delta of the Cauvery, on the
+South Indian railway, 194 m. from Madras. Pop. (1901) 59,623,
+showing an increase of 10% in the decade. It is a large town with
+wide and airy streets, and is adorned with pagodas, gateways and
+other buildings of considerable pretension. The great <i>gopuram</i>, or
+gate-pyramid, is one of the most imposing buildings of the kind,
+rising in twelve stories to a height of upwards of 100 ft., and
+ornamented with a profusion of figures of men and animals formed
+in stucco. One of the water-tanks in the town is popularly reputed
+to be filled with water admitted from the Ganges every twelve
+years by a subterranean passage 1200 m. long; and it consequently
+forms a centre of attraction for large numbers of
+devotees. The city is historically interesting as the capital of the
+Chola race, one of the oldest Hindu dynasties of which any traces
+remain, and from which the whole coast of Coromandel, or more
+properly Cholamandal, derives its name. It contains a government
+college. Brass and other metal wares, silk and cotton cloth
+and sugar are among the manufactures.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMBE, ANDREW<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1797-1847), Scottish physiologist, was
+born in Edinburgh on the 27th of October 1797, and was a
+younger brother of George Combe. He served an apprenticeship
+in a surgery, and in 1817 passed at Surgeons&rsquo; Hall. He proceeded
+to Paris to complete his medical studies, and whilst there he
+investigated phrenology on anatomical principles. He became
+convinced of the truth of the new science, and, as he acquired
+much skill in the dissection of the brain, he subsequently gave
+additional interest to the lectures of his brother George, by his
+practical demonstrations of the convolutions. He returned to
+Edinburgh in 1819 with the intention of beginning practice; but
+being attacked by the first symptoms of pulmonary disease, he
+was obliged to seek health in the south of France and in Italy
+during the two following winters. He began to practise in 1823,
+and by careful adherence to the laws of health he was enabled
+to fulfil the duties of his profession for nine years. During that
+period he assisted in editing the <i>Phrenological Journal</i> and
+contributed a number of articles to it, defended phrenology
+before the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, published his
+<i>Observations on Mental Derangement</i> (1831), and prepared the
+greater portion of his <i>Principles of Physiology Applied to Health
+and Education</i>, which was issued in 1834, and immediately
+obtained extensive public favour. In 1836 he was appointed
+physician to Leopold I., king of the Belgians, and removed to
+Brussels, but he speedily found the climate unsuitable and
+returned to Edinburgh, where he resumed his practice. In 1836
+he published his <i>Physiology of Digestion</i>, and in 1838 he was
+appointed one of the physicians extraordinary to the queen in
+Scotland. Two years later he completed his <i>Physiological and
+Moral Management of Infancy</i>, which he believed to be his best
+work and it was his last. His latter years were mostly occupied
+in seeking at various health resorts some alleviation of his
+disease; he spent two winters in Madeira, and tried a voyage
+to the United States, but was compelled to return within a few
+weeks of the date of his landing at New York. He died at Gorgie,
+near Edinburgh, on the 9th of August 1847.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His biography, written by George Combe, was published in 1850.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMBE, GEORGE<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1788-1858), Scottish phrenologist, elder
+brother of the above, was born in Edinburgh on the 21st of
+October 1788. After attending Edinburgh high school and
+university he entered a lawyer&rsquo;s office in 1804, and in 1812 began
+to practise on his own account. In 1815 the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>
+contained an article on the system of &ldquo;craniology&rdquo; of F. J. Gall
+and K. Spurzheim, which was denounced as &ldquo;a piece of thorough
+quackery from beginning to end.&rdquo; Combe laughed like others
+at the absurdities of this so-called new theory of the brain, and
+thought that it must be finally exploded after such an exposure;
+and when Spurzheim delivered lectures in Edinburgh, in refutation
+of the statements of his critic, Combe considered the subject
+unworthy of serious attention. He was, however, invited to a
+friend&rsquo;s house where he saw Spurzheim dissect the brain, and he
+was so far impressed by the demonstration that he attended
+the second course of lectures. Investigating the subject for
+himself, he became satisfied that the fundamental principles
+of phrenology were true&mdash;namely &ldquo;that the brain is the organ
+of mind; that the brain is an aggregate of several parts, each
+subserving a distinct mental faculty; and that the size of the
+cerebral organ is, <i>caeteris paribus</i>, an index of power or energy
+of function.&rdquo; In 1817 his first essay on phrenology was published
+in the <i>Scots Magazine</i>; and a series of papers on the same
+subject appeared soon afterwards in the <i>Literary and Statistical
+Magazine</i>; these were collected and published in 1819 in book
+form as <i>Essays on Phrenology</i>, which in later editions became
+<i>A System of Phrenology</i>. In 1820 he helped to found the Phrenological
+Society, which in 1823 began to publish a <i>Phrenological
+Journal</i>. By his lectures and writings he attracted public
+attention to the subject on the continent of Europe and in
+America, as well as at home; and a long discussion with Sir
+William Hamilton in 1827-1828 excited general interest.</p>
+
+<p>His most popular work, <i>The Constitution of Man</i>, was published
+in 1828, and in some quarters brought upon him denunciations
+as a materialist and atheist. From that time he saw everything
+by the light of phrenology. He gave time, labour and money
+to help forward the education of the poorer classes; he established
+the first infant school in Edinburgh; and he originated
+a series of evening lectures on chemistry, physiology, history
+and moral philosophy. He studied the criminal classes, and
+tried to solve the problem how to reform as well as to punish
+them; and he strove to introduce into lunatic asylums a humane
+system of treatment. In 1836 he offered himself as a candidate
+for the chair of logic at Edinburgh, but was rejected in favour
+of Sir William Hamilton. In 1838 he visited America and spent
+about two years lecturing on phrenology, education and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span>
+treatment of the criminal classes. On his return in 1840 he
+published his <i>Moral Philosophy</i>, and in the following year his
+<i>Notes on the United States of North America</i>. In 1842 he delivered,
+in German, a course of twenty-two lectures on phrenology in
+the university of Heidelberg, and he travelled much in Europe,
+inquiring into the management of schools, prisons and asylums.
+The commercial crisis of 1855 elicited his remarkable pamphlet
+on <i>The Currency Question</i> (1858). The culmination of the
+religious thought and experience of his life is contained in his
+work <i>On the Relation between Science and Religion</i>, first publicly
+issued in 1857. He was engaged in revising the ninth edition
+of the <i>Constitution of Man</i> when he died at Moor Park, Farnham,
+on the 14th of August 1858. He married in 1833 Cecilia Siddons,
+a daughter of the great actress.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMBE, WILLIAM<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1741-1823), English writer, the creator
+of &ldquo;Dr Syntax,&rdquo; was born at Bristol in 1741. The circumstances
+of his birth and parentage are somewhat doubtful, and
+it is questioned whether his father was a rich Bristol merchant,
+or a certain William Alexander, a London alderman, who died
+in 1762. He was educated at Eton, where he was contemporary
+with Charles James Fox, the 2nd Baron Lyttelton and William
+Beckford. Alexander bequeathed him some Ł2000&mdash;a little
+fortune that soon disappeared in a course of splendid extravagance,
+which gained him the nickname of Count Combe; and
+after a chequered career as private soldier, cook and waiter,
+he finally settled in London (about 1771), as a law student and
+bookseller&rsquo;s hack. In 1776 he made his first success in London
+with <i>The Diaboliad</i>, a satire full of bitter personalities. Four
+years afterwards (1780) his debts brought him into the King&rsquo;s
+Bench; and much of his subsequent life was spent in prison.
+His spurious <i>Letters of the Late Lord Lyttelton</i><a name="FnAnchor_1b" id="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (1780) imposed
+on many of his contemporaries, and a writer in the <i>Quarterly
+Review</i>, so late as 1851, regarded these letters as authentic, basing
+upon them a claim that Lyttelton was &ldquo;Junius.&rdquo; An early
+acquaintance with Lawrence Sterne resulted in his <i>Letters
+supposed to have been written by Yorick and Eliza</i> (1779).
+Periodical literature of all sorts&mdash;pamphlets, satires, burlesques,
+&ldquo;two thousand columns for the papers,&rdquo; &ldquo;two hundred
+biographies&rdquo;&mdash;filled up the next years, and about 1789 Combe
+was receiving Ł200 yearly from Pitt, as a pamphleteer. Six
+volumes of a <i>Devil on Two Sticks in England</i> won for him the
+title of &ldquo;the English le Sage&rdquo;; in 1794-1796 he wrote the
+text for Boydell&rsquo;s <i>History of the River Thames</i>; in 1803 he began
+to write for <i>The Times</i>. In 1809-1811 he wrote for Ackermann&rsquo;s
+<i>Political Magazine</i> the famous <i>Tour of Dr Syntax in search of
+the Picturesque</i> (descriptive and moralizing verse of a somewhat
+doggerel type), which, owing greatly to Thomas Rowlandson&rsquo;s
+designs, had an immense success. It was published separately
+in 1812 and was followed by two similar <i>Tours</i>, &ldquo;in search of
+Consolation,&rdquo; and &ldquo;in search of a Wife,&rdquo; the first Mrs Syntax
+having died at the end of the first <i>Tour</i>. Then came <i>Six Poems</i>
+in illustration of drawings by Princess Elizabeth (1813), <i>The
+English Dance of Death</i> (1815-1816), <i>The Dance of Life</i> (1816-1817),
+<i>The Adventures of Johnny Quae Genus</i> (1822)&mdash;all written
+for Rowlandson&rsquo;s caricatures; together with <i>Histories</i> of Oxford
+and Cambridge, and of Westminster Abbey for Ackermann;
+<i>Picturesque Tours</i> along the Rhine and other rivers, <i>Histories
+of Madeira</i>, <i>Antiquities of York</i>, texts for <i>Turner&rsquo;s Southern
+Coast Views</i>, and contributions innumerable to the <i>Literary
+Repository</i>. In his later years, notwithstanding a by no means
+unsullied character, Combe was courted for the sake of his charming
+conversation and inexhaustible stock of anecdote. He died
+in London on the 19th of June 1823.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Brief obituary memoirs of Combe appeared in Ackermann&rsquo;s
+<i>Literary Repository</i> and in the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i> for August
+1823; and in May 1859 a list of his works, drawn up by his own
+hand, was printed in the latter periodical. See also <i>Diary of H.
+Crabb Robinson</i>, <i>Notes and Queries for 1869</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1b" id="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Thomas, 2nd Baron Lyttelton (1744-1779), commonly known
+as the &ldquo;wicked Lord Lyttelton,&rdquo; was famous for his abilities and
+his libertinism, also for the mystery attached to his death, of which
+it was alleged he was warned in a dream three days before the
+event.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMBE,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Coomb</span>, a term particularly in use in south-western
+England for a short closed-in valley, either on the side of a down
+or running up from the sea. It appears in place-names as a termination,
+<i>e.g.</i> Wiveliscombe, Ilfracombe, and as a prefix, <i>e.g.</i>
+Combemartin. The etymology of the word is obscure, but
+&ldquo;hollow&rdquo; seems a common meaning to similar forms in many
+languages. In English &ldquo;combe&rdquo; or &ldquo;cumb&rdquo; is an obsolete
+word for a &ldquo;hollow vessel,&rdquo; and the like meaning attached to
+Teutonic forms <i>kumm</i> and <i>kumme</i>. The Welsh <i>cwm</i>, in place-names,
+means hollow or valley, with which may be compared
+<i>cum</i> in many Scots place-names. The Greek <span class="grk" title="kumbę">&#954;&#973;&#956;&#946;&#951;</span> also means
+a hollow vessel, and there is a French dialect word <i>combe</i> meaning
+a little valley.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Viscount</span> (1773-1865),
+British field-marshal and colonel of the 1st Life Guards,
+was the second son of Sir Robert Salusbury Cotton of Combermere
+Abbey, Cheshire, and was born on the 14th of November
+1773, at Llewenny Hall in Denbighshire. He was educated at
+Westminster School, and when only sixteen obtained a second
+lieutenancy in the 23rd regiment (Royal Welsh Fusiliers). A
+few years afterwards (1793) he became by purchase captain in
+the 6th Dragoon Guards, and he served in this regiment during
+the campaigns of the duke of York in Flanders. While yet in
+his twentieth year, he joined the 25th Light Dragoons (subsequently
+22nd) as lieutenant-colonel, and, while in attendance
+with his regiment on George III. at Weymouth, he became a
+great favourite of the king. In 1796 he went with his regiment
+to India, taking part <i>en route</i> in the operations in Cape Colony
+(July-August 1796), and in 1799 served in the war with Tippoo
+Sahib, and at the storming of Seringapatam. Soon after this,
+having become heir to the family baronetcy, he was, at his father&rsquo;s
+desire, exchanged into a regiment at home, the 16th Light
+Dragoons. He was stationed in Ireland during Emmett&rsquo;s
+insurrection, became colonel in 1800, and major-general five
+years later. From 1806 to 1814 he was M.P. for Newark. In
+1808 he was sent to the seat of war in Portugal, where he shortly
+rose to the position of commander of Wellington&rsquo;s cavalry, and
+it was here that he most displayed that courage and judgment
+which won for him his fame as a cavalry officer. He succeeded
+to the baronetcy in 1809, but continued his military career.
+His share in the battle of Salamanca (22nd of July 1812) was
+especially marked, and he received the personal thanks of
+Wellington. The day after, he was accidentally wounded. He
+was now a lieutenant-general in the British army and a K.B.,
+and on the conclusion of peace (1814) was raised to the peerage
+under the style of Baron Combermere. He was not present at
+Waterloo, the command, which he expected, and bitterly regretted
+not receiving, having been given to Lord Uxbridge.
+When the latter was wounded Cotton was sent for to take over
+his command, and he remained in France until the reduction
+of the allied army of occupation. In 1817 he was appointed
+governor of Barbadoes and commander of the West Indian forces.
+From 1822 to 1825 he commanded in Ireland. His career of
+active service was concluded in India (1826), where he besieged
+and took Bhurtpore&mdash;a fort which twenty-two years previously
+had defied the genius of Lake and was deemed impregnable. For
+this service he was created Viscount Combermere. A long period
+of peace and honour still remained to him at home. In 1834 he
+was sworn a privy councillor, and in 1852 he succeeded <span class="correction" title="amended from Wellingtion">Wellington</span>
+as constable of the Tower and lord lieutenant of the Tower
+Hamlets. In 1855 he was made a field-marshal and G.C.B.
+He died at Clifton on the 21st of February 1865. An equestrian
+statue in bronze, the work of Baron Marochetti, was raised in
+his honour at Chester by the inhabitants of Cheshire. Combermere
+was succeeded by his only son, Wellington Henry (1818-1891),
+and the viscountcy is still held by his descendants.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Viscountess Combermere and Captain W. W. Knollys, <i>The
+Combermere Correspondence</i> (London, 1866).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMBES, [JUSTIN LOUIS] ÉMILE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1835-&emsp;&emsp;), French statesman,
+was born at Roquecourbe in the department of the Tarn.
+He studied for the priesthood, but abandoned the idea before
+ordination, and took the diploma of doctor of letters (1860),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span>
+then he studied medicine, taking his degree in 1867, and setting up
+in practice at Pons in Charente-Inférieure. In 1881 he presented
+himself as a political candidate for Saintes, but was defeated.
+In 1885 he was elected to the senate by the department of
+Charente-Inférieure. He sat in the Democratic left, and was
+elected vice-president in 1893 and 1894. The reports which he
+drew up upon educational questions drew attention to him, and
+on the 3rd of November 1895 he entered the Bourgeois cabinet
+as minister of public instruction, resigning with his colleagues
+on the 21st of April following. He actively supported the
+Waldeck-Rousseau ministry, and upon its retirement in 1903 he
+was himself charged with the formation of a cabinet. In this he
+took the portfolio of the Interior, and the main energy of the
+government was devoted to the struggle with clericalism. The
+parties of the Left in the chamber, united upon this question in
+the <i>Bloc republicain</i>, supported Combes in his application of
+the law of 1901 on the religious associations, and voted the new
+bill on the congregations (1904), and under his guidance France
+took the first definite steps toward the separation of church and
+state. He was opposed with extreme violence by all the Conservative
+parties, who regarded the secularization of the schools
+as a persecution of religion. But his stubborn enforcement of
+the law won him the applause of the people, who called him
+familiarly <i>le petit pčre</i>. Finally the defection of the Radical
+and Socialist groups induced him to resign on the 17th of
+January 1905, although he had not met an adverse vote in the
+Chamber. His policy was still carried on; and when the law
+of the separation of church and state was passed, all the leaders
+of the Radical parties entertained him at a noteworthy banquet
+in which they openly recognized him as the real originator of
+the movement.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMBINATION<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (Lat. <i>combinare</i>, to combine), a term meaning
+an association or union of persons for the furtherance of a common
+object, historically associated with agreements amongst workmen
+for the purpose of raising their wages. Such a combination was
+for a long time expressly prohibited by statute. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trade
+Unions</a></span>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conspiracy</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strikes and Lock Outs</a></span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS.<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> The Combinatorial Analysis,
+as it was understood up to the end of the 18th century, was of
+limited scope and restricted application. P. Nicholson,
+in his <i>Essays on the Combinatorial Analysis</i>, published
+<span class="sidenote">Historical Introduction.</span>
+in 1818, states that &ldquo;the Combinatorial Analysis is a
+branch of mathematics which teaches us to ascertain
+and exhibit all the possible ways in which a given number of
+things may be associated and mixed together; so that we may be
+certain that we have not missed any collection or arrangement of
+these things that has not been enumerated.&rdquo; Writers on the
+subject seemed to recognize fully that it was in need of cultivation,
+that it was of much service in facilitating algebraical
+operations of all kinds, and that it was the fundamental method
+of investigation in the theory of Probabilities. Some idea of its
+scope may be gathered from a statement of the parts of algebra
+to which it was commonly applied, viz., the expansion of a
+multinomial, the product of two or more multinomials, the
+quotient of one multinomial by another, the reversion and
+conversion of series, the theory of indeterminate equations, &amp;c.
+Some of the elementary theorems and various particular problems
+appear in the works of the earliest algebraists, but the true
+pioneer of modern researches seems to have been Abraham
+Demoivre, who first published in <i>Phil. Trans.</i> (1697) the law
+of the general coefficient in the expansion of the series
+a + bx + cx˛ + dxł + ... raised to any power. (See also <i>Miscellanea
+Analytica</i>, bk. iv. chap. ii. prob. iv.) His work on Probabilities
+would naturally lead him to consider questions of
+this nature. An important work at the time it was published
+was the <i>De Partitione Numerorum</i> of Leonhard
+Euler, in which the consideration of the reciprocal of the
+product (1 - xz) (1 - x˛z) (1 - xłz) ... establishes a fundamental
+connexion between arithmetic and algebra, arithmetical addition
+being made to depend upon algebraical multiplication, and a close
+bond is secured between the theories of discontinuous and
+continuous quantities. (Cf. <span class="sc">Numbers, Partition of</span>.) The
+multiplication of the two powers x<span class="sp">a</span>, x<span class="sp">b</span>, viz. x<span class="sp">a</span> + x<span class="sp">b</span> = x<span class="sp">a+b</span>,
+showed Euler that he could convert arithmetical addition into
+algebraical multiplication, and in the paper referred to he gives
+the complete formal solution of the main problems of the partition
+of numbers. He did not obtain general expressions for the coefficients
+which arose in the expansion of his generating functions,
+but he gave the actual values to a high order of the coefficients
+which arise from the generating functions corresponding to various
+conditions of partitionment. Other writers who have contributed
+to the solution of special problems are James Bernoulli, Ruggiero
+Guiseppe Boscovich, Karl Friedrich Hindenburg (1741-1808),
+William Emerson (1701-1782), Robert Woodhouse (1773-1827),
+Thomas Simpson and Peter Barlow. Problems of combination
+were generally undertaken as they became necessary for the
+advancement of some particular part of mathematical science:
+it was not recognized that the theory of combinations is in
+reality a science by itself, well worth studying for its own sake
+irrespective of applications to other parts of analysis. There was
+a total absence of orderly development, and until the first third of
+the 19th century had passed, Euler&rsquo;s classical paper remained
+alike the chief result and the only scientific method of combinatorial
+analysis.</p>
+
+<p>In 1846 Karl G. J. Jacobi studied the partitions of numbers by
+means of certain identities involving infinite series that are met
+with in the theory of elliptic functions. The method employed
+is essentially that of Euler. Interest in England was aroused,
+in the first instance, by Augustus De Morgan in 1846, who, in a
+letter to Henry Warburton, suggested that combinatorial analysis
+stood in great need of development, and alluded to the theory of
+partitions. Warburton, to some extent under the guidance of De
+Morgan, prosecuted researches by the aid of a new instrument,
+viz. the theory of finite differences. This was a distinct advance,
+and he was able to obtain expressions for the coefficients in
+partition series in some of the simplest cases (<i>Trans. Camb. Phil.
+Soc.</i>, 1849). This paper inspired a valuable paper by Sir John
+Herschel (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1850), who, by introducing the idea and
+notation of the circulating function, was able to present results
+in advance of those of Warburton. The new idea involved a
+calculus of the imaginary roots of unity. Shortly afterwards, in
+1855, the subject was attacked simultaneously by Arthur Cayley
+and James Joseph Sylvester, and their combined efforts resulted
+in the practical solution of the problem that we have to-day.
+The former added the idea of the prime circulator, and the latter
+applied Cauchy&rsquo;s theory of residues to the subject, and invented
+the arithmetical entity termed a denumerant. The next distinct
+advance was made by Sylvester, Fabian Franklin, William
+Pitt Durfee and others, about the year 1882 (<i>Amer. Journ.
+Math.</i> vol. v.) by the employment of a graphical method. The
+results obtained were not only valuable in themselves, but
+also threw considerable light upon the theory of algebraic series.
+So far it will be seen that researches had for their object the
+discussion of the partition of numbers. Other branches of
+combinatorial analysis were, from any general point of view,
+absolutely neglected. In 1888 P. A. MacMahon investigated the
+general problem of distribution, of which the partition of a
+number is a particular case. He introduced the method of
+symmetric functions and the method of differential operators,
+applying both methods to the two important subdivisions, the
+theory of composition and the theory of partition. He introduced
+the notion of the separation of a partition, and extended all the
+results so as to include multipartite as well as unipartite numbers.
+He showed how to introduce zero and negative numbers, unipartite
+and multipartite, into the general theory; he extended
+Sylvester&rsquo;s graphical method to three dimensions; and finally,
+1898, he invented the &ldquo;Partition Analysis&rdquo; and applied it to the
+solution of novel questions in arithmetic and algebra. An important
+paper by G. B. Mathews, which reduces the problem of
+compound partition to that of simple partition, should also be
+noticed. This is the problem which was known to Euler and his
+contemporaries as &ldquo;The Problem of the Virgins,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the Rule
+of Ceres&rdquo;; it is only now, nearly 200 years later, that it has been
+solved.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span></p>
+
+<p>The most important problem of combinatorial analysis is connected
+with the distribution of objects into classes. A number n
+may be regarded as enumerating n similar objects; it
+is then said to be unipartite. On the other hand, if the
+<span class="sidenote">Fundamental problem.</span>
+objects be not all similar they cannot be effectively enumerated
+by a single integer; we require a succession of
+integers. If the objects be p in number of one kind, q of a second
+kind, r of a third, &amp;c., the enumeration is given by the succession
+pqr... which is termed a multipartite number, and written,</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><span class="ov">pqr...,</span></p>
+
+<p>where p + q + r + ... = n. If the order of magnitude of the
+numbers p, q, r, ... is immaterial, it is usual to write them in
+descending order of magnitude, and the succession may then
+be termed a partition of the number n, and is written (pqr...).
+The succession of integers thus has a twofold signification: (i.)
+as a multipartite number it may enumerate objects of different
+kinds; (ii.) it may be viewed as a partitionment into separate
+parts of a unipartite number. We may say either that the
+objects are represented by the multipartite number <span class="ov">pqr...,</span>
+or that they are defined by the partition (pqr...) of the unipartite
+number n. Similarly the classes into which they are
+distributed may be m in number all similar; or they may be
+p<span class="su">1</span> of one kind, q<span class="su">1</span> of a second, r<span class="su">1</span> of a third, &amp;c., where
+p<span class="su">1</span> + q<span class="su">1</span> + r<span class="su">1</span> + ... = m. We may thus denote the classes either
+by the multipartite numbers <span class="ov">p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span>...,</span> or by the partition
+(p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span>...) of the unipartite number m. The distributions to be
+considered are such that any number of objects may be in
+any one class subject to the restriction that no class is empty.
+Two cases arise. If the order of the objects in a particular class
+is immaterial, the class is termed a <i>parcel</i>; if the order is material,
+the class is termed a <i>group</i>. The distribution into parcels is
+alone considered here, and the main problem is the enumeration
+of the distributions of objects defined by the partition (pqr...)
+of the number n into parcels defined by the partition (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span>...)
+of the number m. (See &ldquo;Symmetric Functions and the Theory
+of Distributions,&rdquo; <i>Proc. London Mathematical Society</i>, vol. xix.)
+Three particular cases are of great importance. Case I. is the
+&ldquo;one-to-one distribution,&rdquo; in which the number of parcels is
+equal to the number of objects, and one object is distributed in
+each parcel. Case II. is that in which the parcels are all different,
+being defined by the partition (1111...), conveniently written
+(1<span class="sp">m</span>); this is the theory of the compositions of unipartite and
+multipartite numbers. Case III. is that in which the parcels are
+all similar, being defined by the partition (m); this is the theory
+of the partitions of unipartite and multipartite numbers. Previous
+to discussing these in detail, it is necessary to describe the
+method of symmetric functions which will be largely utilized.</p>
+
+<p>Let &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, ... be the roots of the equation</p>
+
+<p class="center1">x<span class="sp">n</span> - a<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n-1</span> + a<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="sp">n-2</span> - ... = 0 </p>
+
+<p class="noind">The symmetric function &Sigma;&alpha;<span class="sp">p</span>&beta;<span class="sp">q</span>&gamma;<span class="sp">r</span>..., where p + q + r + ... = n
+is, in the partition notation, written (pqr...). Let
+A<span class="su">(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)</span> denote the number of ways of distributing
+<span class="sidenote">The distribution function.</span>
+the n objects defined by the partition (pqr...)
+into the m parcels defined by the partition (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span>...).
+The expression</p>
+
+<p class="center1">&Sigma;A<span class="su">(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)</span> ˇ (pqr...),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where the numbers p<span class="su">1</span>, q<span class="su">1</span>, r<span class="su">1</span> ... are fixed and assumed to be in
+descending order of magnitude, the summation being for every
+partition (pqr...) of the number n, is defined to be the distribution
+function of the objects defined by (pqr...) into the parcels
+defined by (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span>...). It gives a complete enumeration of
+n objects of whatever species into parcels of the given species.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>One-to-One Distribution. Parcels</i> m <i>in number</i> (<i>i.e.</i> m = n).&mdash;Let
+h<span class="su">s</span> be the homogeneous product-sum of degree s of
+<span class="sidenote">Case I.</span>
+the quantities &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, ... so that</p>
+
+<p class="center">(1 - &alpha;x. 1 - &beta;x. 1 - &gamma;x. ...)<span class="sp">-1</span> = 1 + h<span class="su">1</span>x + h<span class="su">2</span>x˛ + h<span class="su">3</span>xł + ...</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>h<span class="su">1</span> = &Sigma;&alpha; = (1)</p>
+<p>h<span class="su">2</span> = &Sigma;&alpha;˛ + &Sigma;&alpha;&beta; = (2) + (1˛)</p>
+<p>h<span class="su">3</span> = &Sigma;&alpha;ł + &Sigma;&alpha;˛&beta; + &Sigma;&alpha;&beta;&gamma; = (3) + (21) + (1ł).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Form the product h<span class="su">p1</span>h<span class="su">q1</span>h<span class="su">r1</span>...</p>
+
+<p>Any term in h<span class="su">p1</span> may be regarded as derived from p<span class="su">1</span> objects distributed
+into p<span class="su">1</span> similar parcels, one object in each parcel, since
+the order of occurrence of the letters &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, ... in any term is
+immaterial. Moreover, every selection of p<span class="su">1</span> letters from the
+letters in &alpha;<span class="sp">p</span>&beta;<span class="sp">q</span>&gamma;<span class="sp">r</span> ... will occur in some term of h<span class="su">p1</span>, every further
+selection of q<span class="su">1</span> letters will occur in some term of h<span class="su">q1</span>, and so on.
+Therefore in the product h<span class="su">p1</span>h<span class="su">q1</span>h<span class="su">r1</span> ... the term &alpha;<span class="sp">p</span>&beta;<span class="sp">q</span>&gamma;<span class="sp">r</span> ..., and therefore
+also the symmetric function (pqr ...), will occur as many times
+as it is possible to distribute objects defined by (pqr ...) into parcels
+defined by (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span> ...) one object in each parcel. Hence</p>
+
+<p class="center1">&Sigma;A<span class="su">(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)</span> ˇ (pqr...) = h<span class="su">p1</span>h<span class="su">q1</span>h<span class="su">r1</span>....</p>
+
+<p class="noind">This theorem is of algebraic importance; for consider the simple
+particular case of the distribution of objects (43) into parcels (52),
+and represent objects and parcels by small and capital letters
+respectively. One distribution is shown by the scheme</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td>A</td> <td>A</td> <td>A</td> <td>A</td> <td>A</td> <td>B</td> <td>B</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>b</td> <td>b</td> <td>b</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">wherein an object denoted by a small letter is placed in a parcel
+denoted by the capital letter immediately above it. We may
+interchange small and capital letters and derive from it a distribution
+of objects (52) into parcels (43); viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td>A</td> <td>A</td> <td>A</td> <td>A</td> <td>B</td> <td>B</td> <td>B</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>a</td> <td>b</td> <td>b.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The process is clearly of general application, and establishes a one-to-one
+correspondence between the distribution of objects (pqr ...)
+into parcels (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span> ...) and the distribution of objects (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span> ...)
+into parcels (pqr ...). It is in fact, in Case I., an intuitive observation
+that we may either consider an object placed in or attached to
+a parcel, or a parcel placed in or attached to an object. Analytically
+we have</p>
+
+<p><i>Theorem.</i>&mdash;&ldquo;The coefficient of symmetric function (pqr ...) in
+the development of the product h<span class="su">p1</span>h<span class="su">q1</span>h<span class="su">r1</span> ... is equal to the coefficient
+of symmetric function (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span> ...) in the development of the product
+h<span class="su">p</span>h<span class="su">q</span>h<span class="su">r</span> ....&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The problem of Case I. may be considered when the distributions
+are subject to various restrictions. If the restriction be to the
+effect that an aggregate of similar parcels is not to contain more
+than one object of a kind, we have clearly to deal with the elementary
+symmetric functions a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, a<span class="su">3</span>, ... or (1), (1˛), (1ł), ... in lieu of the
+quantities h<span class="su">1</span>, h<span class="su">2</span>, h<span class="su">3</span>, ... The distribution function has then the value
+a<span class="su">p1</span>a<span class="su">q1</span>a<span class="su">r1</span> ... or (1<span class="sp">p</span><span class="su">1</span>) (1<span class="sp">q</span><span class="su">1</span>) (1<span class="sp">r</span><span class="su">1</span>) ..., and by interchange of object and
+parcel we arrive at the well-known theorem of symmetry in symmetric
+functions, which states that the coefficient of symmetric
+function (pqr ...) in the development of the product a<span class="su">p1</span>a<span class="su">q1</span>a<span class="su">r1</span> ... in
+a series of monomial symmetric functions, is equal to the coefficient
+of the function (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span> ...) in the similar development of the product
+a<span class="su">p</span>a<span class="su">q</span>a<span class="su">r</span>....</p>
+
+<p>The general result of Case I. may be further analysed with important
+consequences.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Write</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>X<span class="su">1</span> = (1)x<span class="su">1</span>,</p>
+<p>X<span class="su">2</span> = (2)x<span class="su">2</span> + (1˛)x<span class="su">1</span>˛,</p>
+<p>X<span class="su">3</span> = (3)x<span class="su">3</span> + (21)x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + (1ł)x<span class="su">1</span>ł</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center" style="letter-spacing: 2em; font-size: 150%;">.......</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and generally</p>
+
+<p class="center">X<span class="su">s</span> = &Sigma;(&lambda;&mu;&nu; ...) x<span class="su">&lambda;</span> x<span class="su">&mu;</span> x<span class="su">&nu;</span> ...</p>
+
+<p class="noind">the summation being in regard to every partition of s. Consider
+the result of the multiplication&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">X<span class="su">p1</span>X<span class="su">q1</span>X<span class="su">r1</span> ... =
+&Sigma;P x<span class="sp1">&sigma;1</span><span class="su1">s1</span> x<span class="sp1">&sigma;2</span><span class="su1">s2</span> x<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">s3</span> ...</p>
+
+<p class="noind">To determine the nature of the symmetric function P a few definitions
+are necessary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Definition I.</i>&mdash;Of a number n take any partition (&lambda;<span class="su">1</span>&lambda;<span class="su">2</span>&lambda;<span class="su">3</span> ... &lambda;<span class="su">s</span>)
+and separate it into component partitions thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">(&lambda;<span class="su">1</span>&lambda;<span class="su">2</span>) (&lambda;<span class="su">3</span>&lambda;<span class="su">4</span>&lambda;<span class="su">5</span>) (&lambda;<span class="su">6</span>) ...</p>
+
+<p>in any manner. This may be termed a <i>separation</i> of the partition,
+the numbers occurring in the separation being identical with those
+which occur in the partition. In the theory of symmetric functions
+the separation denotes the product of symmetric functions&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">&Sigma; &alpha;<span class="sp">&lambda;1</span> &beta;<span class="sp">&lambda;2</span> &Sigma; &alpha;<span class="sp">&lambda;3</span> &beta;<span class="sp">&lambda;4</span> &gamma;<span class="sp">&lambda;5</span> &Sigma; &alpha;<span class="sp">&lambda;6</span> ...</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The portions (&lambda;<span class="su">1</span>&lambda;<span class="su">2</span>), (&lambda;<span class="su">3</span>&lambda;<span class="su">4</span>&lambda;<span class="su">5</span>), (&lambda;<span class="su">6</span>), ... are termed <i>separates</i>, and if
+&lambda;<span class="su">1</span> + &lambda;<span class="su">2</span> = p<span class="su">1</span>, &lambda;<span class="su">3</span> + &lambda;<span class="su">4</span> + &lambda;<span class="su">5</span> = q<span class="su">1</span>, &lambda;<span class="su">6</span> = r<span class="su">1</span>... be in descending order of magnitude,
+the usual arrangement, the separation is said to have a <i>species</i>
+denoted by the partition (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span> ...) of the number n.</p>
+
+<p><i>Definition II.</i>&mdash;If in any distribution of n objects into n parcels
+(one object in each parcel), we write down a number &xi;, whenever
+we observe &xi; similar objects in similar parcels we will obtain a
+succession of numbers &xi;<span class="su">1</span>, &xi;<span class="su">2</span>, &xi;<span class="su">3</span>, ..., where (&xi;<span class="su">1</span>, &xi;<span class="su">2</span>, &xi;<span class="su">3</span> ...) is some partition
+of n. The distribution is then said to have a <i>specification</i> denoted
+by the partition (&xi;<span class="su">1</span>&xi;<span class="su">2</span>&xi;<span class="su">3</span> ...).</p>
+
+<p>Now it is clear that P consists of an aggregate of terms, each of
+which, to a numerical factor <i>prčs</i>, is a separation of the partition
+(s<span class="sp1">&sigma;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> s<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">2</span> s<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...)
+of species (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span> ...). Further, P is the distribution
+function of objects into parcels denoted by (p<span class="su">1</span>q<span class="su">1</span>r<span class="su">1</span> ...), subject to the
+restriction that the distributions have each of them the specification
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span>
+denoted by the partition
+(s<span class="sp1">&sigma;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> s<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">2</span> s<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...)
+Employing a more general notation we may write</p>
+
+<p class="center">X<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">p1</span> X<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">p2</span> X<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">p3</span> ... =
+&Sigma;P x<span class="sp1">&sigma;1</span><span class="su1">s1</span> x<span class="sp1">&sigma;2</span><span class="su1">s2</span> x<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">s3</span> ...</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and then P is the distribution function of objects into parcels
+(p<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...),
+the distributions being such as to have the specification
+(s<span class="sp1">&sigma;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> s<span class="sp1">&sigma;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> s<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...).
+Multiplying out P so as to exhibit it as a sum
+of monomials, we get a result&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">X<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">p1</span> X<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">p2</span> X<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">p3</span> ... =
+&Sigma;&Sigma;&theta; (&lambda;<span class="sp1">l1</span><span class="su1">1</span> &lambda;<span class="sp1">l2</span><span class="su1">2</span> &lambda;<span class="sp1">l3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...)
+x<span class="sp1">&sigma;1</span><span class="su1">s1</span> x<span class="sp1">&sigma;2</span><span class="su1">s2</span> x<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">s3</span> ...</p>
+
+<p class="noind">indicating that for distributions of specification
+(s<span class="sp1">&sigma;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> s<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">2</span> s<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...)
+there are &theta; ways of distributing n objects denoted by
+(&lambda;<span class="sp1">l1</span><span class="su1">1</span> &lambda;<span class="sp1">l2</span><span class="su1">2</span> &lambda;<span class="sp1">l3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...)
+amongst n parcels denoted by
+(p<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...),
+one object in each parcel. Now
+observe that as before we may interchange parcel and object, and
+that this operation leaves the specification of the distribution unchanged.
+Hence the number of distributions must be the same,
+and if</p>
+
+<p class="center">X<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">p1</span> X<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">p2</span> X<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">p3</span> ... =
+... + &theta; (&lambda;<span class="sp1">l1</span><span class="su1">1</span> &lambda;<span class="sp1">l2</span><span class="su1">2</span> &lambda;<span class="sp1">l3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...)
+x<span class="sp1">&sigma;1</span><span class="su1">s1</span> x<span class="sp1">&sigma;2</span><span class="su1">s2</span> x<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">s3</span> ... + ...</p>
+
+<p class="noind">then also</p>
+
+<p class="center">X<span class="sp1">l1</span><span class="su1">&lambda;1</span> X<span class="sp1">l2</span><span class="su1">&lambda;2</span> X<span class="sp1">l3</span><span class="su1">&lambda;3</span> ... =
+... + &theta; (p<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...)
+x<span class="sp1">&sigma;1</span><span class="su1">s1</span> x<span class="sp1">&sigma;2</span><span class="su1">s2</span> x<span class="sp1">&sigma;3</span><span class="su1">s3</span> ... + ...</p>
+
+<p class="noind">This extensive theorem of algebraic reciprocity includes many
+known theorems of symmetry in the theory of Symmetric Functions.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the theory has been extended to include symmetric
+functions symbolized by partitions which contain as well zero and
+negative parts.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Compositions of Multipartite Numbers. Parcels denoted by</i>
+(I<span class="sp">m</span>).&mdash;There are here no similarities between the parcels.
+<span class="sidenote">Case II.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="clear: both;">Let (&pi;<span class="su">1</span> &pi;<span class="su">2</span> &pi;<span class="su">3</span>) be a partition of m.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(p<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...)
+a partition of n.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Of the whole number of distributions of the n objects, there will be a
+certain number such that n<span class="su">1</span> parcels each contain p<span class="su">1</span> objects, and in
+general &pi;<span class="su">s</span> parcels each contain p<span class="su">s</span> objects, where s = 1, 2, 3, ...
+Consider the product h<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">p1</span> h<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">p2</span> h<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">p3</span> ... which can be permuted in
+m! / &pi;<span class="su">1</span>!&pi;<span class="su">2</span>!&pi;<span class="su">3</span>! ...
+ways. For each of these ways h<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">p1</span> h<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">p2</span> h<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">p3</span> ...
+will be a distribution function for distributions of the specified type. Hence,
+regarding all the permutations, the distribution function is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>m!</td> <td rowspan="2">h<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">p1</span> h<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">p2</span> h<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">p3</span> ...</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">&pi;<span class="su">1</span>!&pi;<span class="su">2</span>!&pi;<span class="su">3</span>! ...</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and regarding, as well, all the partitions of n into exactly m parts,
+the desired distribution function is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&Sigma; </td><td>m!</td> <td rowspan="2">h<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">p1</span> h<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">p2</span> h<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">p3</span> ...
+&emsp;&emsp;[&Sigma;&pi; = m, &Sigma;&pi; p = n],</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">&pi;<span class="su">1</span>!&pi;<span class="su">2</span>!&pi;<span class="su">3</span>! ...</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">that is, it is the coefficient of x<span class="sp">n</span> in (h<span class="su">1</span>x + h<span class="su">2</span>x˛ + h<span class="su">3</span>xł + ... )<span class="sp">m</span>. The
+value of <span style="font-size: 130%;">A </span>(p<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...)
+is the coefficient of (p<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ...)x<span class="sp">n</span> in
+the development of the above expression, and is easily shown to
+have the value</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>p<span class="su">1</span> + m - 1</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td> <td><span class="sp">&pi;1</span></td>
+    <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>p<span class="su">2</span> + m - 1</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td> <td><span class="sp">&pi;2</span></td>
+    <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>p<span class="su">3</span> + m - 1</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td> <td><span class="sp">&pi;3</span></td> <td rowspan="2"> ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>p<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>p<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>p<span class="su">3</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td rowspan="2">-</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>m</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td>
+    <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>p<span class="su">1</span> + m - 2</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td> <td><span class="sp">&pi;1</span></td>
+    <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>p<span class="su">2</span> + m - 2</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td> <td><span class="sp">&pi;2</span></td>
+    <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>p<span class="su">3</span> + m - 2</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td> <td><span class="sp">&pi;3</span></td> <td rowspan="2"> ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1</td>
+    <td>p<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>p<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>p<span class="su">3</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td rowspan="2">+</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>m</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td>
+    <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>p<span class="su">1</span> + m - 3</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td> <td><span class="sp">&pi;1</span></td>
+    <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>p<span class="su">2</span> + m - 3</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td> <td><span class="sp">&pi;2</span></td>
+    <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">(</td> <td>p<span class="su">3</span> + m - 3</td> <td class="f200 np" rowspan="2">)</td> <td><span class="sp">&pi;3</span></td> <td rowspan="2"> ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td>2</td>
+    <td>p<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>p<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>p<span class="su">3</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align: left;" colspan="17">- ... to m terms.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Observe that when p<span class="su">1</span> = p<span class="su">2</span> = p<span class="su">3</span> = ... = &pi;<span class="su">1</span> = &pi;<span class="su">2</span> = &pi;<span class="su">3</span> ... = 1 this expression
+reduces to the mth divided differences of 0<span class="sp">n</span>. The expression
+gives the compositions of the multipartite number
+<span class="tb">p<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">3</span></span> ...
+into m parts. Summing the distribution function from m = 1 to m = &infin;
+and putting x = 1, as we may without detriment, we find that the
+totality of the compositions is given by
+(h<span class="su">1</span> + h<span class="su">2</span> + h<span class="su">3</span> + ...) /
+(1 - h<span class="su">1</span> - h<span class="su">2</span> - h<span class="su">3</span> + ...)
+which may be given the form
+(a<span class="su">1</span> - a<span class="su">2</span> + a<span class="su">3</span> - ...) /
+[1 - 2(a<span class="su">1</span> - a<span class="su">2</span> + a<span class="su">3</span> - ...)]
+Adding ˝ we bring this to the still more convenient form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">˝</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - 2(a<span class="su">1</span> - a<span class="su">2</span> + a<span class="su">3</span> - ...)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Let F (p<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">3</span> ... )
+denote the total number of compositions of the multipartite
+<span class="tb">p<span class="sp1">&pi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> p<span class="sp1">&pi;3</span><span class="su1">3</span></span> ....
+Then ˝ ˇ (1 / 1 - 2a) = ˝ + &Sigma; F(p)&alpha;<span class="sp">p</span>, and thence
+F(p) = 2<span class="sp">p - 1</span>. Again ˝ ˇ [1 / 1 - 2(&alpha; + &beta; - &alpha;&beta;)] =
+&Sigma; F(p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span>) &alpha;<span class="sp">p1</span>&beta;<span class="sp">p2</span>,
+and expanding the left-hand side we easily find</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">F(p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span>) = 2<span class="sp">p1 + p2 - 1</span></td>
+     <td>(p<span class="su">1</span> + p<span class="su">2</span>)!</td>
+     <td rowspan="2">- 2<span class="sp">p1 + p2 - 2</span></td>
+     <td>(p<span class="su">1</span> + p<span class="su">2</span> - 1)!</td>
+     <td rowspan="2">+ 2<span class="sp">p1 + p2 - 3</span></td>
+     <td>(p<span class="su">1</span> + p<span class="su">2</span> - 2)!</td>
+     <td rowspan="2">- ...</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">0! p<span class="su">1</span>! p<span class="su">2</span>!</td>
+     <td class="denom">1! (p<span class="su">1</span> - 1)! (p<span class="su">2</span> - 1)!</td>
+     <td class="denom">2! (p<span class="su">1</span> - 2)! (p<span class="su">2</span> - 2)!</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">We have found that the number of compositions of the multipartite
+<span class="ov">p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span>p<span class="su">3</span> ... p<span class="su">s</span></span>
+is equal to the coefficient of symmetric function
+(p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span>p<span class="su">3</span> ... p<span class="su">s</span>)
+<i>or</i> of the single term
+&alpha;<span class="sp1">p1</span><span class="su1">1</span> &alpha;<span class="sp1">p2</span><span class="su1">2</span> &alpha;<span class="sp1">p2</span><span class="su1">2</span> ... &alpha;<span class="sp1">ps</span><span class="su1">s</span>
+in the development according to ascending powers of the algebraic fraction</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">˝ ˇ </td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - 2 (&Sigma;&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> - &Sigma;&alpha;<span class="su">1</span>&alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + &Sigma;&alpha;<span class="su">1</span>&alpha;<span class="su">2</span>&alpha;<span class="su">3</span> -
+       ... + (-)<span class="sp">S + 1</span> &alpha;<span class="su">1</span>&alpha;<span class="su">2</span>&alpha;<span class="su">3</span> ... &alpha;<span class="su">s</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">This result can be thrown into another suggestive form, for it can
+be proved that this portion of the expanded fraction</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">˝ ˇ </td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">{1 - t<span class="su">1</span> (2&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + ... + &alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)}
+       {1 - t<span class="su">2</span> (2&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + 2&alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + ... + &alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)} ...
+       {1 - t<span class="su">s</span> (2&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + 2&alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + ... + 2&alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)}</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which is composed entirely of powers of</p>
+
+<p class="center1">t<span class="su">1</span>&alpha;<span class="su">1</span>, t<span class="su">2</span>&alpha;<span class="su">2</span>, t<span class="su">3</span>&alpha;<span class="su">3</span>, ... t<span class="su">s</span>&alpha;<span class="su">s</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">has the expression</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">˝ ˇ </td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - 2 (&Sigma;t<span class="su">1</span>&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> -
+       &Sigma;t<span class="su">1</span>t<span class="su">2</span>&alpha;<span class="su">1</span>&alpha;<span class="su">2</span> +
+       &Sigma;t<span class="su">1</span>t<span class="su">2</span>t<span class="su">3</span>&alpha;<span class="su">1</span>&alpha;<span class="su">2</span>&alpha;<span class="su">3</span> - ... +
+       (-)<span class="sp">s + 1</span>t<span class="su">1</span>t<span class="su">2</span> ... t<span class="su">s</span>&alpha;<span class="su">1</span>&alpha;<span class="su">2</span> ... &alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and therefore the coefficient of
+&alpha;<span class="sp1">p1</span><span class="su1">1</span> &alpha;<span class="sp1">p2</span><span class="su1">2</span> ... &alpha;<span class="sp1">ps</span><span class="su1">s</span>
+in the latter fraction, when t<span class="su">1</span>, t<span class="su">2</span>, &amp;c., are put equal to unity, is equal to the coefficient of
+the same term in the product</p>
+
+<p class="center1">˝ (2&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + ... + &alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)<span class="sp">p1</span>
+(2&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + 2&alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + ... + &alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)<span class="sp">p2</span> ...
+(2&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + 2&alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + ... + 2&alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)<span class="sp">ps</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">This result gives a direct connexion between the number of compositions
+and the permutations of the letters in the product
+&alpha;<span class="sp1">p1</span><span class="su1">1</span> &alpha;<span class="sp1">p2</span><span class="su1">2</span> ... &alpha;<span class="sp1">ps</span><span class="su1">s</span>.
+Selecting any permutation, suppose that the letter a<span class="su">r</span> occurs q<span class="su">r</span> times
+in the last p<span class="su">r</span> + p<span class="su">r+1</span> + ... + p<span class="su">s</span> places of the permutation; the coefficient
+in question may be represented by ˝ &Sigma;2<span class="sp">q1+q2+ ... +qs</span>,
+the summation being for every permutation, and since q<span class="su">1</span> = p<span class="su">1</span> this may
+be written</p>
+
+<p class="center1">2p<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">-1</span> &Sigma;2<span class="sp">q1+q2+ ... +qs</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ex. Gr.</i>&mdash;For the bipartite <span class="ov">22</span>, p<span class="su">1</span> = p<span class="su">2</span> = 2, and we have the following scheme:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcc lb">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcr">q<span class="su">2</span> = 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc lb">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcr">= 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc lb">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr">= 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcc lb">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcr">= 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcc lb">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr">= 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc lb">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr">= 0</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Hence</p>
+
+<p class="center">F(22) = 2 (2˛ + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2°) = 26.</p>
+
+<p>We may regard the fraction</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">˝ ˇ </td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">{1 - t<span class="su">1</span> (2&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + ... + &alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)}
+       {1 - t<span class="su">2</span> (2&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + 2&alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + ... + &alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)} ...
+       {1 - t<span class="su">s</span> (2&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + 2&alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + ... + 2&alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)}</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">as a redundant generating function, the enumeration of the compositions
+being given by the coefficient of</p>
+
+<p class="center1">(t<span class="su">1</span>&alpha;<span class="su">1</span>)<span class="sp">p1</span>
+(t<span class="su">2</span>&alpha;<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="sp">p2</span> ...
+(t<span class="su">s</span>&alpha;<span class="su">s</span>)<span class="sp">ps</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The transformation of the pure generating function into a factorized
+redundant form supplies the key to the solution of a large number
+of questions in the theory of ordinary permutations, as will be seen
+later.</p>
+
+<p>[The transformation of the last section involves
+<span class="sidenote">The theory of permutations.</span>
+a comprehensive theory of Permutations, which it is
+convenient to discuss shortly here.</p>
+
+<p>If X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, X<span class="su">3</span>, ... X<span class="su">n</span> be linear functions given by the matricular
+relation</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">(X<span class="su">1</span>, X<span class="su">2</span>, X<span class="su">3</span>, ... X<span class="su">n</span>) =</td>
+<td class="tcc">(a<span class="su">11</span></td> <td class="tcc">a<span class="su">12</span></td> <td class="tcc">...</td> <td class="tcc">a<span class="su">1n</span>)</td>
+<td class="tcc">(x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ... x<span class="su">n</span>)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc lb">a<span class="su">21</span></td> <td class="tcc">a<span class="su">22</span></td> <td class="tcc">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">a<span class="su">2n</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc lb">a<span class="su">n1</span></td> <td class="tcc">a<span class="su">n2</span></td> <td class="tcc">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">a<span class="su">nn</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">that portion of the algebraic fraction,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">(1 - s<span class="su">1</span>X<span class="su">1</span>) (1 - s<span class="su">2</span>X<span class="su">2</span>) ... (1 - s<span class="su">n</span>X<span class="su">n</span>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which is a function of the products s<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">1</span>, s<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span>, s<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">3</span>, ... s<span class="su">n</span>x<span class="su">n</span> only is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">|(1 - a<span class="su">11</span>s<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">1</span>) (1 - a<span class="su">22</span>s<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">2</span>) (1 - a<span class="su">33</span>s<span class="su">3</span>x<span class="su">3</span>) ... (1 - a<span class="su">nn</span>s<span class="su">n</span>x<span class="su">n</span>)|
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where the denominator is in a symbolic form and denotes on expansion</p>
+
+<p class="center1">
+1 - &Sigma; |a<span class="su">11</span>|s<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> +
+&Sigma; |a<span class="su">11</span>a<span class="su">22</span>|s<span class="su">1</span>s<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> - ... +
+(-)<span class="sp">n</span> |a<span class="su">11</span>a<span class="su">22</span>a<span class="su">33</span>  ... a<span class="su">nn</span>|
+s<span class="su">1</span>s<span class="su">2</span> ... s<span class="su">n</span>x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> ... x<span class="su">n</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where |a<span class="su">11</span>|, |a<span class="su">11</span>a<span class="su">22</span>|, ... |a<span class="su">11</span>a<span class="su">22</span>, ... a<span class="su">nn</span>| denote the several co-axial
+minors of the determinant</p>
+
+<p class="center1">|a<span class="su">11</span>a<span class="su">22</span> ... a<span class="su">nn</span>|</p>
+
+<p class="noind">of the matrix. (For the proof of this theorem see MacMahon, &ldquo;A
+certain Class of Generating Functions in the Theory of Numbers,&rdquo;
+<i>Phil. Trans. R. S.</i> vol. clxxxv. A, 1894). It follows that the coefficient
+of</p>
+
+<p class="center1">x<span class="sp1">&xi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> x<span class="sp1">&xi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> ... x<span class="sp1">&xi;n</span><span class="su1">n</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">in the product</p>
+
+<p class="center1">
+(a<span class="su">11</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">12</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">1n</span>x<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">&xi;1</span>
+(a<span class="su">21</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">22</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">2n</span>x<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">&xi;2</span> ...
+(a<span class="su">n1</span>x<span class="su">1</span> + a<span class="su">n2</span>x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + a<span class="su">nn</span>x<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">&xi;n</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">is equal to the coefficient of the same term in the expansion ascending-wise
+of the fraction</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td><td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - &Sigma; |a<span class="su">11</span>|x<span class="su">1</span> + &Sigma; |a<span class="su">11</span>a<span class="su">22</span>|x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> +
+(-)<span class="sp">n</span> |a<span class="su">11</span>a<span class="su">22</span> ... | x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> ... x<span class="su">n</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">If the elements of the determinant be all of them equal to unity,
+we obtain the functions which enumerate the unrestricted permutations
+of the letters in</p>
+
+<p class="center1">x<span class="sp1">&xi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> x<span class="sp1">&xi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> ... x<span class="sp1">&xi;n</span><span class="su1">n</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">viz.</p>
+
+<p class="center1">(x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">2</span> + ... - x<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">&xi;1+&xi;2+ ... +&xi;n</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">and</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td><td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - (x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + x<span class="su">n</span>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Suppose that we wish to find the generating function for the enumeration
+of those permutations of the letters in
+x<span class="sp1">&xi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> x<span class="sp1">&xi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> ... x<span class="sp1">&xi;n</span><span class="su1">n</span>
+which are such
+that no letter x<span class="su">s</span> is in a position originally occupied by an x<span class="su">3</span> for all
+values of s. This is a generalization of the &ldquo;Problčme des rencontres&rdquo;
+or of &ldquo;derangements.&rdquo; We have merely to put</p>
+
+<p class="center1">a<span class="su">11</span> = a<span class="su">22</span> = a<span class="su">33</span> =  ... = a<span class="su">nn</span> = 0</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and the remaining elements equal to unity. The generating product is</p>
+
+<p class="center1">(x<span class="su">2</span> + x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + x<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">&xi;1</span>
+(x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">3</span> + ... + x<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">&xi;2</span> ...
+(x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + x<span class="su">n-1</span>)<span class="sp">&xi;n</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and to obtain the condensed form we have to evaluate the co-axial
+minors of the invertebrate determinant&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">0</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">1</td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">1</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">1</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">...</td> <td class="tcc rb">0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The minors of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd ... nth orders have respectively the
+values</p>
+
+<p class="center1">
+0<br />
+-1<br />
++2<br />
+.<br />
+.<br />
+.<br />
+(-)<span class="sp">n-1</span> (n - 1),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">therefore the generating function is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td><td rowspan="2">;</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - &Sigma; x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> -
+2&Sigma; x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="su">3</span> - ... -
+s&Sigma; x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> ... x<span class="su">s+1</span> - ... -
+(n - 1) x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> ... x<span class="su">n</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">or writing</p>
+
+<p class="center1">(x - x<span class="su">1</span>) (x - x<span class="su">2</span>) ... (x - x<span class="su">n</span>) =
+x<span class="su">n</span> - a<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">n-1</span> + a<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="sp">n-2</span> - ...,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">this is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - a<span class="su">2</span> - 2a<span class="su">3</span> - 3a<span class="su">4</span> - ... - (n - 1) a<span class="su">n</span>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Again, consider the general problem of &ldquo;derangements.&rdquo; We
+have to find the number of permutations such that exactly <i>m</i> of
+the letters are in places they originally occupied. We have the
+particular redundant product</p>
+
+<p class="center1">
+(ax<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + x<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">&xi;1</span>
+(x<span class="su">1</span> + ax<span class="su">2</span> + ... + x<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">&xi;2</span> ...
+(x<span class="su">1</span> + x<span class="su">2</span> + ... + ax<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">&xi;n</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">in which the sought number is the coefficient of
+a<span class="sp">m</span> x<span class="sp1">&xi;1</span><span class="su1">1</span> x<span class="sp1">&xi;2</span><span class="su1">2</span> ... x<span class="sp1">&xi;n</span><span class="su1">n</span>.
+The true generating function is derived from the determinant</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">a</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">1</td> <td class="tcc">a</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">1</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">a</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">1</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">a</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc rb">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">.</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and has the form</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - a&Sigma; x<span class="su">1</span> + (a - 1) (a + 1)&Sigma; x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> - ... +
+(-)<span class="sp">n</span> (a - 1)<span class="sp">n-1</span> (a + n - 1)x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> ... x<span class="su">n</span>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is clear that a large class of problems in permutations can be
+solved in a similar manner, viz. by giving special values to the
+elements of the determinant of the matrix. The redundant product
+leads uniquely to the real generating function, but the latter
+has generally more than one representation as a redundant
+product, in the cases in which it is representable at all. For the
+existence of a redundant form, the coefficients of x<span class="su">1</span>, x<span class="su">2</span>, ... x<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="su">2</span> ...
+in the denominator of the real generating function must satisfy
+2<span class="sp">n</span> - n˛ + n - 2 conditions, and assuming this to be the case, a
+redundant form can be constructed which involves n - 1 undetermined
+quantities. We are thus able to pass from any particular
+redundant generating function to one equivalent to it,
+but involving n - 1 undetermined quantities. Assuming these
+quantities at pleasure we obtain a number of different algebraic
+products, each of which may have its own meaning in arithmetic,
+and thus the number of arithmetical correspondences obtainable
+is subject to no finite limit (cf. MacMahon, <i>loc. cit.</i> pp. 125
+et seq.)]</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Theory of Partitions. Parcels defined by (m).</i>&mdash;When an
+ordinary unipartite number n is broken up into other numbers,
+and the order of occurrence of the numbers is immaterial,
+the collection of numbers is termed a partition of the
+<span class="sidenote">Case III.</span>
+number n. It is usual to arrange the numbers comprised in the
+collection, termed the parts of the partition, in descending order of
+magnitude, and to indicate repetitions of the same part by the use
+of exponents. Thus (32111), a partition of 8, is written (321ł).
+Euler&rsquo;s pioneering work in the subject rests on the observation that
+the algebraic multiplication</p>
+
+<p class="center1">x<span class="sp">a</span> × x<span class="sp">b</span> × x<span class="sp">c</span> × ... x<span class="sp">a+b+c+ ...</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">is equivalent to the arithmetical addition of the exponents a, b, c, ...
+He showed that the number of ways of composing n with p integers
+drawn from the series a, b, c, ..., repeated or not, is equal to the
+coefficient of &zeta;<span class="sp">p</span>x<span class="sp">n</span> in the ascending expansion of the fraction</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - &zeta;x<span class="sp">a</span>. 1 - &zeta;x<span class="sp">b</span>. 1 - &zeta;x<span class="sp">c</span>. ...
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which he termed the generating function of the partitions in question.</p>
+
+<p>If the partitions are to be composed of p, or fewer parts, it is
+merely necessary to multiply this fraction by 1/(1 - &zeta;). Similarly, if
+the parts are to be unrepeated, the generating function is the algebraic
+product</p>
+
+<p class="center1">(1 + &zeta;x<span class="sp">a</span>) (1 + &zeta;x<span class="sp">b</span>) (1 + &zeta;x<span class="sp">c</span>) ...;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">if each part may occur at most twice,</p>
+
+<p class="center1">(1 + &zeta;x<span class="sp">a</span> + &zeta;<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="sp">2a</span>)
+(1 + &zeta;x<span class="sp">b</span> + &zeta;<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="sp">2b</span>)
+(1 + &zeta;x<span class="sp">c</span> + &zeta;<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="sp">2c</span>) ...;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and generally if each part may occur at most k - 1 times it is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1 - &zeta;<span class="sp">k</span>x<span class="sp">ka</span></td> <td rowspan="2">ˇ</td>
+<td>1 - &zeta;<span class="sp">k</span>x<span class="sp">kb</span></td> <td rowspan="2">ˇ</td>
+<td>1 - &zeta;<span class="sp">k</span>x<span class="sp">kc</span></td> <td rowspan="2">ˇ ...</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - &zeta;x<span class="sp">a</span></td>
+<td class="denom">1 - &zeta;x<span class="sp">b</span></td>
+<td class="denom">1 - &zeta;x<span class="sp">c</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It is thus easy to form generating functions for the partitions of
+numbers into parts subject to various restrictions. If there be no
+restriction in regard to the numbers of the parts, the generating
+function is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x<span class="sp">a</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">b</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">c</span>. ...</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and the problems of finding the partitions of a number n, and of
+determining their number, are the same as those of solving and
+enumerating the solutions of the indeterminate equation in positive
+integers</p>
+
+<p class="center1">ax + by + cz + ... = n.</p>
+
+<p>Euler considered also the question of enumerating the solutions
+of the indeterminate simultaneous equation in positive integers</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>ax + by + cz + ... = n</p>
+<p>a&prime;x + b&prime;y + c&prime;z + ... = n&prime;</p>
+<p>a&Prime;x + b&Prime;y + c&Prime;z + ... = n&Prime;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which was called by him and those of his time the &ldquo;Problem of
+the Virgins.&rdquo; The enumeration is given by the coefficient of
+x<span class="sp">n</span>y<span class="sp">n&prime;</span>z<span class="sp">n&Prime;</span> ...
+in the expansion of the fraction</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">(1 - x<span class="sp">a</span>y<span class="sp">b</span>z<span class="sp">c</span> ...)
+(1 - x<span class="sp">a&prime;</span>y<span class="sp">b&prime;</span>z<span class="sp">c&prime;</span> ...)
+(1 - x<span class="sp">a&Prime;</span>y<span class="sp">b&Prime;</span>z<span class="sp">c&Prime;</span> ...) ...
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which enumerates the partitions of the multipartite number <span class="ov">nn&prime;n&Prime; ...</span>
+into the parts</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><span class="ov">abc ...</span>, <span class="ov">a&prime;b&prime;c&prime; ...</span>, <span class="ov">a&Prime;b&Prime;c&Prime; ...</span> ....</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Sylvester has determined an analytical expression for the coefficient
+of x<span class="sp">n</span> in the expansion of</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">(1 - x<span class="sp">a</span>) (1 - x<span class="sp">b</span>) ... (1 - x<span class="sp">i</span>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>To explain this we have two lemmas:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Lemma 1.</i>&mdash;The coefficient of x<span class="sp">-1</span>, <i>i.e.</i>, after Cauchy, the residue
+in the ascending expansion of (1 - e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">-i</span>, is -1. For when i is unity,
+it is obviously the case, and</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">(1 - e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">-i-1</span> = (1 - e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">-i</span> +
+e<span class="sp">x</span>(1 - e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">-i-1</span> =
+(1 - e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">-i</span> +</td>
+<td>d</td> <td rowspan="2">(1 - e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">-i</span> ˇ</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">i</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Here the residue of d/dx (1 - e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">-i</span> ˇ 1/i is zero, and therefore the residue
+of (1 - e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">-i</span> is unchanged when i is increased by unity, and is
+therefore always -1 for all values of i.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lemma 2.</i>&mdash;The constant term in any proper algebraical fraction
+developed in ascending powers of its variable is the same as the
+residue, with changed sign, of the sum of the fractions obtained
+by substituting in the given fraction, in lieu of the variable, its exponential
+multiplied in succession by each of its values (zero excepted,
+if there be such), which makes the given fraction infinite. For
+write the proper algebraical fraction</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">F(x) = &Sigma;&Sigma;</td> <td>c<span class="su">&lambda;, &mu;</span></td> <td rowspan="2">+ &Sigma;</td> <td>&gamma;&lambda;</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">(a<span class="su">&mu;</span> - x)&lambda;</td> <td class="denom">x<span class="su">&lambda;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">The constant term is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">&Sigma;&Sigma;</td> <td>c<span class="su">&lambda;, &mu;</span></td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">a<span class="sp1">&lambda;</span><span class="su1">&mu;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Let a<span class="su">&nu;</span> be a value of x which makes the fraction infinite. The
+residue of</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">&Sigma;&Sigma;&Sigma;</td> <td>c<span class="su">&lambda;, &mu;</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2">+ &Sigma;</td> <td>&gamma;<span class="su">&lambda;</span></td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">(a<span class="su">&mu;</span> - a<span class="su">&nu;</span>e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">&lambda;</span></td>
+     <td class="denom">a<span class="sp1">&lambda;</span><span class="su1">&nu;</span> e<span class="sp">&lambda;x</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">is equal to the residue of</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">&Sigma;&Sigma;&Sigma;</td> <td>c<span class="su">&lambda;, &mu;</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">(a<span class="su">&mu;</span> - a<span class="su">&nu;</span>e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">&lambda;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and when &nu; = &mu;, the residue vanishes, so that we have to consider</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">&Sigma;&Sigma;</td> <td>c<span class="su">&lambda;, &mu;</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">a<span class="sp1">&lambda;</span><span class="su1">&nu;</span> (1 - e<span class="sp">x</span>)<span class="sp">&lambda;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and the residue of this is, by the first lemma,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">- &Sigma;&Sigma;</td> <td>c<span class="su">&lambda;, &mu;</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">a<span class="sp1">&lambda;</span><span class="su1">&nu;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which proves the lemma.</p>
+
+<p>Take F(x) = 1 / [x<span class="sp">n</span> (1 - x<span class="sp">a</span>) (1 - x<span class="sp">b</span>) ... (1 - x<span class="sp">l</span>)]
+= &int;(x) / x<span class="sp">n</span>, since the sought number
+is its constant term.</p>
+
+<p>Let &rho; be a root of unity which makes &int;(x) infinite when substituted
+for x. The function of which we have to take the residue is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">&Sigma; &rho;<span class="sp">-n</span>e<span class="sp">nx</span> &int;(&rho;e<span class="sp">-x</span>) =
+&Sigma;</td> <td>&rho;<span class="sp">-n</span>e<span class="sp">nx</span></td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">(1 - &rho;<span class="sp">a</span>e<span class="sp">-ax</span>)
+ (1 - &rho;<span class="sp">b</span>e<span class="sp">-bx</span>) ... (1 - &rho;<span class="sp">l</span>e<span class="sp">-lx</span>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">We may divide the calculation up into sections by considering
+separately that portion of the summation which involves the primitive
+qth roots of unity, q being a divisor of one of the numbers
+a, b, ... l. Thus the qth <i>wave</i> is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">&Sigma;</td> <td>&rho;<span class="sp">-n</span><span class="su1">q</span> e<span class="sp">nx</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">(1 - &rho;<span class="sp">a</span><span class="su1">q</span> e<span class="sp">-ax</span>)
+ (1 - &rho;<span class="sp">b</span><span class="su1">q</span> e<span class="sp">-bx</span>) ... (1 - &rho;<span class="sp">l</span><span class="su">q</span> e<span class="sp">-lx</span>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which, putting 1 / &rho;<span class="su">q</span> for &rho;<span class="su">q</span>
+and &nu; = ˝(a + b + ... + l), may be written</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">&Sigma;</td> <td>&rho;<span class="sp">&nu;</span><span class="su">q</span> e<span class="sp">&nu;x</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">(&rho;<span class="sp">˝a</span><span class="su1">q</span> e<span class="sp">˝ax</span> - &rho;<span class="sp">-˝a</span><span class="su1">q</span> e<span class="sp">-˝ax</span>)
+     (&rho;<span class="sp">˝b</span><span class="su1">q</span> e<span class="sp">˝bx</span> - &rho;<span class="sp">-˝b</span><span class="su1">q</span> e<span class="sp">-˝bx</span>) ...
+     (&rho;<span class="sp">˝l</span><span class="su1">q</span> e<span class="sp">˝lx</span> - &rho;<span class="sp">-˝l</span><span class="su1">q</span> e<span class="sp">-˝lx</span>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and the calculation in simple cases is practicable.</p>
+
+<p>Thus Sylvester finds for the coefficient of x<span class="sp">n</span> in</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x. 1 - x˛. 1 - xł</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">the expression</p>
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>&nu;˛</td> <td rowspan="2">-</td> <td>7</td> <td rowspan="2">-</td> <td>1</td>
+     <td rowspan="2">(-)&nu; +</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">(&rho;<span class="sp">&nu;</span><span class="su1">3</span> + &rho;<span class="sp">-&nu;</span><span class="su1">3</span>),</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">12</td> <td class="denom">72</td> <td class="denom">8</td> <td class="denom">9</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where &nu; = n + 3.</p>
+
+<p>Sylvester, Franklin, Durfee, G. S. Ely and others have
+evolved a constructive theory of partitions, the object of
+which is the contemplation of the partitions themselves,
+and the evolution of their properties from a
+<span class="sidenote">Sylvester&rsquo;s graphical method.</span>
+study of their inherent characters. It is concerned
+for the most part with the partition of a number into
+parts drawn from the natural series of numbers 1, 2, 3 ....
+Any partition, say (521) of the number 8, is represented by nodes
+placed in order at the points of a rectangular lattice,</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:219px; height:148px"
+     src="images/img756a.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">when the partition is given by the enumeration of the nodes by
+lines. If we enumerate by columns we obtain another partition
+of 8, viz. (321ł), which is termed the conjugate of the former.
+The fact or conjugacy was first pointed out by Norman Macleod
+Ferrers. If the original partition is one of a number n in i parts,
+of which the largest is j, the conjugate is one into j parts, of
+which the largest is i, and we obtain the theorem:&mdash;
+&ldquo;The number of partitions of any number into [i parts <span class="f150">|</span> i parts or fewer,] and
+having the largest part [equal to j <span class="f150">|</span> equal or less than j,] remains the same
+when the numbers i and j are interchanged.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The study of this representation on a lattice (termed by
+Sylvester the &ldquo;graph&rdquo;) yields many theorems similar to that just
+given, and, moreover, throws considerable light upon the expansion
+of algebraic series.</p>
+
+<p>The theorem of reciprocity just established shows that the number
+of partitions of n into; parts or fewer, is the same as the number of
+ways of composing n with the integers 1, 2, 3, ... j. Hence we can expand
+1 / (1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax˛. 1 - axł ... ad inf.) in ascending powers of a;
+for the coefficient of a<span class="sp">j</span>x<span class="sp">n</span> in the expansion is the number of ways
+of composing n with j or fewer parts, and this we have seen in the
+coefficients of x<span class="sp">n</span> in the ascending expansion of 1 / (1 - x. 1 - x˛ ... 1 - x<span class="sp">j</span>).
+Therefore</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td>  <td rowspan="2">= 1 +</td> <td>a</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td>
+     <td>a˛</td> <td rowspan="2">+ ... +</td> <td>a<span class="sp">j</span></td> <td rowspan="2">+ ....</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax˛....</td> <td class="denom">1 - x</td>
+     <td class="denom">1 - x. 1 - x˛</td> <td class="denom">1 - x. 1 - x˛.... 1 - x<span class="sp">j</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The coefficient of a<span class="sp">j</span>x<span class="sp">n</span> in the expansion of</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax˛. ... 1 - ax<span class="sp">i</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">denotes the number of ways of composing n with j or fewer parts,
+none of which are greater than i. The expansion is known to be</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">&Sigma;</td> <td>1 - x<span class="sp">j+1</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">j+2</span>. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">j+i</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2">a<span class="sp">j</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x. 1 - x˛. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">i</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">It has been established by the constructive method by F. Franklin
+(<i>Amer. Jour. of Math.</i> v. 254), and shows that the generating function
+for the partitions in question is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1 - x<span class="sp">j+1</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">j+2</span>. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">j+i</span></td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x. 1 - x˛. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">i</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which, observe, is unaltered by interchange of i and j.</p>
+
+<p>Franklin has also similarly established the identity of Euler</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="su">j = - &infin;</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">(1 - x)(1 - x˛)(1 - xł) ... <i>ad inf.</i></td> <td class="tcl">= &Sigma; (-) jx<span class="sp">˝(3j˛+j)</span>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl"><span class="sp">j = + &infin;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">known as the &ldquo;pentagonal number theorem,&rdquo; which on interpretation
+shows that the number of ways of partitioning n into an
+even number of unrepeated parts is equal to that into an uneven
+number, except when n has the pentagonal form ˝(3j˛ + j), j positive
+or negative, when the difference between the numbers of the partitions
+is (-)<span class="sp">j</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright1" style="float: right">
+<img style="border:0; width:220px; height:168px"
+     src="images/img756b.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>To illustrate an important dissection of the graph we will consider
+those graphs which read the same by
+columns as by lines; these are called self-conjugate.
+Such a graph may be obviously
+dissected into a square, containing
+say &theta;˛ nodes, and into two graphs, one
+lateral and one subjacent, the latter being
+the conjugate of the former. The former
+graph is limited to contain not more than
+&theta; parts, but is subject to no other condition.
+Hence the number of self-conjugate
+partitions of n which are associated with a square of &theta;˛ nodes is
+clearly equal to the number of partitions of ˝(n - &theta;˛ into &theta; or few
+parts, <i>i.e.</i> it is the coefficient of x<span class="sp">˝(n-&theta;˛)</span> in</p>
+
+<table class="math0" style="clear: both;" summary="math">
+<tr><td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x. 1 - x˛. 1 - xł. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">&theta;</span>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">or of x<span class="sp">n</span> in</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>x<span class="sp">&theta;2</span></td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x<span class="sp">2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">4</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">6</span>. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">2&theta;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and the whole generating function is</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">1 +  &Sigma;<span class="sp1">&ensp;&theta; = &infin;</span><span class="su1" style="margin-left: -2.3em;">&theta; = 1</span></td>
+     <td>x<span class="sp">&theta;2</span></td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x<span class="sp">2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">4</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">6</span>. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">2&theta;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Now the graph is also composed of &theta; angles of nodes, each angle containing
+an uneven number of nodes; hence the partition is transformable
+into one containing &theta; unequal uneven numbers. In the
+case depicted this partition is (17, 9, 5, 1). Hence the number of the
+partitions based upon a square of &theta;˛ nodes is the coefficient of a<span class="sp">&theta;</span>x<span class="sp">n</span>
+in the product (1 + ax) (1 + ax<span class="sp">3</span>) (1 + ax<span class="sp">5</span>) ... (1 + ax<span class="sp">2s+1</span>) ..., and thence
+the coefficient of a<span class="sp">&theta;</span> in this product is
+x<span class="sp">&theta;2</span> / (1 - x<span class="sp">2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">4</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">6</span> ... 1 - x<span class="sp">2&theta;</span>),
+and we have the expansion</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">(1 + ax) (1 + ax<span class="sp">3</span>) (1 + ax<span class="sp">5</span>) ... <i>ad inf</i>. = 1 +</td>
+ <td>x</td> <td rowspan="2">a +</td> <td>x<span class="sp">4</span></td> <td rowspan="2">a<span class="sp">2</span> +</td>
+ <td>x<span class="sp">9</span></td> <td rowspan="2">a<span class="sp">3</span> + ...</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x<span class="sp">2</span></td>
+ <td class="denom">1 - x<span class="sp">2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">4</span></td>
+ <td class="denom">1 - x<span class="sp">2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">4</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">6</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Again, if we restrict the part magnitude to i, the largest angle of
+nodes contains at most 2i - 1 nodes, and based upon a square of
+&theta;˛ nodes we have partitions enumerated by the coefficient of a<span class="sp">&theta;</span>x<span class="sp">n</span>
+in the product (1 + ax) (1 + ax<span class="sp">3</span>) (1 + ax<span class="sp">5</span>) ... (1 + ax<span class="sp">2i-1</span>); moreover
+the same number enumerates the partition of ˝(n - &theta;˛) into &theta; or
+fewer parts, of which the largest part is equal to or less than i - &theta;,
+and is thus given by the coefficient of x<span class="sp">˝(n-&theta;˛)</span> in the expansion of</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span></p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1 - x<span class="sp">i-&theta;+1</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">i-&theta;+2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">i-&theta;+3</span>. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">i</span></td>
+  <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x. 1 - x<span class="sp">2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">3</span>. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">&theta;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">or of x<span class="sp">n</span> in</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>1 - x<span class="sp">2i-2&theta;+2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">2i-2&theta;+4</span>. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">2i</span></td>
+  <td rowspan="2">x&theta;<span class="sp">2</span>;</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x<span class="sp">2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">4</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">6</span>. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">2&theta;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">hence the expansion</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">(1 + ax) (1 + ax<span class="sp">3</span>) (1 + ax<span class="sp">5</span>) ... (1 + ax<span class="sp">2i-1</span>)
+ = 1 + &Sigma;<span class="sp">&ensp;&theta;=i</span><span class="su1" style="margin-left: -1.3em;">&theta;=1</span></td>
+ <td>1 - x<span class="sp">2i-2&theta;+2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">2i-2&theta;+4</span>. ... 1 + x<span class="sp">2i</span></td>
+ <td rowspan="2">x<span class="sp">&theta;˛</span> a<span class="sp">&theta;</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">1 - x<span class="sp">2</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">4</span>. 1 - x<span class="sp">6</span>. ... 1 - x<span class="sp">2&theta;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>There is no difficulty in extending the graphical method to three
+<span class="sidenote">Extension to three dimensions.</span>
+dimensions, and we have then a theory of a special kind
+of partition of multipartite numbers. Of such kind is the
+partition</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><span class="ov">(a<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="su">2</span>a<span class="su">3</span>...</span>, <span class="ov">(b<span class="su">1</span>b<span class="su">2</span>b<span class="su">3</span>...</span>, <span class="ov">(c<span class="su">1</span>c<span class="su">2</span>c<span class="su">3</span>...</span>, ...)</p>
+
+<p class="noind">of the multipartite number</p>
+
+<p class="center1 ov">(a<span class="su">1</span> + b<span class="su">1</span> + c<span class="su">1</span> + ..., a<span class="su">2</span> + b<span class="su">2</span> + c<span class="su">2</span> + ..., a<span class="su">3</span> + b<span class="su">3</span> + c<span class="su">3</span> + ..., ...)</p>
+
+<p class="noind">if</p>
+
+<p class="center1">a<span class="su">1</span> &ge; a<span class="su">2</span> &ge; a<span class="su">3</span> &ge; ...; b<span class="su">1</span> &ge; b<span class="su">2</span> &ge; b<span class="su">3</span> &ge; ..., ...<br />
+a<span class="su">3</span> &ge; b<span class="su">3</span> &ge; c<span class="su">3</span> &ge; ...,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">for then the graphs of the parts <span class="ov">a<span class="su">1</span>a<span class="su">2</span>a<span class="su">3</span>...</span>, <span class="ov">b<span class="su">1</span>b<span class="su">2</span>b<span class="su">3</span>...</span>, ... are superposable,
+and we have what we may term a <i>regular</i> graph in three
+dimensions. Thus the partition (<span class="ov">643</span>, <span class="ov">632</span>, <span class="ov">411</span>) of the multipartite
+<span class="ov">(16, 8, 6)</span> leads to the graph</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:226px; height:135px"
+     src="images/img757a.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and every such graph is readable in six ways, the axis of z being
+perpendicular to the plane of the paper.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Ex. Gr.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Plane parallel to</td> <td class="tcl">xy,</td> <td class="tcl">direction</td> <td class="tcl">Ox</td> <td class="tcl">reads</td> <td class="tcl">(<span class="ov">643</span>, <span class="ov">632</span>, <span class="ov">411</span>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">xy,</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Oy</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">(<span class="ov">333211</span>, <span class="ov">332111</span>, <span class="ov">311100</span>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">yz,</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Oy</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">(<span class="ov">333</span>, <span class="ov">331</span>, <span class="ov">321</span>, <span class="ov">211</span>, <span class="ov">110</span>, <span class="ov">110</span>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">yz,</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Oz</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">(<span class="ov">333</span>, <span class="ov">322</span>, <span class="ov">321</span>, <span class="ov">310</span>, <span class="ov">200</span>, <span class="ov">200</span>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">zx,</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Oz</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">(<span class="ov">333322</span>, <span class="ov">322100</span>, <span class="ov">321000</span>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">zx,</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">Ox</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">(<span class="ov">664</span>, <span class="ov">431</span>, <span class="ov">321</span>)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">the partitions having reference to the multipartite numbers
+<span class="ov">16, 8, 6</span>, <span class="ov">976422</span>, <span class="ov">13, 11, 6</span>,
+which are brought into relation through the
+medium of the graph. The graph in question is more conveniently
+represented by a numbered diagram, viz.&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">2</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">2</td> <td class="tcc">2</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">2</td> <td class="tcc">1</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and then we may evidently regard it as a unipartite partition on
+the points of a lattice,</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:251px; height:147px"
+     src="images/img757b.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">the descending order of magnitude of part being maintained along
+<i>every</i> line of route which proceeds from the origin in the positive
+directions of the axes.</p>
+
+<p>This brings in view the modern notion of a partition, which has
+enormously enlarged the scope of the theory. We consider any
+number of points <i>in plano</i> or <i>in solido</i> connected (or not) by lines
+in pairs in any desired manner and fix upon any condition, such
+as is implied by the symbols &ge;, &gt;, =, &lt;, &le;, &#8823;, as affecting any
+pair of points so connected. Thus in ordinary unipartite partition
+we have to solve in integers such a system as</p>
+
+<p class="center1">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> &ge; &alpha;<span class="su">2</span> &ge; &alpha;<span class="su">3</span> &ge; ... ... &alpha;<span class="su">n</span><br />
+&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">3</span> + ... + &alpha;<span class="su">n</span> = n,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">the points being in a straight line. In the simplest example of
+the three-dimensional graph we have to solve the system</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> &ge; &alpha;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcc">&#8794;&emsp;&#8793;</td> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">1</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">3</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">4</span> = n,</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcc">&alpha;<span class="su">3</span> &ge; &alpha;<span class="su">4</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and a system for the general lattice constructed upon the same
+principle. The system has been discussed by MacMahon, <i>Phil.
+Trans.</i> vol. clxxxvii. A, 1896, pp. 619-673, with the conclusion that
+if the numbers of nodes along the axes of x, y, z be limited not to
+exceed the numbers m, n, l respectively, then writing for brevity
+1 - x<span class="sp">s</span> = (s), the generating function is given by the product of the
+factors</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td style="text-align: right;">x</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lb tb">(l + 1)</td> <td class="tb" rowspan="2">.</td> <td class="tb">(l + 2)</td> <td class="tb" rowspan="2">....</td> <td class="tb">(l + m)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom lb">(1)</td> <td class="denom">(2)</td> <td class="denom">(m)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="lb">(l + 2)</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td> <td>(l + 3)</td> <td rowspan="2">....</td> <td>(l + m + 1)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom lb">(2)</td> <td class="denom">(3)</td> <td class="denom">(m + 1)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="lb">.</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>.</td> <td>....</td> <td>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lb">.</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>.</td> <td>....</td> <td>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="lb">.</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>.</td> <td>....</td> <td>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="lb">(l + n)</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td> <td>(l + n + 1)</td> <td rowspan="2">....</td> <td>(l + m + n - 1)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom lb">(n)</td> <td class="denom">(n + 1)</td> <td class="denom">(m + n - 1)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td style="text-align: left;">y</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">one factor appearing at each point of the lattice.</p>
+
+<p>In general, partition problems present themselves which depend
+upon the solution of a number of simultaneous relations in integers
+of the form</p>
+
+<p class="center1">&lambda;<span class="su">1</span>&alpha;<span class="su">1</span>  + &lambda;<span class="su">2</span>&alpha;<span class="su">2</span> + &lambda;<span class="su">3</span>&alpha;<span class="su">3</span> + ... &ge; 0,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">the coefficients &lambda; being given positive or negative integers, and in
+some cases the generating function has been determined in a form
+which exhibits the fundamental solutions of the problems from
+which all other solutions are derivable by addition. (See MacMahon,
+<i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. cxcii. (1899), pp. 351-401; and <i>Trans. Camb.</i>
+<i>Phil. Soc.</i> vol. xviii. (1899), pp. 12-34.)</p>
+
+<p>The number of distributions of n objects (p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span>p<span class="su">3</span> ...) into parcels
+<span class="sidenote">Method of symmetric functions.</span>
+(m) is the coefficient of b<span class="sp">m</span>(p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span>p<span class="su">3</span> ...)x<span class="sp">n</span>  in the development
+of the fraction</p>
+
+<table class="ws" style="clear: both;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl tb">(1 - b&alpha;x. 1 - b&beta;x. 1 - b&gamma;x ...</td> <td class="tcc tb">)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">×</td> <td class="tcl">(1 - b&alpha;˛x˛. 1 - b&alpha;&beta;x˛. 1 - b&beta;˛x˛ ...</td> <td class="tcc">)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">×</td> <td class="tcl">(1 - b&alpha;łxł. 1 - b&alpha;˛&beta;xł. 1 - b&alpha;&beta;&gamma;xł ...</td> <td class="tcc">)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc" style="letter-spacing: 2em;" colspan="3">......</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and if we write the expansion of that portion which involves products
+of the letters &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, ... of degree r in the form</p>
+
+<p class="center1">1 + h<span class="su">r1</span> bx<span class="sp">r</span> + h<span class="su">r2</span> b<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="sp">2r</span> + ... ,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">we may write the development</p>
+
+<p class="center1">&Pi;<span class="sp">&ensp;r = &infin;</span><span class="su1" style="margin-left: -2em;">r = 1</span>
+(1 + h<span class="su">r1</span> bx<span class="sp">r</span> + h<span class="su">r2</span> b<span class="sp">2</span>x<span class="sp">2r</span> + ...),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and picking out the coefficient of b<span class="sp">m</span> x<span class="sp">n</span> we find</p>
+
+<p class="center1">&Sigma; h<span class="su">&tau;1</span>h<span class="su">&tau;2</span>h<span class="su">&tau;3</span> ... ,<br />
+t<span class="su">1</span>&ensp;t<span class="su">2</span>&ensp;t<span class="su">3</span>&ensp;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where</p>
+
+<p class="center1">&Sigma; &tau; = m, &Sigma; rt = n.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The quantities h are symmetric functions of the quantities &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, ...
+which in simple cases can be calculated without difficulty, and
+then the distribution function can be formed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ex. Gr.</i>&mdash;Required the enumeration of the partitions of all multipartite
+numbers (p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span>p<span class="su">3</span> ...) into exactly two parts. We find</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>h<span class="su">2˛</span> = h<span class="su">4</span> - h<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + h˛<span class="su">2</span></p>
+<p>h<span class="su">3˛</span> = h<span class="su">6</span> - h<span class="su">5</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + h<span class="su">4</span>h<span class="su">2</span></p>
+<p>h<span class="su">4˛</span> = h<span class="su">8</span> - h<span class="su">7</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + h<span class="su">6</span>h<span class="su">2</span> + h<span class="su">5</span>h<span class="su">3</span> + h˛<span class="su">4</span>,</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and paying attention to the fact that in the expression of h<span class="su">r2</span> the
+term h˛<span class="su">r</span> is absent when r is uneven, the law is clear. The generating
+function is</p>
+
+<p class="center1">
+h<span class="su">2</span>x<span class="sp">2</span> + h<span class="su">2</span>h<span class="su">1</span>x<span class="sp">3</span> +
+(h<span class="su">4</span> + h<span class="sp">2</span><span class="su1">2</span>)x<span class="sp">4</span> +
+(h<span class="su">4</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + h<span class="su">3</span>h<span class="su">2</span>)x<span class="sp">5</span> +
+(h<span class="su">6</span> + 2h<span class="su">4</span>h<span class="su">2</span>)x<span class="sp">6</span> +
+(h<span class="su">6</span>h<span class="su">1</span> + h<span class="su">5</span>h<span class="su">2</span> + h<span class="su">4</span>h<span class="su">3</span>)x<span class="sp">7</span> +
+(h<span class="su">8</span> + 2h<span class="su">6</span>h<span class="su">2</span> + h<span class="sp">2</span><span class="su1">4</span>)x<span class="sp">8</span> + ...</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Taking</p>
+
+<p class="center1">h<span class="su">4</span> + h<span class="sp">2</span><span class="su1">2</span> = h<span class="su">4</span> + {(2) + (1<span class="sp">2</span>)}<span class="sp">2</span>
+= 2(4) + 3(31) + 4(2<span class="sp">2</span>) + 5(21<span class="sp">2</span>) + 7(1<span class="sp">4</span>),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">the term 5(21˛) indicates that objects such as a, a, b, c can be
+partitioned in five ways into two parts. These are a | a, b, c;
+b | a; a, c; c | a, a, b; a, a | b, c; a, b | a, c. The function h<span class="su">r<span class="sp">s</span></span>
+has been studied. (See MacMahon, <i>Proc. Lond. Math. Soc.</i> vol.
+xix.) Putting x equal to unity, the function may be written
+(h<span class="su">2</span> + h<span class="su">4</span> + h<span class="su">6</span> + ...) (1 + h<span class="su">1</span> + h<span class="su">2</span> + h<span class="su">3</span> + h<span class="su">4</span> + ...), a convenient formula.</p>
+
+<p>The method of differential operators, of wide application to
+problems of combinatorial analysis, has for its leading idea the
+designing of a function and of a differential operator,
+<span class="sidenote">Method of differential operators.</span>
+so that when the operator is performed upon the function
+a number is reached which enumerates the solutions
+of the given problem. Generally speaking, the problems
+considered are such as are connected with lattices, or as
+it is possible to connect with lattices.</p>
+
+<p>To take the simplest possible example, consider the problem of
+finding the number of permutations of n different letters. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span>
+function is here x<span class="sp">n</span>, and the operator (d/dx)<span class="sp">n</span> = &delta;<span class="sp">n</span><span class="su1">x</span> ,
+yielding &delta;<span class="sp">n</span><span class="su1"> x</span> x<span class="sp">n</span> = n!
+the number which enumerates the permutations. In fact&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center1">&delta;<span class="su">x</span>x<span class="sp">n</span> = &delta;<span class="su">x</span> . x .  x .  x .  x .  x .  x . ...,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and differentiating we obtain a sum of n terms by striking out an
+x from the product in all possible ways. Fixing upon any one of
+these terms, say x . <span style="text-decoration: line-through;">x</span> . x . x . ..., we again operate with &delta;<span class="su">x</span> by striking
+out an x in all possible ways, and one of the terms so reached is
+x . <span style="text-decoration: line-through;">x</span> . x . <span style="text-decoration: line-through;">x</span> . x . .... Fixing upon this term, and again operating and
+continuing the process, we finally arrive at one solution of the
+problem, which (taking say n = 4) may be said to be in correspondence
+with the operator diagram&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:352px; height:117px"
+     src="images/img758a.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">the number in each row of cempartments denoting an operation
+of &delta;<span class="su">x</span>. Hence the permutation problem is equivalent to that of
+placing n units in the compartments of a square lattice of order
+n in such manner that each row and each column contains a single
+unit. Observe that the method not only enumerates, but also gives
+a process by which each solution is actually formed. The same
+problem is that of placing n rooks upon a chess-board of n˛ compartments,
+so that no rook can be captured by any other rook.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding these elementary remarks as introductory, we proceed
+to give some typical examples of the method. Take a lattice of m
+columns and n rows, and consider the problem of placing units in
+the compartments in such wise that the sth column shall contain &lambda;<span class="su">s</span>
+units (s = 1, 2, 3, ... m), and the tth row p<span class="su">1</span> units (t = l, 2, 3, ... n).</p>
+
+<p>Writing</p>
+
+<p class="center1">1 + a<span class="su">1</span>x + a<span class="su">2</span>x˛ + ... + ... = (1 + a<span class="su">1</span>x) (1 + a<span class="su">2</span>x)(1 + a<span class="su">3</span>x) ...</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and D<span class="su">p</span> = 1/p! (&delta;<span class="su">&alpha;1</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">1</span>&delta;<span class="su">&alpha;2</span> + &alpha;<span class="su">2</span>&delta;<span class="su">&alpha;3</span>  + ...)<span class="sp">p</span>,
+the multiplication being symbolic,
+so that D<span class="su">p</span> is an operator of order p, the function is</p>
+
+<p class="center1">a<span class="su">&lambda;1</span>a<span class="su">&lambda;2</span>a<span class="su">&lambda;3</span> ... a<span class="su">&lambda;m</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and the operator D<span class="su">p1</span>D<span class="su">p2</span>D<span class="su">p3</span> ... D<span class="su">pn</span>. The number
+D<span class="su">p1</span>D<span class="su">p2</span> ... D<span class="su">pn</span>a<span class="su">&lambda;1</span>a<span class="su">&lambda;2</span>a<span class="su">&lambda;3</span> ... a<span class="su">&lambda;m</span>
+enumerates the solutions. For the mode
+of operation of D<span class="su">p</span> upon a product reference must be made to
+the section on &ldquo;Differential Operators&rdquo; in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebraic
+Forms</a></span>. Writing</p>
+
+<p class="center1">a<span class="su">&lambda;1</span>a<span class="su">&lambda;2</span> ... a<span class="su">&lambda;m</span> =
+... &Alpha;&Sigma; &alpha;<span class="sp">p1</span><span class="su1">1</span> &alpha;<span class="sp">p2</span><span class="su1">2</span> ... &alpha;<span class="sp">pn</span><span class="su1">n</span> + ...,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">or, in partition notation,</p>
+
+<p class="center1">(1<span class="sp">&lambda;1</span>) (1<span class="sp">&lambda;2</span>) ... (1<span class="sp">&lambda;m</span>) =
+... + &Alpha;(p<span class="su">1</span>p<span class="su">2</span> ... p<span class="su">n</span>) ... +
+D<span class="su">p1</span>D<span class="su">p2</span> ... D<span class="su">pn</span>
+(1<span class="sp">&lambda;1</span>) (1<span class="sp">&lambda;2</span>) ... (1<span class="sp">&lambda;m</span>) = &Alpha;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and the law by which the operation is performed upon the product
+shows that the solutions of the given problem are enumerated by
+the number A, and that the process of operation actually represents
+each solution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ex. Gr.</i>&mdash;Take</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&lambda;<span class="su">1</span> = 3, &lambda;<span class="su">2</span> = 2, &lambda;<span class="su">3</span> = 1,</p>
+<p>p<span class="su">1</span> = 2, p<span class="su">2</span> = 2, p<span class="su">3</span> = 1, p<span class="su">4</span> = 1,</p>
+<p>D˛<span class="su">2</span>D˛<span class="su">1</span> a<span class="su">3</span>a<span class="su">2</span>a<span class="su">1</span> = 8,</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and the process yields the eight diagrams:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:461px; height:249px"
+     src="images/img758b.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">viz. every solution of the problem. Observe that transposition of the
+diagrams furnishes a proof of the simplest of the laws of symmetry in
+the theory of symmetric functions.</p>
+
+<p>For the next example we have a similar problem, but no restriction
+is placed upon the magnitude of the numbers which may appear in
+the compartments. The function is now
+h<span class="su">&lambda;1</span>h<span class="su">&lambda;2</span> ... h<span class="su">&lambda;m</span>, h<span class="su">&lambda;m</span>
+being the homogeneous product sum of the quantities a, of order &lambda;. The
+operator is as before</p>
+
+<p class="center1">D<span class="su">p1</span>D<span class="su">p2</span> ... D<span class="su">pn</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and the solutions are enumerated by</p>
+
+<p class="center1">D<span class="su">p1</span>D<span class="su">p2</span> ... D<span class="su">pn</span>
+h<span class="su">&lambda;1</span>h<span class="su">&lambda;2</span> ... h<span class="su">&lambda;m</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Putting as before &lambda;<span class="su">1</span> = 2, &lambda;<span class="su">2</span> = 2, &lambda;<span class="su">3</span> = 1, p<span class="su">1</span> = 2, p<span class="su">2</span> = 2, p<span class="su">3</span> = 1, p<span class="su">4</span> = 1,
+the reader will have no difficulty in constructing the diagrams of
+the eighteen solutions.</p>
+
+<p>The next and last example of a multitude that might be given
+shows the extraordinary power of the method by solving the famous
+problem of the &ldquo;Latin Square,&rdquo; which for hundreds of years had
+proved beyond the powers of mathematicians. The problem consists
+in placing n letters a, b, c, ... n in the compartments of a square
+lattice of n˛ compartments, no compartment being empty, so that
+no letter occurs twice either in the same row or in the same column.
+The function is here</p>
+
+<p class="center1">(&Sigma; &alpha;<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2 <span class="sp">n-1</span></span> &alpha;<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2<span class="sp"> n-2</span></span> ...
+&alpha;<span class="sp">2</span><span class="su1">n-1</span> &alpha;<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">n</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and the operator D<span class="sp">n</span><span class="su">2 <span class="sp">n</span>-1</span>, the enumeration being given by</p>
+
+<p class="center1">D<span class="sp">n</span><span class="su">2 <span class="sp">n</span>-1</span>
+(&Sigma; &alpha;<span class="su">1</span><span class="sp">2 <span class="sp">n-1</span></span> &alpha;<span class="su">2</span><span class="sp">2<span class="sp"> n-2</span></span> ...
+&alpha;<span class="sp">2</span><span class="su1">n-1</span> &alpha;<span class="su">n</span>)<span class="sp">n</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">See <i>Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc.</i> vol. xvi. pt. iv. pp. 262-290.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;P. A. MacMahon, &ldquo;Combinatory Analysis: A
+Review of the Present State of Knowledge,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Lond. Math. Soc.</i>
+vol. xxviii. (London, 1897). Here will be found a bibliography of
+the Theory of Partitions. Whitworth, <i>Choice and Chance</i>; Édouard
+Lucas, <i>Théorie des nombres</i> (Paris, 1891); Arthur Cayley, <i>Collected
+Mathematical Papers</i> (Cambridge, 1898), ii. 419; iii. 36, 37; iv. 166-170;
+v. 62-65, 617; vii. 575; ix. 480-483; x. 16, 38, 611; xi. 61,
+62, 357-364, 589-591; xii. 217-219, 273-274; xiii. 47, 93-113, 269;
+Sylvester, <i>Amer. Jour, of Math.</i> v. 119 251; MacMahon, <i>Proc. Lond.
+Math. Soc.</i> xix. 228 et seq.; <i>Phil. Trans.</i> clxxxiv. 835-901; clxxxv.
+111-160; clxxxvii. 619-673; cxcii. 351-401; <i>Trans. Camb. Phil.
+Soc.</i> xvi. 262-290.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. A. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMBUSTION<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>comburere</i>, to burn up), in
+chemistry, the process of burning or, more scientifically, the
+oxidation of a substance, generally with the production of
+flame and the evolution of heat. The term is more customarily
+given to productions of flame such as we have in the burning of
+oils, gas, fuel, &amp;c., but it is conveniently extended to other cases
+of oxidation, such as are met with when metals are heated for
+a long time in air or oxygen. The term &ldquo;spontaneous combustion&rdquo;
+is used when a substance smoulders or inflames
+apparently without the intervention of any external heat or
+light; in such cases, as, for example, in heaps of cotton-waste
+soaked in oil, the oxidation has proceeded slowly, but steadily,
+for some time, until the heat evolved has raised the mass to the
+temperature of ignition.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of the phenomena of combustion was attempted
+at very early times, and the early theories were generally
+bound up in the explanation of the nature of fire or flame. The
+idea that some extraneous substance is essential to the process
+is of ancient date; Clement of Alexandria (c. 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>)
+held that some &ldquo;air&rdquo; was necessary, and the same view was
+accepted during the middle ages, when it had been also found
+that the products of combustion weighed more than the original
+combustible, a fact which pointed to the conclusion that some
+substance had combined with the combustible during the process.
+This theory was supported by the French physician Jean Ray,
+who showed also that in the cases of tin and lead there was a
+limit to the increase in weight. Robert Boyle, who made many
+researches on the origin and nature of fire, regarded the increase
+as due to the fixation of the particles of fire. Ideas identical
+with the modern ones were expressed by John Mayow in his
+<i>Tractatus quinque medico-physici</i> (1674), but his death in 1679
+undoubtedly accounts for the neglect of his suggestions by his
+contemporaries. Mayow perceived the similarity of the processes
+of respiration and combustion, and showed that one constituent
+of the atmosphere, which he termed <i>spiritus nitro-aereus</i>, was
+essential to combustion and life, and that the second constituent,
+which he termed <i>spiritus nitri acidi</i>, inhibited combustion and
+life. At the beginning of the 18th century a new theory of combustion
+was promulgated by Georg Ernst Stahl. This theory
+regarded combustibility as due to a principle named phlogiston
+(from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="phlogistos">&#966;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, burnt), which was present in all
+combustible bodies in an amount proportional to their degree
+of combustibility; for instance, coal was regarded as practically
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span>
+pure phlogiston. On this theory, all substances which could be
+burnt were composed of phlogiston and some other substance, and
+the operation of burning was simply equivalent to the liberation
+of the phlogiston. The Stahlian theory, originally a theory of
+combustion, came to be a general theory of chemical reactions,
+since it provided simple explanations of the ordinary chemical
+processes (when regarded qualitatively) and permitted generalizations
+which largely stimulated its acceptance. Its inherent
+defect&mdash;that the products of combustion were invariably heavier
+than the original substance instead of less as the theory demanded&mdash;was
+ignored, and until late in the 18th century it
+dominated chemical thought. Its overthrow was effected by
+Lavoisier, who showed that combustion was simply an oxidation,
+the oxygen of the atmosphere (which was isolated at about this
+time by K. W. Scheele and J. Priestley) combining with the
+substance burnt.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMEDY,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> the general term applied to a type of drama the
+chief object of which, according to modern notions, is to amuse.
+It is contrasted on the one hand with tragedy and on the other
+with farce, burlesque, &amp;c. As compared with tragedy it is distinguished
+by having a happy ending (this being considered for
+a long time the essential difference), by quaint situations, and
+by lightness of dialogue and character-drawing. As compared
+with farce it abstains from crude and boisterous jesting, and is
+marked by some subtlety of dialogue and plot. It is, however,
+difficult to draw a hard and fast line of demarcation, there being
+a distinct tendency to combine the characteristics of farce with
+those of true comedy. This is perhaps more especially the case
+in the so-called &ldquo;musical comedy,&rdquo; which became popular in
+Great Britain and America in the later 19th century, where
+true comedy is frequently subservient to broad farce and spectacular
+effects.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;comedy&rdquo; is derived from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kômôidia">&#954;&#969;&#956;&#8179;&#948;&#943;&#945;</span>, which
+is a compound either of <span class="grk" title="kômos">&#954;&#8182;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span> (revel) and <span class="grk" title="aoidos">&#7936;&#959;&#953;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span> (singer;
+<span class="grk" title="aeidein">&#7936;&#949;&#943;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, <span class="grk" title="aidein">&#8068;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to sing), or of <span class="grk" title="kômę">&#954;&#974;&#956;&#951;</span> (village) and <span class="grk" title="aoidos">&#7936;&#959;&#953;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span>: it is
+possible that <span class="grk" title="kômos">&#954;&#8182;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span> itself is derived from <span class="grk" title="komę">&#954;&#974;&#956;&#951;</span>, and originally
+meant a village revel. The word comes into modern usage
+through the Lat. <i>comoedia</i> and Ital. <i>commedia</i>. It has passed
+through various shades of meaning. In the middle ages it meant
+simply a story with a happy ending. Thus some of Chaucer&rsquo;s
+Tales are called comedies, and in this sense Dante used the term
+in the title of his poem, <i>La Commedia</i> (cf. his <i>Epistola</i> X., in
+which he speaks of the comic style as &ldquo;loquutio vulgaris, in qua
+et mulierculae communicant&rdquo;; again &ldquo;comoedia vero remisse
+et humiliter&rdquo;; &ldquo;differt a tragoedia per hoc, quod t. in principio
+est admirabilis et quieta, in fine sive exitu est foetida et horribilis&rdquo;).
+Subsequently the term is applied to mystery plays with
+a happy ending. The modern usage combines this sense with
+that in which Renaissance scholars applied it to the ancient
+comedies.</p>
+
+<p>The adjective &ldquo;comic&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kômikos">&#954;&#969;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>), which strictly means
+that which relates to comedy, is in modern usage generally
+confined to the sense of &ldquo;laughter-provoking&rdquo;: it is distinguished
+from &ldquo;humorous&rdquo; or &ldquo;witty&rdquo; inasmuch as it is applied
+to an incident or remark which provokes spontaneous laughter
+without a special mental effort. The phenomena connected
+with laughter and that which provokes it, the comic, have been
+carefully investigated by psychologists, in contrast with other
+phenomena connected with the emotions. It is very generally
+agreed that the predominating characteristics are incongruity
+or contrast in the object, and shock or emotional seizure on the
+part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of
+superiority is an essential, if not the essential, factor: thus
+Hobbes speaks of laughter as a &ldquo;sudden glory.&rdquo; Physiological
+explanations have been given by Kant, Spencer and Darwin.
+Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin
+both of laughter and of smiling, babies being watched from
+infancy and the date of their first smile being carefully recorded.
+For an admirable analysis and account of the theories see James
+Sully, <i>On Laughter</i> (1902), who deals generally with the development
+of the &ldquo;play instinct&rdquo; and its emotional expression.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drama</a></span>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Humour</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caricature</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Play</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMENIUS<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Komensky</span>), <span class="bold">JOHANN AMOS</span> (1592-1671), a
+famous writer on education, and the last bishop of the old church
+of the Moravian and Bohemian Brethren, was born at Comna,
+or, according to another account, at Niwnitz, in Moravia, of
+poor parents belonging to the sect of the Moravian Brethren.
+Having studied at Herborn and Heidelberg, and travelled in
+Holland and England, he became rector of a school at Prerau, and
+after that pastor and rector of a school at Fulnek. In 1621 the
+Spanish invasion and persecution of the Protestants robbed him
+of all he possessed, and drove him into Poland. Soon after he
+was made bishop of the church of the Brethren. He supported
+himself by teaching Latin at Lissa, and it was here that he published
+his <i>Pansophiae prodromus</i> (1630), a work on education,
+and his <i>Janua linguarum reserata</i> (1631), the latter of which
+gained for him a widespread reputation, being produced in
+twelve European languages, and also in Arabic, Persian and
+Turkish. He subsequently published several other works of
+a similar kind, as the <i>Eruditionis scholasticae janua</i> and the
+<i>Janua linguarum trilinguis</i>. His method of teaching languages,
+which he seems to have been the first to adopt, consisted in giving,
+in parallel columns, sentences conveying useful information, in
+the vernacular and the languages intended to be taught (<i>i.e.</i> in
+Comenius&rsquo;s works, Latin and sometimes Greek). In some of
+his books, as the <i>Orbis sensualium pictus</i> (1658), pictures are
+added; this work is, indeed, the first children&rsquo;s picture-book.
+In 1638 Comenius was requested by the government of Sweden
+to draw up a scheme for the management of the schools of that
+country; and a few years after he was invited to join the commission
+that the English parliament then intended to appoint, in
+order to reform the system of education. He visited England in
+1641, but the disturbed state of politics prevented the appointment
+of the commission, and Comenius passed over to Sweden
+in August 1642. The great Swedish minister, Oxenstjerna,
+obtained for him a pension, and a commission to furnish a plan
+for regulating the Swedish schools according to his own method.
+Devoting himself to the elaboration of his scheme, Comenius
+settled first at Elbing, and then at Lissa; but, at the burning
+of the latter city by the Poles, he lost nearly all his manuscripts,
+and he finally removed to Amsterdam, where he died in 1671.</p>
+
+<p>As an educationist, Comenius holds a prominent place in
+history. He was disgusted at the pedantic teaching of his own
+day, and he insisted that the teaching of words and things must
+go together. Languages should be taught, like the mother
+tongue, by conversation on ordinary topics; pictures, object
+lessons, should be used; teaching should go hand in hand with
+a happy life. In his course he included singing, economy,
+politics, world-history, geography, and the arts and handicrafts.
+He was one of the first to advocate teaching science in schools.</p>
+
+<p>As a theologian, Comenius was greatly influenced by Boehme.
+In his <i>Synopsis physicae ad lumen divinum reformatae</i> he gives
+a physical theory of his own, said to be taken from the book of
+Genesis. He was also famous for his prophecies and the support
+he gave to visionaries. In his <i>Lux in tenebris</i> he published the
+visions of Kotterus, Dabricius and Christina Poniatovia. Attempting
+to interpret the book of Revelation, he promised the
+millennium in 1672, and guaranteed miraculous assistance to
+those who would undertake the destruction of the Pope and
+the house of Austria, even venturing to prophesy that Cromwell,
+Gustavus Adolphus, and Rakoczy, prince of Transylvania, would
+perform the task. He also wrote to Louis XIV., informing him
+that the empire of the world should be his reward if he would
+overthrow the enemies of God.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Comenius also wrote against the Socinians, and published three
+historical works&mdash;<i>Ratio disciplinae ordinisque in unitate fratrum
+Bohemorum</i>, which was republished with remarks by Buddaeus,
+<i>Historia persecutionum ecclesiae Bohemicae</i> (1648), and <i>Martyrologium
+Bohemicum</i>. See Raumer&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Pädogogik</i>, and
+Carpzov&rsquo;s <i>Religionsuntersuchung der böhmischen und mährischen
+Brüder</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMET<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="komętęs">&#954;&#959;&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, long-haired), in astronomy, one of a class
+of seemingly nebulous bodies, moving under the influence of the
+sun&rsquo;s attraction in very eccentric orbits. A comet is visible only
+in a small arc of its orbit near perihelion, differing but slightly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span>
+from the arc of a parabola. An obvious but not sharp classification
+of comets is into bright comets visible to the naked eye,
+and telescopic comets which can be seen only with a telescope.
+The telescopic class is much the more numerous of the two, only
+from 20 to 30 bright comets usually appearing in any one century,
+while several telescopic comets, frequently 6 or 8, are generally
+observed in the course of a year.</p>
+
+<p>A bright comet consists of (1) a star-like nucleus; (2) a nebulous
+haze, called the <i>coma</i>, surrounding this nucleus, the latter
+fading into the haze by insensible gradations; (3) a tail or
+luminous stream flowing from the coma in a direction opposite
+to that of the sun. The nuclei and comae of different comets
+exhibit few peculiarities to the unaided vision except in respect
+to brightness; but the tails of comets differ widely, both in
+brightness and in extent. They range from a barely visible
+brush or feather of light to a phenomenon extending over a
+considerable arc of the heavens, which, comparatively bright
+near the head of the comet, becomes gradually fainter and more
+diffuse towards its end, fading out by gradations so insensible
+that a precise length cannot be assigned to it. When a telescopic
+comet is first discovered the nucleus is frequently invisible, the
+object presenting the appearance of a faint nebulous haze,
+scarcely distinguishable in aspect from a nebula. When the
+nucleus appears it may at first be only a comparatively faint
+condensation, and may or may not develop into a point of light
+as the comet approaches the sun.  A tail also is generally not
+seen at great distances from the sun, but gradually develops
+as the comet approaches perihelion, to fade away again as the
+comet recedes from the sun.</p>
+
+<p>A few comets are known to revolve in orbits with a regular
+period, while, in the case of others, no evidence is afforded by
+observation that the orbit deviates from a parabola.  Were the
+orbit a parabola or hyperbola the comet would never return
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orbit</a></span>).  Periodicity may be recognized in two ways:
+observations during the apparition may show that the motion
+is in an elliptic and not in a parabolic orbit; or a comet may
+have been observed at more than one return.  In the latter case
+the comet is recognized as distinctly periodic, and therefore a
+member of the solar system.  The shortest periods range between
+3 and 10 years.  The majority of comets which have been observed
+are shown by observation to be periodic; the period is
+usually very long, being sometimes measured by centuries, but
+generally by thousands of years.  It is conceivable that a comet
+might revolve in a hyperbolic orbit.  Although there are several
+of these bodies observations on which indicate such an orbit, the
+deviation from the parabolic form has not in any case been so
+well marked as to be fully established.  Circumstances lead
+to the classification of newly appearing comets as <i>expected</i> and
+<i>unexpected</i>.  An expected comet is a periodic one of which the
+return is looked for at a determinate time and in a certain
+region of the heavens.  When this is not the case the comet is an
+unexpected one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Constitution of Comets.</i>&mdash;The subject of the physical
+constitution of these bodies is one as to the details of which
+much uncertainty still exists.  The considerations on which
+conclusions in this field rest are very various, and can best be
+set forth by beginning with what we may consider to be the
+best established facts.</p>
+
+<p>We must regard it as well established that comets are not,
+like planets and satellites, permanent in mass, but are continuously
+losing minute portions of the matter which belongs
+to them, through a progressive dissipation&mdash;at least when they
+are in the neighbourhood of the sun.  When near perihelion
+the matter of a comet is seen to be undergoing a process in the
+nature of evaporation, successive envelopes of vapour rising from
+the nucleus to form the coma, and then gradually repelled from
+the sun to form the tail.  If this process went on indefinitely
+every comet would, in the course of ages, be entirely dissipated.
+This result has actually happened in the case of some known
+comets, the best established example of which is that of Biela,
+in which the process of disintegration was clearly followed.  As
+the amount of matter lost by a comet at any one return cannot
+be estimated, and may be very small, it is impossible to set any
+limit to the period during which its life may continue. It is
+still an unsettled question whether, in every case, the evaporation
+will ultimately cease, leaving a residuum as permanent
+as any other mass of matter.</p>
+
+<p>The next question in logical order is one of great difficulty.
+It is whether the nucleus of a comet is an opaque solid body, a
+cluster of such bodies, or a mass of particles of extreme tenuity.
+Some light is thrown on this and other questions by the spectroscope.
+This instrument shows in the spectrum of nearly every
+comet three bright bands, recognized as those of hydrocarbons.
+The obvious conclusion is that the light forming these bands is
+not reflected sunlight, but light radiated by the gaseous hydrocarbons.
+Since a gas at so great a distance from the sun cannot
+be heated to incandescence, the question arises how incandescence
+is excited. The generalizations of recent years growing
+out of the phenomena of radioactivity make it highly probable
+that the source is to be found in some form of electrical excitation,
+produced by electrons or other corpuscles thrown out by the sun.
+The resemblance of the cometary spectrum to the spectrum
+of hydrocarbons in the Geissler tube lends great plausibility
+to this view. It is remarkable that the great comet of 1882 also
+showed the bright lines of sodium with such intensity that they
+were observed in daylight by R. Copeland and W. O. Lohse.
+In addition to these gaseous spectra, all but the fainter comets
+show a continuous spectrum, crossed by the Fraunhofer lines,
+which is doubtless due to reflected sunlight. It happens that,
+since the spectroscope has been perfected, no comet of great
+brilliancy has been favourably situated for observation. Until
+the opportunity is offered, the conclusions to be derived from
+spectroscopic observation cannot be further extended.</p>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:706px; height:702px" src="images/img760a1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;COMET 1892, I. (SWIFT), 1892, APRIL 26.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="f80" style="text-align: right;">By permission of Lick Observatory (E. E. Barnard)</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:550px" src="images/img760a2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;COMET C, 1908, NOV. 16d. 13h. 10m.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="f80" style="text-align: right;">By permission of Yerkes Observatory (E. E. Barnard).</p>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:662px; height:770px" src="images/img760b1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;HALLEY&rsquo;S COMET, 1910, APRIL 27.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="f80" style="text-align: right;">By permission of Helwân Observatory, Egypt.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:479px" src="images/img760b2.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;HALLEY&rsquo;S COMET, 1910, MAY 4.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="f80" style="text-align: right;">By permission of Yerkes Observatory (E. E. Barnard).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2">In the telescope the nucleus of a bright comet appears as an
+opaque mass, one or more seconds in diameter, the absolute
+dimensions comparing with those of the satellites of the planets,
+sometimes, indeed, equal to our moon. But the actual results
+of micrometric measures are found to differ very widely. In
+the case of Donati&rsquo;s comet of 1858 the nucleus seemed to grow
+smaller as perihelion was approached. This is evidently due to
+the fact that the coma immediately around the nucleus was so
+bright as apparently to form a part of it at considerable distances
+from the sun. G. P. Bond estimated the diameter of the actual
+nucleus at 500 m. That the nucleus is a body of appreciable
+mass seems to be made probable by the fact that, except for the
+central attraction of such a body, a comet would speedily be
+dissipated by the different attractions of the sun on different
+parts of the mass, which would result in each particle pursuing
+an orbit of its own. It follows that there must be a mass sufficient
+to hold the parts of the comet, if not absolutely together, at least
+in each other&rsquo;s immediate neighbourhood. How great a central
+mass may be required for this is a subject not yet investigated.
+It might be supposed that the amount of matter must be sufficient
+to make the nucleus quite opaque. But two considerations
+based on observations militate against this view. One is that an
+opaque body, reflecting much sunlight, would show a brighter
+continuous spectrum than has yet been found in any comet.
+Another and yet more remarkable observation is on record which
+goes far to prove not only the tenuity, but the transparency of
+a cometary nucleus. The great comet of 1882 made a transit
+over the sun on the 17th of September, an occurrence unique in
+the history of astronomy. But the fact of the transit escaped
+attention except at the observatory of the Cape of Good Hope.
+Here the comet was watched by W. H. Finlay and by W. L.
+Elkin as it approached the sun, and was kept in sight until it
+came almost or quite in contact with the sun&rsquo;s disk, when it
+disappeared. It should, if opaque, have appeared a few minutes
+later, projected on the sun&rsquo;s disk; but not a trace of it could be
+seen. The sun was approaching Table Mountain at the critical
+moment, and its limb was undulating badly, making the detection
+of a minute point difficult. The possibility of a very small opaque
+nucleus is therefore still left open; yet the remarkable conclusion
+still holds, that, immediately around a possible central nucleus,
+the matter of the head of the comet was so rare as not to intercept
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span>
+any appreciable fraction of the sun&rsquo;s light. This result seems
+also to show that, with the possible exception of a very small
+central mass, what seems to telescopic vision as a nucleus is
+really only the central portion of the coma, which, as the distance
+from the centre increases, becomes less and less dense by imperceptible
+gradations.</p>
+
+<p>Another fact tending towards this same conclusion is that
+after this comet passed perihelion it showed several nuclei
+following each other. Evidently the powerful attraction of the
+sun had separated the parts of the apparent nucleus, which were
+following each other in nearly the same orbit. As they could not
+have been completely brought together again, we may suppose
+that in such cases the smaller nuclei were permanently separated
+from the main body. In addition to this, the remarkable
+similarity of the orbit of this comet to that of several others
+indicates a group of bodies moving in nearly the same orbit.
+The other members of the group were the great comets of 1843,
+1880 and 1887. The latter, though so bright as to be conspicuous
+to the naked eye, showed no nucleus whatever. The closely
+related orbits of the four bodies are also remarkable for approaching
+nearer the sun at perihelion than does the orbit of any other
+known body. All of these comets pass through the matter of the
+sun&rsquo;s corona with a velocity of more than 100 m. per second
+without suffering any retardation. As it is beyond all reasonable
+probability that several independent bodies should have moved
+in orbits so nearly the same, the conclusion is that the comets
+were originally portions of one mass, which gradually separated
+in the course of ages by the powerful attraction of the sun as the
+collection successively passed the perihelion. It may be remarked
+that observations on the comet of 1843 seemed to show a slight
+ellipticity of the orbit, corresponding to a period of several
+centuries; but the deviation of all the orbits from a parabola is
+too slight to be established by observations. The periods of
+the comets are therefore unknown except that they must be
+counted by centuries and possibly by thousands of years.</p>
+
+<p>Another fact which increases the complexity of the question is
+the well-established connexion of comets with meteoric showers.
+The shower of November 13-15, now known as the Leonids,
+which recurred for several centuries at intervals of about one-third
+of a century, are undoubtedly due to a stream of particles
+left behind by a comet observed in 1866. The same is true of
+Biela&rsquo;s comet, the disintegrated particles of which give rise to
+the Andromedids, and probably true also of the Perseids, or
+August meteors, the orbits of which have a great similarity to
+a comet seen in 1862. The general and well-established conclusion
+seems to be that, in addition to the visible features of a
+comet, every such body is followed in its orbit by a swarm of
+meteoric particles which must have been gradually detached and
+separated from it. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meteor</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The source of the repulsive force by which the matter forming
+the tail of a comet is driven away from the sun is another question
+that has not yet been decisively answered. Two causes have
+been suggested, of which one has only recently been brought to
+light. This is the repulsion of the sun&rsquo;s rays, a form of action
+the probability of which was shown by J. Clerk Maxwell in 1870,
+and which was experimentally established about thirty years later.
+The intensity of this action on a particle is proportional to the
+surface presented by the particle to the rays, and therefore to
+the square of its diameter, while its mass, and therefore its
+gravitation to the sun, are proportional to the cube of the
+diameter. It follows that if the size and mass of a particle in
+space are below a certain limit, the repulsion of the rays will
+exceed the attraction of the sun, and the particle will be driven
+off into space. But, in order that this repulsive force may act,
+the particles, however minute they may be, must be opaque.
+Moreover, theory shows that there is a lower as well as an upper
+limit to their magnitude, and that it is only between certain
+definable limits of magnitude that the force acts. Conceiving
+the particle to be of the density of water, and considering its
+diameter as a diminishing variable, theory shows that the repulsion
+will balance gravity when the diameter has reached 0.0015
+of a millimetre. As the diameter is reduced below this limit
+the ratio of the repulsive to the attractive force increases, but
+soon reaches a maximum, after which it diminishes down to a
+diameter of 0.00007 mm., when the two actions are again balanced.
+Below this limit the light speedily ceases to act. It follows that
+a purely gaseous body, such as would emit a characteristic bright
+line spectrum, would not be subject to the repulsion. We must
+therefore conclude that both the solid and gaseous forms of
+matter are here at play, and this view is consonant with the fact
+that the comet leaves behind it particles of meteoric matter.</p>
+
+<p>Another possible cause is electrical repulsion. The probability
+of this cause is suggested by recent discoveries in radioactivity
+and by the fact that the sun undoubtedly sends forth electrical
+emanations which may ionize the gaseous molecules rising from
+the nucleus, and lead to their repulsion from the sun, thus
+resulting in the phenomena of the tail. But
+well-established
+laws are not yet sufficiently developed to lead to definite conclusions
+on this point, and the question whether both causes are
+combined, and, if not, to which one the phenomena in question
+are mainly due, must be left to the future.</p>
+
+<p>A curious circumstance, which may be explained by a duplex
+character of the matter forming a cometary tail, is the great
+difference between the visual and photographic aspect of these
+bodies. The soft, delicate, feathery-like form which the comet
+with its tail presents to the eye is wanting in a photograph,
+which shows principally a round head with an irregularly formed
+tail much like the knotted stalk of a plant. It follows that the
+light emitted by the central axis of the tail greatly exceeds in
+actinic power the diffuse light around it. A careful comparison
+of the form and intensity of the photographic and visual tails
+may throw much light on the question of the constitution of
+these bodies, but no good opportunity of making the comparison
+has been afforded since the art of celestial photography has been
+brought to its present state of perfection.</p>
+
+<p>The main conclusion to which the preceding facts and considerations
+point is that the matter of a comet is partly solid
+and partly gaseous. The gaseous form is shown conclusively
+by the spectroscope, but in view of the extreme delicacy of the
+indications with this instrument no quantitative estimate of
+the gas can be made. As there is no central mass sufficient to
+hold together a continuous atmosphere of elastic gas of any sort,
+it seems probable that the gaseous molecules are only those
+rising from the coma, possibly by ordinary evaporation, but
+more probably by the action of the ultra-violet and other rays
+of the sun giving rise to an ionization of disconnected gaseous
+molecules. The matter cannot be wholly gaseous because in
+this case there could be no central force sufficient to keep the
+parts of the comet together.</p>
+
+<p>The facts also point to the conclusion that the solid matter
+of a comet is formed of a swarm or cloud of small disconnected
+masses, probably having much resemblance to the meteoric
+masses which are known to be flying through the solar system
+and possibly of the same general kind as these. The question
+whether there is any central solid of considerable mass is still
+undecided; it can only be said that if so, it is probably small
+relative to cosmic masses in general&mdash;more likely less than
+greater than 100 m. in diameter. The light of the comet therefore
+proceeds from two sources: one the incandescence of gases,
+the other the sunlight reflected from the solid parts. No estimate
+can be formed of the ratio between these two kinds of light
+until a bright comet shall be spectroscopically observed during
+an entire apparition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Origin and Orbits of Comets.</i>&mdash;The great difference which we
+have pointed out between comets and the permanent bodies of
+the solar system naturally suggested the idea that these bodies
+do not belong to that system at all, but are nebulous masses,
+scattered through the stellar spaces, and brought one by one
+into the sphere of the sun&rsquo;s attraction. The results of this
+view are easily shown to be incompatible with the observed
+facts. The sun, carrying the whole solar system with it, is
+moving through space with a speed of about 10 m. per second.
+If it approached a comet nearly at rest the result would be a
+relative motion of this amount which, as the comet came nearer,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span>
+would be constantly increased, and would result in the comet
+describing relative to the sun a markedly hyperbolic orbit,
+deviating too widely from a parabola to leave any doubt, even
+in the most extreme cases. Moreover, a large majority of comets
+would then have their aphelia in the direction of the sun&rsquo;s
+motion, and therefore their perihelia in the opposite direction.
+Neither of these results corresponds to the fact. The conclusion
+is that if we regard a comet as a body not belonging to the solar
+system, it is at least a body which before its approach to the
+sun had the same motion through the stellar spaces that the sun
+has. As this unity of motion must have been maintained
+from the beginning, we may regard comets as belonging to the
+solar system in the sense of not being visitors from distant
+regions of space.</p>
+
+<p>The acceptance of this seemingly inevitable conclusion leads
+to another: that no comet yet known moves in a really hyperbolic
+orbit, but that the limit of eccentricity must be regarded
+as 1, or that of the parabola. It is true that seeming evidence
+of hyperbolic eccentricity is sometimes afforded by observations
+and regarded by some astronomers as sufficient. The objections
+to the reality of the hyperbolic orbit are two: (1) A comet
+moving in a decidedly hyperbolic orbit must have come from
+so great a distance within a finite time, say a few millions of
+years, as to have no relation to the sun, and must after its
+approach to the sun return into space, never again to visit our
+system. In this case the motion of the sun through space
+renders it almost infinitely improbable that the orbit would have
+been so nearly a parabola as all such orbits are actually found
+to be. (2) The apparent deviation from a very elongated
+ellipse has never been in any case greater than might have been
+the result of errors of observation on bodies of this class.</p>
+
+<p>This being granted, a luminous view of the causes which lead
+to the observed orbits of comets is readily gained by imagining
+these bodies to be formed of nebulous masses, which originally
+accompanied the sun in its journey through space, but at
+distances, in most cases, vastly greater than that of the farthest
+planet. Such a mass, when drawn towards the sun, would move
+round it in a nearly parabolic orbit, similar to the actual orbits
+of the great majority of comets. The period might be measured
+by thousands, tens of thousands, or hundreds of thousands of
+years, according to the distances of the comet in the beginning;
+but instead of bodies extraneous to the system, we should have
+bodies properly belonging to the system and making revolutions
+around the sun.</p>
+
+<p>Were it not for the effect of planetary attraction long periods
+like these would be the general rule, though not necessarily
+universal. But at every return to perihelion the motion of a
+comet will be to some extent either accelerated or retarded by
+the action of Jupiter or any other planet in the neighbourhood
+of which it may pass. Commonly the action will be so slight
+as to have little influence on the orbit and the time of revolution.
+But should the comet chance to pass the orbit of Jupiter just
+in front of the planet, its motion would be retarded and the
+orbit would be changed into one of shorter period. Should
+it pass behind the planet, its motion would be accelerated and
+its period lengthened. In such cases the orbit might be changed
+to a hyperbola, and then the comet would never return. It
+follows that there is a tendency towards a gradual but constant
+diminution in the total number of comets. If we call &Delta;e the
+amount by which the eccentricity of a cometary orbit is less
+than unity, &Delta;e will be an extremely minute fraction in the case
+of the original orbits. If we call ą &delta; the change which the
+eccentricity 1 - &Delta;e undergoes by the action of the planets during
+the passage of the comet through our system, it will leave the
+system with the eccentricity 1 - &Delta;e ą &delta;. The possibilities are
+even whether &delta; shall be positive or negative. If negative, the
+eccentricity will be diminished and the period shortened. If
+positive, and greater than &Delta;e, the eccentricity 1 - &Delta;e + &delta; will
+be greater than 1, and then the comet will be thrown into a
+hyperbolic orbit and become for ever a wanderer through the
+stellar spaces.</p>
+
+<p>The nearer a comet passes to a planet, especially to Jupiter,
+the greatest planet, the greater &delta; may be. If &delta; is a considerable
+negative fraction, the eccentricity will be so reduced that the
+comet will after the approach be one of short period. It follows
+that, however long the period of a comet may be, there is a
+possibility of its becoming one of short period if it approaches
+Jupiter. There have been several cases of this during the past
+two centuries, the most recent being that of Brooks&rsquo;s comet,
+1889, V. Soon after its discovery this body was found to have
+a period of only about seven years. The question why it had
+not been observed at previous returns was settled after the
+orbit had been determined by computing its motion in the past.
+It was thus found that in October 1886 the comet had passed
+in the immediate neighbourhood of Jupiter, the action of which
+had been such as to change its orbit from one of long period
+to the short observed period. A similar case was that of Lexel&rsquo;s
+comet, seen in 1770. Originally moving in an unknown orbit, it
+encountered the planet Jupiter, made two revolutions round the
+sun, in the second of which it was observed, then again encountered
+the planet, to be thrown out of its orbit into one which did
+not admit of determination. The comet was never again found.</p>
+
+<p>A general conclusion which seems to follow from these conditions,
+and is justified by observations, so far as the latter go,
+is that comets are not to be regarded as permanent bodies like
+the planets, but that the conglomerations of matter which
+compose them are undergoing a process of gradual dissipation
+in space. This process is especially rapid in the case of the
+fainter periodic comets. It was first strikingly brought out in
+the case of Biela&rsquo;s comet. This object was discovered in 1772,
+was observed to be periodic after several revolutions had been
+made, and was observed with a fair degree of regularity at
+different returns until 1852. At the previous apparition it was
+found to have separated into two masses, and in 1852 these
+masses were so widely separated that they might be considered
+as forming two comets. Notwithstanding careful search at
+times and places when the comet was due, no trace of it has
+since been seen. An examination of the table of periodic comets
+given at the end of this article will show that the same thing is
+probably true of several other comets, especially Brorsen&rsquo;s and
+Tempel&rsquo;s, which have each made several revolutions since last
+observed, and have been sought for in vain.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the seemingly inevitable dissipation of comets in
+the course of ages, and of the actually observed changes of their
+orbits by the attraction of Jupiter, the question arises whether
+the orbits of all comets of short period may not have been
+determined by the attraction of the planets, especially of Jupiter.
+In this case the orbit would, for a period of several centuries,
+have continued to nearly intersect that of the planet. We find,
+as a matter of fact, that several periodic comets either pass near
+Jupiter or have their aphelia in the neighbourhood of the orbit
+of Jupiter. The approach, however, is not sufficiently close to
+have led to the change unless in former times the proximity of
+the orbits was much greater than it is now. As the orbits of all
+the bodies of the solar system are subject to a slow secular change
+of their form and position, this may only show that it must have
+been thousands of years since the comet became one of short
+period. The two cases of most difficulty are those of Halley&rsquo;s
+and Encke&rsquo;s comets. The orbit of the former is so elongated and
+so inclined to the general plane of the planetary orbits that its
+secular variation must be very slow indeed. But it does not pass
+near the orbit of any planet except Venus; and even here the
+proximity is far from being sufficient to have produced an
+appreciable change in the period. The orbit of Encke&rsquo;s comet
+is entirely within the orbit of Jupiter, and it also cannot have
+passed near enough to a planet for thousands of years to have
+had its orbit changed by the action in question. It therefore
+seems difficult to regard these two comets as other than permanent
+members of the solar system.</p>
+
+<p><i>Special Periodic Comets.</i>&mdash;One of the most remarkable periodic
+comets with which we are acquainted is that known to
+astronomers as Halley&rsquo;s. Having perceived that the elements
+of the comet of 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets
+which had respectively appeared in 1531 and 1607, Edmund
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span>
+Halley concluded that all the three orbits belonged to the same
+comet, of which the periodic time was about 76 years. After
+a rough estimate of the perturbations it must sustain from the
+attraction of the planets, he predicted its return for 1757,&mdash;a
+bold prediction at that time, but justified by the event, for the
+comet again made its appearance as was expected, though it did
+not pass through its perihelion till the month of March 1759,
+the attraction of Jupiter and Saturn having caused, as was
+computed by Clairault previously to its return, a retardation
+of 618 days. This comet had been observed in 1066, and the
+accounts which have been preserved represent it as having then
+appeared to be four times the size of Venus, and to have shone
+with a light equal to a fourth of that of the moon. History is
+silent respecting it from that time till the year 1456, when it
+passed very near to the earth: its tail then extended over 60°
+of the heavens, and had the form of a sabre. It returned to its
+perihelion in 1835, and was well observed in almost every
+observatory. But its brightness was far from comparing with
+the glorious accounts of its former apparitions. That this should
+have been due to the process of dissipation does not seem possible
+in so short a period; we must therefore consider either that the
+earlier accounts are greatly exaggerated, or that the brightness
+of the comet is subject to changes from some unknown cause.
+Previous appearances of Halley&rsquo;s comet have been calculated
+by J. R. Hind, and more recently by P. H. Cowell and A. C. D.
+Crommelin of Greenwich, the latter having carried the comet back
+to 87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> with certainty, and to 240 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> with fair probability.
+It was detected by Max Wolf at Heidelberg on plates exposed on
+Sept. 11, 1909, and subsequently on a Greenwich plate of Sept. 9.</p>
+
+<p>The known comet of shortest period bears the name of J. F.
+Encke, the astronomer who first investigated its orbit and
+showed its periodicity. It was originally discovered in 1789,
+but its periodicity was not recognized until 1818, after it had
+been observed at several returns. This comet has given rise to
+a longer series of investigations than any other, owing to Encke&rsquo;s
+result that the orbit was becoming smaller, and the revolutions
+therefore accelerated, by some unknown cause, of which the most
+plausible was a resisting medium surrounding the sun. As this
+comet is almost the only one that passes within the orbit of
+Mercury, it is quite possible that it alone would show the effect
+of such a medium. Recent investigations of this subject have
+been made at the Pulkova Observatory, first by F. E. von Asten
+and later by J. O. Backlund who, in 1909, was awarded the
+Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society for his researches
+in this field. During some revolutions there was evidence of a
+slight acceleration of the return, and during others there was not.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a list (compiled in 1909) of comets which are
+well established as periodic, through having been observed at
+one or more returns. In addition to what has already been said
+of several comets in this list the following remarks may be made.
+Tuttle&rsquo;s comet was first seen by P. F. A. Méchain in 1790, but
+was not recognized as periodic until found by Tuttle in 1858,
+when the resemblance of the two orbits led to the conclusion of
+the identity of the bodies, the period of which was soon made
+evident by continued observations. The comets of Pons and
+Olbers are remarkable for having an almost equal period. But
+their orbits are otherwise totally different, so that there does not
+seem to be any connexion between them. Brorsen&rsquo;s comet seems
+also to be completely dissipated, not having been seen since 1879.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>List of Periodic Comets observed at more than one Return.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Designation.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1st Perih.<br />Passage.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">Last Perih.<br />Passage obs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Period<br />Years.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">Least Dist.<br />Ast. Units.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Gr. Dist.<br />Ast. Units.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Halley</td> <td class="tcl rb">1456 June 8.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">1835 Nov. 15.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">75.9&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.58</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Biela</td> <td class="tcl rb">1772 Feb. 16.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">1852 Sept. 23.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Encke</td> <td class="tcl rb">1786 Jan. 30.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">1905 Jan. 11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tuttle</td> <td class="tcl rb">1790 Jan. 30.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">1899 May 4.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.78</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.53</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Poris</td> <td class="tcl rb">1812 Sept. 15.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">1884 Jan. 25.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">72.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.78</td> <td class="tcr rb">33.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Olbers</td> <td class="tcl rb">1815 April 26.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">1887 Oct. 8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">73.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.21</td> <td class="tcr rb">33.99</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Winnecke</td> <td class="tcl rb">1819 July 18.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">1898 Mar. 20.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.77</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.55</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Faye</td> <td class="tcl rb">1843 Oct. 17.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">1896 Mar. 19.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.69</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.93</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">De Vico</td> <td class="tcl rb">1844 Sept. 2.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">1894 Oct. 12.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.66</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.01</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brorsen</td> <td class="tcl rb">1846 Feb. 11.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">1879 Mar. 30.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.52</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.65</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.63</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">D&rsquo;Arrest</td> <td class="tcl rb">1851 July 8.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">1897 May 21.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.17</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.71</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tempel I.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1867 May 23.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">1879 May 7.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.84</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.56</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.82</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tempel-Swift</td> <td class="tcl rb">1869 Nov. 18.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">1891 Nov. 15.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.51</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.06</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.16</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tempel II.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1873 June 25.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">1904 Nov. 10.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.34</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wolf</td> <td class="tcl rb">1884 Nov. 17.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">1898 July 4.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.80</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.59</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.57</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Finlay</td> <td class="tcl rb">1886 Nov. 22.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">1893 July 12.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.64</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brooks</td> <td class="tcl rb">1889 Sept. 30.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">1903 Dec. 6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.95</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.44</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Holmes</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1892 June 13.2</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1899 April 28.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6.89</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.14</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.50</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There are also a number of cases in which a comet has been
+observed through one apparition, and found to be apparently
+periodic, but which was not seen to return at the end of its
+supposed period. In some of these cases it seems likely that the
+comet passed near the planet Jupiter and thus had its orbit
+entirely changed. It is possible that in other cases the apparent
+periodicity is due to the unavoidable errors of observation to
+which, owing to their diffused outline, the nuclei of comets are
+liable.</p>
+<div class="author">(S. N.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMET-SEEKER,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a small telescope (<i>q.v.</i>) adapted especially
+to searching for comets: commonly of short focal length and
+large aperture, in order to secure the greatest brilliancy of light.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMILLA,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Kumilla</span>, a town of British India, headquarters
+of Tippera district in Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated on the
+river Gumti, with a station on the Assam-Bengal railway, 96 m.
+from the coast terminus at Chittagong. Pop. (1901) 19,169.
+The town has many large tanks and an English church, built
+in 1875.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMINES,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Commines</span> (Flem. <i>Komen</i>), a town of western
+Flanders, 13 m. N.N.W. of Lille by rail. It is divided by the
+river Lys, leaving one part on French (department of Nord), the
+other on Belgian territory (province of West Flanders). Pop. of
+the French town 6359 (1906); of the Belgian town, 6453 (1904).
+The former has a belfry of the 14th century, restored in the 17th
+and 19th centuries, and remains of a chateau. Comines carries
+on the spinning of flax, wool and cotton.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMITIA,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> the name applied, always in technical and generally
+in popular phraseology, to the most formal types of gathering
+of the sovereign people in ancient Rome. It is the plural of
+<i>comitium</i>, the old &ldquo;meeting-place&rdquo; (Lat. <i>cum</i>, together, <i>ire</i>, to go)
+on the north-west of the Forum. The Romans had three words
+for describing gatherings of the people. These were <i>concilium</i>,
+<i>comitia</i> and <i>contio</i>. Of these concilium had the most general
+significance. It could be applied to any kind of meeting and is
+often used to describe assemblies in foreign states. It was,
+therefore, a word that might be employed to denote an organized
+gathering of a portion of the Roman people such as the plebs,
+and in this sense is contrasted with <i>comitia</i>, which when used
+strictly should signify an assembly of the whole people. Thus
+the Roman draughtsman who wishes to express the idea
+&ldquo;magistrates of any kind as president of assemblies&rdquo; writes
+&ldquo;Magistratus queiquomque comitia conciliumve
+habebit&rdquo; (<i>Lex Latina tabulae
+Bantinae</i>, l. 5), and formalism required that
+a magistrate who summoned only a portion
+of the people to meet him should, in his
+summons, use the word <i>concilium</i>. This
+view is expressed by Laelius Felix, a
+lawyer probably of the age of Hadrian,
+when he writes &ldquo;Is qui non universum
+populum, sed partem aliquam adesse jubet,
+non comitia, sed concilium edicere debet&rdquo;
+(Gellius, <i>Noctes Atticae</i>, xv. 27). But
+popular phraseology did not conform to
+this canon, and <i>comitia</i>, which gained in
+current Latin the sense of &ldquo;elections&rdquo; was
+sometimes used of the assemblies of the
+plebs (see the instances in Botsford, distinction
+between <i>Comitia</i> and <i>Concilium</i>,
+p. 23). The distinction between <i>comitia</i> and
+<i>contio</i> was more clearly marked. Both were
+formal assemblies convened by a magistrate; but while, in the
+case of the <i>comitia</i>, the magistrate&rsquo;s purpose was to ask a question
+of the people and to elicit their binding response, his object in
+summoning a <i>contio</i> was merely to bring the people together either
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span>
+for their instruction or for a declaration of his will as expressed in
+an edict (&ldquo;contionem habere est verba facere ad populum sine
+ulla rogatione,&rdquo; Gell. op. cit. xiii. 6). The word comitia merely
+means &ldquo;meetings.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The earliest <i>comitia</i> was one organized on the basis of parishes
+(<i>curiae</i>) and known in later times as the <i>comitia curiata</i>. The
+<i>curia</i> voted as a single unit and thus furnished the type for that
+system of group-voting which runs through all the later organization
+of the popular assemblies. This <i>comitia</i> must originally
+have been composed exclusively of patricians (<i>q.v.</i>); but there is
+reason to believe that, at an early period of the Republic, it had,
+in imitation of the centuriate organization, come to include
+plebeians (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curia</a></span>). The organization which gave rise to the
+<i>comitia centuriata</i> was the result of the earliest steps in the political
+emancipation of the plebs. Three stages in this process may be
+conjectured. In the first place the plebeians gained full rights of
+ownership and transfer, and could thus become freeholders of the
+land which they occupied and of the appurtenances of this land
+(<i>res mancipi</i>). This legal capacity rendered them liable to military
+service as heavy-armed fighting men, and as such they were
+enrolled in the military units called <i>centuriae</i>. When the
+enrolment was completed the whole host (<i>exercitus</i>) was the best
+organized and most representative gathering that Rome could
+show. It therefore either usurped, or became gradually
+invested with voting powers, and gained a range of power which
+for two centuries (508-287 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) made it the dominant assembly
+in the state. But its aristocratic organization, based as this was
+on property qualifications which gave the greatest voting power
+to the richest men, prevented it from being a fitting channel for
+the expression of plebeian claims. Hence the plebs adopted a
+new political organization of their own. The tribunate called
+into existence a purely plebeian assembly, firstly, for the election of
+plebeian magistrates; secondly, for jurisdiction in cases where
+these magistrates had been injured; thirdly, for presenting
+petitions on behalf of the plebs through the consuls to the
+<i>comitia centuriata</i>. This right of petitioning developed into a
+power of legislation. The stages of the process (marked by the
+Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the Publilian law of 339 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+and the Hortensian law of 287 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) are unknown; but it is
+probable that the two first of the laws progressively weakened the
+discretionary power of senate and consuls in admitting such
+petitions; and that the Hortensian law fully recognized the
+right of resolutions of the plebs (<i>plebiscita</i>) to bind the whole
+community. The plebeian assembly, which had perhaps
+originally met by <i>curiae</i>, was organized on the basis of the territorial
+tribes in 471 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This change suggested a renewed
+organization of the whole people for comitial purposes. The
+<i>comitia tributa populi</i> was the result. This assembly seems to
+have been already in existence at the epoch of the Twelve Tables
+in 451 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, its electoral activity is perhaps attested in 447 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+and it appears as a legislative body in 357 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>In spite of the formal differences of these four assemblies and
+the real distinction springing from the fact that patricians were
+not members of the plebeian bodies, the view which is appropriate
+to the developed Roman constitution is that the people expressed
+its will equally through all, although the mode of expression varied
+with the channel. This will was in theory unlimited. It was restricted
+only by the conservatism of the Roman, by the condition
+that the initiative must always be taken by a magistrate, by the
+<i>de facto</i> authority of the senate, and by the magisterial veto which
+the senate often had at its command (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senate</a></span>). There were no
+limitations on the legislative powers of the <i>comitia</i> except such as
+they chose to respect or which they themselves created and might
+repeal. They never during the Republican period lost the right
+of criminal jurisdiction, in spite of the fact that so many spheres
+of this jurisdiction had been assigned in perpetuity to standing
+commissions (<i>quaestiones perpetuae</i>). This power of judging
+exercised by the assemblies had in the main developed from the
+use of the right of appeal (<i>provocatio</i>) against the judgments of
+the magistrates. But it is probable that, in the developed
+procedure, where it was known that the judgment pronounced
+might legally give rise to the appeal, the magistrate pronounced
+no sentence, but brought the case at once before the people. The
+case was then heard in four separate <i>contiones</i>. After these
+hearings the <i>comitia</i> gave its verdict. Finally, the people elected
+to every magistracy with the exception of the occasional offices
+of Dictator and Interrex. The distribution of these functions
+amongst the various <i>comitia</i>, and the differences in their organization,
+were as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The <i>comitia curiata</i> had in the later Republic become a merely
+formal assembly. Its main function was that of passing the <i>lex
+curiata</i> which was necessary for the ratification both of the
+<i>imperium</i> of the higher magistracies of the people, and of the
+<i>potestas</i> of those of lower rank. This assembly also met, under
+the name of the <i>comitia calata</i> and under the presidency of the
+pontifex maximus, for certain religious acts. These were the
+inauguration of the rex sacrorum and the flamens, and that
+abjuration of hereditary worship (<i>detestatio sacrorum</i>) which was
+made by a man who passed from his clan (<i>gens</i>) either by an act of
+adrogation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adoption</a></span>) or by transition
+from the patrician to the plebeian order. For the purpose of
+passing the <i>lex curiata</i>, and probably for its other purposes as well,
+this <i>comitia</i> was in Cicero&rsquo;s day represented by but thirty lictors
+(Cic. <i>de Lege Agraria</i>, ii. 12, 31).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>comitia centuriata</i> could be summoned and presided over
+only by the magistrates with <i>imperium</i>. The consuls were its
+usual presidents for elections and for legislation, but the praetors
+summoned it for purposes of jurisdiction. It elected the magistrates
+with <i>imperium</i> and the censors, and alone had the power
+of declaring war. According to the principle laid down in the
+Twelve Tables (Cicero, <i>de Legibus</i>, iii. 4. 11) capital cases were
+reserved for this assembly. It was not frequently employed as
+a legislative body after the two assemblies of the tribes, which
+were easier to summon and organize, had been recognized as
+possessing sovereign rights. The internal structure of the
+<i>comitia centuriata</i> underwent a great change during the Republic&mdash;a
+change which has been conjecturally attributed to the
+censorship of Flaminius in 220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Mommsen, <i>Staatsrecht</i>, iii.
+p. 270). In the early scheme, at a time when a pecuniary
+valuation had replaced land and its appurtenances (<i>res mancipi</i>)
+as the basis of qualification, five divisions (<i>classes</i>) were recognized
+whose property was assessed respectively at 100,000,
+75,000, 50,000, 25,000 and 11,000 (or 12,500) asses. The first
+class contained 80 centuries; the second, third and fourth
+20 each; the fifth 30. Added to these were the 18 centuries
+of knights (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equites</a></span>). The combined vote of the first class
+and the knights was thus represented by 98 centuries; that
+of the whole of the other <i>classes</i> (including 4 or 5 centuries of
+professional corporations connected with the army, such as the
+<i>fabri</i> and 1 century of <i>proletarii</i>, <i>i.e.</i> of all persons below the
+minimum census) was represented by 95 or 96 centuries. Thus
+the upper classes in the community possessed more than half
+the votes in the assembly. The newer scheme aimed at a greater
+equality of voting power; but it has been differently interpreted.
+The interpretation most usually accepted, which was first
+suggested by Pantagathus, a 17th-century scholar, is based on
+the view that the five <i>classes</i> were distributed over the tribes in
+such a manner that there were 2 centuries of each class in a
+single tribe. As the number of the tribes was 35, the total
+number of centuries would be 350. To these we must add 18
+centuries of knights, 4 of <i>fabri</i>, &amp;c., and 1 of <i>proletarii</i>. Here
+the first class and the knights command but 88 votes out of a
+total of 373. Mommsen&rsquo;s interpretation (<i>Staatsrecht</i>, iii. p. 275)
+was different. He allowed the 70 votes for the 70 centuries of
+the first class, but thought that the 280 centuries of the other
+classes were so combined as to form only 100 votes. The total
+votes in the comitia would thus be 70 + 100 + 5 (<i>fabri</i>, &amp;c.) + 18
+(knights), <i>i.e.</i> 193, as in the earlier arrangement. In 88 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a
+return was made to the original and more aristocratic system
+by a law passed by the consuls Sulla and Pompeius. At least
+this seems to be the meaning of Appian (<i>Bellum Civile</i>, i. 59)
+when he says <span class="grk" title="esęgounto ... tas cheirotonias mę kata phylas alla kata lochous ... gignesthai">
+&#941;&#963;&#951;&#947;&#959;&#8166;&#957;&#964;&#959; ... &#964;&#8048;&#962; &#967;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#959;&#964;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#956;&#8052; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#966;&#965;&#955;&#8048;&#962; &#7936;&#955;&#955;&#8048; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#955;&#972;&#967;&#959;&#965;&#962; ... &#947;&#943;&#947;&#957;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>. But this change was not permanent
+as the more liberal system prevails in the Ciceronian period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>comitia tributa</i> was in the later Republic the usual organ
+for laws passed by the whole people. Its presidents were the
+magistrates of the people, usually the consuls and praetors,
+and, for purposes of jurisdiction, the curule aediles. It elected
+these aediles and other lower magistrates of the people. Its
+jurisdiction was limited to monetary penalties.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>concilium plebis</i>, although voting, like this last assembly,
+by tribes, could be summoned and presided over only by plebeian
+magistrates, and never included the patricians. Its utterances
+(<i>plebiscita</i>) had the full force of law; it elected the tribunes of
+the plebs and the plebeian aediles, and it pronounced judgment
+on the penalties which they proposed. The right of this assembly
+to exercise capital jurisdiction was questioned; but it possessed
+the undisputed right of pronouncing outlawry (<i>aquae et ignis
+interdictio</i>) against any one already in exile (Livy xxv. 4, and
+xxvi. 3).</p>
+
+<p>When the tenure of the religious colleges&mdash;formerly filled up
+by co-optation&mdash;was submitted to popular election, a change
+effected by a <i>lex Domitia</i> of 104 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a new type of <i>comitia</i> was
+devised for this purpose. The electoral body was composed of
+17 tribes selected by lot from the whole body of 35.</p>
+
+<p>There was a body of rules governing the <i>comitia</i> which were
+concerned with the time and place of meeting, the forms of
+promulgation and the methods of voting. Valid meetings might
+be held on any of the 194 &ldquo;comitial&rdquo; days of the year which
+were not market or festal days (<i>nundinae, feriae</i>). The <i>comitia
+curiata</i> and the two assemblies of the tribes met within the walls,
+the former usually in the Comitium, the latter in the Forum or
+on the Area Capitolii; but the elections at these assemblies were
+in the later Republic held in the Campus Martius outside the
+walls. The <i>comitia centuriata</i> was by law compelled to meet
+outside the city and its gathering place was usually the Campus.
+Promulgation was required for the space of 3 <i>nundinae</i> (<i>i.e.</i> 24
+days) before a matter was submitted to the people. The voting
+was preceded by a <i>contio</i> at which a limited debate was permitted
+by the magistrate. In the assemblies of the <i>curiae</i> and the tribes
+the voting of the groups took place simultaneously, in that of
+the centuries in a fixed order. In elections as well as in legislative
+acts an absolute majority was required, and hence the candidate
+who gained a mere relative majority was not returned.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>comitia</i> survived the Republic. The last known act of
+comitial legislation belongs to the reign of Nerva (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 96-98).
+After the essential elements in the election of magistrates had
+passed to the senate in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14, the formal announcement of the
+successful candidates (<i>renuntiatio</i>) still continued to be made
+to the popular assemblies. Early in the 3rd century Dio Cassius
+still saw the <i>comitia centuriata</i> meeting with all its old solemnities
+(Dio Cassius lviii. 20).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Mommsen, <i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i>, iii. p. 300 foll.
+(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887), and <i>Römische Forschungen</i>, Bd. i. (Berlin,
+1879); Soltau, <i>Entstehung und Zusammensetzung der altrömischen
+Volksversammlungen</i>, and <i>Die Gültigkeit der Plebiscite</i> (Berlin, 1884);
+Huschke, <i>Die Verfassung des Königs Servius Tullius als Grundlage
+zu einer römischen Verfassungsgeschichte</i> (Heidelberg, 1838); Borgeaud,
+<i>Le Plébiscite dans l&rsquo;antiquité. Grčce et Rome</i> (Geneva, 1838);
+Greenidge, <i>Roman Public Life</i>, p. 65 foll., 102, 238 foll. and App. i.
+(1901); G. W. Botsford, <i>Roman Assemblies</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. H. J. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMITY<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>comitas</i>, courtesy, from <i>cemis</i>, friendly,
+courteous), friendly or courteous behaviour; a term particularly
+used in international law, in the phrase &ldquo;comity of nations,&rdquo;
+for the courtesy of nations towards each other. This has been
+held by some authorities to be the basis for the recognition by
+courts of law of the judgments and rules of law of foreign tribunals
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">International Law, Private</a></span>). &ldquo;Comity of nations&rdquo;
+is sometimes wrongly used, from a confusion with the Latin
+<i>comes</i>, a companion, for the whole body or company of nations
+practising such international courtesy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMA<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="komma">&#954;&#959;&#956;&#956;&#945;</span>, a thing stamped or cut off, from <span class="grk" title="koptein">&#954;&#972;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>,
+to strike), originally, in Greek rhetoric, a short clause, something
+less than the &ldquo;colon&rdquo;; hence a mark (,), in punctuation, to
+show the smallest break in the construction of a sentence. The
+mark is also used to separate numerals, mathematical symbols
+and the like. Inverted commas, or &ldquo;quotation-marks,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>
+pairs of commas, the first inverted, and the last upright, are
+placed at the beginning and end of a sentence or word quoted,
+or of a word used in a technical or conventional sense; single
+commas are similarly used for quotations within quotations.
+The word is also applied to comma-shaped objects, such as the
+&ldquo;comma-bacillus,&rdquo; the causal agent in cholera.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMANDEER<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (from the South African Dutch <i>kommanderen</i>,
+to command), properly, to compel the performance of military
+duty in the field, especially of the military service of the Boer
+republics (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commando</a></span>); also to seize property for military
+purposes; hence used of any peremptory seizure for other than
+military purposes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMANDER,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> in the British navy, the title of the second
+grade of captains. He commands a small vessel, or is second in
+command of a large one. A staff commander is entrusted with
+the navigation of a large ship, and ranks above a navigating
+lieutenant. Since 1838 the officer next in rank to a captain in the
+U.S. navy has been called commander.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMANDERY<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (through the Fr. <i>commanderie</i>, from med.
+Lat. <i>commendaria</i>, a trust or charge), a division of the landed
+property in Europe of the Knights Hospitallers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">St John of
+Jerusalem</a></span>). The property of the order was divided into
+&ldquo;priorates,&rdquo; subdivided into &ldquo;bailiwicks,&rdquo; which in turn were
+divided into &ldquo;commanderies&rdquo;; these were placed in charge of
+a &ldquo;commendator&rdquo; or commander. The word is also applied to
+the emoluments granted to a commander of a military order of
+knights.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMANDO,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a Portuguese word meaning &ldquo;command,&rdquo;
+adopted by the Boers in South Africa through whom it has come
+into English use, for military and semi-military expeditions
+against the natives. More particularly a &ldquo;commando&rdquo; was the
+administrative and tactical unit of the forces of the former Boer
+republics, &ldquo;commandeered&rdquo; under the law of the constitutions
+which made military service obligatory on all males between the
+ages of sixteen and sixty. Each &ldquo;commando&rdquo; was formed from
+the burghers of military age of an electoral district.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMEMORATION,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a general term for celebrating some past
+event. It is also the name for the annual act, or <i>Encaenia</i>, the
+ceremonial closing of the academic year at Oxford University.
+It consists of a Latin oration in commemoration of benefactors
+and founders; of the recitation of prize compositions in prose and
+verse, and the conferring of honorary degrees upon English or
+foreign celebrities. The ceremony, which is usually on the third
+Wednesday after Trinity Sunday, is held in the Sheldonian
+Theatre, in Broad St., Oxford. &ldquo;Commencement&rdquo; is the term
+for the equivalent ceremony at Cambridge, and this is also used
+in the case of American universities.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMENDATION<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>commendare</i>, to entrust to
+the charge of, or to procure a favour for), approval, especially
+when expressed to one person on behalf of another, a recommendation.
+The word is used in a liturgical sense for an office commending
+the souls of the dying and dead to the mercies of God. In
+feudal law the term is applied to the practice of a freeman
+placing himself under the protection of a lord (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>),
+and in ecclesiastical law to the granting of benefices <i>in commendam</i>.
+A benefice was held <i>in commendam</i> when granted
+either temporarily until a vacancy was filled up, or to a layman,
+or, in case of a monastery or abbey, to a secular cleric to enjoy the
+revenues and privileges for life (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abbot</a></span>), or to a bishop to hold
+together with his see. An act of 1836 prohibited the holding of
+benefices <i>in commendam</i> in England.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMENTARII<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (Lat. = Gr. <span class="grk" title="hypomnęmata">&#8017;&#960;&#959;&#956;&#957;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>), notes to assist the
+memory, memoranda. This original idea of the word gave rise to
+a variety of meanings: notes and abstracts of speeches for the
+assistance of orators; family memorials, the origin of many of
+the legends introduced into early Roman history from a desire to
+glorify a particular family; diaries of events occurring in their own
+circle kept by private individuals,&mdash;the day-book, drawn up for
+Trimalchio in Petronius (<i>Satyricon</i>, 53) by his <i>actuarius</i> (a slave
+to whom the duty was specially assigned) is quoted as an example;
+memoirs of events in which they had taken part drawn up by
+public men,&mdash;such were the &ldquo;Commentaries&rdquo; of Caesar on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span>
+Gallic and Civil wars, and of Cicero on his consulship. Different
+departments of the imperial administration and certain high
+functionaries kept records, which were under the charge of an
+official known as a <i>commentariis</i> (cf. <i>a secretis</i>, <i>ab epistulis</i>).
+Municipal authorities also kept a register of their official acts.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Commentarii Principis</i> were the register of the official acts
+of the emperor. They contained the decisions, favourable or
+unfavourable, in regard to certain citizens; accusations brought
+before him or ordered by him; lists of persons in receipt of
+special privileges. These must be distinguished from the
+<i>commentarii diurni</i>, a daily court-journal. At a later period
+records called <i>ephemerides</i> were kept by order of the emperor;
+these were much used by the Scriptores Historiae Augustae (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustan History</a></span>). The <i>Commentarii Senatus</i>, only once
+mentioned (Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xv. 74) are probably identical with
+the Acta Senatus (<i>q.v.</i>). There were also Commentarii of the
+priestly colleges: (a) <i>Pontificum</i>, collections of their decrees and
+responses for future reference, to be distinguished from their
+<i>Annales</i>, which were historical records, and from their <i>Acta</i>,
+minutes of their meetings; (b) <i>Augurum</i>, similar collections of
+augural decrees and responses; (c) <i>Decemvirorum</i>; (d) <i>Fratrum
+Arvalium</i>. Like the priests, the magistrates also had similar
+notes, partly written by themselves, and partly records of which
+they formed the subject. But practically nothing is known of
+these <i>Commentarii Magistratuum</i>. Mention should also be made
+of the <i>Commentarii Regum</i>, containing decrees concerning the
+functions and privileges of the kings, and forming a record of the
+acts of the king in his capacity of priest. They were drawn up in
+historical times like the so-called <i>leges regiae</i> (<i>jus Papirianum</i>),
+supposed to contain the decrees and decisions of the Roman
+kings.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the exhaustive article by A. von Premerstein in Pauly-Wissowa,
+<i>Realencyclopädie</i> (1901); Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman
+Lit.</i> (Eng. trans.), pp. 72, 77-79; and the concise account by H. Thédenat
+in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMENTRY,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a town of central France, in the department of
+Allier, 42 m. S.W. of Moulins by the Orléans railway. Pop.
+(1906) 7581. Commentry gives its name to a coalfield over
+5000 acres in extent, and has important foundries and forges.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMERCE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (Lat. <i>commercium</i>, from <i>cum</i>, together, and
+<i>merx</i>, merchandise), in its general acceptation, the international
+traffic in goods, or what constitutes the foreign trade of all
+countries as distinct from their domestic trade.</p>
+
+<p>In tracing the history of such dealings we may go back to the
+early records found in the Hebrew Scriptures. Such a transaction
+as that of Abraham, for example, weighing down &ldquo;four
+hundred shekels of silver, <i>current with the merchant</i>,&rdquo; for the field
+of Ephron, is suggestive of a group of facts and ideas indicating
+an advanced condition of commercial intercourse,&mdash;property in
+land, sale of land, arts of mining and purifying metals, the use of
+silver of recognized purity as a common medium of exchange, and
+merchandise an established profession, or division of labour.
+That other passage in which we read of Joseph being sold by his
+brethren for twenty pieces of silver to &ldquo;a company of Ishmaelites,
+coming from Gilead, with their camels bearing spicery and balm
+and myrrh to Egypt,&rdquo; extends our vision still farther, and shows
+us the populous and fertile Egypt in commercial relationship with
+Chaldaea, and Arabians, foreign to both, as intermediaries in
+their traffic, generations before the Hebrew commonwealth was
+founded.</p>
+
+<p>The first foreign merchants of whom we read, carrying goods
+and bags of silver from one distant region to another, were the
+southern Arabs, reputed descendants of Ishmael and Esau. The
+first notable navigators and maritime carriers of goods were the
+Phoenicians. In the commerce of the ante-Christian ages the
+Jews do not appear to have performed any conspicuous part.
+Both the agricultural and the theocratic constitution of their
+society were unfavourable to a vigorous prosecution of foreign
+trade. In such traffic as they had with other nations they were
+served on their eastern borders by Arabian merchants, and on
+the west and south by the Phoenician shippers. The abundance
+of gold, silver and other precious commodities gathered from
+distant parts, of which we read in the days of greatest Hebrew
+prosperity, has more the character of spoils of war and tributes of
+dependent states than the conquest by free exchange of their
+domestic produce and manufacture. It was not until the Jews
+were scattered by foreign invasions, and finally cast into the
+world by the destruction of Jerusalem, that they began to
+develop those commercial qualities for which they have since
+been famous.</p>
+
+<p>There are three conditions as essential to extensive international
+traffic as diversity of natural resources, division of
+labour, accumulation of stock, or any other primal
+element&mdash;(1) means of transport, (2) freedom of labour
+<span class="sidenote">Primary conditions of commerce.</span>
+and exchange, and (3) security; and in all these
+conditions the ancient world was signally deficient.</p>
+
+<p>The great rivers, which became the first seats of population
+and empire, must have been of much utility as channels of
+transport, and hence the course of human power of which they
+are the geographical delineation, and probably the idolatry with
+which they were sometimes honoured. Nor were the ancient
+rulers insensible of the importance of opening roads through their
+dominions, and establishing post and lines of communication,
+which, though primarily for official and military purposes, must
+have been useful to traffickers and to the general population.
+But the free navigable area of great rivers is limited, and when
+diversion of traffic had to be made to roads and tracks through
+deserts, there remained the slow and costly carriage of beasts
+of burden, by which only articles of small bulk and the rarest
+value could be conveyed with any hope of profit. Corn, though
+of the first necessity, could only be thus transported in famines,
+when beyond price to those who were in want, and under this
+extreme pressure could only be drawn from within a narrow
+sphere, and in quantity sufficient to the sustenance of but a small
+number of people. The routes of ancient commerce were thus
+interrupted and cut asunder by barriers of transport, and the
+farther they were extended became the more impassable to any
+considerable quantity or weight of commodities. As long as
+navigation was confined to rivers and the shores of inland gulfs
+and seas, the oceans were a <i>terra incognita</i>, contributing nothing
+to the facility or security of transport from one part of the world
+to another, and leaving even one populous part of Asia as
+unapproachable from another as if they had been in different
+hemispheres. The various routes of trade from Europe and
+north-western Asia to India, which have been often referred to,
+are to be regarded more as speculations of future development
+than as realities of ancient history. It is not improbable that
+the ancient traffic of the Red Sea may have been extended along
+the shores of the Arabian Sea to some parts of Hindustan, but
+that vessels braved the Indian Ocean and passed round Cape
+Comorin into the Bay of Bengal, 2000 or even 1000 years before
+mariners had learned to double the Cape of Good Hope, is
+scarcely to be believed. The route by the Euxine and the
+Caspian Sea has probably never in any age reached India. That
+by the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf is shorter, and was
+besides the more likely from passing through tracts of country
+which in the most remote times were seats of great population.
+There may have been many merchants who traded on all these
+various routes, but that commodities were passed in bulk over
+great distances is inconceivable. It may be doubted whether in
+the ante-Christian ages there was any heavy transport over even
+500 m., save for warlike or other purposes, which engaged the
+public resources of imperial states, and in which the idea of
+commerce, as now understood, is in a great measure lost.</p>
+
+<p>The advantage which absolute power gave to ancient nations
+in their warlike enterprises, and in the execution of public works
+of more or less utility, or of mere ostentation and monumental
+magnificence, was dearly purchased by the sacrifice of individual
+freedom, the right to labour, produce and exchange under the
+steady operation of natural economic principles, which more than
+any other cause vitalizes the individual and social energies, and
+multiplies the commercial resource of communities. Commerce
+in all periods and countries has obtained a certain freedom and
+hospitality from the fact that the foreign merchant has something
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span>
+desirable to offer; but the action of trading is reciprocal, and
+requires multitudes of producers and merchants, as free agents,
+on both sides, searching out by patient experiment wants more
+advantageously supplied by exchange than by direct production,
+before it can attain either permanence or magnitude, or can
+become a vital element of national life. The ancient polities
+offered much resistance to this development, and in their absolute
+power over the liberty, industry and property of the masses of
+their subjects raised barriers to the extension of commerce
+scarcely less formidable than the want of means of communication
+itself. The conditions of security under which foreign trade
+can alone flourish equally exceeded the resources of ancient
+civilization. Such roads as exist must be protected from robbers,
+the rivers and seas from pirates; goods must have safe passage
+and safe storage, must be held in a manner sacred in the territories
+through which they pass, be insured against accidents, be
+respected even in the madness of hostilities; the laws of nations
+must give a guarantee on which traders can proceed in their
+operations with reasonable confidence; and the governments,
+while protecting the commerce of their subjects with foreigners
+as if it were their own enterprise, must in their fiscal policy, and
+in all their acts, be endued with the highest spirit of commercial
+honour. Every great breach of this security stops the continuous
+circulation, which is the life of traffic and of the industries to
+which it ministers. But in the ancient records we see commerce
+exposed to great risks, subject to constant <span class="correction" title="amended from pilage">pillage</span>, hunted down
+in peace and utterly extinguished in war. Hence it became
+necessary that foreign trade should itself be an armed force in the
+world; and though the states of purely commercial origin soon
+fell into the same arts and wiles as the powers to which they were
+opposed, yet their history exhibits clearly enough the necessity
+out of which they arose. Once organized, it was inevitable that
+they should meet intrigue with intrigue, and force with force.
+The political empires, while but imperfectly developing industry
+and traffic within their own territories, had little sympathy with
+any means of prosperity from without. Their sole policy was either
+to absorb under their own spirit and conditions of rule, or to
+destroy, whatever was rich or great beyond their borders.
+Nothing is more marked in the past history of the world than
+this struggle of commerce to establish conditions of security and
+means of communication with distant parts. When almost
+driven from the land, it often found both on the sea; and often,
+when its success had become brilliant and renowned, it perished
+under the assault of stronger powers, only to rise again in new
+centres and to find new channels of intercourse.</p>
+
+<p>While Rome was giving laws and order to the half-civilized
+tribes of Italy, Carthage, operating on a different base, and by
+other methods, was opening trade with less accessible
+parts of Europe. The strength of Rome was in her
+<span class="sidenote">Carthage.</span>
+legions, that of Carthage in her ships; and her ships could cover
+ground where the legions were powerless. Her mariners had
+passed the mythical straits into the Atlantic, and established the
+port of Cadiz. Within the Mediterranean itself they founded
+Carthagena and Barcelona on the same Iberian peninsula, and
+ahead of the Roman legions had depots and traders on the shores
+of Gaul. After the destruction of Tyre, Carthage became the
+greatest power in the Mediterranean, and inherited the trade of
+her Phoenician ancestors with Egypt, Greece and Asia Minor,
+as well as her own settlements in Sicily and on the European
+coasts. An antagonism between the great naval and the great
+military power, whose interests crossed each other at so many
+points, was sure to occur; and in the three Punic wars Carthage
+measured her strength with that of Rome both on sea and on land
+with no unequal success. But a commercial state impelled into
+a series of great wars has departed from its own proper base; and
+in the year 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Carthage was so totally destroyed by the
+<span class="sidenote">Roman conquests.</span>
+Romans that of the great city, more than 20 m. in
+circumference, and containing at one period near a
+million of inhabitants, only a few thousands were found
+within its ruined walls. In the same year Corinth, one of the
+greatest of the Greek capitals and seaports, was captured,
+plundered of vast wealth and given to the flames by a Roman
+consul. Athens and her magnificent harbour of the Piraeus fell
+into the same hands 60 years later. It may be presumed that
+trade went on under the Roman conquests in some degree as
+before; but these were grave events to occur within a brief period,
+and the spirit of the seat of trade in every case having been
+broken, and its means and resources more or less plundered and
+dissipated&mdash;in some cases, as in that of Carthage, irreparably&mdash;the
+most necessary commerce could only proceed with feeble and
+languid interest under the military, consular and proconsular
+licence of Rome at that period. Tyre, the great seaport of
+Palestine, having been destroyed by Alexander the
+Great, Palmyra, the great inland centre of Syrian trade,
+was visited with a still more complete annihilation by the Roman
+Emperor Aurelian within little more than half a century after the
+capture and spoliation of Athens. The walls were razed to their
+foundations; the population&mdash;men, women, children and the
+rustics round the city&mdash;were all either massacred or dispersed;
+and the queen Zenobia was carried captive to Rome. Palmyra
+had for centuries, as a centre of commercial intercourse and
+transit, been of great service to her neighbours, east and west.
+In the wars of the Romans and Parthians she was respected by
+both as an asylum of common interests which it would have been
+simple barbarity to invade or injure; and when the Parthians
+were subdued, and Palmyra became a Roman <i>annexe</i>, she
+continued to flourish as before. Her relations with Rome were
+more than friendly; they became enthusiastic and heroic; and
+her citizens having inflicted signal chastisement on the king of
+Persia for the imprisonment of the emperor Valerian, the admiration
+of this conduct at Rome was so great that their spirited
+leader Odaenathus, the husband of Zenobia, was proclaimed
+Augustus, and became co-emperor with Gallienus. It is obvious
+that the destruction of Palmyra must not only have doomed
+<span class="sidenote">Palmyra.</span>
+Palestine, already bereft of her seaports, to greater poverty and
+commercial isolation than had been known in long preceding
+ages, but have also rendered it more difficult to Rome herself to
+hold or turn to any profitable account her conquests in Asia; and,
+being an example of the policy of Rome to the seats of trade over
+nearly the whole ancient world, it may be said to contain in
+graphic characters a presage of what came to be the actual
+event&mdash;the collapse and fall of the Roman empire itself.</p>
+
+<p>The repeated invasions of Italy by the Goths and Huns gave
+rise to a seat of trade in the Adriatic, which was to sustain during
+more than a thousand years a history of unusual
+splendour. The Veneti cultivated fertile lands on the
+<span class="sidenote">Venice.</span>
+Po, and built several towns, of which Padua was the chief. They
+appear from the earliest note of them in history to have been
+both an agricultural and trading people; and they offered a rich
+prey to the barbarian hordes when these broke through every
+barrier into the plains of Italy. Thirty years before Attila razed
+the neighbouring city of Aquileia, the consuls and senate of
+Padua, oppressed and terrified by the prior ravages of Alaric,
+passed a decree for erecting Rialto, the largest of the numerous
+islets at the mouth of the Po, into a chief town and port, not more
+as a convenience to the islanders than as a security for themselves
+and their goods. But every fresh incursion, every new act of
+spoliation by the dreaded enemies, increased the flight of the rich
+and the industrious to the islands, and thus gradually arose the
+second Venice, whose glory was so greatly to exceed that of the
+first. Approachable from the mainland only by boats, through
+river passes easily defended by practised sailors against barbarians
+who had never plied an oar, the Venetian refugees could look in
+peace on the desolation which swept over Italy; their warehouses,
+their markets, their treasures were safe from plunder;
+and stretching their hands over the sea, they found in it fish and
+salt, and in the rich possessions of trade and territory which it
+opened to them more than compensation for the fat lands and
+inland towns which had long been their home. The Venetians
+traded with Constantinople, Greece, Syria and Egypt. They
+became lords of the Morea, and of Candia, Cyprus and other
+islands of the Levant. The trade of Venice with India, though
+spoken of, was probably never great. But the crusades of the
+12th and 13th centuries against the Saracens in Palestine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span>
+extended her repute more widely east and west, and increased
+both her naval and her commercial resources. It is enough,
+indeed, to account for the grandeur of Venice that in course of
+centuries, from the security of her position, the growth and
+energy of her population, and the regularity of her government at
+a period when these sources of prosperity were rare, she became
+the great emporium of the Mediterranean&mdash;all that Carthage,
+Corinth and Athens had been in a former age on a scene the most
+remarkable in the world for its fertility and facilities of traffic,&mdash;and
+that as Italy and other parts of the Western empire became
+again more settled her commerce found always a wider range.
+The bridge built from the largest of the islands to the opposite
+bank became the &ldquo;Rialto,&rdquo; or famous exchange of Venice, whose
+transactions reached farther, and assumed a more consolidated
+form, than had been known before. There it was where the first
+public bank was organized; that bills of exchange were first
+negotiated, and funded debt became transferable; that finance
+became a science and book-keeping an art. Nor must the effect
+of the example of Venice on other cities of Italy be left out of
+account. Genoa, following her steps, rose into great prosperity
+and power at the foot of the Maritime Alps, and became her rival,
+and finally her enemy. Naples, Gaeta, Florence, many other
+towns of Italy, and Rome herself, long after her fall, were
+encouraged to struggle for the preservation of their municipal
+freedom, and to foster trade, arts and navigation, by the brilliant
+success set before them on the Adriatic; but Venice, from the
+early start she had made, and her command of the sea, had the
+commercial pre-eminence.</p>
+
+<p>The state of things which arose on the collapse of the Roman
+empire presents two concurrent facts, deeply affecting the course
+of trade&mdash;(1) the ancient seats of industry and civilization
+were undergoing constant decay, while (2) the
+<span class="sidenote">The middle ages.</span>
+energetic races of Europe were rising into more civilized
+forms and manifold vigour and copiousness of life. The fall of the
+Eastern division of the empire prolonged the effect of the fall of
+the Western empire; and the advance of the Saracens over Asia
+Minor, Syria, Greece, Egypt, over Cyprus and other possessions of
+Venice in the Mediterranean, over the richest provinces of Spain,
+and finally across the Hellespont into the Danubian provinces of
+Europe, was a new irruption of barbarians from another point of
+the compass, and revived the calamities and disorders inflicted by
+the successive invasions of Goths, Huns and other Northern
+tribes. For more than ten centuries the naked power of the sword
+was vivid and terrible as flashes of lightning over all the seats
+of commerce, whether of ancient or more modern origin. The
+feudal system of Europe, in organizing the open country under
+military leaders and defenders subordinated in possession and
+service under a legal system to each other and to the sovereign
+power, must have been well adapted to the necessity of the times
+in which it spread so rapidly; but it would be impossible to say
+that the feudal system was favourable to trade, or the extension
+of trade. The commercial spirit in the feudal, as in preceding
+ages, had to find for itself places of security, and it could only
+find them in towns, armed with powers of self-regulation and
+defence, and prepared, like the feudal barons themselves, to
+resist violence from whatever quarter it might come. Rome, in
+her best days, had founded the municipal system, and when this
+system was more than ever necessary as the bulwark of arts
+and manufactures, its extension became an essential element
+of the whole European civilization. Towns formed themselves
+into leagues for mutual protection, and out of leagues not
+infrequently arose commercial republics. The Hanseatic League,
+founded as early as 1241, gave the first note of an increasing
+traffic between countries on the Baltic and in northern Germany,
+which a century or two before were sunk in isolated barbarism.
+From Lübeck and Hamburg, commanding the navigation of the
+Elbe, it gradually spread over 85 towns, including Amsterdam,
+Cologne and Frankfort in the south, and Danzig, Königsberg and
+Riga in the north. The last trace of this league, long of much
+service in protecting trade, and as a means of political mediation,
+passed away in the erection of the German empire (1870), but
+only from the same cause that had brought about its gradual
+dissolution&mdash;the formation of powerful and legal governments&mdash;which,
+while leaving to the free cities their municipal rights, were
+well capable of protecting their mercantile interests. The towns
+of Holland found lasting strength and security from other causes.
+Their foundations were laid as literally in the sea as those of
+Venice had been. They were not easily attacked whether by sea
+or land, and if attacked had formidable means of defence. The
+Zuyder Zee, which had been opened to the German Ocean in 1282,
+carried into the docks and canals of Amsterdam the traffic of the
+ports of the Baltic, of the English Channel and of the south of
+Europe, and what the seas did for Amsterdam from without the
+Rhine and the Maese did for Dort and Rotterdam from the
+interior. By the Union of Utrecht in 1579 Holland became an
+independent republic, and for long after, as it had been for some
+time before, was the greatest centre of maritime traffic in Europe.
+The rise of the Dutch power in a low country, exposed to the most
+destructive inundations, difficult to cultivate or even to inhabit,
+affords a striking illustration of those conditions which in all times
+have been found specially favourable to commercial development,
+and which are not indistinctly reflected in the mercantile history
+of England, preserved by its insular position from hostile invasions,
+and capable by its fleets and arms to protect its goods
+on the seas and the rights of its subjects in foreign lands.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of trade and productive arts in the middle
+ages, though not rising to much international exchange, was very
+considerable both in quality and extent. The republics of Italy,
+which had no claim to rival Venice or Genoa in maritime power
+or traffic, developed a degree of art, opulence and refinement
+commanding the admiration of modern times; and if any
+historian of trans-Alpine Europe, when Venice had already
+attained some greatness, could have seen it five hundred years
+afterwards, the many strong towns of France, Germany and the
+Low Countries, the great number of their artizans, the products
+of their looms and anvils, and their various cunning workmanship,
+might have added many a brilliant page to his annals. Two
+centuries before England had discovered any manufacturing
+quality, or knew even how to utilize her most valuable raw
+materials, and was importing goods from the continent for the
+production of which she was soon to be found to have special
+resources, the Flemings were selling their woollen and linen fabrics,
+and the French their wines, silks and laces in all the richer parts
+of the British Islands. The middle ages placed the barbarous
+populations of Europe under a severe discipline, trained them in
+the most varied branches of industry, and developed an amount
+of handicraft and ingenuity which became a solid basis for the
+future. But trade was too walled in, too much clad in armour,
+and too incessantly disturbed by wars and tumults, and violations
+of common right and interest, to exert its full influence over the
+general society, or even to realize its most direct advantages.
+It wanted especially the freedom and mobility essential to much
+international increase, and these it was now to receive from a
+series of the most pregnant events.</p>
+
+<p>The mariner&rsquo;s compass had become familiar in the European
+ports about the beginning of the 14th century, and the seamen
+of Italy, Portugal, France, Holland and England
+entered upon a more enlightened and adventurous
+<span class="sidenote">Opening of a new era.</span>
+course of navigation. The Canary Islands were sighted
+by a French vessel in 1330, and colonized in 1418 by the
+Portuguese, who two years later landed on Madeira. In 1431
+the Azores were discovered by a shipmaster of Bruges. The
+Atlantic was being gradually explored. In 1486, Diaz, a
+Portuguese, steering his course almost unwittingly along the
+coast of Africa, came upon the land&rsquo;s-end of that continent;
+and eleven years afterwards Vasco da Gama, of the same nation,
+not only doubled the Cape of Good Hope, but reached India.
+About the same period Portuguese travellers penetrated to India
+by the old time-honoured way of Suez; and a land which
+tradition and imagination had invested with almost fabulous
+wealth and splendour was becoming more real to the European
+world at the moment when the expedition of Vasco da Gama
+had made an oceanic route to its shores distinctly visible. One
+can hardly now realize the impression made by these discoveries
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span>
+in an age when the minds of men were awakening out of a long
+sleep, when the printing press was disseminating the ancient
+classical and sacred literature, and when geography and
+astronomy were subjects of eager study in the seats both of
+traffic and of learning. But their practical effect was seen in
+swiftly-succeeding events. Before the end of the century
+Columbus had thrice crossed the Atlantic, touched at San
+Salvador, discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico and the Isthmus of
+Darien, and had seen the waters of the Orinoco in South America.
+Meanwhile Cabot, sent out by England, had discovered Newfoundland,
+planted the English flag on Labrador, Nova Scotia
+and Virginia, and made known the existence of an expanse of
+land now known as Canada. This tide of discovery by navigators
+flowed on without intermission. But the opening of a maritime
+route to India and the discovery of America, surprising as these
+events must have been at the time, were slow in producing the
+results of which they were a sure prognostic. The Portuguese
+established in Cochin the first European factory in India a few
+years after Vasco da Gama&rsquo;s expedition, and other maritime
+nations of Europe traced a similar course. But it was not till
+1600 that the English East India Company was established, and
+the opening of the first factory of the Company in India must be
+dated some ten or eleven years later. So also it was one thing to
+discover the two Americas, and another, in any real sense, to
+possess or colonize them, or to bring their productions into the
+general traffic and use of the world. Spain, following the stroke
+of the valiant oar of Columbus, found in Mexico and Peru
+remarkable remains of an ancient though feeble civilization, and a
+wealth of gold and silver mines, which to Europeans of that period
+was fascinating from the rarity of the precious metals in their own
+realms, and consequently gave to the Spanish colonizations and
+conquests in South America an extraordinary but unsolid
+prosperity. The value of the precious metals in Europe was found
+to fall as soon as they began to be more widely distributed, a
+process in itself at that period of no small tediousness; and it was
+discovered further, after a century or two, that the production of
+gold and silver is limited like the production of other commodities
+for which they exchange, and only increased in quantity at a
+heavier cost, that is only reduced again by greater art and science
+in the process of production. Many difficulties, in short, had to
+be overcome, many wars to be waged, and many deplorable
+errors to be committed, in turning the new advantages to account.
+But given a maritime route to India and the discovery of a new
+world of continent and islands in the richest tropical and sub-tropical
+latitudes, it could not be difficult to foresee that the course
+of trade was to be wholly changed as well as vastly extended.</p>
+
+<p>The substantial advantage of the oceanic passage to India by
+the Cape of Good Hope, as seen at the time, was to enable
+European trade with the East to escape from the Moors,
+Algerines and Turks who now swarmed round the
+<span class="sidenote">Maritime route to India.</span>
+shores of the Mediterranean, and waged a predatory war
+on ships and cargoes which would have been a formidable
+obstacle even if traffic, after running this danger, had not to
+be further lost, or filtered into the smallest proportions, in the
+sands of the Isthmus, and among the Arabs who commanded the
+navigation of the Red and Arabian Seas. Venice had already
+begun to decline in her wars with the Turks, and could inadequately
+protect her own trade in the Mediterranean. Armed
+vessels sent out in strength from the Western ports often fared
+badly at the hands of the pirates. European trade with India
+can scarcely be said, indeed, to have yet come into existence.
+The maritime route was round about, and it lay on the hitherto
+almost untrodden ocean, but the ocean was a safer element than
+inland seas and deserts infested by the lawlessness and ferocity of
+hostile tribes of men. In short, the maritime route enabled
+European traders to see India for themselves, to examine what
+were its products and its wants, and by what means a profitable
+exchange on both sides could be established; and on this basis of
+knowledge, ships could leave the ports of their owners in Europe
+with a reasonable hope, via the Cape, of reaching the places
+to which they were destined without transhipment or other
+intermediary obstacle. This is the explanation to be given of the
+joy with which the Cape of Good Hope route was received, as well
+as the immense influence it exerted on the future course and
+extension of trade, and of the no less apparent satisfaction with
+which it was to some extent discarded in favour of the ancient
+line, via the Mediterranean, Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea.</p>
+
+<p>The maritime route to India was the discovery to the European
+nations of a &ldquo;new world&rdquo; quite as much as the discovery of North
+and South America and their central isthmus and
+islands. The one was the far, populous Eastern world,
+<span class="sidenote">Discovery of America.</span>
+heard of from time immemorial, but with which there
+had been no patent lines of communication. The other
+was a vast and comparatively unpeopled solitude, yet full of
+material resources, and capable in a high degree of European
+colonization. America offered less resistance to the action of
+Europe than India, China and Japan; but on the other hand this
+new populous Eastern world held out much attraction to trade.
+These two great terrestrial discoveries were contemporaneous;
+and it would be difficult to name any conjuncture of material
+events bearing with such importance on the history of the world.
+The Atlantic Ocean was the medium of both; and the waves of the
+Atlantic beat into all the bays and tidal rivers of western Europe.
+The centre of commercial activity was thus physically changed;
+and the formative power of trade over human affairs was seen in
+the subsequent phenomena&mdash;the rise of great seaports on the
+Atlantic seaboard, and the ceaseless activity of geographical
+exploration, manufactures, shipping and emigration, of which
+they became the outlets.</p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese are entitled to the first place in utilizing the
+new sources of wealth and commerce. They obtained Macao as a
+settlement from the Chinese as early as 1537, and their
+trading operations followed close on the discoveries of
+<span class="sidenote">Increase of trading settlements and colonies.</span>
+their navigators on the coast of Africa, in India and in
+the Indian Archipelago. Spain spread her dominion
+over Central and South America, and forced the
+labour of the subject natives into the gold and silver mines,
+which seemed in that age the chief prize of her conquests. France
+introduced her trade in both the East and West Indies, and was
+the first to colonize Canada and the Lower Mississippi. The
+Dutch founded New York in 1621; and England, which in
+boldness of naval and commercial enterprize had attained high
+rank in the reign of Elizabeth, established the thirteen colonies
+which became the United States, and otherwise had a full share in
+all the operations which were transforming the state of the world.
+The original disposition of affairs was destined to be much
+changed by the fortune of war; and success in foreign trade and
+colonization, indeed, called into play other qualities besides those
+of naval and military prowess. The products of so many new
+countries&mdash;tissues, dyes, metals, articles of food, chemical
+substances&mdash;greatly extended the range of European manufacture.
+But in addition to the mercantile faculty of discovering
+how they were to be exchanged and wrought into a profitable
+trade, their use in arts and manufactures required skill, invention
+and aptitude for manufacturing labour, and those again, in many
+cases, were found to depend on abundant possession of natural
+materials, such as coal and iron. In old and populous countries,
+like India and China, modern manufacture had to meet and
+contend with ancient manufacture, and had at once to learn from
+and improve economically on the established models, before an
+opening could be made for its extension. In many parts of the
+New World there were vast tracts of country, without population
+or with native races too wild and savage to be reclaimed to
+habits of industry, whose resources could only be developed by
+the introduction of colonies of Europeans; and innumerable
+experiments disclosed great variety of qualification among the
+European nations for the adventure, hardship and perseverance
+of colonial life. There were countries which, whatever their
+fertility of soil or favour of climate, produced nothing for which a
+market could be found; and products such as the
+sugar-cane and the seed of the cotton plant had to be carried from regions
+where they were indigenous to other regions where they
+might be successfully cultivated, and the art of planting had
+to pass through an ordeal of risk and speculation. There were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span>
+also countries where no European could labour; and the ominous
+work of transporting African negroes as slaves into the colonies&mdash;begun
+by Spain in the first decade of the 16th century, followed
+up by Portugal, and introduced by England in 1562 into the West
+Indies, at a later period into New England and the Southern
+States, and finally domiciled by royal privilege of trade in the
+Thames and three or more outports of the kingdom,&mdash;after being
+done on an elaborate scale, and made the basis of an immense
+superstructure of labour, property and mercantile interest over
+nearly three centuries, had, under a more just and ennobling view
+of humanity, to be as elaborately undone at a future time.</p>
+
+<p>These are some of the difficulties that had to be encountered
+in utilizing the great maritime and geographical conquests of
+the new epoch. But one cannot leave out of view the obstacles,
+arising from other sources, to what might be expected to be the
+regular and easy course of affairs. Commerce, though an undying
+and prevailing interest of civilized countries, is but one of
+the forces acting on the policy of states, and has often to yield
+the pace to other elements of national life. It were needless
+to say what injury the great but vain and purposeless wars of
+Louis XIV. of France inflicted in that country, or how largely
+the fruitful and heroic energies of England were absorbed in the
+civil wars between Charles and the Parliament, to what poverty
+Scotland was reduced, or in what distraction and savagery
+Ireland was kept by the same course of events. The grandeur
+of Spain in the preceding century was due partly to the claim of
+her kings to be Holy Roman emperors, in which imperial capacity
+they entailed intolerable mischief on the Low Countries and on
+the commercial civilization of Europe, and partly to their command
+of the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru, in an eager
+lust of whose produce they brought cruel calamities on a newly-discovered
+continent where there were many traces of antique
+life, the records of which perished in their hands or under their
+feet. These ephemeral causes of greatness removed, the hollowness
+of the situation was exposed; and Spain, though rich in
+her own natural resources, was found to be actually poor&mdash;poor
+in number of people, poor in roads, in industrial art,
+and in all the primary conditions of interior development.
+An examination of the foreign trade of Europe two centuries
+after the opening of the maritime route to India and the discovery
+of America would probably give more reason to be surprised
+at the smallness than the magnitude of the use that had been
+made of these events.</p>
+
+<p>By the beginning of the 19th century the world had been
+well explored. Colonies had been planted on every coast; great
+nations had sprung up in vast solitudes or in countries
+inhabited only by savage or decadent races of men;
+<span class="sidenote">19th century.</span>
+the most haughty and exclusive of ancient nations
+had opened their ports to foreign merchantmen; and all parts
+of the world been brought into habitual commercial intercourse.
+The seas, subdued by the progress of navigation to the service
+of man, had begun to yield their own riches in great abundance
+and the whale, seal, herring, cod and other fisheries, prosecuted
+with ample capital and hardy seamanship, had become the source
+of no small traffic in themselves. The lists of imports and exports
+and of the places from which they flowed to and from the centres
+of trade, as they swelled in bulk from time to time, show how
+busily and steadily the threads of commerce had been weaving
+together the labour and interests of mankind, and extending a
+security and bounty of existence unknown in former ages. The
+19th century witnessed an extension of the commercial relations
+of mankind of which there was no parallel in previous history.
+The heavy debts and taxes, and the currency complications
+in which the close of the Napoleonic wars left the European
+nations, as well as the fall of prices which was the necessary
+effect of the sudden closure of a vast war expenditure and
+absorption of labour, had a crippling effect for many years on
+trading energies. Yet even under such circumstances commerce
+is usually found, on its well-established modern basis, to make
+steady progress from one series of years to another. The powers
+of production had been greatly increased by a brilliant development
+of mechanical arts and inventions. The United States
+had grown into a commercial nation of the first rank. The
+European colonies and settlements were being extended, and
+assiduously cultivated, and were opening larger and more varied
+markets for manufactures. In 1819 the first steamboat crossed
+the Atlantic from New York to Liverpool, and a similar adventure
+was accomplished from England to India in 1825&mdash;events in
+themselves the harbingers of a new era in trade. China, after
+many efforts, was opened under treaty to an intercourse with
+foreign nations which was soon to attain surprising dimensions.
+These various causes supported the activity of commerce in the
+first four decades; but the great movement which made the
+19th century so remarkable was chiefly disclosed in practical
+results from about 1840. The outstanding characteristics of
+the 19th century were the many remarkable inventions which so
+widened the field of commerce by the discovery of new and
+improved methods of production, the highly organized division
+of labour which tended to the same end, and, above all, the
+powerful forces of steam navigation, railways and telegraphs.</p>
+
+<p>Commerce has thus acquired a security and extension, in all its
+most essential conditions, of which it was void in any previous
+age. It can hardly ever again exhibit that wandering course
+from route to route, and from one solitary centre to another,
+which is so characteristic of its ancient history, because it is
+established in every quarter of the globe, and all the seas and
+ways are open to it on terms fair and equal to every nation.
+Wherever there is population, industry, resource, art and skill,
+there will be international trade. Commerce will have many
+centres, and one may relatively rise or relatively fall; but such
+decay and ruin as have smitten many once proud seats of wealth
+into dust cannot again occur without such cataclysms of war,
+violence and disorder as the growing civilization and reason of
+mankind, and the power of law, right and common interest
+forbid us to anticipate. But the present magnitude of commerce
+devolves serious work on all who are engaged in it. If in the
+older times it was thought that a foreign merchant required to
+be not only a good man of business, but even a statesman, it is
+evident that all the higher faculties of the mercantile profession
+must still more be called into request when imports and exports
+are reckoned by hundreds instead of fives or tens of millions,
+when the markets are so much larger and more numerous, the
+competition so much more keen and varied, the problems to be
+solved in every course of transaction so much more complex,
+the whole range of affairs to be overseen so immensely widened.
+It is not a company of merchants, having a monopoly, and doing
+whatever they please, whether right or wrong, that now hold the
+commerce of the world in their hands, but large communities of
+free merchants in all parts of the world, affiliated to manufacturers
+and producers equally free, each under strong temptation
+to do what may be wrong in the pursuit of his own interest,
+and the only security of doing right being to follow steady lights
+of information and economic science common to all. Easy
+transport of goods by land and sea, prompt intelligence from
+every point of the compass, general prevalence of mercantile
+law and safety, have all been accomplished; and the world
+is opened to trade. But intellectual grasp of principles and
+details, and the moral integrity which is the root of all commercial
+success, are severely tested in this vaster sphere.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trade Organization</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Economics</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commercial Treaties</a></span>,
+and the sections under the headings of countries.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMERCE,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> the name of a card-game. Any number can play
+with an ordinary pack. There are several variations of the game,
+but the following is a common one. Each player receives three
+cards, and three more are turned up as a &ldquo;pool.&rdquo; The first player
+may exchange one or two of his cards for one or two of the
+exposed cards, putting his own, face upwards, in their place.
+His object is to &ldquo;make his hand&rdquo; (see below), but if he changes
+all three cards at once he cannot change again. The next player
+can do likewise, and so on. Usually there are as many rounds
+as there are players, and a fresh card is added to the pool at
+the beginning of each. If a player passes once he cannot exchange
+afterwards. When the rounds are finished the hands
+are shown, the holder of the best either receiving a stake from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span>
+all the others, or, supposing each has started with three &ldquo;lives,&rdquo;
+taking one life from the lowest. The hands, in order of merit,
+are: (i.) <i>Tricon</i>&mdash;three similar cards, three aces ranking above
+three kings, and so on. (ii.) <i>Sequence</i>&mdash;three cards of the same
+suit in consecutive order; the highest sequence is the best.
+(iii.) <i>Flush</i>&mdash;three cards of the same suit, the highest &ldquo;point&rdquo;
+wins, <i>i.e.</i> the highest number of pips, ace counting eleven and
+court-cards ten. (iv.) <i>Pair</i>&mdash;two similar cards, the highest pair
+winning. (v.) <i>Point</i>&mdash;the largest number of pips winning, as in
+&ldquo;flush,&rdquo; but there is no restriction as to suit. Sometimes
+&ldquo;pair&rdquo; and &ldquo;point&rdquo; are not recognized. A popular variation
+of Commerce is <i>Pounce Commerce</i>. In this, if a player has
+already three similar cards, <i>e.g.</i> three nines, and the fourth nine
+comes into the pool, he says &ldquo;Pounce!&rdquo; and takes it, thus obtaining
+a hand of four, which is higher than any hand of three:
+whenever a pounce occurs, a new card is turned up from the pack.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMERCIAL COURT,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> in England, a court presided over
+by a single judge of the king&rsquo;s bench division, for the trial, as
+expeditiously as may be, of commercial cases. By the Rules of
+the Supreme Court, Order xviii. a (made in November 1893), a
+plaintiff was allowed to dispense with pleadings altogether,
+provided that the indorsement of his writ of summons contained
+a statement sufficient to give notice of his claim, or of the relief
+or remedy required in the action, and stating that the plaintiff
+intended to proceed to trial without pleadings. The judge might,
+on the application of the defendant, order a statement of claim
+to be delivered, or the action to proceed to trial without pleadings,
+and if necessary particulars of the claim or defence to be delivered.
+Out of this order grew the commercial court. It is not a distinct
+court or division or branch of the High Court, and is not regulated
+by any special rules of court made by the rule committee. It
+originated in a notice issued by the judges of the queen&rsquo;s bench
+division, in February 1895 (see W.N., 2nd of March 1895), the
+provisions contained in which represent only &ldquo;a practice agreed
+on by the judges, who have the right to deal by convention
+among themselves with this mode of disposing of the business
+in their courts&rdquo; (per Lord Esher in <i>Barry</i> v. <i>Peruvian Corporation</i>,
+1896, 1 Q. B. p. 209). A separate list of causes of a commercial
+character is made and assigned to a particular judge,
+charged with commercial business, to whom all applications
+before the trial are made. The 8th paragraph is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Such judge may at any time after appearance and without pleadings
+make such order as he thinks fit for the speedy determination,
+in accordance with existing rules, of the questions really in controversy
+between the parties.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Practitioners before Sir George Jessel, at the rolls, in the years
+1873 to 1880, will be reminded of his mode of ascertaining the
+point in controversy and bringing it to a speedy determination.
+Obviously the scheme is only applicable to cases in which there
+is some single issue of law or fact, or the case depends on the
+construction of some contract or other instrument or section of
+an act of parliament, and such issue or question is either agreed
+upon by the parties or at once ascertainable by the judge. The
+success of the scheme also depends largely on the personal
+qualities of the judge to whom the list is assigned. Under the
+able guidance of Mr (afterwards Lord) Justice Mathew (d. 1908),
+the commercial court became very successful in bringing cases to
+a speedy and satisfactory determination without any technicality
+or unnecessary expense.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMERCIAL LAW,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a term used rather indefinitely to
+include those main rules and principles which, with more or less
+minor differences, characterize the commercial transactions
+and customs of most European countries. It includes within
+its compass such titles as principal and agent; carriage by land
+and sea; merchant shipping; guarantee; marine, fire, life
+and accident insurance; bills of exchange, partnership, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMERCIAL TREATIES.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> A commercial treaty is a contract
+between states relative to trade. It is a bilateral act whereby
+definite arrangements are entered into by each contracting
+party towards the other&mdash;not mere concessions. As regards
+technical distinctions, an &ldquo;agreement,&rdquo; an &ldquo;exchange of
+notes,&rdquo; or a &ldquo;convention&rdquo; properly applies to one specific
+subject; whereas a &ldquo;treaty&rdquo; usually comprises several matters,
+whether commercial or political.</p>
+
+<p>In ancient times foreign intercourse, trade and navigation
+were in many instances regulated by international arrangements.
+The text is extant of treaties of commerce and navigation concluded
+between Carthage and Rome in 509 and 348 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Aristotle
+mentions that nations were connected by commercial treaties;
+and other classical writers advert to these engagements. Under
+the Roman empire the matters thus dealt with became regulated
+by law, or by usages sometimes styled laws. When the territories
+of the empire were contracted, and the imperial authority was
+weakened, some kind of international agreements again became
+necessary. At Constantinople in the 10th century treaties cited
+by Gibbon protected &ldquo;the person, effects and privileges of the
+Russian merchant&rdquo;; and, in western Europe, intercourse,
+trade and navigation were carried on, at first tacitly by usage
+derived from Roman times, or under verbal permission given
+to merchants by the ruler to whose court they resorted. Afterwards,
+security in these transactions was afforded by means of
+formal documents, such as royal letters, charters, laws and other
+instruments possessing the force of government measures.
+Instances affecting English commercial relations are the letter
+of Charlemagne in 796, the Brabant Charter of 1305, and the
+Russian ukase of 1569. Medieval treaties of truce or peace
+often contained a clause permitting in general terms the renewal
+of personal and commercial communication as it subsisted before
+the war. This custom is still followed. But these medieval
+arrangements were precarious: they were often of temporary
+duration, and were usually only effective during the lifetime
+of the contracting sovereigns.</p>
+
+<p>Passing over trade agreements affecting the Eastern empire, the
+modern commercial treaty system came into existence in the 12th
+century. Genoa, Pisa and Venice were then
+well-organized communities,
+and were in keen rivalry. Whenever their position in a
+foreign country was strong, a trading centre was established, and
+few or no specific engagements were made on their part. But in
+serious competition or difficulty another course was adopted: a
+formal agreement was concluded for the better security of their
+commerce and navigation. The arrangements of 1140 between
+Venice and Sicily; the Genoese conventions of 1149 with Valencia,
+of 1161 with Morocco, and of 1181 with the Balearic Islands;
+the Pisan conventions of 1173 with Sultan Saladin, and of 1184
+with the Balearic Islands, were the earliest Western commercial
+treaties. Such definite arrangements, although still of a personal
+character, were soon perceived to be preferable to general provisions
+in a treaty of truce or peace. They afforded also greater
+security than privileges enjoyed under usage; or under grants of
+various kinds, whether local or royal. The policy thus inaugurated
+was adopted gradually throughout Europe. The first
+treaties relative to the trade of the Netherlands were between
+Brabant and Holland in 1203, Holland and Utrecht in 1204, and
+Brabant and Cologne in 1251. Early northern commercial
+treaties are those between Riga and Smolensk 1229, and between
+Lübeck and Sweden 1269. The first commercial relations
+between the Hanse Towns and foreign countries were arrangements
+made by gilds of merchants, not by public authorities as a
+governing body. For a long period the treaty system did not
+entirely supersede conditions of intercourse between nations
+dependent on permission.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest English commercial treaty is that with Norway in
+1217. It provides &ldquo;ut mercatores et homines qui sunt de
+potestate vestra liberč et sine impedimento terram nostram adire
+possint, et homines et mercatores nostri similiter vestram.&rdquo;
+These stipulations are in due treaty form. The next early
+English treaties are:&mdash;with Flanders, 1274 and 1314; Portugal,
+1308, 1352 and 1386; Baltic Cities, 1319 and 1388; Biscay and
+Castile, 1351; Burgundy, 1417 and 1496; France, 1471, 1497
+and 1510; Florence, 1490. The commercial treaty policy in
+England was carried out systematically under Henry IV. and
+Henry VII. It was continued under James I. to extend to
+Scotland English trading privileges. The results attained in the
+17th century were&mdash;regularity in treaty arrangements; their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span>
+durable instead of personal nature; the conversion of permissive
+into perfect rights; questions as to contraband and neutral trade
+stated in definite terms. Treaties were at first limited to exclusive
+and distinct engagements between the contracting states;
+each treaty differing more or less in its terms from other similar
+compacts. Afterwards by extending to a third nation privileges
+granted to particular countries, the <i>most favoured nation article</i>
+began to be framed, as a unilateral engagement by a particular
+state. The Turkish capitulations afford the earliest instances;
+and the treaty of 1641 between the Netherlands and Portugal
+contains the first European formula. Cromwell continued the
+commercial treaty policy partly in order to obtain a formal
+recognition of the commonwealth from foreign powers. His
+treaty of 1654 with Sweden contains the first reciprocal &ldquo;most
+favoured nation clause&rdquo;:&mdash;Article IV. provides that the people,
+subjects and inhabitants of either confederate &ldquo;shall have and
+possess in the countries, lands, dominions and kingdoms of the
+other as full and ample privileges, and as many exemptions,
+immunities and liberties, as any foreigner doth or shall possess
+in the dominions and kingdoms of the said confederate.&rdquo; The
+government of the Restoration replaced and enlarged the
+Protectorate arrangements by fresh agreements. The general
+policy of the commonwealth was maintained, with further
+provisions on behalf of colonial trade. In the new treaty of 1661
+with Sweden the privileges secured were those which &ldquo;any
+foreigner whatsoever doth or shall enjoy in the said dominions
+and kingdoms on both sides.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In contemporary treaties France obtained from Spain (1659)
+that French subjects should enjoy the same liberties as had been
+granted to the English; and England obtained from Denmark
+(1661) that the English should not pay more or greater customs
+than the people of the United Provinces and other foreigners, the
+Swedes only excepted. The colonial and navigation policy of the
+17th century, and the proceedings of Louis XIV., provoked
+animosities and retaliatory tariffs. During the War of the
+Spanish Succession the Methuen Treaty of 1703 was concluded.
+Portugal removed prohibitions against the importation of
+British woollens; Great Britain engaged that Portuguese wines
+should pay one-third less duty than the rate levied on French
+wines. At the peace of Utrecht in 1713 political and commercial
+treaties were concluded. England agreed to remove prohibitions
+on the importation of French goods, and to grant most favoured
+nation treatment in relation to goods and merchandise of the like
+nature from any other country in Europe; the French general
+tariff of the 18th of September 1664, was to be again put in force
+for English trade. The English provision was at variance with
+the Methuen Treaty. A violent controversy arose as to the
+relative importance in 1713 of Anglo-Portuguese or Anglo-French
+trade. In the end the House of Commons, by a majority of 9,
+rejected the bill to give effect to the commercial treaty of 1713;
+and trade with France remained on an unsatisfactory footing
+until 1786. The other commercial treaties of Utrecht were very
+complete in their provisions, equal to those of the present time;
+and contained most favoured nation articles&mdash;England secured
+in 1715 reduction of duties on woollens imported into the Austrian
+Netherlands; and trading privileges in Spanish America.
+Moderate import duties for woollens were obtained in Russia by
+the commercial treaty of 1766. In the meanwhile the Bourbon
+family compact of the 15th of August 1761 assured national
+treatment for the subjects of France, Spain and the Two Sicilies,
+and for their trade in the European territories of the other two
+states; and most favoured nation treatment as regards any
+special terms granted to any foreign country. The first commercial
+treaties concluded by the United States with European
+countries contained most favoured nation clauses: this policy has
+been continued by the United States, but the wording of the
+clause has often varied.</p>
+
+<p>In 1786 France began to effect tariff reform by means of
+commercial treaties. The first was with Great Britain, and it
+terminated the long-continued tariff warfare. But the wars of
+the French Revolution swept away these reforms, and brought
+about a renewal of hostile tariffs. Prohibitions and differential
+duties were renewed, and prevailed on the continent until the
+sixth decade of the 19th century. In 1860 a government existed
+in France sufficiently strong and liberal to revert to the policy of
+1786. The bases of the Anglo-French treaty of 1860, beyond its
+most favoured nation provisions, were in France a general
+transition from prohibition or high customs duties to a moderate
+tariff; in the United Kingdom abandonment of all protective
+imposts, and reduction of duties maintained for fiscal purposes
+to the lowest rates compatible with these exigencies. Other
+European countries were obliged to obtain for their trade the
+benefit of the conventional tariff thus established in France, as an
+alternative to the high rates inscribed in the general tariff. A
+series of commercial treaties was accordingly concluded by
+different European states between 1861 and 1866, which effected
+further reductions of customs duties in the several countries that
+came within this treaty system. In 1871 the Republican
+government sought to terminate the treaties of the empire. The
+British negotiators nevertheless obtained the relinquishment of
+the attempt to levy protective duties under the guise of compensation
+for imposts on raw materials; the duration of the
+treaty of 1860 was prolonged; and stipulations better worded
+than those before in force were agreed to for shipping and most
+favoured nation treatment. In 1882, however, France terminated
+her existing European tariff treaties. Belgium and some other
+countries concluded fresh treaties, less liberal than those of the
+system of 1860, yet much better than anterior arrangements.
+Great Britain did not formally accept these higher duties; the
+treaty of the 28th of February 1882, with France, which secured
+most favoured nation treatment in other matters, provided that
+customs duties should be &ldquo;henceforth regulated by the internal
+legislation of each of the two states.&rdquo; In 1892 France also fell out
+of international tariff arrangements; and adopted the system of
+double columns of customs duties&mdash;one, of lower rates, to be
+applied to the goods of all nations receiving most favoured
+treatment; and the other, of higher rates, for countries not on
+this footing. Germany then took up the treaty tariff policy; and
+between 1891 and 1894 concluded several commercial treaties.</p>
+
+<p>International trade in Europe in 1909 was regulated by a
+series of tariffs which came into operation, mainly on the initiative
+of Germany in 1906. Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bulgaria,
+Germany, Italy, Rumania, Russia, Servia and Switzerland, were
+parties to them. Their object and effect was protectionist. The
+British policy then became one of obtaining modifications to
+remedy disadvantages to British trade, as was done in the case
+of Bulgaria and Rumania. An important series of commercial
+arrangements had been concluded between 1884 and 1900
+respecting the territories and spheres of interest of European
+powers in western, central and eastern Africa. In these regions
+exclusive privileges were not claimed; most favoured nation
+treatment was recognized, and there was a disposition to extend
+national treatment to all Europeans and their trade.</p>
+
+<p>The Turkish <i>Capitulations</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) are grants made by successive
+sultans to Christian nations, conferring rights and privileges in
+favour of their subjects resident or trading in the Ottoman
+dominions, following the policy towards European states of the
+Eastern empire. In the first instance capitulations were granted
+separately to each Christian state, beginning with the Genoese in
+1453, which entered into pacific relations with Turkey. Afterwards
+new capitulations were obtained which summed up in one
+document earlier concessions, and added to them in general terms
+whatever had been conceded to one or more other states; a
+stipulation which became a most favoured nation article. The
+English capitulations date from 1569, and then secured the same
+treatment as the Venetians, French, Poles and the subjects of the
+emperor of Germany; they were revised in 1675, and as then
+settled were confirmed by treaties of subsequent date &ldquo;now and
+for ever.&rdquo; Capitulations signify that which is arranged under
+distinct &ldquo;headings&rdquo;; the Turkish phrase is &ldquo;ahid nameh,&rdquo;
+whereas a treaty is &ldquo;mouahedé&rdquo;&mdash;the latter does, and the former
+does not, signify a reciprocal engagement. Thus, although the
+Turkish capitulations are not in themselves treaties, yet by subsequent
+confirmation they have acquired the force of commercial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span>
+treaties of perpetual duration as regards substance and principles,
+while details, such as rates of customs duties, may, by
+mutual consent, be varied from time to time.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>most favoured nation</i> article already referred to concedes to
+the state in the treaty with which it is concluded whatever
+advantages in the matters comprised within its stipulations have
+been allowed to any foreign or third state. It does not in itself
+directly confer any particular rights, but sums up the whole of the
+rights in the matters therein mentioned which have been or may
+be granted to foreign countries. The value of the privileges
+under this article accordingly varies with the conditions as to
+these rights in each state which concedes this treatment.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The article is drafted in different form:</p>
+
+<p>(1) That contracting states A. and B. agree to extend to each
+other whatever rights and privileges they concede to countries C.
+and D., or to C. and D. and any other country. The object in this
+instance is to ensure specifically to B. and A. whatever advantages
+C. and D. may possess. A recent instance is Article XI. of the
+treaty of May 10, 1871, between France and Germany, which binds
+them respectively to extend to each other whatever advantages they
+grant to Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia
+and Switzerland.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The present general formula: A. and B. agree to extend to
+each other whatever advantages they concede to any third country;
+and engage that no other or higher duties shall be levied on the
+importation into A. and B. respectively of goods the produce or
+manufacture of B. and A. than are levied on the like goods the
+produce or manufacture of any third country the most favoured
+in this respect. There is a similar clause in regard to exportation.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The conditional or reciprocity formula, often used in the 18th
+and in the early part of the 19th century, namely, that whenever
+A. and B. make special concessions in return for corresponding
+concessions, B. and A. respectively are either excluded from participation
+therein, or must make some additional equivalent concession
+in order to participate in those advantages.</p>
+
+<p>It may further be observed that the word &ldquo;like&rdquo; relates to the
+goods themselves, to their material or quality, not to conditions of
+manufacture, mode of conveyance or anything beyond the fact of
+their precise description; small local facilities allowed to traffic
+between conterminous land districts are not at variance with this
+article.</p>
+
+<p>A recent complete and concise English formula is that of Article 2
+of the treaty of commerce and navigation of the 31st of October
+1905, with Rumania. &ldquo;The contracting parties agree that, in all
+matters relating to commerce, navigation and industry, any privilege,
+favour or immunity which either contracting party has actually
+granted, or may hereafter grant, to the subjects or citizens of any
+other foreign state, shall be extended immediately and unconditionally
+to the subjects of the other; it being their intention that the
+commerce, navigation and industry of each country shall be placed,
+in all respects, on the footing of the most favoured nation.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Colonies.</i>&mdash;The application of commercial treaties to colonies
+depends upon the wording of each treaty. The earlier colonial
+policy of European states was to subordinate colonial interests to
+those of the mother country, to reserve colonial trade for the
+mother country, and to abstain from engagements contrary to
+these general rules. France, Portugal and Spain have adhered
+in principle to this policy. Germany and Holland have been
+more liberal. The self-government enjoyed by the larger British
+colonies has led since 1886 to the insertion of an article in British
+commercial and other treaties whereby the assent of each of these
+colonies, and likewise of India, is reserved before they apply to
+each of these possessions. And further, the fact that certain other
+British colonies are now within the sphere of commercial intercourse
+controlled by the United States, has since 1891 induced the
+British government to enter into special agreements on behalf of
+colonies for whose products the United States is now the chief
+market. As regards the most favoured nation article, it is to be
+remembered that the mother country and colonies are not
+distinct&mdash;not foreign or third&mdash;countries with respect to each
+other. The most favoured nation article, therefore, does not
+preclude special arrangements between the mother country and
+colonies, nor between colonies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Termination.</i>&mdash;Commercial treaties are usually concluded for a
+term of years, and either lapse at the end of this period, or are
+terminable then, or subsequently, if either state gives the required
+notice. When a portion of a country establishes its independence,
+for example the several American republics, according to present
+usage foreign trade is placed on a uniform most favoured nation
+footing, and fresh treaties are entered into to regulate the commercial
+relations of the new communities. In the case of former
+Turkish provinces, the capitulations remain in force in principle
+until they are replaced by new engagements. If one state is
+absorbed into another, for instance Texas into the United States,
+or when territory passes by conquest, for instance Alsace to
+Germany, the commercial treaties of the new supreme government
+take effect. In administered territories, as Cyprus and
+formerly Bosnia, and in protected territories, it depends on the
+policy of the administering power how far the previous fiscal
+system shall remain in force. When the separate Italian states
+were united into the kingdom of Italy in 1861, the commercial
+engagements of Sardinia superseded those of the other states, but
+fresh treaties were concluded by the new kingdom to place international
+relations on a regular footing. When the German
+empire was established under the king of Prussia in 1871, the
+commercial engagements of any state which were at variance with
+a Zollverein treaty were superseded by that treaty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scope.</i>&mdash;The scope of commercial treaties is well expressed by
+Calvo in his work on international law. They provide for the
+importation, exportation, transit, transhipment and bonding of
+merchandise; customs tariffs; navigation charges; quarantine;
+the admission of vessels to roadsteads, ports and docks; coasting
+trade; the admission of consuls and their rights; fisheries; they
+determine the local position of the subjects of each state in the
+other country in regard to residence, property, payment of taxes
+or exemptions, and military service; nationality; and a most
+favoured nation clause. They usually contain a termination, and
+sometimes a colonial article. Some of the matters enumerated by
+Calvo&mdash;consular privileges, fisheries and nationality&mdash;are now
+frequently dealt with by separate conventions. Contraband and
+neutral trade are not included as frequently as they were in the
+18th century.</p>
+
+<p>The preceding statement shows that commercial treaties afford
+to foreigners, personally, legal rights, and relief from technical
+disabilities: they afford security to trade and navigation, and
+regulate other matters comprised in their provisions. In Europe
+the general principles established by the series of treaties 1860-1866
+hold good, namely, the substitution of uniform rates of
+customs duties for prohibitions or differential rates. The disadvantages
+urged are that these treaties involve government
+interference and bargaining, whereas each state should act
+independently as its interests require, that they are opposed to
+free trade, and restrict the fiscal freedom of the legislature. It
+may be observed that these objections imply some confusion of
+ideas. All contracts may be designated bargains, and some of the
+details of commercial treaties in Calvo&rsquo;s enumeration enter
+directly into the functions of government; moreover, countries
+cannot remain isolated. If two countries agree by simultaneous
+action to adopt fixed rates of duty, this agreement is favourable to
+commerce, and it is not apparent how it is contrary, even to free
+trade principles. Moreover, security in business transactions,
+a very important consideration, is provided.</p>
+
+<p>Our conclusions are&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) that under the varying jurisprudence of nations commercial
+treaties are adopted by common consent;</p>
+
+<p>(2) that their provisions depend upon the general and fiscal
+policy of each state;</p>
+
+<p>(3) that tariff arrangements, if judiciously settled, benefit
+trade;</p>
+
+<p>(4) that commercial treaties are now entered into by all states;
+and that they are necessary under present conditions of commercial
+intercourse between nations.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. M. K.*)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the British parliamentary <i>Return</i> (Cd. 4080) of all commercial
+treaties between various countries in force on Jan. 1, 1908.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMERCY,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a town of north-eastern France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Meuse, on the left bank of
+the Meuse, 26 m. E. of Bar-le-Duc by rail. Pop. (1906) 5622.
+Commercy possesses a château of the 17th century, now used as
+cavalry barracks, a Benedictine convent occupied by a training-college
+for primary teachers, and a communal college for boys.
+A statue of Dom Calmet, the historian, born in the vicinity, stands
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span>
+in one of the squares. The industries include iron-working and
+the manufacture of nails, boots and shoes, embroidery and
+hosiery. The town has trade in cattle, grain and wood, and is well
+known for its cakes (<i>madeleines</i>). Commercy dates back to the
+9th century, and at that time its lords were dependent on the
+bishop of Metz. In 1544 it was besieged by Charles V. in person.
+For some time the lordship was in the hands of François Paul de
+Gondi, cardinal de Retz, who lived in the town for a number of
+years, and there composed his memoirs. From him it was
+purchased by Charles IV., duke of Lorraine. In 1744 it became
+the residence of Stanislas, king of Poland, who spent a great
+deal of care on the embellishment of the town, castle and
+neighbourhood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMERS<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>commercium</i>), the German term for the
+German students&rsquo; social gatherings held annually on occasions
+such as the breaking-up of term and the anniversary of the
+university&rsquo;s founding. A Commers consists of speeches and
+songs and the drinking of unlimited quantities of beer. The
+arrangements are governed by officials (<i>Chargierte</i>) elected by the
+students from among themselves. Strict rules as to drinking
+exist, and the chairman after each speech calls for what is called
+a salamander (<i>ad exercitium Salamandris bibite, tergite</i>). All rise
+and having emptied their glasses hammer three times on the
+table with them. On the death of a student, his memory is
+honoured with a salamander, the glasses being broken to atoms
+at the close.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (c. 1445-c. 1511), French historian,
+called the father of modern history, was born at the castle of
+Renescure, near Hazebrouck in Flanders, a little earlier than
+1447. He lost both father and mother in his earliest years. In
+1463 his godfather, Philip V., duke of Burgundy, summoned him
+to his court, and soon after transferred him to the household of his
+son, afterwards known as Charles the Bold. He speedily acquired
+considerable influence over Charles, and in 1468 was appointed
+chamberlain and councillor; consequently when in the same
+year Louis XI. was entrapped at Péronne, Commines was able
+both to soften the passion of Charles and to give useful advice to
+the king, whose life he did much to save. Three years later he was
+charged with an embassy to Louis, who gained him over to
+himself by many brilliant promises, and in 1472 he left Burgundy
+for the court of France. He was at once made chamberlain and
+councillor; a pension of 6000 livres was bestowed on him; he
+received the principality of Talmont, the confiscated property of
+the Amboise family, over which the family of La Trémoille
+claimed to have rights. The king arranged his marriage with
+Hélčne de Chambes, who brought him the fine lordship of
+Argenton, and Commines took the name d&rsquo;Argenton from then
+(27th of January 1473). He was employed to carry out the
+intrigues of Louis in Burgundy, and spent several months as
+envoy in Italy. On his return he was received with the utmost
+favour, and in 1479 obtained a decree confirming him in possession
+of his principality.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Louis in 1483 a suit was commenced against
+Commines by the family of La Trémoille, and he was cast in
+heavy damages. He plotted against the regent, Anne of Beaujeu,
+and joined the party of the duke of Orleans, afterwards
+Louis XII. Having attempted to carry off the king, Charles
+VIII., and so free him from the tutelage of his sister, he was
+arrested, and put in one of his old master&rsquo;s iron cages at Loches.
+In 1489 he was banished to one of his own estates for ten years,
+and made to give bail to the amount of 10,000 crowns of gold for
+his good behaviour. Recalled to the council in 1492, he strenuously
+opposed the Italian expedition of Charles VIII., in which,
+however, he took part, notably as representing the king in the
+negotiations which resulted in the treaty of Vercelli. During the
+rest of his life, notwithstanding the accession of Louis XII.,
+whom he had served as duke of Orleans, he held no position of
+importance; and his last days were disturbed by lawsuits. He
+died at Argenton on the 18th of October, probably in 1511. His
+wife Hélčne de Chambes survived him till 1532; their tomb is now
+in the Louvre.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Memoirs</i>, to which Commines owes his reputation as a
+statesman and man of letters, were written during his latter years.
+The graphic style of his narrative and above all the keenness of
+his insight into the motives of his contemporaries, an insight
+undimmed by undue regard for principles of right and wrong,
+make this work one of the great classics of history. His portrait
+of Louis XI. remains unique, in that to such a writer was given
+such a subject. Scott in <i>Quentin Durward</i> gives an interesting
+picture of Commines, from whom he largely draws. Sainte-Beuve,
+after speaking of Commines as being in date the first truly modern
+writer, and comparing him with Montaigne, says that his history
+remains the definitive history of his time, and that from it all
+political history took its rise. None of this applause is undeserved,
+for the pages of Commines abound with excellences.
+He analyses motives and pictures manners; he delineates men and
+describes events; his reflections are pregnant with suggestiveness,
+his conclusions strong with the logic of facts.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Memoirs</i> divided themselves into two parts, the first from
+the reign of Louis XI., 1464-1483, the second on the Italian
+expedition and the negotiations at Venice leading to the Vercelli
+treaty, 1494-1495. The first part was written between 1489 and
+1491, while Commines was at the château of Dreux, the second
+from 1495 to 1498. Seven MSS. are known, derived from a single
+holograph, and as this was undoubtedly badly written, the copies
+were inaccurate; the best is that which belonged to Anne de
+Polignac, niece of Commines, and it is the only one containing
+books vii. and viii.</p>
+
+<p>The best edition of Commines is the one edited by B. de
+Mandrot and published at Paris in 1901-1903. For this edition
+the author used a manuscript hitherto unknown and more complete
+than the others, and in his introduction he gives an account
+of the life of Commines.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The <i>Memoirs</i> remained in MS. till 1524, when
+part of them were printed by Galliot du Pré, the remainder first
+seeing light in 1525. Subsequent editions were put forth by Denys
+Sauvage in 1552, by Denys Godefroy in 1649, and by Lenglet Dufresnoy
+in 1747. Those of Mademoiselle Dupont (1841-1848) and
+of M. de Chantelauze (1881) have many merits, but the best was given
+by Bernard de Mandrot: <i>Memoirs de Philippe de Commynes</i>, from
+the MS. of Anne de Polignac (1901). Various translations of
+Commines into English have appeared, from that of T. Danett in
+1596 to that, based on the Dupont edition, which was printed in
+Bohn&rsquo;s series in 1855.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMISSARIAT,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> the department of an army charged with the
+provision of supplies, both food and forage, for the troops. The
+supply of military stores such as ammunition is not included in
+the duties of a commissariat. In almost every army the duties of
+transport and supply are performed by the same corps of departmental
+troops.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMISSARY<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (from Med. Lat. <i>commissarius</i>, one to whom a
+charge or trust is committed), generally, a representative; <i>e.g.</i>,
+the emperor&rsquo;s representative who presided in his absence over
+the imperial diet; and especially, an ecclesiastical official who
+exercises in special circumstances the jurisdiction of a bishop
+(<i>q.v.</i>); in the Church of England this jurisdiction is exercised in a
+Consistory Court (<i>q.v.</i>), except in Canterbury, where the court of
+the diocesan as opposed to the metropolitan jurisdiction of the
+archbishop is called a commissary court, and the judge is the
+commissary general of the city and diocese of Canterbury. When
+a see is vacant the jurisdiction is exercised by a &ldquo;special commissary&rdquo;
+of the metropolitan. Commissary is also a general
+military term for an official charged with the duties of supply,
+transport and finance of an army. In the 17th and 18th centuries
+the <i>commissaire des guerres</i>, or <i>Kriegskommissär</i> was an important
+official in continental armies, by whose agency the troops, in
+their relation to the civil inhabitants, were placed upon semi-political
+control. In French military law, <i>commissaires du
+gouvernement</i> represent the ministry of war on military tribunals,
+and more or less correspond to the British judge-advocate (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Court-Martial</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMISSION<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>commissio</i>, <i>committere</i>), the action of
+committing or entrusting any charge or duty to a person, and the
+charge or trust thus committed, and so particularly an authority,
+or the document embodying such authority, given to some person
+to act in a particular capacity. The term is thus applied to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span>
+written authority to command troops, which the sovereign or
+president, as the ultimate commander-in-chief of the nation&rsquo;s
+armed forces, grants to persons selected as officers, or to the
+similar authority issued to certain qualified persons to act as
+justices of the peace. For the various commissions of assize see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assize</a></span>. The word is also used of the order issued to a naval
+officer to take the command of a ship of war, and when manned,
+armed and fully equipped for active service she is said to be &ldquo;put
+in commission.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the law of evidence (<i>q.v.</i>) the presence of witnesses may, for
+certain necessary causes, be dispensed with by the order of the
+court, and the evidence be taken by a commissioner. Such
+evidence in England is said to be &ldquo;on commission&rdquo; (see R.S.C.
+Order XXXVII.). Such causes may be illness, the intention of
+the witness to leave the country before the trial, residence out of
+the country or the like. Where the witness is out of the jurisdiction
+of the court, and his place of residence is a foreign country
+where objection is taken to the execution of a commission, or is a
+British colony or India, &ldquo;letters of request&rdquo; for the examination
+of the witness are issued, addressed to the head of the tribunal in
+the foreign country, or to the secretary of state for the colonies or
+for India.</p>
+
+<p>Where the functions of an office are transferred from an
+individual to a body of persons, the body exercising these
+delegated functions is generally known as a commission and the
+members as commissioners; thus the office of lord high admiral
+of Great Britain is administered by a permanent board, the lords
+of the admiralty. Such a delegation may be also temporary, as
+where the authority under the great seal to give the royal assent
+to legislation is issued to lords commissioners. Similarly bodies
+of persons or single individuals may be specially charged with
+carrying out particular duties; these may be permanent, such as
+the Charity Commission or the Ecclesiastical and Church Estates
+Commission, or may be temporary, such as various international
+bodies of inquiry, like the commission which met in Paris in 1905
+to inquire into the North Sea incident (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dogger Bank</a></span>), or
+such as the various commissions of inquiry, royal, statutory or
+departmental, of which an account is given below.</p>
+
+<p>A commission may be granted by one person to another to act
+as his agent, and particularly in business; thus the term is
+applied to that method of business in which goods are entrusted to
+an agent for sale, the remuneration being a percentage on the
+sales. This percentage is known as the &ldquo;commission,&rdquo; and hence
+the word is extended to all remuneration which is based on a
+percentage on the value of the work done. The right of an agent
+to remuneration in the form of a &ldquo;commission&rdquo; is always
+founded upon an express or implied contract between himself and
+his principal. Such a contract may be implied from custom or
+usage, from the conduct of the principal or from the circumstances
+of the particular case. Such commissions are only payable on
+transactions directly resulting from agency and may be payable
+though the principal acquires no benefit. In order to claim
+remuneration an agent must be legally qualified to act in the
+capacity in which he claims remuneration. He cannot recover
+in respect of unlawful or wagering transactions, or in cases of
+misconduct or breach of duty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secret Commissions.</i>&mdash;The giving of a commission, in the sense
+of a bribe or unlawful payment to an agent or employé in order
+to influence him in relation to his principal&rsquo;s or employer&rsquo;s affairs,
+has grown to considerable proportions in modern times; it has
+been rightly regarded as a gross breach of trust upon the part of
+employés and agents, inasmuch as it leads them to look to their
+own interests rather than to those of their employers. In order to
+suppress this bribing of employés the English legislature in 1906
+passed the Prevention of Corruption Act, which enacts that if an
+agent corruptly accepts or obtains for himself or for any other
+person any gift or consideration as an inducement or reward for
+doing or forbearing to do any act or business, or for showing or
+forbearing to show favour or disfavour to any person in relation to
+his principal&rsquo;s affairs, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour and
+shall be liable on conviction or indictment to imprisonment with
+or without hard labour for a term not exceeding two years, or to a
+fine not exceeding Ł500, or to both, or on summary conviction to
+imprisonment not exceeding four months with or without hard
+labour or to a fine not exceeding Ł50, or both. The act also applies
+the same punishment to any person who corruptly gives or offers
+any gift or consideration to an agent. Also if a person knowingly
+gives an agent, or if an agent knowingly uses, any receipt, account
+or document with intent to mislead the principal, they are
+guilty of a misdemeanour and liable to the punishment already
+mentioned. For the purposes of the act &ldquo;consideration&rdquo; includes
+valuable consideration of any kind, and &ldquo;agent&rdquo; includes
+any person employed by or acting for another. No prosecution
+can be instituted without the consent of the
+attorney-general, and every information must be upon oath.</p>
+
+<p>Legislation to the same effect has been adopted in Australia.
+A federal act was passed in 1905 dealing with secret commissions,
+and in the same year both Victoria and Western Australia passed
+drastic measures to prevent the giving or receiving corruptly of
+commissions. The Victorian act applies to trustees, executors,
+administrators and liquidators as well as to agents. Both the
+Victorian and the Western Australian acts enact that gifts to the
+parent, wife, child, partner or employer of an agent are to be
+deemed gifts to the agent unless the contrary is proved; also
+that the custom of any trade or calling is not in itself a defence to
+a prosecution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commissions of Inquiry</i>, <i>i.e.</i> commissions for the purpose of
+eliciting information as to the operation of laws, or investigating
+particular matters, social, educational, &amp;c., are distinguished,
+according to the terms of their appointment, as <i>royal</i>, <i>statutory</i>
+and <i>departmental</i>. A royal commission in England is appointed
+by the crown, and the commissions usually issue from the office of
+the executive government which they specially concern. The
+objects of the inquiry are carefully defined in the warrant
+constituting the commission, which is termed the &ldquo;reference.&rdquo;
+The commissioners give their services gratuitously, but where
+they involve any great degree of professional skill compensation
+is allowed for time and labour. The expenses incurred are
+provided out of money annually voted for the purpose. Unless
+expressly empowered by act of parliament, a commission cannot
+compel the production of documents or the giving of evidence, nor
+can it administer an oath. A commission may hold its sittings in
+any part of the United Kingdom, or may institute and conduct
+experiments for the purpose of testing the utility of invention, &amp;c.
+When the inquiry or any particular portion of it is concluded, a
+report is presented to the crown through the home department.
+All the commissioners, if unanimous, sign the report, but those
+who are unable to agree with the majority can record their dissent,
+and express their individual opinions, either in paragraphs appended
+to the report or in separately signed memoranda.</p>
+
+<p>Statutory commissions are created by acts of parliament, and,
+with the exception that they are liable to have their proceedings
+questioned in parliament, have absolute powers within the limits
+of their prescribed functions and subject to the provisions
+of the act defining the same. Departmental commissions or
+committees are appointed either by a treasury minute or by the
+authority of a secretary of state, for the purpose of instituting
+inquiries into matters of official concern or examining into
+proposed changes in administrative arrangements. They are
+generally composed of two or more permanent officials of the
+department concerned in the investigation, along with a subordinate
+member of the administration. Reports of such committees
+are usually regarded as confidential documents.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A full account of the procedure in royal commissions will be found
+in A. Todd&rsquo;s <i>Parliamentary Government in England</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMISSIONAIRE,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> the designation of an attendant, messenger
+or subordinate employé in hotels on the continent of
+Europe, whose chief duty is to attend at railway stations, secure
+customers, take charge of their luggage, carry out the necessary
+formalities with respect to it and have it sent on to the hotel.
+They are also employed in Paris as street messengers, light porters,
+&amp;c. The Corps of Commissionaires, in England, is an association
+of pensioned soldiers of trustworthy character, founded in
+1859 by Captain Sir Edward Walter, K.C.B. (1823-1904).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span>
+It was first started in a very small way, with the intention
+of providing occupation for none but wounded soldiers. The
+nucleus of the corps consisted of eight men, each of whom had
+lost a limb. The demand, however, for neat, uniformed, trusty
+men, to perform certain light duties, encouraged the founder to
+extend his idea, and the corps developed into a large self-supporting
+organization. In 1906 there were over 3000 members
+of the corps, more than 2000 of whom served in London. Out-stations
+were established in various large towns of the kingdom,
+and the corps extended its operations also to the colonies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMISSIONER,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> in general an officer appointed to carry out
+some particular work, or to discharge the duty of a particular
+office; one who is a member of a commission (<i>q.v.</i>). In this sense
+the word is applied to members of a permanently constituted
+department of the administration, as civil service commissioners,
+commissioners of income tax, commissioners in lunacy, &amp;c.
+It is also the title given to the heads of or important officials in
+various governmental departments, as commissioner of customs.
+In some British possessions in Africa and the Pacific the head
+of the government is styled high commissioner. In India a
+commissioner is the chief administrative official of a division
+which includes several districts. The office does not exist in
+Madras, where the same duties are discharged by a board of
+revenue, but is found in most of the other provinces. The commissioner
+comes midway between the local government and the
+district officer. In the regulation provinces the district officer is
+called a collector (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the non-regulation provinces a
+deputy-commissioner. In the former he must always be a
+member of the covenanted civil service, but in the latter he
+may be a military officer.</p>
+
+<p>A chief commissioner is a high Indian official, governing a
+province inferior in status to a
+lieutenant-governorship, but in
+direct subordination to the governor-general in council. The
+provinces which have chief commissioners are the Central
+Provinces and Berar, the North-West Frontier Province and
+Coorg. The agent to the governor-general of Baluchistan is
+also chief commissioner of British Baluchistan, the agent to the
+governor-general of Rajputana is also chief commissioner of
+the British district of Ajmere-Merwara, and there is a chief
+commissioner of the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Several
+provinces, such as the Punjab, Oudh, Burma and Assam, were
+administered by chief commissioners before they were raised
+to the status of lieutenant-governorships (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lieutenant</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>A commissioner for oaths in England is a solicitor appointed
+by the lord chancellor to administer oaths to persons making
+affidavits for the purpose of any cause or matter. The Commissioner
+for Oaths Act 1889 (with an amending act 1891),
+amending and consolidating various other acts, regulates the
+appointment and powers of such commissioners. In most large
+towns the minimum qualification for appointment is six years&rsquo;
+continuous practice, and the application must be supported by
+two barristers, two solicitors and at least six neighbours of
+the applicant. The charge made by commissioners for every
+oath, declaration, affirmation or attestation upon honour is
+one shilling and sixpence; for marking each exhibit (a document
+or other thing sworn to in an affidavit and shown to a deponent
+when being sworn), one shilling.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMITMENT,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> in English law, a precept or warrant <i>in writing</i>,
+made and issued by a court or judicial officer (including, in cases
+of treason, the privy council or a secretary of state), directing
+the conveyance of a person named or sufficiently described
+therein to a prison or other legal place of custody, and his
+detention therein for a time specified, or until the person to be
+detained has done a certain act specified in the warrant, <i>e.g.</i> paid
+a fine imposed upon him on conviction. Its character will be
+more easily grasped by reference to a form now in use under
+statutory authority:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the county of A, Petty Sessional Division of B.</p>
+
+<p>To each and all of the constables of the county of A and the
+governor of His Majesty&rsquo;s Prison at C.</p>
+
+<p>E. F. hereinafter called the defendant has this day been convicted
+before the court of summary jurisdiction sitting at D.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(Here the conviction and adjudication is stated.)</p>
+
+<p>You the said constables are hereby commanded to convey the
+defendant to the said prison, and there deliver him to the governor
+thereof together with this warrant: and you the governor of the
+said prison to receive the defendant into your custody and keep
+him to hard labour for the space of three calendar months.</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 5em;">Dated</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: right; padding-right: 2em;">Signature and seal of
+a justice of the peace.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A commitment as now understood differs from &ldquo;committal,&rdquo;
+which is the decision of a court to send a person to prison, and
+not the document containing the directions to executive and
+ministerial officers of the law which are consequent on the
+decision. An interval must necessarily elapse between the
+decision to commit and the making out of the warrant of commitment,
+during which interval the detention in custody of the
+person committed is undoubtedly legal. A commitment differs
+also from a warrant of arrest (<i>mandat d&rsquo;amener</i>), in that it is not
+made until after the person to be detained has actually appeared,
+or has been summoned, before the court which orders committal,
+to answer to some charge.</p>
+
+<p>If not always, at any rate since 1679, a warrant of commitment
+has been necessary to justify officers of the law in conveying
+a prisoner to gaol and a gaoler in receiving and detaining him
+there. It is ordinarily essential to a valid commitment that it
+should contain a specific statement of the particular cause of the
+detention ordered. To this the chief, if not the only exception,
+is in the case of commitments by order of either House of Parliament
+(May, <i>Parl. Pr.</i>, 11th ed., 63, 70, 90). Commitments by
+justices of the peace must be under their hands and seals. Commitments
+by a court of record if formally drawn up are under
+the seal of the court.</p>
+
+<p>Every person in custody is entitled, under the Habeas Corpus
+Act 1679, to receive within six hours of demand from the officer
+in whose custody he is, a copy of any warrant of commitment
+under which he is detained, and may challenge its legality by
+application for a writ of habeas corpus.</p>
+
+<p>So far as concerns the acts of justices and tribunals of limited
+jurisdiction, the stringency of the rules as to commitments is an
+important aid to the liberty of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of superior courts no statutory forms of commitment
+exist, and the same formalities are not so strictly enforced.
+Committal of a person present in court for contempt of the court
+is enforced by his immediate arrest by the tipstaff as soon as
+committal is ordered, and he may be detained in prison on a
+memorandum of the clerk or registrar of the court while a formal
+order is being drawn up. And in the case of persons sentenced
+at assizes and quarter sessions the only written authority for
+enforcement is a calendar of the prisoners tried, on which the
+sentences are entered up, signed by the presiding judge.</p>
+
+<p>Commitments are usually made by courts of criminal jurisdiction
+in respect of offences against the criminal law, but are also
+occasionally made as a punishment for disobedience to the orders
+made in a civil court, <i>e.g.</i> where a judgment debtor having means
+to pay refuses to satisfy the judgment debt, or in cases where
+the person committed has been guilty of a direct contempt of
+the court.</p>
+
+<p>The expenses of executing a warrant of commitment, so far
+as not paid by the prisoner, are defrayed out of the parliamentary
+grants for the maintenance of prisons.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMITTEE<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (from <i>committé</i>, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of
+<i>commettre</i>, Lat. <i>committere</i>, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent
+<i>comité</i> is derived from the Eng.), a person or body of persons to
+whom something is &ldquo;committed&rdquo; or entrusted. The term is
+used of a person or persons to whom the charge of the body
+(&ldquo;committee of the person&rdquo;) or of the property and business
+affairs (&ldquo;committee of the estate&rdquo;) of a lunatic is committed
+by the court (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>). In this sense the English usage is
+to pronounce the word <i>commi-ttee</i>. The more common meaning
+of &ldquo;committee&rdquo; (pronounced <i>commítt-y</i>) is that of a body of
+persons elected or appointed to consider and deal with certain
+matters of business, specially or generally referred to it.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMODIANUS,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a Christian Latin poet, who flourished about
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250. The only ancient writers who mention him are
+Gennadius, presbyter of Massilia (end of 5th century), in his <i>De
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span>
+scriptoribus ecclesiasticis</i>, and Pope Gelasius in <i>De libris
+recipiendis et non recipiendis</i>, in which his works are classed as
+<i>Apocryphi</i>, probably on account of certain heterodox statements
+contained in them. Commodianus is supposed to have been an
+African. As he himself tells us, he was originally a heathen, but
+was converted to Christianity when advanced in years, and felt
+called upon to instruct the ignorant in the truth. He was the
+author of two extant Latin poems, <i>Instructiones</i> and <i>Carmen
+apologeticum</i> (first published in 1852 by J. B. Pitra in the
+<i>Spicilegium Solesmense</i>, from a MS. in the Middlehill collection,
+now at Cheltenham, supposed to have been brought from the
+monastery of Bobbio). The <i>Instructiones</i> consist of 80 poems,
+each of which is an acrostic (with the exception of 60, where the
+initial letters are in alphabetical order). The initials of 80, read
+backwards, give Commodianus Mendicus Christi. The <i>Apologeticum</i>,
+undoubtedly by Commodianus, although the name of
+the author (as well as the title) is absent from the MS., is free
+from the acrostic restriction. The first part of the <i>Instructiones</i>
+is addressed to the heathens and Jews, and ridicules the divinities
+of classical mythology; the second contains reflections on
+Antichrist, the end of the world, the Resurrection, and advice to
+Christians, penitents and the clergy. In the <i>Apologeticum</i> all
+mankind are exhorted to repent, in view of the approaching end of
+the world. The appearance of Antichrist, identified with Nero
+and the Man from the East, is expected at an early date.
+Although they display fiery dogmatic zeal, the poems cannot be
+considered quite orthodox. To the classical scholar the metre
+alone is of interest. Although they are professedly written in
+hexameters, the rules of quantity are sacrificed to accent. The
+first four lines of the <i>Instructiones</i> may be quoted by way of
+illustration:</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>&ldquo;Praefatio nostra viam erranti demonstrat,</p>
+<p class="i05">Respectumque bonum, cum venerit saeculi meta,</p>
+<p class="i05">Aeternum fieri, quod discredunt inscia corda:</p>
+<p class="i05">Ego similiter erravi tempore multo.&rdquo;</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>These <i>versus politici</i> (as they are called) show that the change was
+already passing over Latin which resulted in the formation of the
+Romance languages. The use of cases and genders, the construction
+of verbs and prepositions, and the verbal forms exhibit
+striking irregularities. The author, however, shows an acquaintance
+with Latin poets&mdash;Horace, Virgil, Lucretius.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of the text is by B. Dombart (Vienna, 1887), and
+a good account of the poems will be found in M. Manitius, <i>Geschichte
+der christlich-lateinischen Poesie</i> (1891), with bibliography, to which
+may be added G. Boissier, &ldquo;Commodien,&rdquo; in the <i>Mélanges Renier</i>
+(1887); H. Brewer, <i>Kommodian von Gaza</i> (Paderborn, 1906);
+L. Vernier, &ldquo;La Versification latine populaire en Afrique,&rdquo; in <i>Revue
+de philologie</i>, xv. (1891); and C. E. Freppel, <i>Commodien, Arnobe,
+Lactance</i> (1893). Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i> (Eng.
+trans., 384), should also be consulted.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMODORE<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (a form of &ldquo;commander&rdquo;; in the 17th century
+the term &ldquo;commandore&rdquo; is used), a temporary rank in the
+British navy for an officer in command of a squadron. There are
+two kinds, one with and the other without a captain below him in
+his ship, the first holding the temporary rank, pay, &amp;c., of a rear-admiral,
+the other that of captain. It is also given as a courtesy
+title to the senior officer of a squadron of more than three vessels.
+In the United States navy &ldquo;commodore&rdquo; was a courtesy title
+given to captains who had been in command of a squadron. In
+1862 it was made a commissioned rank, but was abolished in 1899.
+The name is given to the president of a yacht club, as of the
+Royal Yacht Squadron, and to the senior captain of a fleet of
+merchant vessels.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (161-192), also
+called Marcus Antoninus, emperor of Rome, son of Marcus
+Aurelius and Faustina, was born at Lanuvium on the 31st of
+August 161. In spite of a careful education he soon showed a
+fondness for low society and amusement. At the age of fifteen he
+was associated by his father in the government. On the death of
+Aurelius, whom he had accompanied in the war against the Quadi
+and Marcomanni, he hastily concluded peace and hurried back
+to Rome (180). The first years of his reign were uneventful, but in
+183 be was attacked by an assassin at the instigation of his sister
+Lucilla and many members of the senate, which felt deeply
+insulted by the contemptuous manner in which Commodus
+treated it. From this time he became tyrannical. Many
+distinguished Romans were put to death as implicated in the
+conspiracy, and others were executed for no reason at all. The
+treasury was exhausted by lavish expenditure on gladiatorial and
+wild beast combats and on the soldiery, and the property of the
+wealthy was confiscated. At the same time Commodus, proud
+of his bodily strength and dexterity, exhibited himself in the
+arena, slew wild animals and fought with gladiators, and commanded
+that he should be worshipped as the Roman Hercules.
+Plots against his life naturally began to spring up. That of his
+favourite Perennis, praefect of the praetorian guard, was discovered
+in time. The next danger was from the people, who were
+infuriated by the dearth of corn. The mob repelled the praetorian
+guard, but the execution of the hated minister Cleander quieted
+the tumult. The attempt also of the daring highwayman
+Maternus to seize the empire was betrayed; but at last Eclectus
+the emperor&rsquo;s chamberlain, Laetus the praefect of the praetorians,
+and his mistress Marcia, finding their names on the list of those
+doomed to death, united to destroy him. He was poisoned, and
+then strangled by a wrestler named Narcissus, on the 31st of
+December 192. During his reign unimportant wars were successfully
+carried on by his generals Clodius Albinus, Pescennius
+Niger and Ulpius Marcellus. The frontier of Dacia was successfully
+defended against the Scythians and Sarmatians, and a tract
+of territory reconquered in north Britain. In 1874 a statue of
+Commodus was dug up at Rome, in which he is represented as
+Hercules&mdash;a lion&rsquo;s skin on his head, a club in his right and the
+apples of the Hesperides in his left hand.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Aelius Lampridius, Herodian, and fragments in Dio Cassius;
+H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>; J. Zürcher, &ldquo;Commodus&rdquo;
+(1868, in Büdinger&rsquo;s <i>Untersuchungen zur römischen Kaisergeschichte</i>,
+a criticism of Herodian&rsquo;s account); Pauly-Wissowa,
+<i>Realencyclopädie</i>, ii. 2464 ff. (von Rohden); Heer, &ldquo;Der historische
+Wert des Vita Commodi&rdquo; (<i>Philologus</i>, Supplementband ix.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMON LAW,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> like &ldquo;civil law,&rdquo; a phrase with many shades of
+meaning, and probably best defined with reference to the various
+things to which it is opposed. It is contrasted with statute law,
+as law not promulgated by the sovereign body; with equity, as
+the law prevailing between man and man, unless when the court
+of chancery assumed jurisdiction; and with local or customary
+law, as the general law for the whole realm, tolerating variations
+in certain districts and under certain conditions. It is also
+sometimes contrasted with civil, or canon, or international law,
+which are foreign systems recognized in certain special courts
+only and within limits defined by the common law. As against
+all these contrasted kinds of law, it may be described broadly as
+the universal law of the realm, which applies wherever they have
+not been introduced, and which is supposed to have a principle
+for every possible case. Occasionally, it would appear to be used
+in a sense which would exclude the law developed by at all events
+the more modern decisions of the courts.</p>
+
+<p>Blackstone divides the civil law of England into <i>lex scripta</i> or
+statute law, and <i>lex non scripta</i> or common law. The latter, he
+says, consists of (1) general customs, which are the common law
+strictly so called, (2) particular customs prevailing in certain
+districts, and (3) laws used in particular courts. The first is the
+law by which &ldquo;proceedings and determinations in the king&rsquo;s
+ordinary courts of justice are guided and directed.&rdquo; That the
+eldest son alone is heir to his ancestor, that a deed is of no validity
+unless sealed and delivered, that wills shall be construed more
+favourably and deeds more strictly, are examples of common law
+doctrines, &ldquo;not set down in any written statute or ordinance, but
+depending on immemorial usage for their support.&rdquo; The validity
+of these usages is to be determined by the judges&mdash;&ldquo;the depositaries
+of the law, the living oracles who must decide in all
+cases of doubt, and who are bound by an oath to decide according
+to the law of the land.&rdquo; Their judgments are preserved as
+records, and &ldquo;it is an established rule to abide by former precedents
+where the same points come again in litigation.&rdquo; The
+extraordinary deference paid to precedents is the source of the
+most striking peculiarities of the English common law. There
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span>
+can be little doubt that it was the rigid adherence of the common
+law courts to established precedent which caused the rise of an
+independent tribunal administering justice on more equitable
+principles&mdash;the tribunal of the chancellor, the court of chancery.
+And the old common law courts&mdash;the king&rsquo;s bench, common
+pleas and exchequer&mdash;were always, as compared with the court
+of chancery, distinguished for a certain narrowness and technicality
+of reasoning. At the same time the common law was never
+a fixed or rigid system. In the application of old precedents to
+the changing circumstances of society, and in the development
+of new principles to meet new cases, the common law courts
+displayed an immense amount of subtlety and ingenuity, and a
+great deal of sound sense. The continuity of the system was not
+less remarkable than its elasticity. Two great defects of form
+long disfigured the English law. One was the separation of
+common law and equity. The Judicature Act of 1873 remedied
+this by merging the jurisdiction of all the courts in one supreme
+court, and causing equitable principles to prevail over those of the
+common law where they differ. The other is the overwhelming
+mass of precedents in which the law is embedded. This can only
+be removed by some well-conceived scheme of the nature of a
+code or digest; to some extent this difficulty has been overcome
+by such acts as the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, the Partnership
+Act 1890 and the Sale of Goods Act 1893.</p>
+
+<p>The English common law may be described as a pre-eminently
+national system. Based on Saxon customs, moulded by Norman
+lawyers, and jealous of foreign systems, it is, as Bacon says, as
+mixed as the English language and as truly national. And like the
+language, it has been taken into other English-speaking countries,
+and is the foundation of the law in the United States.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMON LODGING-HOUSE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> &ldquo;a house, or part of a house,
+where persons of the poorer classes are received for gain, and in
+which they use one or more rooms in common with the rest of
+the inmates, who are not members of one family, whether for
+eating or sleeping&rdquo; (<i>Langdon</i> v. <i>Broadbent</i>, 1877, 37 L.T. 434;
+<i>Booth</i> v. <i>Ferrett</i>, 1890, 25 Q.B.D. 87). There is no statutory
+definition of the class of houses in England intended to be included
+in the expression &ldquo;common lodging-house,&rdquo; but the above
+definition is very generally accepted as embracing those houses
+which, under the Public Health and other Acts, must be registered
+and inspected. The provisions of the Public Health Act 1875
+are that every urban and rural district council must keep registers
+showing the names and residences of the keepers of all common
+lodging-houses in their districts, the situation of every such house,
+and the number of lodgers authorized by them to be received
+therein. They may require the keeper to affix and keep undefaced
+and legible a notice with the words &ldquo;registered common
+lodging-house&rdquo; in some conspicuous place on the outside of the
+house, and may make by-laws fixing the number of lodgers,
+for the separation of the sexes, for promoting cleanliness and
+ventilation, for the giving of notices and the taking of precautions
+in case of any infectious disease, and generally for the well
+ordering of such houses. The keeper of a common lodging-house
+is required to limewash the walls and ceilings twice a year&mdash;in
+April and October&mdash;and to provide a proper water-supply.
+The whole of the house must be open at all times to the inspection
+of any officer of a council. The county of London (except the
+city) is under the Common Lodging Houses Acts 1851 and 1853,
+with the Sanitary Act 1866 and the Sanitary Law Amendment
+Act 1874. The administration of these acts was, from 1851 to
+1894, in the hands of the chief commissioner of police, when it
+was transferred to the London County Council.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> sometimes called <i>The Order
+of Geneva</i> or <i>Knox&rsquo;s Liturgy</i>, a directory for public worship
+in the Reformed Church in Scotland. In 1557 the Scottish
+Protestant lords in council enjoined the use of the English
+Common Prayer, <i>i.e.</i> the Second Book of Edward VI. Meanwhile,
+at Frankfort, among British Protestant refugees, a controversy
+was going on between the upholders of the English
+liturgy and the French Reformed Order of Worship respectively.
+By way of compromise John Knox and other ministers drew up
+a new liturgy based upon earlier Continental Reformed Services,
+which was not deemed satisfactory, but which on his removal
+to Geneva he published in 1556 for the use of the English congregations
+in that city. The Geneva book made its way to
+Scotland, and was used here and there by Reformed congregations.
+Knox&rsquo;s return in 1559 strengthened its position, and in 1562 the
+General Assembly enjoined the uniform use of it as the &ldquo;Book
+of Our Common Order&rdquo; in &ldquo;the administration of the Sacraments
+and solemnization of marriages and burials of the dead.&rdquo;
+In 1564 a new and enlarged edition was printed in Edinburgh,
+and the Assembly ordered that &ldquo;every Minister, exhorter and
+reader&rdquo; should have a copy and use the Order contained therein
+not only for marriage and the sacraments but also &ldquo;in Prayer,&rdquo;
+thus ousting the hitherto permissible use of the Second Book of
+Edward VI. at ordinary service. &ldquo;The rubrics as retained
+from the Book of Geneva made provision for an extempore
+prayer before the sermon, and allowed the minister some latitude
+in the other two prayers. The forms for the special services
+were more strictly imposed, but liberty was also given to vary
+some of the prayers in them. The rubrics of the Scottish portion
+of the book are somewhat stricter, and, indeed, one or two of
+the Geneva rubrics were made more absolute in the Scottish
+emendations; but no doubt the &lsquo;Book of Common Order&rsquo;
+is best described as a discretionary liturgy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It will be convenient here to give the contents of the edition
+printed by Andrew Hart at Edinburgh in 1611, and described
+(as was usually the case) as <i>The Psalmes of David in Meeter, with
+the Prose, whereunto is added Prayers commonly used in the Kirke,
+and private houses; with a perpetuall Kalendar and all the Changes
+of the Moone that shall happen for the space of Six Yeeres to come</i>.
+They are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(i.) The Calendar; (ii.) The names of the Faires of Scotland;
+(iii.) The Confession of Faith used at Geneva and received by
+the Church of Scotland; (iv.-vii.) Concerning the election and
+duties of Ministers, Elders and Deacons, and Superintendent;
+(viii.) An order of Ecclesiastical Discipline; (ix.) The Order of
+Excommunication and of Public Repentance; (x.) The Visitation
+of the Sick; (xi.) The Manner of Burial; (xii.) The Order of
+Public Worship&mdash;Forms of Confession and Prayer after Sermon;
+(xiii.) Other Public Prayers; (xiv.) The Administration of the
+Lord&rsquo;s Supper; (xv.) The Form of Marriage; (xvi.) The Order
+of Baptism; (xvii.) A Treatise on Fasting with the order thereof;
+(xviii.) The Psalms of David; (xix.) Conclusions or Doxologies;
+(xx.) Hymns&mdash;metrical versions of the Decalogue, Magnificat,
+Apostles&rsquo; Creed, &amp;c.; (xxi.) Calvin&rsquo;s Catechism; (xxii. and
+xxiii.) Prayers for Private Houses and Miscellaneous Prayers, <i>e.g.</i>
+for a man before he begins his work.</p>
+
+<p>The Psalms and Catechism together occupy more than half
+the book. The chapter on burial is significant. In place of the
+long office of the Catholic Church we have simply this statement:&mdash;&ldquo;The
+corpse is reverently brought to the grave, accompanied
+with the Congregation, without any further ceremonies: which
+being buried, the Minister (if he be present and required) goeth
+to the Church, if it be not far off, and maketh some comfortable
+exhortation to the people, touching death and resurrection.&rdquo;
+This (with the exception of the bracketed words) was taken over
+from the Book of Geneva. The Westminster Directory which
+superseded the Book of Common Order also enjoins interment
+&ldquo;without any ceremony,&rdquo; such being stigmatized as &ldquo;no way
+beneficial to the dead and many ways hurtful to the living.&rdquo;
+Civil honours may, however, be rendered.</p>
+
+<p>Revs. G. W. Sprott and Thomas Leishman, in the introduction
+to their edition of the Book of Common Order, and of the Westminster
+Directory published in 1868, collected a valuable series
+of notices as to the actual usage of the former book for the period
+(1564-1645) during which it was enjoined by ecclesiastical law.
+Where ministers were not available suitable persons (often old
+priests, sometimes schoolmasters) were selected as readers. Good
+contemporary accounts of Scottish worship are those of W.
+Cowper (1568-1619), bishop of Galloway, in his <i>Seven Days&rsquo;
+Conference between a Catholic Christian and a Catholic Roman</i>
+(<i>c.</i> 1615), and Alexander Henderson in <i>The Government and Order
+of the Church of Scotland</i> (1641). There was doubtless a good
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span>
+deal of variety at different times and in different localities.
+Early in the 17th century under the twofold influence of the
+Dutch Church, with which the Scottish clergy were in close
+connexion, and of James I.&rsquo;s endeavours to &ldquo;justle out&rdquo; a
+liturgy which gave the liberty of &ldquo;conceiving&rdquo; prayers, ministers
+began in prayer to read less and extemporize more.</p>
+
+<p>Turning again to the legislative history, in 1567 the prayers
+were done into Gaelic; in 1579 parliament ordered all gentlemen
+and yeomen holding property of a certain value to possess copies.
+The assembly of 1601 declined to alter any of the existing
+prayers but expressed a willingness to admit new ones. Between
+1606 and 1618 various attempts were made under English and
+Episcopal influence, by assemblies afterwards declared unlawful,
+to set aside the &ldquo;Book of Common Order.&rdquo; The efforts of
+James I., Charles I. and Archbishop Laud proved fruitless;
+in 1637 the reading of Laud&rsquo;s draft of a new form of service
+based on the English prayer book led to riots in Edinburgh and to
+general discontent in the country. The General Assembly of
+Glasgow in 1638 abjured Laud&rsquo;s book and took its stand again
+by the Book of Common Order, an act repeated by the assembly
+of 1639, which also demurred against innovations proposed by
+the English separatists, who objected altogether to liturgical
+forms, and in particular to the Lord&rsquo;s Prayer, the <i>Gloria Patri</i>
+and the minister kneeling for private devotion in the pulpit.
+An Aberdeen printer named Raban was publicly censured for
+having on his own authority shortened one of the prayers.
+The following years witnessed a counter attempt to introduce
+the Scottish liturgy into England, especially for those who in the
+southern kingdom were inclined to Presbyterianism. This
+effort culminated in the Westminster Assembly of divines
+which met in 1643, at which six commissioners from the Church
+of Scotland were present, and joined in the task of drawing up
+a Common Confession, Catechism and Directory for the three
+kingdoms. The commissioners reported to the General Assembly
+of 1644 that this Common Directory &ldquo;is so begun ... that we
+could not think upon any particular Directory for our own Kirk.&rdquo;
+The General Assembly of 1645 after careful study approved
+the new order. An act of Assembly on the 3rd of February and
+an act of parliament on the 6th of February ordered its use in
+every church, and henceforth, though there was no act setting
+aside the &ldquo;Book of Common Order,&rdquo; the Westminster Directory
+was of primary authority. The Directory was meant simply
+to make known &ldquo;the general heads, the sense and scope of the
+Prayers and other parts of Public Worship,&rdquo; and if need be,
+&ldquo;to give a help and furniture.&rdquo; The act of parliament recognizing
+the Directory was annulled at the Restoration and the book
+has never since been acknowledged by a civil authority in Scotland.
+But General Assemblies have frequently recommended its
+use, and worship in Presbyterian churches is largely conducted
+on the lines of the Westminster Assembly&rsquo;s Directory.</p>
+
+<p>The modern <i>Book of Common Order</i> or <i>Euchologion</i> is a compilation
+drawn from various sources and issued by the Church
+Service Society, an organization which endeavours to promote
+liturgical usages within the Established Church of Scotland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMONPLACE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a translation of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="koivňs tópos">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#8056;&#962; &#964;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+<i>i.e.</i> a passage or argument appropriate to several cases; a
+&ldquo;common-place book&rdquo; is a collection of such passages or
+quotations arranged for reference under general heads either
+alphabetically or on some method of classification. To such a
+book the name <i>adversaria</i> was given, which is an adaptation of
+the Latin <i>adversaria scripta</i>, notes written on one side, the side
+opposite (<i>adversus</i>), of a paper or book. From its original meaning
+the word came to be used as meaning something hackneyed,
+a platitude or truism, and so, as an adjective, equivalent to
+trivial or ordinary. It was first spelled as two words, then with
+a hyphen, and so still in the sense of a &ldquo;common-place book.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> formerly one of the three
+English common law courts at Westminster&mdash;the other two
+being the king&rsquo;s bench and exchequer. The court of common
+pleas was an offshoot of the Curia Regis or king&rsquo;s council.
+Previous to Magna Carta, the king&rsquo;s council, especially that
+portion of it which was charged with the management of judicial
+and revenue business, followed the king&rsquo;s person. This, as far as
+private litigation was concerned, caused great inconvenience
+to the unfortunate suitors whose plaints awaited the attention
+of the court, for they had, of necessity, also to follow the king
+from place to place, or lose the opportunity of having their
+causes tried. Accordingly, Magna Carta enacted that common
+pleas (<i>communia placita</i>) or causes between subject and subject,
+should be held in some fixed place and not follow the court.
+This place was fixed at Westminster. The court was presided
+over by a chief (<i>capitalis justiciarius de communi banco</i>) and four
+puisne judges. The jurisdiction of the common pleas was, by the
+Judicature Act 1873, vested in the king&rsquo;s bench division of the
+High Court of Justice.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMONS,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span><a name="FnAnchor_1c" id="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the term for the lands held in commonalty, a
+relic of the system on which the lands of England were for the
+most part cultivated during the middle ages. The
+country was divided into vills, or townships&mdash;often,
+<span class="sidenote">Early history.</span>
+though not necessarily, or always, coterminous with
+the parish. In each stood a cluster of houses, a village, in which
+dwelt the men of the township, and around the village lay the
+arable fields and other lands, which they worked as one common
+farm. Save for a few small inclosures near the village&mdash;for
+gardens, orchards or paddocks for young stock&mdash;the whole township
+was free from permanent fencing. The arable lands lay in
+large tracts divided into compartments or fields, usually three
+in number, to receive in constant rotation the triennial succession
+of wheat (or rye), spring crops (such as barley, oats, beans or
+peas), and fallow. Low-lying lands were used as meadows, and
+there were sometimes pastures fed according to fixed rules.
+The poorest land of the township was left waste&mdash;to supply feed
+for the cattle of the community, fuel, wood for repairs, and any
+other commodity of a renewable or practically inexhaustible
+character.<a name="FnAnchor_2c" id="FnAnchor_2c" href="#Footnote_2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This waste land is the common of our own days.</p>
+
+<p>It would seem likely that at one time there was no division,
+as between individual inhabitants or householders, of any of the
+lands of the township, but only of the products. But so far back
+as accurate information extends the arable land is found to be
+parcelled out, each householder owning strips in each field.
+These strips are always long and narrow, and lie in sets parallel
+with one another. The plough for cultivating the fields was
+maintained at the common expense of the village, and the draught
+oxen were furnished by the householders. From the time when
+the crop was carried till the next sowing, the field lay open to the
+cattle of the whole vill, which also had the free run of the fallow
+field throughout the year. But when two of the three fields were
+under crops, and the meadows laid up for hay, it is obvious that
+the cattle of the township required some other resort for pasturage.
+This was supplied by the waste or common. Upon it the
+householder turned out the oxen and horses which he contributed
+to the plough, and the cows and sheep, which were useful in
+manuring the common fields,&mdash;in the words of an old law case:
+&ldquo;horses and oxen to plough the land, and cows and sheep to
+compester it.&rdquo; Thus the use of the common by each householder
+was naturally measured by the stock which he kept for the service
+of the common fields; and when, at a later period, questions
+arose as to the extent of the rights on the common, the necessary
+practice furnished the rule, that the commoner could turn out
+as many head of cattle as he could keep by means of the lands
+which were parcelled out to him,&mdash;the rule of levancy and couchancy,
+which has come down to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest post-conquest times the vill or township is
+found to be associated with an over-lord. There has been much
+controversy on the question, whether the vill originally
+owned its lands free from any control, and was subsequently
+<span class="sidenote">Status of township.</span>
+reduced to a state of subjection and to a large
+extent deprived of its ownership, or whether its whole history
+has been one of gradual emancipation, the ownership of the waste,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span>
+or common, now ascribed by the law to the lord being a remnant
+of his ownership of all the lands of the vill. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manor</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>At whatever date the over-lord first appeared, and whatever
+may have been the personal relations of the villagers to him from
+time to time after his appearance, there can be hardly any doubt
+that the village lands, whether arable, meadow or waste, were substantially
+the property of the villagers for the purposes of use and
+enjoyment. They resorted freely to the common for such purposes
+as were incident to their system of agriculture, and regulated its
+use amongst themselves. The idea that the common was the
+&ldquo;lord&rsquo;s waste,&rdquo; and that he had the power to do what he liked
+with it, subject to specific and limited qualifying rights in others,
+was, there is little doubt, the creation of the Norman lawyers.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest assertions of the lord&rsquo;s proprietary
+interest in waste lands is contained in the Statute of Merton, a
+statute which, it is well to notice, was passed in one
+of the first assemblies of the barons of England, before
+<span class="sidenote">Statutes of Merton and Westminster the Second.</span>
+the commons of the realm were summoned to parliament.
+This statute, which became law in the year
+1235, provided &ldquo;that the great men of England (which
+had enfeoffed knights and their freeholders of small tenements
+in their great manors)&rdquo; might &ldquo;make their profit of their lands,
+wastes, woods and pastures,&rdquo; if they left sufficient pasture
+for the service of the tenements they had granted. Some fifty
+years later, another statute, that of Westminster the Second,
+supplemented the Statute of Merton by enabling the lord of the
+soil to inclose common lands, not only against his own tenants,
+but against &ldquo;neighbours&rdquo; claiming pasture there. These two
+pieces of legislation undoubtedly mark the growth of the doctrine
+which converted the over-lord&rsquo;s territorial sway into property
+of the modern kind, and a corresponding loosening of the hold
+of the rural townships on the wastes of their neighbourhood.
+To what extent the two acts were used, it is very difficult to say.
+We know, from later controversies, that they made no very great
+change in the system on which the country was cultivated,
+a system to which, as we have seen, commons were essential.
+In some counties, indeed, inclosures had, by the Tudor
+period, made greater progress than in others. T. Tusser, in his
+eulogium on inclosed farming, cites Suffolk and Essex as inclosed
+counties by way of contrast to Norfolk, Cambridgeshire and
+Leicestershire, where the open or &ldquo;champion&rdquo; (champain)
+system prevailed. The Statutes of Merton and Westminster
+may have had something to do with the progress of inclosed
+farming; but it is probable that their chief operation lay in
+furnishing the lord of the manor with a farm on the new system,
+side by side with the common fields, or with a deer park.</p>
+
+<p>The first event which really endangered the village system was
+the coming of the Black Death. This scourge is said to have
+swept away half the population of the country. The
+disappearance, by no means uncommon, of a whole
+<span class="sidenote">The Black Death.</span>
+family gave the over-lord of the vill the opportunity
+of appropriating, by way of escheat, the holding of the household
+in the common fields. The land-holding population of the
+townships and the persons interested in the commons were thus
+sensibly diminished.</p>
+
+<p>During the Wars of the Roses the small cultivator is thought
+to have again made headway. But his diminished numbers,
+and the larger interest which the lords had acquired in the lands
+of each vill, no doubt facilitated the determined attack on the
+common-field system which marked the reigns of Henry VIII. and
+Edward VI.</p>
+
+<p>This attack, which had for its chief object the conversion of
+arable land into pasture for the sake of sheep-breeding, was
+the outcome of many causes. It was no longer of
+importance to a territorial magnate to possess a large
+<span class="sidenote">The Tudor agrarian revolution.</span>
+body of followers pledged to his interests by their
+connexion with the land. On the other hand, wool
+commanded a high price, and the growth of towns and of foreign
+commerce supplied abundant markets. At the same time the
+confiscation of the monastic possessions introduced a race of
+new over-lords&mdash;not bound to their territories by any family
+traditions, and also tended to spread the view that the strong
+hand was its own justification. In order to keep large flocks
+and send many bales of wool to market, each landowner strove
+to increase his range of pasture, and with this view to convert the
+arable fields of his vill into grass land. There is abundant
+evidence both from the complaints of writers such as Latimer
+and Sir Thomas More, and from the Statutes and royal commissions
+of the day, that large inclosures were made at this time,
+and that the process was effected with much injustice and
+accompanied by great hardship. &ldquo;Where,&rdquo; says Bishop Latimer
+in one of his courageous and vigorous denunciations of &ldquo;inclosers
+and rent-raisers,&rdquo; &ldquo;there have been many householders and
+inhabitants, there is now but a shepherd and his dog.&rdquo; In the
+full tide of this movement, and despite Latimer&rsquo;s appeals, the
+Statutes of Merton and Westminster the Second were confirmed
+and re-enacted. Both common fields and commons no doubt
+disappeared in many places; and the country saw the first
+notable instalment of inclosure. But from the evidence of later
+years it is clear that a very large area of the country was still
+cultivated on the common-field system for another couple of
+centuries. When inclosure on any considerable scale again
+came into favour, it was effected on quite different principles;
+and before describing what was essentially a modern movement,
+it will be convenient to give a brief outline of the principles of
+law applicable to commons at the present day.</p>
+
+<p><i>Law.</i>&mdash;The distinguishing feature in law of common land is,
+that it is land the soil of which belongs to one person, and from
+which certain other persons take certain profits&mdash;for
+example, the bite of the grass by the mouth of cattle,
+<span class="sidenote">Rights of common.</span>
+or gorse, bushes or heather for fuel or litter. The
+right to take such a profit is a right of common; the right to feed
+cattle on common land is a right of common of pasture; while
+the right of cutting bushes, gorse or heather (more rarely of
+lopping trees) is known as a right of common of <i>estovers</i> (<i>estouviers</i>)
+or <i>botes</i> (respectively from the Norman-French <i>estouffer</i>, and the
+Saxon <i>botan</i>, to furnish). Another right of common is that of
+<i>turbary</i>, or the right to cut turf or peat for fuel. There are also
+rights of taking sand, gravel or loam for the repair and maintenance
+of land. The persons who enjoy any of these rights are
+called commoners.</p>
+
+<p>From the sketch of the common-field system of agriculture
+which has been given, we shall readily infer that a large proportion
+of the commons of the country, and of the peculiarities of the
+law relating to commons, are traceable to that system. Thus,
+common rights are mostly attached to, or enjoyed with, certain
+lands or houses. A right of common of pasture usually consists
+of the right to turn out as many cattle as the farm or other
+private land of the commoner can support in winter; for, as
+we have seen, the enjoyment of the common, in the village
+system, belonged to the householders of the village, and was
+necessarily measured by their holdings in the common fields.
+The cattle thus commonable are said to be <i>levant</i> and <i>couchant</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
+uprising and down-lying on the land. But it has now been
+decided that they need not in fact be so kept. At the present
+day a commoner may turn out any cattle belonging to him,
+wherever they are kept, provided they do not exceed in number
+the head of cattle which can be supported by the stored summer
+produce of the land in respect of which the right is claimed,
+together with any winter herbage it produces. The animals
+which a commoner may usually turn out are those which were
+employed in the village system&mdash;horses, oxen, cows and sheep.
+These animals are termed commonable animals. A right may be
+claimed for other animals, such as donkeys, pigs and geese;
+but they are termed non-commonable, and the right can only be
+established on proof of special usage. A right of pasture attached
+to land in the way we have described is said to be <i>appendant</i>
+or <i>appurtenant</i> to such land. Common of pasture appendant to
+land can only be claimed for commonable cattle; and it is held
+to have been originally attached only to arable land, though in
+claiming the right no proof that the land was originally arable
+is necessary. This species of common right is, in fact, the direct
+survival of the use by the village householder of the common
+of the township; while common of pasture appurtenant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span>
+represents rights which grew up between neighbouring townships,
+or, in later times, by direct grant from the owner of the soil of the
+common to some other landowner, or (in the case of copyholders)
+by local custom.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristic of connexion with house or land also marks
+other rights of common. Thus a right of taking gorse or bushes,
+or of lopping wood for fuel, called <i>fire-bote</i>, is limited to the taking
+of such fuel as may be necessary for the hearths of a particular
+house, and no more may be taken than is thus required.  The
+same condition applies to common of <i>turbary</i>, which in its more
+usual form authorizes the commoner to cut the heather, which
+grows thickly upon poor soils, with the roots and adhering earth,
+to a depth of about 9 in.  Similarly, wood taken for the repairs
+of buildings (<i>house-bote</i>), or of hedges (<i>hedge-bote</i> or <i>hey-bote</i>),
+must be limited in quantity to the requirements of the house,
+farm buildings and hedges of the particular property to which
+the right is attached. And heather taken for litter cannot be
+taken in larger quantities than is necessary for manuring the
+lands in respect of which the right is enjoyed.  It is illegal to
+take the wood or heather from the common, and to sell it to any
+one who has not himself a right to take it. So, also, a right of
+digging sand, gravel, clay or loam is usually appurtenant to
+land, and must be exercised with reference to the repair of the
+roads, or the improvement of the soil, of the particular property
+to which the right is attached.</p>
+
+<p>We have already alluded to the fact that, in Norman and later
+days, every vill or township was associated with some over-lord,&mdash;some
+one responsible to the crown, either directly or through
+other superior lords, for the holding of the land and the performance
+of certain duties of defence and military support.
+To this lord the law has assigned the ownership of the soil of the
+common of the vill; and the common has for many centuries
+been styled the waste of the manor. The trees and bushes on
+the common belong to the lord, subject to any rights of lopping
+or cutting which the commoners may possess. The ground, sand
+and subsoil are his, and even the grass, though the commoners
+have the right to take it by the mouths of their cattle. To the
+over-lord, also, was assigned a seignory over all the other lands
+of the vill; and the vill came to be termed his manor. At the
+present day it is the manorial system which must be invoked in
+most cases as the foundation of the curiously conflicting rights
+which co-exist on a common. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manor</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Within the bounds of a manor, speaking generally, there
+are three classes of persons possessing an interest
+<span class="sidenote">Manorial commons.</span>
+in the land, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(a) Persons holding land freely of the manor, or
+freehold tenants.</p>
+
+<p>(b) Persons holding land of the manor by copy of court roll,
+or copyhold tenants.</p>
+
+<p>(c) Persons holding from the lord of the manor, by lease or
+agreement, or from year to year, land which was originally
+demesne, or which was once freehold or copyhold and has come
+into the lord&rsquo;s hands by escheat or forfeiture.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the first two classes we usually find the majority
+of the commoners on the wastes or commons of the manor.
+To every freehold tenant belongs a right of common of pasture
+on the commons, such right being &ldquo;appendant&rdquo; to the land
+which he holds freely of the manor. This right differs from most
+other rights of common in the characteristic that actual exercise
+of the right need not be proved. When once it is shown that
+certain land is held freely of the manor, it follows of necessity
+that a right of common of pasture for commonable cattle attaches
+to the land, and therefore belongs to its owner, and may be
+exercised by its occupant. &ldquo;Common appendant,&rdquo; said the
+Elizabethan judges, &ldquo;is of common right, and commences by
+operation of law and in favour of tillage.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Now this is exactly what we saw to be the case with reference
+to the use of the common of the vill by the householder cultivating
+the arable fields.  The use was a necessity, not depending upon
+the habits of this or that householder; it was a use for commonable
+cattle only, and was connected with the tillage of the arable
+lands. It seems almost necessarily to follow that the freehold
+tenants of the manor are the representatives of the householders
+of the vill.  However this may be, it is amongst the freehold
+tenants of the manor that we must first look for commoners on
+the waste of the manor.</p>
+
+<p>Owing, however, to the light character of the services rendered
+by the freeholders, the connexion of their lands with the manor
+is often difficult to prove.  Copyhold tenure, on the other hand,
+cannot be lost sight of; and in many manors copyholders are
+numerous, or were, till quite recently.  Copyholders almost
+invariably possess a right of common on the waste of the manor;
+and when (as is usual) they exist side by side with freeholders,
+their rights are generally of the same character.  They do not,
+however, exist as of common right, without proof of usage, but
+by the custom of the manor.  Custom has been defined by a
+great judge (Sir George Jessel, M.R., in <i>Hammerton</i> v. <i>Honey</i>)
+as local law.  Thus, while the freehold tenants enjoy their rights
+by the general law of the land, the copyholders have a similar
+enjoyment by the local law of the manor.  This, again, is what
+one might expect from the ancient constitution of a village
+community.  The copyholders, being originally serfs, had no
+rights at law; but as they had a share in the tillage of the land,
+and gradually became possessed of strips in the common fields,
+or of other plots on which they were settled by the lord, they were
+admitted by way of indulgence to the use of the common; and
+the practice hardened into a custom.  As might be expected,
+there is more variety in the details of the rights they exercise.
+They may claim common for cattle which are not commonable,
+if the custom extends to such cattle; and their claim is not
+necessarily connected with arable land.</p>
+
+<p>In the present day large numbers of copyhold tenements have
+been enfranchised, <i>i.e.</i> converted into freehold.  The effect of
+this step is to sever all connexion between the land enfranchised
+and the manor of which it was previously held.  Technically,
+therefore, the common rights previously enjoyed in respect of
+the land would be gone.  When, however, there is no indication
+of any intention to extinguish such rights, the courts protect
+the copyholders in their continued enjoyment; and when an
+enfranchisement is effected under the statutes passed in modern
+years, the rights are expressly preserved.  The commoners on
+a manorial common then will be, prima facie, the freeholders
+and copyholders of the manor, and the persons who own lands
+which were copyhold of the manor but have been enfranchised.</p>
+
+<p>The occupants of lands belonging to the lord of the manor,
+though they usually turn out their cattle on the common, do so
+by virtue of the lord&rsquo;s ownership of the soil of the common, and
+can, as a rule, make no claim to any right of common as against
+the lord, even though the practice of turning out may have
+obtained in respect of particular lands for a long series of years.
+When, however, lands have been sold by the lord of the manor,
+although no right of common attached by law to such lands in
+the lord&rsquo;s hands, their owners may subsequently enjoy such a
+right, if it appears from the language of the deeds of conveyance,
+and all the surrounding circumstances, that there was an
+intention that the use of the common should be enjoyed by the
+purchaser.  The rules on this point are very technical; it is
+sufficient here to indicate that lands bought from a lord of a
+manor are not necessarily destitute of common rights.</p>
+
+<p>So far we have considered common rights as they have arisen
+out of the manorial system, and out of the still older system of
+village communities.  There may, however, be rights
+of common quite unconnected with the manorial
+<span class="sidenote">Rights of common not connected with manorial system.</span>
+system.  Such rights may be proved either by producing
+a specific grant from the owner of the manor or by
+long usage.  It is seldom that an actual grant is
+produced, although it would seem likely that such
+grants were not uncommon at one time.  But a claim
+founded on actual user is by no means unusual.  Such a claim
+may be based (a) on immemorial usage, <i>i.e.</i> usage for which
+no commencement later than the coronation of Richard I.
+(1189) can be shown, (b) on a presumed modern grant which
+has been lost, or (c) (in some cases) on the Prescription Act 1832.
+There are special rules applicable to each kind of claim.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span></p>
+
+<p>A right of common not connected with the manorial system
+may be, and usually is, attached to land; it may be measured,
+like a manorial right, by levancy and couchancy, or it may be
+limited to a fixed number of animals. Rights of the latter
+character seem to have been not uncommon in the middle ages.
+In one of his sermons against inclosure, Bishop Latimer tells us
+his father &ldquo;had walk (<i>i.e.</i> right of common) for 100 sheep.&rdquo; This
+may have been a right in gross, but was more probably attached
+to the &ldquo;farm of Ł3 or Ł4 by year at the uttermost&rdquo; which his
+father held. A right of common appurtenant may be sold
+separately, and enjoyed by a purchaser independently of the
+tenement to which it was originally appurtenant. It then
+becomes a right of common in gross.</p>
+
+<p>A right of common in gross is a right enjoyed irrespective of
+the ownership or occupancy of any lands. It may exist by
+express grant, or by user implying a modern lost grant, or by
+immemorial usage. It must be limited to a certain number of
+cattle, unless the right is claimed by actual grant. Such rights
+seldom arise in connexion with commons in the ordinary sense,
+but are a frequent incident of regulated or stinted pastures;
+the right is then generally known as a cattle-gate or beast-gate.</p>
+
+<p>There may be rights over a common which exclude the owner
+of the soil from all enjoyment of some particular product of the
+common. Thus a person, or a class of persons, may be entitled
+to the whole of the corn, grass, underwood, or sweepage, (<i>i.e.</i>
+everything which falls to the sweep of the scythe) of a tract of
+land, without possessing any ownership in the land itself, or
+in the trees or mines. Such a right is known as a right of sole
+vesture.</p>
+
+<p>A more limited right of the same character is a right of sole
+pasturage&mdash;the exclusive right to take everything growing on
+the land in question by the mouths of cattle, but not in any other
+way. Either of these rights may exist throughout the whole
+year, or during part only. A right of sole common pasturage
+and herbage was given to a certain class of commoners in Ashdown
+Forest on the partition of the forest at the end of the 18th
+century.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the common arable fields and common
+meadows of a vill were thrown open to the stock of the community
+between harvest and seed-time. There is still to be
+found, here and there, a group of arable common
+<span class="sidenote">Rights in common fields.</span>
+fields, and occasionally a piece of grass land with many
+of the characteristics of a common, which turns out
+to be a common field or meadow. The Hackney Marshes and
+the other so-called commons of Hackney are really common
+fields or common meadows, and along the valley of the Lea a
+constant succession of such meadows is met with. They are
+still owned in parcels marked by metes; the owners have the
+right to grow a crop of hay between Lady day and Lammas
+day; and from Lammas to March the lands are subject to the
+depasturage of stock. In the case of some common fields and
+meadows the right of feed during the open time belongs exclusively
+to the owners; in others to a larger class, such as the owners
+and occupiers of all lands within the bounds of the parish.
+Anciently, as we have seen, the two classes would be identical.
+In some places newcomers not owning strips in the fields were
+admitted to the right of turn out; in others, not. Hence the
+distinction. Similar divergences of practice will be found to
+exist in Switzerland at the present day; <i>nieder-gelassene</i>, or
+newcomers, are in some communes admitted to all rights,
+while, in others, privileges are reserved to the <i>bürger</i>, or old
+inhabitant householders.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the largest tracts of waste land to be found in England
+are the waste or commonable lands of royal forests or chases.
+The thickets and pastures of Epping Forest, now
+happily preserved for London under the guardianship
+<span class="sidenote">Rights in royal forests.</span>
+of the city corporation, and the noble woods and far-stretching
+heaths of the New Forest, will be called to
+mind. Cannock Chase, unhappily inclosed according to law,
+though for the most part still lying waste, Dartmoor, and
+Ashdown Forest in Sussex, are other instances; and the list
+might be greatly lengthened. Space will not permit of any
+description of the forest system; it is enough, in this connexion,
+to say that the common rights in a forest were usually enjoyed
+by the owners and occupiers of land within its bounds (the class
+may differ in exact definition, but is substantially equivalent
+to this) without reference to manorial considerations. Epping
+Forest was saved by the proof of this right. It is often said that
+the right was given, or confirmed, to the inhabitants in consideration
+of the burden of supporting the deer for the pleasure of the
+king or of the owner of the chase. It seems more probable
+that the forest law prevented the growth of the manorial system,
+and with it those rules which have tended to restrict the class
+of persons entitled to enjoy the waste lands of the district.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that in the case of each kind of common there is
+a division of interest. The soil belongs to one person; other
+persons are entitled to take certain products of the
+soil. This division of interest preserves the common
+<span class="sidenote">Prevention of inclosure.</span>
+as an open space. The commoners cannot inclose,
+because the land does not belong to them. The owner
+of the soil cannot inclose, because inclosure is inconsistent with
+the enjoyment of the commoners&rsquo; rights. At a very early date
+it was held that the right of a commoner proceeded out of every
+part of the common, so that the owner of the soil could not set
+aside part for the commoner and inclose the rest. The Statutes
+of Merton and Westminster the Second were passed to get over
+this difficulty. But under these statutes the burden of proving
+that sufficient pasture was left was thrown upon the owner of
+the soil; such proof can very seldom be given. Moreover, the
+statutes have never enabled an inclosure to be made against
+commoners entitled to <i>estovers</i> or <i>turbary</i>. It seems clear that
+the statutes had become obsolete in the time of Edward VI., or
+they would not have been re-enacted. And we know that the
+zealous advocates of inclosure in the 18th century considered
+them worthless for their purposes. Practically it may be taken
+that, save where the owner of the soil of a common acquires all
+the lands in the township (generally coterminous with the
+parish) with which the common is connected, an inclosure cannot
+legally be effected by him. And even in the latter case it may
+be that rights of common are enjoyed in respect of lands outside
+the parish, and that such rights prevent an inclosure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Inclosure.</i>&mdash;When, therefore, the common-field system
+began to fall out of gear, and the increase of population brought
+about a demand for an increased production of corn,
+it was felt to be necessary to resort to parliament
+<span class="sidenote">The modern Inclosure Act.</span>
+for power to effect inclosure. The legislation which
+ensued was based on two principles. One was that
+all persons interested in the open land to be dealt with should
+receive a proportionate equivalent in inclosed land; the other,
+that inclosure should not be prevented by the opposition, or
+the inability to act, of a small minority. Assuming that inclosure
+was desirable, no more equitable course could have been adopted,
+though in details particular acts may have been objectionable.
+The first act was passed in 1709; but the precedent was followed
+but slowly, and not till the middle of the 18th century did the
+annual number of acts attain double figures. The high-water
+mark was reached in the period from 1765 to 1785, when on an
+average forty-seven acts were passed every year. From some
+cause, possibly the very considerable expense attending upon the
+obtaining of an act, the numbers then began slightly to fall off.
+In the year 1793 a board of agriculture, apparently similar in
+character to the chambers of commerce of our own day, was
+established. Sir John Sinclair was its president, and Arthur
+Young, the well-known agricultural reformer, was its secretary.
+Owing to the efforts of this body, and of a select committee
+appointed by the House of Commons on Sinclair&rsquo;s motion, the
+first General Inclosure Act was passed in 1801. This act would
+at the present day be called an Inclosure Clauses Act. It contained
+a number of provisions applicable to inclosures, which
+could be incorporated by reference, in a private bill. By this
+means, it was hoped, the length and complexity, and consequently
+the expense, of inclosure bills would be greatly diminished.
+Under the stimulus thus applied inclosure proceeded apace.
+In the year 1801 no less than 119 acts were passed, and the total
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span>
+area inclosed probably exceeded 300,000 acres. Three inclosures
+in the Lincolnshire Fens account for over 53,000 acres. As
+before, the movement after a time spent its force, the annual
+average of acts falling to about twelve in the decade 1830-1840.
+Another parliamentary committee then sat to consider how
+inclosure might be promoted; and the result was the Inclosure
+Act 1845, which, though much amended by subsequent legislation,
+still stands on the statute-book. The chief feature of that
+act was the appointment of a permanent commission to make
+in each case all the inquiries previously made (no doubt
+capriciously and imperfectly) by committees of the two Houses.
+The commission, on being satisfied of the propriety of an inclosure
+was to draw up a provisional order prescribing the general
+conditions on which it was to be carried out, and this order
+was to be submitted to parliament by the government of the day
+for confirmation. It is believed that these inclosure orders
+afford the first example of the provisional order system of legislation,
+which has attained such large proportions.</p>
+
+<p>Again inclosure moved forward, and between 1845 and 1869
+(when it received a sudden check) 600,000 acres passed through
+the hands of the inclosure commission. Taking the whole period
+of about a century and a half, when parliamentary inclosure was
+in favour, and making an estimate of acreage where the acts do
+not give it, the result may be thus summarized:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Acres.&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">From 1709 to 1797</td> <td class="tcr">2,744,926</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;1801 to 1842</td> <td class="tcr">1,307,964</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;1845 to 1869</td> <td class="tcr">618,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Add for Forests inclosed under Special Acts</td> <td class="tcr">100,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">4,770,890</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The total area of England being 37,000,000 acres, we shall
+probably not be far wrong in concluding that about one acre
+in every seven was inclosed during the period in question.
+During the first period, the lands inclosed consisted mainly of
+common arable fields; during the second, many great tracts of
+moor and fen were reduced to severalty ownership. In the third
+period, inclosure probably related chiefly to the ordinary manorial
+common; and it seems likely that, on the whole, England would
+have gained, had inclosure stopped in 1845.</p>
+
+<p>As a fact it stopped in 1869. Before the inclosure commission
+had been in existence twenty years the feeling of the nation
+towards commons began to change. The rapid growth
+of towns, and especially of London, and the awakening
+<span class="sidenote">Open Space movement.</span>
+sense of the importance of protecting the public health,
+brought about an appreciation of the value of commons
+as open spaces. Naturally, the metropolis saw the birth of this
+sentiment. An attempted inclosure in 1864 of the commons at
+Epsom and Wimbledon aroused strong opposition; and a select
+committee of the House of Commons was appointed to consider
+how the London commons could best be preserved. The Metropolitan
+Board of Works, then in the vigour of youth, though
+eager to become the open-space authority for London, could
+make no better suggestion than that all persons interested in
+the commons should be bought out, that the board should defray
+the expense by selling parts for building, and should make parks
+of what was left. Had this advice been followed, London would
+probably have lost two-thirds of the open space which she now
+enjoys. Fortunately a small knot of men, who afterwards
+formed the Commons Preservation Society, took a broader and
+wiser view. Chief amongst them were the late Philip Lawrence,
+who acted as solicitor to the Wimbledon opposition, and subsequently
+organized the Commons Preservation Society, George
+Shaw-Lefevre, chairman of that society since its foundation,
+the late John Locke, and the late Lord Mount Temple (then
+Mr W. F. Cowper). They urged that the conflict of legal interests,
+which is the special characteristic of a common, might be trusted
+to preserve it as an open space, and that all that parliament
+could usefully do, was to restrict parliamentary inclosure, and
+to pass a measure of police for the protection of commons as
+open spaces. The select committee adopted this view. On their
+report, was passed the Metropolitan Commons Act 1866, which
+prohibited any further parliamentary inclosures within the
+metropolitan police area, and provided means by which a common
+could be put under local management. The lords of the manors
+in which the London commons lay felt that their opportunity
+of making a rich harvest out of land, valuable for building,
+though otherwise worthless, was slipping away; and a battle
+royal ensued. Inclosures were commenced, and the Statute of
+Merton prayed in aid. The public retorted by legal proceedings
+taken in the names of commoners. These proceedings&mdash;which
+culminated in the mammoth suit as to Epping Forest, with the
+corporation of London as plaintiffs and fourteen lords of manors
+as defendants&mdash;were uniformly successful; and London
+commons were saved. By degrees the manorial lords, seeing that
+they could not hope to do better, parted with their interest for a
+small sum to some local authority; and a large area of the
+common land, not only in the county of London, but in the suburbs,
+is now in the hands of the representatives of the ratepayers,
+and is definitely appropriated to the recreation of the public.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the Commons Preservation Society was able to
+base, upon the uniform success of the commoners in the law
+courts, a plea for the amendment of the law. The
+Statute of Merton, we have seen, purports to enable
+<span class="sidenote">Amendment of Statue of Merton.</span>
+the lord of the soil to inclose a common, if he leaves
+sufficient pasture for the commoners. This statute
+was constantly vouched in the litigation about London commons;
+but in no single instance was an inclosure justified by virtue of
+its provisions. It thus remained a trap to lords of manors, and
+a source of controversy and expense. In the year 1893 Lord
+Thring, at the instance of the Commons Preservation Society,
+carried through parliament the Commons Law Amendment Act,
+which provided that in future no inclosure under the Statute of
+Merton should be valid, unless made with the consent of the
+Board of Agriculture, which was to consider the expediency of
+the inclosure from a public point of view.</p>
+
+<p>The movement to preserve commons as open spaces soon
+spread to the rural districts. Under the Inclosure Act of 1845
+provision was made for the allotment of a part of the
+land to be inclosed for field gardens for the labouring
+<span class="sidenote">Rural commons.</span>
+poor, and for recreation. But those who were interested
+in effecting an inclosure often convinced the inclosure commissioners
+that for some reason such allotments would be
+useless. To such an extent did the reservation of such allotments
+become discredited that, in 1869, the commission proposed to
+parliament the inclosure of 13,000 acres, with the reservation
+of only one acre for recreation, and none at all for field gardens.
+This proposal attracted the attention of Henry Fawcett, who,
+after much inquiry and consideration, came to the conclusion
+that inclosures were, speaking generally, doing more harm than
+good to the agricultural labourer, and that, under such conditions
+as the commissioners were prescribing, they constituted a serious
+evil. With characteristic intrepidity he opposed the annual
+inclosure bill (which had come to be considered a mere form)
+and moved for a committee on the whole subject. The ultimate
+result was the passing, seven years later, of the Commons Act
+1876. This measure, introduced by a Conservative government,
+laid down the principle that an inclosure should not be allowed
+unless distinctly shown to be for the benefit, not merely of
+private persons, but of the neighbourhood generally and the
+public. It imposed many checks upon the process, and following
+the course already adopted in the case of metropolitan commons,
+offered an alternative method of making commons more useful
+to the nation, viz. their management and regulation as open
+spaces. The effect of this legislation and of the changed attitude
+of the House of Commons towards inclosure has been almost
+to stop that process, except in the case of common fields or
+extensive mountain wastes.</p>
+
+<p>We have alluded to the regulation of commons as open spaces.
+The primary object of this process is to bring a common under
+the jurisdiction of some constituted authority, which
+may make by-laws, enforceable in a summary way
+<span class="sidenote">Regulation.</span>
+before the magistrates of the district, for its protection,
+and may appoint watchers or keepers to preserve order and
+prevent wanton mischief. There are several means of attaining
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span>
+this object. Commons within the metropolitan police district&mdash;the
+Greater London of the registrar-general&mdash;are in this respect
+in a position by themselves. Under the Metropolitan Commons
+Acts, schemes for their local management may be made by the
+Board of Agriculture (in which the inclosure commission is now
+merged) without the consent either of the owner of the soil or
+the commoners&mdash;who, however, are entitled to compensation
+if they can show that they are injuriously affected. Outside
+the metropolitan police district a provisional order for regulation
+may be made under the Commons Act 1876, with the consent
+of the owner of the soil and of persons representing two-thirds
+in value of all the interests in the common. And under an act
+passed in 1899 the council of any urban or rural district may,
+with the approval of the Board of Agriculture and without
+recourse to parliament, make a scheme for the management of
+any common within its district, provided no notice of dissent is
+served on the board by the lord of the manor or by persons
+representing one-third in value of such interests in the common
+as are affected by the scheme. There is yet another way of
+protecting a common. A parish council may, by agreement,
+acquire an interest in it, and may make by-laws for its
+regulation under the Local Government Act 1894. The acts of
+1894 and 1899 undoubtedly proceed on right lines. For, with
+the growth of efficient local government, commons naturally
+fall to be protected and improved by the authority of the
+district.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to say a word as to the extent of common land
+still remaining open in England and Wales. In 1843 it was
+estimated that there were still 10,000,000 acres of
+common land and common-field land. In 1874 another
+<span class="sidenote">Statistics.</span>
+return made by the inclosure commission made a guess of 2,632,772.
+These two returns were made from the same materials, viz.
+the tithe commutation awards. As less than 700,000 acres had
+been inclosed in the intervening period, it is obvious that the
+two estimates are mutually destructive. In July 1875 another
+version was given in the Return of Landowners (generally
+known as the Modern Domesday Book), compiled from the
+valuation lists made for the purposes of rating. This return
+put the commons of the country (not including common fields)
+at 1,542,648 acres. It is impossible to view any of these returns
+as accurate. Those compiled from the tithe commutation awards
+are based largely on estimates, since there are many parishes
+where the tithes had not been commuted. On the other hand,
+the valuation lists do not show waste and unoccupied land
+(which is not rated), and consequently the information as to
+such lands in the Return of Landowners was based on any
+materials which might happen to be at the disposal of the clerk
+of the guardians. All we can say, therefore, is that the acreage
+of the remaining common land of the country is probably somewhere
+between 1,500,000 and 2,000,000 acres. It is most
+capriciously distributed. In the Midlands there is very little
+to be found, while in a county of poor soil, like Surrey, nearly
+every parish has its common, and there are large tracts of heath
+and moor. In 1866, returns were made to parliament by the
+overseers of the poor of the commons within 15 and within 25 m.
+of Charing Cross. The acreage within the larger area was put
+at 38,450 acres, and within the smaller at 13,301; but owing
+to the difference of opinion which sometimes prevails upon the
+question, whether land is common or not, and the carelessness
+of some parish authorities as to the accuracy of their returns,
+even these figures cannot be taken as more than approximately
+correct. The metropolitan police district, within which the
+Metropolitan Commons Acts are in force, approaches in extent
+to a circle of 15 miles&rsquo; radius. Within this district nearly
+12,000 acres of common land have been put under local management,
+either by means of the Commons Acts or under special
+legislation. London is fortunate in having secured so much
+recreation ground on its borders. But when the enormous
+population of the capital and its rapid growth and expansion
+are considered, the conclusion is inevitable, that not one acre
+of common land within an easy railway journey of the metropolis
+can be spared.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Marshall, <i>Elementary and Practical Treatise on
+Landed Property</i> (London, 1804); F. W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book
+and Beyond</i> (Cambridge, 1897); <i>Borough and Township</i> (Cambridge,
+1898); F. Seebohm, <i>The English Village Community</i> (London,
+1883); Williams, Joshua, <i>Rights of Common</i> (London, 1880); C. I.
+Elton, <i>A Treatise on Commons and Waste Lands</i> (1868); T. E.
+Scrutton, <i>On Commons and Common Fields</i> (1887); H. R. Woolrych,
+<i>Rights of Common</i> (1850); G. Shaw-Lefevre, <i>English Commons and
+Forests</i> (London, 1894); Sir W. Hunter, <i>The Preservation of Open
+Spaces</i> (London, 1896); &ldquo;The Movements for the Inclosure and
+Preservation of Open Lands,&rdquo; <i>Journal of the Royal Statistical Society</i>,
+vol. lx. part ii. (June 1897); <i>Returns to House of Commons</i> (1843),
+No. 325; (1870), No. 326; (1874), No. 85; <i>Return of Landowners</i>
+(1875); <i>Annual Reports of Inclosure Commission and Board of
+Agriculture</i>; Revised Statutes and Statutes at large.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. H.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1c" id="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the commons (<i>communitates</i>) in a socio-political sense see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Representation</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parliament</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2c" id="Footnote_2c" href="#FnAnchor_2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> There is an entry on the court rolls of the manor of Wimbledon
+of the division amongst the inhabitants of the vill of the crab-apples
+growing on the common.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMONWEALTH,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a term generally synonymous with
+commonweal, <i>i.e.</i> public welfare, but more particularly signifying
+a form of government in which the general public have a direct
+voice.  &ldquo;The Commonwealth&rdquo; is used in a special sense to
+denote the period in English history between the execution of
+Charles I. in 1649 and the Restoration in 1660.  Commonwealth is
+also the official designation in America of the states of Massachusetts,
+Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky.  The Commonwealth
+of Australia is the title of the federation of Australian
+colonies carried out in 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMUNE<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (Med. Lat. <i>communia</i>, Lat. <i>communis</i>, common),
+in its most general sense, a group of persons acting together for
+purposes of self-government, especially in towns.  (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Borough</a></span>,
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commune, Medieval</a></span>, below.)  &ldquo;Commune&rdquo; (Fr. <i>commune</i>,
+Ital. <i>comune</i>, Ger. <i>Gemeinde</i>, &amp;c.) is now the term generally applied
+to the smallest administrative division in many European
+countries. (See the sections dealing with the administration of
+these countries under their several headings.) &ldquo;The Commune&rdquo;
+is the name given to the period of the history of Paris from
+March 18 to May 28, 1871, during which the commune of Paris
+attempted to set up its authority against the National Assembly
+at Versailles.  It was a political movement, intended to replace
+the centralized national organization by one based on a federation
+of communes.  Hence the &ldquo;communists&rdquo; were also called
+&ldquo;federalists.&rdquo;  It had nothing to do with the social theories of
+Communism (<i>q.v.</i>). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL.<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>  Under this head it is proposed to
+give a short account of the rise and development of towns in
+central and western continental Europe since the downfall of
+the Roman Empire.  All these, including also the British towns
+(for which, however, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Borough</a></span>), may be said to have formed
+one unity, inasmuch as all arose under similar conditions,
+economic, legal and political, irrespective of local peculiarities.
+Kindred economic conditions prevailed in all the former provinces
+of the Western empire, while new law concepts were everywhere
+introduced by the Germanic invaders.  It is largely for the latter
+reason that it seems advisable to begin with an account of the
+German towns, the term German to correspond to the limits of the
+old kingdom of Germany, comprising the present empire, German
+Austria, German Switzerland, Holland and a large portion of
+Belgium.  In their development the problem, as it were, worked
+out least tainted by foreign interference, showing at the same
+time a rich variety in detail; and it may also be said that their
+constitutional and economic history has been more thoroughly
+investigated than any other.</p>
+
+<p>Like the others, the German towns should be considered from
+three points of view, viz. as jurisdictional units, as self-administrative
+units and as economic units.  One of the chief distinguishing
+features of early as opposed to modern town-life is that each
+town formed a jurisdictional district distinct from the country
+around.  Another trait, more in accordance with the conditions
+of to-day, is that local self-government was more fully developed
+and strongly marked in the towns than without. And, thirdly,
+each town in economic matters followed a policy as independent
+as possible of that of any other town or of the country in general.
+The problem is, how this state of things arose.</p>
+
+<p>From this point of view the German towns may be divided into
+two main classes: those that gradually resuscitated on the ruins
+of former Roman cities in the Rhine and Danube countries, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span>
+those that were newly founded at a later date in the interior.<a name="FnAnchor_1d" id="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+Foremost in importance among the former stand the episcopal
+cities. Most of these had never been entirely destroyed during
+the Germanic invasion. Roman civic institutions perished; but
+probably parts of the population survived, and small Christian
+congregations with their bishops in most cases seem to have
+weathered all storms. Much of the city walls presumably remained
+standing, and within them German communities soon
+settled.</p>
+
+<p>In the 10th century it became the policy of the German
+emperors to hand over to the bishops full jurisdictional and
+administrative powers within their cities. The bishop henceforward
+directly or indirectly appointed all officers for the town&rsquo;s
+government. The chief of these was usually the <i>advocatus</i> or
+<i>Vogt</i>, some neighbouring noble who served as the proctor of the
+church in all secular affairs. It was his business to preside three
+times a year over the chief law-court, the so-called <i>echte</i> or
+<i>ungebotene Ding</i>, under the cognizance of which fell all cases
+relating to real property, personal freedom, bloodshed and
+robbery. For the rest of the legal business and as president of
+the ordinary court he appointed a <i>Schultheiss</i>, <i>centenarius</i> or
+<i>causidicus</i>. Other officers were the <i>Burggraf</i><a name="FnAnchor_2d" id="FnAnchor_2d" href="#Footnote_2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> or <i>praefectus</i> for
+military matters, including the preservation of the town&rsquo;s
+defences, walls, moat, bridges and streets, to whom also appertained
+some jurisdiction over the craft-gilds in matters relating
+to their crafts; further the customs-officer or <i>teleonarius</i> and the
+mint-master or <i>monetae magister</i>. It was not, however, the fact
+of their being placed under the bishop that constituted these
+towns as separate jurisdictional units. The chief feature rather
+is the existence within their walls of a special law, distinct in
+important points from that of the country at large. The towns
+enjoyed a special peace, as it was called, <i>i.e.</i> breaches of the peace
+were more severely punished if committed in a town than
+elsewhere. Besides, the inhabitants might be sued before the
+town court only, and to fugitives from the country who had taken
+refuge in the town belonged a similar privilege. This special
+legal status probably arose from the towns being considered in
+the first place as the king&rsquo;s fortresses<a name="FnAnchor_3d" id="FnAnchor_3d" href="#Footnote_3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> or burgs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Borough</a></span>),
+and, therefore, as participating in the special peace enjoyed by
+the king&rsquo;s palace. Hence the terms &ldquo;burgh,&rdquo; &ldquo;borough&rdquo; in
+English, <i>baurgs</i> in Gothic, the earliest Germanic designations for a
+town; &ldquo;burgher,&rdquo; &ldquo;burgess&rdquo; for its inhabitants. What struck
+the townless early Germans most about the Roman towns was
+their mighty walls. Hence they applied to all fortified habitations
+the term in use for their own primitive fortifications; the
+walls remained with them the main feature distinguishing a town
+from a village; and the fact of the town being a fortified place,
+likewise necessitated the special provisions mentioned for
+maintaining the peace.</p>
+
+<p>The new towns in the interior of Germany were founded on
+land belonging to the founder, some ecclesiastical or lay lord,
+and frequently adjoining the cathedral close of one of the new sees
+or the lord&rsquo;s castle, and they were laid out according to a regular
+plan. The most important feature was the market-square, often
+surrounded by arcades with stalls for the sale of the principal
+commodities, and with a number of straight streets leading
+thence to the city gates.<a name="FnAnchor_4d" id="FnAnchor_4d" href="#Footnote_4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> As for the fortifications, some
+time naturally passed before they were completed. Furthermore,
+the governmental machinery would be less complex than in the
+older towns. The legal peculiarities distinguishing town and
+country, on the other hand, may be said to have been conferred
+on the new towns in a more clearly defined form from the
+beginning.</p>
+
+<p>An important difference lay in the mode of settlement. There
+is evidence that in the quondam Roman towns the German
+newcomers settled much as in a village, <i>i.e.</i> each full member of
+the community had a certain portion of arable land allotted to
+him and a share in the common. Their pursuits would at first be
+mainly agricultural. The new towns, on the other hand,
+general economic conditions having meanwhile begun to undergo
+a marked change, were founded with the intention of establishing
+centres of trade. Periodical markets, weekly or annual, had
+preceded them, which already enjoyed the special protection of
+the king&rsquo;s ban, acts of violence against traders visiting them or on
+their way towards them being subject to special punishment.
+The new towns may be regarded as markets made permanent.
+The settlers invited were merchants (<i>mercatores personati</i>) and
+handicraftsmen.  The land now allotted to each member of the
+community was just large enough for a house and yard, stabling
+and perhaps a small garden (50 by 100 ft. at Freiburg, 60 by 100
+ft. at Bern). These building plots were given as free property or,
+more frequently, at a merely nominal rent (<i>Wurtzins</i>) with the
+right of free disposal, the only obligation being that of building a
+house. All that might be required besides would be a common
+for the pasture of the burgesses&rsquo; cattle.</p>
+
+<p>The example thus set was readily followed in the older towns.
+The necessary land was placed at the disposal of new settlers,
+either by the members of the older agricultural community, or
+by the various churches.  The immigrants were of widely
+differing status, many being serfs who came either with or
+without their lords&rsquo; permission. The necessity of putting a
+stop to belated prosecutions on this account in the town court
+led to the acceptance of the rule that nobody who had lived in a
+town undisturbed for the term of a year and a day could any
+longer be claimed by a lord as his serf.  But even those who
+had migrated into a town with their lords&rsquo; consent could not
+very well for long continue in serfdom.  When, on the other
+hand, certain bishops attempted to treat all new-comers to their
+city as serfs, the emperor Henry V. in charters for Spires and
+Worms proclaimed that in these towns all serf-like conditions
+should cease. This ruling found expression in the famous
+saying: <i>Stadtluft macht frei</i>, &ldquo;town-air renders free.&rdquo; As may
+be imagined, this led to a rapid increase in population, mainly
+during the 11th to 13th centuries. There would be no difficulty
+for the immigrants to find a dwelling, or to make a living, since
+most of them would be versed in one or other of the crafts in
+practice among villagers.</p>
+
+<p>The most important further step in the history of the towns
+was the establishment of an organ of self-government, the town-council
+(<i>Rat</i>, <i>consilium</i>, its members, <i>Ratmänner</i>, <i>consules</i>, less
+frequently <i>consiliarii</i>), with one, two or more burgomasters
+(<i>Bürgermeister</i>, <i>magistri civium</i>, <i>proconsules</i>) at its head. (It
+was only after the Renaissance that the town-council came to
+be styled <i>senate</i>, and the burgomasters in Latin documents,
+<i>consules</i>.)  As <i>units of local government</i> the towns must be considered
+as originally placed on the same legal basis as the villages,
+viz. as having the right of taking care of all common interests
+below the cognizance of the public courts or of those of their
+lord.<a name="FnAnchor_5d" id="FnAnchor_5d" href="#Footnote_5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a>  In the towns, however, this right was strengthened at
+an early date by the <i>jus negotiale</i>. At least as early as the
+beginning of the 11th century, but probably long before that
+date, mercantile communities claimed the right, confirmed by
+the emperors, of settling mercantile disputes according to a law
+of their own, to the horror of certain conservative-minded clerics.<a name="FnAnchor_6d" id="FnAnchor_6d" href="#Footnote_6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+Furthermore, in the rapidly developing towns, opportunities
+for the exercise of self-administrative functions constantly
+increased. The new self-governing body soon began to legislate
+in matters of local government, imposing fines for the breach
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span>
+of its by-laws. Thus it assumed a jurisdiction, partly concurrent
+with that of the lord, which it further extended to breaches
+of the peace. And, finally, it raised funds by means of an
+excise-duty, <i>Ungeld</i> (cf. the English <i>malatolta</i>) or <i>Accise</i>, <i>Zeise</i>.
+In the older and larger towns it soon went beyond what the bishops
+thought proper to tolerate; conflicts ensued; and in the 13th
+century several bishops obtained decrees in the imperial court,
+either to suppress the <i>Rat</i> altogether, or to make it subject to
+their nomination, and more particularly to abolish the <i>Ungeld</i>,
+as detrimental to episcopal finances. In the long run, however,
+these attempts proved of little avail.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the tendency towards self-government spread even
+to the lower ranks of town society, resulting in the establishment
+of craft-gilds. From a very early period there is reason to believe
+merchants among themselves formed gilds for social and religious
+purposes, and for the furtherance of their economic interests.
+These gilds would, where they existed, no doubt also influence
+the management of town affairs; but nowhere has the <i>Rat</i>, as
+used to be thought, developed out of a gild, nor has the latter
+anywhere in Germany played a part at all similar in importance
+to that of the English gild merchant, the only exception being
+for a time the <i>Richerzeche</i>, or Gild of the Rich of Cologne, from
+early times by far the largest, the richest, and the most important
+trading centre among German cities, and therefore provided
+with an administration more complex, and in some respects more
+primitive, than any other. On the other hand, the most important
+commodities offered for sale in the market had been subject to
+official examination already in Carolingian times. Bakers&rsquo;,
+butchers&rsquo;, shoemakers&rsquo; stalls were grouped together in the
+market-place to facilitate control, and with the same object in
+view a master was appointed for each craft as its responsible
+representative. By and by these crafts or &ldquo;offices&rdquo; claimed
+the right of electing their master and of assisting him in examining
+the goods, and even of framing by-laws regulating the quality
+of the wares and the process of their manufacture. The bishops
+at first resented these attempts at self-management, as they had
+done in the case of the town council, and imperial legislation
+in their interests was obtained.  But each craft at the same time
+formed a society for social, beneficial and religious purposes,
+and, as these were entirely in accordance with the wishes of the
+clerical authorities, the other powers could not in the long run
+be withheld, including that of forcing all followers of any craft
+to join the gild (<i>Zunftzwang</i>).  Thus the official inspection of
+markets, community of interests on the part of the craftsmen,
+and co-operation for social and religious ends, worked together
+in the formation of craft-gilds. It is not suggested that in each
+individual town the rise of the gilds was preceded by an organization
+of crafts on the part of the lord and his officers; but it is
+maintained that as a general thing voluntary organization could
+hardly have proceeded on such orderly lines as on the whole it
+did, unless the framework had in the first instance been laid
+down by the authorities: much as in modern times the working
+together in factories has practically been an indispensable
+preliminary to the formation of trade unions. Much less would
+the principle of forced entrance have found such ready acceptance
+both on the part of the authorities and on that of the men,
+unless it had previously been in full practice and recognition
+under the system of official market-control. The different names
+for the societies, viz. <i>fraternitas</i>, <i>Brüderschaft</i>, <i>officium</i>, <i>Amt</i>,
+<i>condictum</i>, <i>Zunft</i>, <i>unio</i>, <i>Innung</i>, do not signify different kinds
+of societies, but only different aspects of the same thing.  The
+word <i>Gilde</i> alone forms an exception, inasmuch as, generally
+speaking, it was used by merchant gilds only.<a name="FnAnchor_7d" id="FnAnchor_7d" href="#Footnote_7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<p>From an early date the towns, more particularly the older
+episcopal cities, took a part in imperial politics. Legally the
+bishops were in their cities mere representatives of the imperial
+government. This fact found formal expression mainly in two
+ways. The <i>Vogt</i>, although appointed by the bishop, received
+the &ldquo;ban,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the power of having justice executed, which
+he passed on to the lesser officers, from the king or emperor
+direct. Secondly, whenever the emperor held a <i>curia generalis</i>
+(or general assembly, or diet) in one of the episcopal cities, and
+for a week before and after, all jurisdictional and administrative
+power reverted to him and his immediate officers. The citizens
+on their part clung to this connexion and made use of it whenever
+their independence was threatened by their bishops, who strongly
+inclined to consider themselves lords of their cathedral cities,
+much as if these had been built on church-lands. As early as
+1073, therefore, we find the citizens of Worms successfully rising
+against their bishop in order to provide the emperor Henry IV.
+with a refuge against the rebellious princes. Those of Cologne
+made a similar attempt in 1074. But a second class of imperial
+cities (<i>Reichsstädte</i>), much more numerous than the former,
+consisted of those founded on demesne-land belonging either
+to the Empire or to one of the families who rose to imperial
+rank. This class was largely reinforced, when after the extinction
+of the royal house of Hohenstaufen in the 13th century,
+a great number of towns founded by them on their demesne
+successfully claimed immediate subjection to the crown. About
+this time, during the interregnum, a federation of more than
+a hundred towns was formed, beginning on the Rhine, but
+spreading as far as Bremen in the north, Zürich in the south,
+and Regensburg in the east, with the object of helping to preserve
+the peace.  After the death of King William in 1256, they
+resolved to recognize no king unless unanimously elected. This
+league was joined by a powerful group of princes and nobles
+and found recognition by the prince-electors of the Empire;
+but for want of leadership it did not stand the test, when Richard
+of Cornwall and Alphonso of Castile were elected rival kings in
+1257.<a name="FnAnchor_8d" id="FnAnchor_8d" href="#Footnote_8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> In the following centuries the imperial cities in south
+Germany, where most of them were situated, repeatedly formed
+leagues to protect their interests against the power of the
+princes and the nobles, and destructive wars were waged; but
+no great political issue found solution, the relative position of
+the parties after each war remaining much what it had been
+before. On the part of the towns this was mainly due to lack
+of leadership and of unity of purpose.  At the time of the
+Reformation the imperial towns, like most of the others, stood
+forward as champions of the new cause and did valuable service
+in upholding and defending it. After that, however, their
+political part was played out, mainly because they proved unable
+to keep up with modern conditions of warfare. It should be
+stated that seven among the episcopal cities, viz. Cologne, Mainz,
+Worms, Spires, Strassburg, Basel and Regensburg, claimed a
+privileged position as &ldquo;Free Cities,&rdquo; but neither is the ground
+for this claim clearly established, nor its nature well defined.
+The general obligations of the imperial cities towards the Empire
+were the payment of an annual fixed tax and the furnishing
+of a number of armed men for imperial wars, and from these
+the above-named towns claimed some measure of exemption.
+Some of the imperial cities lost their independence at an early
+date, as unredeemed pledges to some prince who had advanced
+money to the emperor. Others seceded as members of the
+Swiss Confederation. But a considerable number survived
+until the reorganization of the Empire in 1803. At the peace
+in 1815, however, only four were spared, namely, Frankfort,
+Bremen, Hamburg and Lübeck, these being practically the only
+ones still in a sufficiently flourishing and economically independent
+position to warrant such preferential treatment. But finally
+Frankfort, having chosen the wrong side in the war of 1866,
+was annexed by Prussia, and only the three seaboard towns
+remain as full members of the new confederate Empire under
+the style of <i>Freie und Hansestädte</i>. But until modern times
+most of the larger <i>Landstädte</i> or mesne-towns for all intents
+and purposes were as independent under their lords as the imperial
+cities were under the emperor. They even followed a
+foreign policy of their own, concluded treaties with foreign
+powers or made war upon them. Nearly all the <i>Hanseatic towns</i>
+belonged to this category. With others like Bremen, Hamburg
+and Magdeburg, it was long in the balance which class they belonged
+to.  All towns of any importance, however, were for a
+considerable time far ahead of the principalities in administration.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span>
+It was largely this fact that gave them power. When,
+therefore, from about the 15th century the princely territories
+came to be better organized, much of the <i>raison d&rsquo;ętre</i> for the
+exceptional position held by the towns disappeared. The towns
+from an early date made it their policy to suppress the exercise
+of all handicrafts in the open country. On the other hand, they
+sought an increase of power by extending rights of citizenship
+to numerous individual inhabitants of the neighbouring villages
+(<i>Pfalbürger</i>, a term not satisfactorily explained). By this and
+other means, <i>e.g.</i> the purchase of estates by citizens, many
+towns gradually acquired a considerable territory. These
+tendencies both princes and lesser nobles naturally tried to
+thwart, and the mediate towns or <i>Landstädte</i> were finally brought
+to stricter subjection, at least in the greater principalities such
+as Austria and Brandenburg. Besides, the less favourably
+situated towns suffered through the concentration of trade in
+the hands of their more fortunate sisters. But the economic
+decay and consequent loss of political influence among both
+imperial and territorial towns must be chiefly ascribed to inner
+causes.</p>
+
+<p>Certain leading political economists, notably K. Bücher
+(<i>Die Bevölkerung von Frankfurt a. M. im 14ten und 15ten Jahrhundert</i>,
+i., Tübingen, 1886; <i>Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft</i>,
+5th ed., Tübingen, 1906), and, in a modified form, W.
+Sombart (<i>Der moderne Kapitalismus</i>, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1902),
+have propounded the doctrine of one gradual progression from
+an agricultural state to modern capitalistic conditions. This
+theory, however, is nothing less than an outrage on history.
+As a matter of fact, as far as modern Europe is concerned, there
+has twice been a progression, separated by a period of retrogression,
+and it is to the latter that Bücher&rsquo;s picture of the agricultural
+and strictly protectionist town (the <i>geschlossene Stadtwirtschaft</i>)
+of the 14th and 15th centuries belongs, while Sombart&rsquo;s notion
+of an entire absence of a spirit of capitalistic enterprise before
+the middle of the 15th century in Europe north of the Alps, or
+the 14th century in Italy, is absolutely fantastic.<a name="FnAnchor_9d" id="FnAnchor_9d" href="#Footnote_9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> The period
+of the rise of cities till well on in the 13th century was naturally
+a period of expansion and of a considerable amount of freedom
+of trade. It was only afterwards that a protectionist spirit
+gained the upper hand, and each town made it its policy to
+restrict as far as possible the trade of strangers. In this revolution
+the rise of the lower strata of the population to power
+played an important part.</p>
+
+<p>The craft-gilds had remained subordinate to the <i>Rat</i>, but
+by-and-by they claimed a share in the government of the towns.
+Originally any inhabitant holding a certain measure of land,
+freehold or subject to the mere nominal ground-rent above-mentioned,
+was a full citizen independently of his calling, the
+clergy and the lord&rsquo;s retainers and servants of whatever rank,
+who claimed exemption from scot and lot, to use the English
+formula, alone excepted. The majority of the artisans, however,
+were not in this happy position. Moreover, the town council,
+instead of being freely elected, filled up vacancies in its ranks by
+co-optation, with the result that all power became vested in a
+limited number of rich families. Against this state of things
+the crafts rebelled, alleging mismanagement, malversation and
+the withholding of justice. During the 14th and 15th centuries
+revolutions and counter-revolutions, sometimes accompanied
+by considerable slaughter, were frequent, and a great variety
+of more democratic constitutions were tried. Zürich, however,
+is the only German place where a kind of <i>tyrannis</i>, so frequent
+in Italy, came to be for a while established. On the whole it
+must be said that in those towns where the democratic party
+gained the upper hand an unruly policy abroad and a narrow-minded
+protection at home resulted. An inclination to hasty
+measures of war and an unwillingness to observe treaties among
+the democratic towns of Swabia were largely responsible for the
+disasters of the war of the Swabian League in the 14th century.
+At home, whereas at first markets had been free and open to
+any comer, a more and more protective policy set in, traders
+from other towns being subjected more and more to vexatious
+restrictions.  It was also made increasingly difficult to obtain
+membership in the craft-gilds, high admission fees and so-called
+masterpieces being made a condition.  Finally, the number of
+members became fixed, and none but members&rsquo; sons and sons-in-law,
+or members&rsquo; widows&rsquo; husbands were received.  The first
+result was the formation of a numerous proletariate of life-long
+assistants and of men and women forcibly excluded from following
+any honest trade; and the second consequence, the economic
+ruin of the town to the exclusive advantage of a limited number.
+From the end of the 15th century population in many towns
+decreased, and not only most of the smaller ones, but even some
+once important centres of trade, sank to the level almost of
+villages.  Those cities, on the other hand, where the mercantile
+community remained in power, like Nuremberg and the seaboard
+towns, on the whole followed a more enlightened policy, although
+even they could not quite keep clear of the ever-growing
+protective tendencies of the time.  Many even of the richer
+towns, notably Nuremberg, ran into debt irretrievably, owing
+partly to an exorbitant expenditure on magnificent public
+buildings and extensive fortifications, calculated to resist modern
+instruments of destruction, partly to a faulty administration
+of the public debt.  From the 13th century the towns had issued
+(&ldquo;sold,&rdquo; as it was called) annuities, either for life or for perpetuity
+in ever-increasing number, until it was at last found impossible
+to raise the funds necessary to pay them.</p>
+
+<p>One of the principal achievements of the towns lay in the
+field of <i>legislation</i>.  Their law was founded originally on the
+general national (or provincial) law, on custom, and on special
+privilege.  New foundations were regularly provided by their
+lord with a charter embodying the most important points of the
+special law of the town in question.  This miniature code would
+thenceforth be developed by means of statutes passed by the
+town council.  The codification of the law of Augsburg in 1276
+already fills a moderate volume in print (ed. by Christian Meyer,
+Augsburg, 1872).  Later foundations were frequently referred
+by their founders to the nearest existing town of importance,
+though that might belong to a different lord.  Afterwards, if
+a question in law arose which the court of a younger town found
+itself unable to answer, the court next senior in affiliation was
+referred to, which in turn would apply to the court above, until
+at last that of the original mother town was reached, whose
+decision was final.  This system was chiefly developed in the
+colonial east, where most towns were affiliated directly or
+indirectly either to Lübeck or to Magdeburg; but it was by no
+means unknown in the home country.  A number of collections
+of such judgments (<i>Schöffensprüche</i>) have been published.  It is
+also worth mentioning that it was usual to read the police by-laws
+of a town at regular intervals to the assembled citizens in a
+morning-speech (<i>Morgenspraehe</i>).<a name="FnAnchor_10d" id="FnAnchor_10d" href="#Footnote_10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<p>To turn to <i>Italy</i>, the country for so many centuries in close
+political connexion with Germany, the foremost thing to be
+noted is that here the towns grew to even greater independence,
+many of them in the end acknowledging no overlord whatever
+after the yoke of the German kings had been shaken off.  On
+the other hand, nearly all of them in the long run fell under the
+sway of some local tyrant-dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>From Roman times the country had remained thickly studded
+with towns, each being the seat of a bishop.  From this arose
+their most important peculiarity.  For it was largely due to an
+identification of dioceses and municipal territories that the nobles
+of the surrounding country took up their headquarters in the
+cities, either voluntarily or because forced to do so by the citizens,
+who made it their policy thus to turn possible opponents into
+partisans and defenders.  In Germany, on the other hand,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span>
+nobles and knights were carefully shut out so long as the town&rsquo;s
+independence was at stake, the members of a princely garrison
+being required to take up their abode in the citadel, separated
+from the town proper by a wall.  Only in the comparatively
+few cathedral cities this rule does not obtain.  It will be seen
+that, in consequence of this, municipal life in Italy was from the
+first more complex, the main constituent parts of the population
+being the <i>capitani</i>, or greater nobles, the <i>valvassori</i>, or lesser
+nobles (knights) and the people (<i>popolo</i>).  Furthermore, the
+bishops being in most cases the exponents of the imperial power,
+the struggle for freedom from the latter ended in a radical riddance
+from all temporal episcopal government as well.  Foremost
+in this struggle stood the cities of Lombardy, most of which all
+through the barbarian invasions had kept their walls in repair
+and maintained some importance as economic centres, and whose
+<i>popolo</i> largely consisted of merchants of some standing.  As
+early as the 8th century the laws of the Langobard King Aistulf
+distinguished three classes of merchants (<i>negotiantes</i>), among
+whom the <i>majores et potentes</i> were required to keep themselves
+provided with horse, lance, shield and a cuirass.  The valley of
+the Po formed the main artery of trade between western Europe
+and the East, Milan being besides the point of convergence for
+all Alpine passes west of the Brenner (the St Gotthard, however,
+was not made accessible until early in the 13th century).  Lombard
+merchants soon spread all over western Europe, a chief
+source of their ever-increasing wealth being their employment
+as bankers of the papal see.</p>
+
+<p>The struggle against the bishops, in which a clamour for a
+reform of clerical life and a striving for local self-government
+were strangely interwoven, had raged for a couple of generations
+when King Henry V., great patron of municipal freedom as he
+was, legalized by a series of charters the <i>status quo</i> (Cremona,
+1114, Mantua, 1116).  But under his weak successors the independence
+of the cities reached such a pitch as to be manifestly
+intolerable to an energetic monarch like Frederick I.  Besides,
+the more powerful among them would subdue or destroy their
+weaker neighbours, and two parties were formed, one headed
+by Milan, the other by Cremona.  Como and Lodi complained
+of the violence used to them by the former city.  Therefore in
+1158 a commission was appointed embracing four Roman legists
+as representatives of the emperor, as well as those of fourteen
+towns, to examine into the imperial and municipal rights.  The
+claims of the imperial government, jurisdictional and other,
+were acknowledged, only such rights of self-government being
+admitted as could be shown to be grounded on imperial charters.
+But when it came to carrying into effect these Roncaglian decrees,
+a general rising resulted.  Milan was besieged by the emperor
+and destroyed in 1162 in accordance with the verdict of her
+rivals.  Nevertheless, after a defeat at Legnano in 1176, Frederick
+was forced to renounce all pretensions to interference with the
+government of the cities, merely retaining an overlordship that
+was not much more than formal (peace of Constance in 1183).
+All through this war the towns had been supported by Pope
+Alexander III.  Similarly under Frederick II. the renewal of the
+struggle between emperor and pope dovetailed with a fresh outbreak
+of the war with the cities, who feared lest an imperial
+triumph over the church would likewise threaten their independence.
+The emperor&rsquo;s death finally decided the issue in their favour.</p>
+
+<p>Constitutionally, municipal freedom was based on the formation
+of a commune headed by elected consuls, usually to the
+number of twelve, representing the three orders of <i>capitani</i>,
+<i>valvassori</i> and <i>popolo</i>.  Frequently, however, the number actually
+wielding power was much more restricted, and their position
+altogether may rather be likened to that of their Roman predecessors
+than to that of their German contemporaries.  In all
+important matters they asked the advice and support of &ldquo;wise
+men,&rdquo; <i>sapientes, discretiores, prudentes</i>, as a body called the
+<i>credenza</i>, while the popular assembly (<i>parlamentum, concio,
+consilium generale</i>) was the true sovereign.  The consuls with the
+assistance of <i>judices</i> also presided in the law-courts; but besides
+the consuls of the commune there were <i>consules de placitis</i>
+specially appointed for jurisdictional purposes.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of these multifarious safeguards, however, family
+factions early destroyed the fabric of liberty, especially as, just
+as there was an imperial, or Ghibelline, and a papal, or Guelph
+party among the cities as a whole, thus also within each town
+each faction would allege adherence to and claim support by
+one or other of the great world-powers.  To get out of the dilemma
+of party-government, resort was thereupon had to the appointment
+as chief magistrate of a <i>podestŕ</i> from among the nobles or
+knights of a different part of the country not mixed up with the
+local feuds.  But the end was in most cases the establishment of
+the despotism of some leading family, such as the Visconti at
+Milan, the Gonzaga at Mantua, the della Scala in Verona and
+the Carrara in Padua.</p>
+
+<p>In Tuscany, the historic rôle of the cities, with the exception
+of Pisa, begins at a later date, largely owing to the overlordship
+of the powerful margraves of the house of Canossa and their
+successors, who here represented the emperor.  Pisa, however,
+together with Genoa, all through the 11th century distinguished
+itself by war waged in the western Mediterranean and its isles
+against the Saracens.  Both cities, along with Venice, but especially
+the Genoese, also did excellent service in reducing the
+Syrian coast towns still in the hands of the Turks in the reigns
+of Kings Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. of Jerusalem, while more
+particularly Pisa with great constancy placed her fleet at the
+disposal of the Hohenstaufen emperors for warfare with Sicily.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile communes with consuls at their head were formed
+in Tuscany much as elsewhere.  On the other hand the Tuscan
+cities managed to prolong the reign of liberty to a much later
+epoch, no <i>podestŕ</i> ever quite succeeding here in his attempts to
+establish the rule of his dynasty.  Even when in the second half
+of the 15th century the Medici in Florence attained to power,
+the form at least of a republic was still maintained, and not till
+1531 did one of them, supported by Charles V., assume the ducal
+title.</p>
+
+<p>Long before the last stage, the rule of <i>signori</i>, was reached,
+however, the commune as originally constituted had everywhere
+undergone radical changes.  As early as the 13th century the
+lower orders among the inhabitants formed an organization
+under officers of their own, side by side with that of the commune,
+which was controlled by the great and the rich; <i>e.g.</i> at Florence
+the people in 1250 rose against the turbulent nobles and chose a
+<i>capitano del popolo</i> with twelve <i>anziani</i>, two from each of the
+six city-wards (<i>sestieri</i>), as his council.  The <i>popolo</i> itself was
+divided into twenty armed companies, each under a <i>gonfaloniere</i>.
+But later the <i>arti</i> (craft-gilds), some of whom, however, can be
+shown to have existed under consuls of their own as early as
+1203, attained supreme importance, and in 1282 the government
+was placed in the hands of their <i>priori</i>, under the name of the
+<i>signoria</i>.  The Guelph nobles were at first admitted to a share
+in the government, on condition of their entering a gild, but in
+1293 even this privilege was withdrawn.  The <i>ordinamenti della
+giustizia</i> of that year robbed the nobility of all political power.
+The lesser or lower <i>arti</i>, on the other hand, were conceded a
+full share in it, and a <i>gonfaloniere della giustizia</i> was placed at
+the head of the militia.  In the 14th century twelve <i>buoni uomini</i>
+representing the wards (<i>sestieri</i>) were superadded, all these
+dignitaries holding office for two months only.  And besides all
+these, there existed three competing chief justices and commanders
+of the forces called in from abroad and holding office for
+six months, viz. the <i>podestŕ</i>, the <i>capitano del popolo</i>, and the
+<i>esecutore della giustizia</i>. In spite of all this complicated machinery
+of checks and balances, revolution followed upon revolution,
+nor could an occasional reign of terror be prevented like that of
+the Signore Gauthier de Brienne, duke of Athens (1342-1343).
+It was not till after a rising of the lowest order of all, the industrial
+labourers, had been suppressed in 1378 (<i>tumulto dei
+Ciompi</i>, the wool-combers), that quieter times ensued under the
+wise leadership, first of the Albizzi and finally of the Medici.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the other Tuscan towns was equally tumultuous,
+all of them save Lucca, after many fitful changes finally passing
+under the sway of Florence, or the grand-duchy of Tuscany, as
+the state was now called.  Pisa, one time the mightiest, had been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span>
+crushed between its inland neighbour and its maritime rival
+Genoa (battle of Meloria, 1282).</p>
+
+<p>Apart in its constitutional development from all other towns
+in Italy, and it might be added, in Europe, stands Venice.
+Almost alone among Italian cities its origin does not go back to
+Roman times. It was not till the invasions of Hun and Langobard
+that fugitives from the Venetian mainland took refuge
+among the poor fishermen on the small islands in the lagoons
+and on the <i>lido</i>&mdash;the narrow stretch of coast-line which separates
+the lagoons from the Adriatic&mdash;some at Grado, some at Malamocco,
+others on Rialto. A number of small communities was
+formed under elected tribunes, acknowledging as their sovereign
+the emperor at Constantinople. Treaties of commerce were
+concluded with the Langobard kings, thus assuring a market
+for the sale of imports from the East and for the purchase of
+agricultural produce. Just before or after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700 the young
+republic seems to have thrown off the rule of the Byzantine <i>dux
+Histriae et Venetiae</i> and elected a duke (<i>doge</i>) of its own, in whom
+was vested the executive power, the right to convoke the popular
+assembly (<i>concio</i>) and appoint tribunes and justices. Political
+unity was thus established, but it was not till after another
+century of civil war that Rialto was definitely chosen the seat
+of government and thus the foundation of the present city laid.
+After a number of attempts to establish a hereditary dukedom,
+Duke Domenico Flabianico in 1032 passed a law providing that
+no duke was to appoint his successor or procure him to be elected
+during his own lifetime. Besides this two councils were appointed
+without whose consent nothing of importance was to be done.
+After the murder by the people of Duke Vitale Michiel in 1172,
+who had suffered naval defeat, it was deemed necessary to
+introduce a stricter constitutional order. According to the
+orthodox account, some details of which have, however, recently
+been impugned,<a name="FnAnchor_11d" id="FnAnchor_11d" href="#Footnote_11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> the irregular popular meeting was replaced by a
+great council of from 450 to 480 members elected annually by
+special appointed electors in equal proportion from each of
+the six wards. One of the functions of this body was to appoint
+most of the state officials or their electors. There was also an
+executive council of six, one from each ward. Besides these,
+the duke, who was henceforward elected by a body of eleven
+electors from among the aristocracy, would invite persons of
+prominence (the <i>pregadi</i>) in order to secure their assent and co-operation,
+whenever a measure of importance was to be placed
+before the great council. Only under extraordinary circumstances
+the <i>concio</i> was still to be called. The tenure of the duke&rsquo;s
+office was for life. The general tendency of constitutional
+development in Venice henceforward ran in an exactly opposite
+direction to that of all other Italian cities towards a growing
+restriction of popular rights, until in 1296 the great council
+was for all future time closed to all but the descendants of a
+limited number of noble families, whose names were in that year
+entered in the Golden Book. It still remained to appoint a
+board to superintend the executive power. These were the
+<i>avvogadori di commune</i>, and, since Tiepolo&rsquo;s conspiracy in 1310,
+the <i>Consiglio dei Dieci</i>, the Council of Ten, which controlled the
+whole of the state, and out of which there developed in the 16th
+century the state inquisition.</p>
+
+<p>While in all prominent Italian cities the leading classes of the
+community were largely made up of merchants, in Venice the
+nobility was entirely commercial. The marked steadiness in the
+evolution of the Venetian constitution is no doubt largely due to
+this fact. Elsewhere the presence of large numbers of turbulent
+country nobles furnished the first germ for the unending dissensions
+which ruined such promising beginnings. In Venice, on
+the contrary, its businesslike habits of mind led the ruling class
+to make what concessions might seem needful, while both the
+masses and the head of the state were kept in due subjection to
+the laws. Too much stability, however, finally changed into
+stagnation, and decay followed. The foreign policy of Venice
+was likewise mainly dictated by commercial motives, the chief
+objectives being commercial privilege in the Byzantine empire
+and in the Frankish states in the East, domination of the Adriatic,
+occupation of a sufficient hinterland on the <i>terra firma</i>, non-sufferance
+of the rivalry of Genoa, and, finally, maintenance of
+trade-supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean through a series of
+alternating wars and treaties with Turkey, the lasting monument
+of which was the destruction of the Parthenon in 1685 by a
+Venetian bomb. At last the proud republic surrendered to
+Napoleon without a stroke.</p>
+
+<p>The cities of southern Italy do not here call for special attention.
+Several of them developed a certain amount of independence
+and free institutions, and took an important part in trade
+with the East, notably so Amalfi. But after incorporation in
+the Norman kingdom all individual history for them came to
+an end.</p>
+
+<p>Rome, finally, derived its importance from being the capital of
+the popes and from its proud past. From time to time spasmodic
+attempts were made to revive the forms of the ancient republic,
+as under Arnold of Brescia in the 12th and by Niccolň di Rienzo
+in the 14th century; but there was no body of stalwart, self-reliant
+citizens to support such measures: nothing but turbulent
+nobles on the one hand and a rabble on the other.</p>
+
+<p>In no country is there such a clear grouping of the towns on
+geographical lines as in <i>France</i>, these geographical lines, of course,
+having in the first instance been drawn by historical causes.
+Another feature is the extent to which, in the unruly times
+preceding the civic movement, serfdom had spread among the
+inhabitants even of the towns throughout the greater part of the
+country, and the application of feudal ideas to town government.
+In some other respects the constitution of the cities in the south
+of France, as will be seen, has more in common with that of the
+Italian communes, and that of the northern French towns with
+those of Germany, than the constitutions of the various groups of
+French towns have among each other.</p>
+
+<p>In the group of the <i>villes consulaires</i>, comprising all important
+towns in the south, the executive was, as in Italy, in the hands of
+a body of <i>consules</i>, whose number in most cases rose to twelve.
+They were elected for the term of one year and re-eligible only
+after an interval, and they were supported by a municipal council
+(<i>commune consilium, consilium magnum</i> or <i>secretum</i> or <i>generale</i>, or
+<i>colloquium</i>) and a general assembly (<i>parlamentum, concio, commune
+consilium, commune, universitas civium</i>), which, however, as a
+rule was far from comprising the whole body of citizens. Another
+feature which these southern towns had in common with their
+Italian neighbours was the prominent part played by the native
+nobility. The relations with the clergy were generally of a more
+friendly character than in the north, and in some cases the bishop
+or archbishop even retained a considerable influence in the
+management of the town&rsquo;s affairs. Dissensions among the
+citizens, or between the nobles and the bourgeois, frequently
+ended in the adoption of a <i>podestat</i>. And in several cities of the
+Languedoc, each of the two classes composing the population
+retained its separate laws and customs. It is matter of dispute
+whether vestiges of Roman institutions had survived in these
+parts down to the time when the new constitutions sprang into
+being; but all investigators are pretty well agreed that in no
+case did such remnants prove of any practical importance.
+Roman law, however, was never quite superseded by Germanic
+law, as appears from the <i>statuts municipaux</i>. In the improvement
+and expansion of these statutes a remarkable activity was displayed
+by means of an annual <i>correctio statutorum</i> carried out by
+specially appointed <i>statutores</i>. In the north, on the other hand,
+the <i>carta communiae</i>, forming as it were the basis of the commune&rsquo;s
+existence, seems to have been considered almost as
+something sacred and unchangeable.</p>
+
+<p>The constitutional history of the communes in northern France
+in a number of points widely differed from that of these <i>villes
+consulaires</i>. First of all the movement for their establishment in
+most cases was to a far greater degree of a revolutionary character.
+These revolutions were in the first place directed against the
+bishops; but the position both of the higher clergy and of the
+nobility was here of a nature distinctly more hostile to the
+aspirations of the citizens than it was in the south. As a result
+the clergy and the nobles were excluded from all membership of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span>
+the commune, except inasmuch as that those residing in the town
+might be required to swear not to conspire against it. The
+commune (<i>communia, communa, communio, communitas, conjuratio,
+confoederatio</i>) was formed by an oath of mutual help
+(<i>sacramentum, juramentum communiae</i>). The members were
+described as <i>jurati</i> (also <i>burgenses, vicini, amici</i>), although in some
+communes that term was reserved for the members of the governing
+body. None but men of free and legitimate birth, and free
+from debt and contagious or incurable disease were received.
+The members of the governing body were styled <i>jurés</i> (<i>jurati</i>),
+<i>pairs</i> (<i>pares</i>) or <i>échevins</i> (<i>scabini</i>). The last was, however, as in
+Germany, more properly the title of the jurors in the court of
+justice, which in many cases remained in the hands of the lord.
+In some cases the town council developed out of this body; but
+in the larger cities, like Rouen, several councils worked and all
+these names were employed side by side. The number of the
+members of the governing body proper varies from twelve to a
+hundred, and its functions were both judicial and administrative.
+There was also known an arrangement corresponding to the
+German <i>alte und sitzende Rat</i>, viz. of retired members who could
+be called in to lend assistance on important occasions. The most
+striking distinction, however, as against the <i>villes consulaires</i> was
+the elevation of the president of the body to the position of <i>maire</i>
+or <i>mayeur</i> (sometimes also called <i>prévôt</i>, <i>praepositus</i>). As elsewhere,
+at first none but the civic aristocracy were admitted to
+take part in the management of the town&rsquo;s affairs; but from the
+end of the 13th century a share had to be conceded to representatives
+of the crafts. Dissatisfaction, however, was not easily
+allayed; the lower orders applied for the intervention of the
+king; and that effectively put an end to political freedom. This
+tendency of calling in state help marks a most striking difference
+as against the policy followed by the German towns, where all
+classes appear to have been always far too jealous of local
+independence. The result for the nation was in the one case
+despotism, equality and order, in the other individual liberty
+and an inability to move as a whole. At an earlier stage the king
+had frequently come to the assistance of the communes in their
+struggle with their lords. By-and-by the king&rsquo;s confirmation
+came to be considered necessary for their lawful existence.
+This proved a powerful lever for the extension of the king&rsquo;s
+authority. It may seem strange that in France the towns never
+had recourse to those interurban leagues which played so important
+a part in Italian and in German history.</p>
+
+<p>These two varieties, the <i>communes</i> and the <i>villes consulaires</i>
+together form the group of <i>villes libres</i>. As opposed to these
+stand the <i>villes franches</i>, also called <i>villes prévotales</i> after the
+chief officer, <i>villes de bourgeoisie</i> or <i>villes soumises</i>. They make
+up by far the majority of French towns, comprising all those
+situated in the centre of the kingdom, and also a large number
+in the north and the south. They are called <i>villes franches</i> on
+account of their possessing a franchise, a charter limiting the
+services due by the citizens to their lord, but political status they
+had little or none. According to the varying extent of the
+liberties conceded them, there may be distinguished towns
+governed by an elective body and more or less fully authorized
+to exercise jurisdiction; towns possessing some sort of municipal
+organization, but no rights of jurisdiction, except that of simple
+police; and, thirdly, those governed entirely by seignorial
+officers. To this last class belong some of the most important
+cities in France, wherever the king had power enough to withhold
+liberties deemed dangerous and unnecessary. On the other
+hand, towns of the first category often come close to the <i>villes
+libres</i>. A strict line of demarcation, however, remains in the
+mutual oath which forms the basis of the civic community in
+both varieties of the latter, and in the fact that the <i>ville libre</i>
+stands to its lord in the relation of vassal and not in that of
+an immediate possession. But however <i>complčtement assujettie</i>
+Paris might be, its organization, naturally, was immensely more
+complex than that of hundreds of smaller places which, formally,
+might stand in an identical relationship to their lords. Like
+other <i>villes franches</i> under the king, Paris was governed by a
+<i>prévôt</i> (provost), but certain functions of self-government for
+the city were delegated to the company of the <i>marchands de
+l&rsquo;eau, mercatores aquae</i>, also called <i>mercatores ansati</i>, that is,
+the gild of merchants whose business lay down the river Seine,
+in other words, a body naturally exclusive, not, however, to
+the citizens as such.  At their head stood a <i>prévôt des marchands</i>
+and four <i>eschevins de la marchandise</i>.  Other <i>prud&rsquo;hommes</i> were
+occasionally called in, and from 1296 <i>prévôt</i> and <i>échevins</i>, appointed
+twenty-four councillors to form with themselves a
+<i>parloir aux bourgeois</i>.  The crafts of Paris were organized in
+<i>métiers</i>, whose masters were appointed, some by the <i>prévôt de
+Paris</i>, and some by certain great officers of the court.  In the
+tax rolls of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1292 to 1300 no fewer than 448 names of crafts
+occur, while the <i>Livre des métiers</i> written in 1268 by Étienne de
+Boileau, then <i>prévôt de Paris</i>, enumerates 101 organized bodies
+of tradesmen or women and artisans.  Among the duties of these
+bodies, as elsewhere, was the <i>guet</i> or night-watch, which necessitated
+a military organization under <i>quartiniers, cinquantainiers</i>
+and <i>dixainiers</i>.  This gave them a certain power.  But both
+their revolutions, under the <i>prévôt des marchands</i>, Étienne Marcel,
+after the battle of Maupertuis, and again in 1382, were extremely
+short-lived, and the only tangible result was a stricter subjection
+to the king and his officers.</p>
+
+<p>An exceptional position among the cities of France is taken
+up by those of <i>Flanders</i>, more particularly the three &ldquo;Great
+Towns,&rdquo; Bruges, Ghent and Ypres, whose population was
+Flemish, <i>i.e.</i> German.  They sprang up at the foot of the count&rsquo;s
+castles and rose in close conjunction with his power.  On the
+accession of a new house they made their power felt as early
+as 1128.  Afterwards the counts of the house of Dampierre fell
+into financial dependence on the burghers, and therefore allied
+themselves with the rising artisans, led by the weavers.  These,
+however, proved far more unruly, bloody conflicts ensued, and
+for a considerable period the three great cities ruled the whole
+of Flanders with a high hand.  Their influence in the foreign
+relations of the country was likewise great, it being in their
+interest to keep up friendly relations with England, on whose
+wool the flourishing state of the staple industry of Flanders
+depended.  It is a remarkable fact that the historical position
+taken up by these cities, which politically belonged to France,
+is much more akin to the part played by the German towns,
+whereas Cambrai, whose population was French, is the only city
+politically situated in Germany, where a commune came to be
+established.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Spanish peninsula</i>, the chief importance of the numerous
+small towns lay in the part they played as fortresses during the
+unceasing wars with the Moors.  The kings therefore extended
+special privileges (<i>fueros</i>) to the inhabitants, and they were even
+at an early date admitted to representation in the Cortes (parliament).
+Of greater individual importance than all the rest was
+Barcelona.  Already in 1068 Count Berengarius gave the city
+a special law (<i>usatici</i>) based on its ancient usages, and from the
+14th century its commercial code (<i>libro del consolat del mar</i>)
+became influential all over southern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The constitutions of the <i>Scandinavian</i> towns were largely
+modelled on those of Germany, but the towns never attained
+anything like the same independence.  Their dependence on
+the royal government most strongly comes out in the fact of
+their being uniformly regulated by royal law in each of the
+three kingdoms.  In Sweden particularly, German merchants
+by law took an equal share in the government of the towns.
+In Denmark their influence was also great, and only in Norway
+did they remain in the position of foreigners in spite of their
+famous settlement at Bergen.  The details, as well as those of the
+German settlement at Wisby and on the east coast of the Baltic,
+belong rather to the history of the Hanseatic League (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Denmark appears to be the only one of the three kingdoms
+where gilds at an early date played a part of importance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The only book dealing with the subject in
+general, viz. K. D. Hüllmann, <i>Städtewesen des Mittelalters</i> (4 vols.,
+Bonn, 1826-1828), is quite antiquated.  For Germany it is best to
+consult Richard Schröder, <i>Lehrbruch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte</i>
+(5th ed., Leipzig, 1907), §§ 51 and 56, where a bibliography as complete
+as need be is given, both of monographs dealing with various
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span>
+aspects of the question, and of works on the history of individual
+towns.  The latter alone covers two large octavo pages of small
+print.  As a sort of complement to Schröder&rsquo;s chapters may be considered,
+F. Keutgen, <i>Urkunden zur städtischen Verfassungsgeschichte</i>
+(Berlin, 1901 = <i>Ausgewählte Urkunden zur deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte</i>,
+by G. von Below and F. Keutgen, vol. i.), a collection of
+437 select charters and other documents, with a very full index.
+The great work of G. L. von Maurer, <i>Geschichte der Städteverfassung
+von Deutschland</i> (4 thick vols., Erlangen, 1869-1871), contains an
+enormous mass of information not always treated quite so critically
+as the present age requires.  There is an excellent succinct account
+for general readers by Georg von Below, &ldquo;Das ältere deutsche Städtewesen
+und Bürgertum,&rdquo; <i>Monographien zur Weltgeschichte</i>, vol. vi.
+(Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1898, illustrated).  A number of the most
+important recent monographs have been mentioned above.  As
+fpr Italy, the most valuable general work for the early times is still
+Carl Hegel, <i>Geschichte der Städteverfassung von Italien seit der Zeit
+der römischen Herrschaft bis zum Ausgang des zwölften Jahrhunderts</i> (2
+small vols., Leipzig, 1847, price second-hand, M. 40), in which it was for
+the first time fully proved that there is no connexion between Roman
+and modern municipal constitutions.  For the period from the 13th
+century it will perhaps be best to consult W. Assmann, <i>Geschichte
+des Mittelalters</i>, 3rd ed., by L. Viereck, dritte Abteilung, <i>Die letzten
+beiden Jahrhunderts des Mittelalters: Deutschland, die Schweiz, und
+Italien</i>, by R. Fischer, R. Scheppig and L. Viereck (Brunswick, 1906).
+In this volume, pp. 679-943 contain an excellent account of the various
+Italian states and cities during that period, with a full bibliography
+for each.  Among recent critical contributions to the history of
+individual towns, the following works deserve to be specially mentioned:
+Robert Davidsohn, <i>Geschichte von Florenz</i> (Berlin, 1896-1908);
+down to the beginning of the 14th century; the same,
+<i>Forschungen zur Geschichte von Florenz</i> (vols. i.-iv., Berlin, 1896-1908);
+Heinrich Kretschmayr, <i>Geschichte von Venedig</i> (vol. i., Gotha,
+1905, to 1205).  For France, there are the works by Achille Luchaire,
+<i>Les Communes françaises ŕ l&rsquo;époque des Capétiens directs</i> (Paris, 1890),
+and Paul Viollet, &ldquo;Les Communes françaises au moyen âge,&rdquo;
+<i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres</i>, tome xxxvi.
+(Paris, 1900). There are, of course, also accounts in the great works
+on French institutions by Flach, Glasson, Viollet, Luchaire, but
+perhaps the one in Luchaire&rsquo;s <i>Manuel des institutions françaises,
+période des Capétiens directs</i> (Paris, 1892) deserves special recommendation.
+Another valuable account for France north of the Loire
+is that contained in the great work by Karl Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden
+der germanischen Völker im Mittelaller</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891; see
+<i>English Historical Review</i>, viii. 120-127).  Of course, there are
+also numerous monographs, among which the following may
+be mentioned: Édouard Bonvalot, <i>Le Tiers État d&rsquo;aprčs la charte
+de Beaumont et ses filiales</i> (Paris, 1884); and A. Giry, <i>Les
+Ętablissements de Rouen</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1883-1885); also a collection
+of documents by Gustave Fagniez, <i>Documents relatifs ŕ l&rsquo;histoire
+de l&rsquo;industrie et du commerce en France</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1898, 1900).
+Some valuable works on the commercial history of southern Europe
+should still be mentioned, such as W. Heyd, <i>Geschichte des Levantehandels
+im Mittelalter</i> (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1879; French edition by
+Furcy Raynaud, 2 vols., Paris, 1885 seq., improved by the author),
+recognized as a standard work; Adolf Schaube, <i>Handelsgeschichte
+der romanischen Völker des Mittelmeergebietes bis zum Ende der
+Kreuzzüge</i> (Munich and Berlin, 1906); Aloys Schulte, <i>Geschichte
+des mittelalterlichen Handels und Verkehrs zwischen Westdeutschland
+und Italien mit Ausschluss Venedigs</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1900); L.
+Goldschmidt, <i>Universalgesdiichte des Handelsrechts</i> (vol. i., Stuttgart,
+1891).  As for the Scandinavian towns, the best guide is perhaps
+the book by K. Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden der germanischen Völker</i>,
+already mentioned; but see also Dietrich Schäfer, &ldquo;Der Stand der
+Geschichtswissenschaft im skandinavischen Norden,&rdquo; <i>Internationale
+Wochenschrift</i>, November 16, 1907.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. K.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1d" id="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> As to the former, see S. Rietschel, <i>Die Civitas auf deutschem
+Boden bis zum Ausgange der Karolingerzeit</i> (Leipzig, 1894); and, for
+the newly founded towns, the same author, <i>Markt und Stadt in ihrem
+rechtlichen Verhältnis</i> (Leipzig, 1897).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2d" id="Footnote_2d" href="#FnAnchor_2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> About the <i>Burggraf</i>, see S. Rietschel, <i>Das Burggrafenamt und
+die hohe Gerichtsbarkeit in den deutschen Bischofsstädten während des
+früheren Mittelalters</i> (Leipzig, 1905).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3d" id="Footnote_3d" href="#FnAnchor_3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> As to the towns as fortresses, see also F. Keutgen, <i>Untersuchungen
+über den Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung</i> (Leipzig, 1895); and
+&ldquo;Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung&rdquo; (<i>Neue Jahrbücher
+für das klassische Altertum</i>, &amp;c, N.F. vol. v.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4d" id="Footnote_4d" href="#FnAnchor_4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See S. Rietschel, <i>Markt und Stadt</i>, and J. Fritz, <i>Deutsche Stadtanlagen</i>
+(Strassburg, 1894).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5d" id="Footnote_5d" href="#FnAnchor_5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> G. von Below, <i>Die Entstehung der deutschen Stadtgemeinde</i>
+(Düsseldorf, 1889); and <i>Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung</i>
+(Düsseldorf, 1892).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6d" id="Footnote_6d" href="#FnAnchor_6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> F. Keutgen, <i>Urkunden zur städtischen Verfassungsgeschichte</i>,
+No. 74 and No. 75 (Berlin, 1901).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7d" id="Footnote_7d" href="#FnAnchor_7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> F. Keutgen, <i>Ämter und Zünfte</i> (Jena, 1903).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8d" id="Footnote_8d" href="#FnAnchor_8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> J. Weizsäcker, <i>Der rheinische Bund</i> (Tübingen, 1879).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9d" id="Footnote_9d" href="#FnAnchor_9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> G. v. Below, <i>Der Untergang der mittelalterlichen Stadtwirtschaft;
+Über Theorien der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Völker</i>; F.
+Keutgen, &ldquo;Hansische Handelsgesellschaften, vornehmlich des 14ten
+Jahrhunderts,&rdquo; in <i>Vierteljahrsschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte</i>,
+vol. iv. (1906).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10d" id="Footnote_10d" href="#FnAnchor_10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> On this whole subject see Richard Schröder, <i>Lehrbuch der
+deutschen Rechtsgeschichte</i> (5th ed., Leipzig, 1907), § 56, &ldquo;Die Stadtrechte.&rdquo;
+Also Charles Gross, <i>The Gild Merchant</i> (Oxford, 1890),
+vol. i. Appendix E, &ldquo;Affiliation of Medieval Boroughs.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11d" id="Footnote_11d" href="#FnAnchor_11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> H. Kretschmayr, <i>Geschichte von Venedig</i>, vol. i. (Gotha, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMUNISM,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the name loosely given to schemes of social
+organizations depending on the abolition of private property
+and its absorption into the property of a community as such.
+It is a form of what is now generally called socialism (<i>q.v.</i>), the
+terminology of which has varied a good deal according to time
+and place; but the expression &ldquo;communism&rdquo; may be conveniently
+used, as opposed to &ldquo;socialism&rdquo; in its wider political
+sense, or to the political and municipal varieties known as
+&ldquo;collectivism,&rdquo; &ldquo;state socialism,&rdquo; &amp;c., in order to indicate more
+particularly the historical schemes propounded or put into
+practice for establishing certain ideally arranged communities
+composed of individuals living and working on the basis of
+holding their property in common.  It has nothing, of course,
+to do with the Paris Commune, overthrown in May 1871, which
+was a political and not an economic movement.  Communistic
+schemes have been advocated in almost every age and country,
+and have to be distinguished from mere anarchism or from the
+selfish desire to transfer other people&rsquo;s property into one&rsquo;s own
+pockets. The opinion that a communist is merely a man who
+has no property to lose, and therefore advocates a redistribution
+of wealth, is contrary to the established facts as to those who
+have historically supported the theory of communism.  The
+Corn-law Rhymer&rsquo;s lines on this subject are amusing, but only
+apply to the baser sort:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>&ldquo;What is a Communist!  One that hath yearnings</p>
+<p class="i05">For equal division of unequal earnings.</p>
+<p class="i05">Idler or bungler, or both, he is willing</p>
+<p class="i05">To fork out his penny and pocket your shilling.&rdquo;</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">This is the communist of hostile criticism&mdash;a criticism, no doubt,
+ultimately based on certain fundamental facts in human nature,
+which have usually wrecked communistic schemes of a purely
+altruistic type in conception.  But the great communists, like
+Plato, More, Saint-Simon, Robert Owen, were the very reverse
+of selfish or idle in their aims; and communism as a force in
+the historical evolution of economic and social opinion must be
+regarded on its ideal side, and not merely in its lapses, however
+natural the latter may be in operation, owing to the defects of
+human character.  As a theory it has inspired not only some of
+the finest characters in history, but also much of the gradual
+evolution of economic organization&mdash;especially in the case of
+co-operation (<i>q.v.</i>); and its opportunities have naturally varied
+according to the state of social organization in particular
+countries.  The communism of the early Christians, for instance,
+was rather a voluntary sharing of private property than any
+abnegation of property as such.  The Essenes and the Therapeutae,
+however, in Palestine, had a stricter form of communism,
+and the former required the surrender of individual property;
+and in the middle ages various religious sects, followed by the
+monastic orders, were based on the communistic principle.</p>
+
+<p>Communistic schemes have found advocates in almost every
+age and in many different countries.  The one thing that is
+shared by all communists, whether speculative or practical, is
+deep dissatisfaction with the economic conditions by which they
+are surrounded.  In Plato&rsquo;s <i>Republic</i> the dissatisfaction is not
+limited to merely economic conditions.  In his examination of the
+body politic there is hardly any part which he can pronounce to
+be healthy.  He would alter the life of the citizens of his state
+from the very moment of birth.  Children are to be taken away
+from their parents and nurtured under the supervision of the
+state.  The old nursery tales, &ldquo;the blasphemous nonsense with
+which mothers fool the manhood out of their children,&rdquo; are to be
+suppressed.  Dramatic and imitative poetry are not to be allowed.
+Education, marriage, the number of births, the occupations of the
+citizens are to be controlled by the guardians or heads of the state.
+The most perfect equality of conditions and careers is to be
+preserved; the women are to have similar training with the men,
+no careers and no ambition are to be forbidden to them; the
+inequalities and rivalries between rich and poor are to cease,
+because all will be provided for by the state.  Other cities are
+divided against themselves.  &ldquo;Any ordinary city, however small,
+is in fact two cities, one the city of the poor, the other of the rich,
+at war with one another&rdquo; (<i>Republic</i>, bk. iv. p. 249, Jowett&rsquo;s translation).
+But this ideal state is to be a perfect unit; although the
+citizens are divided into classes according to their capacity and
+ability, there is none of the exclusiveness of birth, and no inequality
+is to break the accord which binds all the citizens, both
+male and female, together into one harmonious whole.  The
+marvellous comprehensiveness of the scheme for the government
+of this ideal state makes it belong as much to the modern as to the
+ancient world.  Many of the social problems to which Plato draws
+attention are yet unsolved, and some are in process of solution in
+the direction indicated by him.  He is not appalled by the
+immensity of the task which he has sketched out for himself and
+his followers.  He admits that there are difficulties to be overcome,
+but he says in a sort of parenthesis, &ldquo;Nothing great is
+easy.&rdquo;  He refuses to be satisfied with half measures and patchwork
+reforms.  &ldquo;Enough, my friend! but what is enough while
+anything remains wanting?&rdquo;  These sentences indicate the
+spirit in which philosophical as distinguished from practical
+communists from the time of Plato till to-day have undertaken
+to reconstruct human society.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span></p>
+
+<p>Sir Thomas More&rsquo;s <i>Utopia</i> has very many of the characteristics
+of <i>The Republic</i>.  There is in it the same wonderful power of
+shaking off the prejudices of the place and time in which it was
+written.  The government of Utopia is described as founded on
+popular election; community of goods prevailed, the magistrates
+distributed the instruments of production among the inhabitants,
+and the wealth resulting from their industry was shared by all.
+The use of money and all outward ostentation of wealth were
+forbidden.  All meals were taken in common, and they were
+rendered attractive by the accompaniment of sweet strains of
+music, while the air was filled by the scent of the most delicate
+perfumes.  More&rsquo;s ideal state differs in one important respect
+from Plato&rsquo;s.  There was no community of wives in Utopia.
+The sacredness of the family relation and fidelity to the marriage
+contract were recognized by More as indispensable to the well-being
+of modern society.  Plato, notwithstanding all the extraordinary
+originality with which he advocated the emancipation of
+women, was not able to free himself from the theory and practice
+of regarding the wife as part and parcel of the property of her
+husband.  The fact, therefore, that he advocated community of
+property led him also to advocate community of wives.  He
+speaks of &ldquo;the <i>possession and use</i> of women and children,&rdquo; and
+proceeds to show how this possession and use must be regulated
+in his ideal state.  Monogamy was to him mere exclusive possession
+on the part of one man of a piece of property which ought
+to be for the benefit of the public.  The circumstance that he
+could not think of wives otherwise than as the property of their
+husbands only makes it the more remarkable that he claimed
+for women absolute equality of training and careers.  The circumstance
+that communists have so frequently wrecked their projects
+by attacking marriage and advocating promiscuous intercourse
+between the sexes may probably be traced to the notion
+which regards a wife as being a mere item among the goods and
+chattels of her husband.  It is not difficult to find evidence of
+the survival of this ancient habit of mind.  &ldquo;I will be master of
+what is mine own,&rdquo; says Petruchio.  &ldquo;She is my goods, my
+chattels.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Perfectionists of Oneida, on the other hand, held that
+there was &ldquo;no intrinsic difference between property in persons
+and property in things; and that the same spirit which abolished
+exclusiveness in regard to money would abolish, if circumstances
+allowed full scope to it, exclusiveness in regard to women and
+children&rdquo; (Nordhoff&rsquo;s <i>Communistic Societies of the United States</i>).
+It is this notion of a wife as property that is responsible for the
+wild opinions communists have often held in favour of a community
+of wives and the break-up of family relations.  If they
+could shake off this notion and take hold of the conception of
+marriage as a contract, there is no reason why their views on the
+community of property should lead them to think that this
+contract should not include mutual fidelity and remain in force
+during the life of the contracting parties.  It was probably not
+this conception of the marriage relation so much as the influence
+of Christianity which led More to discountenance community of
+wives in Utopia.  It is strange that the same influence did not
+make him include the absence of slavery as one of the characteristics
+of his ideal state.  On the contrary, however, we find in
+Utopia the anomaly of slavery existing side by side with institutions
+which otherwise embody the most absolute personal,
+political and religious freedom.  The presence of slaves in Utopia
+is made use of to get rid of one of the practical difficulties of
+communism, viz. the performance of disagreeable work.  In a
+society where one man is as good as another, and the means of
+subsistence are guaranteed to all alike, it is easy to imagine that
+it would be difficult to ensure the performance of the more
+laborious, dangerous and offensive kinds of labour.  In Utopia,
+therefore, we are expressly told that &ldquo;all the uneasy and sordid
+services&rdquo; are performed by slaves.  The institution of slavery
+was also made supplementary to the criminal system of Utopia,
+as the slaves were for the most part men who had been convicted
+of crime; slavery for life was made a substitute for capital
+punishment.</p>
+
+<p>In many respects, however, More&rsquo;s views on the labour question
+were vastly in advance of his own time.  He repeats the indignant
+protest of the <i>Republic</i> that existing society is a warfare between
+rich and poor.  &ldquo;The rich,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;desire every means by
+which they may in the first place secure to themselves what they
+have amassed by wrong, and then take to their own use and
+profit, at the lowest possible price, the work and labour of the
+poor.   And so soon as the rich decide on adopting these devices
+in the name of the public, then they become law.&rdquo;  One might
+imagine these words had been quoted from the programme of
+The International (<i>q.v.</i>), so completely is their tone in sympathy
+with the hardships of the poor in all ages.  More shared to the full
+the keen sympathy with the hopeless misery of the poor which
+has been the strong motive power of nearly all speculative
+communism.  The life of the poor as he saw it was so wretched
+that he said, &ldquo;Even a beast&rsquo;s life seems enviable!&rdquo;  Besides
+community of goods and equality of conditions, More advocated
+other means of ameliorating the condition of the people.
+Although the hours of labour were limited to six a day there was
+no scarcity, for in Utopia every one worked; there was no idle
+class, no idle individual even.  The importance of this from an
+economic point of view is insisted on by More in a passage
+remarkable for the importance which he attaches to the industrial
+condition of women.  &ldquo;And this you will easily apprehend,&rdquo; he
+says, &ldquo;if you consider how great a part of all other nations is
+quite idle.  First, women generally do little, who are the half of
+mankind.&rdquo;  Translated into modern language his proposals
+comprise universal compulsory education, a reduction of the hours
+of labour to six a day, the most modern principles of sanitary
+reform, a complete revision of criminal legislation, and the most
+absolute religious toleration.  The romantic form which Sir
+Thomas More gave to his dream of a new social order found many
+imitators.  The <i>Utopia</i> may be regarded as the prototype of
+Campanella&rsquo;s <i>City of the Sun</i>, Harrington&rsquo;s <i>Oceana</i>, Bacon&rsquo;s <i>Nova
+Atlantis</i>, Defoe&rsquo;s <i>Essay on Projects</i>, Fénelon&rsquo;s <i>Voyage dans l&rsquo;Île
+des Plaisirs</i>, and other works of minor importance.</p>
+
+<p>All communists have made a great point of the importance of
+universal education.  All ideal communes have been provided by
+their authors with a perfect machinery for securing the education
+of every child.  One of the first things done in every attempt to
+carry communistic theories into practice has been to establish a
+good school and guarantee education to every child.  The first
+impulse to national education in the 19th century probably
+sprang from the very marked success of Robert Owen&rsquo;s schools in
+connexion with the cotton mills at New Lanark.  Compulsory
+education, free trade, and law reform, the various movements
+connected with the improvement of the condition of women, have
+found their earliest advocates among theoretical and practical
+communists.  The communists denounce the evils of the present
+state of society; the hopeless poverty of the poor, side by side
+with the self-regarding luxury of the rich, seems to them to cry
+aloud to Heaven for the creation of a new social organization.
+They proclaim the necessity of sweeping away the institution of
+private property, and insist that this great revolution, accompanied
+by universal education, free trade, a perfect administration
+of justice, and a due limitation of the numbers of the
+community, would put an end to half the self-made distress of
+humanity.</p>
+
+<p>The various communistic experiments in America are the most
+interesting in modern times, opportunities being naturally
+greater there for such deviations from the normal forms of
+regulations as compared with the closely organized states of
+Europe, and particularly in the means of obtaining land cheaply
+for social settlements with peculiar views.  They have been classified
+by Morris Hillquit (<i>History of Socialism in the United States</i>,
+1903) as (1) sectarian, (2) Owenite, (3) Fourieristic, (4) Icarian.</p>
+
+<p>1. The oldest of the sectarian group was the society of the
+Shakers (<i>q.v.</i>), whose first settlement at Watervliet was founded
+in 1776.  The Harmony Society or Rappist Community was
+introduced into Pennsylvania by George Rapp (1770-1847) from
+Württemberg in 1804, and in 1815 they moved to a settlement
+(New Harmony) in Indiana, returning to Pennsylvania again in
+1824, and founding the village of Economy, from which they were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span>
+also known as Economites. Emigrants from Württemberg also
+founded the community of Zoar in Ohio in 1817, being incorporated
+in 1832 as the Society of Separatists of Zoar; it was dissolved
+in 1898. The Amana (<i>q.v.</i>) community, the strongest of all
+American communistic societies, originated in Germany in the
+early part of the 18th century as &ldquo;the True Inspiration Society,&rdquo;
+and some 600 members removed to America in 1842-1844. The
+Bethel (Missouri) and Aurora (Oregon) sister communities were
+founded by Dr Keil (1812-1877) in 1844 and 1856 respectively,
+and were dissolved in 1880 and 1881. The Oneida Community
+(<i>q.v.</i>), created by John Humphrey Noyes (1811-1886), the author
+of a famous <i>History of American Socialisms</i> (1870), was established
+in 1848 as a settlement for the Society of Perfectionists. All these
+bodies had a religious basis, and were formed with the object of
+enjoying the free exercise of their beliefs, and though communistic
+in character they had no political or strictly economic doctrine
+to propagate.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Owenite communities rose under the influence of
+Robert Owen&rsquo;s work at New Lanark, and his propaganda in
+America from 1824 onwards, the principal being New Harmony
+(acquired from the Rappists in 1825); Yellow Springs, near
+Cincinnati, 1824; Nashoba, Tennessee, 1825; Haverstraw, New
+York, 1826; its short-lived successors, Coxsackie, New York,
+and the Kendal Community, Canton, Ohio, 1826. All these had
+more or less short existences, and were founded on Owen&rsquo;s
+theories of labour and economics.</p>
+
+<p>3. The Fourierist communities similarly were due to the
+Utopian teachings of the Frenchman Charles Fourier (<i>q.v.</i>),
+introduced into America by his disciple Albert Brisbane (1809-1890),
+author of <i>The Social Destiny of Man</i> (1840), who was
+efficiently helped by Horace Greeley, George Ripley and others.
+The North American Phalanx, in New Jersey, was started in
+1843 and lasted till 1855. Brook Farm (<i>q.v.</i>) was started as a
+Fourierist Phalanx in 1844, after three years&rsquo; independent career,
+and became the centre of Fourierist propaganda, lasting till 1847.
+The Wisconsin Phalanx, or Ceresco, was organized in 1844, and
+lasted till 1850. In Pennsylvania seven communities were
+established between 1843 and 1845, the chief of which were the
+Sylvania Association, the Peace Union Settlement, the Social
+Reform Unity, and the Leraysville Phalanx. In New York
+state the chief were the Clarkson Phalanx, the Sodus Bay
+Phalanx, the Bloomfield Association, and the Ontario Union.
+In Ohio the principal were the Trumbull Phalanx, the Ohio
+Phalanx, the Clermont Phalanx, the Integral Phalanx, and the
+Columbian Phalanx; and of the remainder the Alphadelphia
+Phalanx, in Michigan, was the best-known. It is pointed out by
+Morris Hillquit that while only two Fourierist Phalanxes were
+established in France, over forty were started in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Icarian communities were due to the communistic
+teachings of another Frenchman, Étienne Cabet (<i>q.v.</i>) (1788-1856),
+the name being derived from his social romance, <i>Voyage en
+Icarie</i> (1840), sketching the advantages of an imaginary country
+called Icaria, with a co-operative system, and criticizing the
+existing social organization. It was his idea, in fact, of a Utopia.
+Robert Owen advised him to establish his followers, already
+numerous, in Texas, and thither about 1500 went in 1848. But
+disappointment resulted, and their numbers dwindled to less
+than 500 in 1849; some 280 went to Nauvoo, Illinois; after a
+schism in 1856 some formed a new colony (1858) at Cheltenham,
+near St Louis; others went to Iowa, others to California. The
+last branch was dissolved in 1895.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Socialism</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Owen</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saint-Simon</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fourier</a></span>,
+&amp;c.; and the bibliography to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Socialism</a></span>. The whole subject is
+admirably covered in Morris Hillquit&rsquo;s work, referred to above;
+and see also Noyes&rsquo;s <i>History of American Socialisms</i> (1870); Charles
+Nordhoff&rsquo;s <i>Communistic Societies of the United States</i> (1875); and
+W. A. Hinds&rsquo;s <i>American Communities</i> (1878; 2nd edition, 1902), a
+very complete account.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMMUTATION<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>commutare</i>, to change), a process
+of exchanging one thing for another, particularly of one method of
+payment for another, such as payment in money for payment in
+kind or by service, or of payment of a lump sum for periodical
+payments; for various kinds of such substitution see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Annuity</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Copyhold</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tithes</a></span>. The word is also used similarly of the
+substitution of a lesser sentence on a criminal for a greater. In
+electrical engineering, the word is applied to the reversal of the
+course of an electric current, the contrivance for so doing being
+known as a &ldquo;commutator&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dynamo</a></span>). In America, a
+&ldquo;commutation ticket&rdquo; on a railway is one which allows a person
+to travel at a lower rate over a particular route for a certain
+time or for a certain number of times; the person holding such a
+ticket is known as a &ldquo;commuter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMNENUS,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> the name of a Byzantine family which from 1081
+to 1185 occupied the throne of Constantinople. It claimed a
+Roman origin, but its earliest representatives appear as landed
+proprietors in the district of Castamon (mod. <i>Kastamuni</i>) in
+Paphlagonia. Its first member known in Byzantine history
+is <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manuel Eroticus Comnenus</a></span>, an able general who rendered
+great services to Basil II. (976-1025) in the East. At his death
+he left his two sons Isaac and John in the care of Basil, who gave
+them a careful education and advanced them to high official
+positions. The increasing unpopularity of the Macedonian
+dynasty culminated in a revolt of the nobles and the soldiery of
+Asia against its feeble representative Michael VI. Stratioticus,
+who abdicated after a brief resistance. Isaac was declared
+emperor, and crowned in St Sophia on the 2nd of September 1057.
+For the rulers of this dynasty see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Empire, Later</a></span>, and
+separate articles.</p>
+
+<p>With Andronicus I. (1183-1185) the rule of the Comneni
+proper at Constantinople came to an end. A younger line of the
+original house, after the establishment of the Latins at Constantinople
+in 1204, secured possession of a fragment of the empire in
+Asia Minor, and founded the empire of Trebizond (<i>q.v.</i>), which
+lasted till 1461, when David Comnenus, the last emperor, was
+deposed by Mahommed II.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a general account of the family and its alleged survivors see
+article &ldquo;Komnenen,&rdquo; by G. F. Hertzberg, in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s
+<i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>, and an anonymous monograph, <i>Précis
+historique de la maison impériale des Comnčnes</i> (Amsterdam, 1784);
+and, for the history of the period, the works referred to under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Empire, Later</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMO<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (anc. <i>Comum</i>), a city and episcopal see of Lombardy,
+Italy, the capital of the province of Como, situated at the S.
+end of the W. branch of the Lake of Como, 30 m. by rail N. by
+W. of Milan. Pop. (1881) 25,560; (1905) 34,272 (town), 41,124
+(commune). The city lies in a valley enclosed by mountains,
+the slopes of which command fine views of the lake. The old
+town, which preserves its rectangular plan from Roman times,
+is enclosed by walls, with towers constructed in the 12th century.
+The cathedral, built entirely of marble, occupies the site of an
+earlier church, and was begun in 1396, from which period the
+nave dates: the façade belongs to 1457-1486, while the east
+of the exterior was altered into the Renaissance style, and richly
+decorated with sculptures by Tommaso Rodari in 1487-1526.
+The dome is an unsuitable addition of 1731 by the Sicilian
+architect Filippo Juvara (1685-1735), and its baroque decorations
+spoil the effect of the fine Gothic interior. It contains some good
+pictures and fine tapestries. In the same line as the façade of
+the cathedral are the Broletto (in black and white marble),
+dating from 1215, the seat of the original rulers of the commune,
+and the massive clock-tower. The Romanesque church of
+S. Abondio outside the town was founded in 1013 and consecrated
+in 1095; it has two fine campanili, placed at the ends of the aisles
+close to the apse. It occupies the site of the 5th-century church
+of SS. Peter and Paul. Near it is the Romanesque church of
+S. Carpoforo. Above it is the ruined castle of Baradello. The
+churches of S. Giacomo (1095-1117) and S. Fedele (12th century),
+both in the town, are also Romanesque, and the apses have
+external galleries. The Palazzo Giovio contains the Museo
+Civico. Como is a considerable tourist resort, and the steamboat
+traffic on the lake is largely for travellers. A climate station
+is established on the hill of Brunate (2350 ft.) above the town
+to the E., reached by a funicular railway. The Milanese possess
+many villas here. Como is an industrial town, having large silk
+factories and other industries (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lombardy</a></span>). It is connected
+with Milan by two lines of railway, one via Monza (the main line,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span>
+which goes on to Chiasso&mdash;Swiss frontier&mdash;and the St Gotthard),
+the other via Saronno and also with Lecco and Varese.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Roman Comum little remains above ground; a portion
+of its S.E. wall was discovered and may be seen in the garden
+of the Liceo Volta, 88 ft. within the later walls: later fortifications
+(but previous to 1127), largely constructed with Roman
+inscribed sepulchral urns and other fragments, had been superimposed
+on it. Thermae have also been discovered (see V.
+Barelli in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1880, 333; 1881, 333; 1882, 285).
+The inscriptions, on the other hand, are numerous, and give an
+idea of its importance. The statements as to the tribe which
+originally possessed it are various. It belonged to Gallia Cisalpina,
+and first came into contact with Rome in 196 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when
+M. Claudius Marcellus conquered the Insubres and the Comenses.
+In 89 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, having suffered damage from the Raetians, it was
+restored by Cn. Pompeius Strabo, and given Latin rights with
+the rest of Gallia Transpadana. Shortly after this 3000 colonists
+seem to have been sent there; 5000 were certainly sent by
+Caesar in 59 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the place received the name Novum
+Comum. It appears in the imperial period as a <i>municipium</i>,
+and is generally spoken of as Comum simply. The place was
+prosperous; it had an important iron industry; and the banks
+of the lake were, as now, dotted with villas. It was also important
+as the starting-point for the journey across the lake
+in connexion with the Splugen and Septimer passes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chiavenna</a></span>).
+It was the birthplace of both the elder and the younger
+Pliny, the latter of whom founded baths and a library here and
+gave money for the support of orphan children. There was a
+<i>praefectus classis Comensis</i> under the late empire, and it was
+regarded as a strong fortress. See Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa,
+<i>Realencyclopädie</i>, Suppl. Heft i. (Stuttgart, 1903), 326.</p>
+
+<p>Como suffered considerably from the early barbarian invasions,
+many of the inhabitants taking refuge on the Isola Comacina
+off Sala, but recovered in Lombard times. It was from that
+period that the <i>magistri Comacini</i> formed a privileged corporation
+of architects and sculptors, who were employed in other parts
+of Italy also, until, at the end of the 11th century, individuals
+began to come more to the front (G. T. Rivoira, <i>Origini del
+l&rsquo;architettura Lombarda</i>, Rome, 1901, i. 127 f.). Como then
+became subject to the archbishops of Milan, but gained its
+freedom towards the end of the 11th century. At the beginning
+of the 12th century war broke out between Como and Milan,
+and after a ten years&rsquo; war Como was taken and its fortifications
+dismantled in 1127. In 1154, however, it took advantage of
+the arrival of Barbarossa, and remained faithful to him throughout
+the whole war of the Lombard League. After frequent
+struggles with Milan, it fell under the power of the Visconti in
+1335. In 1535, like the rest of Lombardy, it fell under Spanish
+dominion, and in 1714 under Austrian. Thenceforth it shared
+the fortunes of Milan, becoming in the Napoleonic period the
+chief town of the department of the Lario. Its silk industry
+and its position at the entrance to the Alpine passes gave it
+some importance even then. It bore a considerable part in the
+national risings of 1848-1859 against Austrian rule. (T. As.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMO,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> <span class="sc">Lake of</span> (the <i>Lacus Larius</i> of the Romans, and so
+sometimes called Lario to the present day, though in the 4th
+century it is already termed <i>Lacus Comacinus</i>), one of the
+most celebrated lakes in Lombardy, Northern Italy. It lies due
+N. of Milan and is formed by the Adda that flows through the
+Valtelline to the north end of the lake (here falls in the Maira
+or Mera, coming from the Val Bregaglia) and flows out of it
+at its south-eastern extremity, on the way to join the Po. Its
+area is 55˝ sq. m., it is about 43 m. from end to end (about 30˝
+m. from the north end of Bellagio), it is from 1 to 2˝ m. in breadth,
+its surface is 653 ft. above the sea, and its greatest depth is 1365
+ft. A railway line now runs along its eastern shore from Colico
+to Lecco (24˝ m.), while on its western shore Menaggio is reached
+by a steam tramway from Porlezza on the Lake of Lugano (8 m.).
+Colico, at the northern extremity, is by rail 17 m. from Chiavenna
+and 42 m. from Tirano, while at its southern end Como (on the
+St Gotthard line) is 32 m. from Milan, and Lecco about the
+same distance. The lake fills a remarkable depression which
+has been cut through the limestone ranges that enclose it, and
+once doubtless extended as far as Chiavenna, the Lake of Mezzola
+being a surviving witness of its ancient bed. Towards the south
+the promontory of Bellagio divides the lake into two arms.
+That to the south-east ends at Lecco and is the true outlet, for
+the south-western arm, ending at Como, is an enclosed bay.
+During the morning the <i>Tivano</i> wind blows from the north,
+while in the afternoon the <i>Breva</i> wind blows from the south.
+But, like other Alpine lakes, the Lake of Como is exposed to
+sudden violent storms. Its beauties have been sung by Virgil
+and Claudian, while the two Plinys are among the celebrities
+associated with the lake. The shores are bordered by splendid
+villas, while perhaps the most lovely spot on it is Bellagio, built
+in an unrivalled position. Among the other villages that line
+the lake, the best-known are Varenna (E.) and Menaggio (W.),
+nearly opposite one another, while Cadenabbia (W.) faces
+Bellagio.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMONFORT, IGNACIO<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1812-1863), a Mexican soldier and
+politician, who, after occupying a variety of civil and military
+posts, was in December 1855 made provisional president by
+Alvarez, and from December 1857 was for a few weeks constitutional
+president. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mexico</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMORIN, CAPE,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a headland in the state of Travancore,
+forming the extreme southern point of the peninsula of India.
+It is situated in 8° 4&prime; 20&prime; N., 77° 35&prime; 35&prime; E., and is the terminating
+point of the western Ghats. The village of Comorin, with the
+temple of Kanniyambal, the &ldquo;virgin goddess,&rdquo; on the coast at
+the apex of the headland, is a frequented place of pilgrimage.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMORO ISLANDS,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a group of volcanic islands belonging to
+France, in the Indian Ocean, at the northern entrance of the
+Mozambique Channel midway between Madagascar and the
+African continent. The following table of the area and population
+of the four largest islands gives one of the sets of figures
+offered by various authorities:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Comoro</td> <td class="tcr rb">385</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Anjuan or Johanna</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mayotte</td> <td class="tcr rb">140</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Moheli</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">Total&emsp;&emsp;</td> <td class="tcr allb">760</td> <td class="tcr allb">82,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">There are besides a large number of islets of coral formation.
+Particulars of the four islands named follow.</p>
+
+<p>1. Great Comoro, or Angazia, the largest and most westerly,
+has a length of about 38 m., with a width of about 12 m. Near
+its southern extremity it rises into a fine
+dome-shaped volcanic
+mountain, Kartola (Karthala), which is over 8500 ft. high, and
+is visible for more than 100 m. Up to about 6000 ft. it is clothed
+with dense vegetation. Eruptions are recorded for the years
+1830, 1855 and 1858; and another eruption occurred in 1904.
+In the north the ground rises gradually to a plateau some 2000 ft.
+above the sea; from this plateau many regularly shaped
+truncated cones rise another 2000 ft. The centre of the island
+consists of a desert field of lava streams, about 1600 ft. high.
+The chief towns are Maroni (pop. about 2000), Itzanda and
+Mitsamuli; the first, situated at the head of a bay in 11° 40&rsquo; S.,
+being the seat of the French administrator.</p>
+
+<p>2. Anjuan, or Johanna, next in size, lies E. by S. of Comoro.
+It is some 30 m. long by 20 at its greatest breadth. The land
+rises in a succession of richly wooded heights till it culminates in a
+central peak, upwards of 5000 ft. above the sea, in 12° 14&prime; S., 44°
+27&prime; E. The former capital, Mossamondu, on the N.W. coast, is
+substantially built of stone, surrounded by a wall, and commanded
+by a dilapidated citadel; it is the residence of the
+sultan and of the French administrator. There is a small but
+safe anchorage at Pomony, on the S. side, formerly used as a
+coal depot by ships of the British navy.</p>
+
+<p>3. Mayotte, about 21 m. long by 6 or 7 m. broad, is surrounded
+by an extensive and dangerous coral reef. The principal heights
+on its extremely irregular surface are: Mavegani Mountain,
+which rises in two peaks to a maximum of 2164 ft., and Uchongin,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span>
+2100 ft. The French headquarters are on the islet of Zaudzi,
+which lies within the reef in 12° 46&prime; S., 45° 20&prime; E. There are
+substantial government buildings and store-houses. On the
+mainland opposite Zaudzi is Msapéré, the chief centre of trade.
+Mayotte was devastated in 1898 by a cyclone of great severity.</p>
+
+<p>4. Moheli or Mohilla lies S. of and between Anjuan and Grand
+Comoro. It is 15 m. long and 7 or 8 m. at its maximum breadth.
+Unlike the other three it has no peaks, but rises gradually to a
+central ridge about 1900 ft. in height. Fomboni (pop. about
+2000) in the N.W. and Numa Choa in the S.W. are the chief towns.</p>
+
+<p>All the islands possess a very fertile soil; there are forests of
+coco-nut palms, and among the products are rice, maize, sweet-potatoes,
+yams, coffee, cotton, vanilla and various tropical
+fruits, the papaw tree being abundant. The fauna is allied to that
+of Madagascar rather than to the mainland of Africa; it includes
+some land birds and a species of lemur peculiar to the islands.
+Large numbers of cattle and sheep, the former similar to the
+small species at Aden, are reared as well as, in Great Comoro, the
+zebra. Turtles are caught in abundance along the coasts, and
+form an article of export. The climate is in general warm, but
+not torrid nor unsuitable for Europeans. The dry season lasts
+from May to the end of October, the rest of the year being rainy.
+The natives are of mixed Malagasy, Negro and Arab blood.
+The majority are Mahommedans. The European inhabitants,
+mostly French, number about 600. There are some 200 British
+Indians, traders, in the islands. The external trade of the islands
+has developed since the annexation of Madagascar to France, and
+is of the value of about Ł100,000 a year. Sugar refineries,
+distilleries of rum, and sawmills are worked in Mayotte by French
+settlers. Cane sugar and vanilla are the chief exports. The
+islands are regularly visited by vessels of the Messageries Maritimes
+fleet, and a coaling station for the French navy has been
+established.</p>
+
+<p>The islands were first visited by Europeans in the 16th century;
+they are marked on the map of Diego Ribero made in 1527. At
+that time, and for long afterwards, the dominant influence
+in, and the civilization of, the islands was Arab. According to
+tradition the islands were first peopled by Arab voyagers driven
+thither by tempests. The petty sultans who exercised authority
+were notorious slave traders. A Sakalava chief who had been
+driven from Madagascar by the Hovas took refuge in Mayotte
+<i>c.</i> 1830, and, with the aid of the sultan of Johanna, conquered the
+island, which for a century had been given over to civil war.
+French naval officers having reported on the strategic value of
+Mayotte, Admiral de Hell, governor of Réunion, sent an officer
+there in 1841, and a treaty was negotiated ceding the island to
+France. Possession was taken in 1843, the sultan of Johanna
+renouncing his claims in the same year. In 1886 the sultans of
+the other three islands were placed under French protection,
+France fearing that otherwise the islands would be taken by
+Germany. The French experienced some difficulty with the
+natives, but by 1892 had established their position. The islands,
+as regulated by the decree of the 9th of April 1908, are under the
+supreme authority of the governor-general of Madagascar. The
+local administration is in the hands of an official who himself
+governs Mayotte but is represented in the other islands by
+administrators. On the council which assists the governor are
+two nominated native notables. In 1910 the sultan of Great
+Comoro ceded his sovereign rights to France. In Anjuan the
+native government is continued under French supervision.
+The budgets of the four islands in 1904 came to some Ł30,000,
+that of Mayotte being about half the total. The chief sources of
+revenue are poll and house taxes, and, in Mayotte, a land tax.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Iles Glorieuses</i>, three islets 160 m. N.E. of Mayotte, with
+a population of some 20 souls engaged in the collection of guano
+and the capture of turtles, were in 1892 annexed to France and
+placed under the control of the administrator of Mayotte.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Notice sur Mayotte et les Comores</i>, by Emile Vienne, one of
+the memoirs on the French colonies prepared for the Paris Exhibition
+of 1900; <i>Le Sultanat d&rsquo;Anjouan</i>, by Jules Repiquet (Paris, 1901),
+a systematic account of the geography, ethnology and history of
+Johanna; <i>Les colonies françaises</i> (Paris, 1900), vol. ii. pp. 179-197,
+in which the story of the archipelago is set forth by various writers;
+an account of the islands by A. Voeltzkow in the <i>Zeitschrift</i> of the
+Berlin Geog. Soc. (No. 9, 1906), and <i>Carte des Iles Comores</i>, by A.
+Meunier (Paris, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPANION<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (through the O. Fr. <i>compaignon</i> or <i>compagnon</i>,
+from the Late Lat. <i>companio</i>,&mdash;<i>cum</i>, with, and <i>panis</i>, bread,&mdash;one
+who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly
+derived from the Late Lat. <i>compagnus</i>, one of the same <i>pagus</i> or
+district), a mess-mate or &ldquo;comrade&rdquo; (a term which itself has a
+similar origin, meaning one who shares the same <i>camera</i> or room).
+&ldquo;Companion&rdquo; is particularly used of soldiers, as in the expression
+&ldquo;companion in arms,&rdquo; and so is the title of the lowest
+rank in a military or other order of knighthood; the word is also
+used of a person who lives with another in a paid position for the
+sake of company, and is looked on rather as a friend than a
+servant; and of a pair or match, as of pictures and the like.
+Similar in ultimate origin but directly adapted from the Fr.
+<i>chambre de la compagne</i>, and Ital. <i>camera della compagna</i>, the
+storeroom for provisions on board ship, is the use of &ldquo;companion&rdquo;
+for the framed windows over a hatchway on the deck of a ship,
+and also for the hooded entrance-stairs to the captain&rsquo;s cabin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPANY,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> one of a number of words like &ldquo;partnership,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;union,&rdquo; &ldquo;gild,&rdquo; &ldquo;society,&rdquo; &ldquo;corporation,&rdquo; denoting&mdash;each
+with its special shade of meaning&mdash;the association of individuals
+in pursuit of some common object. The taking of meals together
+was, as the word signifies (<i>cum</i>, with, <i>panis</i>, bread,) a characteristic
+of the early company. Gild had a similar meaning: but
+this characteristic, though it survives in the Livery company
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Livery Companies</a></span>), has in modern times disappeared.
+The word &ldquo;company&rdquo; is now monopolized&mdash;in British usage&mdash;by
+two great classes of companies&mdash;(1) the joint stock company,
+constituted under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908,
+which consolidated the various acts from 1862 to 1907, and (2)
+the &ldquo;public company,&rdquo; constituted under a special act to carry
+on some work of public utility, such as a railway, docks, gasworks
+or waterworks, and regulated by the Companies Clauses
+Acts 1845 and 1863.</p>
+
+<p class="center1">1. <i>Joint Stock Companies.</i></p>
+
+<p>The joint stock company may be defined as an association of
+persons incorporated to promote by joint contributions to a
+common stock the carrying on of some commercial enterprise.
+Associations formed not for &ldquo;the acquisition of gain&rdquo; but to
+promote art, science, religion, charity or some other useful or
+philanthropic object, though they may be constituted under the
+Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, seldom call themselves
+companies, but adopt some name more appropriate to express
+their objects, such as society, club, institute, college or chamber.
+The joint stock company has had a long history which can only
+be briefly sketched here. The name of &ldquo;joint stock company&rdquo;
+is&mdash;or was&mdash;used to distinguish such a company from the
+&ldquo;regulated company,&rdquo; which did not trade on a joint stock but
+was in the nature of a trade gild, the members of which had a
+monopoly of foreign trade with particular countries or places (see
+Adam Smith, <i>Wealth of Nations</i>, bk. v. ch. i. pt. iii.).</p>
+
+<p>The earliest kind of joint stock company is the chartered (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chartered Companies</a></span>). The grant of a charter is one of the
+exclusive privileges of the crown, and the crown has from time to
+time exercised it in furtherance of trading enterprise. Examples
+of such grants are the Merchant Adventurers of England,
+chartered by Richard II. (1390); the East India Co., chartered
+by Queen Elizabeth (1600); the Bank of England, chartered by
+William and Mary (1694); the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Co.; the Royal
+African Co.; the notorious South Sea Co.; and in later times the
+New Zealand Co., the North Borneo Co., and the Royal Niger Co.
+Chartered companies had, however, several disadvantages. A
+charter was not easily obtainable. It was costly. The members
+could not be made personally liable for the debts of the company:
+and once created&mdash;though only for defined objects&mdash;such a
+company was invested with entire independence and could not be
+kept to the conditions imposed by the grant, which was against
+public policy. A new form of commercial association was wanted,
+free from these defects, and it was found in the common law
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span>
+company&mdash;the lineal ancestor of the modern trading company.
+The common law company was not an incorporated association:
+it was simply a great partnership with transferable shares.
+Companies of this kind multiplied rapidly towards the close of
+the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century, but they
+were regarded with strong disfavour by the law, for reasons not very
+intelligible to modern notions; the chief of these reasons being
+that such companies purported to act as corporate bodies, raised
+transferable stock, used charters for purposes not warranted by
+the grant, and were&mdash;or were supposed to be&mdash;dangerous and
+mischievous, tending (in the words of the preamble of the Bubble
+Act) to &ldquo;the common grievance, prejudice and inconvenience
+of His Majesty&rsquo;s subjects or great numbers of them in trade,
+commerce or other lawful affairs.&rdquo; They were too often&mdash;and
+this no doubt was the real ground of the prejudice against them&mdash;utilized
+by unprincipled persons to promote fantastic and often
+fraudulent schemes. Matthew Green, in his poem &ldquo;The Spleen,&rdquo;
+notes how</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>&ldquo;Wrecks appear each day,</p>
+<p class="i05">And yet fresh fools are cast away.&rdquo;</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The result was that by the act (6 Geo. I. c. 18) commonly known
+as the Bubble Act (1719) such companies were declared to be
+common nuisances and indictable as such. But the act, though
+it remained on the statute book for more than one hundred years
+and was not formally repealed till 1825, proved quite ineffectual
+to check the growth of joint stock enterprise, and the legislature,
+finding that such companies had to be tolerated, adopted the
+wiser course of regulating what it could not repress. One great
+inconvenience of these common law trading companies arose
+from their being unincorporated. They were formed of large
+fluctuating bodies of individuals, and a person dealing with them
+did not know with whom he was contracting or whom he was to
+sue. This evil the legislature sought to rectify by empowering
+the crown to grant to companies by letters patent without
+incorporation the privilege of suing and being sued by a public
+officer. Ten years afterwards&mdash;in 1844&mdash;a more important
+line of policy was adopted, and all companies with some exceptions
+were enabled to obtain a certificate of incorporation
+without applying for a charter or special act. The act of 1862
+carried this policy one step farther by prohibiting all associations
+of more than twenty persons from carrying on business without
+registering under the act. These were all useful amendments,
+but they were amendments of form rather than substance. The
+real vitality of joint stock enterprise lies in the co-operative
+principle, and the natural growth and expansion of this fruitful
+principle was checked until the middle of the 19th century by the
+notorious risks attaching to unlimited liability. In the case of
+an ordinary partnership, though their liability is unlimited (or
+was until the Limited Partnerships Act 1907), the partners can
+generally tell what risks they are incurring. Not so the shareholders
+of a company. They delegate the management of their
+business to a board of directors, and they may easily find themselves
+committed by the fraud or folly of its members to engagements
+which in the days of unlimited liability meant ruin.
+Failures like those of Overend and Gurney, and of the Glasgow
+Bank, caused widespread misery and alarm. It was not until
+limited liability had been grafted on the stock of the co-operative
+system that the real potency of the principle of industrial
+co-operation became apparent. We owe the adoption of the
+limited liability principle to the clear-sightedness of Lord
+Sherbrooke&mdash;then Mr Robert Lowe&mdash;and to the vigorous
+advocacy of Lord Bramwell. We owe it to Lord Bramwell also
+that the principle was made a feasible one. The practical
+difficulty was how to bring home to persons dealing with
+the company notice that the liability of the shareholders
+was limited. Lord Bramwell solved the problem by a
+happy suggestion&mdash;&ldquo;write it on my tombstone,&rdquo; he said
+humorously to a friend. This was that the company should add
+to its name the word &ldquo;Limited &ldquo;&mdash;paint it up on its premises,
+and use it on all invoices, bills, promissory notes and other
+documents. The proposal was adopted by the Legislature and
+has worked successfully. While limited companies have been
+multiplying at the rate of over 4000 a year, the unlimited
+company has become practically an extinct species. The growth
+of limited companies is, indeed, one of the most striking
+phenomena of our day. Their number may be estimated at quite
+40,000. Their paid-up capital amounts to the stupendous sum of
+Ł1,850,000,000 and, what is even more significant, as the 1st
+Viscount Goschen remarks in his <i>Essays and Addresses</i>, is that
+&ldquo;the number of shareholders has grown in a much greater ratio
+than the colossal growth of the aggregate capital. The profits and
+risks of nearly every kind of business have been spread from year
+to year over fresh thousands of individuals, and the middle class
+with moderate incomes are more and more participating in that
+accumulation of wealth from business of every description which
+formerly built up the fortunes of individual traders or of bankers
+or of single families.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is with the limited company then&mdash;the company limited by
+shares&mdash;as the normal type and incomparably the most important,
+that this article mainly deals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Companies Limited by Shares.</i>&mdash;The Companies Act 1862, was
+intended to constitute a comprehensive code of law applicable to
+joint stock trading companies for the whole of the United
+Kingdom. Recognizing the mischief above alluded to&mdash;of
+trading concerns being carried on by large and fluctuating bodies,
+the act begins by declaring that no company, association or
+partnership, consisting of more than twenty persons, or ten in the
+case of banking, shall be formed after the commencement of the
+act for the purpose of carrying on any business which has for its
+object the acquisition of gain by the company, association or
+partnership, or by the individual members thereof, unless it is
+registered as a company under the act, or is formed in pursuance
+of some other act of parliament or of letters patent, or is a
+company engaged in working mines within and subject to the
+jurisdiction of the Stannaries. Broadly speaking, the meaning of
+the act is that all commercial undertakings, as distinguished from
+literary or charitable associations, shall be registered. &ldquo;Business&rdquo;
+has a more extensive signification than &ldquo;trade.&rdquo; Having thus
+cleared the ground the act goes on to provide in what manner
+a company may be formed under the act. The machinery is
+simple, and is described as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Any seven or more persons associated for any lawful purpose
+may, by subscribing their names to a memorandum of association
+and otherwise complying with the requisitions of this act in
+respect of registration, form an incorporated company with or
+without limited liability&rdquo; (§ 6). It is not necessary that the
+subscribers should be traders nor will the fact that six of the
+subscribers are mere dummies, clerks or nominees of the seventh
+affect the validity of the company; so the House of Lords
+decided in <i>Salomon</i> v. <i>Salomon &amp; Co.</i>, 1897, A. C. 22.</p>
+
+<p>The document to be subscribed&mdash;the Memorandum of Association&mdash;corresponds,
+in the case of companies formed under the
+Companies Act 1862, to the charter or deed of settlement
+in the case of other companies. The form of it is
+<span class="sidenote">Memorandum of Association.</span>
+given in the schedule to the act, and varies slightly
+according as the company is limited by shares or
+guarantee, or is unlimited. (See the 3rd schedule to the Consolidation
+Act 1908, forms A, B, C, D.) It is required to state, in the
+case of a company limited by shares, the five following matters:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The name of the proposed company, with the addition of
+the word &ldquo;limited&rdquo; as the last word in such name.</p>
+
+<p>2. The part of the United Kingdom, whether England,
+Scotland or Ireland, in which the registered office of the company
+is proposed to be situate.</p>
+
+<p>3. The objects for which the proposed company is to be
+established.</p>
+
+<p>4. A declaration that the liability of the members is limited.</p>
+
+<p>5. The amount of capital with which the company proposes to
+be registered, divided into shares of a certain fixed amount.</p>
+
+<p>No subscriber of the memorandum is to take less than one
+share, and each subscriber is to write opposite his name the
+number of shares he takes.</p>
+
+<p>These five matters the legislature has deemed of such intrinsic
+importance that it has required them to be set out in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span>
+company&rsquo;s Memorandum of Association. They are the essential
+conditions of incorporation, and as such they must not only be
+stated, but the policy of the legislature has made them with
+certain exceptions unalterable.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of these five conditions is the third, and
+its importance consists in this, that the objects defined in the
+memorandum circumscribe the sphere of the company&rsquo;s activities.
+This principle, which is one of public policy and convenience,
+and is known as the &ldquo;<i>ultra vires</i> doctrine,&rdquo; carries with it important
+consequences, because every act done or contract made
+by a company <i>ultra vires</i>, <i>i.e.</i> in excess of its powers, is absolutely
+null and void. The policy, too, is a sound one. Shareholders
+contribute their money on the faith that it is to be employed in
+prosecuting certain objects, and it would be a violation of good
+faith if the company, <i>i.e.</i> the majority of shareholders, were to be
+allowed to divert it to something quite different. So strict is the
+rule that not even the consent of every individual shareholder can
+give validity to an <i>ultra vires</i> act.</p>
+
+<p>The articles of association are the regulations for internal
+management of the company&mdash;the terms of the partnership
+agreed upon by the shareholders among themselves.
+A model or specimen set of articles known as Table A
+<span class="sidenote">Articles of Association.</span>
+was given by the Companies Act 1862, and is appended
+in a revised form to the Companies (Consolidation) Act
+1908. When a company is to be registered the memorandum of
+association accompanied by a copy of the articles is taken to the
+office of the registrar of joint stock companies at Somerset House,
+together with the following documents:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. A list of persons who have consented to be directors of the
+company (fee stamp 5s.).</p>
+
+<p>2. A statutory declaration by a solicitor of the High Court
+engaged in the formation of the company, or by a person named
+in the articles of association as a director or secretary of the
+company, that the requisitions of the act in respect of registration
+and of matters precedent and incidental thereto have been
+complied with (fee stamp 5s.).</p>
+
+<p>3. A statement as to the nominal share capital (stamped with
+an <i>ad valorem</i> duty of 5s. per Ł100).</p>
+
+<p>4. If no prospectus is to be issued, a company must now
+(Companies Act 1907, s. 1; Consolidation Act 1908, s. 82) in lieu
+thereof file with the registrar a statement, in the form prescribed
+by the 1st schedule to the act, of all the material facts relating to
+the company. Till this has been done the company cannot allot
+any shares or debentures.</p>
+
+<p>If these documents are in order the registrar registers the
+company and issues a certificate of incorporation (see Companies
+(Consolidation) Act 1908, sect. 82); on registration, the
+memorandum and articles of association become public documents,
+and any person may inspect them on payment of a fee of
+one shilling. This has important consequences, because every
+person dealing with the company is presumed to be acquainted
+with its constitution, and to have read its memorandum and
+articles. The articles also, upon registration, bind the company
+and its members to the same extent as if each member had
+subscribed his name and affixed his seal to them.</p>
+
+<p>The total cost of registering a company with a capital of
+Ł1000 is about Ł7; Ł10,000 about Ł34; Ł100,000 about Ł280.</p>
+
+<p>The capital which is required to be stated in the memorandum
+of association, and which represents the amount which the
+company is empowered to issue, is what is known as
+the nominal capital. This nominal capital must be
+<span class="sidenote">Capital.</span>
+distinguished from the subscribed capital. Subscribed capital
+is the aggregate amount agreed to be paid by those who have
+taken shares in the company. Under the Companies Act 1900,
+Companies Act 1908, s. 85, a &ldquo;minimum subscription&rdquo; may be
+fixed by the articles, and if it is the directors cannot go to allotment
+on less: if it is not, then the whole of the capital offered
+for subscription must be subscribed. A company may increase
+its capital, consolidate it, subdivide it into shares of smaller
+amount and convert paid-up shares into stock. It may also,
+with the sanction of the court, otherwise reorganize its capital
+(Companies Act 1907, s. 39; Companies (Consolidation) Act
+1908, s. 45), and for this purpose modify its Memorandum of
+Association; but a limited company cannot reduce its capital
+either by direct or indirect means without the sanction of the
+court. The inviolability of the capital is a condition of incorporation&mdash;the
+price of the privilege of trading with limited liability,
+and by no subterfuge will a company be allowed to evade this
+cardinal rule of policy, either by paying dividends out of capital,
+or buying its own shares, or returning money to shareholders.
+But the prohibition against reduction means that the capital
+must not be reduced by the voluntary act of the company, not
+that a company&rsquo;s capital must be kept intact. It is embarked in
+the company&rsquo;s business, and it must run the risks of such business.
+If part of it is lost there is no obligation on the company to
+replace it and to cease paying dividends until such lost capital
+is repaid. The company may in such a case write off the lost
+capital and go on trading with the reduced amount. But for
+this purpose the sanction of the court must be obtained by
+petition.</p>
+
+<p>A share is an aliquot part of a company&rsquo;s nominal capital.
+The amount may be anything from 1s. to Ł1000. The tendency
+of late years has been to keep the denomination low,
+and so to appeal to a wider public. Shares of Ł100, or
+<span class="sidenote">Shares.</span>
+even Ł10, are now the exception. The most common amount
+is either Ł1 or Ł5. Shares are of various kinds&mdash;ordinary,
+preference, deferred, founders&rsquo; and management. Into what
+classes of shares the original capital of the company shall be
+divided, what shall be the amount of each class, and their
+respective rights, privileges and priorities, are matters for the
+consideration of the promoters of the company, and must depend
+on its special circumstances and requirements.</p>
+
+<p>A company may issue preference shares even if there is no
+mention of them in the Memorandum of Association, and any
+preference or special privilege so given to a class of shares cannot
+be interfered with on any reorganization of capital except by a
+resolution passed by a majority of shareholders of that class
+representing three-fourths of the capital of that class (Companies
+(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 45). The preference given may be
+as to dividends only, or as to dividends and capital. The
+dividend, again, may be payable out of the year&rsquo;s profits only,
+or it may be cumulative, that is, a deficiency in one year is to
+be made good out of the profits of subsequent years. Prima
+facie, a preferential dividend is cumulative. For issuing preference
+shares the question for the directors is, what must be
+offered to attract investors. Preference shareholders are given
+by the Companies Act 1907, s. 23; Companies (Consolidation)
+Act 1908, s. 114, the right to inspect balance sheets. Founders&rsquo;
+shares&mdash;which originated with private companies&mdash;are shares
+which usually take the whole or half the profits after payment of
+a dividend of 7 or 10% to the ordinary shareholders. They are
+much less in favour than they used to be.</p>
+
+<p>The machinery of company formation is generally set in
+motion by a person known as a promoter. This is a term of
+business, not law. It means, to use Chief Justice
+Cockburn&rsquo;s words, a person &ldquo;who undertakes to form
+<span class="sidenote">Promoters and promotion.</span>
+a company with reference to a given project and to
+set it going, and who takes the necessary steps to
+accomplish that purpose.&rdquo; Whether what a person has done
+towards this end constitutes him a promoter or not, is a question
+of fact; but once an affirmative conclusion is reached, equity
+clothes such promoter with a fiduciary relation towards the
+company which he has been instrumental in creating. This
+doctrine is now well established, and its good sense is apparent
+when once the position of the promoter towards the company
+is understood. Promoters&mdash;to use Lord Cairns&rsquo;s language in
+<i>Erlanger</i> v. <i>New Sombrero Phosphate Co.</i>, 3 A. C. 1236&mdash;&ldquo;have
+in their hands the creation and moulding of the company.
+They have the power of defining how and when and in what shape
+and under what supervision it shall start into existence and begin
+to act as a trading corporation.&rdquo; Such a control over the
+destinies of the company involves correlative obligations towards
+it, and one of these obligations is that the promoter must not
+take advantage of the company&rsquo;s helplessness. A promoter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span>
+may sell his property to the company, but he must first see that
+the company is furnished with an independent board of directors
+to protect its interests and he must make full and fair disclosure
+of his interest in order that the company may determine whether
+it will or will not authorize its trustee or agent (for such the promoter
+in equity is) to make a profit out of the sale. It is not a
+sufficient disclosure in such a case for the promoter merely to
+refer in the prospectus to a contract which, if read by the shareholders,
+would inform them of his interest. They are under no
+obligation to inquire. It is for the promoter to bring home
+notice, not constructive but actual, to the shareholders.</p>
+
+<p>When a company is promoted for acquiring property&mdash;to work
+a mine or patent, for instance, or carry on a going business&mdash;the
+usual course is for the promoter to frame a draft agreement for
+the sale of the property to the company or to a trustee on its
+behalf. The memorandum and articles of the intended company
+are then prepared, and an article is inserted authorizing or requiring
+the directors to adopt the draft agreement for sale. In
+pursuance of this authority the directors at the first meeting
+after incorporation take the draft agreement into consideration;
+and if they approve, adopt it. Where they do so in the exercise
+of an honest and independent judgment, no exception can be
+taken to the transaction; but where the directors happen to be
+nominees of the promoter, perhaps qualified by him and acting
+in his interest, the situation is obviously open to grave abuse.
+It is not too much, indeed, to say that the fastening of an
+onerous or improvident contract on a company at its start, by
+interested promoters acting in collusion with the directors, has
+been the principal cause of the scandals associated with company
+promotion.</p>
+
+<p>Concurrently with the adoption of the contract for the acquisition
+of the property which is the company&rsquo;s <i>raison d&rsquo;ętre</i>, the
+directors have to consider how they will best get the company&rsquo;s
+capital subscribed. Down to the passing of the Companies Act
+1900 the usual mode of doing this was to issue a prospectus
+inviting the public to subscribe for shares. After the act of
+1900 the prospectus fell into general disuse. In the year 1903,
+out of a total of 3596 companies which registered, only 358
+issued a prospectus, the directors preferring, it would seem, to
+place the share capital through the medium of brokers, financial
+agents and other intermediaries rather than run the risk of
+incurring, personally, liability under the stringent provisions
+for disclosure contained in the act (s. 10). Of late the prospectus
+has, however, returned into favour. Under the act of 1907,
+incorporated in the Consolidation Act 1908 (s. 82), a company,
+if it does not issue a prospectus, must file a statement of all the
+material facts relating to the company.</p>
+
+<p>A prospectus is an invitation to the public to take shares on
+the faith of the statements therein contained, and is thus the
+basis of the agreement to take the shares; there
+therefore rests on those who are responsible for its
+<span class="sidenote">Prospectus.</span>
+issue an obligation to act with the most perfect good
+faith&mdash;<i>uberrima fides</i>&mdash;and this obligation has been repeatedly
+emphasized by judges of the highest eminence. (See the observations
+of Kindersley, V.C., in <i>New Brunswick Railway Co.</i> v.
+<i>Muggeridge</i>, 1860, 1 Dr. &amp; Sm. 383, and of Lord Herschell in
+<i>Derry</i> v. <i>Peek</i>, 1889, 14 A. C. 376.) Directors must be perfectly
+candid with the public; they must not only state what they
+do state with strict and scrupulous accuracy, but they must
+not omit any fact which, if disclosed, would falsify the statements
+made. This is the general obligation of directors when issuing
+a prospectus; but on this general obligation the legislature
+has engrafted special requirements. By the Companies Act
+1867, it required the dates and names of the parties to any
+contract entered into by the company or its promoters or directors
+before the issue of the prospectus, to be disclosed in the prospectus;
+otherwise the prospectus was to be deemed fraudulent.
+This enactment was repealed by the Companies Act 1900, but
+only in favour of more stringent provisions incorporated in the
+Consolidation Act of 1908. Now, not only is every prospectus
+to be signed and filed with the registrar of Joint Stock Companies
+before it can be issued, but the prospectus must set forth a long
+and elaborate series of particulars about the company&mdash;the
+contents of the Memorandum of Association, with the names
+of the signatories, the share qualification (if any) of the directors,
+the minimum subscription on which the directors may proceed
+to allotment, the shares and debentures issued otherwise than
+for cash, the names and addresses of the vendors, the amount
+paid for underwriting the company, the amount of preliminary
+expenses, of promotion money (if any), and the interest (if any)
+of every director in the promotion or in property to be acquired
+by the company.  Neglect of this statutory duty of disclosure
+will expose directors to personal liability.  For false or fraudulent
+statements&mdash;as distinguished from non-disclosure&mdash;in a prospectus
+directors are liable in an action of deceit or under the
+Directors&rsquo; Liability Act 1890, now incorporated in the act of
+1908. This act was passed to meet the decision of the House
+of Lords in <i>Peek</i> v. <i>Derry</i> (12 A. C. 337), that a director could
+not be made liable in an action of deceit for an untrue statement
+in a prospectus, unless the plaintiff could prove that the director
+had made the untrue statement fraudulently.  The Directors&rsquo;
+Liability Act enacted in substance that when once a prospectus
+is proved to contain a material statement of fact which is untrue,
+the persons responsible for the prospectus are to be liable to pay
+compensation to any one who has subscribed on the faith of the
+prospectus, unless they can prove that they had reasonable
+ground to believe, and did in fact believe, the statement to be
+true.  Actions under this act have been rare, but their rarity
+may be due to the act having had the effect of making directors
+more careful in their statements.</p>
+
+<p>Before the passing of the Companies Act 1900, it was a matter
+for directors&rsquo; discretion on what subscription they should go
+to allotment.  They often did so on a scandalously
+inadequate subscription.  To remedy this abuse the
+<span class="sidenote">Allotment of shares.</span>
+Companies Act 1900 (Companies (Consolidation)
+Act 1908, s. 85) provided that no allotment of any share capital
+offered to the public for subscription is to be made unless the
+amount fixed by the memorandum and articles of association
+and named in the prospectus as &ldquo;the minimum subscription&rdquo;
+upon which the directors may proceed to allotment has been
+subscribed and the application moneys&mdash;which must not be
+less than 5% of the nominal amount of the share&mdash;paid to and
+received by the company.  If no minimum is fixed the whole
+amount of the share capital offered for subscription must have
+been subscribed before the directors can go to allotment.  The
+&ldquo;minimum subscription&rdquo; is to be reckoned exclusively of any
+amount payable otherwise than in cash.  If these conditions are
+not complied with within forty days the application moneys
+must be returned.  Any &ldquo;waiver clause&rdquo; or contract to waive
+compliance with the section is to be void.</p>
+
+<p>An allotment of shares made in contravention of these provisions
+is irregular and voidable at the option of the applicant
+for shares within one month after the first or statutory meeting
+of the company (Companies (Consolidation) Act, s. 86).  Even
+when a company has got what under the name of the &ldquo;minimum
+subscription&rdquo; the directors deem enough capital for its enterprise,
+it cannot now commence business or make any binding
+contract or exercise any borrowing powers until it has obtained
+a certificate entitling it to commence business (Companies
+(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 87).  To obtain this certificate the
+company must have fulfilled certain statutory conditions, which
+are briefly these:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(a) The company must have allotted shares to the amount of not
+less than the &ldquo;minimum subscription.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(b) Every director must have paid up his shares in the same proportion
+as the other members of the company.</p>
+
+<p>(c) A statutory declaration, made by the secretary of the company
+or one of the directors, must have been filed with the
+registrar of joint stock companies, that these conditions
+have been complied with.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These conditions fulfilled, the company gets its certificate
+and starts on its business career, carrying on its business through
+the agency of directors, as to whose powers and duties see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Directors</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The Companies Act as consolidated in the act of 1908, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span>
+the regulations under them, treat the directors of a company as
+the persons in whom the management of the company&rsquo;s
+affairs is vested. But they also <span class="correction" title="amended from comtemplate">contemplate</span> the
+<span class="sidenote">Meetings.</span>
+ultimate controlling power as residing in the shareholders. A
+controlling power of this kind can only assert itself through
+general meetings; and that it may have proper opportunities
+of doing so, every company is required to hold a general meeting,
+commonly called the statutory meeting, within&mdash;as fixed by the
+Companies Act 1900&mdash;three months from the date at which it
+is entitled to commence business. This first statutory meeting
+acquired new significance under the Companies Act of 1900 and
+marks an important stage in the early history of a company.
+Seven days before it takes place the directors are required to
+send round to the members a certified report informing them
+of the general state of the company&rsquo;s affairs&mdash;the number of
+shares allotted, cash received for them, and names and addresses
+of the members, the amount of preliminary expenses, the particulars
+of any contract to be submitted to the meeting, &amp;c.
+Furnished with this report the members come to the meeting
+in a position to discuss and exercise an intelligent judgment
+upon the state and prospects of the company. Besides the
+statutory meeting a company must hold one general meeting
+at least in every calendar year, and not more than fifteen months
+after the holding of the last preceding general meeting (Companies
+(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 64). This annual general
+meeting is usually called the ordinary general meeting. Other
+meetings are extraordinary general meetings. Notices convening
+a general meeting must inform the shareholders of the particular
+business to be transacted; otherwise any resolutions passed at
+the meeting will be invalidated. Voting is generally regulated
+by the articles. Sometimes a vote is given to a shareholder for
+every share held by him, but more often a scale is adopted;
+for instance, one vote is given for every share up to ten, with an
+additional vote for every five shares beyond the first ten shares
+up to one hundred, and an additional vote for every ten shares
+beyond the first hundred. In default of any regulations, every
+member has one vote only. Sometimes preference shareholders
+are given no vote at all. A poll may be demanded on any
+special resolution by three persons unless the articles require
+five (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 69).</p>
+
+<p>A contract to take shares is like any other contract. It is
+constituted by offer, acceptance and communication of the
+acceptance to the offerer. The offer in the case of
+shares is usually in the form of an application in
+<span class="sidenote">Agreement for shares.</span>
+writing to the company, made in response to a prospectus,
+requesting the company to allot the applicant a certain
+number of shares in the undertaking on the terms of the prospectus,
+and agreeing to accept the shares, or any smaller
+number, which may be allotted to the applicant. An allottee
+is under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 86, entitled
+to rescind his contract where the allotment is irregular, <i>e.g.</i>
+where the minimum subscription has not been obtained. When
+an application is accepted the shares are allotted, and a letter
+of allotment is posted to the applicant. Allotment is the usual,
+but not the only, evidence of acceptance. As soon as the letter
+of allotment is posted the contract is complete, even though the
+letter never reaches the applicant. An application for shares
+can be withdrawn at any time before acceptance. As soon as
+the contract is complete, it is the duty of the company to enter
+the shareholder&rsquo;s name in the register of members, and to issue
+to him a certificate under the seal of the company, evidencing
+his title to the shares.</p>
+
+<p>The register of members plays an important part in the
+scheme of the company system, under the Companies Act 1862.
+The principle of limited liability having been once
+adopted by the legislature, justice required not only
+<span class="sidenote">Register of members.</span>
+that such limitation of liability should be brought
+home by every possible means to persons dealing with the
+company, but also that such persons should know as far as
+possible what was the limited capital which was the sole fund
+available to satisfy their claims&mdash;what amount had been called
+up, what remained uncalled, who were the persons to pay,
+and in what amounts. These data might materially assist
+a person dealing with the company in determining, whether
+he would give it credit or not; in any case they are matters
+which the public had a right to know. The legislature, recognizing
+this, has exacted as a condition of the privilege of trading
+with limited liability that the company shall keep a register
+with those particulars in it, which shall be accessible to the public
+at all reasonable times. In order that this register may be
+accurate, and correspond with the true liability of membership
+for the time being, the court is empowered under the Companies
+Act 1862, and the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 32,
+to rectify it in a summary way, on application by motion, by
+ordering the name of a person to be entered on or removed
+therefrom. This power can be exercised by the court, whether
+the dispute as to membership is one between the company
+and an alleged member, or between one alleged member and
+another, but the machinery of the section is not meant to be
+used to try claims to rescind agreements to take shares. The
+proper proceeding in such cases is by action.</p>
+
+<p>The same policy of guarding against an abuse of limited
+liability is evinced in the Companies Act 1862, which required
+that shares in the case of a limited company should
+be paid for in full. The legislature has allowed
+<span class="sidenote">Payment for shares.</span>
+such companies to trade with limited liability, but
+the price of the privilege is that the limited capital to which
+alone the creditors can look shall at least be a reality. It is
+therefore <i>ultra vires</i> for a limited company to issue its shares at a
+discount; but there was nothing in the Companies Act 1862
+which required that the shares of a limited company, though
+they must be paid up in full, must be paid up in cash. They
+might be paid &ldquo;in meal or in malt,&rdquo; and it accordingly became
+common for shares to be allotted in payment for furniture,
+plate, advertisements or services. The result was that the
+consideration was often illusory, shares being issued to be paid
+for in some commodity which had no certain criterion of value.
+To remedy this evil the legislature enacted in the Companies
+Act 1867, s. 25, that every share in any company should be held
+subject to the payment of the whole amount thereof in cash,
+unless otherwise determined by a contract in writing filed with
+the registrar of joint stock companies at or before the issue
+of the shares. This section not infrequently caused hardship
+where shares had been honestly paid for in the equivalent of
+cash, but owing to inadvertence no contract had been filed;
+and it was repealed by the Companies Act 1900, and the old law
+restored. In reverting to the earlier law, and allowing shares
+to be paid for in any adequate consideration, the legislature
+has, however, exacted a safeguard. It has required the company
+to file with the registrar of joint stock companies a return
+stating, in the case of shares allotted in whole or in part for a
+consideration other than cash, the number of the shares so
+allotted, and the nature of the consideration&mdash;property, services,
+&amp;c.&mdash;for which they have been allotted.</p>
+
+<p>Though every share carries with it the liability to pay up the
+full amount in cash or its equivalent, the liability is only to pay
+when and if the directors call for it to be paid up. A call must
+fix the time and place for payment, otherwise it is bad.</p>
+
+<p>When a person takes shares from a company on the faith of a
+prospectus containing any false or fraudulent representations
+of fact material to the contract, he is entitled to rescind
+the contract. The company cannot keep a contract
+<span class="sidenote">Rescission of agreement.</span>
+obtained by the misrepresentation or fraud of its
+agents. This is an elementary principle of law.
+The misrepresentation, for purposes of rescission, need not be
+fraudulent; it is sufficient that it is false in fact: fraud or
+recklessness of assertion will give the shareholder a further
+remedy by action of deceit, or under the Directors&rsquo; Liability Act
+1890 (see <i>supra</i>); but, to entitle a shareholder to rescind, he
+must show that he took the shares on the faith or partly on
+the faith of the false representation: if not, it was innocuous.
+A shareholder claiming to rescind must do so promptly. It
+is too late to commence proceedings after a winding-up has
+begun.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span></p>
+
+<p>The shares or other interest of any member in a company are
+personal estate and may be transferred in the manner provided
+by the regulations of the company. As Lord Blackburn
+said, one of the chief objects when joint stock companies
+<span class="sidenote">Transfer of shares.</span>
+were established was that the shares should be
+capable of being easily transferred; but though every shareholder
+has a prima facie right to transfer his shares, this right
+is subject to the regulations of the company, and the company
+may and usually does by its regulations require that a transfer
+shall receive the approval of the board of directors before being
+registered,&mdash;the object being to secure the company against
+having an insolvent or undesirable shareholder (the nominee
+perhaps of a rival company) substituted for a solvent and
+acceptable one. This power of the directors to refuse a transfer
+must not, however, be exercised arbitrarily or capriciously.
+If it were, it would amount to a confiscation of the shares.
+Directors, for instance, cannot veto a transfer because they
+disapprove of the purpose for which it is being made (<i>e.g.</i> to
+multiply votes), if there is no objection to the transferee.</p>
+
+<p>It is a common and convenient practice to deposit share or
+stock certificates with bankers and others to secure an advance.
+When this is done the share or stock certificate is usually
+accompanied by a blank transfer&mdash;that is, a transfer
+<span class="sidenote">Blank transfers.</span>
+executed by the shareholder borrower, but with a blank
+left for the name of the transferee. The handing over by the
+borrower of such blank transfer signed by him is an implied
+authority to the banker, or other pledgee, if the loan is not paid,
+to fill in the blank with his name and get himself registered as
+the owner.</p>
+
+<p>A company can only pay dividends out of profits&mdash;which have
+been defined as the &ldquo;earnings of a concern after deducting the
+expenses of earning them.&rdquo; To pay dividends out of
+capital is not only <i>ultra vires</i> but illegal, as constituting
+<span class="sidenote">Dividends.</span>
+a return of capital to shareholders. Before paying dividends,
+directors must take reasonable care to secure the preparation of
+proper balance-sheets and estimates, and must exercise their
+judgment as business men on the balance-sheets and estimates
+submitted to them. If they fail to do this, and pay dividends
+out of capital, they will not be held excused, unless the court
+should think that they ought to be under the new discretion given
+to the court by ss. 32-34 of the Companies Act 1907 (Companies
+(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 279). The onus is on them to show
+that the dividends have been paid out of profits. The court as a
+rule does not interfere with the discretion of directors in the
+matter of paying dividends, unless they are doing something
+<i>ultra vires</i>.</p>
+
+<p>By the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, ss. 112, 113, incorporating
+provisions of the act of 1900 (ss. 21-23), as amended
+by the act of 1907 (s. 19), the legislature has made strict
+provisions for the appointment and remuneration of
+<span class="sidenote">Auditors.</span>
+auditors by a company, and has defined their rights and duties.
+Prior to the act of 1900 audit clauses, except in the case of
+banking companies, were left to the articles of association and
+were not matter of statutory obligation.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;private company&rdquo; may best be described as an incorporated
+partnership. The term is statutorily defined&mdash;for the
+first time&mdash;by s. 37 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 121 of
+the Consolidating Act of 1908). Individual traders and
+<span class="sidenote">Private companies.</span>
+trading firms have in recent years become much more
+alive to the advantages offered by incorporation. They
+have discovered that incorporation gives them the protection of
+limited liability; that it prevents dislocation of a business by the
+death, bankruptcy or lunacy of any of its members; that it
+enables a trader to distribute among the members of his family
+interests in his business on his decease through the medium of
+shares; that it facilitates borrowing on debentures or debenture
+stock, and with a view to secure these advantages thousands of
+traders have converted their businesses into limited companies.
+To so large an extent has this been done that private companies
+now form one-third of the whole number of companies registered.</p>
+
+<p>A private company does not appeal to the public to subscribe
+its capital, but in the main features of its constitution a private
+company differs little from a public one. It is only in one or two
+particulars that special provisions are requisite. It is generally
+desired for instance: (1) to keep all the shares among the
+members&mdash;the partners or the family&mdash;and not to let them get
+into the hands of the public; and (2) to give the principal shareholders,
+the original partners, a paramount control over the
+management. For this purpose it is usual to provide specially in
+the articles that no share shall be transferred to a stranger so long
+as any member is willing to purchase it at a fair value; that a
+member desirous of transferring his shares shall give notice to the
+company; that the company shall offer the shares to the other
+members; that if within a certain period the company finds a
+purchaser the shares shall be transferred to him, and that in case
+of dispute the value shall be settled by arbitration or shall be
+such a sum as the auditor certifies to be in his opinion the fair
+value. So in regard to the management it is common to provide
+that the owner or owners of the business shall be entitled to hold
+office as directors for a term of years or for life, provided he or
+they continue to hold a certain number of shares; or an owner
+is empowered to authorize his executors or trustees whilst holding
+a certain number of shares to appoint directors. Directors
+holding office on these special terms are described as &ldquo;governing&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;permanent&rdquo; or &ldquo;life&rdquo; directors. This union of interest
+and management in the same persons gives a private company
+an unquestionable advantage over a public company.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called &ldquo;one-man company&rdquo; is merely a variety of the
+private company. The fact that a company is formed by one
+man, with the aid of six dummy subscribers, is not in itself (as
+was at one time supposed) a fraud on the policy of the Companies
+Act, but it is occasionally used for the purpose of committing a
+fraud, as where an insolvent trader turns himself into a limited
+company in order to evade bankruptcy; and it is to an abuse of
+this kind that the term &ldquo;one-man company&rdquo; owes its opprobrious
+signification.</p>
+
+<p><i>Companies Limited by Guarantee.</i>&mdash;The second class of limited
+companies are those limited by guarantee, as distinguished from
+those limited by shares. In the company limited by guarantee
+each member agrees, in the event of a winding-up, to contribute a
+certain amount to the assets,&mdash;Ł5, Ł1 or 10s.&mdash;whatever may be
+the amount of the guarantee. The peculiarity of this form of
+company is that the interests of the members of a guarantee
+company are not expressed in any terms of nominal money
+value like the shares of other companies, a form of constitution
+designed, as stated by Lord Thring, the draftsman of the
+Companies Act 1862, to give a superior elasticity to the company.
+The property of the company simply belongs to the company in
+certain fractional amounts. This makes it convenient for clubs,
+syndicates and other associations which do not require the
+interest of members to be expressed in terms of cash.</p>
+
+<p><i>Companies not for Gain.</i>&mdash;Associations formed to promote
+commerce, art, science, religion, charity or any other useful
+object may, with the sanction of the Board of Trade, register
+under the Companies Act 1862, with limited liability, but
+without the addition of the word &ldquo;Limited,&rdquo; upon proving to
+the board that it is the intention of the association to apply the
+profits or income of the association in promoting its objects, and
+not in payment of dividends to members (C.A. 1867, s. 23). This
+licence was made revocable by s. 42 of the Companies Act 1907
+(Consolidation Act of 1908, ss. 19, 20). In lieu of the word
+&ldquo;Company,&rdquo; the association may adopt as part of its name
+some such title as chamber, club, college, guild, institute or
+society. The power given by this section has proved very useful,
+and many kinds of associations have availed themselves of it,
+such as medical institutes, law societies, nursing homes, chambers
+of commerce, clubs, high schools, archaeological, horticultural
+and philosophical societies. The guarantee form (see <i>supra</i>)
+is well adapted for associations of this kind intended as they
+usually are to be supported by annual subscriptions. No such
+association can hold more than two acres of land without the
+licence of the Board of Trade.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cost-Book Mining Companies.</i>&mdash;These are in substance
+mining partnerships. They derive their name from the fact of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span>
+the partnership agreement, the expenses and receipts of the
+mine, the names of the shareholders, and any transfers of shares
+being entered in a &ldquo;cost-book.&rdquo; The affairs of the company
+are managed by an agent known as a &ldquo;purser,&rdquo; who from time
+to time makes calls on the members for the expenses of working.
+A cost-book company is not bound to register under the Companies
+Act 1862, but it may do so.</p>
+
+<p>A company once incorporated under the Companies Act 1862
+cannot be put an end to except through the machinery of a
+winding-up, though the name of a company which is
+commercially defunct may be struck off the register of
+<span class="sidenote">Winding-up.</span>
+joint stock companies by the registrar (s. 242 of the
+Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, incorporating s. 7 of the act
+of 1880, as amended by s. 26 of the act of 1900). Winding-up
+is of two kinds: (1) voluntary winding-up, either purely voluntary
+or carried on under the supervision of the court; and (2)
+winding-up by the court. Of these voluntary winding-up is
+by far the more common. Of the companies that come to an end
+<span class="sidenote">Voluntary.</span>
+90% are so wound up; and this is in accordance
+with the policy of the legislature, evinced throughout
+the Companies Acts, that shareholders should manage their
+own affairs&mdash;winding-up being one of such affairs. A voluntary
+winding-up is carried out by the shareholders passing a special
+resolution requiring the company to be wound up voluntarily,
+or an extraordinary resolution (now defined by s. 182 of the
+Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908) to the effect that it has
+been proved to the shareholders&rsquo; satisfaction that the company
+cannot, by reason of its liabilities, continue its business, and that
+it is advisable to wind it up (C.A. 1862, s. 129). The resolution
+is generally accompanied by the appointment of a liquidator.
+In a purely voluntary winding-up there is a power given by s. 138
+for the company or any contributory to apply to the court in
+any matter arising in the winding-up, but seemingly by an
+oversight of the legislature the same right was not given to
+creditors. This was rectified by the Companies Act 1900, s. 25.
+Section 27 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 188 of the Consolidation
+Act 1908) further provides for the liquidator under a voluntary
+winding-up summoning a meeting of creditors to determine on
+the choice of a liquidator. A creditor may also in a proper case
+obtain an order for continuing the voluntary winding-up under
+the supervision of the court. Such an order has the advantage
+of operating as a stay of any actions or executions pending
+against the company. Except in these respects, the winding-up
+remains a voluntary one. The court does not actively intervene
+unless set in motion; but it requires the liquidator to bring his
+accounts into chambers every quarter, so that it may be informed
+how the liquidation is proceeding. When the affairs
+of the company are fully wound up, the liquidator calls a meeting,
+lays his accounts before the shareholders, and the company is
+dissolved by operation of law three months after the date of the
+meeting (C.A. 1862, ss. 142, 143).</p>
+
+<p>Irrespective of voluntary winding-up, the legislature has
+defined certain events in which a company formed under the
+Companies Act 1862 may be wound up by the court.
+These events are: (1) when the company has passed
+<span class="sidenote">By the court.</span>
+a resolution requiring the company to be wound up
+by the court; (2) when the company does not commence its
+business within a year or suspends it for a year; (3) when the
+members are reduced to less than seven; (4) when the company
+is unable to pay its debts, and (5) whenever the court is of
+opinion that it is just and equitable that the company should be
+wound up (C.A. 1862, s. 79; s. 129 of the Consolidation Act
+1908). A petition for the purpose may be presented either by a
+creditor, a contributory or the company itself. Where the
+petition is presented by a creditor who cannot obtain payment
+of his debt, a winding-up order is <i>ex debito justitiae</i> as against
+the company or shareholders, but not as against the wishes of a
+majority of creditors. A winding-up order is not to be refused
+because the company&rsquo;s assets are over mortgaged (Companies
+Act 1907, s. 29; s. 141 of Consolidation Act 1908).</p>
+
+<p>The procedure on the making of a winding-up order is now
+governed by ss. 7, 8, 9 of the Winding-up Act 1890. The official
+receiver, as liquidator pro tem., requires a statement of the
+affairs of the company verified by the directors, and on it reports
+to the court as to the causes of the company&rsquo;s failure and
+whether further inquiry is desirable. If he further reports that
+in his opinion fraud has been committed in the promotion or
+formation of the company by a particular person, the court may
+order such person to be publicly examined.</p>
+
+<p>A liquidator&rsquo;s duty is to protect, collect, realize and distribute
+the company&rsquo;s assets in due course of administration; and for
+this purpose he advertises for creditors, makes calls on contributories,
+sues debtors, takes misfeasance proceedings, if necessary,
+against directors or promoters, and carries on the company&rsquo;s
+business&mdash;supposing the goodwill to be an asset of value&mdash;with
+a view to selling it as a going concern. He may be assisted, like
+a trustee in bankruptcy, by a committee of inspection, composed
+of creditors and contributories.</p>
+
+<p>When the affairs of the company have been completely wound
+up the court is, by s. 111 of the Companies Act 1862 (s. 127 of
+the act of 1908), to make an order that the company be dissolved
+from the date of such order, and the company is dissolved accordingly.
+A company which has been dissolved may, where necessary,
+on petition to the court be reinstated on the register
+(Companies Act 1880, s. 1).</p>
+
+<p>A large number of companies now wind up only to reconstruct.
+The reasons for a reconstruction are generally either to raise
+fresh capital, or to get rid of onerous preference shares,
+or to enlarge the scope of the company&rsquo;s objects, which
+<span class="sidenote">Reconstruction.</span>
+is otherwise impracticable owing to the unalterability
+of the Memorandum of Association. Reconstructions are carried
+out in one of three ways: (1) by sale and transfer of the company&rsquo;s
+undertaking and assets to a new company, under a power
+to sell contained in the company&rsquo;s memorandum of association,
+or (2) by sale and transfer under s. 161 of the Companies Act
+1862; or (3) by a scheme of arrangement, sanctioned by the
+court, under the Joint Stock Companies Arrangements Act
+1870, as amended by the Companies Act 1907, s. 38 (C.A. 1908,
+s. 192).</p>
+
+<p>The first of these modes is now the most in favour.</p>
+
+<p>A company, though a mere legal abstraction, without mind
+or will, may, it is now well settled, be liable in damages for
+malicious prosecution, for nuisance, for fraud, for
+<span class="sidenote">Wrongs by a company.</span>
+negligence, for trespass. The sense of the thing is
+that the &ldquo;company&rdquo; is a <i>nomen collectivum</i> for the
+members. It is they who have put the directors
+there to carry on their business and they must be answerable,
+collectively, for what is done negligently, fraudulently or
+maliciously by their agents.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>2. Public Companies.</i></p>
+
+<p>Besides trading companies there is another large class,
+exceeding in their number even trading companies, which for
+shortness may be called public companies, that is to say, companies
+constituted by special act of parliament for the purpose
+of constructing and carrying on undertakings of public utility,
+such as railways, canals, harbours, docks, waterworks, gasworks,
+bridges, ferries, tramways, drainage, fisheries or hospitals.
+The objects of such companies nearly always involve an interference
+with the rights of private persons, often necessitate
+the commission of a public nuisance, and require therefore the
+sanction of the legislature. For this purpose a special act has
+to be obtained. A private bill to authorize the undertaking is
+introduced before one or other of the Houses of Parliament,
+considered in committee, and either passed or rejected like a
+public bill. These parliamentary (private bill) committees are
+tribunals acknowledging certain rules of policy, taking evidence
+from witnesses and hearing arguments from professional advocates.
+In many of these special acts, dealing as they do with a
+similar subject matter, similar provisions are required, and to
+avoid repetition and secure uniformity the legislature has passed
+certain general acts&mdash;codes of law for particular subject matters
+frequently recurring&mdash;which can be incorporated by reference
+in any special act with the necessary modifications. Thus the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span>
+Companies Clauses Acts 1845, 1863 and 1869 supply the general
+powers and provisions which are commonly inserted in the
+constitution of such public company, regulating the distribution
+of capital, the transfer of shares, payment of calls, borrowing
+and general meetings. The Lands Clauses Consolidation Act
+1845 supplies the machinery for the compulsory taking of
+land incident to most undertakings of a public character. The
+Railway Clauses Consolidation Act, the Waterworks Clauses Acts
+1847 and 1863, the Gasworks Clauses Act 1847, and the Electric
+Lighting (Clauses) Act 1899 are other codes of law designed
+for incorporation in special acts creating companies for the
+construction of railways or the supply of water, gas or electric
+light. A distinguishing feature of these companies is that, being
+sanctioned by the legislature for undertakings of public utility,
+the policy of the law will not allow them to be broken up or
+destroyed by creditors. It gives creditors only a charge&mdash;by a
+receiver&mdash;on the earnings of the undertaking&mdash;the &ldquo;fruit of the
+tree.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>3. British Companies Abroad.</i></p>
+
+<p>The status of British companies trading abroad, so far as
+Germany, France, Belgium, Greece, Italy and Spain are concerned,
+is expressly recognized in a series of conventions entered
+into between those countries and Great Britain. The value of
+the convention with France has been much impaired by the
+interpretation put upon the words of it by the court of cassation
+in <i>La Construction Lim</i>. According to this case the nationality
+of a company depends not on its place of origin but on where it
+has its centre of affairs, its principal establishment. The result
+is that a company registered in Britain under the Companies
+Acts may be transmuted by a French court into a French
+company in direct violation of the convention. The convention
+with Germany, which is in similar terms to that with France,
+has also been narrowed by judicial construction. The &ldquo;power of
+exercising all their rights&rdquo; given by the convention to British
+companies has been construed to mean that a British company
+will be recognized as a corporate body in Germany, but it does
+not follow from the terms of the convention that any British
+company may as a matter of course establish a branch and
+carry on business within the German empire. It must still get
+permission to trade, permission to hold land. It must register
+itself in the communal register. It must pay stamp duties.</p>
+
+<p>Foreign companies may found an affiliated company or have
+a branch establishment in Italy, provided they publish their
+memorandum and articles and the names of their directors.
+Where no convention exists the status of an immigrant corporation
+depends upon international comity, which allows foreign
+corporations, as it does foreign persons, to sue, to make contracts
+and hold real estate, in the same way as domestic corporations
+or citizens; provided the stranger corporation does not offend
+against the policy of the state in which it seeks to trade.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, a growing practice now for states to impose
+by express legislation conditions on foreign corporations coming
+to do business within their territory. These conditions are
+mainly directed to securing that the immigrant corporation
+shall make known its constitution and shall be amenable to the
+jurisdiction of the courts of the country where it trades. Thus,
+by the law of Western Australia&mdash;to take a typical instance,&mdash;a
+foreign company is not to commence or carry on business until
+it empowers some person to act as its attorney to sue and be
+sued and has an office or place of business within the state, to be
+approved of by the registrar, where all legal proceedings may be
+served. New Zealand, Manitoba and many other states have
+adopted similar precautions; and by the Companies Act 1907,
+s. 35; C.A. 1908, s. 274 foreign companies having a place
+of business within the United Kingdom are required to file with
+the registrar of joint stock companies a copy of the company&rsquo;s
+charter or memorandum and articles, a list of directors, and the
+names and addresses of one or more persons authorized to accept
+service of process. Special conditions of a more stringent nature
+are often imposed in the case of particular classes of companies
+of a quasi-public character, such as banking companies, building
+societies or insurance companies. Regulations of this kind are
+perfectly legitimate and necessary. They are in truth only an
+application of the law of vagrancy to corporations, and have
+their analogy in the restrictions now generally imposed by states
+on the immigration of aliens.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>4. Company Law outside the United Kingdom.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Australia.</i>&mdash;Company law in Australia and in New Zealand
+follows very closely the lines of company legislation in the
+United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>In New South Wales the law is consolidated by Act No. 40 of
+1899, amended 1900 and 1906. In Victoria the law is contained in
+the Acts Nos. 1074 of 1890 and 355 of 1896; in Queensland in
+a series of Acts&mdash;No. 4 of 1863, No. 18 of 1899, No. 10 of 1891,
+No. 24 of 1892, No. 3 of 1893, No. 19 of 1894 and No. 21 of 1896;
+in South Australia in No. 56 of 1892, amended by No. 576 of
+1893; in Tasmania by Nos. 22 of 1869, 19 of 1895 and 3 of 1896;
+in Western Australia by No. 8 of 1893, amended 1897 and 1898.</p>
+
+<p>In New Zealand the law was consolidated in 1903.</p>
+
+<p><i>Canada.</i>&mdash;The act governing joint stock companies in Canada
+is the Companies Act 1902, amended 1904. It empowers the
+secretary of state by letters patent to grant a charter to any
+number of persons not less than five for any objects other than
+railway or telegraph lines, banking or insurance.</p>
+
+<p>Applicants must file an application&mdash;analogous to the British
+memorandum of association&mdash;showing certain
+particulars&mdash;the
+purposes of incorporation, the place of business, the amount of
+the capital stock, the number of shares and the amount of each,
+the names and addresses of the applicants, the amount of stock
+taken by each and the amount and mode of payment. Other
+provisions may also be embodied. A company cannot commence
+business until 10% of its authorized capital has been subscribed
+and paid for. The word &ldquo;limited&rdquo; as part of the company&rsquo;s
+name is&mdash;as in the case of British companies&mdash;to be conspicuously
+exhibited and used in all documents. The directors are
+not to be less than three or more than fifteen, and must be holders
+of stock. Directors are jointly and severally liable to the clerks,
+labourers and servants of the company for six months&rsquo; wages.
+Borrowing powers may be taken by a vote of holders of two-thirds
+in value of the subscribed stock of the company.</p>
+
+<p><i>South Africa.</i>&mdash;In Cape Colony the law is contained in No. 25
+of 1892, amended 1895 and 1906; it follows English law.</p>
+
+<p>In Natal the law is contained in Nos. 10 of 1864, 18 of 1865,
+19 of 1893 and 3 of 1896.</p>
+
+<p>In the Orange Free State in Law Ch. 100 and Nos. 2 and 4 of
+1892.</p>
+
+<p>For the Transvaal see Nos. 5 of 1874, 6 of 1874, 1 of 1894 and
+30 of 1904.</p>
+
+<p>In Rhodesia companies are regulated by the Companies
+Ordinance 1895&mdash;a combination of the Cape Companies Act
+1892, and the British Companies Acts 1862-1890.</p>
+
+<p><i>France.</i>&mdash;There are two kinds of limited liability companies
+in France&mdash;the <i>société en commandite</i> and the <i>société anonyme</i>.
+The <i>société en commandite</i> corresponds in some respects to the
+British private company or limited partnership, but with this
+difference, that in the <i>société en commandite</i> the managing partner
+is under unlimited liability of creditors; the sleeping partner&rsquo;s
+liability is limited to the amount of his capital. The French
+equivalent of the English ordinary joint stock company is the
+<i>société anonyme</i>. The minimum number of subscribers necessary
+to form such a company is (as in the case of a British trading
+company) seven, but, unlike a British company, the <i>société
+anonyme</i> is not legally constituted unless the whole capital is
+subscribed and one-fourth of each share paid up. Another
+precaution unknown to British practice is that assets, not in
+money, brought into a company are subject to verification of
+value by a general meeting. The minimum nominal value of
+shares, where the company&rsquo;s capital is less than 200,000 fcs.,
+is 25 fcs.; where the capital is more than 200,000 fcs., 100 fcs.
+The <i>société</i> is governed by articles which appoint the directors,
+and there is one general meeting held every year. A <i>société
+anonyme</i> may, since 1902, issue preference shares. The doctrine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span>
+that a corporation never dies has no place in French law. A
+<i>société anonyme</i> may come to an end.</p>
+
+<p><i>Germany.</i>&mdash;In Germany the class of companies most nearly
+corresponding to English companies limited by shares are
+&ldquo;share companies&rdquo; (<i>Aktiengesellschaften</i>) and &ldquo;commandite
+companies&rdquo; with a share capital (<i>Kommanditgesellschaften auf
+Aktien</i>). Since 1892 a new form of association has come into
+existence known by the name of partnership with limited
+liability (<i>Gesellschaften mit beschrankter Haftung</i>), which has
+largely superseded the commandite company.</p>
+
+<p>In forming this paid-up company certain preliminary
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;share company.&rdquo;</span>
+steps have to be taken before registration:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. The articles must be agreed on;</p>
+
+<p>2. A managing board and a board of supervision must be
+appointed;</p>
+
+<p>3. The whole of the share capital must be allotted and 25%, at
+least, must be paid up in coin or legal tender notes;</p>
+
+<p>4. Reports on the formation of the company must be made by
+certain persons; and</p>
+
+<p>5. Certain documents must be filed in the registry.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In all cases where shares are issued for any consideration,
+not being payment in full in cash, or in which contracts for the
+purchase of property have been entered into, the promoters
+must sign a declaration in which they must state on what grounds
+the prices agreed to be given for such property appear to be
+justified. In the great majority of cases shares are issued in
+certificates to bearer. The amount of such a share&mdash;to bearer&mdash;must
+as a general rule be not less than Ł50, but registered shares
+of Ł10 may be issued. Balance sheets have to be published
+periodically.</p>
+
+<p>Partnerships with limited liability may be formed by two or
+more members. The articles of partnership must be signed by
+all the members, and must contain particulars as to
+the amount of the capital and of the individual shares.
+<span class="sidenote">Limited partnerships.</span>
+If the liability on any shares is not to be satisfied in
+cash this also must be stated. The capital of a limited
+partnership must amount to Ł1000. Shares must be registered.
+Insolvent companies in Germany are subject to the bankruptcy
+law in the same manner as natural persons.</p>
+
+<p>For further information see a memorandum on German
+companies printed in the appendix to the <i>Report of Lord Davey&rsquo;s
+Committee on the Amendment of Company Law</i>, pp. 13-26.</p>
+
+<p><i>Italy.</i>&mdash;Commercial companies in Italy are of three kinds:&mdash;(1)
+General partnerships, in which the members are liable for all
+debts incurred; (2) companies in <i>accomodita</i>, in which some
+members are liable to an unlimited extent and others within
+certain limits; (3) joint stock companies, in which the liability
+is limited to the capital of the company and no member is liable
+beyond the amount of his holding. None of these companies
+needs authority from the government for its constitution; all
+that is needed is a written agreement brought before the public
+in the ways indicated in the code (Art. 90 et seq.). In joint stock
+companies the trustees (directors) must give security. They are
+appointed by a general meeting for a period not exceeding four
+years (Art. 124). The company is not constituted until the whole
+of its capital is subscribed, and until three-tenths of the capital
+at least has been actually paid up. When a company&rsquo;s capital is
+diminished by one-third, the trustees must call the members
+together and consult as to what is to be done.</p>
+
+<p>An ordinary meeting is held once at least every year. Shares
+may not be made payable &ldquo;to bearer&rdquo; until fully paid up
+(Art. 166). A company may issue debentures if this is agreed
+to by a certain majority (Art. 172). One-twentieth, at least, of
+the dividends of the company must be added to the reserve fund,
+until this has become equal to one-fifth of the company&rsquo;s capital
+(Art. 182). Three or five assessors&mdash;members or non-members&mdash;keep
+watch over the way in which the company is carried on.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;In the United States the right to create
+corporations is a sovereign right, and as such is exercisable by
+the several states of the Union. The law of private corporations
+must therefore be sought in some fifty collections or groups of
+statutory and case-made rules. These collections or groups of
+rules differ in many cases essentially from each other. The acts
+regulating business corporations generally provide that the
+persons proposing to form a corporation shall sign and acknowledge
+an instrument called the articles of association, setting
+forth the name of the corporation, the object for which it is
+to be formed, the principal place of business, the amount of its
+capital stock, and the number of shares into which it is to be
+divided, and the duration of its corporate existence. These
+articles are filed in the office of the secretary of state or in
+designated courts of record, and a certificate is then issued
+reciting that the provisions of the act have been complied with,
+and thereupon the incorporators are vested with corporate
+existence and the general powers incident thereto. This certificate
+is the charter of the corporation. The power to make
+bylaws is usually vested in the stockholders, but it may be
+conferred by the certificate on the directors. Stockholders
+remain liable until their subscriptions are fully paid. Nothing
+but money is considered payment of capital stock except where
+property is purchased. Directors must usually be stockholders.</p>
+
+<p>The right of a state to forfeit a corporation&rsquo;s charter for
+misuser or non-user of its franchises is an implied term of the
+grant of incorporation. Corporations are liable for every wrong
+they commit, and in such cases cannot set up by way of protection
+the doctrine of <i>ultra vires</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See for authorities <i>Commentaries on the Law of Private Corporations</i>,
+by Seymour D. Thompson, LL.D., 6 vols.; Beach on <i>Corporations</i>,
+and the <i>American Encyclopaedia of Law</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Ma.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a term employed to designate the
+study of the structure of man as compared with that of lower
+animals, and sometimes the study of lower animals in contra-distinction
+to human anatomy; the term is now falling into
+desuetude, and lingers practically only in the titles of books or in
+the designation of university chairs. The change in terminology
+is chiefly the result of modern conceptions of zoology. From the
+point of view of structure, man is one of the animals; all investigations
+into anatomical structure must be comparative,
+and in this work the subject is so treated throughout. See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zoology</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPARETTI, DOMENICO<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1835-&emsp;&emsp;), Italian scholar, was
+born at Rome on the 27th of June 1835. He studied at the
+university of Rome, took his degree in 1855 in natural science
+and mathematics, and entered his uncle&rsquo;s pharmacy as assistant.
+His scanty leisure was, however, given to study. He learned
+Greek by himself, and gained facility in the modern language
+by conversing with the Greek students at the university. In
+spite of all disadvantages, he not only mastered the language,
+but became one of the chief classical scholars of Italy. In 1857
+he published, in the <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, a translation of some
+recently discovered fragments of Hypereides, with a dissertation
+on that orator. This was followed by a notice of the annalist
+Granius Licinianus, and one on the oration of Hypereides on
+the Lamian War. In 1859 he was appointed professor of Greek
+at Pisa on the recommendation of the duke of Sermoneta. A
+few years later he was called to a similar post at Florence,
+remaining emeritus professor at Pisa also. He subsequently
+took up his residence in Rome as lecturer on Greek antiquities
+and greatly interested himself in the Forum excavations. He
+was a member of the governing bodies of the academies of
+Milan, Venice, Naples and Turin. The list of his writings is
+long and varied. Of his works in classical literature, the best
+known are an edition of the <i>Euxenippus</i> of Hypereides, and
+monographs on Pindar and Sappho. He also edited the great
+inscription which contains a collection of the municipal laws of
+Gortyn in Crete, discovered on the site of the ancient city. In
+the <i>Kalewala and the Traditional Poetry of the Finns</i> (English
+translation by I. M. Anderton, 1898) he discusses the national
+epic of Finland and its heroic songs, with a view to solving the
+problem whether an epic could be composed by the interweaving
+of such national songs. He comes to a negative conclusion, and
+applies this reasoning to the Homeric problem. He treats this
+question again in a treatise on the so-called Peisistratean edition
+of Homer (<i>La Commissione omerica di Pisistrato</i>, 1881). His
+<i>Researches concerning the Book of Sindib&#257;d</i> have been translated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span>
+in the <i>Proceedings</i> of the Folk-Lore Society. His <i>Vergil in the
+Middle Ages</i> (translated into English by E. F. Benecke, 1895)
+traces the strange vicissitudes by which the great Augustan
+poet became successively grammatical fetich, Christian prophet
+and wizard. Together with Professor Alessandro d&rsquo;Ancona,
+Comparetti edited a collection of Italian national songs and
+stories (9 vols., Turin, 1870-1891), many of which had been
+collected and written down by himself for the first time.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPASS<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (Fr. <i>compas</i>, ultimately from Lat. <i>cum</i>, with, and
+<i>passus</i>, step), a term of which the evolution of the various
+meanings is obscure; the general sense is &ldquo;measure&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;measurement,&rdquo; and the word is used thus in various derived
+meanings&mdash;area, boundary, circuit. It is also more particularly
+applied to a mathematical instrument (&ldquo;pair of compasses&rdquo;)
+for measuring or for describing a circle, and to the mariner&rsquo;s
+compass.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:455px; height:458px" src="images/img804a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Compass Card.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The mariner&rsquo;s compass, with which this article is concerned,
+is an instrument by means of which the directive force
+of that great magnet, the Earth, upon a freely-suspended
+needle, is utilized for a purpose essential to navigation. The
+needle is so mounted that it only moves freely in the horizontal
+plane, and therefore the horizontal component of the earth&rsquo;s
+force alone directs it. The direction assumed by the needle is not
+generally towards the geographical north, but diverges towards
+the east or west of it, making a horizontal angle with the true
+meridian, called the magnetic variation or declination; amongst
+mariners this angle is known as the variation of the compass.
+In the usual navigable waters of the world the variation alters
+from 30° to the east to 45° to the west of the geographical
+meridian, being westerly in the Atlantic and Indian oceans,
+easterly in the Pacific. The vertical plane passing through the
+longitudinal axis of such a needle is known as the magnetic
+meridian. Following the first chart of lines of equal variation
+compiled by Edmund Halley in 1700, charts of similar type have
+been published from time to time embodying recent observations
+and corrected for the secular change, thus providing seamen
+with values of the variation accurate to about 30&rsquo; of arc. Possessing
+these data, it is easy to ascertain by observation the effects
+of the iron in a ship in disturbing the compass, and it will be
+found for the most part in every vessel that the needle is deflected
+from the magnetic meridian by a horizontal angle called the
+deviation of the compass; in some directions of the ship&rsquo;s head
+adding to the known variation of the place, in other directions
+subtracting from it. Local magnetic disturbance of the needle
+due to magnetic rocks is observed on land in all parts of the
+world, and in certain places extends to the land under the sea,
+affecting the compasses on board the ships passing over it. The
+general direction of these disturbances in the northern hemisphere
+is an attraction of the north-seeking end of the needle; in the
+southern hemisphere, its repulsion. The approaches to Cossack,
+North Australia; Cape St Francis, Labrador; the coasts of
+Madagascar and Iceland, are remarkable for such disturbance
+of the compass.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:488px; height:242px" src="images/img804b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Admiralty Compass<br />
+(Frame and Needles).</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Thomson&rsquo;s (Lord Kelvin&rsquo;s)<br />
+Compass (Frame and Needles).</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:416px; height:271px" src="images/img804c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Section of Thomson&rsquo;s Compass Bowl. C, aluminium cap
+with sapphire centre; N, N&rsquo;, needles; P, pivot stem with pivot.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The compass as we know it is the result of the necessities of
+navigation, which have increased from century to century. It
+consists of five principal parts&mdash;the card, the needles, the bowl,
+a jewelled cap and the pivot. The card or &ldquo;fly,&rdquo; formerly made
+of cardboard, now consists of a disk either of mica covered with
+paper or of paper alone, but in all cases the card is divided into
+points and degrees as shown in fig. 1. The outer margin is
+divided into degrees with 0° at north and south, and 90° at east
+and west; the 32 points with half and quarter points are seen
+immediately within the degrees. The north point is marked
+with <i>fleur de lis</i>, and the principal points, N.E., E., S.E., &amp;c.,
+with their respective names, whilst the intermediate points in
+the figure have also their names engraved for present information.
+The arc contained between any two points is 11° 15&rsquo;. The mica
+card is generally mounted on a brass framework, F F, with a
+brass cap, C, fitted with a sapphire centre and carrying four
+magnetized needles, N, N, N, N, as in fig. 2. The more modern
+form of card consists of a broad ring of paper marked with degrees
+and points, as in fig. 1, attached to a frame like that in fig. 3,
+where an outer aluminium ring, A A, is connected by 32 radial
+silk threads to a central disk of aluminium, in the centre of which
+is a round hole designed to receive an aluminium cap with a
+highly polished sapphire centre worked to the form of an open
+cone. To direct the card eight short light needles, N N, are
+suspended by silk threads from the outer ring. The magnetic
+axis of any system of needles must exactly coincide with the
+axis passing through the north and south points of the card.
+Single needles are never used, two being the least number, and
+these so arranged that the moment of inertia about every
+diameter of the card shall be the same. The combination of
+card, needles and cap is generally termed &ldquo;the card&rdquo;; on the
+continent of Europe it is called the &ldquo;rose.&rdquo; The section of a
+compass bowl in fig. 4 shows the mounting of a Thomson card
+on its pivot, which in common with the pivots of most other
+compasses is made of brass, tipped with osmium-iridium, which
+although very hard can be sharply pointed and does not corrode.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span>
+Fig. 4 shows the general arrangement of mounting all compass
+cards in the bowl. In fig. 5 another form of compass called a
+liquid or spirit compass is shown partly in section. The card
+nearly floats in a bowl filled with distilled water, to which 35%
+of alcohol is added to prevent freezing; the bowl is hermetically
+sealed with pure india-rubber, and a corrugated expansion
+chamber is attached to the bottom to allow for the expansion
+and contraction of the liquid. The card is a mica disk, either
+painted as in fig. 1, or covered with linen upon which the degrees
+and points are printed, the needles being enclosed in brass.</p>
+
+<div class="f90">
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan ="2"><img style="width:404px; height:262px" src="images/img805.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan ="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Liquid Compass.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">A, Bowl, partly in section.</td> <td class="tcl">N, Hole for filling, with screw plug.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">B, Expansion chamber.</td> <td class="tcl">O, O, Magnetic needles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">D, The glass.</td> <td class="tcl">P, Buoyant chamber.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">G, Gimbal ring.</td> <td class="tcl">Q, Iridium pivot.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">L, Nut to expand chamber when filling bowl.</td> <td class="tcl">R, Sapphire cap.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">M, Screw connector.</td> <td class="tcl">S, Mica card.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">Great steadiness of card under severe shocks and vibrations,
+combined with a minimum of friction in the cap and pivot, is
+obtained with this compass. All compasses are fitted with a
+gimbal ring to keep the bowl and card level under every circumstance
+of a ship&rsquo;s motion in a seaway, the ring being connected
+with the binnacle or pedestal by means of journals or knife
+edges. On the inside of every compass bowl a vertical black
+line is drawn, called the &ldquo;lubber&rsquo;s point,&rdquo; and it is imperative
+that when the compass is placed in the binnacle the line joining
+the pivot and the lubber&rsquo;s point be parallel to the keel of the
+vessel. Thus, when a degree on the card is observed opposite
+the lubber&rsquo;s point, the angle between the direction in which the
+ship is steering and the north point of the compass or course
+is at once seen; and if the magnetic variation and the disturbing
+effects of the ship&rsquo;s iron are known, the desired angle between
+the <span class="correction" title="amended from ships's">ship&rsquo;s</span> course and the geographical meridian can be computed.
+In every ship a position is selected for the navigating or standard
+compass as free from neighbouring iron as possible, and by this
+compass all courses are shaped and bearings taken. It is also
+provided with an azimuth circle or mirror and a shadow pin or
+style placed in the centre of the glass cover, by either of which
+the variable angle between the compass north and true north,
+called the &ldquo;total error,&rdquo; or variation and deviation combined,
+can be observed. The binnacles or pedestals for compasses are
+generally constructed of wood about 45 in. high, and fitted to
+receive and alter at pleasure the several magnet and soft iron
+correctors. They are also fitted with different forms of suspension
+in which the compass is mounted to obviate the mechanical
+disturbance of the card caused by the vibration of the hull
+in ships driven by powerful engines.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of the iron and steel used in the construction of
+ships upon the compass occupied the attention of the ablest
+physicists of the 19th century, with results which enable navigators
+to conduct their ships with perfect safety. The hull of
+an iron or steel ship is a magnet, and the distribution of its
+magnetism depends upon the direction of the ship&rsquo;s head when
+building, this result being produced by induction from the
+earth&rsquo;s magnetism, developed and impressed by the hammering
+of the plates and frames during the process of building. The
+disturbance of the compass by the magnetism of the hull
+is generally modified, sometimes favourably, more often unfavourably,
+by the magnetized fittings of the ship, such as
+masts, conning towers, deck houses, engines and boilers. Thus
+in every ship the compass needle is more or less subject to
+deviation differing in amount and direction for every azimuth
+of the ship&rsquo;s head. This was first demonstrated by Commander
+Matthew Flinders by experiments made in H.M.S. &ldquo;Investigator&rdquo;
+in 1800-1803, and in 1810 led that officer to introduce
+the practice of placing the ship&rsquo;s head on each point of the
+compass, and noting the amount of deviation whether to the
+east or west of the magnetic north, a process which is in full
+exercise at the present day, and is called &ldquo;swinging ship.&rdquo;
+When speaking of the magnetic properties of iron it is usual
+to adopt the terms &ldquo;soft&rdquo; and &ldquo;hard.&rdquo; Soft iron is iron which
+becomes instantly magnetized by induction when exposed to
+any magnetic force, but has no power of retaining its magnetism.
+Hard iron is less susceptible of being magnetized, but when
+once magnetized it retains its magnetism permanently. The
+term &ldquo;iron&rdquo; used in these pages includes the &ldquo;steel&rdquo; now
+commonly employed in shipbuilding. If an iron ship be swung
+when upright for deviation, and the mean horizontal and vertical
+magnetic forces at the compass positions be also observed in
+different parts of the world, mathematical analysis shows that
+the deviations are caused partly by the permanent magnetism
+of hard iron, partly by the transient induced magnetism of soft
+iron both horizontal and vertical, and in a lesser degree by iron
+which is neither magnetically hard nor soft, but which becomes
+magnetized in the same manner as hard iron, though it gradually
+loses its magnetism on change of conditions, as, for example,
+in the case of a ship, repaired and hammered in dock, steaming
+in an opposite direction at sea. This latter cause of deviation
+is called sub-permanent magnetism. The horizontal directive
+force on the needle on board is nearly always less than on land,
+sometimes much less, whilst in armour-plated ships it ranges
+from .8 to .2 when the directive force on land = 1.0. If the
+ship be inclined to starboard or to port additional deviation
+will be observed, reaching a maximum on north and south points,
+decreasing to zero on the east and west points. Each ship
+has its own magnetic character, but there are certain conditions
+which are common to vessels of the same type.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of observing the deviation solely for the purposes of
+correcting the indications of the compass when disturbed by the
+iron of the ship, the practice is to subject all deviations to
+mathematical analysis with a view to their mechanical correction.
+The whole of the deviations when the ship is upright may be
+expressed nearly by five co-efficients, A, B, C, D, E. Of these A
+is a deviation constant in amount for every direction of the ship&rsquo;s
+head. B has reference to horizontal forces acting in a longitudinal
+direction in the ship, and caused partly by the permanent
+magnetism of hard iron, partly by vertical induction in vertical
+soft iron either before or abaft the compass. C has reference
+to forces acting in a transverse direction, and caused by hard iron.
+D is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron, the direction
+of which passes continuously under or over the compass.
+E is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron unsymmetrically
+placed with regard to the compass. When data of
+this character have been obtained the compass deviations may
+be mechanically corrected to within 1°&mdash;always adhering to the
+principal that &ldquo;like cures like.&rdquo; Thus the part of B caused by
+the permanent magnetism of hard iron must be corrected by
+permanent magnets horizontally placed in a fore and aft direction;
+the other part caused by vertical soft iron by means of
+bars of vertical soft iron, called Flinders bars, before or abaft
+the compass. C is compensated by permanent magnets athwart-ships
+and horizontal; D by masses of soft iron on both sides of
+the compass, and generally in the form of cast-iron spheres,
+with their centres in the same horizontal plane as the needles;
+E is usually too small to require correction; A is fortunately
+rarely of any value, as it cannot be corrected. The deviation
+observed when the ship inclines to either side is due&mdash;(1) to hard
+iron acting vertically upwards or downwards; (2) to vertical
+soft iron immediately below the compass; (3) to vertical induction
+in horizontal soft iron when inclined. To compensate (1)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span>
+vertical magnets are used; (3) is partly corrected by the soft
+iron correctors of D; (2) and the remaining part of (3) cannot be
+conveniently corrected for more than one geographical position
+at a time. Although a compass may thus be made practically
+correct for a given time and place, the magnetism of the ship
+is liable to changes on changing her geographical position, and
+especially so when steaming at right angles or nearly so to the
+magnetic meridian, for then sub-permanent magnetism is
+developed in the hull. Some vessels are more liable to become
+sub-permanently magnetized than others, and as no corrector
+has been found for this source of deviation the navigator must
+determine its amount by observation. Hence, however carefully
+a compass may be placed and subsequently compensated, the
+mariner has no safety without constantly observing the bearings
+of the sun, stars or distant terrestrial objects, to ascertain its
+deviation. The results of these observations are entered in a
+compass journal for future reference when fog or darkness
+prevails.</p>
+
+<p>Every compass and corrector supplied to the ships of the
+British navy is previously examined in detail at the Compass
+Observatory established by the admiralty at Deptford. A
+trained observer acting under the superintendent of compasses
+is charged with this important work. The superintendent, who
+is a naval officer, has to investigate the magnetic character of
+the ships, to point out the most suitable positions for the compasses
+when a ship is designed, and subsequently to keep himself
+informed of their behaviour from the time of the ship&rsquo;s first trial.
+A museum containing compasses of various types invented
+during the 19th century is attached to the Compass Observatory
+at Deptford.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The mariner&rsquo;s compass during the early part of the 19th century
+was still a very imperfect instrument, although numerous inventors
+had tried to improve it. In 1837 the Admiralty Compass Committee
+was appointed to make a scientific investigation of the subject, and
+propose a form of compass suitable alike for azimuth and steering
+purposes. The committee reported in July 1840, and after minor
+improvements by the makers the admiralty compass, the card of
+which is shown in figs. 1 and 2, was adopted by the government.
+Until 1876, when Sir William Thomson introduced his patent compass,
+this compass was not only the regulation compass of the
+British navy, but was largely used in other countries in the same
+or a modified form. The introduction of powerful engines causing
+serious vibration to compass cards of the admiralty type, coupled
+with the prevailing desire for larger cards, the deviation of which
+could also be more conveniently compensated, led to the gradual
+introduction of the Thomson compass. Several important points
+were gained in the latter: the quadrantal deviation could be finally
+corrected for all latitudes; frictional error at the cap and pivot was
+reduced to a minimum, the average weight of the card being 200
+grains; the long free vibrational period of the card was found to be
+favourable to its steadiness when the vessel was rolling. The first
+liquid compass used in England was invented by Francis Crow, of
+Faversham, in 1813. It is said that the idea of a liquid compass was
+suggested to Crow by the experience of the captain of a coasting
+vessel whose compass card was oscillating wildly until a sea broke
+on board filling the compass bowl, when the card became steady.
+Subsequent improvements were made by E. J. Dent, and especially
+by E. S. Ritchie, of Boston, Massachusetts. In 1888 the form of
+liquid compass (fig. 5) now solely used in torpedo boats and torpedo
+boat destroyers was introduced. It has also proved to be the most
+trustworthy compass under the shock of heavy gun fire at present
+available. The deflector is an instrument designed to enable an
+observer to reduce the deviations of the compass to an amount not
+exceeding 2° during fogs, or at any time when bearings of distant
+objects are not available. It is certain that if the directive forces
+on the north, east, south and west points of a compass are equal,
+there can be no deviation. With the deflector any inequality in the
+directive force can be detected, and hence the power of equalizing
+the forces by the usual soft iron and magnet correctors. Several
+kinds of deflector have been invented, that of Lord Kelvin (Sir
+William Thomson) being the simplest, but Dr Waghorn&rsquo;s is also very
+effective. The use of the deflector is generally confined to experts.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Magnetism of Ships.</i>&mdash;In 1814 Flinders first showed (see
+Flinders&rsquo;s <i>Voyage</i>, vol. ii. appx. ii.) that the abnormal values of
+the variation observed in the wood-built ships of his day was due
+to deviation of the compass caused by the iron in the ship; that the
+deviation was zero when the ship&rsquo;s head was near the north and
+south points; that it attained its maximum on the east and west
+points, and varied as the sine of the azimuth of the ship&rsquo;s head
+reckoned from the zero points. He also described a method of
+correcting deviation by means of a bar of vertical iron so placed
+as to correct the deviation nearly in all latitudes. This bar, now
+known as a &ldquo;Flinders bar,&rdquo; is still in general use. In 1820 Dr T.
+Young (see Brande&rsquo;s <i>Quarterly Journal</i>, 1820) investigated mathematically
+the magnetism of ships. In 1824 Professor Peter Barlow
+(1776-1862) introduced his correcting plate of <i>soft</i> iron. Trials in
+certain ships showed that their magnetism consisted partly of hard
+iron, and the use of the plate was abandoned. In 1835 Captain
+E. J. Johnson, R.N., showed from experiments in the iron steamship
+&ldquo;Garry Owen&rdquo; that the vessel acted on an external compass as a
+magnet. In 1838 Sir G. B. Airy magnetically examined the iron
+steamship &ldquo;Rainbow&rdquo; at Deptford, and from his mathematical
+investigations (see <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1839) deduced his method of correcting
+the compass by permanent magnets and soft iron, giving practical
+rules for the same in 1840. Airy&rsquo;s and Flinders&rsquo;s correctors form the
+basis of all compass correctors to this day. In 1838 S. D. Poisson
+published his <i>Memoir on the Deviations of the Compass caused by the
+Iron in a Vessel</i>. In this he gave equations resulting from the hypothesis
+that the magnetism of a ship is partly due to the permanent
+magnetism of hard iron and partly to the transient induced magnetism
+of soft iron; that the latter is proportional to the intensity of the
+inducing force, and that the length of the needle is infinitesimally
+small compared to the distance of the surrounding iron. From
+Poisson&rsquo;s equations Archibald Smith deduced the formulae given
+in the <i>Admiralty Manual for Deviations of the Compass</i> (1st ed., 1862),
+a work which has formed the basis of numerous other manuals since
+published in Great Britain and other countries. In view of the serious
+difficulties connected with the inclining of every ship, Smith&rsquo;s
+formulae for ascertaining and providing for the correction of the
+heeling error with the ship upright continue to be of great value to
+safe navigation. In 1855 the Liverpool Compass Committee began
+its work of investigating the magnetism of ships of the mercantile
+marine, resulting in three reports to the Board of Trade, all of great
+value, the last being presented in 1861.</p>
+
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magnetism</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Navigation</a></span>; articles on Magnetism
+of Ships and Deviations of the Compass, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1839-1883,
+<i>Journal United Service Inst.</i>, 1859-1889, <i>Trans. Inst. Nav. Archit.</i>,
+1860-1861-1862, <i>Report of Brit. Assoc.</i>, 1862, <i>London Quarterly
+Rev.</i>, 1865; also <i>Admiralty Manual</i>, edit. 1862-1863-1869-1893-1900;
+and Towson&rsquo;s <i>Practical Information on Deviations of the
+Compass</i> (1886).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. W. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>History of the Mariner&rsquo;s Compass.</i></p>
+
+<p>The discovery that a lodestone, or a piece of iron which has
+been touched by a lodestone, will direct itself to point in a north
+and south position, and the application of that discovery to
+direct the navigation of ships, have been attributed to various
+origins. The Chinese, the Arabs, the Greeks, the Etruscans,
+the Finns and the Italians have all been claimed as originators
+of the compass. There is now little doubt that the claim formerly
+advanced in favour of the Chinese is ill-founded. In Chinese
+history we are told how, in the sixty-fourth year of the reign of
+Hwang-ti (2634 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the emperor Hiuan-yuan, or Hwang-ti,
+attacked one Tchi-yeou, on the plains of Tchou-lou, and finding
+his army embarrassed by a thick fog raised by the enemy, constructed
+a chariot (Tchi-nan) for indicating the south, so as to
+distinguish the four cardinal points, and was thus enabled to
+pursue Tchi-yeou, and take him prisoner. (Julius Klaproth,
+<i>Lettre ŕ M. le Baron Humboldt sur l&rsquo;invention de la boussole</i>,
+Paris, 1834. See also Mailla, <i>Histoire générale de la Chine</i>,
+tom. i. p. 316, Paris, 1777.) But, as other versions of the story
+show, this account is purely mythical. For the
+south-pointing
+chariots are recorded to have been first devised by the emperor
+Hian-tsoung (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 806-820); and there is no evidence that they
+contained any magnet. There is no genuine record of a Chinese
+marine compass before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1297, as Klaproth admits. No
+sea-going ships were built in China before 139 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The earliest
+allusion to the power of the lodestone in Chinese literature
+occurs in a Chinese dictionary, finished in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 121, where the
+lodestone is defined as &ldquo;a stone with which an attraction can
+be given to a needle,&rdquo; but this knowledge is no more than that
+existing in Europe at least five hundred years before. Nor is
+there any nautical significance in a passage which occurs in the
+Chinese encyclopaedia, <i>Poei-wen-yun-fou</i>, in which it is stated
+that under the Tsin dynasty, or between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 265 and 419,
+&ldquo;there were ships indicating the south.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese, Sir J. F. Davis informs us, once navigated as far
+as India, but their most distant voyages at present extend not
+farther than Java and the Malay Islands to the south (<i>The
+Chinese</i>, vol. iii. p. 14, London, 1844). According to an Arabic
+manuscript, a translation of which was published by Eusebius
+Renaudot (Paris, 1718), they traded in ships to the Persian Gulf
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span>
+and Red Sea in the 9th century. Sir G. L. Staunton, in vol. i.
+of his <i>Embassy to China</i> (London, 1797), after referring to the
+early acquaintance of the Chinese with the property of the
+magnet to point southwards, remarks (p. 445), &ldquo;The nature and
+the cause of the qualities of the magnet have at all times been
+subjects of contemplation among the Chinese. The Chinese
+name for the compass is <i>ting-nan-ching</i>, or needle pointing to
+the south; and a distinguishing mark is fixed on the magnet&rsquo;s
+southern pole, as in European compasses upon the northern one.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The sphere of Chinese navigation,&rdquo; he tells us (p. 447), &ldquo;is too
+limited to have afforded experience and observation for forming
+any system of laws supposed to govern the variation of the
+needle.... The Chinese had soon occasion to perceive how
+much more essential the perfection of the compass was to the
+superior navigators of Europe than to themselves, as the commanders
+of the &lsquo;Lion&rsquo; and &lsquo;Hindostan,&rsquo; trusting to that instrument,
+stood out directly from the land into the sea.&rdquo; The
+number of points of the compass, according to the Chinese, is
+twenty-four, which are reckoned from the south pole; the
+form also of the instrument they employ is different from that
+familiar to Europeans. The needle is peculiarly poised, with its
+point of suspension a little below its centre of gravity, and is
+exceedingly sensitive; it is seldom more than an inch in length,
+and is less than a line in thickness. &ldquo;It may be urged,&rdquo; writes
+Mr T. S. Davies, &ldquo;that the different manner of constructing the
+needle amongst the Chinese and European navigators shows the
+independence of the Chinese of us, as theirs is the worse method,
+and had they copied from us, they would have used the better
+one&rdquo; (Thomson&rsquo;s <i>British Annual</i>, 1837, p. 291). On the other
+hand, it has been contended that a knowledge of the mariner&rsquo;s
+compass was communicated by them directly or indirectly to
+the early Arabs, and through the latter was introduced into
+Europe. Sismondi has remarked (<i>Literature of Europe</i>, vol. i.)
+that it is peculiarly characteristic of all the pretended discoveries
+of the middle ages that when the historians mention them for
+the first time they treat them as things in general use. Gunpowder,
+the compass, the Arabic numerals and paper, are
+nowhere spoken of as discoveries, and yet they must have
+wrought a total change in war, in navigation, in science, and in
+education. G. Tiraboschi (<i>Storia della letteratura italiana</i>,
+tom. iv. lib. ii. p. 204, et seq., ed. 2., 1788), in support of the
+conjecture that the compass was introduced into Europe by the
+Arabs, adduces their superiority in scientific learning and their
+early skill in navigation. He quotes a passage on the polarity of
+the lodestone from a treatise translated by Albertus Magnus,
+attributed by the latter to Aristotle, but apparently only an
+Arabic compilation from the works of various philosophers. As
+the terms <i>Zoron</i> and <i>Aphron</i>, used there to signify the south and
+north poles, are neither Latin nor Greek, Tiraboschi suggests
+that they may be of Arabian origin, and that the whole passage
+concerning the lodestone may have been added to the original
+treatise by the Arabian translators.</p>
+
+<p>Dr W. Robertson asserts (<i>Historical Disquisition concerning
+Ancient India</i>, p. 227) that the Arabs, Turks and Persians have no
+original name for the compass, it being called by them <i>Bossola</i>,
+the Italian name, which shows that the thing signified is foreign
+to them as well as the word. The Rev. G. P. Badger has, however,
+pointed out (<i>Travels of Ludovico di Varthema</i>, trans. J. W.
+Jones, ed. G. P. Badger, Hakluyt Soc, 1863, note, pp. 31 and 32)
+that the name of Bushla or Busba, from the Italian <i>Bussola</i>,
+though common among Arab sailors in the Mediterranean, is very
+seldom used in the Eastern seas,&mdash;<i>Daďrah</i> and <i>Beit el-Ibrah</i>
+(the Circle, or House of the Needle) being the ordinary appellatives
+in the Red Sea, whilst in the Persian Gulf <i>Kiblah-n&#257;meh</i> is
+in more general use. Robertson quotes Sir J. Chardin as boldly
+asserting &ldquo;that the Asiatics are beholden to us for this wonderful
+instrument, which they had from Europe a long time before the
+Portuguese conquests. For, first, their compasses are exactly
+like ours, and they buy them of Europeans as much as they can,
+scarce daring to meddle with their needles themselves. Secondly,
+it is certain that the old navigators only coasted it along, which
+I impute to their want of this instrument to guide and instruct
+them in the middle of the ocean.... I have nothing but argument
+to offer touching this matter, having never met with any
+person in Persia or the Indies to inform me when the compass was
+first known among them, though I made inquiry of the most
+learned men in both countries. I have sailed from the Indies to
+Persia in Indian ships, when no European has been aboard but
+myself. The pilots were all Indians, and they used the forestaff
+and quadrant for their observations. These instruments they
+have from us, and made by our artists, and they do not in the
+least vary from ours, except that the characters are Arabic. The
+Arabs are the most skilful navigators of all the Asiatics or
+Africans; but neither they nor the Indians make use of charts,
+and they do not much want them; some they have, but they are
+copied from ours, for they are altogether ignorant of perspective.&rdquo;
+The observations of Chardin, who flourished between 1643 and
+1713, cannot be said to receive support from the testimony of
+some earlier authorities. That the Arabs must have been acquainted
+with the compass, and with the construction and use of
+charts, at a period nearly two centuries previous to Chardin&rsquo;s
+first voyage to the East, may be gathered from the description
+given by Barros of a map of all the coast of India, shown to
+Vasco da Gama by a Moor of Guzerat (about the 15th of July
+1498), in which the bearings were laid down &ldquo;after the manner of
+the Moors,&rdquo; or &ldquo;with meridians and parallels very small (or close
+together), without other bearings of the compass; because, as the
+squares of these meridians and parallels were very small, the
+coast was laid down by these two bearings of N. and S., and E.
+and W., with great certainty, without that multiplication of
+bearings of the points of the compass usual in our maps, which
+serves as the root of the others.&rdquo; Further, we learn from Osorio
+that the Arabs at the time of Gama &ldquo;were instructed in so many
+of the arts of navigation, that they did not yield much to the
+Portuguese mariners in the science and practice of maritime
+matters.&rdquo; (See <i>The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama</i>, Hakluyt
+Soc, 1869; note to chap. xv. by the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley,
+p. 138.) Also the Arabs that navigated the Red Sea at the same
+period are shown by Varthema to have used the mariner&rsquo;s chart
+and compass (<i>Travels</i>, p. 31).</p>
+
+<p>Again, it appears that compasses of a primitive description,
+which can hardly be supposed to have been brought from Europe,
+were employed in the East Indies certainly as early as several
+years previous to the close of the 16th century. In William
+Barlowe&rsquo;s <i>Navigator&rsquo;s Supply</i>, published in 1597, we read:&mdash;&ldquo;Some
+fewe yeeres since, it so fell out that I had severall conferences
+with two East Indians which were brought into England
+by master Candish [Thomas Cavendish], and had learned our
+language: The one of them was of Mamillia [Manila] in the Isle
+of Luzon, the other of Miaco in Japan. I questioned with them
+concerning their shipping and manner of sayling. They described
+all things farre different from ours, and shewed, that in steade of
+our Compas, they use a magneticall needle of sixe ynches long,
+and longer, upon a pinne in a dish of white <i>China</i> earth filled
+with water; In the bottome whereof they have two crosse lines,
+for the foure principall windes; the rest of the divisions being
+reserved to the skill of their Pilots.&rdquo; Bailak Kibdjaki, also, an
+Arabian writer, shows in his <i>Merchant&rsquo;s Treasure</i>, a work given
+to the world in 1282, that the magnetized needle, floated on water
+by means of a splinter of wood or a reed, was employed on the
+Syrian seas at the time of his voyage from Tripoli to Alexandria
+(1242), and adds:&mdash;&ldquo;They say that the captains who navigate
+the Indian seas use, instead of the needle and splinter, a sort
+of fish made out of hollow iron, which, when thrown into the
+water, swims upon the surface, and points out the north and
+south with its head and tail&rdquo; (Klaproth, <i>Lettre</i>, p. 57). E.
+Wiedemann, in <i>Erlangen Sitzungsberichte</i> (1904, p. 330), translates
+the phrase given above as splinter of wood, by the term wooden
+cross. Furthermore, although the sailors in the Indian vessels
+in which Niccola de&rsquo; Conti traversed the Indian seas in 1420 are
+stated to have had no compass, still, on board the ship in which
+Varthema, less than a century later, sailed from Borneo to Java,
+both the mariner&rsquo;s chart and compass were used; it has been
+questioned, however, whether in this case the compass was of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span>
+Eastern manufacture (<i>Travels of Varthema</i>, Introd. xciv, and
+p. 249). We have already seen that the Chinese as late as the
+end of the 18th century made voyages with compasses on which
+but little reliance could be placed; and it may perhaps be
+assumed that the compasses early used in the East were mostly
+too imperfect to be of much assistance to navigators, and were
+therefore often dispensed with on customary routes. The Arab
+traders in the Levant certainly used a floating compass, as did
+the Italians before the introduction of the pivoted needle; the
+magnetized piece of iron being floated upon a small raft of cork
+or reeds in a bowl of water. The Italian name of <i>calamita</i>, which
+still persists, for the magnet, and which literally signifies a frog,
+is doubtless derived from this practice.</p>
+
+<p>The simple water-compass is said to have been used by the
+Coreans so late as the middle of the 18th century; and Dr T.
+Smith, writing in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for 1683-1684,
+says of the Turks (p. 439), &ldquo;They have no genius for Sea-voyages,
+and consequently are very raw and unexperienced
+in the art of Navigation, scarce venturing to sail out of sight of
+land. I speak of the natural <i>Turks</i>, who trade either into the
+<i>black Sea</i> or some part of the <i>Morea</i>, or between <i>Constantinople</i>
+and <i>Alexandria</i>, and not of the Pyrats of <i>Barbary</i>, who are for
+the most part Renegado&rsquo;s, and learnt their skill in Christendom.
+... The Turkish compass consists but of 8 points, the four
+Cardinal and the four Collateral.&rdquo; That the value of the
+compass was thus, even in the latter part of the 17th
+century, so imperfectly recognized in the East may serve
+to explain how in earlier times that instrument, long after
+the first discovery of its properties, may have been generally
+neglected by navigators.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabic geographer, Edrisi, who lived about 1100, is said
+by Boucher to give an account, though in a confused manner,
+of the polarity of the magnet (Hallam, <i>Mid. Ages</i>, vol. iii. chap.
+9, part 2); but the earliest definite mention as yet known of
+the use of the mariner&rsquo;s compass in the middle ages occurs in a
+treatise entitled <i>De utensilibus</i>, written by Alexander Neckam
+in the 12th century. He speaks there of a needle carried on
+board ship which, being placed on a pivot, and allowed to take
+its own position of repose, shows mariners their course when
+the polar star is hidden. In another work, <i>De naturis rerum</i>,
+lib. ii. c. 89, he writes,&mdash;&ldquo;Mariners at sea, when, through
+cloudy weather in the day which hides the sun, or through the
+darkness of the night, they lose the knowledge of the quarter
+of the world to which they are sailing, touch a needle with the
+magnet, which will turn round till, on its motion ceasing, its
+point will be directed towards the north&rdquo; (W. Chappell, <i>Nature</i>,
+No. 346, June 15, 1876). The magnetical needle, and its suspension
+on a stick or straw in water, are clearly described in <i>La
+Bible Guiot</i>, a poem probably of the 13th century, by Guiot de
+Provins, wherein we are told that through the magnet (<i>la manette</i>
+or <i>l&rsquo;amaničre</i>), an ugly brown stone to which iron turns of its
+own accord, mariners possess an art that cannot fail them.
+A needle touched by it, and floated by a stick on water, turns its
+point towards the pole-star, and a light being placed near the
+needle on dark nights, the proper course is known (<i>Hist. littéraire
+de la France</i>, tom. ix. p. 199; Barbazan, <i>Fabliaux</i>, tom. ii.
+p. 328). Cardinal Jacques de Vitry, bishop of Acon in Palestine,
+in his <i>History</i> (cap. 89), written about the year 1218, speaks
+of the magnetic needle as &ldquo;most necessary for such as sail the
+sea&rdquo;;<a name="FnAnchor_1e" id="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and another French crusader, his contemporary, Vincent
+de Beauvais, states that the adamant (lodestone) is found in
+Arabia, and mentions a method of using a needle magnetized
+by it which is similar to that described by Kibdjaki. In 1248
+Hugo de Bercy notes a change in the construction of compasses,
+which are now supported on two floats in a glass cup. From
+quotations given by Antonio Capmany (<i>Questiones Criticas</i>)
+from the <i>De contemplatione</i> of Raimon Lull, of the date 1272,
+it appears that the latter was well acquainted with the use of
+the magnet at sea;<a name="FnAnchor_2e" id="FnAnchor_2e" href="#Footnote_2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and before the middle of the 13th century
+Gauthier d&rsquo;Espinois alludes to its polarity, as if generally
+known, in the lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+
+<p>&ldquo;Tous autresi comme l&rsquo;aimant decoit [detourne]</p>
+<p class="i05">L&rsquo;aiguillette par force de vertu,</p>
+<p class="i05">A ma dame tor le mont [monde] retenue</p>
+<p class="i05">Qui sa beauté connoit et aperçoit.&rdquo;</p>
+
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Guido Guinizzelli, a poet of the same period, writes:&mdash;&ldquo;In
+those parts under the north are the mountains of lodestone,
+which give the virtue to the air of attracting iron; but because
+it [the lodestone] is far off, [it] wishes to have the help of a similar
+stone to make it [the virtue] work, and to direct the needle
+towards the star.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_3e" id="FnAnchor_3e" href="#Footnote_3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Brunetto Latini also makes reference to
+the compass in his encyclopaedia <i>Livres dou trésor</i>, composed
+about 1260 (Livre i. pt. ii. ch. cxx.):&mdash;&ldquo;Por ce nagent li marinier
+ŕ l&rsquo;enseigne des estoiles qui i sont, que il apelent tramontaines,
+et les gens qui sont en Europe et es parties decŕ nagent ŕ la
+tramontaine de septentrion, et li autre nagent ŕ cele de midi.
+Et qui n&rsquo;en set la verité, praigne une pierre d&rsquo;aimant, et troverez
+que ele a ij faces: l&rsquo;une qui gist vers l&rsquo;une tramontaine, et
+l&rsquo;autre gist vers l&rsquo;autre. Et ŕ chascune des ij faces la pointe
+d&rsquo;une aguille vers cele tramontaine ŕ cui cele face gist. Et por
+ce seroient li marinier deceu se il ne se preissent garde&rdquo; (p. 147,
+Paris edition, 1863). Dante (<i>Paradiso</i>, xii. 28-30) mentions the
+pointing of the magnetic needle toward the pole star. In
+Scandinavian records there is a reference to the nautical use of
+the magnet in the <i>Hauksbók</i>, the last edition of the <i>Landnámabók</i>
+(Book of the Colonization of Iceland):&mdash;&ldquo;Floki, son of
+Vilgerd, instituted a great sacrifice, and consecrated three ravens
+which should show him the way (to Iceland); for at that time
+no men sailing the high seas had lodestones up in northern lands.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Haukr Erlendsson, who wrote this paragraph about 1300,
+died in 1334; his edition was founded on material in two earlier
+works, that of Styrmir Karason (who died 1245), which is lost,
+and that of Hurla Thordson (died 1284) which has no such
+paragraph. All that is certain is a knowledge of the nautical
+use of the magnet at the end of the 13th century. From T.
+Torfaeus we learn that the compass, fitted into a box, was
+already in use among the Norwegians about the middle of the
+13th century (<i>Hist. rer. Norvegicarum</i>, iv. c. 4, p. 345, Hafniae,
+1711); and it is probable that the use of the magnet at sea was
+known in Scotland at or shortly subsequent to that time, though
+King Robert, in crossing from Arran to Carrick in 1306, as
+Barbour writing in 1375 informs us, &ldquo;na nedill had na stane,&rdquo;
+but steered by a fire on the shore. Roger Bacon (<i>Opus majus</i>
+and <i>Opus minus</i>, 1266-1267) was acquainted with the properties
+of the lodestone, and wrote that if set so that it can turn freely
+(swimming on water) it points toward the poles; but he stated
+that this was not due to the pole-star, but to the influence of
+the northern region of the heavens.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest unquestionable description of a pivoted compass
+is that contained in the remarkable <i>Epistola de magnete</i> of Petrus
+Peregrinus de Maricourt, written at Lucera in 1269 to Sigerus
+de Foncaucourt. (First printed edition Augsburg, 1558. See
+also Bertelli in Boncompagni&rsquo;s <i>Bollettino di bibliografia</i>, t. i.,
+or S. P. Thompson in <i>Proc. British Academy</i>, vol. ii.) Of this
+work twenty-eight MSS. exist; seven of them being at Oxford.
+The first part of the epistle deals generally with magnetic
+attractions and repulsions, with the polarity of the stone, and
+with the supposed influence of the poles of the heavens upon
+the poles of the stone. In the second part Peregrinus describes
+first an improved floating compass with fiducial line, a circle
+graduated with 90 degrees to each quadrant, and provided
+with movable sights for taking bearings. He then describes a
+new compass with a needle thrust through a pivoted axis, placed
+in a box with transparent cover, cross index of brass or silver,
+divided circle, and an external &ldquo;rule&rdquo; or alhidade provided
+with a pair of sights. In the Leiden MS. of this work, which for
+long was erroneously ascribed to one Peter Adsiger, is a spurious
+passage, long believed to mention the variation of the compass.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span></p>
+
+<p>Prior to this clear description of a pivoted compass by Peregrinus
+in 1269, the Italian sailors had used the floating magnet,
+probably introduced into this region of the Mediterranean by
+traders belonging to the port of Amalfi, as commemorated in
+the line of the poet Panormita:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Prima dedit nautis usum magnetis Amalphis.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This opinion is supported by the historian Flavius Blondus
+in his <i>Italia illustrata</i>, written about 1450, who adds that its
+certain origin is unknown. In 1511 Baptista Pio in his <i>Commentary</i>
+repeats the opinion as to the invention of the use of
+the magnet at Amalfi as related by Flavius. Gyraldus, writing
+in 1540 (<i>Libellus de re nautica</i>), misunderstanding this reference,
+declared that this observation of the direction of the magnet
+to the poles had been handed down as discovered &ldquo;by a certain
+Flavius.&rdquo; From this passage arose a legend, which took shape
+only in the 17th century, that the compass was invented in
+the year 1302 by a person to whom was given the fictitious
+name of Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi.</p>
+
+<p>From the above it will have been evident that, as Barlowe
+remarks concerning the compass, &ldquo;the lame tale of one Flavius
+at Amelphus, in the kingdome of Naples, for to have devised it,
+is of very slender probabilitie&rdquo;; and as regards the assertion
+of Dr Gilbert, of Colchester (<i>De magnete</i>, p. 4, 1600), that Marco
+Polo introduced the compass into Italy from the East in 1260,<a name="FnAnchor_4e" id="FnAnchor_4e" href="#Footnote_4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> we
+need only quote the words of Sir H. Yule (<i>Book of Marco Polo</i>):&mdash;&ldquo;Respecting
+the mariner&rsquo;s compass and gunpowder, I shall say
+nothing, as no one now, I believe, imagines Marco to have had
+anything to do with their introduction.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When, and by whom, the compass card was added is a matter
+of conjecture. Certainly the <i>Rosa Ventorum</i>, or <i>Wind-rose</i>, is
+far older than the compass itself; and the naming of the eight
+principal &ldquo;winds&rdquo; goes back to the Temple of the Winds in
+Athens built by Andronicus Cyrrhestes. The earliest known
+wind-roses on the <i>portulani</i> or sailing charts of the Mediterranean
+pilots have almost invariably the eight principal points marked
+with the initials of the principal winds, Tramontano, Greco,
+Levante, Scirocco, Ostro, Africo (or Libeccio), Ponente and
+Maestro, or with a cross instead of L, to mark the east point.
+The north point, indicated in some of the oldest compass cards
+with a broad arrow-head or a spear, as well as with a T for
+Tramontano, gradually developed by a combination of these,
+about 1492, into a <i>fleur de lis</i>, still universal. The cross at the
+east continued even in British compasses till about 1700. Wind-roses
+with these characteristics are found in Venetian and
+Genoese charts of early 14th century, and are depicted similarly
+by the Spanish navigators. The naming of the intermediate
+subdivisions making up the thirty-two points or rhumbs of
+the compass card is probably due to Flemish navigators; but
+they were recognized even in the time of Chaucer, who in 1391
+wrote, &ldquo;Now is thin Orisonte departed in xxiiii partiez by thi
+azymutz, in significacion of xxiiii partiez of the world: al be it
+so that ship men rikne thilke partiez in xxxii&rdquo; (<i>Treatise on the
+Astrolabe</i>, ed. Skeat, Early English Text Soc., London, 1872).
+The mounting of the card upon the needle or &ldquo;flie,&rdquo; so as to
+turn with it, is probably of Amalphian origin. Da Buti, the
+Dante commentator, in 1380 says the sailors use a compass at
+the middle of which is pivoted a wheel of light paper to turn
+on its pivot, on which wheel the needle is fixed and the star
+(wind-rose) painted. The placing of the card at the bottom of
+the box, fixed, below the needle, was practised by the compass-makers
+of Nuremberg in the 16th century, and by Stevinus of
+Bruges about 1600. The gimbals or rings for suspension hinged
+at right-angles to one another, have been erroneously attributed
+to Cardan, the proper term being <i>cardine</i>, that is hinged or
+pivoted. The earliest description of them is about 1604. The
+term <i>binnacle</i>, originally <i>bittacle</i>, is a corruption of the Portuguese
+abitacolo, to denote the housing enclosing the compass, probably
+originating with the Portuguese navigators.</p>
+
+<p>The improvement of the compass has been but a slow process.
+<i>The Libel of English Policie</i>, a poem of the first half of the 15th
+century, says with reference to Iceland (chap. x.)&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+
+<p>&ldquo;Out of Bristowe, and costes many one,</p>
+<p class="i05">Men haue practised by nedle and by stone</p>
+<p class="i05">Thider wardes within a litle while.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="i2">Hakluyt, <i>Principal Navigations</i>, p. 201 (London, 1599).</p>
+
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">From this it would seem that the compasses used at that time
+by English mariners were of a very primitive description.
+Barlowe, in his treatise <i>Magnetical Advertisements</i>, printed in
+1616 (p. 66), complains that &ldquo;the Compasse needle, being the
+most admirable and usefull instrument of the whole world, is
+both amongst ours and other nations for the most part, so
+bungerly and absurdly contrived, as nothing more.&rdquo; The form
+he recommends for the needle is that of &ldquo;a true circle, having
+his Axis going out beyond the circle, at each end narrow and
+narrower, unto a reasonable sharpe point, and being pure steele
+as the circle it selfe is, having in the middest a convenient
+receptacle to place the capitell in.&rdquo; In 1750 Dr Gowan Knight
+found that the needles of merchant-ships were made of two
+pieces of steel bent in the middle and united in the shape of a
+rhombus, and proposed to substitute straight steel bars of small
+breadth, suspended edgewise and hardened throughout. He
+also showed that the Chinese mode of suspending the needle
+conduces most to sensibility. In 1820 Peter Barlow reported
+to the Admiralty that half the compasses in the British Navy
+were mere lumber and ought to be destroyed. He introduced
+a pattern having four or five parallel straight strips of magnetized
+steel fixed under a card, a form which remained the standard
+admiralty type until the introduction of the modern Thomson
+(Kelvin) compass in 1876.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. H. B.; S. P. T.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1e" id="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Adamas in India reperitur ... Ferrum occulta quadam natura
+ad se trahit. Acus ferrea postquam adamantem contigerit, ad
+stellam septentrionalem ... semper convertitur, unde valde necessarius
+est navigantibus in mari.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2e" id="Footnote_2e" href="#FnAnchor_2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Sicut acus per naturam vertitur ad septentrionem dum sit tacta a
+magnete.&mdash;Sicut acus nautica dirigit marinarios in sua navigatione.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3e" id="Footnote_3e" href="#FnAnchor_3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ginguené, <i>Hist. lit. de l&rsquo;Italie</i>, t. i. p. 413.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4e" id="Footnote_4e" href="#FnAnchor_4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> &ldquo;According to all the texts he returned to Venice in 1295 or,
+as is more probable, in 1296.&rdquo;&mdash;Yule.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPASS PLANT,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> a native of the North American prairies,
+which takes its name from the position assumed by the leaves.
+These turn their edges to north and south, thus avoiding the
+excessive mid-day heat, while getting the full benefit of the
+morning and evening rays. The plant is known botanically as
+<i>Silphium laciniatum</i>, and belongs to the natural order Compositae.
+Another member of the same order, <i>Lactuca Scariola</i>, which has
+been regarded as the origin of the cultivated lettuce (<i>L. sativa</i>),
+behaves in the same way when growing in dry exposed places;
+it is a native of Europe and northern Asia which has got introduced
+into North America.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1843-&emsp;&emsp;), French educationalist,
+was born at Albi. He entered the École Normale
+Supérieure in 1862 and became professor of philosophy. In
+1876 he was appointed professor in the Faculty of Letters of
+Toulouse, and upon the creation of the École normale d&rsquo;institutrices
+at Fontenay aux Roses he became teacher of pedagogy
+(1880). From 1881 to 1889 he was deputy for Lavaur in the
+chamber, and took an active part in the discussions on public
+education. Defeated at the elections of 1889, he was appointed
+rector of the academy of Poitiers in 1890, and five years later
+to the academy of Lyons. His principal publications are his
+<i>Histoire critique des doctrines de l&rsquo;éducation en France</i> (1879);
+<i>Éléments d&rsquo;éducation civique</i> (1881), a work placed on the index
+at Rome, but very widely read in the primary schools of France;
+<i>Cours de pédagogie théorique et pratique</i> (1885, 13th ed., 1897);
+<i>The Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child</i>, in English
+(2 vols., New York, 1896-1902); and a series of monographs
+on <i>Les Grands Éducateurs</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPENSATION<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>compensare</i>, to weigh one thing
+against another), a term applied in English law to a number
+of different forms of legal reparation; <i>e.g.</i> under the Forfeiture
+Act 1870 (s. 4), for loss of property caused by felony, or&mdash;under
+the Riot (Damages) Act 1886&mdash;to persons whose property has
+been stolen, destroyed or injured by rioters (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Riot</a></span>). It is due,
+under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1906, for agricultural
+improvements (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord and Tenant</a></span>; cf. also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Allotments
+and Small Holdings</a></span>), and under the Workmen&rsquo;s
+Compensation Act 1906 to workmen, in respect of accidents in
+the course of their employment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Employers&rsquo; Liability</a></span>);
+and under the Licensing Act 1904, to the payments to be made
+on the extinction of licences to sell intoxicants. The term
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span>
+&ldquo;Compensation water&rdquo; is used to describe the water given from
+a reservoir in compensation for water abstracted from a stream,
+under statutory powers, in connexion with public works (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Water Supply</a></span>). As to the use of the word &ldquo;compensation&rdquo; in
+horology, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clock</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Watch</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Compensation, in its most familiar sense, is however a <i>nomen
+juris</i> for the reparation or satisfaction made to the owners of
+property which is taken by the state or by local authorities or by
+the promoters of parliamentary undertakings, under statutory
+authority, for public purposes. There are two main legal theories
+on which such appropriation of private property is justified.
+The American may be taken as a representative illustration of
+the one, and the English of the other. Though not included in
+the definition of &ldquo;eminent domain,&rdquo; the necessity for compensation
+is recognized as incidental to that power. (See <a>Eminent
+Domain</a>, under which the American law of compensation, and
+the closely allied doctrine of <i>expropriation pour cause d&rsquo;utilité</i>
+publique of French law, and the law of other continental countries,
+are discussed.) The rule of English constitutional law, on the
+other hand, is that the property of the citizen cannot be seized
+for purposes which are really &ldquo;public&rdquo; without a fair pecuniary
+equivalent being given to him; and, as the money for such
+compensation must come from parliament, the practical result
+is that the seizure can only be effected under legislative authority.
+An action for illegal interference with the property of the subject
+is not maintainable against officials of the crown or government
+sued in their official capacity or as an official body. But crown
+officials may be sued in their individual capacity for such interference,
+even if they acted with the authority of the government
+(cp. <i>Raleigh</i> v. <i>Goschen</i> [1898], 1 Ch. 73).</p>
+
+<p><i>Law of England.</i>&mdash;Down to 1845 every act authorizing the
+purchase of lands had, in addition to a number of common form
+clauses, a variety of special clauses framed with a view to
+meeting the particular circumstances with which it dealt. In
+1845, however, a statute based on the recommendations of a select
+committee, appointed in the preceding year, was passed; the
+object being to diminish the bulk of the special acts, and to
+introduce uniformity into private bill legislation by classifying
+the common form clauses, embodying them in general statutes,
+and facilitating their incorporation into the special statutes by
+reference. The statute by which this change was initiated was
+the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845; and the policy has
+been continued by a series of later statutes which, together with
+the act of 1845, are now grouped under the generic title of the
+Lands Clauses Acts.</p>
+
+<p>The public purposes for which lands are taken are threefold.
+Certain public departments, such as the war office and the
+admiralty, may acquire lands for national purposes (see the
+Defence Acts 1842 to 1873; and the Lands Clauses Consolidation
+Act 1860, s. 7). Local authorities are enabled to exercise
+similar powers for an enormous variety of municipal purposes,
+<i>e.g.</i> the housing of the working classes, the improvement of
+towns, and elementary and secondary education. Lastly, the
+promoters of public undertakings of a commercial character,
+such as railways and harbours, carry on their operations under
+statutes in which the provisions of the Lands Clauses Acts are
+incorporated.</p>
+
+<p>Lands may be taken under the Lands Clauses Acts either by
+agreement or compulsorily. The first step in the proceedings
+is a &ldquo;notice to treat,&rdquo; or intimation by the promoters of their
+readiness to purchase the land, coupled with a demand for
+particulars as to the estate and the interests in it. The landowner
+on whom the notice is served may meet it by agreeing to
+sell, and the terms may then be settled by consent of the parties
+themselves, or by arbitration, if they decide to have recourse
+to that mode of adjusting the difficulty. If the property claimed
+is a house, or other building or manufactory, the owner has a
+statutory right to require the promoters by a counternotice to
+take the whole, even although a part would serve their purpose.
+This rule, however, is, in modern acts, often modified by special
+clauses. On receipt of the counter-notice the promoters must
+either assent to the requirement contained in it, or abandon
+their notice to treat. On the other hand, if the landowner fails
+within twenty-one days after receipt of the notice to treat to
+give the particulars which it requires, the promoters may proceed
+to exercise their compulsory powers and to obtain assessment
+of the compensation to be paid. As a general rule, it is a condition
+precedent to the exercise of these powers by a company
+that the capital of the undertaking should be fully subscribed.
+Compensation, under the Lands Clauses Acts, is assessed in four
+different modes:&mdash;(1) by justices, where the claim does not
+exceed Ł50, or a claimant who has no greater interest than that
+of a tenant for a year, or from year to year, is required to give up
+possession before the expiration of his tenancy; (2) by arbitration
+(a) when the claim exceeds Ł50, and the claimant desires
+arbitration, and the interest is not a yearly tenancy, (b) when the
+amount has been ascertained by a surveyor, and the claimant is
+dissatisfied, (c) when superfluous lands are to be sold, and the
+parties entitled to pre-emption and the promoters cannot agree as
+to the price. (Lands become &ldquo;superfluous&rdquo; if taken compulsorily
+on an erroneous estimate of the area needed, or if part
+only was needed and the owner compelled the promoters under
+the power above mentioned to take the whole, or in cases of
+abandonment); (3) by a jury, when the claim exceeds Ł50, and
+(a) the claimant does not signify his desire for arbitration, or no
+award has been made within the prescribed time, or (b) the
+claimant applies in writing for trial by jury; (4) by surveyors,
+nominated by justices, where the owner is under disability, or
+does not appear at the appointed time, or the claim is in respect
+of commonable rights, and a committee has not been appointed
+to treat with the promoters.</p>
+
+<p>Promoters are not allowed without the consent of the owner to
+enter upon lands which are the subject of proceedings under the
+Lands Clauses Acts, except for the purpose of making a survey,
+unless they have executed a statutory bond and made a deposit,
+at the Law Courts Branch of the Bank of England, as security
+for the performance of the conditions of the bond.</p>
+
+<p><i>Measure of Value.</i>&mdash;(1) Where land is taken, the basis on
+which compensation is assessed is the commercial value of the
+land to the owner at the date of the notice to treat. Potential
+value may be taken into account, and also good-will of the
+property in a business. This rule, however, excludes any consideration
+of the principle of &ldquo;betterment.&rdquo; (2) Where land,
+although not taken, is &ldquo;injuriously affected&rdquo; by the works of the
+promoters, compensation is payable for loss or damage resulting
+from any act, legalized by the promoters&rsquo; statutory powers,
+which would otherwise have been actionable, or caused by
+the execution (not the use) of the works authorized by the
+undertaking.</p>
+
+<p>The following examples of how land may be &ldquo;injuriously
+affected,&rdquo; so as to give a right to compensation under the acts,
+may be given:&mdash;narrowing or obstructing a highway which is
+the nearest access to the lands in question; interference with
+a right of way; substantial interference with ancient lights;
+noise of children outside a board school.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scotland and Ireland.</i>&mdash;The Lands Clauses Act 1845 extends
+to Ireland. There is a Scots enactment similar in character
+(Lands Clauses [Scotland] Act 1845). The principles and practice
+of the law of compensation are substantially the same throughout
+the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p><i>India and the British Colonies.</i>&mdash;Legislation analogous to the
+Lands Clauses Acts is in force in India (Land Acquisition Act
+1894 [Act I of 1894]) and in most of the colonies (see western
+Australia, Lands Resumption Act 1894 [58 Vict. No. 33], Victoria,
+Lands Compensation Act 1890 [54 Vict. No. 1109]; New Zealand,
+Public Works Act 1894 [58 Vict. No. 42]; Ontario [Revised
+Stats. 1897, c. 37]).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>English Law</i>: Balfour Browne and Allan, <i>Compensation</i>
+(2nd ed., London, 1903); Cripps, <i>Compensation</i> (5th
+edition, London, 1905); Hudson, <i>Compensation</i> (London, 1906);
+Boyle and Waghorn, <i>Compensation</i> (London, 1903); Lloyd, <i>Compensation</i>
+(6th ed. by Brooks, London, 1895); Clifford, <i>Private Bill
+Legislation</i>, London, 1885 (vol. i.), 1887 (vol. ii.) <i>Scots Law</i>: Deas,
+<i>Law of Railways in Scotland</i> (ed. by Ferguson; Edinburgh, 1897);
+Rankine, <i>Law of Landownership</i> (3rd ed., 1891).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">COMPIČGNE,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Oise, 52 m. N.N.E. of Paris on
+the Northern railway between Paris and St Quentin. Pop.
+(1906) 14,052. The town, which is a favourite summer resort,
+stands on the north-west border of the forest of Compičgne and
+on the left bank of the Oise, less than 1 m. below its confluence
+with the Aisne. The river is crossed by a bridge built in the
+reign of Louis XV. The Rue Solférino, a continuation of the
+bridge ending at the Place de l&rsquo;Hôtel de Ville, is the busy street
+of the town; elsewhere, except on market days, the streets are
+quiet. The hôtel de ville, with a graceful façade surmounted
+by a lofty belfry, is in the late Gothic style of the early 16th
+century and was completed in modern times. Of the churches,
+St Antoine (13th and 16th centuries) with some fine Renaissance
+stained glass, and St Jacques (13th and 15th centuries), need
+alone be mentioned. The remains of the ancient abbey of St
+Corneille are used as a military storehouse. Compičgne, from
+a very early period until 1870, was the occasional residence of the
+French kings. Its palace, one of the most magnificent structures
+of its kind, was erected, chiefly by Louis XV. and Louis XVI., on
+the site of a château of King Charles V. of France. It now serves
+as an art museum. It has two façades, one overlooking the Place
+du Palais and the town, the other, more imposing, facing towards
+a fine park and the forest, which is chiefly of oak and beech and
+covers over 36,000 acres. Compičgne is the seat of a subprefect,
+and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a communal
+college, library and hospital. The industries comprise boat-building,
+rope-making, steam-sawing, distilling and the manufacture
+of chocolate, machinery and sacks and coarse coverings,
+and at Margny, a suburb, there are manufactures of chemicals
+and felt hats. Asparagus is cultivated in the environs. There
+is considerable trade in timber and coal, chiefly river-borne.</p>
+
+<p>Compičgne, or as it is called in the Latin chronicles, Compendium,
+seems originally to have been a hunting-lodge of the
+early Frankish kings. It was enriched by Charles the Bald with
+two castles, and a Benedictine abbey dedicated to Saint Corneille,
+the monks of which retained down to the 18th century the
+privilege of acting for three days as lords of Compičgne, with full
+power to release prisoners, condemn the guilty, and even inflict
+sentence of death. It was in Compičgne that King Louis I. the
+Debonair was deposed in 833; and at the siege of the town in
+1430 Joan of Arc was taken prisoner by the English. A monument
+to her faces the hôtel de ville. In 1624 the town gave its
+name to a treaty of alliance concluded by Richelieu with the
+Dutch; and it was in the palace that Louis XV. gave welcome
+to Marie Antoinette, that Napoleon I. received Marie Louise of
+Austria, that Louis XVIII. entertained the emperor Alexander
+of Russia, and that Leopold I., king of the Belgians, was married
+to the princess Louise. In 1814 Compičgne offered a stubborn
+resistance to the Prussian troops. Under Napoleon III. it was
+the annual resort of the court during the hunting season. From
+1870 to 1871 it was one of the headquarters of the German army.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPLEMENT<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (Lat. <i>complementum</i>, from <i>complere</i>, to fill
+up), that which fills up or completes anything, <i>e.g.</i> the number
+of men necessary to man a ship. In geometry, the complement
+of an angle is the difference between the angle and a right angle;
+the complements of a parallelogram are formed by drawing
+parallel to adjacent sides of a parallelogram two lines intersecting
+on a diagonal; four parallelograms are thus formed, and the
+two not about the diagonal of the original parallelogram are the
+complements of the parallelogram. In analysis, a complementary
+function is a partial solution to a differential equation (<i>q.v.</i>);
+complementary operators are reciprocal or inverse operators,
+<i>i.e.</i> two operations A and B are complementary when both
+operating on the same figure or function leave it unchanged.
+A &ldquo;complementary colour&rdquo; is one which produces white when
+mixed with another (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Colour</a></span>). In Spanish the word <i>cumplimento</i>
+was used in a particular sense of the fulfilment of the
+duties of polite behaviour and courtesy, and it came through the
+French and Italian forms into use in English, with a change in
+spelling to &ldquo;compliment,&rdquo; with the sense of an act of politeness,
+especially of a polite expression of praise, or of social regard and
+greetings. The word &ldquo;comply,&rdquo; meaning to act in accordance
+with wishes, orders or conditions, is also derived from the same
+origin, but in sense is connected with &ldquo;ply&rdquo; or &ldquo;pliant,&rdquo; from
+Lat. <i>plicare</i>, to bend, with the idea of subserviently yielding to
+the wishes of another.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPLUVIUM<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>compluere</i>, to flow together, <i>i.e.</i>
+in reference to the rain being collected and falling through), in
+architecture, the Latin term for the open space left in the roof of
+the atrium of a Roman house for lighting it and the rooms round
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cavaedium</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPOSITAE,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> the name given to the largest natural order of
+flowering plants, containing about one-tenth of the whole number
+and characterized by the crowding of the flowers into heads.
+The order is cosmopolitan, and the plants show considerable
+variety in habit. The great majority, including most British
+representatives, are herbaceous, but in the warmer parts of the
+world shrubs and arborescent forms also occur; the latter are
+characteristic of the flora of oceanic islands. In herbaceous
+plants the leaves are often arranged in a rosette on a much
+shortened stem, as in dandelion, daisy and others; when the
+stem is elongated the leaves are generally alternate. The root
+is generally thickened, sometimes, as in dahlia, tuberous; root
+and stem contain oil passages, or, as in lettuce and dandelion,
+a milky white latex. The flowers are crowded in heads (<i>capitula</i>)
+which are surrounded by an involucre of green bracts,&mdash;these
+protect the head of flowers in the bud stage, performing the usual
+function of a calyx. The enlarged top of the axis, the receptacle,
+is flat, convex or conical, and the flowers open in centripetal
+succession. In many cases, as in the sunflower or daisy, the outer
+or ray-florets are larger and more conspicuous than the inner,
+or disk-florets; in other cases, as in dandelion, the florets are
+all alike. Ray-florets when present are usually pistillate, but
+neuter in some genera (as <i>Centaurea</i>); the disk-florets are hermaphrodite.
+The flower is epigynous; the calyx is sometimes
+absent, or is represented by a rim on the top of the ovary, or
+takes the form of hairs or bristles which enlarge in the fruiting
+stage to form the pappus by means of which the seed is dispersed.
+The corolla, of five united petals, is regular and tubular in shape
+as in the disk-florets, or irregular when it is either strap-shaped
+(ligulate), as in the ray-florets of daisy, &amp;c., or all the florets of
+dandelion, or more rarely two-lipped. The five stamens are
+attached to the interior of the corolla-tube; the filaments are
+free; the anthers are joined (syngenesious) to form a tube round
+the single style, which ends in a pair of stigmas. The inferior
+ovary contains one ovule (attached to the base of the chamber),
+and ripens to form a dry one-seeded fruit; the seed is filled with
+the straight embryo.</p>
+
+<div class="f90">
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan= "2"><img style="width:524px; height:325px" src="images/img811.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan= "2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1. Flower head of Marigold.</td> <td class="tcl">3. Head of fruits, nat. size.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">2. Same in vertical section.</td> <td class="tcl">4. A single fruit.</td></tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The flower-heads are an admirable example of an adaptation
+for pollination by aid of insects. The crowding of the flowers
+in heads ensures the pollination of a large number as the result
+of a single insect visit. Honey is secreted at the base of the
+style, and is protected from rain or dew and the visits of short-lipped
+insects by the corolla-tube, the length of which is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span>
+correlated with the length of proboscis of the visiting insect. When
+the flower opens, the two stigmas are pressed together below
+the tube formed by the anthers, the latter split on the inside,
+and the pollen fills the tube; the style gradually lengthens and
+carries the pollen out of the anther tube, and finally the stigmas
+spread and expose their receptive surface which has hitherto
+been hidden, the two being pressed together. Thus the life
+history of the flower falls into two stages, an earlier or male
+and a later or female. This favours cross-pollination as compared
+with self-pollination. In many cases there is a third stage, as
+in dandelion, where the stigmas finally curl back so that they
+touch any pollen grains which have been left on the style, thus
+ensuring self-pollination if cross-pollination has not been effected.</p>
+
+<p>The devices for distribution of the fruit are very varied.
+Frequently there is a hairy or silky pappus forming a tuft of
+hairs, as in thistle or coltsfoot, or a parachute-like structure
+as in dandelion; these render the fruit sufficiently light to be
+carried by the wind. In <i>Bidens</i> the pappus consists of two
+or more stiff-barbed bristles which cause the fruit to cling to
+the coats of animals. Occasionally, as in sunflower or daisy,
+the fruits bear no special appendage and remain on the head
+until jerked off.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:420px; height:622px" src="images/img812a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Flowering shoot of Cornflower.<br />
+1. Disk-floret in vertical section.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Compositae are generally considered to represent the most
+highly developed order of flowering plants. By the massing
+of the flowers in heads great economy is effected in the material
+required for one flower, as conspicuousness is ensured by the
+association; economy of time on the part of the pollinating
+insect is also effected, as a large number of flowers are visited
+at one time. The floral mechanism is both simple and effective,
+favouring cross-pollination, but ensuring self-pollination should
+that fail.  The means of seed-distribution are also very effective.</p>
+
+<p>A few members of the order are of economic value, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Lactuca</i>
+(lettuce; <i>q.v.</i>), <i>Cichorium</i> (chicory; <i>q.v.</i>), <i>Cynara</i> (artichoke
+and cardoon; <i>q.v.</i>), <i>Helianthus</i> (Jerusalem artichoke).  Many
+are cultivated as garden or greenhouse plants, such as <i>Solidago</i>
+(golden rod), <i>Ageratum</i>, Aster (<i>q.v.</i>) (Michaelmas daisy), <i>Helichrysum</i>
+(everlasting), <i>Zinnia, Rudbeckia, Helianthus</i> (sunflower),
+<i>Coreopsis</i>, Dahlia (<i>q.v.</i>), <i>Tagetes</i> (French and African
+marigold), <i>Gaillardia, Achillea</i> (yarrow), <i>Chrysanthemum,
+Pyrethrum</i> (feverfew; now generally included under <i>Chrysanthemum</i>),
+<i>Tanacetum</i> (tansy), <i>Arnica, Doronicum, Cineraria
+Calendula</i> (common marigold) (fig. 1), <i>Echinops</i> (globe thistle),
+<i>Centaurea</i> (cornflower) (fig. 2).  Some are of medicinal value,
+such as <i>Anthemis</i> (chamomile), <i>Artemisia</i> (wormwood), <i>Tussilago</i>
+(coltsfoot), <i>Arnica</i>.  Insect powder is prepared from species of
+<i>Pyrethrum</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="f90">
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan= "2"><img style="width:442px; height:295px" src="images/img812b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan= "2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Groundsel (<i>Senecio vulgaris</i>).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1. Disk-floret.</td> <td class="tcl">3. Ray-floret.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">2. Same cut vertically.</td> <td class="tcl">4. Fruit with pappus.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The order is divided into two suborders:&mdash;<i>Tubuliflorae</i>,
+characterized by absence of latex, and the florets of the disk
+being not ligulate, and <i>Liguliflorae</i>, characterized by presence
+of latex and all the florets being ligulate.  The first suborder
+contains the majority of the genera, and is divided into a number
+of tribes, characterized by the form of the anthers and styles,
+the presence or absence of scales on the receptacle, and the
+similarity or otherwise of the florets of one and the same head.
+The order is well represented in Britain, in which forty-two
+genera are native. These include some of the commonest weeds,
+such as dandelion (<i>Taraxacum Dens-leonis</i>), daisy (<i>Bellis perennis</i>),
+groundsel (fig. 3) (<i>Senecio vulgaris</i>) and ragwort (<i>S. Jacobaea</i>);
+coltsfoot (<i>Tussilago Farfara</i>) is one of the earliest plants to flower,
+and other genera are <i>Chrysanthemum</i> (ox-eye daisy and corn-marigold),
+<i>Arctium</i> (burdock), <i>Centaurea</i> (knapweed and cornflower),
+<i>Carduus</i> and <i>Cnicus</i> (thistles), <i>Hieracium</i> (hawkweed), <i>Sonchus</i>
+(sow-thistle), <i>Achillea</i> (yarrow, or milfoil, and sneezewort),
+<i>Eupatorium</i> (hemp-agrimony), <i>Gnaphalium</i> (cudweed), <i>Erigeron</i>
+(fleabane), <i>Solidago</i> (golden-rod), <i>Anthemis</i> (may-weed and
+chamomile), <i>Cichorium</i> (chicory), <i>Lapsana</i> (nipplewort), <i>Crepis</i>
+(hawk&rsquo;s-beard), <i>Hypochaeris</i> (cat&rsquo;s-ear), and <i>Tragopogon</i> (goat&rsquo;s-beard).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPOSITE ORDER,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> in architecture, a compound of the
+Ionic and Corinthian orders (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order</a></span>), the chief characteristic
+of which is found in the capital (<i>q.v.</i>), where a double row of
+acanthus leaves, similar to those carved round the Corinthian
+capital, has been added under the Ionic volutes.  The richer
+decoration of the Ionic capital had already been employed in
+those of the Erechtheum, where the necking was carved with
+the palmette or honeysuckle.  Similar decorated Ionic capitals
+were found in the forum of Trajan.  The earliest example of the
+Composite capital is found in the arch of Titus at Rome. The
+entablature was borrowed from that of the Corinthian order.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPOSITION<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (Lat. <i>compositio</i>, from <i>componere</i>, to put
+together), the action of putting together and combining, and the
+product of such action.  There are many applications of the
+word.  In philology it is used of the putting together of two
+distinct words to form a single word; and in grammar, of the
+combination of words into sentences, and sentences into periods,
+and then applied to the result of such combination, and to the
+art of producing a work in prose or verse, or to the work itself.
+In music &ldquo;composition&rdquo; is used both of the art of combining
+musical sounds in accordance with the rules of musical form,
+and, more generally, of the whole art of creation or invention.
+The name &ldquo;composer&rdquo; is thus particularly applied to the
+musical creator in general.  In the other fine arts the word is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span>
+more strictly used of the balanced arrangement of the parts
+of a picture, of a piece of sculpture or a building, so that they
+should form one harmonious whole.  The word also means an
+agreement or an adjustment of differences between two or more
+parties, and is thus the best general term to describe the agreement,
+often called by the equivalent German word &ldquo;Ausgleich,&rdquo;
+between Austria and Hungary in 1867.  A more particular use
+is the legal one, for an agreement by which a creditor agrees to
+take from his debtor a sum less than his debt in satisfaction of
+the whole (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>).  In logic &ldquo;composition&rdquo; is the
+name given to a fallacy of equivocation, where what is true
+distributively of each member of a class is inferred to be true of
+the whole class collectively.  The fallacy of &ldquo;division&rdquo; is the
+converse of this, where what is true of a term used collectively
+is inferred to be true of its several parts.  A common source
+of these errors in reasoning is the confusion between the collective
+and distributive meanings of the word &ldquo;all.&rdquo;  Composition,
+often shortened to &ldquo;compo,&rdquo; is the name given to many materials
+compounded of more than one substance, and is used in various
+trades and manufactures, as in building, for a mixture, such as
+stucco, cement and plaster, for covering walls, &amp;c., often made
+to represent stone or marble; a similar moulded compound is
+employed to represent carved wood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPOUND<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>componere</i>, to combine or put together),
+a combination of various elements, substances or ingredients,
+so as to form one composite whole. A &ldquo;chemical compound&rdquo;
+is a substance which can be resolved into simple constituents,
+as opposed to an element which cannot be so resolved (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>); a word is said to be a &ldquo;compound&rdquo; when it is
+made up of different words or parts of different words.  The
+term is also used in an adjectival form with many applications;
+a &ldquo;compound engine&rdquo; is one where the expansion of the steam
+is effected in two or more stages (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steam-engine</a></span>); in zoology,
+the &ldquo;compound eye&rdquo; possessed by insects and crustacea is one
+which is made up of several <i>ocelli</i> or simple eyes, set together so
+that the whole has the appearance of being faceted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eye</a></span>);
+in botany, the &ldquo;compound leaf&rdquo; has two or more separate
+blades on a common leaf-stalk; in surgery, in a &ldquo;compound
+fracture&rdquo; the skin is broken as well as the bone, and there is a
+communication between the two.  There are many mathematical
+and arithmetical uses of the term, particularly of those forms of
+addition, multiplication, division and subtraction which deal
+with quantities of more than one denomination.  Compound
+interest is interest paid upon interest, the accumulation of interest
+forming, as it were, a secondary principal.  The verb &ldquo;to compound&rdquo;
+is used of the arrangement or settlement of differences,
+and especially of an agreement made to accept or to pay part
+of a debt in full discharge of the whole, and thus of the arrangement
+made by an insolvent debtor with his creditors (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>); similarly of the substitution of one payment
+for annual or other periodic payments,&mdash;thus subscriptions,
+university or other dues, &amp;c., may be &ldquo;compounded&rdquo;; a
+particular instance of this is the system of &ldquo;compounding&rdquo;
+for rates, where the occupier of premises pays an increased rent,
+and the owner makes himself responsible for the payment of the
+rates.  The householder who thus compounds with the owner of
+the premises he occupies is known as a &ldquo;compound householder.&rdquo;
+The payment of poor rate forming part of the qualification
+necessary for the parliamentary franchise in the United Kingdom,
+various statutes, leading up to the Compound Householders Act
+1851, have enabled such occupiers to claim to be placed on the
+rate. In law, to compound a felony is to agree with the felon
+not to prosecute him for his crime, in return for valuable consideration,
+or, in the case of a theft, on return of the goods stolen.
+Such an agreement is a misdemeanour and is punishable with
+fine and imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;compounders&rdquo; was given during the reign of
+William III. of England to the members of a Jacobite faction,
+who were prepared to restore James II. to the throne, on the
+condition of an amnesty and an undertaking to preserve the
+constitution.  Until 1853, in the university of Oxford, those
+possessing private incomes of a certain amount paid special
+dues for their degrees, and were known as Grand and Petty
+Compounders.</p>
+
+<p>The corruption &ldquo;compound&rdquo; (from the Malay <i>kampung</i> or
+<i>kampong</i>, a quarter of a village) is the name applied to the enclosed
+ground, whether garden or waste, which surrounds an
+Anglo-Indian house. In India the European quarter, as a rule,
+is separate from the native quarter, and consists of a number of
+single houses, each standing in a compound, sometimes many
+acres in extent.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPOUND PIER,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> the architectural term given to a clustered
+column or pier which consists of a centre mass or newel, to which
+engaged or semi-detached shafts have been attached, in order
+to perform, or to suggest the performance of, certain definite
+structural objects, such as to carry arches of additional orders,
+or to support the transverse or diagonal ribs of a vault, or the tie
+beam of an important roof. In these cases, though performing
+different functions, the drums of the pier are often cut out of
+one stone. There are, however, cases where the shafts are
+detached from the pier and coupled to it by armulets at regular
+heights, as in the Early English period.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPRADOR<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (a Portuguese word used in the East, derived
+from the Lat. <i>comparare</i>, to procure), originally a native servant
+in European households in the East, but now the name given
+to the native managers in European business houses in China,
+and also to native contractors supplying ships in the Philippines
+and elsewhere in the East.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPRESSION,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> in astronomy, the deviation of a heavenly
+body from the spherical form, called also the &ldquo;ellipticity.&rdquo;
+It is numerically expressed by the ratio of the differences of the
+axes to the major axis of the spheroid. The compression or
+&ldquo;flattening&rdquo; of the earth is about 1/298, which means that the
+ratio of the equatorial to the polar axis is 298:297 (see <a>Earth,
+Figure of the</a>). In engineering the term is applied to the
+arrangement by which the exhaust valve of a steam-engine is
+made to close, shutting a portion of the exhaust steam in the
+cylinder, before the stroke of the piston is quite complete. This
+steam being compressed as the stroke is completed, a cushion is
+formed against which the piston does work while its velocity is
+being rapidly reduced, and thus the stresses in the mechanism
+due to the inertia of the reciprocating parts are lessened. This
+compression, moreover, obviates the shock which would otherwise
+be caused by the admission of the fresh steam for the return
+stroke. In internal combustion engines it is a necessary condition
+of economy to compress the explosive mixture before it is ignited:
+in the Otto cycle, for instance, the second stroke of the piston
+effects the compression of the charge which has been drawn into
+the cylinder by the first forward stroke.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPROMISE<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (pronounced <i>cómpr&#335;mize</i>; through Fr. from
+Lat. <i>compromittere</i>), a term, meaning strictly a joint agreement,
+which has come to signify such a settlement as involves a mutual
+adjustment, with a surrender of part of each party&rsquo;s claim.
+From the element of danger involved has arisen an invidious
+sense of the word, imputing discredit, so that being &ldquo;compromised&rdquo;
+commonly means injured in reputation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> in American history, a
+series of measures the object of which was the settlement of five
+questions in dispute between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery
+factions in the United States. Three of these questions grew out
+of the annexation of Texas and the acquisition of western territory
+as a result of the Mexican War. The settlers who had flocked to
+California after the discovery of gold in 1848 adopted an anti-slavery
+state constitution on the 13th of October 1849, and
+applied for admission into the Union. In the second place it was
+necessary to form a territorial government for the remainder of
+the territory acquired from Mexico, including that now occupied
+by Nevada and Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona
+and New Mexico. The fundamental issue was in regard to the
+admission of slavery into, or the exclusion of slavery from, this
+region. Thirdly, there was a dispute over the western boundary
+of Texas. Should the Rio Grande be the line of division north of
+Mexico, or should an arbitrary boundary be established farther
+to the eastward; in other words, should a considerable part of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span>
+the new territory be certainly opened to slavery as a part of
+Texas, or possibly closed to it as a part of the organized territorial
+section? Underlying all of these issues was of course the great
+moral and political problem as to whether slavery was to be
+confined to the south-eastern section of the country or be permitted
+to spread to the Pacific. The two questions not growing
+out of the Mexican War were in regard to the abolition of the
+slave trade in the District of Columbia, and the passage of a new
+fugitive slave law.</p>
+
+<p>Congress met on the 3rd of December 1849. Neither faction
+was strong enough in both houses to carry out its own programme,
+and it seemed for a time that nothing would be done. On the
+29th of January 1850 Henry Clay presented the famous resolution
+which constituted the basis of the ultimate compromise. His
+idea was to combine the more conservative elements of both
+sections in favour of a settlement which would concede the
+Southern view on two questions, the Northern view on two, and
+balance the fifth. Daniel Webster supported the plan in his great
+speech of the 7th of March, although in doing so he alienated
+many of his former admirers. Opposed to the conservatives
+were the extremists of the North, led by William H. Seward and
+Salmon P. Chase, and those of the South, led by Jefferson Davis.
+Most of the measures were rejected and the whole plan seemed
+likely to fail, when the situation was changed by the death of
+President Taylor and the accession of Millard Fillmore on the
+9th of July 1850. The influence of the administration was now
+thrown in favour of the compromise. Under a tacit understanding
+of the moderates to vote together, five separate bills were
+passed, and were signed by the president between 9th and 20th
+September 1850. California was admitted as a free state, and
+the slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia; these
+were concessions to the North. New Mexico (then including the
+present Arizona) and Utah were organized without any prohibition
+of slavery (each being left free to decide for or against, on
+admission to statehood), and a rigid fugitive slave law was
+enacted; these were concessions to the South. Texas (<i>q.v.</i>) was
+compelled to give up much of the western land to which it had a
+good claim, and received in return $10,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>This legislation had several important results. It helped to
+postpone secession and Civil War for a decade, during which time
+the North-West was growing more wealthy and more populous,
+and was being brought into closer relations with the North-East.
+It divided the Whigs into &ldquo;Cotton Whigs&rdquo; and &ldquo;Conscience
+Whigs,&rdquo; and in time led to the downfall of the party. In the
+third place, the rejection of the Wilmot Proviso and the acceptance
+(as regards New Mexico and Utah) of &ldquo;Squatter Sovereignty&rdquo;
+meant the adoption of a new principle in dealing with
+slavery in the territories, which, although it did not apply to
+the same territory, was antagonistic to the Missouri Compromise
+of 1820. The sequel was the repeal of the Missouri Compromise
+in the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. Fourthly, the enforcement
+of the fugitive slave law aroused a feeling of bitterness in the
+North which helped eventually to bring on the war, and helped
+to make it, when it came, quite as much an
+anti-slavery crusade
+as a struggle for the preservation of the Union. Finally, although
+Clay for his support of the compromises and Seward and Chase
+for their opposition have gained in reputation, Webster has been
+selected as the special target for hostile criticism. The Compromise
+Measures are sometimes spoken of collectively as the
+Omnibus Bill, owing to their having been grouped originally&mdash;when
+first reported (May 8) to the Senate&mdash;into one bill.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best account of the above Compromises is to be found in J. F.
+Rhodes, <i>History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850</i>,
+vol. i. (New York, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R. S.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPSA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (mod. <i>Conza</i>), an ancient city of the Hirpini, near the
+sources of the Aufidus, on the boundary of Lucania and not far
+from that of Apulia, on a ridge 1998 ft. above
+sea-level. It was
+betrayed to Hannibal in 216 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> after the defeat of Cannae,
+but recaptured two years later. It was probably occupied by
+Sulla in 89 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was the scene of the death of T. Annius
+Milo in 48 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Most authorities (cf. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa,
+<i>Realencyclopädie</i>, Stuttgart, 1901, iv. 797) refer Caes. <i>Bell.
+civ.</i> iii. 22, and Plin. <i>Hist. Nat.</i> ii. 147, to this place, supposing
+the MSS. to be corrupt. The usual identification of the site of
+Milo&rsquo;s death with Cassano on the Gulf of Taranto must therefore
+be rejected. In imperial times, as inscriptions show, it was a
+<i>municipium</i>, but it lay far from any of the main high-roads.
+There are no important ancient remains.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPTON, HENRY<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1632-1713), English divine, was the sixth
+and youngest son of the second earl of Northampton. He was
+educated at Queen&rsquo;s College, Oxford, and then travelled in
+Europe. After the restoration of Charles II. he became cornet
+in a regiment of horse, but soon quitted the army for the church.
+After a further period of study at Cambridge and again at Oxford,
+he held various livings. He was made bishop of Oxford in 1674,
+and in the following year was translated to the see of London.
+He was also appointed a member of the Privy Council, and
+entrusted with the education of the two princesses&mdash;Mary and
+Anne. He showed a liberality most unusual at the time to
+Protestant dissenters, whom he wished to reunite with the
+established church. He held several conferences on the subject
+with the clergy of his diocese; and in the hope of influencing
+candid minds by means of the opinions of unbiassed foreigners,
+he obtained letters treating of the question (since printed at the
+end of Stillingfleet&rsquo;s <i>Unreasonableness of Separation</i>) from Le
+Moyne; professor of divinity at Leiden, and the famous French
+Protestant divine, Jean Claude. But to Roman Catholicism he
+was strongly opposed. On the accession of James II. he consequently
+lost his seat in the council and his deanery in the Chapel
+Royal; and for his firmness in refusing to suspend John Sharp,
+rector of St Giles&rsquo;s-in-the-Fields, whose anti-papal writings had
+rendered him obnoxious to the king, he was himself suspended.
+At the Revolution Compton embraced the cause of William and
+Mary; he performed the ceremony of their coronation; his old
+position was restored to him; and among other appointments,
+he was chosen as one of the commissioners for revising the liturgy.
+During the reign of Anne he remained a member of the privy
+council, and was one of the commissioners appointed to arrange
+the terms of the union of England and Scotland; but, to his
+bitter disappointment, his claims to the primacy were twice
+passed over. He died at Fulham on the 7th of July 1713. He
+had conspicuous defects both in spirit and intellect, but was
+benevolent and philanthropic. He was a successful botanist.
+He published, besides several theological works, <i>A Translation
+from the Italian of the Life of Donna Olympia Maladichini, who
+governed the Church during the time of Pope Innocent X., which was
+from the year 1644 to 1655</i> (1667), and <i>A Translation from the
+French of the Jesuits&rsquo; Intrigues</i> (1669).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPTROLLER,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> the title of an official whose business
+primarily was to examine and take charge of accounts, hence to
+direct or control, <i>e.g.</i> the English comptroller of the household,
+comptroller and auditor-general (head of the exchequer and audit
+department), comptroller-general of patents, &amp;c., comptroller-general
+(head of the national debt office). On the other hand,
+the word is frequently spelt <i>controller</i>, as in controller of the
+navy, controller or head of the stationery office. The word is
+used in the same sense in the United States, as comptroller of
+the treasury, an official who examines accounts and signs
+drafts, and comptroller of the currency, who administers the
+law relating to the national banks.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMPURGATION<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>compurgare</i>, to purify completely),
+a mode of procedure formerly employed in ecclesiastical
+courts, and derived from the canon law (<i>compurgatio canonica</i>),
+by which a clerk who was accused of crime was required to make
+answers on the oath of himself and a certain number of other
+clerks (compurgators) who would swear to his character or
+innocence. The term is more especially applied to a somewhat
+similar procedure, the old Teutonic or Anglo-Saxon mode of trial
+by oath-taking or oath-helping (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jury</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANÇOIS
+XAVIER]<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1798-1857), French Positive philosopher, was born
+on the 19th of January 1798 at Montpellier, where his father was
+a receiver-general of taxes for the district. He was sent for
+his earliest instruction to the school of the town, and in 1814
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span>
+was admitted to the École Polytechnique. His youth was
+marked by a constant willingness to rebel against merely official
+authority; to genuine excellence, whether moral or intellectual,
+he was always ready to pay unbounded deference. That strenuous
+application which was one of his most remarkable gifts in
+manhood showed itself in his youth, and his application was
+backed or inspired by superior intelligence and aptness. After
+he had been two years at the École Polytechnique he took a
+foremost part in a mutinous demonstration against one of the
+masters; the school was broken up, and Comte like the other
+scholars was sent home. To the great dissatisfaction of his
+parents, he resolved to return to Paris (1816), and to earn his
+living there by giving lessons in mathematics. Benjamin
+Franklin was the youth&rsquo;s idol at this moment. &ldquo;I seek to
+imitate the modern Socrates,&rdquo; he wrote to a school friend, &ldquo;not in
+talents, but in way of living. You know that at five-and-twenty
+he formed the design of becoming perfectly wise and that he
+fulfilled his design. I have dared to undertake the same thing,
+though I am not yet twenty.&rdquo; Though Comte&rsquo;s character and
+aims were as far removed as possible from Franklin&rsquo;s type, neither
+Franklin nor any man that ever lived could surpass him in the
+heroic tenacity with which, in the face of a thousand obstacles,
+he pursued his own ideal of a vocation.</p>
+
+<p>For a moment circumstances led him to think of seeking a
+career in America, but a friend who preceded him thither warned
+him of the purely practical spirit that prevailed in the new
+country. &ldquo;If Lagrange were to come to the United States, he
+could only earn his livelihood by turning land surveyor.&rdquo; So
+Comte remained in Paris, living as he best could on something
+less than Ł80 a year, and hoping, when he took the trouble to
+break his meditations upon greater things by hopes about himself,
+that he might by and by obtain an appointment as mathematical
+master in a school. A friend procured him a situation as tutor in
+the house of Casimir Périer. The salary was good, but the duties
+were too miscellaneous, and what was still worse, there was an
+end of the delicious liberty of the garret. After a short experience
+of three weeks Comte returned to neediness and contentment.
+He was not altogether without the young man&rsquo;s appetite for
+pleasure; yet when he was only nineteen we find him wondering,
+amid the gaieties of the carnival of 1817, how a gavotte or a
+minuet could make people forget that thirty thousand human
+beings around them had barely a morsel to eat.</p>
+
+<p>Towards 1818 Comte became associated as friend and disciple
+with Saint-Simon, who was destined to exercise a very decisive
+influence upon the turn of his speculation. In after years he so
+far forgot himself as to write of Saint-Simon as a depraved quack,
+and to deplore his connexion with him as purely mischievous.
+While the connexion lasted he thought very differently. Saint-Simon
+is described as the most estimable and lovable of men,
+and the most delightful in his relations; he is the worthiest of
+philosophers. Even at the very moment when Comte was congratulating
+himself on having thrown off the yoke, he honestly
+admits that Saint-Simon&rsquo;s influence has been of powerful service
+in his philosophic education. &ldquo;I certainly,&rdquo; he writes to his most
+intimate friend, &ldquo;am under great personal obligations to Saint-Simon;
+that is to say, he helped in a powerful degree to launch
+me in the philosophical direction that I have now definitely
+marked out for myself, and that I shall follow without looking
+back for the rest of my life.&rdquo; Even if there were no such unmistakable
+expressions as these, the most cursory glance into
+Saint-Simon&rsquo;s writings is enough to reveal the thread of connexion
+between the ingenious visionary and the systematic thinker.
+We see the debt, and we also see that when it is stated at the
+highest possible, nothing has really been taken either from
+Comte&rsquo;s claims as a powerful original thinker, or from his immeasurable
+pre-eminence over Saint-Simon in intellectual grasp
+and vigour and coherence. As high a degree of originality may
+be shown in transformation as in invention, as Moličre and
+Shakespeare have proved in the region of dramatic art. In
+philosophy the conditions are not different. <i>Il faut prendre son
+bien oů on le trouve.</i></p>
+
+<p>It is no detriment to Comte&rsquo;s fame that some of the ideas
+which he recombined and incorporated in a great philosophic
+structure had their origin in ideas that were produced almost
+at random in the incessant fermentation of
+Saint-Simon&rsquo;s brain.
+Comte is in no true sense a follower of Saint-Simon, but it was
+undoubtedly Saint-Simon who launched him, to take Comte&rsquo;s
+own word, by suggesting the two starting-points of what grew
+into the Comtist system&mdash;first, that political phenomena are as
+capable of being grouped under laws as other phenomena; and
+second, that the true destination of philosophy must be social, and
+the true object of the thinker must be the reorganization of the
+moral, religious and political systems. We can readily see what
+an impulse these far-reaching conceptions would give to Comte&rsquo;s
+meditations. There were conceptions of less importance than
+these, in which it is impossible not to feel that it was Saint-Simon&rsquo;s
+wrong or imperfect idea that put his young admirer on the
+track to a right and perfected idea. The subject is not worthy
+of further discussion. That Comte would have performed some
+great intellectual achievement, if Saint-Simon had never been
+born, is certain. It is hardly less certain that the great achievement
+which he did actually perform was originally set in motion
+by Saint-Simon&rsquo;s conversation, though it was afterwards directly
+filiated with the fertile speculations of A. R. J. Turgot and
+Condorcet. Comte thought almost as meanly of Plato as he did
+of Saint-Simon, and he considered Aristotle the prince of all
+true thinkers; yet their vital difference about Ideas did not
+prevent Aristotle from calling Plato master.</p>
+
+<p>After six years the differences between the old and the young
+philosopher grew too marked for friendship. Comte began to
+fret under Saint-Simon&rsquo;s pretensions to be his director. Saint-Simon,
+on the other hand, perhaps began to <span class="correction" title="amended from fell">feel</span> uncomfortably
+conscious of the superiority of his disciple. The occasion of the
+breach between them (1824) was an attempt on Saint-Simon&rsquo;s part
+to print a production of Comte&rsquo;s as if it were in some sort connected
+with Saint-Simon&rsquo;s schemes of social reorganization. Not only
+was the breach not repaired, but long afterwards Comte, as we
+have said, with painful ungraciousness took to calling the
+encourager of his youth by very hard names.</p>
+
+<p>In 1825 Comte married a Mdlle Caroline Massin. His marriage
+was one of those of which &ldquo;magnanimity owes no account to
+prudence,&rdquo; and it did not turn out prosperously.
+His family were strongly Catholic and royalist, and
+<span class="sidenote">Marriage.</span>
+they were outraged by his refusal to have the marriage performed
+other than civilly. They consented, however, to receive his
+wife, and the pair went on a visit to Montpellier. Madame
+Comte conceived a dislike to the circle she found there, and this
+was the too early beginning of disputes which lasted for the
+remainder of their union. In the year of his marriage we find
+Comte writing to the most intimate of his correspondents:&mdash;&ldquo;I
+have nothing left but to concentrate my whole moral existence
+in my intellectual work, a precious but inadequate compensation;
+and so I must give up, if not the most dazzling, still the sweetest
+part of my happiness.&rdquo; He tried to find pupils to board with
+him, but only one pupil came, and he was soon sent away for
+lack of companions. &ldquo;I would rather spend an evening,&rdquo;
+wrote the needy enthusiast, &ldquo;in solving a difficult question, than
+in running after some empty-headed and consequential millionaire
+in search of a pupil.&rdquo; A little money was earned by an
+occasional article in <i>Le Producteur</i>, in which he began to expound
+the philosophic ideas that were now maturing in his mind.
+He announced a course of lectures (1826), which it was hoped
+would bring money as well as fame, and which were to be the
+first dogmatic exposition of the Positive Philosophy. A friend
+had said to him, &ldquo;You talk too freely, your ideas are getting
+abroad, and other people use them without giving you the
+credit; put your ownership on record.&rdquo; The lectures attracted
+hearers so eminent as Humboldt the cosmologist, Poinsot the
+geometer and Blainville the physiologist.</p>
+
+<p>Unhappily, after the third lecture of the course, Comte
+had a severe attack of cerebral derangement, brought on by
+intense and prolonged meditation, acting on a system that was
+already irritated by the chagrin of domestic discomfort. He did
+not recover his health for more than a year, and as soon as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span>
+convalescence set in he was seized by so profound a melancholy at
+the disaster which had thus overtaken him, that he threw himself
+<span class="sidenote">Serious illness.</span>
+into the Seine. Fortunately he was rescued, and the
+shock did not stay his return to mental soundness.
+One incident of this painful episode is worth mentioning.
+Lamennais, then in the height of his Catholic exaltation,
+persuaded Comte&rsquo;s mother to insist on her son being married
+with the religious ceremony, and as the younger Madame Comte
+apparently did not resist, the rite was duly performed, in spite
+of the fact that Comte was at the time raving mad. Philosophic
+assailants of Comtism have not always resisted the temptation
+to recall the circumstance that its founder was once out of his
+mind. As has been justly said, if Newton once suffered a cerebral
+attack without forfeiting our veneration for the <i>Principia</i>,
+Comte may have suffered in the same way, and still not have
+forfeited our respect for Positive Philosophy and Positive
+Polity.</p>
+
+<p>In 1828 the lectures were renewed, and in 1830 was published
+the first volume of the <i>Course of Positive Philosophy</i>. The
+sketch and ground plan of this great undertaking had
+appeared in 1826. The sixth and last volume was
+<span class="sidenote">Official work.</span>
+published in 1842. The twelve years covering the
+publication of the first of Comte&rsquo;s two elaborate works were
+years of indefatigable toil, and they were the only portion of
+his life in which he enjoyed a certain measure, and that a very
+modest measure, of material prosperity. In 1833 he was appointed
+examiner of the boys who in the various provincial
+schools aspired to enter the École Polytechnique at Paris. This
+and two other engagements as a teacher of mathematics secured
+him an income of some Ł400 a year. He made M. Guizot, then
+Louis Philippe&rsquo;s minister, the important proposal to establish
+a chair of general history of the sciences. If there are four
+chairs, he argued, devoted to the history of philosophy, that is to
+say, the minute study of all sorts of dreams and aberrations
+through the ages, surely there ought to be at least one to explain
+the formation and progress of our real knowledge? This wise
+suggestion, still unfulfilled, was at first welcomed, according to
+Comte&rsquo;s own account, by Guizot&rsquo;s philosophic instinct, and then
+repulsed by his &ldquo;metaphysical rancour.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Comte did his official work conscientiously, sorely
+as he grudged the time which it took from the execution of the
+great object of his thoughts. &ldquo;I hardly know if even to you,&rdquo;
+he writes to his wife, &ldquo;I dare disclose the sweet and softened
+feeling that comes over me when I find a young man whose
+examination is thoroughly satisfactory. Yes, though you may
+smile, the emotion would easily stir me to tears if I were not
+carefully on my guard.&rdquo; Such sympathy with youthful hope,
+in union with industry and intelligence, shows that Comte&rsquo;s
+dry and austere manner veiled the fires of a generous social
+emotion. It was this which made him add to his labours the
+burden of delivering every year from 1831 to 1848 a course of
+gratuitous lectures on astronomy for a popular audience. The
+social feeling that inspired this disinterested act showed itself
+in other ways. He suffered imprisonment rather than serve in
+the national guard; his position was that though he would not
+take arms against the new monarchy of July, yet being a republican
+he would take no oath to defend it. The only amusement
+that Comte permitted himself was a visit to the opera.
+In his youth he had been a playgoer, but he shortly came to the
+conclusion that tragedy is a stilted and bombastic art, and after
+a time comedy interested him no more than tragedy. For the
+opera he had a genuine passion, which he gratified as often as
+he could, until his means became too narrow to afford even that
+single relaxation.</p>
+
+<p>Of his manner and personal appearance we have the following
+account from one who was his pupil:&mdash;&ldquo;Daily as the clock
+struck eight on the horologe of the Luxembourg, while the
+ringing hammer on the bell was yet audible, the door of my
+room opened, and there entered a man, short, rather stout,
+almost what one might call sleek, freshly shaven, without
+vestige of whisker or moustache. He was invariably dressed
+in a suit of the most spotless black, as if going to a dinner party;
+his white neck-cloth was fresh from the laundress&rsquo;s hands, and
+his hat shining like a racer&rsquo;s coat. He advanced to the arm-chair
+prepared for him in the centre of the writing-table, laid his hat
+on the left-hand corner; his snuff-box was deposited on the
+same side beside the quire of paper placed in readiness for his
+use, and dipping the pen twice into the ink-bottle, then bringing
+it to within an inch of his nose to make sure it was properly
+filled, he broke silence: &lsquo;We have said that the chord AB,&rsquo; &amp;c.
+For three-quarters of an hour he continued his demonstration,
+making short notes as he went on, to guide the listener in repeating
+the problem alone; then, taking up another cahier which
+lay beside him, he went over the written repetition of the former
+lesson. He explained, corrected or commented till the clock
+struck nine; then, with the little finger of the right hand brushing
+from his coat and waistcoat the shower of superfluous snuff
+which had fallen on them, he pocketed his snuff-box, and resuming
+his hat, he as silently as when he came in made his exit by
+the door which I rushed to open for him.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1842, as we have said, the last volume of the <i>Positive
+Philosophy</i> was given to the public. Instead of that contentment
+which we like to picture as the reward of twelve
+years of meritorious toil devoted to the erection of a
+<span class="sidenote">Completion of &ldquo;Positive Philosophy.&rdquo;</span>
+high philosophic edifice, Comte found himself in the
+midst of a very sea of small troubles, of that uncompensated
+kind that harass without elevating, and
+waste a man&rsquo;s spirit without softening or enlarging it. First,
+the jar of temperament between Comte and his wife had become
+so unbearable that they separated (1842). We know too little
+of the facts to allot blame to either of them. In spite of one or
+two disadvantageous facts in her career, Madame Comte seems
+to have uniformly comported herself towards her husband with
+an honourable solicitude for his well-being. Comte made her
+an annual allowance, and for some years after the separation
+they corresponded on friendly terms. Next in the list of the
+vexations was a lawsuit with his publisher. The publisher had
+inserted in the sixth volume a protest against a certain footnote,
+in which Comte had used some hard words about Arago. Comte
+threw himself into the suit with an energy worthy of Voltaire
+and won it. Third, and worst of all, he had prefixed a preface to
+the sixth volume, in which he went out of his way to rouse the
+enmity of the men on whom depended his annual re-election
+to the post of examiner for the Polytechnic school. The result
+was that he lost the appointment, and with it one-half of his very
+modest income. This was the occasion of an episode, which is of
+more than merely personal interest.</p>
+
+<p>Before 1842 Comte had been in correspondence with J. S. Mill,
+who had been greatly impressed by Comte&rsquo;s philosophic ideas; Mill
+admits that his own <i>System of Logic</i> owes many valuable
+thoughts to Comte, and that, in the portion of that
+<span class="sidenote">J. S. Mill.</span>
+work which treats of the logic of the moral sciences, a radical
+improvement in the conceptions of logical method was derived
+from the <i>Positive Philosophy</i>. Their correspondence, which was
+full and copious, turned principally upon the two great questions
+of the equality between men and women, and of the expediency
+and constitution of a sacerdotal or spiritual order. When Comte
+found himself straitened, he confided the entire circumstances
+to Mill. As might be supposed by those who know the affectionate
+anxiety with which Mill regarded the welfare of any one
+whom he believed to be doing good work in the world, he at once
+took pains to have Comte&rsquo;s loss of income made up to him, until
+Comte should have had time to repair that loss by his own endeavour.
+Mill persuaded Grote, Molesworth, and Raikes Currie
+to advance the sum of Ł240. At the end of the year (1845)
+Comte had taken no steps to enable himself to dispense with the
+aid of the three Englishmen. Mill applied to them again, but
+with the exception of Grote, who sent a small sum, they gave
+Comte to understand that they expected him to earn his own
+living. Mill had suggested to Comte that he should write
+articles for the English periodicals, and expressed his own
+willingness to translate any such articles from the French.
+Comte at first fell in with the plan, but he speedily surprised and
+disconcerted Mill by boldly taking up the position of &ldquo;high moral
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span>
+magistrate,&rdquo; and accusing the three defaulting contributors of
+a scandalous falling away from righteousness and a high mind.
+Mill was chilled by these pretensions; and the correspondence
+came to an end. There is something to be said for both sides.
+Comte, regarding himself as the promoter of a great scheme
+for the benefit of humanity, might reasonably look for the support
+of his friends in the fulfilment of his designs. But Mill and the
+others were fully justified in not aiding the propagation of a
+doctrine in which they might not wholly concur. Comte&rsquo;s subsequent
+attitude of censorious condemnation put him entirely
+in the wrong.</p>
+
+<p>From 1845 to 1848 Comte lived as best he could, as well as
+made his wife her allowance, on an income of Ł200 a year. His
+little account books of income and outlay, with every item
+entered down to a few hours before his death, are accurate and
+neat enough to have satisfied an ancient Roman householder.
+In 1848, through no fault of his own, his salary was reduced to
+Ł80. Littré and others, with Comte&rsquo;s approval, published an
+appeal for subscriptions, and on the money thus contributed
+Comte subsisted for the remaining nine years of his life. By
+1852 the subsidy produced as much as Ł200 a year. It is worth
+noticing that Mill was one of the subscribers, and that Littré
+continued his assistance after he had been driven from Comte&rsquo;s
+society by his high pontifical airs. We are sorry not to be able
+to record any similar trait of magnanimity on Comte&rsquo;s part.
+His character, admirable as it is for firmness, for intensity, for
+inexorable will, for iron devotion to what he thought the service
+of mankind, yet offers few of those softening qualities that make
+us love good men and pity bad ones.</p>
+
+<p>It is best to think of him only as the intellectual worker,
+pursuing in uncomforted obscurity the laborious and absorbing
+task to which he had given up his whole life. His
+singularly conscientious fashion of elaborating his
+<span class="sidenote">Literary method.</span>
+ideas made the mental strain more intense than even
+so exhausting a work as the abstract exposition of the principles
+of positive science need have been. He did not write down a
+word until he had first composed the whole matter in his mind.
+When he had thoroughly meditated every sentence, he sat down
+to write, and then, such was the grip of his memory, the exact
+order of his thoughts came back to him as if without an effort,
+and he wrote down precisely what he had intended to write,
+without the aid of a note or a memorandum, and without check
+or pause. For example, he began and completed in about six
+weeks a chapter in the <i>Positive Philosophy</i> (vol. v. ch. 55)
+which would fill forty pages of this Encyclopaedia. When we
+reflect that the chapter is not narrative, but an abstract exposition
+of the guiding principles of the movements of several centuries,
+with many threads of complex thought running along
+side by side all through the speculation, then the circumstances
+under which it was reduced to literary form are really astonishing.
+It is hardly possible, however, to share the admiration expressed
+by some of Comte&rsquo;s disciples for his style. We are not so
+unreasonable as to blame him for failing to make his pages
+picturesque or thrilling; we do not want sunsets and stars and
+roses and ecstasy; but there is a certain standard for the most
+serious and abstract subjects. When compared with such
+philosophic writing as Hume&rsquo;s, Diderot&rsquo;s, Berkeley&rsquo;s, then
+Comte&rsquo;s manner is heavy, laboured, monotonous, without relief
+and without light. There is now and then an energetic phrase,
+but as a whole the vocabulary is jejune; the sentences are
+overloaded; the pitch is flat. A scrupulous insistence on making
+his meaning clear led to an iteration of certain adjectives and
+adverbs, which at length deadened the effect beyond the endurance
+of all but the most resolute students. Only the interest of the
+matter prevents one from thinking of Rivarol&rsquo;s ill-natured
+remark upon Condorcet, that he wrote with opium on a page of
+lead. The general effect is impressive, not by any virtues of
+style, for we do not discern one, but by reason of the magnitude
+and importance of the undertaking, and the visible conscientiousness
+and the grasp with which it is executed. It is by sheer
+strength of thought, by the vigorous perspicacity with which
+he strikes the lines of cleavage of his subject, that he makes his
+way into the mind of the reader; in the presence of gifts of this
+power we need not quarrel with an ungainly style.</p>
+
+<p>Comte pursued one practice which ought to be mentioned in
+connexion with his personal history, the practice of what he
+style <i>hygične cérébrale</i>. After he had acquired what
+he considered to be a sufficient stock of material, and
+<span class="sidenote">Hygične cérébrale.</span>
+this happened before he had completed the <i>Positive
+Philosophy</i>, he abstained from reading newspapers, reviews,
+scientific transactions and everything else, except two or three
+poets (notably Dante) and the <i>Imitatio Christi</i>. It is true that
+his friends kept him informed of what was going on in the
+scientific world. Still this partial divorce of himself from the
+record of the social and scientific activity of his time, though
+it may save a thinker from the deplorable evils of dispersion,
+moral and intellectual, accounts in no small measure for the
+exaggerated egoism, and the absence of all feeling for reality,
+which marked Comte&rsquo;s later days.</p>
+
+<p>In 1845 Comte made the acquaintance of Madame Clotilde
+de Vaux, a lady whose husband had been sent to the galleys
+for life. Very little is known about her qualities.
+She wrote a little piece which Comte rated so preposterously
+<span class="sidenote">Madame de Vaux.</span>
+as to talk about George Sand in the same
+sentence; it is in truth a flimsy performance, though it contains
+one or two gracious thoughts. There is true beauty in the
+saying&mdash;&ldquo;<i>It is unworthy of a noble nature to diffuse its pain.</i>&rdquo;
+Madame de Vaux&rsquo;s letters speak well for her good sense and
+good feeling, and it would have been better for Comte&rsquo;s later
+work if she had survived to exert a wholesome restraint on
+his exaltation. Their friendship had only lasted a year when
+she died (1846), but the period was long enough to give her
+memory a supreme ascendancy in Comte&rsquo;s mind. Condillac,
+Joubert, Mill and other eminent men have shown what the
+intellectual ascendancy of a woman can be. Comte was as
+inconsolable after Madame de Vaux&rsquo;s death as D&rsquo;Alembert
+after the death of Mademoiselle L&rsquo;Espinasse. Every Wednesday
+afternoon he made a reverential pilgrimage to her tomb, and
+three times every day he invoked her memory in words of
+passionate expansion. His disciples believe that in time the
+world will reverence Comte&rsquo;s sentiment about Clotilde de Vaux,
+as it reveres Dante&rsquo;s adoration of Beatrice&mdash;a parallel that
+Comte himself was the first to hit upon. Yet we cannot help
+feeling that it is a grotesque and unseemly anachronism to
+apply in grave prose, addressed to the whole world, those
+terms of saint and angel which are touching and in their place
+amid the trouble and passion of the great mystic poet. Whatever
+other gifts Comte may have had&mdash;and he had many of the
+rarest kind,&mdash;poetic imagination was not among them, any more
+than poetic or emotional expression was among them. His was
+one of those natures whose faculty of deep feeling is unhappily
+doomed to be inarticulate, and to pass away without the magic
+power of transmitting itself.</p>
+
+<p>Comte lost no time, after the completion of his <i>Course of
+Positive Philosophy</i>, in proceeding with the <i>System of Positive
+Polity</i>, for which the earlier work was designed to
+be a foundation. The first volume was published in
+<span class="sidenote">Positive Polity.</span>
+1851, and the fourth and last in 1854. In 1848, when
+the political air was charged with stimulating elements, he
+founded the Positive Society, with the expectation that it
+might grow into a reunion as powerful over the new revolution
+as the Jacobin Club had been in the revolution of 1789. The
+hope was not fulfilled, but a certain number of philosophic
+disciples gathered round Comte, and eventually formed themselves,
+under the guidance of the new ideas of the latter half
+of his life, into a kind of church, for whose use was drawn up the
+<i>Positivist Calendar</i> (1849), in which the names of those who had
+advanced civilization replaced the titles of the saints. Gutenberg
+and Shakespeare were among the patrons of the thirteen
+months in this calendar. In the years 1849, 1850 and 1851
+Comte gave three courses of lectures at the Palais Royal. They
+were gratuitous and popular, and in them he boldly advanced
+the whole of his doctrine, as well as the direct and immediate
+pretensions of himself and his system. The third course ended
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span>
+in the following uncompromising terms&mdash;&ldquo;In the name of the
+Past and of the Future, the servants of Humanity&mdash;both its
+philosophical and its practical servants&mdash;come forward to claim
+as their due the general direction of this world. Their object
+is to constitute at length a real Providence in all departments,&mdash;moral,
+intellectual and material. Consequently they exclude
+once for all from political supremacy all the different servants
+of God&mdash;Catholic, Protestant or Deist&mdash;as being at once behindhand
+and a cause of disturbance.&rdquo; A few weeks after this
+invitation, a very different person stepped forward to constitute
+himself a real Providence.</p>
+
+<p>In 1852 Comte published the <i>Catechism of Positivism</i>. In the
+preface to it he took occasion to express his approval of Louis
+Napoleon&rsquo;s <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 2nd of December,&mdash;&ldquo;a fortunate
+crisis which has set aside the parliamentary system and instituted
+a dictatorial republic.&rdquo; Whatever we may think of the
+political sagacity of such a judgment, it is due to Comte to say
+that he did not expect to see his dictatorial republic transformed
+into a dynastic empire, and, next, that he did expect from the
+Man of December freedom of the press and of public meeting.
+His later hero was the emperor Nicholas, &ldquo;the only statesman in
+Christendom,&rdquo;&mdash;as unlucky a judgment as that which placed
+Dr Francia in the Comtist Calendar.</p>
+
+<p>In 1857 he was attacked by cancer, and died peaceably on
+the 5th of September of that year. The anniversary is celebrated
+by ceremonial gatherings of his French and English
+<span class="sidenote">Death.</span>
+followers, who then commemorate the name and
+the services of the founder of their religion. By his will he
+appointed thirteen executors who were to preserve his rooms
+at 10 rue Monsieur-le-Prince as the headquarters of the new
+religion of Humanity.</p>
+
+<p>In proceeding to give an Outline of Comte&rsquo;s system, we
+shall consider the <i>Positive Polity</i> as the more or less legitimate
+sequel of the <i>Positive Philosophy</i>, notwithstanding
+the deep gulf which so eminent a critic as J. S. Mill
+<span class="sidenote">Comte&rsquo;s philosophic consistency.</span>
+insisted upon fixing between the earlier and the later
+work. There may be, as we think there is, the greatest
+difference in their value, and the temper is not the
+same, nor the method. But the two are quite capable of being
+regarded, and for the purposes of an account of Comte&rsquo;s career
+ought to be regarded, as an integral whole. His letters when he
+was a young man of one-and-twenty, and before he had published
+a word, show how strongly present the social motive was in his
+mind, and in what little account he should hold his scientific
+works, if he did not perpetually think of their utility for the
+species. &ldquo;I feel,&rdquo; he wrote, &ldquo;that such scientific reputation
+as I might acquire would give more value, more weight, more
+useful influence to my political sermons.&rdquo; In 1822 he published
+a <i>Plan of the Scientific Works necessary to reorganize Society</i>.
+<span class="sidenote">Early writing.</span>
+In this he points out that modern society is passing
+through a great crisis, due to the conflict of two opposing
+movements,&mdash;the first, a disorganizing movement
+owing to the break-up of old institutions and beliefs; the second,
+a movement towards a definite social state, in which all means
+of human prosperity will receive their most complete development
+and most direct application. How is this crisis to be dealt
+with? What are the undertakings necessary in order to pass
+successfully through it towards an organic state? The answer
+to this is that there are two series of works. The first is theoretic
+or spiritual, aiming at the development of a new principle of
+co-ordinating social relations, and the formation of the system
+of general ideas which are destined to guide society. The second
+work is practical or temporal; it settles the distribution of
+power, and the institutions that are most conformable to the
+spirit of the system which has previously been thought out in
+the course of the theoretic work. As the practical work depends
+on the conclusions of the theoretical, the latter must obviously
+come first in order of execution.</p>
+
+<p>In 1826 this was pushed farther in a most remarkable piece
+called <i>Considerations on the Spiritual Power</i>&mdash;the main object
+of which is to demonstrate the necessity of instituting a spiritual
+power, distinct from the temporal power and independent of it.
+In examining the conditions of a spiritual power proper for modern
+times, he indicates in so many terms the presence in his mind
+of a direct analogy between his proposed spiritual power and
+the functions of the Catholic clergy at the time of its greatest
+vigour and most complete independence,&mdash;that is to say, from
+about the middle of the 11th century until towards the end of
+the 13th. He refers to de Maistre&rsquo;s memorable book, <i>Du Pape</i>,
+as the most profound, accurate and methodical account of the
+old spiritual organization, and starts from that as the model to
+be adapted to the changed intellectual and social conditions
+of the modern time. In the <i>Positive Philosophy</i>, again (vol. v.
+p. 344), he distinctly says that Catholicism, reconstituted as a
+system on new intellectual foundations, would finally preside
+over the spiritual reorganization of modern society. Much else
+could be quoted to the same effect. If unity of career, then,
+means that Comte, from the beginning designed the institution
+of a spiritual power, and the systematic reorganization of life,
+it is difficult to deny him whatever credit that unity may be
+worth, and the credit is perhaps not particularly great. Even
+the readaptation of the Catholic system to a scientific doctrine
+was plainly in his mind thirty years before the final execution
+of the <i>Positive Polity</i>, though it is difficult to believe
+that he foresaw the religious mysticism in which the task was
+to land him. A great analysis was to precede a great synthesis,
+but it was the synthesis on which Comte&rsquo;s vision was centred
+from the first. Let us first sketch the nature of the analysis.
+Society is to be reorganized on the base of knowledge. What
+is the sum and significance of knowledge? That is the question
+which Comte&rsquo;s first master-work professes to answer.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Positive Philosophy</i> opens with the statement of a certain
+law of which Comte was the discoverer, and which has always
+been treated both by disciples and dissidents as the
+key to his system. This is the Law of the Three States.
+<span class="sidenote">Law of the Three States.</span>
+It is as follows. Each of our leading conceptions,
+each branch of our knowledge, passes successively
+through three different phases; there are three different ways
+in which the human mind explains phenomena, each way
+following the other in order. These three stages are the Theological,
+the Metaphysical and the Positive. Knowledge, or a
+branch of knowledge, is in the Theological state, when it supposes
+the phenomena under consideration to be due to immediate
+volition, either in the object or in some supernatural being. In
+the Metaphysical state, for volition is substituted abstract force
+residing in the object, yet existing independently of the object;
+the phenomena are viewed as if apart from the bodies manifesting
+them; and the properties of each substance have attributed to
+them an existence distinct from that substance. In the Positive
+state, inherent volition or external volition and inherent force
+or abstraction personified have both disappeared from men&rsquo;s
+minds, and the explanation of a phenomenon means a reference
+of it, by way of succession or resemblance, to some other
+phenomenon,&mdash;means the establishment of a relation between
+the given fact and some more general fact. In the Theological
+and Metaphysical state men seek a cause or an essence; in the
+Positive they are content with a law. To borrow an illustration
+from an able English disciple of Comte:&mdash;&ldquo;Take the phenomenon
+of the sleep produced by opium. The Arabs are content to
+attribute it to the &lsquo;will of God.&rsquo; Moličre&rsquo;s medical student
+accounts for it by a <i>soporific principle</i> contained in the opium.
+The modern physiologist knows that he cannot account for it
+at all. He can simply observe, analyse and experiment upon
+the phenomena attending the action of the drug, and classify
+it with other agents analogous in character.&rdquo;&mdash;(<i>Dr Bridges.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>The first and greatest aim of the Positive Philosophy is to
+advance the study of society into the third of the three stages,&mdash;to
+remove social phenomena from the sphere of theological and
+metaphysical conceptions, and to introduce among them the
+same scientific observation of their laws which has given us
+physics, chemistry, physiology. Social physics will consist of
+the conditions and relations of the facts of society, and will have
+two departments,&mdash;one, statical, containing the laws of order;
+the other dynamical, containing the laws of progress. While
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span>
+men&rsquo;s minds were in the theological state, political events, for
+example, were explained by the will of the gods, and political
+authority based on divine right.  In the metaphysical state of
+mind, then, to retain our instance, political authority was based
+on the sovereignty of the people, and social facts were explained
+by the figment of a falling away from a state of nature.  When
+the positive method has been finally extended to society, as it
+has been to chemistry and physiology, these social facts will be
+resolved, as their ultimate analysis, into relations with one
+another, and instead of seeking causes in the old sense of the
+word, men will only examine the conditions of social existence.
+When that stage has been reached, not merely the greater part,
+but the whole, of our knowledge will be impressed with one
+character, the character, namely, of positivity or scientificalness;
+and all our conceptions in every part of knowledge will be
+thoroughly homogeneous.  The gains of such a change are
+enormous.  The new philosophical unity will now in its turn
+regenerate all the elements that went to its own formation.  The
+mind will pursue knowledge without the wasteful jar and friction
+of conflicting methods and mutually hostile conceptions; education
+will be regenerated; and society will reorganize itself on the
+only possible solid base&mdash;a homogeneous philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Positive Philosophy</i> has another object besides the
+demonstration of the necessity and propriety of a science of
+society. This object is to show the sciences as branches
+from a single trunk,&mdash;is to give to science the ensemble
+<span class="sidenote">Classification of sciences.</span>
+or spirit or generality hitherto confined to philosophy,
+and to give to philosophy the rigour and solidity of
+science.  Comte&rsquo;s special object is a study of social physics, a
+science that before his advent was still to be formed; his second
+object is a review of the methods and leading generalities of all
+the positive sciences already formed, so that we may know both
+what system of inquiry to follow in our new science, and also
+where the new science will stand in relation to other knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>The first step in this direction is to arrange scientific method
+and positive knowledge in order, and this brings us to another
+cardinal element in the Comtist system, the classification of the
+sciences.  In the front of the inquiry lies one main division, that,
+namely, between speculative and practical knowledge.  With
+the latter we have no concern.  Speculative or theoretic knowledge
+is divided into abstract and concrete.  The former is
+concerned with the laws that regulate phenomena in all conceivable
+cases: the latter is concerned with the application of these
+laws.  Concrete science relates to objects or beings; abstract
+science to events.  The former is particular or descriptive; the
+latter is general.  Thus, physiology is an abstract science; but
+zoology is concrete.  Chemistry is abstract; mineralogy is
+concrete.  It is the method and knowledge of the abstract
+sciences that the Positive Philosophy has to reorganize in a great
+whole.</p>
+
+<p>Comte&rsquo;s principle of classification is that the dependence and
+order of scientific study follows the dependence of the phenomena.
+Thus, as has been said, it represents both the objective dependence
+of the phenomena and the subjective dependence of our means of
+knowing them.  The more particular and complex phenomena
+depend upon the simpler and more general.  The latter are the
+more easy to study.  Therefore science will begin with those
+attributes of objects which are most general, and pass on gradually
+to other attributes that are combined in greater complexity.
+Thus, too, each science rests on the truths of the sciences that
+precede it, while it adds to them the truths by which it is itself
+constituted.  Comte&rsquo;s series or hierarchy is arranged as follows:&mdash;
+(1) Mathematics (that is, number, geometry, and mechanics),
+(2) Astronomy, (3) Physics, (4) Chemistry, (5) Biology, (6)
+Sociology.  Each of the members of this series is one degree more
+special than the member before it, and depends upon the facts of
+all the members preceding it, and cannot be fully understood
+without them.  It follows that the crowning science of the
+hierarchy, dealing with the phenomena of human society, will
+remain longest under the influence of theological dogmas and abstract
+figments, and will be the last to pass into the positive stage.
+You cannot discover the relations of the facts of human society
+without reference to the conditions of animal life; you cannot
+understand the conditions of animal life without the laws of
+chemistry; and so with the rest.</p>
+
+<p>This arrangement of the sciences, and the Law of the Three
+States, are together explanatory of the course of human thought
+and knowledge.  They are thus the double key of
+Comte&rsquo;s systematization of the philosophy of all the
+<span class="sidenote">The double key of positive philosophy.</span>
+sciences from mathematics to physiology, and his
+analysis of social evolution, which is the base of
+sociology.  Each science contributes its philosophy.
+The co-ordination of all these partial philosophies produces
+the general Positive Philosophy.  &ldquo;Thousands had cultivated
+science, and with splendid success; not one had conceived
+the philosophy which the sciences when organized would
+naturally evolve.  A few had seen the necessity of extending the
+scientific method to all inquiries, but no one had seen how this
+was to be effected....  The Positive Philosophy is novel as a
+philosophy, not as a collection of truths never before suspected.
+Its novelty is the organization of existing elements.  Its very
+principle implies the absorption of all that great thinkers had
+achieved; while incorporating their results it extended their
+methods....  What tradition brought was the results; what
+Comte brought was the organization of these results.  He always
+claimed to be the founder of the Positive Philosophy.  That he
+had every right to such a title is demonstrable to all who distinguish
+between the positive sciences and the philosophy which
+co-ordinated the truths and methods of these sciences into a
+doctrine.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>G. H. Lewes.</i></p>
+
+<p>Comte&rsquo;s classification of the sciences has been subjected to a
+vigorous criticism by Herbert Spencer.  Spencer&rsquo;s two chief
+points are these:&mdash;(1) He denies that the principle of
+the development of the sciences is the principle of
+<span class="sidenote">Criticism on Comte&rsquo;s classification.</span>
+decreasing generality; he asserts that there are as
+many examples of the advent of a science being
+determined by increasing generality as by increasing speciality.
+(2) He holds that any grouping of the sciences in a succession
+gives a radically wrong idea of their genesis and their interdependence;
+no true filiation exists; no science develops itself
+in isolation; no one is independent, either logically or historically.
+Littré, by far the most eminent of the scientific followers of
+Comte, concedes a certain force to Spencer&rsquo;s objections, and
+makes certain secondary modifications in the hierarchy in
+consequence, while still cherishing his faith in the Comtist
+theory of the sciences.  J. S. Mill, while admitting the objections
+as good, if Comte&rsquo;s arrangement pretended to be the only one
+possible, still holds the arrangement as tenable for the purpose
+with which it was devised.  G. H. Lewes asserts against Spencer
+that the arrangement in a series is necessary, on grounds similar
+to those which require that the various truths constituting a
+science should be systematically co-ordinated although in nature
+the phenomena are intermingled.</p>
+
+<p>The first three volumes of the <i>Positive Philosophy</i> contain an
+exposition of the partial philosophies of the five sciences that
+precede sociology in the hierarchy.  Their value has usually been
+placed very low by the special followers of the sciences concerned;
+they say that the knowledge is second-hand, is not coherent, and
+is too confidently taken for final.  The Comtist replies that the
+task is philosophic; and is not to be judged by the minute
+accuracies of science.  In these three volumes Comte took the
+sciences roughly as he found them.  His eminence as a man of
+science must be measured by his only original work in that
+department,&mdash;the construction, namely, of the new science of
+society.  This work is accomplished in the last three volumes of
+the <i>Positive Philosophy</i>, and the second and third volumes of the
+<i>Positive Polity</i>.  The Comtist maintains that even if these five
+volumes together fail in laying down correctly and finally the
+lines of the new science, still they are the first solution of a great
+problem hitherto unattempted.  &ldquo;Modern biology has got
+beyond Aristotle&rsquo;s conception; but in the construction of the
+biological science, not even the most unphilosophical biologist
+would fail to recognize the value of Aristotle&rsquo;s attempt.  So for
+sociology.  Subsequent sociologists may have conceivably to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span>
+remodel the whole science, yet not the less will they recognize the
+merit of the first work which has facilitated their labours.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Congreve.</i></p>
+
+<p>We shall now briefly describe Comte&rsquo;s principal conceptions in
+sociology, his position in respect to which is held by himself, and by
+others, to raise him to the level of Descartes or Leibnitz.
+Of course the first step was to approach the phenomena
+<span class="sidenote">Sociological conceptions.</span>
+of human character and social existence with the
+expectation of finding them as reducible to general
+laws as the other phenomena of the universe, and with the hope of
+exploring these laws by the same instruments of observation and
+verification as had done such triumphant work in the case of the
+latter.  Comte separates the collective facts of society and history
+from the individual phenomena of biology; then he withdraws
+these collective facts from the region of external volition, and
+places them in the region of law.  The facts of history must be
+explained, not by providential interventions, but by referring
+them to conditions inherent in the successive stages of social
+existence.  This conception makes a science of society possible.
+<span class="sidenote">Method.</span>
+What is the method?  It comprises, besides observation
+and experiment (which is, in fact, only the observation
+of abnormal social states), a certain peculiarity of verification.
+We begin by deducing every well-known historical situation from
+the series of its antecedents.  Thus we acquire a body of empirical
+generalizations as to social phenomena, and then we connect the
+generalizations with the positive theory of human nature.  A
+sociological demonstration lies in the establishment of an accordance
+between the conclusions of historical analysis and the
+preparatory conceptions of biological theory.  As Mill puts it:&mdash;&ldquo;If
+a sociological theory, collected from historical evidence,
+contradicts the established general laws of human nature; if (to
+use M. Comte&rsquo;s instances) it implies, in the mass of mankind, any
+very decided natural bent, either in a good or in a bad direction;
+if it supposes that the reason, in average human beings, predominates
+over the desires, or the disinterested desires over the
+personal,&mdash;we may know that history has been misinterpreted,
+and that the theory is false.  On the other hand, if laws of social
+phenomena, empirically generalized from history, can, when once
+suggested, be affiliated to the known laws of human nature; if
+the direction actually taken by the developments and changes of
+human society, can be seen to be such as the properties of man and
+of his dwelling-place made antecedently probable, the empirical
+generalizations are raised into positive laws, and sociology
+becomes a science.&rdquo;  The result of this method, is an exhibition of
+the events of human experience in co-ordinated series that
+manifest their own graduated connexion.</p>
+
+<p>Next, as all investigation proceeds from that which is known
+best to that which is unknown or less well known, and as, in social
+states, it is the collective phenomenon that is more easy of access
+to the observer than its parts, therefore we must consider and
+pursue all the elements of a given social state together and in
+common.  The social organization must be viewed and explored
+as a whole.  There is a nexus between each leading group of
+social phenomena and other leading groups; if there is a change
+in one of them, that change is accompanied by a corresponding
+modification of all the rest.  &ldquo;Not only must political institutions
+and social manners, on the one hand, and manners and ideas, on
+the other, be always mutually connected; but further, this
+consolidated whole must be always connected by its nature with
+the corresponding state of the integral development of humanity,
+considered in all its aspects of intellectual, moral and physical
+activity.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Comte.</i></p>
+
+<p>Is there any one element which communicates the decisive
+impulse to all the rest,&mdash;any predominating agency in the course
+of social evolution?  The answer is that all the other
+parts of social existence are associated with, and
+<span class="sidenote">Decisive Importance of Intellectual development.</span>
+drawn along by, the contemporary condition of
+intellectual development.  The Reason is the superior
+and preponderant element which settles the direction
+in which all the other faculties shall expand.  &ldquo;It is
+only through the more and more marked influence of the reason
+over the general conduct of man and of society, that the gradual
+march of our race has attained that regularity and persevering
+continuity which distinguish it so radically from the desultory and
+barren expansion of even the highest animal orders, which share,
+and with enhanced strength, the appetites, the passions, and even
+the primary sentiments of man.&rdquo;  The history of intellectual
+development, therefore, is the key to social evolution, and the key
+to the history of intellectual development is the Law of the Three
+States.</p>
+
+<p>Among other central thoughts in Comte&rsquo;s explanation of
+history are these:&mdash;The displacement of theological by positive
+conceptions has been accompanied by a gradual rise of an
+industrial régime out of the military régime;&mdash;the great
+permanent contribution of Catholicism was the separation which
+it set up between the temporal and the spiritual powers;&mdash;the
+progress of the race consists in the increasing preponderance of
+the distinctively human elements over the animal elements;&mdash;the
+absolute tendency of ordinary social theories will be replaced
+by an unfailing adherence to the relative point of view, and from
+this it follows that the social state, regarded as a whole, has been
+as perfect in each period as the co-existing condition of humanity
+and its environment would allow.</p>
+
+<p>The elaboration of these ideas in relation to the history of the
+civilization of the most advanced portion of the human race
+occupies two of the volumes of the <i>Positive Philosophy</i>, and has
+been accepted by very different schools as a masterpiece of rich,
+luminous, and far-reaching suggestion.  Whatever additions it
+may receive, and whatever corrections it may require, this
+analysis of social evolution will continue to be regarded as one of
+the great achievements of human intellect.</p>
+
+<p>The third volume of the <i>Positive Polity</i> treats of social
+dynamics, and takes us again over the ground of historic evolution.
+It abounds with remarks of extraordinary
+fertility and comprehensiveness; but it is often
+<span class="sidenote">Social dynamics in the Positive Polity.</span>
+arbitrary; and its views of the past are strained into
+coherence with the statical views of the preceding
+volume.  As it was composed in rather less than six
+months, and as the author honestly warns us that he has given
+all his attention to a more profound co-ordination, instead of
+working out the special explanations more fully, as he had
+promised, we need not be surprised if the result is disappointing
+to those who had mastered the corresponding portion of the
+<i>Positive Philosophy</i>.  Comte explains the difference between his
+two works.  In the first his &ldquo;chief object was to discover and
+demonstrate the laws of progress, and to exhibit in one unbroken
+sequence the collective destinies of mankind, till then invariably
+regarded as a series of events wholly beyond the reach of explanation,
+and almost depending on arbitrary will.  The present
+work, on the contrary, is addressed to those who are already
+sufficiently convinced of the certain existence of social laws, and
+desire only to have them reduced to a true and conclusive
+system.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The main principles of the Comtian system are derived from
+the <i>Positive Polity</i> and from two other works,&mdash;the <i>Positivist
+Catechism: a Summary Exposition of the Universal
+Religion, in Twelve Dialogues between a Woman and a
+Priest of Humanity</i>;
+<span class="sidenote">The Positivist system.</span>
+and, second, <i>The Subjective
+Synthesis</i> (1856), which is the first and only volume of a
+work upon mathematics announced at the end of the <i>Positive
+Philosophy</i>.  The system for which the <i>Positive Philosophy</i> is
+alleged to have been the scientific preparation contains a Polity
+and a Religion; a complete arrangement of life in all its aspects,
+giving a wider sphere to Intellect, Energy and Feeling than could
+be found in any of the previous organic types,&mdash;Greek, Roman or
+Catholic-feudal.  Comte&rsquo;s immense superiority over such prae-Revolutionary
+utopians as the Abbé Saint Pierre, no less than
+over the group of post-revolutionary Utopians, is especially
+visible in this firm grasp of the cardinal truth that the improvement
+of the social organism can only be effected by a moral
+development, and never by any changes in mere political
+mechanism, or any violences in the way of an artificial redistribution
+of wealth.  A moral transformation must precede any
+real advance.  The aim, both in public and private life, is to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span>
+secure to the utmost possible extent the victory of the social
+feeling over self-love, or Altruism over Egoism.<a name="FnAnchor_1f" id="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>  This is the key
+to the regeneration of social existence, as it is the key to that
+unity of individual life which makes all our energies converge
+freely and without wasteful friction towards a common end.
+What are the instruments for securing the preponderance of
+Altruism?  Clearly they must work from the strongest element
+in human nature, and this element is Feeling or the Heart.  Under
+the Catholic system the supremacy of Feeling was abused, and the
+Intellect was made its slave.  Then followed a revolt of Intellect
+against Sentiment.  The business of the new system will be to
+bring back the Intellect into a condition, not of slavery, but of
+willing ministry to the Feelings.  The subordination never was,
+and never will be, effected except by means of a religion, and a
+<span class="sidenote">The Religion of humanity.</span>
+religion, to be final, must include a harmonious
+synthesis of all our conceptions of the external order of
+the universe.  The characteristic basis of a religion
+is the existence of a Power without us, so superior to
+ourselves as to command the complete submission of our whole
+life.  This basis is to be found in the Positive stage, in Humanity,
+past, present and to come, conceived as the Great Being.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;A deeper study of the great universal order reveals to us at
+length the ruling power within it of the true Great Being, whose
+destiny it is to bring that order continually to perfection by constantly
+conforming to its laws, and which thus best represents to
+us that system as a whole.  This undeniable Providence, the supreme
+dispenser of our destinies, becomes in the natural course the common
+centre of our affections, our thoughts, and our actions.  Although
+this Great Being evidently exceeds the utmost strength of any, even
+of any collective, human force, its necessary constitution and its
+peculiar function endow it with the truest sympathy towards all its
+servants.  The least amongst us can and ought constantly to aspire
+to maintain and even to improve this Being.  This natural object
+of all our activity, both public and private, determines the true
+general character of the rest of our existence, whether in feeling
+or in thought; which must be devoted to love, and to know, in order
+rightly to serve, our Providence, by a wise use of all the means which
+it furnishes to us.  Reciprocally this continued service, whilst
+strengthening our true unity, renders us at once both happier and
+better.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The exaltation of Humanity into the throne occupied by the
+Supreme Being under monotheistic systems made all the rest
+of Comte&rsquo;s construction easy enough.  Utility remains
+the test of every institution, impulse, act; his fabric
+<span class="sidenote">Remarks on the religion.</span>
+becomes substantially an arch of utilitarian propositions,
+with an artificial Great Being inserted at the top
+to keep them in their place.  The Comtist system is utilitarianism
+crowned by a fantastic decoration.  Translated into the plainest
+English, the position is as follows: &ldquo;Society can only be regenerated
+by the greater subordination of politics to morals,
+by the moralization of capital, by the renovation of the family,
+by a higher conception of marriage and so on.  These ends can
+only be reached by a heartier development of the sympathetic
+instincts. The sympathetic instincts can only be developed by
+the Religion of Humanity.&rdquo; Looking at the problem in this
+way, even a moralist who does not expect theology to be the
+instrument of social revival, might still ask whether the sympathetic
+instincts will not necessarily be already developed to
+their highest point, before people will be persuaded to accept the
+religion, which is at the bottom hardly more than sympathy
+under a more imposing name.  However that may be, the whole
+battle&mdash;into which we shall not enter&mdash;as to the legitimateness
+of Comtism as a religion turns upon this erection of Humanity
+into a Being.  The various hypotheses, dogmas, proposals, as to
+the family, to capital, &amp;c., are merely propositions measurable
+by considerations of utility and a balance of expediencies.
+Many of these proposals are of the highest interest, and many of
+them are actually available; but there does not seem to be one
+of them of an available kind, which could not equally well be
+approached from other sides, and even incorporated in some
+radically antagonistic system.  Adoption, for example, as a
+practice for improving the happiness of families and the welfare
+of society, is capable of being weighed, and can in truth only be
+weighed, by utilitarian considerations, and has been commended
+by men to whom the Comtist religion is naught. The singularity
+of Comte&rsquo;s construction, and the test by which it must be tried,
+is the transfer of the worship and discipline of Catholicism to
+a system in which &ldquo;the conception of God is superseded&rdquo; by
+the abstract idea of Humanity, conceived as a kind of Personality.</p>
+
+<p>And when all is said, the invention does not help us. We have
+still to settle what <i>is</i> for the good of Humanity, and we can only
+do that in the old-fashioned way. There is no guidance in the
+conception. No effective unity can follow from it, because you
+can only find out the right and wrong of a given course by
+summing up the advantages and disadvantages, and striking
+a balance, and there is nothing in the Religion of Humanity to
+force two men to find the balance on the same side. The Comtists
+are no better off than other utilitarians in judging policy, events,
+conduct.</p>
+
+<p>The particularities of the worship, its minute and truly
+ingenious re-adaptations of sacraments, prayers, reverent signs,
+down even to the invocation of a New Trinity, need
+not detain us. They are said, though it is not easy to
+<span class="sidenote">The worship and discipline.</span>
+believe, to have been elaborated by way of Utopia.
+If so, no Utopia has ever yet been presented in a style
+so little calculated to stir the imagination, to warm the feelings,
+to soothe the insurgency of the reason. It is a mistake to present
+a great body of hypotheses&mdash;if Comte meant them for hypotheses&mdash;in
+the most dogmatic and peremptory form to which language
+can lend itself. And there is no more extraordinary thing in
+the history of opinion than the perversity with which Comte
+has succeeded in clothing a philosophic doctrine, so intrinsically
+conciliatory as his, in a shape that excites so little sympathy
+and gives so much provocation. An enemy defined Comtism
+as Catholicism <i>minus</i> Christianity, to which an able champion
+retorted by calling it Catholicism <i>plus</i> Science. Comte&rsquo;s Utopia
+has pleased the followers of the Catholic, just as little as those of
+the scientific, spirit.</p>
+
+<p>The elaborate and minute systematization of life, proper to the
+religion of Humanity, is to be directed by a priesthood. The priests
+are to possess neither wealth nor material power; they
+are not to command, but to counsel; their authority is to
+<span class="sidenote">The priesthood.</span>
+rest on persuasion, not on force. When religion has become
+positive, and society industrial, then the influence of the
+church upon the state becomes really free and independent, which
+was not the case in the middle ages. The power of the priesthood
+rests upon special knowledge of man and nature; but to this
+intellectual eminence must also be added moral power and a
+certain greatness of character, without which force of intellect
+and completeness of attainment will not receive the confidence
+they ought to inspire. The functions of the priesthood are of this
+kind:&mdash;To exercise a systematic direction over education; to
+hold a consultative influence over all the important acts of actual
+life, public and private; to arbitrate in cases of practical conflict;
+to preach sermons recalling those principles of generality and
+universal harmony which our special activities dispose us to
+ignore; to order the due classification of society; to perform
+the various ceremonies appointed by the founder of the religion.
+The authority of the priesthood is to rest wholly on voluntary
+adhesion, and there is to be perfect freedom of speech and
+discussion. This provision hardly consists with Comte&rsquo;s congratulations
+to the tsar Nicholas on the &ldquo;wise vigilance&rdquo; with
+which he kept watch over the importation of Western books.</p>
+
+<p>From his earliest manhood Comte had been powerfully impressed
+by the necessity of elevating the condition of women.
+(See remarkable passage in his letters to M. Valat, pp.
+84-87.) His friendship with Madame de Vaux had
+<span class="sidenote">Women.</span>
+deepened the impression, and in the reconstructed society
+women are to play a highly important part. They are to be
+carefully excluded from public action, but they are to do many
+more important things than things political. To fit them for
+their functions, they are to be raised above material cares, and
+they are to be thoroughly educated. The family, which is so
+important an element of the Comtist scheme of things, exists
+to carry the influence of woman over man to the highest point
+of cultivation. Through affection she purifies the activity of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span>
+man. &ldquo;Superior in power of affection, more able to keep both
+the intellectual and the active powers in continual subordination
+to feeling, women are formed as the natural intermediaries
+between Humanity and man. The Great Being confides specially
+to them its moral Providence, maintaining through them the
+direct and constant cultivation of universal affection, in the midst
+of all the distractions of thought or action, which are for ever
+withdrawing men from its influence.... Beside the uniform
+influence of every woman on every man, to attach him to
+Humanity, such is the importance and the difficulty of this
+ministry that each of us should be placed under the special
+guidance of one of these angels, to answer for him, as it were, to
+the Great Being. This moral guardianship may assume three
+types,&mdash;the mother, the wife and the daughter; each having
+several modifications, as shown in the concluding volume.
+Together they form the three simple modes of solidarity, or
+unity with contemporaries,&mdash;obedience, union and protection&mdash;as
+well as the three degrees of continuity between ages, by
+uniting us with the past, the present and the future. In accordance
+with my theory of the brain, each corresponds with one of
+our three altruistic instincts&mdash;veneration, attachment and
+benevolence.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>How the positive method of observation and verification
+of real facts has landed us in this, and much else of the same
+kind, is extremely hard to guess. Seriously to examine
+an encyclopaedic system, that touches life, society
+<span class="sidenote">Conclusion.</span>
+and knowledge at every point, is evidently beyond the
+compass of such an article as this. There is in every chapter
+a whole group of speculative suggestions, each of which would
+need a long chapter to itself to elaborate or to discuss. There is
+at least one biological speculation of astounding audacity,
+that could be examined in nothing less than a treatise. Perhaps
+we have said enough to show that after performing a great and
+real service to thought Comte almost sacrificed his claims to
+gratitude by the invention of a system that, as such, and independently
+of detached suggestions, is markedly retrograde.
+But the world will take what is available in Comte, while forgetting
+that in his work which is as irrational in one way as
+Hegel is in another.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Positivism</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<i>Works, Editions and Translations: Cours de
+philosophie positive</i> (6 vols., Paris, 1830-1842; 2nd ed. with preface
+by E. Littré, Paris, 1864; 5th ed., 1893-1894; Eng. trans. Harriet
+Martineau, 2 vols., London, 1853; 3 vols. London and New York,
+1896); <i>Discours sur l&rsquo;esprit positif</i> (Paris, 1844; Eng. trans. with
+explanation E. S. Beesley, 1905); <i>Ordre et progrčs</i> (ib. 1848);
+<i>Discours sur l&rsquo;ensemble de positivisme</i> (1848, Eng. trans. J. H. Bridges,
+London, 1852); <i>Systčme de politique positive, ou Traité de sociologie</i>
+(4 vols., Paris, 1852-1854; ed. 1898; Eng. trans. with analysis and
+explanatory summary by Bridges, F. Harrison, E. S. Beesley and
+others, 1875-1879); <i>Catéchisme positiviste</i> (Paris, 1852; 3rd ed.,
+1890; Eng. trans. R. Congreve, Lond. 1858, 3rd ed., 1891);
+<i>Appel aux Conservateurs</i> (Paris, 1855 and 1898); <i>Synthčse subjective</i>
+(1856 and 1878); <i>Essai de philos. mathématique</i> (Paris, 1878); P.
+Descours and H. Gordon Jones, <i>Fundamental Principles of Positive
+Philos.</i> (trans. 1905), with biog. preface by E. S. Beesley. The Letters
+of Comte have been published as follows:&mdash;the letters to M. Valat
+and J. S. Mill, in <i>La Critique philosophique</i> (1877); correspondence
+with Mde. de Vaux (ib., 1884); <i>Correspondance inédite d&rsquo;Aug. Comte</i>
+(1903 foll.); <i>Lettres inédites de J. S. Mill ŕ Aug. Comte publ. avec les
+résponses de Comte</i> (1899).</p>
+
+<p><i>Criticism.</i>&mdash;J. S. Mill, <i>Auguste Comte and Positivism</i>; J. H.
+Bridges&rsquo; reply to Mill, <i>The Unity of Comte&rsquo;s Life and Doctrines</i> (1866);
+Herbert Spencer&rsquo;s essay on the <i>Genesis of Science</i> and pamphlet on
+<i>The Classification of the Sciences</i>; Huxley&rsquo;s &ldquo;Scientific Aspects of
+Positivism,&rdquo; in his <i>Lay Sermons</i>; R. Congreve, <i>Essays Political,
+Social and Religious</i> (1874); J. Fiske, <i>Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy</i>
+(1874); G. H. Lewes, <i>History of Philosophy</i>, vol. ii.; Edward Caird,
+<i>The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte</i>  (Glasgow, 1885);
+Hermann Gruber, <i>Aug. Comte der Begründer des Positivismus. Sein
+Leben und seine Lehre</i> (Freiburg, 1889) and <i>Der Positivismus vom
+Tode Aug. Comtes bis auf unsere Tage, 1857-1891</i> (Freib. 1891);
+L. Lévy-Bruhl, <i>La Philosophie d&rsquo;Aug. Comte</i> (Paris, 1900); H. D.
+Hutton, <i>Comte&rsquo;s Theory of Man&rsquo;s Future</i> (1877), <i>Comte, the Man and
+the Founder</i> (1891), <i>Comte&rsquo;s Life and Work</i> (1892); E. de Roberty,
+<i>Aug. Comte et Herbert Spencer</i> (Paris, 1894); J. Watson, <i>Comte, Mill
+and Spencer. An outline of Philos.</i> (1895 and 1899); Millet, <i>La
+Souveraineté d&rsquo;aprčs Aug. Comte</i> (1905); L. de Montesquieu Fezensac,
+<i>Le Systčme politique d&rsquo;Aug. Comte</i> (1907); G. Dumas, <i>Psychologie
+de deux Messies positivistes</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Mo.; X.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1f" id="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For Comte&rsquo;s place in the history of ethical theory see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMUS<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (from <span class="grk" title="kômos">&#954;&#8182;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, revel, or a company of revellers), in the
+later mythology of the Greeks, the god of festive mirth. In
+classic mythology the personification does not exist; but Comus
+appears in the <span class="grk" title="Eikónes">&#917;&#7984;&#954;&#972;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>, or <i>Descriptions of Pictures</i>, of Philostratus,
+a writer of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> as a winged youth, slumbering in
+a standing attitude, his legs crossed, his countenance flushed with
+wine, his head&mdash;which is sunk upon his breast&mdash;crowned with
+dewy flowers, his left hand feebly grasping a hunting spear, his
+right an inverted torch. Ben Jonson introduces Comus, in his
+masque entitled <i>Pleasure reconciled to Virtue</i>  (1619), as the portly
+jovial patron of good cheer, &ldquo;First father of sauce and deviser of
+jelly.&rdquo; In the <i>Comus, sive Phagesiposia Cimmeria; Somnium</i>
+(1608, and at Oxford, 1634), a moral allegory by a Dutch author,
+Hendrik van der Putten, or Erycius Puteanus, the conception is
+more nearly akin to Milton&rsquo;s, and Comus is a being whose
+enticements are more disguised and delicate than those of
+Jonson&rsquo;s deity. But Milton&rsquo;s Comus is a creation of his own.
+His story is one</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Which never yet was heard in tale or song</p>
+<p class="i05">From old or modern bard, in hall or bower.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Born from the loves of Bacchus and Circe, he is &ldquo;much like his
+father, but his mother more&rdquo;&mdash;a sorcerer, like her, who gives to
+travellers a magic draught that changes their human face into
+the &ldquo;brutal form of some wild beast,&rdquo; and, hiding from them
+their own foul disfigurement, makes them forget all the pure ties
+of life, &ldquo;to roll with pleasure in a sensual sty.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COMYN, JOHN<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (d. c. 1300), Scottish baron, was a son of John
+Comyn (d. 1274), justiciar of Galloway, who was a nephew of the
+constable of Scotland, Alexander Comyn, earl of Buchan (d.
+1289), and of the powerful and wealthy Walter Comyn, earl of
+Mentieth (d. 1258). With his uncle the earl of Buchan, the elder
+Comyn took a prominent part in the affairs of Scotland during
+the latter part of the 13th century, and he had interests and
+estates in England as well as in his native land. He fought for
+Henry III. at Northampton and at Lewes, and was afterwards
+imprisoned for a short time in London. The younger Comyn, who
+had inherited the lordship of Badenoch from his
+great-uncle the
+earl of Mentieth, was appointed one of the guardians of Scotland
+in 1286, and shared in the negotiations between Edward I. and
+the Scots in 1289 and 1290. When Margaret, the Maid of
+Norway, died in 1290, Comyn was one of the claimants for the
+Scottish throne, but he did not press his candidature, and like the
+other Comyns urged the claim of John de Baliol. After supporting
+Baliol in his rising against Edward I., Comyn submitted to
+the English king in 1296; he was sent to reside in England, but
+returned to Scotland shortly before his death.</p>
+
+<p>Comyn&rsquo;s son, <span class="sc">John Comyn</span> (d. 1306), called the &ldquo;red Comyn,&rdquo;
+is more famous. Like his father he assisted Baliol in his rising
+against Edward I., and he was for some time a hostage in
+England. Having been made guardian of Scotland after the
+battle of Falkirk in 1298 he led the resistance to the English
+king for about five years, and then early in 1304 made an honourable
+surrender. Comyn is chiefly known for his memorable
+quarrel with Robert the Bruce. The origin of the dispute is
+uncertain. Doubtless the two regarded each other as rivals;
+Comyn may have refused to join in the insurrection planned by
+Bruce. At all events the pair met at Dumfries in January 1306;
+during a heated altercation charges of treachery were made, and
+Comyn was stabbed to death either by Bruce or by his followers.</p>
+
+<p>Another member of the Comyn family who took an active part
+in Scottish affairs during these troubled times is <span class="sc">John Comyn</span>,
+earl of Buchan (d. c. 1313). This earl, a son of Earl Alexander,
+was constable of Scotland, and was first an ally and then an
+enemy of Robert the Bruce.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONACRE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (a corruption of corn-acre), in Ireland, a system of
+letting land, mostly in small patches, and usually for the growth
+of potatoes as a kind of return instead of wages. It is now
+practically obsolete.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1802-1891), American
+Biblical scholar, was born at Brandon, Vermont, on the 13th
+of December 1802. Graduating at Middlebury College in 1823,
+he became tutor in the Columbian University (now George
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span>
+Washington University) from 1825 to 1827, professor of Greek,
+Latin and German at Waterville College (now Colby College)
+from 1827 to 1833, professor of biblical literature and criticism in
+Hamilton (New York) Theological Institute from 1835 to 1851,
+and professor of Hebrew and of Biblical exegesis in Rochester
+Theological Seminary from 1851 to 1857. From 1857 to 1875
+he was employed by the American Bible Union on the revision
+of the New Testament (1871). He married in 1830 Hannah
+O&rsquo;Brien Chaplin (1809-1865), who was herself the author of
+<i>The Earnest Man</i>, a biography of Adoniram Judson (1855),
+and of <i>The History of the English Bible</i> (1859), besides being
+her husband&rsquo;s able assistant in his Hebrew studies. He died in
+Brooklyn, New York, on the 30th of April 1891. Conant was
+the foremost Hebrew scholar of his time in America. His
+treatise, <i>The Meaning and Use of &ldquo;Baptizein&rdquo; Philologically
+and Historically Investigated</i> (1860), an &ldquo;appendix to the revised
+version of the Gospel by Matthew,&rdquo; is a valuable summary of
+the evidence for Baptist doctrine. He translated and edited
+Gesenius&rsquo;s <i>Hebrew Grammar</i> (1839; 1877), and published
+revised versions with notes of <i>Job</i> (1856), <i>Genesis</i> (1868), <i>Psalms</i>
+(1871), <i>Proverbs</i> (1872), <i>Isaiah</i> i.-xiii. 22 (1874), and <i>Historical
+Books of the Old Testament, Joshua to II. Kings</i> (1884).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONATION<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>conari</i>, to attempt, strive), a psychological
+term, originally chosen by Sir William Hamilton (<i>Lectures
+on Metaphysics</i>, pp. 127 foll.), used generally of an attitude of
+mind involving a tendency to take <i>action</i>, <i>e.g.</i> when one decides
+to remove an object which is causing a painful sensation, or to
+try to interrupt an unpleasant train of thought. This use of
+the word tends to lay emphasis on the mind as
+self-determined
+in relation to external objects. Another less common use of the
+word is to describe the pleasant or painful sensations which
+accompany muscular activity; the <i>conative</i> phenomena, thus
+regarded, are psychic changes brought about by external causes.</p>
+
+<p>The chief difficulty in connexion with Conation is that of
+distinguishing it from Feeling, a term of very vague significance
+both in technical and in common usage. Thus the German
+psychologist F. Brentano holds that no real distinction can
+be made. He argues that the mental process from sorrow or
+dissatisfaction, through hope for a change and courage to act,
+up to the voluntary determination which issues in action, is
+a single homogeneous whole (<i>Psychologie</i>, pp. 308-309). The
+mere fact, however, that the series is continuous is no ground
+for not distinguishing its parts; if it were so, it would be impossible
+to distinguish by separate names the various colours
+in the solar spectrum, or indeed perception from conception.
+A more material objection, moreover, is that, in point of fact,
+the feeling of pleasure or pain roused by a given stimulus is
+specifically different from, and indeed may not be followed by,
+the determination to modify or remove it. Pleasure and pain,
+<i>i.e.</i> hedonic sensation <i>per se</i>, are essentially distinct from appetition
+and aversion; the pleasures of hearing music or enjoying sunshine
+are not in general accompanied by any volitional activity.
+It is true that painful sensations are generally accompanied by
+definite aversion or a tendency to take action, but the cases of
+positive pleasure are amply sufficient to support a distinction.
+Therefore, though in ordinary language such phrases as &ldquo;feeling
+aversion&rdquo; are quite legitimate, accurate psychology compels
+us to confine &ldquo;feeling&rdquo; to states of consciousness in which no
+conative activity is present, <i>i.e.</i> to the psychic phenomena of
+pleasure or pain considered in and by themselves. The study
+of such phenomena is specifically described as Hedonics (Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="hędonę">&#7969;&#948;&#959;&#957;&#942;</span>, pleasure) or Algedonics (Gr. <span class="grk" title="algędôn">&#7936;&#955;&#947;&#951;&#948;&#974;&#957;</span>, pain); the latter
+term was coined by H. R. Marshall (in <i>Pain, Pleasure and
+Aesthetics</i>, 1894), but has not been generally used.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of conation is closely related to that of Attention
+(<i>q.v.</i>), which indeed, regarded as active consciousness, implies
+conation (G. T. Ladd, <i>Psychology</i>, 1894, p. 213). Thus, whenever
+the mind deliberately focusses itself upon a particular object,
+there is implied a psychic effort (for the relation between Attention
+and Conation, see G. F. Stout, <i>Analytic Psychology</i>, book i.
+chap. vi.). All conscious action, and in a less degree even
+unconscious or reflex action, implies attention; when the mind
+&ldquo;attends&rdquo; to any given external object, the organ through the
+medium of which information regarding that object is conveyed
+to the mind is set in motion. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCA, SEBASTIANO<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1679-1764), Italian painter of the
+Florentine school, was born at Gaeta, and studied at Naples
+under Francesco Solimena.  In 1706, along with his brother
+Giovanni, who acted as his assistant, he settled at Rome, where
+for several years he worked in chalk only, to improve his drawing.
+He was patronized by the Cardinal Ottoboni, who introduced
+him to Clement XI.; and a Jeremiah painted in the church of
+St John Lateran was rewarded by the pope with knighthood
+and by the cardinal with a diamond cross.  His fame grew
+quickly, and he received the patronage of most of the crowned
+heads of Europe.  He painted till near the day of his death, and
+left behind him an immense number of pictures, mostly of a
+brilliant and showy kind, which are distributed among the
+churches of Italy.  Of these the Probatica, or Pool of Siloam,
+in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala, at Siena, is considered
+the finest.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCARNEAU,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> a fishing port of western France in the department
+of Finistčre, 14 m. by road S.E. of Quimper.  Pop. (1906)
+7887.  The town occupies a picturesque situation on an inlet
+opening into the Bay of La Foręt.  The old portion stands on
+an island, and is surrounded by ramparts, parts of which are
+believed to date from the 14th century.  It is an important centre
+of the sardine, mackerel and lobster fisheries.  Sardine-preserving,
+boat-building and the manufacture of sardine-boxes are
+carried on.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCEPCIÓN,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a province of southern Chile, lying between
+the provinces of Maule and Ńuble on the N. and Bio-Bio on the
+S., and extending from the Pacific to the Argentine boundary.
+Its outline is very irregular, the Itata river forming its northern
+boundary, and the Bio-Bio and one of its tributaries a part of
+its southern boundary.  Area (estimated) 3252 sq. m.; pop.
+(1895) 188,190.  Concepción is the most important province
+of southern Chile because of its advantageous commercial
+position, fertility and productive industries.  Its coast is indented
+by two large well-sheltered bays, Talcahuano and Arauco, the
+former having the ports of Talcahuano, Penco and El Tomé,
+and the latter Coronel and Lota.  Its railway communications
+are good, and the Bio-Bio, which crosses its S.W. corner, has
+100 m. of navigable channel.  The province produces wheat
+and manufactures flour for export; its wines are reputed the
+best in Chile, cattle are bred in large numbers, wool is produced,
+and considerable timber is shipped.  Near the coast are extensive
+deposits of coal, which is shipped from Lota and Coronel, the
+former being the site of the most productive coal-mine in South
+America.  The climate is mild and the rainfall is abundant.
+Large copper-smelting and glass works have been established
+at Lota because of its coal resources.  The valley of the Itata is
+largely devoted to vine cultivation, and the port of this district,
+El Tomé, is noted for its wine vaults and trade.  It also possesses
+a small woollen factory.  The principal towns are on the coast
+and had in 1895 the following populations: Talcahuano, 10,431;
+Lota, 9797 (largely operatives in the mines and smelting works);
+Coronel, 4575; and El Tomé, 3977.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCEPCIÓN,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a city of southern Chile, capital of a province
+and department of the same name, on the right bank of the
+Bio-Bio river, 7 m. above its mouth, and 355 m. S.S.W. of Santiago
+by rail.  Pop. (1895) 39,837; (1902, estimated) 49,351.  It is
+the commercial centre of a rich agricultural region, but because
+of obstructions at the mouth of the Bio-Bio its trade passes in
+great part through the port of Talcahuano, 8 m. distant by rail.
+The small port of Penco, situated on the same bay and 10 m.
+distant by rail, also receives a part of the trade because of
+official restrictions at Talcahuano.  Concepción is one of the
+southern termini of the Chilean central railway, by which it is
+connected with Santiago to the N., with Valdivia and Puerto
+Montt to the S., and with the port of Talcahuano.  Another line
+extends southward through the Chilean coal-producing districts
+to Curanilhué, crossing the Bio-Bio by a steel viaduct 6000 ft.
+long on 62 skeleton piers; and a short line of 10 m. runs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span>
+northward to Penco. The Bio-Bio is navigable above the city for
+100 m. and considerable traffic comes through this channel. The
+districts tributary to Concepción produce wheat, wine, wool,
+cattle, coal and timber, and among the industrial establishments
+of the city are flour mills, furniture and carriage factories, distilleries
+and breweries. The city is built on a level plain but
+little above the sea-level, and is laid out in regular squares with
+broad streets. It is an episcopal see with a cathedral and several
+fine churches, and is the seat of a court of appeal. The city
+was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in 1550, and received the
+singular title of &ldquo;La Concepción del Nuevo Extremo.&rdquo; It was
+located on the bay of Talcahuano where the town of Penco now
+stands, about 9 m. from its present site, but was destroyed by
+earthquakes in 1570, 1730 and 1751, and was then (1755) removed
+to the margin of the Bio-Bio. In 1835 it was again laid
+in ruins, a graphic description of which is given by Charles
+Darwin in <i>The Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle</i>. The city was twice
+burned by the Araucanians during their long struggle against
+the Spanish colonists.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCEPCIÓN,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Villa Concepción</span>, the principal town and
+a river port of northern Paraguay, on the Paraguay river, 138 m.
+(234 m. by river) N. of Asunción, and about 345 ft. above sea-level.
+Pop. (1895, estimate) 10,000, largely Indians and mestizos.
+It is an important commercial centre, and a port of call for the
+river steamers trading with the Brazilian town of Corumbá,
+Matto Grosso. It is the principal point for the exportation of
+Paraguay tea, or &ldquo;yerba maté&rdquo; (<i>Ilex paraguayensis</i>). The
+town has a street railway and telephone service, a national
+college, a public school, a market, and some important commercial
+establishments. The neighbouring country is sparsely
+settled and produces little except forest products. Across the
+river, in the Paraguayan Chaco, is an English missionary station,
+whose territory extends inland among the Indians for many
+miles.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCEPT<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span><a name="FnAnchor_1g" id="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Lat. <i>conceptus</i>, a thought, from <i>concipere</i>, to
+take together, combine in thought; Ger. <i>Begriff</i>), in philosophy,
+a term applied to a general idea derived from and considered
+apart from the particulars observed by the senses. The mental
+process by which this idea is obtained is called abstraction (<i>q.v.</i>).
+By the comparison, for instance, of a number of boats, the mind
+abstracts a certain common quality or qualities in virtue of which
+the mind affirms the general idea of &ldquo;boat.&rdquo; Thus the connotation
+of the term &ldquo;boat,&rdquo; being the sum of those qualities in
+respect of which all boats are regarded as alike, whatever their
+individual peculiarities may be, is described as a &ldquo;concept.&rdquo;
+The psychic process by which a concept is affirmed is called
+&ldquo;Conception,&rdquo; a term which is often loosely used in a concrete
+sense for &ldquo;Concept&rdquo; itself. It is also used even more loosely
+as synonymous in the widest sense with &ldquo;idea,&rdquo; &ldquo;notion.&rdquo;
+Strictly, however, it is contrasted with &ldquo;perception,&rdquo; and
+implies the mental reconstruction and combination of sense-given
+data. Thus when one carries one&rsquo;s thoughts back to a
+series of events, one constructs a psychic whole made up of parts
+which take definite shape and character by their mutual interrelations.
+This process is called <i>conceptual synthesis</i>, the possibility
+of which is a <i>sine qua non</i> for the exchange of information
+by speech and writing. It should be noticed that this (very
+common) psychological interpretation of &ldquo;conception&rdquo; differs
+from the metaphysical or general philosophical definition given
+above, in so far as it includes mental presentations in which the
+universal is not specifically distinguished from the particulars.
+Some psychologists prefer to restrict the term to the narrower
+use which excludes all mental states in which particulars are
+cognized, even though the universal be present also.</p>
+
+<p>In biology conception is the coalescence of the male and female
+generative elements, producing pregnancy.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1g" id="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word &ldquo;conceit&rdquo; in its various senses (&ldquo;idea,&rdquo; &ldquo;plan,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;fancy,&rdquo; &ldquo;imagination,&rdquo; and, by modern extension, an overweening
+sense of one&rsquo;s own value) is likewise derived ultimately
+from the Latin <i>concipere</i>. It appears to have been formed directly
+from the English derivative &ldquo;conceive&rdquo; on the analogy of &ldquo;deceit&rdquo;
+from &ldquo;deceive.&rdquo; According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> there is
+no intermediate form in Old French.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCEPTUALISM<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (from &ldquo;Concept&rdquo;), in philosophy, a
+term applied by modern writers to a scholastic theory of the
+nature of universals, to distinguish it from the two extremes of
+Nominalism and Realism. The scholastic philosophers took up
+the old Greek problem as to the nature of true reality&mdash;whether
+the general idea or the particular object is more truly real.
+Between Realism which asserts that the <i>genus</i> is more real than
+the <i>species</i>, and that particulars have no reality, and Nominalism
+according to which <i>genus</i> and <i>species</i> are merely names (<i>nomina,
+flatus vocis</i>), Conceptualism takes a mean position. The conceptualist
+holds that universals have a real existence, but only
+in the mind, as the concepts which unite the individual things:
+<i>e.g.</i> there is in the mind a general notion or idea of boats, by
+reference to which the mind can decide whether a given object
+is, or is not, a boat. On the one hand &ldquo;boat&rdquo; is something
+more than a mere sound with a purely arbitrary conventional
+significance; on the other it has, apart from particular things
+to which it applies, no reality; its reality is purely abstract or
+conceptual. This theory was enunciated by Abelard in opposition
+to Roscellinus (nominalist) and William of Champeaux
+(realist). He held that it is only by becoming a predicate that
+the class-notion or general term acquires reality. Thus similarity
+(<i>conformitas</i>) is observed to exist between a number of objects
+in respect of a particular quality or qualities. This quality
+becomes real as a mental concept when it is predicated of all the
+objects possessing it (&ldquo;quod de pluribus natum est praedicari&rdquo;).
+Hence Abelard&rsquo;s theory is alternatively known as Sermonism
+(<i>sermo</i>, &ldquo;predicate&rdquo;). His statement of this position oscillates
+markedly, inclining sometimes towards the nominalist, sometimes
+towards the realist statement, using the arguments of the
+one against the other. Hence he is described by some as a
+realist, by others as a nominalist. When he comes to explain
+that objective similarity in things which is represented by the
+class-concept or general term, he adopts the theological Platonic
+view that the ideas which are the archetypes of the qualities
+exist in the mind of God. They are, therefore, <i>ante rem, in re</i>
+and <i>post rem</i>, or, as Avicenna stated it, <i>universalia ante multiplicitatem,
+in multiplicitate, post multiplicitatem</i>. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logic</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metaphysics</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCERT<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (through the French from Lat. <span class="sc">con-</span>, with, and
+<i>certare</i>, to strive), a term meaning, in general, co-operation,
+agreement or union; the more specific usages being, in music,
+for a public performance by instrumentalists, vocalists or both
+combined, and in diplomacy, for an understanding or agreement
+for common action between two or more states, whether defined
+by treaty or not. The term &ldquo;Concert of Europe&rdquo; has been
+commonly applied, since the congress of Vienna (1814-1815),
+to the European powers consulting or acting together in questions
+of common interest. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alliance</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCERTINA,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Melodion</span> (Fr. <i>concertina</i>, Ger. <i>Ziehharmonica</i>
+or <i>Bandoneon</i>), a wind instrument of the seraphine
+family with free reeds, forming a link in the evolution of the
+harmonium from the mouth organ, intermediate links being the
+cheng and the accordion. The concertina consists of two
+hexagonal or rectangular keyboards connected by a long expansible
+bellows of many folds similar to that of the accordion.
+The keyboards are furnished with rows of knobs, which, on being
+pressed down by the fingers, open valves admitting the air
+compressed by the bellows to the free reeds, which are thus set
+in vibration. These free reeds consist of narrow tongues of
+brass riveted by one end to the inside surface of the keyboard,
+and having their free ends slightly bent, some outwards, some
+inwards, the former actuated by suction when the bellows are
+expanded, the latter by compression. The pitch of the note
+depends upon the length and thickness of the reeds, reduction
+of the length tending to sharpen the pitch of the note, while
+reduction of the thickness lowers it. The bellows being unprovided
+with a valve can only draw in and emit the air through the
+reed valves. In order to produce the sound, the concertina is
+held horizontally between the hands, the bellows being by turns
+compressed and expanded. The English concertina, invented
+and patented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1829, the year of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span>
+reputed invention of the accordion (<i>q.v.</i>), is constructed with a
+double action, the same note being produced on compressing
+and expanding the bellows, whereas in the German concertina
+or accordion two different notes are given out. Concertinas
+are made in complete families&mdash;treble, tenor, bass and double
+bass, having a combined total range of nearly seven octaves.
+The compass is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figright1" style="float: right">
+<img style="border:0; width:138px; height:275px"
+     src="images/img825.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="f90" style="text-align: right;">
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="pt2">Treble concertina, double action</p>
+
+<p class="pt2">Tenor concertina, single action</p>
+
+<p class="pt2">Bass concertina, single action</p>
+
+<p class="pt2">Double bass concertina, single action</p></div>
+
+<p class="pt2" style="clear: both;">The timbre of the concertina is penetrating but soft, and
+capable of the most delicate gradations of tone. This quality
+is due to a law of acoustics governing the vibration of free reeds
+by means of which <i>fortes</i> and <i>pianos</i> are obtained by varying
+the pressure of the wind, as is also the case with the double reed
+or the single or beating reed, while the pressure of the reed with
+the lips combined with greater pressure of wind produces the
+harmonic overtones which are not given out by free reeds.
+The English concertina possesses one peculiarity which renders
+it unsuitable for playing with instruments tuned according to
+the law of equal temperament, such as the pianoforte, harmonium
+or melodion, <i>i.e.</i> it has enharmonic intervals between
+G&#9839; and A&#9839; and between D&#9837; and E&#9837;. The German concertina
+is not constructed according to this system; its compass extends
+down to C or even B&#9837;, but it is not provided with double action.
+It is possible on the English concertina to play diatonic and
+chromatic passages or arpeggios in legato or staccato style with
+rapidity, shakes single and double in thirds; it is also possible
+to play in parts as on the pianoforte or organ and to produce
+very rich chords. Concertos were written for concertina with
+orchestra by Molique and Regondi, a sonata with piano by
+Molique, while Tschaikowsky scored in his second orchestral
+suite for four accordions.</p>
+
+<p>The aeola, constructed by the representatives of the original
+firm of Wheatstone, is a still more artistically developed concertina,
+having among other improvements steel reeds instead
+of brass, which increase the purity and delicacy of the timbre.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Accordion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cheng</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmonium</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Free-Reed
+Vibrator</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCERTO<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Lat. <i>concertus</i>, from <i>certare</i>, to strive, also confused
+with <i>concentus</i>), in music, a term which appears as early
+as the beginning of the 17th century, at first as a title of
+no very definite meaning, but which early acquired a sense
+justified by its etymology and became applied chiefly to compositions
+in which unequal instrumental or vocal forces are
+brought into opposition.</p>
+
+<p>Although by Bach&rsquo;s time the concerto as a polyphonic instrumental
+form was thoroughly established, the term frequently
+appears in the autograph title-pages of his church cantatas,
+even when the cantata contains no instrumental prelude. Indeed,
+so entirely does the actual concerto form, as Bach understands it,
+depend upon the opposition of masses of tone unequal in volume
+with a compensating inequality in power of commanding attention,
+that Bach is able to rewrite an instrumental movement
+as a chorus without the least incongruity of style. A splendid
+example of this is the first chorus of a university festival cantata,
+<i>Vereinigte Zwietracht der wechselnden Saiten</i>, the very title of
+which (&ldquo;united contest of turn-about strings&rdquo;) is a perfect
+definition of the earlier form of <i>concerto grosso</i>, in which the
+chief mass of the orchestra was opposed, not to a mere solo
+instrument, but to a small group called the <i>concertino</i>, or else
+the whole work was for a large orchestral mass in which tutti
+passages alternate with passages in which the whole orchestra
+is dispersed in every possible kind of grouping.  But the special
+significance of this particular chorus is that it is arranged from
+the second movement of the first Brandenburg concerto; and
+that while the orchestral material is unaltered except for transposition
+of key, enlargement of force and substitution of trumpets
+and drums for the original horns, the whole chorus part has been
+evolved from the solo part for a kit violin (<i>violino piccolo</i>).  This
+admirably illustrates Bach&rsquo;s grasp of the true idea of a concerto,
+namely, that whatever the relations may be between the forces
+in respect of volume or sound, the whole treatment of the form
+must depend upon the healthy relation of function between
+that force which commands more and that which commands
+less attention.  <i>Ceteris paribus</i> the individual, suitably placed,
+will command more attention than the crowd, whether in real
+life, drama or instrumental music.  And in music the human
+voice, with human words, will thrust any orchestral force into
+the background, the moment it can make itself heard at all.
+Hence it is not surprising that the earlier concerto forms should
+show the closest affinity (not only in general aesthetic principle,
+but in many technical details) with the form of the vocal aria,
+as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti.  And the treatment of the
+orchestra is, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>, exactly the same in both.  The
+orchestra is entrusted with a highly pregnant and short summary
+of the main contents of the movement, and the solo, or the
+groups corresponding thereto, will either take up this material
+or first introduce new themes to be combined with it, and, in
+short, enter into relations with the orchestra very like those
+between the actors and the chorus in Greek drama.  If the
+aria before Mozart may be regarded as a single large melody
+expanded by the device of the ritornello so as to give full expression
+to the power of a singer against an instrumental accompaniment,
+so the polyphonic concerto form may be regarded as
+an expansion of the aria form to a scale worthy of the larger and
+purely instrumental forces employed, and so rendered capable
+of absorbing large polyphonic and other types of structure
+incompatible with the lyric idea of the aria.  The <i>da capo</i> form,
+by which the aria had attained its full dimensions through the
+addition of a second strain in foreign keys followed by the
+original strain <i>da capo</i>, was absorbed by the polyphonic concerto
+on an enormous scale, both in first movements and finales (see
+Bach&rsquo;s Klavier concerto in E, Violin concerto in E, first movement),
+while for slow movements the <i>ground bass</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Variations</a></span>),
+diversified by changes of key (Klavier concerto in D minor),
+the more melodic types of binary form, sometimes with the
+repeats ornamentally varied or inverted (Concerto for 3 klaviers
+in D minor, Concerto for klavier, flute and violin in A minor),
+and in finales the <i>rondo</i> form (Violin concerto in E major,
+Klavier concerto in F minor) and the binary form (3rd Brandenburg
+concerto) may be found.</p>
+
+<p>When conceptions of musical form changed and the modern
+sonata style arose, the peculiar conditions of the concerto gave
+rise to problems the difficulty of which only the highest classical
+intellects could appreciate or solve.  The number and contrast
+of the themes necessary to work out a first movement of a sonata
+are far too great to be contained within the single musical
+sentence of Bach&rsquo;s and Handel&rsquo;s ritornello, even when it is as
+long as the thirty bars of Bach&rsquo;s Italian concerto (a work in
+which every essential of the polyphonic concerto is reproduced
+on the harpsichord by means of the contrasts between its full
+register on the lower of its two keyboards and its solo stops on
+both).  Bach&rsquo;s sons had taken shrewd steps in forming the
+new style; and Mozart, as a boy, modelled himself closely on
+Johann Christian Bach, and by the time he was twenty was
+able to write concerto ritornellos that gave the orchestra admirable
+opportunity for asserting its character and resource in the
+statement in charmingly epigrammatic style of some five or
+six sharply contrasted themes, afterwards to be worked out with
+additions by the solo with the orchestra&rsquo;s
+co-operation and
+intervention.  As the scale of the works increases the problem
+becomes very difficult, because the alternation between solo and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span>
+tutti easily produces a sectional type of structure incompatible
+with the high degree of organization required in first movements;
+yet frequent alternation is evidently necessary, as the orchestral
+solo is audible only above a very subdued orchestral accompaniment,
+and it would be highly inartistic to use the orchestra for no
+other purpose. Hence in the classical concerto the ritornello
+is never abandoned, in spite of the enormous dimensions to
+which the sonata style expanded it. And though from the
+time of Mendelssohn onwards most composers have seemed to
+regard it as a conventional impediment easily abandoned, it
+may be doubted whether any modern concerto, except the four
+magnificent examples of Brahms, and Dr Joachim&rsquo;s Hungarian
+concerto, possesses first movements in which the orchestra
+seems to enjoy breathing space. And certainly in the classical
+concerto the entry of the solo instrument, after the long opening
+tutti, is always dramatic in direct proportion to its delay. The
+great danger in handling so long an orchestral prelude is that
+the work may for some minutes be indistinguishable from a
+symphony and thus the entry of the solo may be unexpected
+without being inevitable. This is especially the case if the
+composer has treated his opening tutti like the exposition of a
+sonata movement, and made a deliberate transition from his
+first group of themes to a second group in a complementary key,
+even if the transition is only temporary, as in Beethoven&rsquo;s C
+minor concerto. Mozart keeps his whole tutti in the tonic,
+relieved only by his mastery of sudden subsidiary modulation;
+and so perfect is his marshalling of his resources that in his
+hands a tutti a hundred bars long passes by with the effect of a
+splendid pageant, of which the meaning is evidently about to be
+revealed by the solo. After the C minor concerto, Beethoven
+grasped the true function of the opening tutti and enlarged it
+to his new purposes. With an interesting experiment of Mozart&rsquo;s
+before him, he, in his G major concerto, <i>Op. 53</i>, allowed the solo
+player to state the opening theme, making the orchestra enter
+<i>pianissimo</i> in a foreign key, a wonderful incident which has led
+to the absurd statement that he &ldquo;abolished the opening tutti,&rdquo;
+and that Mendelssohn in so doing has &ldquo;followed his example.&rdquo;
+In this concerto he also gave considerable variety of key to the
+opening tutti by the use of an important theme which executes
+a considerable series of modulations, an entirely different thing
+from a deliberate modulation from material in one key to material
+in another. His fifth and last pianoforte concerto, in E flat,
+commonly called the &ldquo;Emperor,&rdquo; begins with a rhapsodical
+introduction of extreme brilliance for the solo player, followed
+by a tutti of unusual length which is confined to the tonic major
+and minor with a strictness explained by the gorgeous modulations
+with which the solo subsequently treats the second subject.
+In this concerto Beethoven also dispenses with the only really
+conventional feature of the form, namely, the <i>cadenza</i>, a custom
+elaborated from the operatic aria, in which the singer was allowed
+to extemporize a flourish on a pause near the end. A similar
+pause was made in the final ritornello of a concerto, and the
+soloist was supposed to extemporize what should be equivalent
+to a symphonic coda, with results which could not but be deplorable
+unless the player (or cadenza writer) were either the composer
+himself, or capable of entering into his intentions, like
+Joachim, who has written the finest extant cadenza of classical
+violin concertos.</p>
+
+<p>Brahms&rsquo;s first concerto in D minor, <i>Op. 15</i>, was the result of
+an immense amount of work, and, though on a mass of material
+originally intended for a symphony, was nevertheless so perfectly
+assimilated into the true concerto form that in his next essay,
+the violin concerto, <i>Op. 77</i>, he had no more to learn, and was free
+to make true innovations. He succeeds in presenting the contrasts
+even of remote keys so immediately that they are serviceable
+in the opening tutti and give the form a wider range in
+definitely functional key than any other instrumental music.
+Thus in the opening tutti of the D minor concerto the second
+subject is announced in B flat minor. In the B flat pianoforte
+concerto, <i>Op. 83</i>, it appears in D minor, and in the double
+concerto, <i>Op. 102</i>, for violin and violoncello in A minor it appears
+in F major. In none of these cases is it in the key in which the
+solo develops it, and it is reached with a directness sharply
+contrasted with the symphonic deliberation with which it is
+approached in the solo.  In the violin concerto, <i>Op. 77</i>, Brahms
+develops a counterplot in the opposition between solo and
+orchestra, inasmuch as after the solo has worked out its second
+subject the orchestra bursts in, not with the opening ritornello,
+but with its own version of the material with which the solo
+originally entered.  In other words we have now not only the
+development by the solo of material stated by the orchestra
+but also a counter-development by the orchestra of material
+stated by the solo.  This concerto is, on the other hand, remarkable
+as being the last in which a blank space is left for a cadenza,
+Brahms having in his friend Joachim a kindred spirit worthy
+of such trust.  In the pianoforte concerto in B flat, and in the
+double concerto,<a name="FnAnchor_1h" id="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <i>Op. 102</i>, the idea of an introductory statement
+in which the solo takes part before the opening tutti is carried
+out on a large scale, and in the double concerto both first and
+second subjects are thus suggested.  It is unnecessary to speak
+of the other movements of concerto form, as the sectional
+structure that so easily results from the opposition between solo
+and orchestra is not of great disadvantage to slow movements
+and finales, which accordingly do not show important differences
+from the ordinary types of symphonic and chamber music.
+The scherzo, on the other hand, is normally of too small a range
+of contrast for successful adaptation to concerto form, and the
+solitary great example of its use is the second movement of
+Brahms&rsquo;s B flat pianoforte concerto.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is more easy to handle with inartistic or pseudo-classic
+effectiveness than the opposition between a brilliant
+solo player and an orchestra; and, as the inevitable tendency
+of even the most artistic concerto has been to exhaust the
+resources of the solo instrument in the increased difficulty of
+making a proper contrast between solo and orchestra, so the
+technical difficulty of concertos has steadily increased until even
+in classical times it was so great that the orthodox definition
+of a concerto is that it is &ldquo;an instrumental composition designed
+to show the skill of an executant, and one which is almost
+invariably accompanied by orchestra.&rdquo;  This idea is in flat
+violation of the whole history and aesthetics of the form, which
+can never be understood by means of a study of averages.  In
+art the average is always false, and the individual organization
+of the greatest classical works is the only sound basis for generalizations,
+historic or aesthetic.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1h" id="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Double and triple concertos are concertos with two or three solo
+players.  A concerto for several solo players is called a concertante.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCH<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (Lat. <i>concha</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="konchę">&#954;&#972;&#947;&#967;&#951;</span>), a shell, particularly one of
+a mollusc; hence the term &ldquo;conchology,&rdquo; the science which
+deals with such shells, more used formerly when molluscs were
+studied and classified according to the shell formation; the word
+is chiefly now used for the collection of shells (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mollusca</a></span>,
+and such articles as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gastropoda</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Malacostraca</a></span>, &amp;c.).  Large
+spiral conchs have been from early times used as a form of
+trumpet, emitting a very loud sound.  They are used in the
+West Indies and the South Sea Islands.  The Tritons of ancient
+mythology are represented as blowing such &ldquo;wreathed horns.&rdquo;
+In anatomy, the term <i>concha</i> or &ldquo;conch&rdquo; is used of the external
+ear, or of the hollowed central part leading to the meatus; and,
+in architecture, it is sometimes given to the half dome over
+the semicircular apse of the basilica.  In late Roman work at
+Baalbek and Palmyra and in Renaissance buildings shells are
+frequently carved in the heads of circular niches.  A low class
+of the negro or other inhabitants of the Bahamas and the Florida
+Keys are sometimes called &ldquo;Conches&rdquo; or &ldquo;Conks&rdquo; from the
+shell-fish which form their staple food.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCHOID<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="konchę">&#954;&#972;&#947;&#967;&#951;</span>, shell, and <span class="grk" title="eidos">&#949;&#7990;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>, form), a plane curve
+invented by the Greek mathematician Nicomedes, who devised
+a mechanical construction for it and applied it to the problem
+of the duplication of the cube, the construction of two
+mean proportionals between two given quantities, and possibly
+to the trisection of an angle as in the 8th lemma of Archimedes.
+Proclus grants Nicomedes the credit of this last application, but
+it is disputed by Pappus, who claims that his own discovery was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span>
+original. The conchoid has been employed by later mathematicians,
+notably Sir Isaac Newton, in the construction of
+various cubic curves.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:208px; height:155px" src="images/img827.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The conchoid is generated as follows:&mdash;Let O be a fixed point
+and BC a fixed straight line; draw any line through O intersecting
+BC in P and take on the line PO two points X, X&prime;, such
+that PX = PX&prime; = a constant quantity.
+Then the locus of X and X&prime; is the
+conchoid. The conchoid is also the
+locus of any point on a rod which
+is constrained to move so that it
+always passes through a fixed point,
+while a fixed point on the rod travels
+along a straight line. To obtain the
+equation to the curve, draw AO
+perpendicular to BC, and let AO = a; let the constant quantity
+PX = PX&prime; = b. Then taking O as pole and a line through O
+parallel to BC as the initial line, the polar equation is r = a cosec &theta;
+ą b, the upper sign referring to the branch more distant from
+O. The cartesian equation with A as origin and BC as axis of
+x is x˛y˛ = (a + y)˛ (b˛ - y˛). Both branches belong to the same
+curve and are included in this equation. Three forms of the
+curve have to be distinguished according to the ratio of a to b.
+If a be less than b, there will be a node at O and a loop below the
+initial point (curve 1 in the figure); if a equals b there will be
+a cusp at O (curve 2); if a be greater than b the curve will not
+pass through O, but from the cartesian equation it is obvious
+that O is a conjugate point (curve 3). The curve is symmetrical
+about the axis of y and has the axis of x for its asymptote.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCIERGE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (a French word of unknown origin; the
+Latinized form was <i>concergius</i> or <i>concergerius</i>), originally the
+guardian of a house or castle, in the middle ages a court official
+who was the custodian of a royal palace. In Paris, when the
+<i>Palais de la Cité</i> ceased about 1360 to be a royal residence and
+became the seat of the courts of justice, the <i>Conciergerie</i> was
+turned into a prison. In modern usage a &ldquo;concierge&rdquo; is a
+hall-porter or janitor.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCINI, CONCINO<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (d. 1617), <span class="sc">Count Della Penna, Marshal
+d&rsquo;Ancre</span>, Italian adventurer, minister of King Louis XIII. of
+France, was a native of Florence. He came to France in the
+train of Marie de&rsquo; Medici, and married the queen&rsquo;s lady-in-waiting,
+Leonora Dori, known as Galigai. The credit which
+his wife enjoyed with the queen, his wit, cleverness and boldness
+made his fortune. In 1610 he had purchased the marquisate of
+Ancre and the position of first gentleman-in-waiting. Then he
+obtained successively the governments of Amiens and of Normandy,
+and in 1614 the bâton of marshal. From then first
+minister of the realm, he abandoned the policy of Henry IV., compromised
+his wise legislation, allowed the treasury to be pillaged,
+and drew upon himself the hatred of all classes. The nobles
+were bitterly hostile to him, particularly Condé, with whom he
+negotiated the treaty of Loudun in 1616, and whom he had
+arrested in September 1616. This was done on the advice of
+Richelieu, whose introduction into politics was favoured by
+Concini. But Louis XIII., incited by his favourite Charles
+d&rsquo;Albert, due de Luynes, was tired of Concini&rsquo;s tutelage. The
+baron de Vitry received in the king&rsquo;s name the order to imprison
+him. Apprehended on the bridge of the Louvre, Concini was
+killed by the guards on the 24th of April 1617. Leonora
+was accused of sorcery and sent to the stake in the same
+year.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1767 appeared at Brescia a <i>De Concini vita</i>, by D. Sandellius.
+On the rôle of Concini see the <i>Histoire de France</i>, published under the
+direction of E. Lavisse, vol. vi. (1905), by Mariéjol.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCLAVE<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (Lat. <i>conclave</i>, from <i>cum</i>, together, and <i>clavis</i>,
+a key), strictly a room, or set of rooms, locked with a key; in
+this sense the word is now obsolete in English, though the <i>New
+English Dictionary</i> gives an example of its use so late as 1753.
+Its present loose application to any private or close assembly,
+especially ecclesiastical, is derived from its technical application
+to the assembly of cardinals met for the election of the pope,
+with which this article is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>Conclave is the name applied to that system of strict seclusion
+to which the electors of the pope have been and are submitted,
+formerly as a matter of necessity, and subsequently as the
+result of a legislative enactment; hence the word has come to
+be used of the electoral assembly of the cardinals.  This system
+goes back only as far as the 12th century.</p>
+
+<p><i>Election of the Popes in Antiquity.</i>&mdash;The very earliest episcopal
+nominations, at Rome as elsewhere, seem without doubt to have
+been made by the direct choice of the founders of the apostolic
+Christian communities.  But this exceptional method was replaced
+at an early date by that of election.  At Rome the method
+of election was the same as in other towns: the Roman clergy
+and people and the neighbouring bishops each took part in it
+in their several capacities.  The people would signify their
+approbation or disapprobation of the candidates more or less
+tumultuously, while the clergy were, strictly speaking, the
+electoral body, met to elect for themselves a new head, and the
+bishops acted as presidents of the assembly and judges of the
+election.  The choice had to meet with general consent; but
+we can well imagine that in an assembly of such size, in which
+the candidates were acclaimed rather than elected by counting
+votes, the various functions were not very distinct, and that
+persons of importance, whether clerical or lay, were bound to
+influence the elections, and sometimes decisively.  Moreover,
+this form of election lent itself to cabals; and these frequently
+gave rise to quarrels, sometimes involving bloodshed and schisms,
+<i>i.e.</i> the election of antipopes, as they were later called. Such
+was the case at the elections of Cornelius (251), Damasus (366),
+Boniface (418), Symmachus (498), Boniface II. (530) and others.
+The remedy for this abuse was found in having recourse, more
+or less freely, to the support of the civil power.  The emperor
+Honorius upheld Boniface against his competitor Eulalius, at the
+same time laying down that cases of contested election should
+henceforth be decided by a fresh election; but this would have
+been a dangerous method and was consequently never applied.
+Theodoric upheld Symmachus against Laurentius because he
+had been elected first and by a greater majority.  The accepted
+fact soon became law, and John II. recognized (532) the right
+of the Ostrogothic court of Ravenna to ratify the pontifical
+elections.  Justinian succeeded to this right together with the
+kingdom which he had destroyed; he demanded, together with
+the payment of a tribute of 3000 golden <i>solidi</i>, that the candidate
+elected should not receive the episcopal consecration till he had
+obtained the confirmation of the emperor.  Hence arose long
+vacancies of the See, indiscreet interference in the elections by
+the imperial officials, and sometimes cases of simony and venality.
+This bondage became lighter in the 7th century, owing rather to
+the weakening of the imperial power than to any resistance on
+the part of the popes.</p>
+
+<p><i>9th to 12th Centuries.</i>&mdash;From the emperors of the East the
+power naturally passed to those of the West, and it was exercised
+after 824 by the descendants of Charlemagne, who claimed
+that the election should not proceed until the arrival of their
+envoys.  But this did not last long; at the end of the 9th
+century, Rome, torn by factions, witnessed the scandal of the
+posthumous condemnation of Formosus.  This deplorable state
+of affairs lasted almost without interruption till the middle of the
+11th century.  When the emperors were at Rome, they presided
+over the elections; when they were away, the rival factions of
+the barons, the Crescentii and the Alberici especially, struggled
+for the spiritual power as they did for the temporal.  During
+this period were seen cases of popes imposed by a faction rather
+than elected, and then, at the mercy of sedition, deposed,
+poisoned and thrown into prison, sometimes to be restored by
+force of arms.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Ottos (962-1002) was a lesser evil; that
+of the emperor Otto III. was even beneficial, in that it led to the
+election of Gerbert (Silvester II., in 999).  But this was only
+a temporary check in the process of decadence, and in 1146
+Clement II., the successor of the worthless Benedict IX., admitted
+that henceforth not only the consecration but even the <i>election</i>
+of the Roman pontiffs could only take place in presence of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span>
+emperor. In fact, after the death of Clement II. the delegates
+of the Roman clergy did actually go to Polden to ask Henry III.
+to give them a pope, and similar steps were taken after the
+death of Damasus II., who reigned only twenty days. Fortunately
+on this occasion Henry III. appointed, just before his
+death, a man of high character, his cousin Bruno, bishop of Toul,
+who presented himself in Rome in company with Hildebrand.
+From this time began the reform. Hildebrand had the elections
+of Victor II. (1055), Stephen IX. (1057), and Nicholas II. (1058)
+carried out according to the canonical form, including the
+imperial ratification. The celebrated bull <i>In nomine Domini</i>
+of the 13th of April 1059 determined the electoral procedure;
+<span class="sidenote">Election reserved to the cardinals.</span>
+it is curious to observe how, out of respect for tradition,
+it preserves all the former factors in the election
+though their scope is modified: &ldquo;In the first place,
+the cardinal bishops shall carefully consider the
+election together, then they shall consult with the cardinal
+clergy, and afterwards the rest of the clergy and the people
+shall by giving their assent confirm the new election.&rdquo; The
+election, then, is reserved to the members of the higher clergy,
+to the cardinals, among whom the cardinal bishops have the
+preponderating position. The consent of the rest of the clergy
+and the people is now only a formality. The same was the case
+of the imperial intervention, in consequence of the phrase:
+&ldquo;Saving the honour and respect due to our dear son Henry
+(Henry IV.), according to the concession we have made to him,
+and equally to his successors, who shall receive this right personally
+from the Apostolic See.&rdquo; Thus the emperor has no rights
+save those he has received as a concession from the Holy See.
+Gregory VII., it is true, notified his election to the emperor;
+but as he set up a series of five antipopes, none of Gregory&rsquo;s
+successors asked any more for the imperial sanction. Further,
+by this bull, the emperors would have to deal with the <i>fait
+accompli</i>; for it provided that, in the event of disturbances
+aroused by mischievous persons at Rome preventing the election
+from being carried out there freely and without bias, the cardinal
+bishops, together with a small number of the clergy and of the
+laity, should be empowered to go and hold the election where
+they should think fit; that should difficulties of any sort prevent
+the enthronement of the new pope, the pope elect would be
+empowered immediately to act as if he were actually pope.
+This legislation was definitely accepted by the emperor by the
+concordat of Worms (1119).</p>
+
+<p>A limited electoral body lends itself to more minute legislation
+than a larger body; the college for electing the pope, thus
+reduced so as to consist in practice of the cardinals only, was
+subjected as time went on to laws of increasing severity. Two
+points of great importance were established by Alexander III.
+at the Lateran Council of 1179. The constitution <i>Licet de
+vitanda discordia</i> makes all the cardinals equally electors, and
+no longer mentions the lower clergy or the people; it also
+requires a majority of two-thirds of the votes to decide an
+election. This latter provision, which still holds good, made
+imperial antipopes henceforth impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Abuses nevertheless arose. An electoral college too small in
+numbers, which no higher power has the right of forcing to
+haste, can prolong disagreements and draw out the
+course of the election for a long time. It is this
+<span class="sidenote">The conclave.</span>
+period during which we actually find the Holy See left
+vacant most frequently for long spaces of time. The longest of
+these, however, gave an opportunity for reform and the remedy
+was found in the conclave, <i>i.e.</i> in the forced and rigid seclusion
+of the electors. As a matter of fact, this method had previously
+been used, but in a mitigated form: in 1216, on the death of
+Innocent III., the people of Perugia had shut up the cardinals;
+and in 1241 the Roman magistrates had confined them within
+the &ldquo;Septizonium&rdquo;; they took two months, however, to perform
+the election. Celestine IV. died after eighteen days, and this
+time, in spite of the seclusion of the cardinals, there was an
+interregnum of twenty months. After the death of Clement IV.
+in 1268, the cardinals, of whom seventeen were gathered together
+at Viterbo, allowed two years to pass without coming to an
+agreement; the magistrates of Viterbo again had recourse to the
+method of seclusion: they shut up the electors in the episcopal
+palace, blocking up all outlets; and since the election still
+delayed, the people removed the roof of the palace and allowed
+nothing but bread and water to be sent in. Under the pressure
+of famine and of this strict confinement, the cardinals finally
+agreed, on the 1st of September 1271, to elect Gregory X., after
+an interregnum of two years, nine months and two days.</p>
+
+<p>Taught by experience, the new pope considered what steps
+could be taken to prevent the recurrence of such abuses; in
+1274, at the council of Lyons, he promulgated the
+constitution <i>Ubi periculum</i>, the substance of which
+<span class="sidenote">Laws made by Gregory X.</span>
+was as follows: At the death of the pope, the cardinals
+who were present are to await their absent colleagues
+for ten days; they are then to meet in one of the papal palaces
+in a closed conclave; none of them is to have to wait on him
+more than one servant, or two at most if he were ill; in the
+conclave they are to lead a life in common, not even having
+separate cells; they are to have no communication with the
+outer world, under pain of excommunication for any who should
+attempt to communicate with them; food is to be supplied
+to the cardinals through a window which would be under watch;
+after three days, their meals are to consist of a single dish
+only; and after five days, of bread and water, with a little
+wine. During the conclave the cardinals are to receive no
+ecclesiastical revenue. No account is to be taken of those
+who are absent or have left the conclave. Finally, the election
+is to be the sole business of the conclave, and the magistrates
+of the town where it was held are called upon to see that these
+provisions be observed. Adrian V. and John XX. were weak
+enough to suspend the constitution <i>Ubi periculum</i>; but the
+abuses at once reappeared; the Holy See was again vacant for
+long periods; this further proof was therefore decisive, and
+Celestine V., who was elected after a vacancy of more than
+two years, took care, before abdicating the pontificate, to
+revive the constitution of Gregory X., which was inserted in the
+Decretals (lib. i. tit. vi., <i>de election.</i> cap. 3).</p>
+
+<p>Since then the laws relating to the conclave have been observed,
+even during the great schism; the only exception was the
+election of Martin V., which was performed by the cardinals of
+the three obediences, to which the council of Constance added
+five prelates of each of the six nations represented in that
+assembly. The same was the case up to the 16th century. At
+this period the Italian republics, later Spain, and finally the
+other powers, took an intimate interest in the choice of the
+holder of what was a considerable political power; and each
+brought more or less honest means to bear, sometimes that of
+simony. It was against simony that Julius II. directed the bull
+<span class="sidenote">Julius II.</span>
+<i>Cum tam divino</i> (1503), which directed that simoniacal
+election of the pope should be declared null; that any
+one could attack it; that men should withdraw themselves from
+the obedience of a pope thus elected; that simoniacal agreements
+should be invalid; that the guilty cardinals should be excommunicate
+till their death, and that the rest should proceed
+immediately to a new election. The purpose of this measure
+was good, but the proposed remedy extremely dangerous; it was
+fortunately never applied. Similarly, Paul IV. endeavoured
+by severe punishments to check the intriguing and plotting for
+the election of a new pope while his predecessor was still living;
+but the bull <i>Cum secundum</i> (1558) was of no effect.</p>
+
+<p>Pius IV. undertook the task of reforming and completing
+the legislation of the conclave. The bull <i>In eligendis</i> (of October
+1st, 1562), signed by all the cardinals, is a model of
+precision and wisdom. In addition to the points
+<span class="sidenote">Pius IV.</span>
+already stated, we may add the following: that every day
+there was to be a scrutiny, <i>i.e.</i> a solemn voting by specially
+prepared voting papers (concealing the name of the voter, and
+to be opened only in case of an election being made at that
+scrutiny), and that this was to be followed by the &ldquo;accessit,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> a second voting, in which the cardinals might transfer their
+suffrages to those who had obtained the greatest number of
+votes in the first. Except in case of urgent matters, the election
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span>
+was to form the whole business of the conclave. The cells were
+to be assigned by lot. The functionaries of the conclave were
+to be elected by the secret vote of the Sacred College. The
+most stringent measures were to be taken to ensure seclusion.
+The bull <i>Aeterni Patris</i> of Gregory XV. (15th of November 1621)
+<span class="sidenote">Gregory XV.</span>
+is a collection of minute regulations. In it is the rule
+compelling each cardinal, before giving his vote, to
+take the oath that he will elect him whom he shall
+judge to be the most worthy; it also makes rules for the forms of
+voting and of the voting papers, for the counting, the scrutiny,
+and in fact all the processes of the election. A second bull, <i>Decet
+Romanum Pontificem</i>, of the 12th of March 1622, fixed the
+ceremonial of the conclave with such minuteness that it has not
+been changed since.</p>
+
+<p>All previous legislation concerning the conclave was codified
+and renewed by Pius X.&rsquo;s bull, <i>Vacante Sede Apostolico</i> (Dec.
+25, 1904), which abrogates the earlier texts, except Leo XIII.&rsquo;s
+constitution <i>Praedecessores Nostri</i> (May 24, 1882), authorizing
+occasional derogations in circumstances of difficulty, <i>e.g.</i> the
+death of a pope away from Rome or an attempt to interfere
+with the liberty of the Sacred College. The bull of Pius X. is
+rather a codification than a reform, the principal change being
+the abolition of the scrutiny of accession and the substitution
+of a second ordinary scrutiny during the same session.</p>
+
+<p>On some occasions exceptional circumstances have given rise
+to transitory measures. In 1797 and 1798 Pius VI. authorized
+the cardinals to act contrary to such of the laws concerning the
+conclave as a majority of them should decide not to observe,
+as being impossible in practice. Similarly Pius IX., by means
+of various acts which remained secret up till 1892, had taken
+the most minute precautions in order to secure a free and rapid
+election, and to avoid all interference on the part of the secular
+powers. We know that the conclaves in which Leo XIII. and
+Pius X. were elected enjoyed the most complete liberty, and the
+hypothetical measures foreseen by Pius IX. were not applied.</p>
+
+<p>Until after the Great Schism the conclaves were held in
+various towns outside of Rome; but since then they
+<span class="sidenote">The conclave at Rome.</span>
+have all been held in Rome, with the single exception
+of the conclave of Venice (1800), and in most cases
+in the Vatican.</p>
+
+<p>There was no place permanently established for the purpose,
+but removable wooden cells were installed in the various apartments
+of the palace, grouped around the Sistine chapel, in which
+the scrutinies took place. The arrangements prepared in the
+Quirinal in 1823 did duty only three times, and for the most
+recent conclaves it was necessary to arrange an inner enclosure
+within the vast but irregular palace of the Vatican. Each
+cardinal is accompanied by a clerk or secretary, known for this
+reason as a conclavist, and by one servant only. With the
+officials of the conclave, this makes about two hundred and
+fifty persons who enter the conclave and have no further communication
+with the outer world save by means of turning-boxes.
+Since 1870 the solemn ceremonies of earlier times have naturally
+not been seen; for instance the procession which used to celebrate
+<span class="sidenote">Modern procedure.</span>
+the entry into conclave; or the daily arrival in procession
+of the clergy and the brotherhoods to enquire
+at the &ldquo;rota&rdquo; (turning-box) of the auditors of the
+Rota: &ldquo;Habemusne Pontificem?&rdquo; and their return accompanied
+by the chanting of the &ldquo;<i>Veni Creator</i>&rdquo;; or the &ldquo;Marshal of the
+Holy Roman Church and perpetual guardian of the conclave&rdquo;
+visiting the churches in state. But a crowd still collects morning
+and evening in the great square of St Peter&rsquo;s, towards the time
+of the completion of the vote, to look for the smoke which rises
+from the burning of the voting-papers after each session; when
+the election has not been effected, a little straw is burnt with
+the papers, and the column of smoke then apprises the spectators
+that they have still no pope. Within the conclave, the cardinals,
+alone in the common hall, usually the Sistine chapel, proceed
+morning and evening to their double vote, the direct vote and
+the &ldquo;accessit.&rdquo; Sometimes these sessions have been very
+numerous; for example, in 1740, Benedict XIV. was only
+elected after 255 scrutinies; on other occasions, however, and
+notably in the case of the last few popes, a well-defined majority
+has soon been evident, and there have been but few scrutinies.
+Each vote is immediately counted by three scrutators, appointed
+in rotation, the most minute precautions being taken to ensure
+that the voting shall be secret and sincere. When one cardinal
+has at last obtained two-thirds of the votes, the dean of the cardinals
+formally asks him whether he accepts his election, and
+what name he wishes to assume. As soon as he has accepted, the
+first &ldquo;obedience&rdquo; or &ldquo;adoration&rdquo; takes place, and immediately
+after the first cardinal deacon goes to the <i>Loggia</i> of St Peter&rsquo;s
+and announces the great news to the assembled people. The
+conclave is dissolved; on the following day take place the two
+other &ldquo;obediences,&rdquo; and the election is officially announced to
+the various governments. If the pope be not a bishop (Gregory
+XVI. was not), he is then consecrated; and finally, a few days
+after his election, takes place the coronation, from which the pontificate
+is officially dated. The pope then receives the tiara with
+the triple crown, the sign of his supreme spiritual authority. The
+ceremony of the coronation goes back to the 9th century, and the
+tiara, in the form of a high conical cap, is equally ancient (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tiara</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, a few words should be said with regard to the
+right of <i>veto</i>. In the 16th and 17th centuries the character of
+the conclaves was determined by the influence of what
+were then known as the &ldquo;factions,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the formation
+<span class="sidenote">The right of veto.</span>
+of the cardinals into groups according to their
+nationality or their relations with one of the Catholic courts
+of Spain, France or the Empire, or again according as they
+favoured the political policy of the late pope or his predecessor.
+These groups upheld or opposed certain candidates. The
+Catholic courts naturally entrusted the cardinals &ldquo;of the crown,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> those of their nation, with the mission of removing, as far
+as lay in their power, candidates who were distasteful to their
+party; the various governments could even make public their
+desire to exclude certain candidates. But they soon claimed an
+actual right of formal and direct exclusion, which should be
+notified in the conclave in their name by a cardinal charged
+with this mission, and should have a decisive effect; this is
+what has been called the right of veto. We cannot say precisely
+at what time during the 16th century this transformation
+of the practice into a right, tacitly accepted by the Sacred
+College, took place; it was doubtless felt to be less dangerous
+formally to recognize the right of the three sovereigns each to
+object to one candidate, than to face the inconvenience of
+objections, such as were formulated on several occasions by
+Philip II., which, though less legal in form, might apply to an
+indefinite number of candidates. The fact remains, however,
+that it was a right based on custom, and was not supported by
+any text or written concession; but the diplomatic right was
+straightforward and definite, and was better than the intrigues
+of former days. During the 19th century Austria exercised,
+or tried to exercise, the right of veto at all the conclaves, except
+that which elected Leo XIII. (1878); it did so again at the
+conclave of 1903. On the 2nd of August Cardinal Rampolla
+had received twenty-nine votes, when Cardinal Kolzielsko
+Puzina, bishop of Cracow, declared that the Austrian government
+opposed the election of Cardinal Rampolla; the Sacred College
+considered that it ought to yield, and on the 4th of August
+elected Cardinal Sarto, who took the name of Pius X. By the
+bull <i>Commissum Nobis</i> (January 20, 1904), Pius X. suppressed
+all right of &ldquo;veto&rdquo; or &ldquo;exclusion&rdquo; on the part of the secular
+governments, and forbade, under pain of excommunication
+reserved to the future pope, any cardinal or conclavist to accept
+from his government the charge of proposing a &ldquo;veto,&rdquo; or to
+exhibit it to the conclave under any form.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The best and most complete work is Lucius
+Lector, <i>Le Conclave, origine, histoire, organisation, législation ancienne
+et moderne</i> (Paris, 1894). See also Ferraris, <i>Prompta Bibliotheca,
+s. v. Papa</i>, art. i.; Moroni, <i>Dizionario di erudizione storico-ecclesiastica,
+s. v. Conclave, Conclavisti, Cella, Elezione, Esclusiva</i>; Bouix,
+<i>De Curia Romana</i>, part i. c. x.; <i>De Papa</i>, part vii. (Paris, 1859,
+1870); Barbier de Montault, <i>Le Conclave</i> (Paris, 1878). On the
+conclave of Leo XIII., R. de Cesare, <i>Conclave di Leone XIII.</i> (Rome,
+1888). On the conclave of Pius X.: an eye-witness (Card. Mathieu),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span>
+<i>Les Derniers Jours de Léon XIII et le conclave</i> (Paris, 1904).  See
+further, for the right of veto: Phillips, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, t. v. p. 138;
+Sägmüller, <i>Die Papstwahlen und die Staate</i> (Tübingen, 1890); <i>Die
+Papstwahlbullen und das staatliche Recht des Exclusive</i> (Tübingen,
+1892); Wahrmund, <i>Ausschliessungsrecht der katholischen Staaten</i>
+(Vienna, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Bo.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCORD,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A., about 20 m. N.W. of Boston.  Pop. (1900) 5652; (1910,
+U.S. census) 6421.  Area 25 sq. m.  It is traversed by the Boston
+&amp; Maine railway.  Where the Sudbury and Assabet unite to
+form the beautiful little Concord river, celebrated by Thoreau,
+is the village of Concord, straggling, placid and beautiful, full
+of associations with the opening of the War of Independence
+and with American literature.  Of particular interest is the
+&ldquo;Old Manse,&rdquo; built in 1765 for Rev. William Emerson, in which
+his grandson R. W. Emerson wrote <i>Nature</i>, and Hawthorne
+his <i>Mosses from an Old Manse</i>, containing a charming description
+of the building and its associations.  At Concord there is a
+state reformatory, whose inmates, about 800 in number,
+are employed in manufacturing various articles, but otherwise
+the town has only minor business and industrial interests.  The
+introduction of the &ldquo;Concord&rdquo; grape, first produced here by
+Ephraim Bull in 1853, is said to have marked the beginning of
+the profitable commercial cultivation of table grapes in the
+United States.  Concord was settled and incorporated as a
+township in 1635, and was (with Dedham) the first settlement
+in Massachusetts back from the sea-coast.  A county convention
+at Concord village in August 1774 recommended the calling of
+the first Provincial Congress of Massachusetts&mdash;one of the first
+independent legislatures of America&mdash;which assembled here on
+the 11th of October 1774, and again in March and April 1775.
+The village became thereafter a storehouse of provisions and
+munitions of war, and hence became the objective of the British
+expedition that on the 19th of April 1775 opened with the
+armed conflict at Lexington (<i>q.v.</i>) the American War of Independence.
+As the British proceeded to Concord the whole
+country was rising, and at Concord about 500 minute-men
+confronted the British regulars who were holding the village
+and searching for arms and stores.  Volleys were exchanged,
+the British retreated, the minute-men hung on their flanks and
+from the hillsides shot them down, driving their columns on
+Lexington.  A granite obelisk, erected in 1837, when Emerson
+wrote his ode on the battle, marks the spot where the first
+British soldiers fell; while across the stream a fine bionze
+&ldquo;Minute-Man&rdquo; (1875) by D. C. French (a native of Concord)
+marks the spot where once &ldquo;the embattled farmers stood and
+fired the shot heard round the world&rdquo; (Emerson).  Concord was
+long one of the shire-townships of Middlesex county, losing this
+honour in 1867.  The village is famous as the home of R. W.
+Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry D. Thoreau, Louisa M.
+Alcott and her father, A. Bronson Alcott, who maintained
+here from 1879 to 1888 (in a building still standing) the Concord
+school of philosophy, which counted Benjamin Peirce, W. T.
+Harris, Mrs J. W. Howe, T. W. Higginson, Professor William
+James and Emerson among its lecturers.  Emerson, Hawthorne,
+Thoreau and the Alcotts are buried here in the beautiful Sleepy
+Hollow Cemetery.  Of the various orations (among others one
+by Edward Everett in 1825) that have been delivered at Concord
+anniversaries perhaps the finest is that of George William
+Curtis, delivered in 1875.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. S. Hudson, <i>The History of Concord</i>, vol. i. (Concord, 1904);
+G. B. Bartlett, <i>Concord: Historic, Literary and Picturesque</i> (Boston,
+1885); and Mrs J. L. Swayne, <i>Story of Concord</i> (Boston, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCORD,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Cabarrus county,
+North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Rocky river, about 150 m.
+W.S.W. of Raleigh.  Pop. (1890) 4339; (1900) 7910 (1789 negroes);
+(1910) 8715.  It is served by the Southern railway.
+Concord is situated in a cotton-growing region, and its chief
+interest is in the manufacture of cotton goods.  The city is the
+seat of Scotia seminary (for negro girls), founded in 1870 and
+under the care of the Presbyterian Board of Missions for Freedmen,
+Pittsburgh Pa.  Concord was laid out in 1793 and was
+first incorporated in 1851.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCORD,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> the capital of New Hampshire, U.S.A., and the
+county-seat of Merrimack county, on both sides of the Merrimac
+river, about 75 m. N.W. of Boston, Massachusetts.  Pop. (1890)
+17,004; (1900) 19,632, of whom 3813 were foreign-born;
+(1910, census) 21,497.  Concord is served by the Boston
+&amp; Maine railway.  The area of the city in 1906 was 45.16 sq. m.
+Concord has broad streets bordered with shade trees; and has
+several parks, including Penacook, White, Rollins and the
+Contoocook river.  Among the principal buildings are the state
+capitol, the state library, the city hall, the county court-house,
+the post-office, a public library (17,000 vols.), the state hospital,
+the state prison, the Centennial home for the aged, the Margaret
+Pillsbury memorial hospital, the Rolfe and Rumford asylum for
+orphan girls, founded by Count Rumford&rsquo;s daughter, and some
+fine churches, including the Christian Science church built by
+Mrs Eddy.  There are a soldiers&rsquo; memorial arch, a statue of
+Daniel Webster by Thomas Ball, and statues of John P. Hale,
+John Stark, and Commodore George H. Perkins, the last by
+Daniel C. French; and at Penacook, 6 m. N.W. of Concord,
+there is a monument to Hannah Dustin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Haverhill</a></span>).  Among
+the educational institutions are the well-known St Paul&rsquo;s school
+for boys (Protestant Episcopal, 1853), about 2 m. W. of the city,
+and St Mary&rsquo;s school for girls (Protestant Episcopal, 1885).
+From 1847 to 1867 Concord was the seat of the Biblical Institute
+(Methodist Episcopal), founded in Newbury, Vermont, in 1841,
+removed to Boston as the Boston Theological Seminary in 1867,
+and after 1871 a part of Boston University.  The city has
+various manufactures, including flour and grist mill products,
+silver ware, cotton and woollen goods, carriages, harnesses and
+leather belting, furniture, wooden ware, pianos and clothing;
+the Boston &amp; Maine Railroad has a large repair shop in the city,
+and there are valuable granite quarries in the vicinity.  In
+1905 Concord ranked third among the cities of the state in the
+value of its factory products, which was $6,387,372, being
+an increase of 51.7% since 1900.  When first visited by the
+English settlers, the site of Concord was occupied by Penacook
+Indians; a trading post was built here about 1660.  In 1725
+Massachusetts granted the land in this vicinity to some of her
+citizens; but this grant was not recognized by New Hampshire,
+whose legislature issued (1727) a grant (the Township of Bow)
+overlapping the Massachusetts grant, which was known as
+Penacook or Penny Cook.  The New Hampshire grantees
+undertook to establish here a colony of Londonderry Irish;
+but the Massachusetts settlers were firmly established by the
+spring of 1727, Massachusetts definitely assumed jurisdiction
+in 1731, and in 1734 her general court incorporated the settlement
+under the name of Rumford.  The conflicting rights of
+Rumford and Bow gave rise to one of the most celebrated of
+colonial land cases, and although the New Hampshire authorities
+enforced their claims of jurisdiction, the privy council in 1755
+confirmed the Rumford settlers in their possession.  In 1765
+the name was changed to the &ldquo;parish of Concord,&rdquo; and in 1784
+the town of Concord was incorporated.  Here, for some years
+before the War of American Independence, lived Benjamin
+Thompson, later Count Rumford.  In 1778 and again in 1781-1782
+a state constitutional convention met here; the first New
+Hampshire legislature met at Concord in 1782; the convention
+which ratified for New Hampshire the Federal Constitution met
+here in 1788; and in 1808 the state capital was definitely established
+here.  The New Hampshire <i>Patriot</i>, founded here in 1808
+(and for twenty years edited) by Isaac Hill (1788-1851), who
+was a member of the United States Senate in 1831-1836, and
+governor of New Hampshire in 1836-1839, became one of the
+leading exponents of Jacksonian Democracy in New England.
+In 1814 the Middlesex Canal, connecting Concord with Boston,
+was completed.  A city charter granted by the legislature in
+1849 was not accepted by the city until 1853.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. O. Lyford, <i>The History of Concord, New Hampshire</i> (City
+History Commission) (2 vols., Concord, 1903); <i>Concord Town
+Records, 1732-1820</i> (Concord, 1894); J. B. Moore, <i>Annals of Concord,
+1726-1823</i> (Concord, 1824); and Nathaniel Bouton, <i>The History of
+Concord</i> (Concord, 1856).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CONCORD, BOOK OF<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (<i>Liber Concordiae</i>), the collective
+documents of the Lutheran confession, consisting of the <i>Confessio
+Augustana</i>, the <i>Apologia Confessionis Augustanae</i>, the <i>Articula
+Smalcaldici</i>, the <i>Catechismi Major et Minor</i> and the <i>Formula
+Concordiae</i>. This last was a formula issued on the 25th of June
+1580 (the jubilee of the Augsburg Confession) by the Lutheran
+Church in an attempt to heal the breach which, since the death
+of Luther, had been widening between the extreme Lutherans
+and the Crypto-Calvinists. Previous attempts at concord had
+been made at the request of different rulers, especially by Jacob
+Andreä with his Swabian Concordia in 1573, and Abel Scherdinger
+with the Maulbronn Formula in 1575. In 1576 the elector
+of Saxony called a conference of theologians at Torgau to discuss
+these two efforts and from them produce a third. The <i>Book of
+Torgau</i> was evolved, circulated and criticized; a new committee,
+prominent on which was Martin Chemnitz, sitting at Bergen
+near Magdeburg, considered the criticisms and finally drew up
+the <i>Formula Concordiae</i>. It consists of (a) the &ldquo;Epitome,&rdquo;
+(b) the &ldquo;Solid Repetition and Declaration,&rdquo; each part comprising
+twelve articles; and was accepted by Saxony, Württemberg,
+Baden among other states, but rejected by Hesse, Nassau and
+Holstein. Even the free cities were divided, Hamburg and
+Lübeck for, Bremen and Frankfort against. Hungary and
+Sweden accepted it, and so finally did Denmark, where at first
+it was rejected, and its publication made a crime punishable by
+death. In spite of this very limited reception the <i>Formula
+Concordiae</i> has always been reckoned with the five other documents
+as of confessional authority.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See P. Schaff, <i>Creeds of Christendom</i>, i. 258-340, iii. 92-180.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCORDANCE<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (Late Lat. <i>concordantia</i>, harmony, from <i>cum</i>,
+with, and <i>cor</i>, heart), literally agreement, harmony; hence
+derivatively a citation of parallel passages, and specifically an
+alphabetical arrangement of the words contained in a book with
+citations of the passages in which they occur. Concordances
+in this last sense were first made for the Bible. Originally the
+word was only used in this connexion in the plural <i>concordantiae</i>,
+each group of parallel passages being properly a <i>concordantia</i>.
+The Germans distinguish between concordances of things and
+concordances of words, the former indexing the subject matter
+of a book (&ldquo;real&rdquo; concordance), the latter the words (&ldquo;verbal&rdquo;
+concordance).</p>
+
+<p>The original impetus to the making of concordances was due to
+the conviction that the several parts of the Bible are consistent
+with each other, as parts of a divine revelation, and may be combined
+as harmonious elements in one system of spiritual truth.
+To Anthony of Padua (1195-1231) ancient tradition ascribes
+the first concordance, the anonymous <i>Concordantiae Morales</i>,
+of which the basis was the Vulgate. The first authentic work
+of the kind was due to Cardinal Hugh of St Cher, a Dominican
+monk (d. 1263), who, in preparing for a commentary on the
+Scriptures, found the need of a concordance, and is reported to
+have used for the purpose the services of five hundred of his
+brother monks. This concordance was the basis of two which
+succeeded in time and importance, one by Conrad of Halberstadt
+(fl. c. 1290) and the other by John of Segovia in the next century.
+This book was published in a greatly improved and amplified
+form in the middle of the 19th century by David Nutt, of London,
+edited by T. P. Dutripon. The first Hebrew concordance was
+compiled in 1437-1445 by Rabbi Isaac Nathan b. Kalonymus
+of Arles. It was printed at Venice in 1523 by Daniel Bomberg,
+in Basel in 1556, 1569 and 1581. It was published under the
+title <i>Meir Natib</i>, &ldquo;The Light of the Way.&rdquo; In 1556 it was
+translated into Latin by Johann Reuchlin, but many errors
+appeared in both the Hebrew and the Latin edition. These were
+corrected by Marius de Calasio, a Franciscan friar, who published
+a four volume folio <i>Concordantiae Sacr. Bibl. Hebr. et Latin.</i> at
+Rome, 1621, much enlarged, with proper names included. Another
+concordance based on Nathan&rsquo;s was Johann Buxtorf the
+elder&rsquo;s <i>Concordantiae Bibl. Ebraicae nova et artificiosa methodo
+dispositae</i>, Basel, 1632. It marks a stage in both the arrangement
+and the knowledge of the roots of words, but can only be used by
+those who know the massoretic system, as the references are
+made by Hebrew letters and relate to rabbinical divisions of the
+Old Testament. Calasio&rsquo;s concordance was republished in
+London under the direction of William Romaine in 1747-1749,
+in four volumes folio, under the patronage of all the monarchs
+of Europe and also of the pope. In 1754 John Taylor, D.D., a
+Presbyterian divine in Norwich, published in two volumes the
+<i>Hebrew Concordance adapted to the English Bible</i>, disposed after
+the manner of Buxtorf. This was the most complete and convenient
+concordance up to the date of its publication. In the
+middle of the 19th century Dr Julius Fürst issued a thoroughly
+revised edition of Buxtorf&rsquo;s concordance. The <i>Hebräischen
+und chaldäischen Concordanz zu den Heiligen Schriften Alten
+Testaments</i> (Leipzig, 1840) carried forward the development of
+the concordance in several directions. It gave (1) a corrected
+text founded on Hahn&rsquo;s Vanderhoogt&rsquo;s Bible; (2) the Rabbinical
+meanings; (3) explanations in Latin, and illustrations from
+the three Greek versions, the Aramaic paraphrase, and the
+Vulgate; (4) the Greek words employed by the Septuagint
+as renderings of the Hebrew; (5) notes on philology and archaeology,
+so that the concordance contained a Hebrew lexicon.
+An English translation by Dr Samuel Davidson was published
+in 1867. A revised edition of Buxtorf&rsquo;s work with additions
+from Fürst&rsquo;s was published by B. Bär (Stettin, 1862). A new
+concordance embodying the matter of all previous works with
+lists of proper names and particles was published by Solomon
+Mandelkern in Leipzig (1896); a smaller edition of the same,
+without quotations, appeared in 1900. There are also concordances
+of Biblical proper names by G. Brecher (Frankfort-on-Main,
+1876) and Schusslovicz (Wilna, 1878).</p>
+
+<p>A <i>Concordance to the Septuagint</i> was published at Frankfort
+in 1602 by Conrad Kircher of Augsburg; in this the Hebrew
+words are placed in alphabetical order and the Greek words by
+which they are translated are placed under them. A Septuagint
+concordance, giving the Greek words in alphabetical order, was
+published in 1718 in two volumes by Abraham Tromm, a learned
+minister at Groningen, then in the eighty-fourth year of his age.
+It gives the Greek words in alphabetical order; a Latin translation;
+the Hebrew word or words for which the Greek term is
+used by the Septuagint; then the places where the words occur
+in the order of the books and chapters; at the end of the quotations
+from the Septuagint places are given where the word occurs
+in Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, the other Greek
+translations of the O. T.; and the words of the Apocrypha
+follow in each case. Besides an index to the Hebrew and
+Chaldaic words there is another index which contains a lexicon
+to the <i>Hexapla</i> of Origen. In 1887 (London) appeared the
+<i>Handy Concordance of the Septuagint giving various readings
+from Codices Vaticanus, Alexandrinus, Sinaiticus and Ephraemi,
+with an appendix of words from Origen&rsquo;s Hexapla, not found in
+the above manuscripts</i>, by G. M., without quotations. A work
+of the best modern scholarship was brought out in 1897 by the
+Clarendon Press, Oxford, entitled <i>A Concordance to the Septuagint
+and the other Greek versions of the Old Testament including the
+Apocryphal Books</i>, by Edwin Hatch and H. A. Redpath, assisted
+by other scholars; this was completed in 1900 by a list of proper
+names.</p>
+
+<p><i>The first Greek concordance</i> to the New Testament was published
+at Basel in 1546 by Sixt Birck or Xystus Betuleius (1500-1554),
+a philologist and minister of the Lutheran Church. This was
+followed by Stephen&rsquo;s concordance (1594) planned by Robert
+Stephens and published by Henry, his son. Then in 1638 came
+Schmied&rsquo;s <span class="grk" title="tamieion">&#964;&#945;&#956;&#953;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>, which has been the basis of subsequent
+concordances to the New Testament. Erasmus Schmied or
+Schmid was a Lutheran divine who was professor of Greek in
+Wittenberg, where he died in 1637. Revised editions of the
+<span class="grk" title="tamieion">&#964;&#945;&#956;&#953;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span> were published at Gotha in 1717, and at Glasgow in
+1819 by the University Press. In the middle of the 19th century
+Charles Hermann Bruder brought out a beautiful edition (Tauchnitz)
+with many improvements. The <i>apparatus criticus</i> was a
+triumph of New Testament scholarship. It collates the readings
+of Erasmus, R. Stephens&rsquo; third edition, the Elzevirs, Mill,
+Bengel, Webster, Knapp, Tittman, Scholz, Lachmann. It also
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span>
+gives a selection from the most ancient patristic MSS. and from
+various interpreters. No various reading of critical value is
+omitted. An edition of Bruder with readings of Samuel
+Prideaux Tregelles was published in 1888 under the editorship
+of Westcott and Hort. The <i>Englishman&rsquo;s Greek Concordance
+of the New Testament</i>, and the <i>Englishman&rsquo;s Hebrew and Chaldee
+Concordance</i>, are books intended to put the results of the above-mentioned
+works at the service of those who know little Hebrew
+or Greek. Every word in the Bible is given in Hebrew or Greek,
+the word is transliterated, and then every passage in which it
+occurs is given&mdash;the word, however it may be translated, being
+italicized. They are the work of George V. Wigram assisted
+by W. Burgh and superintended by S. P. Tregelles, B. Davidson
+and W. Chalk (1843; 2nd ed. 1860). Another book which
+deserves mention is, <i>A Concordance to the Greek Testament with
+the English version to each word; the principal Hebrew roots
+corresponding to the Greek words of the Septuagint, with short
+critical notes and an index</i>, by John Williams, LL.D., Lond. 1767.</p>
+
+<p>In 1884 Robert Young, author of an analytical concordance
+mentioned below, brought out a <i>Concordance to the Greek New
+Testament with a dictionary of Bible Words and Synonyms</i>: this
+contains a concise concordance to eight thousand changes made
+in the Revised Testament. Another important work of modern
+scholarship is the <i>Concordance to the Greek Testament</i>, edited by
+the Rev. W. F. Moulton and A. E. Geden, according to the texts
+adopted by Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, and the English
+revisers.</p>
+
+<p>The first concordance to the English version of the New
+Testament was published in London, 1535, by Thomas Gybson.
+It is a black-letter volume entitled <i>The Concordance of the New
+Testament most necessary to be had in the hands of all soche as delyte
+in the communicacion of any place contayned in ye New Testament</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first English concordance of the entire Bible was John
+Marbeck&rsquo;s, <i>A Concordance, that is to saie, a worke wherein by the
+order of the letters of the A.B.C. ye maie redely find any worde
+conteigned in the whole Bible, so often as it is there expressed or
+mentioned</i>, Lond. 1550. Although Robert Stephens had divided
+the Bible into verses in 1545, Marbeck does not seem to have
+known this and refers to the chapters only. In 1550 also appeared
+Walter Lynne&rsquo;s translation of the concordance issued
+by Bullinger, Jude, Pellican and others of the Reformers.
+Other English concordances were published by Cotton, Newman,
+and in abbreviated forms by John Downham or Downame
+(cd. 1652), Vavasor Powell (1617-1670), Jackson and Samuel
+Clarke (1626-1701). In 1737 Alexander Cruden (<i>q.v.</i>), a London
+bookseller, born and educated in Aberdeen, published his
+<i>Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New
+Testament, to which is added a concordance to the books called
+Apocrypha</i>. This book embodied, was based upon and superseded
+all its predecessors. Though the first edition was not
+remunerative, three editions were published during Cruden&rsquo;s
+life, and many since his death. Cruden&rsquo;s work is accurate and
+full, and later concordances only supersede his by combining
+an English with a Greek and Hebrew concordance. This is
+done by the <i>Critical Greek and English Concordance</i> prepared
+by C. F. Hudson, H. A. Hastings and Ezra Abbot, LL.D.,
+published in Boston, Mass., and by the <i>Critical Lexicon and
+Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament</i>, by E. L.
+Bullinger, 1892. The <i>Interpreting Concordance to the New
+Testament</i>, edited by James Gall, shows the Greek original of
+every word, with a glossary explaining the Greek words of the
+New Testament, and showing their varied renderings in the
+Authorized Version. The most convenient of these is <i>Young&rsquo;s
+Analytical Concordance</i>, published in Edinburgh in 1879, and
+since revised and reissued. It shows (1) the original Hebrew
+or Greek of any word in the English Bible; (2) the literal and
+primitive meaning of every such original word; (3) thoroughly
+reliable parallel passages. There is a <i>Students&rsquo; Concordance to
+the Revised Version of the New Testament</i> showing the changes
+embodied in the revision, published under licence of the universities;
+and a concordance to the Revised Version by J. A.
+Thoms for the Christian Knowledge Society.</p>
+
+<p>Biblical concordances having familiarized students with
+the value and use of such books for the systematic study of
+an author, the practice of making concordances has now become
+common.  There are concordances to the works of Shakespeare,
+Browning and many other writers.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCORDAT<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (Lat. <i>concordatum</i>, agreed upon, from <i>con-</i>,
+together, and <i>cor</i>, heart), a term originally denoting an agreement
+between ecclesiastical persons or secular persons, but later
+applied to a pact concluded between the ecclesiastical authority
+and the secular authority on ecclesiastical matters which concern
+both, and, more specially, to a pact concluded between the pope,
+as head of the Catholic Church, and a temporal sovereign for the
+regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in the territory of such sovereign.
+It is to concordats in this later sense that this article
+refers.</p>
+
+<p>No one now questions the profound distinction that exists
+between the two powers, spiritual and temporal, between the
+church and the state.  Yet these two societies are none the
+less in inevitable relation.  The same men go to compose both;
+and the church, albeit pursuing a spiritual end, cannot dispense
+with the aid of temporal property, which in its nature depends
+on the organization of secular society.  It follows of necessity
+that there are some matters which may be called &ldquo;mixed,&rdquo;
+and which are the legitimate concern of the two powers, such as
+church property, places of worship, the appointment and the
+emoluments of ecclesiastical dignitaries, the temporal rights and
+privileges of the secular and regular clergy, the regulation of
+public worship, and the like.  The existence of such mixed
+matters gives rise to inevitable conflicts of jurisdiction, which
+may lead, and sometimes have led, to civil war.  It is, therefore,
+to the general interest that all these matters should be settled
+pacifically, by a common accord; and hence originated those
+conventions between the two powers which are known by the
+significant name of concordat, the official name being <i>pactum
+concordatum</i> or <i>solemnis conventio</i>.  In theory these agreements
+may result from the spontaneous and pacific initiative of the
+contracting parties, but in reality their object has almost always
+been to terminate more or less acute conflicts and remedy more
+or less disturbed situations.  It is for this reason that concordats
+always present a clearly marked character of mutual concession,
+each of the two powers renouncing certain of its claims in the
+interests of peace.</p>
+
+<p>For the purposes of a concordat the state recognizes the
+official <i>status</i> of the church and of its ministers and tribunals;
+guarantees it certain privileges; and sometimes binds itself to
+secure for it subsidies representing compensation for past
+spoliations.  The pope on his side grants the temporal sovereign
+certain rights, such as that of making or controlling the appointment
+of dignitaries; engages to proceed in harmony with the
+government in the creation of dioceses or parishes; and regularizes
+the situation produced by the usurpation of church property
+&amp;c.  The great advantage of concordats&mdash;indeed their principal
+utility&mdash;consists in transforming necessarily unequal unilateral
+claims into contractual obligations analogous to those which
+result from an international convention.  Whatever the obligations
+of the state towards the ecclesiastical society may be in
+pure theory, in practice they become more precise and stable
+when they assume the nature of a bilateral convention by which
+the state engages itself with regard to a third party.  And
+reciprocally, whatever may be the absolute rights of the ecclesiastical
+society over the appointment of its dignitaries, the
+administration of its property, and the government of its adherents,
+the exercise of these rights is limited and restricted
+by the stable engagements and concessions of the concordatory
+pact, which bind the head of the church with regard to the
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>A concordat may assume divers forms,&mdash;historically, three.
+The most common in modern times is that of a diplomatic
+convention debated between the authorized mandatories of
+the high contracting parties and subsequently ratified by the
+latter; as, for example, the French concordat of 1801.  Or,
+secondly, the concordat may result from two identical separate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span>
+acts, one emanating from the pope and the other from the
+sovereign; this was the form of the first true concordat, that of
+Worms, in 1122. A third form was employed in the case of the
+concordat of 1516 between Leo X. and Francis I. of France;
+a papal bull published the concordat in the form of a concession
+by the pope, and it was afterwards accepted and published by
+the king as law of the country. The shades which distinguish
+these three forms are not without significance, but they in no
+way detract from the contractual character of concordats.</p>
+
+<p>Since concordats are contracts they give rise to that special
+mutual obligation which results from every agreement freely
+entered into; for a contract is binding on both parties to it.
+Concordats are undoubtedly conventions of a particular nature.
+They may make certain concessions or privileges once given
+without any corresponding obligation; they constitute for a
+given country a special ecclesiastical law; and it is thus that
+writers have sometimes spoken of concordats as privileges.
+Again, it is quite certain that the spiritual matters upon which
+concordats bear do not concern the two powers in the same
+manner and in the same degree; and in this sense concordats
+are not perfectly equal agreements. Finally, they do not
+assume the contracting parties to be totally independent, <i>i.e.</i>
+regard is had to the existence of anterior rights or duties. But
+with these reservations it must unhesitatingly be said that
+concordats are bilateral or synallagmatic contracts, from which
+results an equal mutual obligation for the two parties, who enter
+into a juridical engagement towards each other. Latterly
+certain Catholics have questioned this equality of the concordatory
+obligation, and have aroused keen discussion. According
+to Maurice de Bonald (<i>Deux questions sur le concordat de 1801</i>,
+Geneva, 1871), who exaggerates the view of Cardinal Tarquini
+(<i>Instit. juris publ. eccl.</i>, 1862 and 1868), concordats would be
+pure privileges granted by the pope; the pope would not be
+able to enter into agreements on spiritual matters or impose
+restraints upon the power of his successors; and consequently
+he would not bind himself in any juridical sense and would be
+able freely to revoke concordats, just as the author of a privilege
+can withdraw it at his pleasure. This exaggerated argument
+found a certain number of supporters, several of whom nevertheless
+sensibly weakened it. But the best canonists, from the
+Roman professor De Angelis (<i>Prael. juris canon.</i> i. 106) onwards,
+and all jurists, have victoriously refuted this theory, either by
+insisting on the principles common to all agreements or by
+citing the formal text of several concordats and papal acts,
+which are as explicit as possible. They have thus upheld the
+true contractual nature of concordats and the mutual juridical
+obligation which results from them.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing statements must not be taken to mean that
+concordats are in their nature perpetual, and that they cannot
+be broken or denounced. They have the perpetuity of conventions
+which contain no time limitation; but, like every human
+convention, they can be denounced, in the form in use for
+international treaties, and for good reasons, which are summed
+up in the exigencies of the general good of the country. Nevertheless,
+there is no example of a concordat having been denounced
+or broken by the popes, whereas several have been denounced
+or broken by the civil powers, sometimes in the least diplomatic
+manner, as in the case of the French concordat in 1905. The
+rupture of the concordat at once terminates the obligations
+which resulted from it on both sides; but it does not break off
+all relation between the church and the state, since the two
+societies continue to coexist on the same territory. To the
+situation defined by concordat, however, succeeds another
+situation, more or less uncertain and more or less strained,
+in which the two powers legislate separately on mixed matters,
+sometimes not without provoking conflicts.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot describe in detail the objects of concordatory
+conventions. They bear upon very varied matters,<a name="FnAnchor_1i" id="FnAnchor_1i" href="#Footnote_1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and we
+must confine ourselves here to a brief <i>résumé</i>. In the first place
+is the official recognition by the state of the Catholic religion
+and its ministers. Sometimes the Catholic religion is declared
+to be the state religion, and at least the free and public exercise
+of its worship is guaranteed. Several conventions guarantee the
+free communication of the bishops, clergy and laity with the
+Holy See; and this admits of the publication and execution of
+apostolic letters in matters spiritual. Others define those affairs
+of major importance which may be or must be referred to the
+Holy See by appeal, or the decision of which is reserved to the
+Holy See. On several occasions concordats have established a
+new division of dioceses, and provided that future erections or
+divisions should be made by a common accord. Analogous
+provisions have been made with regard to the territorial divisions
+within the dioceses; parishes have been recast, and the consent
+of the two authorities has been required for the establishment
+of new parishes. As regards candidates for ecclesiastical offices,
+the concordats concluded with Catholic nations regularly give
+the sovereign the right to nominate or present to bishoprics,
+often also to other inferior benefices, such as canonries, important
+parishes and abbeys; or at least the choice of the ecclesiastical
+authority is submitted to the approval of the civil power. In
+all cases canonical institution (which confers ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction) is reserved to the pope or the bishops. In countries
+where the head of the state is not a Catholic, the bishops are
+regularly elected by the chapters, but the civil power has the
+right to strike out objectionable names from the list of candidates
+which is previously submitted to it. Other conventions secure
+the exercise of the jurisdiction of the bishops in their diocese,
+and determine precisely their authority over seminaries and
+other ecclesiastical establishments of instruction and education,
+as well as over public schools, so far as concerns the teaching
+of religion. Certain concordats deal with the orders and
+congregations of monks and nuns with a view to subjecting them
+to a certain control while securing to them the legal exercise of
+their activities. Ecclesiastical immunities, such as reservation
+of the criminal cases of the clergy, exemption from military
+service and other privileges, are expressly maintained in a certain
+number of pacts. One of the most important subjects is that
+of church property. An agreement is come to as to the conditions
+on which pious foundations are able to be made; the measure
+in which church property shall contribute to the public expenses
+is indicated; and, in the 19th century, the position of those
+who have acquired confiscated church property is regularized.
+In exchange for this surrender by the church of its ancient
+property the state engages to contribute to the subsistence of the
+ministers of public worship, or at least of certain of them.</p>
+
+<p>Scholars agree in associating the earliest concordats with the
+celebrated contest about investitures (<i>q.v.</i>), which so profoundly
+agitated Christian Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. The
+first in date is that which was concluded for England with Henry
+I. in 1107 by the efforts of St Anselm. The convention of Sutri
+of 1111 between Pope Paschal II. and the emperor Henry V.
+having been rejected, negotiations were resumed by Pope
+Calixtus II. and ended in the concordat of Worms (1122), which
+was confirmed in 1177 by the convention between Alexander III.
+and the emperor Frederick I. In this concordat a distinction
+was made between spiritual investiture, by the ring and pastoral
+staff, and lay or feudal investiture, by the sceptre. The emperor
+renounced investiture by ring and staff, and permitted canonical
+elections; the pope on his part recognized the king&rsquo;s right to
+perform lay investiture and to assist at elections. Analogous to
+this convention was the concordat concluded between Nicholas
+IV. and the king of Portugal in 1289.</p>
+
+<p>The lengthy discussions on ecclesiastical benefices in Germany
+ended finally in the concordat of Vienna, promulgated by
+Nicholas V. in 1448. Already at the council of Constance
+attempts had been made to reduce the excessive papal reservations
+and taxes in the matter of benefices, privileges which had
+been established under the Avignon popes and during the Great
+Schism; for example, Martin V. had had to make with the
+different nations special arrangements which were valid for five
+years only, and by which he renounced the revenues of vacant
+benefices. The council of Basel went further: it suppressed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span>
+annates and all the benefice reservations which did not appear in
+the <i>Corpus Juris</i>. Eugenius IV. repudiated the Basel decrees,
+and the negotiations terminated in what was called the &ldquo;concordat
+of the princes,&rdquo; which was accepted by Eugenius IV.
+on his death-bed (bulls of February 5 and 7, 1447). In February
+1448 Nicholas V. concluded the arrangement, which took the name
+of the concordat of Vienna. This concordat, however, was not
+received as law of the Empire. In Germany the concessions made
+to the pope and the reservations maintained by him in the matter
+of taxes and benefices were deemed excessive, and the prolonged
+discontent which resulted was one of the causes of the success of
+the Lutheran Reformation.</p>
+
+<p>In France the opposition to the papal exactions had been
+still more marked. In 1438 the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges
+adopted and put into practice the Basel decrees, and in spite of
+the incessant protests of the Holy See the Pragmatic was observed
+throughout the 15th century, even after its nominal abolition
+by Louis XI. in 1461. The situation was modified by the concordat
+of Bologna, which was personally negotiated by Leo X.
+and Francis I. of France at Bologna in December 1515, inserted
+in the bull <i>Primitiva</i> (August 18, 1516), and promulgated as law
+of the realm in 1517, but not without rousing keen opposition.
+All bishoprics, abbeys and priories were in the royal nomination,
+the canonical institution belonging to the pope. The pope preserved
+the right to nominate to vacant benefices <i>in curia</i> and to
+certain benefices of the chapters, but all the others were in the
+nomination of the bishops or other inferior collators. However,
+the exercise of the pope&rsquo;s right of provision still left considerable
+scope for papal intervention, and the pope retained the annates.</p>
+
+<p>In the 17th century we have only to mention the concordat
+between Urban VIII. and the emperor Ferdinand II. for Bohemia
+in 1640. In the 18th century concordats are numerous: there
+are two for Spain, in 1737 and 1753; two for the duchy of Milan,
+in 1757 and 1784; one for Poland, in 1736; five for Sardinia and
+Piedmont, in 1727, 1741, 1742, 1750 and 1770; and one for the
+kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1741.</p>
+
+<p>After the political and territorial upheavals which marked the
+end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, all these
+concordats either fell to the ground or had to be recast. In the
+19th century we find a long series of concordats, of which a good
+number are still in force. The first in date and importance is that
+of 1801, concluded for France between Napoleon, First Consul,
+and Pius VII. after laborious negotiations. Save in the provisions
+relating to ecclesiastical benefices, all the property of which had
+been confiscated, it reproduced the concordat of 1516. The pope
+condoned those who had acquired church property; and by way
+of compensation the government engaged to give the bishops and
+curés suitable salaries. The concordat was solemnly promulgated
+on Easter Day 1802, but the government had added to it unilateral
+provisions of Gallican tendencies, which were known as the
+Organic Articles. After having been the law of the Church of
+France for a century, it was denounced by the French government
+in 1905. It remains, however, partly in force for Belgium
+and Alsace-Lorraine, which formed part of French territory
+in 1801.</p>
+
+<p>We conclude with a brief chronological survey of the concordats
+during the 19th century, some now abrogated or replaced,
+others maintained. It must be observed that the denunciation
+of a concordat by a nation does not necessarily entail the separation
+of the church and the state in that country or the rupture
+of diplomatic relations with Rome.</p>
+
+<p>1803. For the Italian republic, between Napoleon and Pius
+VII., analogous to the French concordat; abrogated.</p>
+
+<p>1813. It is impossible to designate as a concordat the concessions
+which were wrested by violence from Pius VII. when
+ill and in seclusion at Fontainebleau, and which he at once
+retracted.</p>
+
+<p>1817. For Bavaria; still in force.</p>
+
+<p>1817. New French concordat, in which Louis XVIII. endeavoured
+to revive the concordat of 1516; but it was not put
+to the vote in the chambers, and never came into force.</p>
+
+<p>1817. For Piedmont, completed in 1836 and 1841; was
+suppressed, like all other Italian concordats, by the formation
+of the kingdom of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>1818. For the Two Sicilies, completed in 1834; lasted until
+the invasion of the kingdom of Naples by Piedmont.</p>
+
+<p>1821. For Prussia; still in force.</p>
+
+<p>1821. For the Rhine provinces not incorporated in Prussia,
+with the special object of regulating episcopal elections; concerned
+Württemberg, Baden, Hesse, Saxony, Nassau, Frankfort,
+the Hanseatic towns, Oldenburg and Waldeck. This first
+concordat was immediately suspended, and was not ratified
+until 1827; it is partially maintained. It had to be replaced
+by new concordats concluded with Württemberg in 1857 and the
+grand-duchy of Baden in 1859; but these conventions, not
+having been ratified by those countries, never came into force.</p>
+
+<p>1824. For the kingdom of Hanover; maintained.</p>
+
+<p>1827. For Belgium and Holland; abandoned by a common
+accord.</p>
+
+<p>1828 and 1845. For Switzerland, for the reorganization of the
+bishoprics of Basel and Soleure; in force.</p>
+
+<p>1847. For Russia, never applied by Russia. It was followed
+by several partial conventions.</p>
+
+<p>1851. For Tuscany; lasted until the formation of the kingdom
+of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>1851. For Spain, completed in 1859 and 1888; in force.</p>
+
+<p>A convention on the religious orders was concluded in 1904,
+but had not received the assent of the Senate in 1908.</p>
+
+<p>1855. For Austria; denounced in 1870. Several of its
+provisions are maintained by unilateral Austrian laws. The
+emperor of Austria continues to nominate to bishoprics by
+virtue of rights anterior to this concordat.</p>
+
+<p>1857. For Portugal, completed in 1886 for the Portuguese
+possessions in the Indies; in force.</p>
+
+<p>1886. For Montenegro; in force.</p>
+
+<p>The numerous concordats concluded towards the middle of
+the 19th century with several of the South American republics
+either have not come into force or have been denounced and
+replaced by a more or less pacific modus vivendi.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For texts see Vincenzio Nussi, <i>Quinquaginta conventiones de rebus
+ecclesiasticis</i> (Rome, 1869; Mainz, 1870); Branden, <i>Concordata
+inter S. Sedem et inclytam nationem Germaniae</i>, &amp;c. (undated). On
+the nature and obligation of concordats see Mgr. Giobbio, <i>I Concordati</i>
+(Monza, 1900); <i>idem, Lezioni di diplomazia ecclesiastica</i>
+(Rome, 1899-1903); Cardinal Cavagnis, <i>Institutiones juris publici
+ecclesiastici</i> (Rome, 1906). For the French concordats see A.
+Baudrillard, <i>Quatre cents ans de concordat</i> (Paris, 1905); Boulay de
+la Meurthe, <i>Documents sur la négociation du concordat et sur les autres
+rapports de la France avec le Saint-Sičge</i> (Paris, 1891-1905); Cardinal
+Mathieu, <i>Le Concordat de 1801</i> (Paris, 1903); E. Sevestre, <i>Le Concordat
+de 1801, l&rsquo;histoire, le texte, la destinée</i> (Paris, 1905). On the
+relations between the church and the state in various countries see
+Vering, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, §§ 30-53.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Bo.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1i" id="Footnote_1i" href="#FnAnchor_1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These are arranged under thirty-five distinct heads in Nussi&rsquo;s
+<i>Quinquaginta conventiones de rebus ecclesiasticis</i> (Rome, 1869).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCORDIA,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a Roman goddess, the personification of peace
+and goodwill. Several temples in her honour were erected at
+Rome, the most ancient being one on the Capitol, dedicated to
+her by Camillus (367 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), subsequently restored by Livia,
+the wife of Augustus, and consecrated by Tiberius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 10).
+Other temples were frequently built to commemorate the
+restoration of civil harmony. Offerings were made to Concordia
+on the birthdays of emperors, and Concordia Augusta was
+worshipped as the promoter of harmony in the imperial household.
+Concordia was represented as a matron holding in her
+right hand a <i>patera</i> or an olive branch, and in her left a <i>cornu
+copiae</i> or a sceptre. Her symbols were two hands joined together,
+and two serpents entwined about a herald&rsquo;s staff.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCORDIA<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (mod. <i>Concordia Sagittaria</i>), an ancient town
+of Venetia, in Italy, 16 ft. above sea-level, 31 m. W. of Aquileia,
+at the junction of roads to Altinum and Patavium, to Opitergium
+(and thence either to Vicetia and Verona, or Feltria and Tridentum),
+to Noricum by the valley of the Tilaventus (Tagliamento),
+and to Aquileia. It was a mere village until the time of Augustus,
+who made it a colony. Under the later empire it was one of the
+most important towns of Italy; it had a strong garrison and a
+factory of missiles for the army. The cemetery of the garrison
+has been excavated since 1873, and a large number of important
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span>
+inscriptions, the majority belonging to the end of the 4th and
+the beginning of the 5th centuries, have been discovered. It
+was taken and destroyed by Attila in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 452. Considerable
+remains of the ancient town have been found&mdash;parts of the
+city walls, the sites of the forum and the theatre, and probably
+that of the arms factory. The objects found are preserved at
+Portogruaro, 1ź m. to the N. The see of Concordia was founded
+at an early period, and transferred in 1339 to Portogruaro,
+where it still remains. The baptistery of Concordia was probably
+erected in 1100.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iv. (Stuttgart,
+1901) 830.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCRETE<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (Lat. <i>concretus</i>, participle of <i>concrescere</i>, to grow
+together), a term used in various technical senses with the
+general significance of combination, conjunction, solidity. Thus
+the building material made up of separate substances combined
+into one is known as concrete (see below). In mathematics and
+music, the adjective has been used as synonymous with &ldquo;continuous&rdquo;
+as opposed to &ldquo;discrete,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;separate,&rdquo; &ldquo;discontinuous.&rdquo;
+This antithesis is no doubt influenced by the idea
+that the two words derive from a common origin, whereas
+&ldquo;discrete&rdquo; is derived from the Latin <i>discernere</i>. In logic and
+also in common language concrete terms are those which signify
+persons or things as opposed to abstract terms which signify
+qualities, relations, attributes (so J. S. Mill). Thus the term
+&ldquo;man&rdquo; is concrete, while &ldquo;manhood&rdquo; and &ldquo;humanity&rdquo;
+are abstract, the names of the qualities implied. Confusions
+between abstract and concrete terms are frequent; thus the
+word &ldquo;relation,&rdquo; which is strictly an abstract term implying
+connexion between two things or persons, is often used instead
+of the correct term &ldquo;relative&rdquo; for people related to one another.
+Concrete terms are further subdivided as Singular, the names
+of things regarded as individuals, and General or Common, the
+names which a number of things bear in common in virtue of
+their possession of common characteristics. These latter
+terms, though concrete in so far as they denote the persons or
+things which are known by them (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denotation</a></span>), have also
+an abstract sense when viewed connotatively, <i>i.e.</i> as implying
+the quality or qualities in isolation from the individuals. The
+ascription of adjectives to the class of concrete terms, upheld
+by J. S. Mill, has been disputed on the ground that adjectives
+are applied both to concrete and to abstract terms. Hence
+some logicians make a separate class for adjectives, as being
+the names neither of things nor of qualities, and describe them
+as Attributive terms.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCRETE,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> the name given to a building material consisting
+generally of a mixture of broken stone, sand and some kind of
+cement. To these is added water, which combining chemically
+with the cement conglomerates the whole mixture into a solid
+mass, and forms a rough but strong artificial stone. It has thus
+the immense advantage over natural stone that it can be easily
+moulded while wet to any desired shape or size. Moreover, its
+constituents can be obtained in almost any part of the world,
+and its manufacture is extremely simple. On account of these
+properties, builders have come to give it a distinct preference over
+stone, brick, timber and other building materials. So popular
+has it become that besides being used for massive constructions
+like breakwaters, dock walls, culverts, and for foundations of
+buildings, lighthouses and bridges, it is also proving its usefulness
+to the architect and engineer in many other ways. A remarkable
+extension of the use of concrete has been made possible by the
+introduction of scientific methods of combining it with steel or
+iron. The floors and even the walls of important buildings are
+made of this combination, and long span bridges, tall factory
+chimneys, and large water-tanks are among the many novel uses
+to which it has been put. Piles made of steel concrete are driven
+into the ground with blows that would shatter the best of timber.
+A fuller description of the combination of steel and concrete will
+be given later.</p>
+
+<p>The constituents of concrete are sometimes spoken of as the
+<i>matrix</i> and the <i>aggregate</i>, and these terms, though somewhat old-fashioned,
+are convenient. The matrix is the lime or cement,
+whose chemical action with the added water causes the concrete to
+solidify; and the aggregate is the broken stone or hard material
+<span class="sidenote">Constituents.</span>
+which is embedded in the matrix. The matrix most
+commonly used is Portland cement, by far the best and
+strongest of them all. The subject of its manufacture
+and examination is a most important and interesting one, and the
+special article dealing with it should be studied (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cement</a></span>),
+Here it will only be said that before using Portland cement very
+careful tests should be made to ascertain its quality and condition.
+Moreover, it should be kept in a damp-proof store for a
+few weeks; and when taken out for use it should be mixed and
+placed in position as quickly as possible, because rain, or even
+moist air, spoils it by causing it to set prematurely. The oldest
+of all the matrices is lime, and many splendid examples of its use
+by the Romans still exist. It has been to a great extent superseded
+by Portland cement, on account of the much greater
+strength of the latter, though lime concrete is still used in many
+places for dry foundations and small structures. To be of service
+the lime should be what is known as &ldquo;hydraulic,&rdquo; that is,
+not pure or &ldquo;fat,&rdquo; but containing some argillaceous matter,
+and should be carefully slaked with water before being mixed
+with the aggregate. To ensure this being properly done, the
+lumps of lime should be broken up small, and enough water to
+slake them should be added, the lime then being allowed to rest
+for about forty-eight hours, when the water changes the particles
+of quicklime to hydrate of lime, and breaks up the hard lumps
+into a powder. The hydrated lime, after being passed through a
+fine screen to sort out any lumps unaffected by the water, is
+ready for concrete making, and if not required at once should be
+stored in a dry place. Other matrices are slag cement, a comparatively
+recent invention, and some other natural and artificial
+cements which find occasional advocates. Materials like tar and
+pitch are sometimes employed as a matrix; they are used hot
+and without water, the solidifying action being due to cooling
+and to evaporation of the mineral oils contained in them. Whatever
+matrix is used, it is almost invariably &ldquo;diluted&rdquo; with sand,
+the grains of which become coated with the finer particles of the
+matrix. The sand should be coarse-grained and hard. It should
+be free from dirt&mdash;that is to say, free from clay or soft mud, for
+instance, which prevents the cement adhering to its particles, or
+again from sewage matter or any substance which will chemically
+destroy the matrix. The grains should show no signs of decay,
+and by preference should be of an angular shape. The sand
+obtained by crushing granite and hard stones is excellent. When
+lime is used as a matrix, certain natural earths such as pozzuolana
+or trass, or, failing these, powdered bricks or tiles, may be used
+instead of sand with great advantage. They have the property
+of entering into chemical combination with the lime, forming a
+hard setting compound, and increasing the hardness of the
+resulting concrete.</p>
+
+<p>The commonest aggregates are broken stone and natural flint
+gravel. Broken bricks or tiles and broken furnace slag are sometimes
+used, the essential points being that the aggregate should
+be hard, clean and sound. Generally speaking, broken stones will
+be rough and angular, whereas the stones in flint gravel will be
+comparatively smooth and round. It might be supposed, therefore,
+that the broken stone will necessarily be the better aggregate,
+but this does not always follow. Experience shows that, although
+spherical pebbles are to be avoided, Portland cement adheres
+tightly to smooth flint surfaces, and that rough stones often give
+a less compact concrete than smooth ones on account of the
+difficulty of bedding them into the matrix when laying the concrete.
+In mixing concrete there is always a tendency for the
+stones to separate themselves from the sand and cement, and to
+form &ldquo;pockets&rdquo; of honeycombed concrete which are neither
+water-tight nor strong. These are much more liable to occur when
+the stones are flat and angular than when they are round.
+Modern engineers favour the practice of having the stones of
+various sizes instead of being uniform, because if these sizes are
+wisely proportioned the whole mixture can be made more solid,
+and the rough &ldquo;pockets&rdquo; avoided. For first-class work, however,
+and especially in steel concrete, it is customary to reject very large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span>
+stones, and to insist that all shall pass through a ring 7/8 of an inch
+in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The water, like all the other constituents of concrete, should
+be clean and free from vegetable matter. At one time sea-water
+was thought to be injurious, but modern investigation finds no
+objection to it except on the score of appearance, efflorescence
+being more likely to occur when it is used.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes in massive concrete structures large and heavy
+stones as big as a man can lift are buried in the concrete after it is
+laid in position but while it is still wet. The stones should be
+hard and clean, and care must be taken that they are completely
+surrounded. Such concrete is known as <i>rubble concrete</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In proportioning the quantities of matrix to aggregate the ideal
+to be aimed at is to get a concrete in which the voids or air-spaces
+shall be as small as possible; and as the lime or cement
+is usually by far the most expensive item, it is desirable
+<span class="sidenote">Proportions.</span>
+to use as little of it as is consistent with strength.
+When natural flint gravel containing both stones and sand is
+used, it is usual to mix so much gravel with so much lime or
+cement. The proportions in practice generally run from 3 to 1 for
+very strong work, down to 12 to 1 for unimportant work. Some
+engineers have the sand separated from the stones by screens or
+sieves and then remixed in definite proportions. When stones
+and sand are obtained from different sources, their relative
+proportions have to be decided upon. A common way of doing
+this is first to choose a proportion of sand to cement, which will
+probably vary from 1 to 1 up to 4 to 1. It then remains to
+determine what proportion of stones should be added. For this
+purpose a large can, whose volume is known, is filled loosely with
+stones, and the volume of the voids between them is determined
+by measuring how much water the can will hold in addition to the
+stones. It is then assumed that the quantity of sand and cement
+should be equal to the voids. Moreover, the volume of sand and
+cement together is generally assumed to be equal to that of the
+sand alone, as the cement to a large extent fills up voids in the
+sand. For example, suppose it is resolved to use 2 parts of sand
+to 1 of cement, and suppose that experiment shows that in a
+pailful of stones two-fifths of the volume consists of voids, then
+2 parts of sand (or sand with cement) will fill voids in 5 parts of
+stones, and the proportion of cement, sand, stones becomes
+1:2:5. There are several weak points in this reasoning, and a
+more accurate way of determining the best proportions is to try
+different mixtures of cement, stones and sand, filling them into
+different pails of the same size, and then ascertaining, by weighing
+the pails, which mixture is the densest.</p>
+
+<p>In determining the amount of water to be added, several
+things must be considered. The amount required to combine
+chemically with the cement is about 16% by weight, but in
+practice much more than this is used, because of loss by evaporation,
+and the difficulty of ensuring that the water shall be uniformly
+distributed. If the situation is cool, the stone hard, and
+the concrete carefully rammed directly it is laid down and kept
+moist with damp cloths, only just sufficient to moisten the whole
+mass is required. On the other hand, water should be given
+generously in hot weather, also when absorbent stone is used or
+when the concrete is not rammed. In these cases the concrete
+should be allowed to take all it can, but an excess of water which
+would flow away, carrying the cement with it, should be avoided.</p>
+
+<p>The thorough mixing of the constituents is a most important
+item in the production of good concrete. Its object is to distribute
+all the materials evenly throughout the mass,
+and it is performed in many different ways, both by
+<span class="sidenote">Mixing.</span>
+hand and by machine. The relative values of hand and machine
+work are often discussed. Roughly it may be said that where
+a large mass of concrete is to be mixed at one or two places a
+good machine will be of great advantage. On the other hand,
+where the mixing platform has to be constantly shifted, hand
+mixing is the more convenient way. In hand mixing it is usual
+to measure out from gauge boxes the sand, stones and cement
+or lime in a heap on a wooden platform. Then they are turned
+once or twice in their dry state by men with shovels. Next
+water is carefully added, and the mixture again turned, when
+it is ready for depositing. For important work and especially
+for thin structures the number of turnings should be increased.
+Many types of mixing machines are obtainable; the favourite
+type is one in which the materials are placed in a large iron box
+which is made to rotate, thus tumbling the matrix and aggregate
+over each other again and again. Another simple apparatus
+is a large vertical pipe or shoot in which sloping baffle plates
+or shelves are placed at intervals. The materials are fed in at
+the top of the shoot and fall from shelf to shelf, the mixing being
+effected by the various shocks thus given. When mixed the
+concrete is carried at once to the position required, and if the
+matrix is quick-setting Portland cement this operation must
+not be delayed.</p>
+
+<p>One of the few drawbacks of concrete is that, unlike brickwork
+or masonry, it has nearly always to be deposited within moulds
+or framing which give it the required shape, and
+which are removed after it is set. Indeed, the trouble
+<span class="sidenote">Moulds.</span>
+and expense of these moulds sometimes prohibit its use. It is
+essential that they shall be strong and stiff, so as not to yield
+at all from the pressure of the wet concrete. The moulds for the
+face of a wall consist generally of wooden shutters, leaning
+against upright timbers which are secured by horizontal or
+raking struts to firm ground, or to anything that will bear the
+weight. If a smooth and neat face is wanted other precautions
+must be taken. The shutters must be planed, and coated with
+a mixture of soap and oil, so as to come away easily after the
+concrete is set. Moreover, when depositing the concrete, a
+shovel or other tool must be worked between the wet concrete
+and the shutter. This draws sand and water to the face and
+prevents the rough stones from showing themselves. Sometimes
+rough concrete is rendered over with a plaster of cement and
+sand after the shutters have been removed, but this is liable
+to peel off and should be avoided.</p>
+
+<p>The method of depositing depends on the situation. If for
+important walls, or for small scantlings such as steel concrete
+generally involves, the concrete should be deposited
+in quite small quantities and very carefully rammed
+<span class="sidenote">Depositing.</span>
+into position. If for massive walls, it is usual to tip
+it out in large quantities from a barrow or wagon, and simply
+spread it in layers about a foot thick. Depositing concrete
+under water for breakwaters and bridge foundations requires
+special skill and special appliances. It is usually done in one
+of three ways:&mdash;(a) By moulding the concrete ashore into
+large blocks, which, when sufficiently hard, are lowered through
+the water into position by a crane or similar machine with the
+aid of divers. The most notable instance of this type of construction
+was at the port of Dublin, where Mr B. B. Stoney
+made blocks no less than 350 tons in weight. Each block
+formed a piece of the quay wall 12 ft. long and 27 ft. high,
+being made on shore and then deposited in position by floating
+sheers of special design. (b) By moulding the concrete into
+what are called &ldquo;bag-blocks.&rdquo; In this system the concrete
+is filled into bags, which are at once lowered through the water
+like the blocks. But in this case the concrete being still wet
+can adapt itself more or less to the shape of the adjoining bags,
+and strong rough walls can be built in this way. Sometimes
+the bags are made of enormous size, as at Aberdeen breakwater,
+where the contents of each bag weighed 50 tons. The canvas
+was laid in a hopper barge and there filled with the concrete
+and sewn up. The enormous bag was then dropped through a
+door in the bottom of the barge upon the breakwater foundation.
+(c) By depositing the wet concrete through the water between
+temporary upright timber frames which form the two faces of
+the wall. In this case very great care has to be taken to prevent
+the cement from being washed away from the other constituents
+when passing through the water. Indeed, this is bound to happen
+more or less, but it is guarded against by lowering the concrete
+slowly in a special box, the bottom of which is opened as it
+reaches the ground on which the concrete is to be laid. This
+method can only be carried out in still water, and where strong
+and tight framing can be built which will prevent the concrete
+from escaping. For small work the box can be replaced by a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span>
+canvas bag secured by a special tripping noose which can be
+loosened when the bag has reached the ground. The concrete
+escapes from the bag, which is then drawn up and refilled.</p>
+
+<p>Concrete may be compared with other building materials
+like masonry or timber from various points of view, such as
+strength, durability, convenience of building, fire-resistance,
+appearance and cost. Its strength varies
+<span class="sidenote">Strength.</span>
+within very wide limits according to the quality and proportions
+of the constituents, and the skill shown in mixing and placing
+them. To give a rough idea, however, it may be said that its
+safe crushing load would be about ˝ cwt. per sq. in. for lime
+concrete, and 1 to 5 cwt. for Portland cement concrete. The
+safe tensile strength of Portland cement concrete would be something
+like one-tenth of its compressive strength, and might be
+far less. On this account it is usual to neglect the tensile strength
+of concrete in designing structures, and to arrange the material
+in such a way that tensile stresses are avoided. Hence slabs
+or beams of long span should not be built of plain concrete,
+though when reinforced with steel it is admirably adapted for
+these purposes.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to durability good Portland cement concrete is one
+of the most durable materials known. Neither hot, cold, nor
+wet weather has practically any effect whatever upon
+it. Frost will not injure it after it has once set, though
+<span class="sidenote">Durability.</span>
+it is essential to guard it from frost during the operations
+of mixing and depositing. The same praise cannot, however,
+be given to lime concrete. Even though the best hydraulic
+lime be used it is wise to confine it to places where it is not
+exposed to the air, or to running water, and indeed for important
+structures the use of lime should be avoided. Good Portland
+cement is so much stronger than any lime that there are few
+situations where it is not cheaper as well as better to use the
+former, because, although cement is the more expensive matrix,
+a smaller proportion of it will suffice for use. Lime should
+never be used in work exposed to sea-water, or to water containing
+chemicals of any kind. Portland cement concrete, on the other
+hand, may be used without fear in sea-water, provided that
+certain reasonable precautions are taken. Considerable alarm
+was created about the year 1887 by the failure of two or three
+large structures of Portland cement concrete exposed to sea-water,
+both in England and other countries. The matter was
+carefully investigated, and it was found that the sulphate of
+magnesia in the sea-water has a decomposing action on Portland
+cements, especially those which contain a large proportion of
+lime or even of alumina. Indeed, no Portland cement is free
+from the liability to be decomposed by sea-water, and on a
+moderate scale this action is always going on more or less. But
+to ensure the permanence of structures in sea-water the great
+object is to choose a cement containing as little lime and alumina
+as possible, and free from sulphates such as gypsum; and more
+important still to proportion the sand and stones in the concrete
+in such a way that the structure is practically non-porous. If
+this is done there is really nothing to fear. On the other hand,
+if the concrete is rough and porous the sea-water will gradually
+eat into the heart of the structure, especially in a case like a
+dam, where the water, being higher on one side than the other,
+constantly forces its way through the rough material, and
+decomposes the Portland cement it contains.</p>
+
+<p>As regards its convenience for building purposes it may be
+said roughly that in &ldquo;mass&rdquo; work concrete is vastly more
+convenient than any other material. But concrete is
+hampered by the fact that the surface always has to
+<span class="sidenote">Convenience and appearance.</span>
+be formed by means of wooden or other framing, and
+in the case of thin walls or floors this framing becomes
+a serious item, involving expense and delay. In appearance
+concrete can rarely if ever rival stone or brickwork. It is true
+that it can be moulded to any desired shape, but mouldings in
+concrete generally give the appearance of being unsatisfactory
+imitations of stone. Moreover, its colour is not pleasing. These
+defects will no doubt be overcome as concrete grows in popularity
+as a building material and its aesthetic treatment is better
+understood. Concrete pavings are being used in buildings of
+first importance, the aggregate being very carefully selected,
+and in many cases the whole mixture coloured by the use of
+pigments. Care must be taken in their selection, however, as
+certain colouring matters such as red lead are destructive to the
+cement. One of the great objections to the appearance of
+concrete is the fact that soon after its erection irregular cracks
+invariably appear on its surface. These cracks are probably
+due to shrinkage while setting, aggravated by changes in temperature.
+They occur no less in structures of masonry and brickwork,
+but in these cases they generally follow the joints, and are almost
+imperceptible. In the case of a smooth concrete face there are
+no joints to follow, and the cracks become an ugly feature.
+They are sometimes regulated by forming artificial &ldquo;joints&rdquo;
+in the structure by embedding strips of wood or sheet iron at
+regular intervals, thus forming &ldquo;lines of weakness,&rdquo; at which
+the cracks therefore take place. A pleasing &ldquo;rough&rdquo; appearance
+can be given to concrete by brushing it over soon after it has set
+with a stiff brush dipped in water or dilute acid. Or, if hard,
+its surface can be picked all over with a bush hammer.</p>
+
+<p>At one time Portland cement concrete was considered to be
+lacking in fireproof qualities, but now it is regarded as one of the
+best fire-resisting materials known. Although experiments
+on this matter are badly needed, there is little
+<span class="sidenote">Resistance to fire.</span>
+doubt that good steel concrete is very nearly indestructible
+by fire. The matrix should be Portland cement, and the
+nature of the aggregate is important. Cinders have been and
+are still much favoured for this purpose. The reason for this
+preference lies in the fact that being porous and full of air, they
+are a good non-conductor. But they are weak, and modern
+experience goes to show that a strong concrete is the best,
+and that probably materials like broken clamp bricks or burnt
+clay, which are porous and yet strong, are far better than cinders
+as a fireproof aggregate. Limestone should be avoided, as it
+soon splits under heat. The steel reinforcement is of immense
+importance in fireproof work, because, if properly designed,
+it enables the concrete to hold together and do its work even
+when it has been cracked by fire and water. On the other hand,
+the concrete, being a non-conductor, preserves the steel from
+being softened and twisted by excessive temperature.</p>
+
+<p>Only very general remarks can be made on the subject of
+cost, as this item varies greatly in different situations and with
+the market price of the materials used. But in England
+it may be said that for massive work such as big walls
+<span class="sidenote">Cost.</span>
+and foundations concrete is nearly always cheaper than brickwork
+or masonry. On the other hand, for reasons already given,
+thin walls, such as house walls, will cost more in concrete.
+Steel concrete is even more difficult to generalize about, as its
+use is comparatively new, but even in the matter of first cost
+it is proving a serious rival to timber and to plate steel work,
+in floors, bridges and tanks, and to brickwork and plain concrete
+in structures such as culverts and retaining walls, towers and
+domes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Artificial Stones.</i>&mdash;There are many varieties of concrete
+known as &ldquo;artificial stones&rdquo; which can now be bought ready
+moulded into the form of paving slabs, wall blocks and pipes:
+they are both pleasing in appearance and very durable, being
+carefully made by skilled workmen. Granolithic, globe granite
+and synthetic stone are examples of these. Some, such as
+victoria stone, imperial stone and others, are hardened and
+rendered non-porous after manufacture by immersion in a
+solution of silicate of soda. Others, like Ford&rsquo;s silicate of limestone,
+are practically lime mortars of excellent quality, which
+can be carved and cut like a sandstone of fine quality.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:606px; height:245px" src="images/img838a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Expanded Steel Concrete Slab.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Steel Concrete.</i>&mdash;The introduction of steel concrete (also
+known as ferroconcrete, armoured concrete, or reinforced
+concrete) is generally attributed to Joseph Monier, a French
+gardener, who about the year 1868 was anxious to build some
+concrete water basins. In order to reduce the thickness of the
+walls and floor he conceived the idea of strengthening them by
+building in a network of iron rods. As a matter of fact other
+inventors were at work before Monier, but he deserves much
+credit for having pushed his invention with vigour, and for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span>
+having popularized the use of this invaluable combination.
+The important point of his idea was that it combined steel and
+concrete in such a way that the best qualities of each material
+were brought into play.  Concrete is readily procured and
+easily moulded into shape.  It has considerable compressive
+or crushing strength, but is somewhat deficient in shearing
+strength, and distinctly weak in tensile or pulling strength.
+Steel, on the other hand, is easily procurable in simple forms
+such as long bars, and is exceedingly strong.  But it is difficult
+and expensive to work up into various forms.  Concrete has been
+avoided for making beams, slabs and thin walls, just because
+its deficiency in tensile strength doomed it to failure in such
+structures.  But if a concrete slab be &ldquo;reinforced&rdquo; with a
+network of small steel rods on its under surface where the
+tensile stresses occur (see fig. 1) its strength will be enormously
+increased.  Thus the one point of weakness in the concrete
+slab is overcome by the addition of steel in its simplest form,
+and both materials are used to their best advantage.  The
+scientific and practical value of this idea was soon seized upon
+by various inventors and others, and the number of patented
+systems of combining steel with concrete is constantly increasing.
+Many of them are but slight modifications of the older systems,
+and no attempt will be made here to describe them in full.
+In England it is customary to allow the patentee of one or other
+system to furnish his
+own designs, but this is
+as much because he has
+gained the experience
+needed for success as
+because of any special
+virtue in this or that
+system.  The majority of
+these systems have
+emanated from France,
+where steel concrete is
+largely used.  America
+and Germany adopted
+them readily, and in
+England some very large
+structures have been
+erected with this material.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:304px; height:285px" src="images/img838b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Expanded Metal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:312px; height:65px" src="images/img838c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Section through Intersection.<br /><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The concrete itself
+should always be the very
+best quality, and Portland
+cement should be used on
+account of its superiority
+to all others.  The aggregate should be the best obtainable and
+of different sizes, the stones being freshly crushed and screened
+to pass through a 7/8 in. ring.  Very special care should be taken
+so to proportion the sand as to make a perfectly impervious
+mixture.  The proportions generally used are 4 to 1 and 5 to 1
+in the case of gravel concrete, or 1:2:4 or 1:2˝:6 in the case
+of broken stone concrete.  But, generally speaking, in steel
+concrete the cost of the cement is but a small item of the whole
+expense, and it is worth while to be generous with it.  If It is
+used in piles or structures where it is likely to be bruised the
+proportion of cement should be increased.  The mixing and
+laying should all be done very thoroughly; the concrete should
+be rammed in position, and any old surface of concrete which has
+to be covered should be cleaned and coated with fresh cement.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:421px; height:315px" src="images/img838d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Hennebique System.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The reinforcement mostly consists of mild steel and sometimes
+of wrought iron: steel, however, is stronger and
+generally cheaper, so that in English practice it holds
+the field.  It should be mild and is usually specified to
+have a breaking (tensile) strength of 28 to 32 tons per
+sq. in., with an elongation of at least 20% in 8 in.  Any
+bar should be capable of being bent cold to the shape
+of the letter U without breaking it.  The steel is generally
+used in the form of long bars of circular section.  At
+first it was feared that such bars would have a tendency
+to slip through the concrete in which they were embedded,
+but experiments have shown that if the bar
+is not painted but has a natural rusty surface a very
+considerable adhesion between the concrete and steel&mdash;as
+much as 2 cwt. per sq. in. of contact surface&mdash;may
+be relied upon.  Many devices are used, however,
+to ensure the adhesion between concrete and bar being
+perfect.  (1) In the Hennebique system of construction the
+bars are flattened at the end and split to form a &ldquo;fish tail.&rdquo;
+(2) In the Ransome system round bars are rejected in favour
+of square bars, which have been twisted in a lathe in &ldquo;barley
+sugar&rdquo; fashion.  (3) In the Habrick system a flat bar similarly
+twisted is used.  (4) In the Thacher system a flat bar with
+projections like rivet heads is specially rolled for this purpose.
+(5) In the Kahn system a square bar with &ldquo;branches&rdquo; is used.
+(6) In the &ldquo;expanded metal&rdquo; system no bars are used, but instead
+a strong steel netting is manufactured in large sheets by special
+machinery.  It is made by cutting a series of long slots at regular
+intervals in a plain steel plate, which is then forcibly stretched
+out sideways until the slots become diamond-shaped openings,
+and a trellis work of steel without any joints is the result
+(fig. 2).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:126px; height:231px" src="images/img838e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>
+Hennebique System.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The structures in which steel concrete is used may be analysed
+as consisting essentially of (1) walls, (2) columns, (3) piles, (4)
+beams, (5) slabs, (6) arches.  The designs
+differ considerably according to which of
+these purposes the structure is to fulfil.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of reinforcing <i>walls</i> with steel
+is that they can be made much thinner.
+The steel reinforcement is generally applied
+in the form of vertical rods built in the
+wall at intervals, with lighter horizontal
+rods which cross the vertical ones, and
+thus form a network of steel which is buried
+in the concrete.  These rods assist in taking
+the weight, and the whole network binds
+the concrete together and prevents it from
+cracking under a heavy load.  The vertical
+rods should not be quite in the middle of
+the wall but near the inner and outer faces alternately.  Care must
+be taken, however, that all the rods are covered by at least an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span>
+inch of concrete to preserve them from damage by rust or fire.
+In the Cottancin system the concrete is replaced by bricks
+pierced with holes through which the vertical rods are threaded;
+the horizontal tie-rods are also used, but these do not merely
+cross the vertical ones, but are woven in and out of them.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:49px" src="images/img839a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Steel and Concrete Pile (Williams System).</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:325px; height:65px" src="images/img839b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:324px; height:62px" src="images/img839c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Columns</i> have generally to bear a heavier weight than walls,
+and have to be correspondingly stronger.  They have usually
+been made square with a vertical steel rod at each corner.  To
+prevent these rods from spreading apart they must be tied together
+at frequent intervals.
+In some systems this is
+done by loops of stout
+wire connecting each
+rod to its neighbour,
+and placed one above
+the other about every
+10 in. up the column
+(figs. 3 and 4).  In other
+systems a stout wire is
+wound continuously in a spiral form round the four rods.
+Modern investigation goes to prove that the latter is theoretically
+the more economical way of using the steel, as the spiral
+binding wire acts like the binding of a wire gun, and prevents the
+concrete which it encloses from bursting even under very great
+loads.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:344px; height:97px" src="images/img839d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:343px; height:96px" src="images/img839e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:325px; height:68px" src="images/img839f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:325px; height:66px" src="images/img839g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>That steel concrete can be used for <i>piles</i> is perhaps the most
+astonishing feature in this invention.  The fact that a comparatively
+brittle material like concrete can be subjected not only to
+heavy loads but also
+to the jar and vibration
+from the blows
+of a heavy pile ram
+makes it appear as
+if its nature and properties
+had been
+changed by the steel
+reinforcement.  In a
+sense this is undoubtedly
+the case.
+A. G. Considčre&rsquo;s experiments
+have shown
+that concrete when reinforced is capable of being stretched,
+without fracture, about twenty times as much as plain concrete.
+Most of the piles driven in Great Britain have been made on the
+Hennebique system with four or six longitudinal steel rods tied
+together by stirrups or loops at frequent intervals.  Piles made
+on the Williams system have a steel rolled joist of I section
+buried in the heart of the pile, and round it a series of steel
+wire hoops at regular intervals (fig. 5).  Whatever system is used,
+care must be taken not
+to batter the head of the
+pile to pieces with the
+heavy ram.  To prevent
+this an iron &ldquo;helmet&rdquo;
+containing a lining of
+sawdust is fitted over
+the head of the pile.
+The sawdust adapts itself
+to the rough shape
+of the concrete, and deadens the blow to some extent.</p>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:324px; height:68px" src="images/img839h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:68px" src="images/img839i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:369px; height:217px" src="images/img839j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Stirrup (Hennebique System).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:323px; height:69px" src="images/img839k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>But it is in the design of steel concrete <i>beams</i> that the greatest
+ingenuity has been shown, and almost every patentee of a
+&ldquo;system&rdquo; has some new device for arranging the steel reinforcement
+to the best advantage.  Concrete by itself, though strong
+in compression, can offer but little resistance to tensile and shearing
+stresses, and as these stresses always occur in beams the
+problem arises how best to arrange the steel so as to assist the
+concrete in bearing them.  To meet tensile stresses the steel is
+nearly always inserted in the form of bars running along the beam.
+Figs. 6 to 9 show how they are arranged for different loading.
+In each case the object is to place the bars as nearly as possible
+where the tensile stresses occur.  In cases where all the stresses
+are heavy, that portion of the beam which is under compression
+is similarly reinforced, though with smaller bars (figs. 10 and 11).
+But as these tension and
+compression bars are
+generally placed near the
+under and upper surface
+of the beam they are of
+little use in helping to
+resist the shearing
+stresses which are greatest
+at its neutral axis.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bridges</a></span>.)  These
+shearing stresses in a heavily loaded beam would cause it to
+split horizontally at or near the centre.  To prevent this many
+ingenious devices have been introduced.  (1) Perhaps one of
+the most efficient is a diagonal bracing of steel wire passing to
+and fro between the upper and lower bars and firmly secured
+to each by lapping or otherwise (fig. 12); this device is used
+in the Coignet and other French systems.  (2) In the Hennebique
+system (which has found great favour in England) vertical
+bands or &ldquo;stirrups,&rdquo; as they are generally called, of hoop
+steel are used (fig. 13).  They are of U shape, and passing round
+the tension bars
+extend to the top
+of the beam (figs.
+14 and 3).  They
+are exceedingly
+thin, but being
+buried in concrete
+no danger of their
+perishing from
+rust is to be feared.
+(3) In the Boussiron
+system a
+similar stirrup is
+used, but instead of being vertical the two parts are spread so that
+each is slightly inclined.  (4) In the Coularon system, the stirrups
+are inclined as in fig. 15, and consist of rods, the ends of which are
+hooked over the tension and compression bars.  (5) In the Kahn
+system the stirrups are similarly arranged, but instead of being
+merely secured to the tension bar, they form an integral part of
+it like branches on a stem, the bar being rolled to a special section
+to admit of this.  (6) In many systems such as the &ldquo;expanded
+metal&rdquo; system, the
+tension and compression
+rods together with
+the stirrups are all
+abandoned in favour of
+a single rolled steel
+joist of I section, buried in concrete (see fig. 16).  Probably the
+weight of steel used in this way is excessive, but the joists are
+cheap, readily procurable and easy to handle.</p>
+
+<p>Floor <i>slabs</i> may be regarded as wide and shallow beams, and
+the remarks made about the stresses in the one apply to the
+other also; accordingly, the various devices which are used
+for strengthening beams recur in the slabs.  But in a thin slab,
+with its comparatively small span and light load, the concrete
+is generally strong enough to bear the shearing stresses unaided,
+and the reinforcement is devoted to assisting it where the
+tensile stresses occur.  For this purpose many designers simply
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span>
+use the modification of the Monier system, consisting of a
+horizontal network of crossed steel rods buried in the concrete.
+&ldquo;Expanded metal&rdquo; too is admirably adapted for the purpose
+(fig. 1). In the Matrai system thin wires are used instead of
+rods, and are securely fastened to rolled steel joists, which form
+the beams on which the slabs rest; moreover, the wires instead
+of being stretched tight from side to side of the slab are allowed
+to sag as much as the thickness of the concrete will allow. In
+the Williams system small flat bars are used, which are not
+quite horizontal, but pass alternately over and under the rolled
+joists which support the slabs.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:549px; height:218px" src="images/img840.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A concrete <i>arch</i> is reinforced in much the same way as a wall,
+the stresses being somewhat similar. The reinforcing rods are
+generally laid both longitudinally and circumferentially. In the
+case of a culvert the circumferential rods are sometimes laid
+continuously in the form of a spiral as in the Bordenave system.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>To those wishing to pursue the subject further, the following books
+among others may be suggested:&mdash;Sabin, <i>Cement and Concrete</i> (New
+York); Taylor and Thompson, <i>Concrete, Plain and Reinforced</i>
+(London); Sutcliffe, <i>Concrete, Nature and Uses</i> (London); Marsh
+and Dunn, <i>Reinforced Concrete</i> (London); Twelvetrees, <i>Concrete
+Steel</i> (London); Paul Christophe, <i>Le Béton armé</i> (Paris); Buel and
+Hill, <i>Reinforced Concrete Construction</i> (London).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. E. W.-S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCRETION,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> in petrology, a name applied to nodular or
+irregularly shaped masses of various size occurring in a great
+variety of sedimentary rocks, differing in composition from the
+main mass of the rock, and in most cases obviously formed by
+some chemical process which ensued after the rock was deposited.
+As these bodies present so many variations in composition and
+in structure, it will conduce to clearness if some of the commonest
+be briefly adverted to. In sandstones there are often hard
+rounded lumps, which separate out when the rock is broken or
+weathered. They are mostly siliceous, but sometimes calcareous,
+and may differ very little in general appearance from the bulk
+of the sandstone. Through them the bedding passes uninterrupted,
+thus showing that they are not pebbles; often in their
+centres shells or fragments of plants are found. Argillaceous
+sandstones and flagstones very frequently contain &ldquo;clay galls&rdquo;
+or concretionary lumps richer in clay than the remainder of the
+rock. Nodules of pyrites and of marcasite are common in many
+clays, sandstones and marls. Their outer surfaces are tuberculate;
+internally they commonly have a radiate fibrous
+structure. Usually they are covered with a dark brown crust
+of limonite produced by weathering; occasionally imperfect
+crystalline faces may bound them. Not infrequently (<i>e.g.</i> in the
+Gault) these pyritous nodules contain altered fossils. In clays
+also siliceous and calcareous concretions are often found.
+They present an extraordinary variety of shapes, often
+grotesquely resembling figures of men or animals, fruits, &amp;c,
+and have in many countries excited popular wonder, being
+regarded as of supernatural origin (&ldquo;fairy-stones,&rdquo; &amp;c.), and
+used as charms.</p>
+
+<p>Another type of concretion, very abundant in many clays and
+shales, is the &ldquo;septarian nodule.&rdquo; These are usually flattened
+disk-shaped or ovoid, often lobulate externally like the surface
+of a kidney. When split open they prove to be traversed by
+a network of cracks, which are usually filled with calcite and
+other minerals. These white infillings of the fissures resemble
+partitions; hence the name from the Latin <i>septum</i>, a partition.
+Sometimes the cracks are partly empty. They vary up to half
+an inch in breadth, and are best seen when the nodule is cut
+through with a saw. These concretions may be calcareous or
+may consist of carbonate of iron. The former are common in
+some beds of the London Clay, and were formerly used for
+making cement. The clay-ironstone nodules or sphaerosiderites
+are very abundant in some Carboniferous shales, and have served
+in some places as iron ores. Some of the largest specimens are
+3 ft. in diameter. In the centre of these nodules fossils are often
+found, <i>e.g.</i> coprolites, pieces of plants, fish teeth and scales.
+Phosphatic concretions are often present in certain limestones,
+clays, shelly sands and marls. They occur, for example, in the
+Cambridge Greensand, and at the base of certain of the Pliocene
+beds in the east of England. In many places they have been
+worked, under the name of &ldquo;coprolite-beds,&rdquo; as sources of
+artificial manures. Bones of animals more or less completely
+mineralized are frequent in these phosphatic concretions, the
+commonest being fragments of extinct reptilia. Their presence
+points to a source for the phosphate of lime.</p>
+
+<p>Another very important series of concretionary structures are
+the flint nodules which occur in chalk, and the patches and
+bands of chert which are found in limestones. Flints consist of
+dark-coloured cryptocrystalline silica. They weather grey or white
+by the removal of their more soluble portions by percolating
+water. Their shapes are exceedingly varied, and often they are
+studded with tubercules and nodosities. Sometimes they have
+internal cavities, and very frequently they contain shells of
+echinoderms, molluscs, &amp;c., partly or entirely replaced by silica,
+but preserving their original forms. Chert occurs in bands and
+tabular masses rather than in nodules; it often replaces considerable
+portions of a bed of limestone (as in the Carboniferous
+Limestones of Ireland). Corals and other fossils frequently occur
+in chert, and when sliced and microscopically examined both
+flint and chert often show silicified foraminifera, polyzoa &amp;c.,
+and sponge spicules. Flints in chalk frequently lie along joints
+which may be vertical or may be nearly horizontal and parallel
+to the bedding. Hence they increase the stratified appearance
+of natural exposures of chalk.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the details given above that concretions
+may be calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous and phosphatic, and
+they may consist of carbonate or sulphide of iron. In the red clay
+of the deep sea bottom concretionary masses rich in manganese
+dioxide are being formed, and are sometimes brought up by the
+dredge. In clays large crystals of gypsum, having the shape of
+an arrow-head, are occasionally found in some numbers. They
+bear a considerable resemblance to some concretions, <i>e.g.</i> crystalline
+marcasite and pyrite nodules. These examples will indicate
+the great variety of substances which may give rise to concretionary
+structures.</p>
+
+<p>Some concretions are amorphous, <i>e.g.</i> phosphatic nodules;
+others are cryptocrystalline, <i>e.g.</i> flint and chert; others
+finely crystalline, <i>e.g.</i> pyrites, sphaerosiderite; others consist
+of large crystals, <i>e.g.</i> gypsum, barytes, pyrites and marcasite.
+From this it is clear that the formation of concretions is not
+closely dependent on any single inorganic substance, or on any
+type of crystalline structure. Concretions seem to arise from
+the tendency of chemical compounds to be slowly dissolved by
+interstitial water, either while the deposit is unconsolidated or
+at a later period. Certain nuclei, present in the rock, then
+determine reprecipitation of these solutions, and the deposit once
+begun goes on till either the supply of material for growth is
+exhausted, or the physical character of the bed is changed by
+pressure and consolidation till it is no longer favourable to
+further accretion. The process resembles the growth of a crystal
+in a solution by slowly attracting to itself molecules of suitable
+nature from the surrounding medium. But in the majority of
+cases it is not the crystalline forces, or not these alone, which
+attract the particles. The structure of a flint, for example,
+shows that the material had so little tendency to crystallize
+that it remained permanently in cryptocrystalline or sub-crystalline
+state. That the concretions grew in the solid sediment
+is proved by the manner in which lines of bedding pass through
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span>
+them and not round them.  This is beautifully shown by many
+siliceous and calcareous nodules out of recent clays.  That the
+sediment was in a soft condition may be inferred from the purity
+and perfect crystalline form of some of these bodies, <i>e.g.</i> gypsum,
+pyrites, marcasite.  The crystals must have pushed aside the
+yielding matrix as they gradually enlarged. In deep-sea dredgings
+concretions of phosphate of lime and manganese dioxide
+are frequently brought up; this shows that concretionary action
+operates on the sea floor in muddy sediments, which have only
+recently been laid down.  The phosphatic nodules seem to
+originate around the dead bodies of fishes, and manganese
+incrustations frequently enclose teeth of sharks, ear-bones of
+whales, &amp;c.  This recalls the occurrence of fossils in septarian
+nodules, flints, phosphatic concretions, &amp;c., in the older strata.
+Probably the decomposing organic matter partly supplied substances
+for the growth of the nodules (phosphates, carbonates,
+&amp;c.), partly acted as reducing agents, or otherwise determined
+mineral precipitation in those places where organic remains
+were mingled with the sediment.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONCUBINAGE<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (Lat. <i>concubina</i>, a concubine; from <i>con-</i>, with,
+and <i>cubare</i>, to lie), the state of a man and woman cohabiting as
+married persons without the full sanctions of legal marriage.
+In early historical times, when marriage laws had scarcely
+advanced beyond the purely customary stage, the concubine
+was definitely recognized as a sort of inferior wife, differing from
+those of the first rank mainly by the absence of permanent
+guarantees.  The history of Abraham&rsquo;s family shows us clearly
+that the concubine might be dismissed at any time, and her
+children were liable to be cast off equally summarily with gifts,
+in order to leave the inheritance free for the wife&rsquo;s sons (Genesis
+xxi. 9 ff., xxv. 5 ff.).</p>
+
+<p>The Roman law recognized two classes of legal marriage:
+(1) with the definite public ceremonies of <i>confarreatio</i> or <i>coemptio</i>,
+and (2) without any public form whatever and resting merely
+on the <i>affectio maritalis</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the fixed intention of taking a
+particular woman as a permanent spouse.<a name="FnAnchor_1j" id="FnAnchor_1j" href="#Footnote_1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a>  Next to these
+strictly lawful marriages came concubinage as a recognized
+legal status, so long as the two parties were not married and had
+no other concubines.  It differed from the formless marriage in
+the absence (1) of <i>affectio maritalis</i>, and therefore (2) of full
+conjugal rights.  For instance, the concubine was not raised,
+like the wife, to her husband&rsquo;s rank, nor were her children
+legitimate, though they enjoyed legal rights forbidden to mere
+bastards, <i>e.g.</i> the father was bound to maintain them and to
+leave them (in the absence of legitimate children)
+one-sixth
+of his property; moreover, they might be fully legitimated
+by the subsequent marriage of their parents.</p>
+
+<p>In the East, the emperor Leo the Philosopher (d. 911) insisted
+on formal marriage as the only legal status; but in the Western
+Empire concubinage was still recognized even by the Christian
+emperors.  The early Christians had naturally preferred the
+formless marriage of the Roman law as being free from all taint
+of pagan idolatry; and the ecclesiastical authorities recognized
+concubinage also.  The first council of Toledo (398) bids the
+faithful restrict himself &ldquo;to a single wife or concubine, as it
+shall please him&rdquo;;<a name="FnAnchor_2j" id="FnAnchor_2j" href="#Footnote_2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and there is a similar canon of the Roman
+synod held by Pope Eugenius II. in 826.  Even as late as the
+Roman councils of 1052 and 1063, the suspension from communion
+of laymen who had a wife and a concubine <i>at the same
+time</i> implies that mere concubinage was tolerated.  It was also
+recognized by many early civil codes.  In Germany &ldquo;left-handed&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;morganatic&rdquo; marriages were allowed by the Salic law
+between nobles and women of lower rank.  In different states
+of Spain the laws of the later middle ages recognized concubinage
+under the name of <i>barragania</i>, the contract being lifelong, the
+woman obtaining by it a right to maintenance during life, and
+sometimes also to part of the succession, and the sons ranking
+as nobles if their father was a noble.  In Iceland, the concubine
+was recognized in addition to the lawful wife, though it was
+forbidden that they should dwell in the same house.  The Norwegian
+law of the later middle ages provided definitely that
+in default of legitimate sons, the kingdom should descend to
+illegitimates.  In the Danish code of Valdemar II., which was
+in force from 1280 to 1683, it was provided that a concubine
+kept openly for three years shall thereby become a legal wife;
+this was the custom of <i>hand vesten</i>, the &ldquo;handfasting&rdquo; of the
+English and Scottish borders, which appears in Scott&rsquo;s <i>Monastery</i>.
+In Scotland, the laws of William the Lion (d. 1214) speak of
+concubinage as a recognized institution; and, in the same
+century, the great English legist Bracton treats the &ldquo;concubina
+<i>legitima</i>&rdquo; as entitled to certain rights.<a name="FnAnchor_3j" id="FnAnchor_3j" href="#Footnote_3j"><span class="sp">3</span></a> There seems to have
+been at times a pardonable confusion between some quasi-legitimate
+unions and those marriages by mere word of mouth,
+without ecclesiastical or other ceremonies, which the church,
+after some natural hesitation, pronounced to be valid.<a name="FnAnchor_4j" id="FnAnchor_4j" href="#Footnote_4j"><span class="sp">4</span></a>  Another
+and more serious confusion between concubinage and marriage
+was caused by the gradual enforcement of clerical celibacy (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Celibacy</a></span>).  During the bitter conflict between laws which
+forbade sacerdotal marriages and long custom which had permitted
+them, it was natural that the legislators and the ascetic
+party generally should studiously speak of the priests&rsquo; wives as
+concubines, and do all in their power to reduce them to this
+position.  This very naturally resulted in a too frequent substitution
+of clerical concubinage for marriage; and the resultant
+evils form one of the commonest themes of complaint in church
+councils of the later middle ages.<a name="FnAnchor_5j" id="FnAnchor_5j" href="#Footnote_5j"><span class="sp">5</span></a>  Concubinage in general was
+struck at by the concordat between the Pope Leo X. and Francis
+I. of France in 1516; and the council of Trent, while insisting
+on far more stringent conditions for lawful marriage than those
+which had prevailed in the middle ages, imposed at last heavy
+ecclesiastical penalties on concubinage and appealed to the secular
+arm for help against contumacious offenders (Sessio xxiv. cap. 8).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Besides those quoted in the notes, the reader may
+consult with advantage Du Cange&rsquo;s <i>Glossarium, s.v. Concubina</i>,
+the article &ldquo;Concubinat&rdquo; in Wetzer and Welte&rsquo;s <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>
+(2nd ed., Freiburg i/B., 1884), and Dr H. C. Lea&rsquo;s <i>History of Sacerdotal
+Celibacy</i> (3rd ed., London, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. G. Co.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1j" id="Footnote_1j" href="#FnAnchor_1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The difference between English and Scottish law, which once
+made &ldquo;Gretna Green marriages&rdquo; so frequent, is due to the fact that
+Scotland adopted the Roman law (which on this particular point was
+followed by the whole medieval church).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2j" id="Footnote_2j" href="#FnAnchor_2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Gratian, in the 12th century, tried to explain this away by assuming
+that concubinage here referred to meant a formless marriage;
+but in 398 a church council can scarcely so have misused the technical
+terms of the then current civil law (Gratian, <i>Decretum</i>, pars i. dist.
+xxiv. c. 4).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3j" id="Footnote_3j" href="#FnAnchor_3j"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Bracton, <i>De Legibus</i>, lib. iii. tract. ii. c. 28, § I, and lib. iv. tract.
+vi. c. 8, § 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4j" id="Footnote_4j" href="#FnAnchor_4j"><span class="fn">4</span></a> F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, <i>Hist. of English Law</i>, 2nd ed.
+vol. ii. p. 370.  In the case of Richard de Anesty, decided by papal
+rescript in 1143, &ldquo;a marriage solemnly celebrated in church, a
+marriage of which a child had been born, was set aside as null in
+favour of an earlier marriage constituted by a mere exchange of
+consenting words&rdquo; (ibid. p. 367; cf. the similar decretal of Alexander
+III. on p. 371).  The great medieval canon lawyer Lyndwood
+illustrates the difficulty of distinguishing, even as late as the middle
+of the 15th century, between concubinage and a clandestine, though
+legal, marriage.  He falls back on the definition of an earlier canonist
+that if the woman eats out of the same dish with the man, and if he
+takes her to church, she may be presumed to be his wife; if, however,
+he sends her to draw water and dresses her in vile clothing, she
+is probably a concubine (<i>Provinciale</i>, ed. Oxon. 1679, p. 10, <i>s.v.
+concubinarios</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5j" id="Footnote_5j" href="#FnAnchor_5j"><span class="fn">5</span></a> It may be gathered from the Dominican C. L. Richard&rsquo;s <i>Analysis
+Conciliorum</i> (vol. ii., 1778) that there were more than 110 such
+complaints in councils and synods between the years 1009 and 1528.
+Dr Rashdall (<i>Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. ii. p. 691,
+note) points out that a master of the university of Prague, in 1499,
+complained openly to the authorities against a bachelor for assaulting
+his concubine.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDÉ, PRINCES OF.<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span>  The French title of prince of Condé,
+assumed from the ancient town of Condé-sur-l&rsquo;Escaut, was borne
+by a branch of the house of Bourbon.  The first who assumed it
+was the famous Huguenot leader, Louis de Bourbon (see below),
+the fifth son of Charles de Bourbon, duke of Vendôme.  His
+son, Henry, prince of Condé (1552-1588), also belonged to the
+Huguenot party.  Fleeing to Germany he raised a small army
+with which in 1575 he joined Alençon.  He became leader of the
+Huguenots, but after several years&rsquo; fighting was taken prisoner
+of war.  Not long after he died of poison, administered, according
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span>
+to the belief of his contemporaries, by his wife, Catherine de la
+Trémouille. This event, among others, awoke strong suspicions
+as to the legitimacy of his heir and namesake, Henry, prince of
+Condé (1588-1646). King Henry IV., however, did not take
+advantage of the scandal. In 1609 he caused the prince of Condé
+to marry Charlotte de Montmorency, whom shortly after Condé
+was obliged to save from the king&rsquo;s persistent gallantry by a
+hasty flight, first to Spain and then to Italy. On the death of
+Henry, Condé returned to France, and intrigued against the
+regent, Marie de&rsquo; Medici; but he was seized, and imprisoned
+for three years (1616-1619). There was at that time before the
+court a plea for his divorce from his wife, but she now devoted
+herself to enliven his captivity at the cost of her own liberty.
+During the rest of his life Condé was a faithful servant of the
+king. He strove to blot out the memory of the Huguenot
+connexions of his house by affecting the greatest zeal against
+Protestants. His old ambition changed into a desire for the safe
+aggrandizement of his family, which he magnificently achieved,
+and with that end he bowed before Richelieu, whose niece he
+forced his son to marry. His son Louis, the great Condé, is
+separately noticed below.</p>
+
+<p>The next in succession was Henry Jules, prince of Condé
+(1643-1709), the son of the great Condé and of Clémence de Maillé,
+niece of Richelieu. He fought with distinction under his father
+in Franche-Comté and the Low Countries; but he was heartless,
+avaricious and undoubtedly insane. The end of his life was
+marked by singular hypochondriacal fancies. He believed at
+one time that he was dead, and refused to eat till some of his
+attendants dressed in sheets set him the example. His grandson,
+Louis Henry, duke of Bourbon (1692-1740), Louis XV.&rsquo;s minister,
+did not assume the title of prince of Condé which properly
+belonged to him.</p>
+
+<p>The son of the duke of Bourbon, Louis Joseph, prince of
+Condé (1736-1818), after receiving a good education, distinguished
+himself in the Seven Years&rsquo; War, and most of all by his victory
+at Johannisberg. As governor of Burgundy he did much to
+improve the industries and means of communication of that
+province. At the Revolution he took up arms in behalf of the
+king, became commander of the &ldquo;army of Condé,&rdquo; and fought
+in conjunction with the Austrians till the peace of Campo
+Formio in 1797, being during the last year in the pay of England.
+He then served the emperor of Russia in Poland, and after that
+(1800) returned into the pay of England, and fought in Bavaria.
+In 1800 Condé arrived in England, where he resided for several
+years. On the restoration of Louis XVIII. he returned to France.
+He died in Paris in 1818. He wrote <i>Essai sur la vie du grand
+Condé</i> (1798).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Louis Henry Joseph</span>, duke of Bourbon (1756-1830), son of
+the last named, was the last prince of Condé. Several of the
+earlier events of his life, especially his marriage with the princess
+Louise of Orleans, and the duel that the comte d&rsquo;Artois provoked
+by raising the veil of the princess at a masked ball, caused much
+scandal. At the Revolution he fought with the army of the
+<i>emigrés</i> in Liége. Between the return of Napoleon from Elba
+and the battle of Waterloo, he headed with no success a royalist
+rising in La Vendée. In 1829 he made a will by which he appointed
+as his heir the due d&rsquo;Aumale, and made some considerable
+bequests to his mistress, the baronne de Feuchčres (<i>q.v.</i>). On
+the 27th of August 1830 he was found hanged on the fastening
+of his window. A crime was generally suspected, and the princes
+de Rohan, who were relatives of the deceased, disputed the will.
+Their petition, however, was dismissed by the courts.</p>
+
+<p>Two cadet branches of the house of Condé played an important
+part: those of Soissons and Conti. The first, sprung from
+Charles of Bourbon (b. 1566), son of Louis I., prince of Condé,
+became extinct in the legitimate male line in 1641. The second
+took its origin from Armand of Bourbon, born in 1629, son of
+Henry II., prince of Condé, and survived up to 1814.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Muret, <i>L&rsquo;Histoire de l&rsquo;armée de Condé</i>; Chamballand, <i>Vie de
+Louis Joseph, prince de Condé</i>; Crétineau-Joly, <i>Histoire des trois
+derniers princes de la maison de Condé</i>; and <i>Histoire des princes de
+Condé</i>, by the due d&rsquo;Aumale (translated by R. B. Borthwick, 1872).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDÉ, LOUIS DE BOURBON,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince of</span> (1530-1569), fifth
+son of Charles de Bourbon, duke of Vendôme, younger brother
+of Antoine, king of Navarre (1518-1562), was the first of the
+famous house of Condé (see above). After his father&rsquo;s death
+in 1537 Louis was educated in the principles of the reformed
+religion. Brave though deformed, gay but extremely poor for
+his rank, Condé was led by his ambition to a military career.
+He fought with distinction in Piedmont under Marshal de
+Brissac; in 1552 he forced his way with reinforcements into
+Metz, then besieged by Charles V.; he led several brilliant sorties
+from that town; and in 1554 commanded the light cavalry on
+the Meuse against Charles. In 1557 he was present at the battle
+of St Quentin, and did further good service at the head of the
+light horse. But the descendants of the constable de Bourbon
+were still looked upon with suspicion in the French court, and
+Condé&rsquo;s services were ignored. The court designed to reduce his
+narrow means still further by despatching him upon a costly
+mission to Philip II. of Spain. His personal griefs thus combined
+with his religious views to force upon him a rôle of political
+opposition. He was concerned in the conspiracy of Amboise,
+which aimed at forcing from the king the recognition of the
+reformed religion. He was consequently condemned to death,
+and was only saved by the decease of Francis II. At the accession
+of the boy-king Charles IX., the policy of the court was changed,
+and Condé received from Catherine de&rsquo; Medici the government
+of Picardy. But the struggle between the Catholics and the
+Huguenots soon began once more, and henceforward the career
+of Condé is the story of the wars of religion (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
+He was the military as well as the political chief of the Huguenot
+party, and displayed the highest generalship on many occasions,
+and notably at the battle of St Denis. At the battle of Jarnac,
+with only 400 horsemen, Condé rashly charged the whole
+Catholic army. Worn out with fighting, he at last gave up his
+sword, and a Catholic officer named Montesquiou treacherously
+shot him through the head on the 13th of March 1569.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDÉ, LOUIS II. DE BOURBON,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince of</span> (1621-1686),
+called the Great Condé, was the son of Henry, prince of Condé,
+and Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, and was born at
+Paris on the 8th of September 1621. As a boy, under his father&rsquo;s
+careful supervision, he studied diligently at the Jesuits&rsquo; College
+at Bourges, and at seventeen, in the absence of his father, he
+governed Burgundy. The duc d&rsquo;Enghien, as he was styled
+during his father&rsquo;s lifetime, took part with distinction in the
+campaigns of 1640 and 1641 in northern France while yet under
+twenty years of age.</p>
+
+<p>During the youth of Enghien all power in France was in the
+hands of Richelieu; to him even the princes of the blood had to
+yield; and Henry of Condé sought with the rest to win the
+cardinal&rsquo;s favour. Enghien was forced to conform. He was
+already deeply in love with Mlle. Marthe du Vigean, who in
+return was passionately devoted to him, yet, to flatter the
+cardinal, he was compelled by his father, at the age of twenty,
+to give his hand to Richelieu&rsquo;s niece, Claire Clémence de Maillé-Brézé,
+a child of thirteen. He was present with Richelieu during
+the dangerous plot of Cinq Mars, and afterwards fought in the
+siege of Perpignan (1642).</p>
+
+<p>In 1643 Enghien was appointed to command against the
+Spaniards in northern France. He was opposed by experienced
+generals, and the veterans of the Spanish army were accounted
+the finest soldiers in Europe; on the other hand, the strength
+of the French army was placed at his command, and under him
+were the best generals of the service. The great battle of Rocroy
+(May 18) put an end to the supremacy of the Spanish army and
+inaugurated the long period of French military predominance.
+Enghien himself conceived and directed the decisive attack, and
+at the age of twenty-two won his place amongst the great
+captains of modern times. After a campaign of uninterrupted
+success, Enghien returned to Paris in triumph, and in gallantry
+and intrigues strove to forget his enforced and hateful marriage.
+In 1644 he was sent with reinforcements into Germany to the
+assistance of Turenne, who was hard pressed, and took command
+of the whole army. The battle of Freiburg (Aug.) was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span>
+desperately contested, but in the end the French army won a
+great victory over the Bavarians and Imperialists commanded
+by Count Mercy. As after Rocroy, numerous fortresses opened
+their gates to the duke. The next winter Enghien spent, like
+every other winter during the war, amid the gaieties of Paris.
+The summer campaign of 1645 opened with the defeat of Turenne
+by Mercy, but this was retrieved in the brilliant victory of
+Nördlingen, in which Mercy was killed, and Enghien himself
+received several serious wounds. The capture of Philipsburg
+was the most important of his other achievements during this
+campaign. In 1646 Enghien served under the duke of Orleans
+in Flanders, and when, after the capture of Mardyck, Orleans
+returned to Paris, Enghien, left in command, captured Dunkirk
+(October 11th).</p>
+
+<p>It was in this year that the old prince of Condé died. The
+enormous power that fell into the hands of his successor was
+naturally looked upon with serious alarm by the regent and her
+minister. Condé&rsquo;s birth and military renown placed him at the
+head of the French nobility; but, added to that, the family of
+which he was chief was both enormously rich and master of no
+small portion of France. Condé himself held Burgundy, Berry
+and the marches of Lorraine, as well as other less important
+territory; his brother Conti held Champagne, his brother-in-law,
+Longueville, Normandy. The government, therefore, determined
+to permit no increase of his already overgrown authority, and
+Mazarin made an attempt, which for the moment proved successful,
+at once to find him employment and to tarnish his fame as
+a general. He was sent to lead the revolted Catalans. Ill-supported,
+he was unable to achieve anything, and, being forced
+to raise the siege of Lerida, he returned home in bitter indignation.
+In 1648, however, he received the command in the
+important field of the Low Countries; and at Lens (Aug. 19th)
+a battle took place, which, beginning with a panic in his own
+regiment, was retrieved by Condé&rsquo;s coolness and bravery, and
+ended in a victory that fully restored his prestige.</p>
+
+<p>In September of the same year Condé was recalled to court,
+for the regent Anne of Austria required his support. Influenced
+by the fact of his royal birth and by his arrogant scorn for the
+bourgeois, Condé lent himself to the court party, and finally,
+after much hesitation, he consented to lead the army which was
+to reduce Paris (Jan. 1649).</p>
+
+<p>On his side, insufficient as were his forces, the war was carried
+on with vigour, and after several minor combats their substantial
+losses and a threatening of scarcity of food made the Parisians
+weary of the war. The political situation inclined both parties to
+peace, which was made at Rueil on the 20th of March (see <a>Fronde,
+The</a>). It was not long, however, before Condé became estranged
+from the court. His pride and ambition earned for him universal
+distrust and dislike, and the personal resentment of Anne in
+addition to motives of policy caused the sudden arrest of Condé,
+Conti and Longueville on the 18th of January 1650. But others,
+including Turenne and his brother the duke of Bouillon, made
+their escape. Vigorous attempts for the release of the princes
+began to be made. The women of the family were now its heroes.
+The dowager princess claimed from the parlement of Paris the
+fulfilment of the reformed law of arrest, which forbade imprisonment
+without trial. The duchess of Longueville entered into
+negotiations with Spain; and the young princess of Condé,
+having gathered an army around her, obtained entrance into
+Bordeaux and the support of the parlement of that town. She
+alone, among the nobles who took part in the folly of the Fronde,
+gains our respect and sympathy. Faithful to a faithless husband,
+she came forth from the retirement to which he had condemned
+her, and gathered an army to fight for him. But the delivery of
+the princes was brought about in the end by the junction of the
+old Fronde (the party of the parlement and of Cardinal de Retz)
+and the new Fronde (the party of the Condés); and Anne was at
+last, in February 1651, forced to liberate them from their prison
+at Havre. Soon afterwards, however, another shifting of parties
+left Condé and the new Fronde isolated. With the court and the
+old Fronde in alliance against him, Condé found no resource but
+that of making common cause with the Spaniards, who were at
+war with France. The confused civil war which followed this
+step (Sept. 1651) was memorable chiefly for the battle of
+the Faubourg St Antoine, in which Condé and Turenne, two
+of the foremost captains of the age, measured their strength
+(July 2, 1652), and the army of the prince was only saved by
+being admitted within the gates of Paris. La Grande Mademoiselle,
+daughter of the duke of Orleans, persuaded the Parisians
+to act thus, and turned the cannon of the Bastille on Turenne&rsquo;s
+army. Thus Condé, who as usual had fought with the most
+desperate bravery, was saved, and Paris underwent a new
+investment. This ended in the flight of Condé to the Spanish
+army (Sept. 1652), and thenceforward, up to the peace, he
+was in open arms against France, and held high command in the
+army of Spain. But his now fully developed genius as a commander
+found little scope in the cumbrous and antiquated
+system of war practised by the Spaniards, and though he gained
+a few successes, and man&oelig;uvred with the highest possible skill
+against Turenne, his disastrous defeat at the Dunes near Dunkirk
+(14th of June 1658), in which an English contingent of Cromwell&rsquo;s
+veterans took part on the side of Turenne, led Spain to open
+negotiations for peace. After the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659,
+Condé obtained his pardon (January 1660) from Louis, who
+thought him less dangerous as a subject than as possessor of the
+independent sovereignty of Luxemburg, which had been offered
+him by Spain as a reward for his services.</p>
+
+<p>Condé now realized that the period of agitation and party
+warfare was at an end, and he accepted, and loyally maintained
+henceforward, the position of a chief subordinate to a masterful
+sovereign. Even so, some years passed before he was recalled
+to active employment, and these years he spent on his estate at
+Chantilly. Here he gathered round him a brilliant company,
+which included many men of genius&mdash;Moličre, Racine, Boileau,
+La Fontaine, Nicole, Bourdaloue and Bossuet. About this time
+negotiations between the Poles, Condé and Louis were carried
+on with a view to the election, at first of Condé&rsquo;s son Enghien,
+and afterwards of Condé himself, to the throne of Poland. These,
+after a long series of curious intrigues, were finally closed in 1674
+by the veto of Louis XIV. and the election of John Sobieski.
+The prince&rsquo;s retirement, which was only broken by the Polish
+question and by his personal intercession on behalf of Fouquet
+in 1664, ended in 1668. In that year he proposed to Louvois, the
+minister of war, a plan for seizing Franche-Comté, the execution
+of which was entrusted to him and successfully carried out.
+He was now completely re-established in the favour of Louis, and
+with Turenne was the principal French commander in the celebrated
+campaign of 1672 against the Dutch. At the forcing of the
+Rhine passage at Tollhuis (June 12) he received a severe wound,
+after which he commanded in Alsace against the Imperialists.
+In 1673 he was again engaged in the Low Countries, and in 1674
+he fought his last great battle at Seneff against the prince of
+Orange (afterwards William III. of England). This battle, fought
+on the 11th of August, was one of the hardest of the century, and
+Condé, who displayed the reckless bravery of his youth, had three
+horses killed under him. His last campaign was that of 1675 on
+the Rhine, where the army had been deprived of its general by
+the death of Turenne; and where by his careful and methodical
+strategy he repelled the invasion of the Imperial army of Montecucculi.
+After this campaign, prematurely worn out by the toils
+and excesses of his life, and tortured by the gout, he returned to
+Chantilly, where he spent the eleven years that remained to him
+in quiet retirement. In the end of his life he specially sought the
+companionship of Bourdaloue, Nicole and Bossuet, and devoted
+himself to religious exercises. He died on the 11th of November
+1686 at the age of sixty-five. Bourdaloue attended him at his
+death-bed, and Bossuet pronounced his <i>éloge</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier political career of Condé was typical of the great
+French noble of his day. Success in love and war, predominant
+influence over his sovereign and universal homage to his own
+exaggerated pride, were the objects of his ambition. Even as
+an exile he asserted the precedence of the royal house of France
+over the princes of Spain and Austria, with whom he was allied
+for the moment. But the Condé of 1668 was no longer a politician
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span>
+and a marplot; to be first in war and in gallantry was still his
+aim, but for the rest he was a submissive, even a subservient,
+minister of the royal will. It is on his military character,
+however, that his fame rests. This changed but little. Unlike
+his great rival Turenne, Condé was equally brilliant in his first
+battle and in his last. The one failure of his generalship was in
+the Spanish Fronde, and in this everything united to thwart
+his genius; only on the battlefield itself was his personal leadership
+as conspicuous as ever. That he was capable of waging a
+methodical war of positions may be assumed from his campaigns
+against Turenne and Montecucculi, the greatest generals of the
+predominant school. But it was in his eagerness for battle, his
+quick decision in action, and the stern will which sent his regiments
+to face the heaviest loss, that Condé is distinguished above all
+the generals of his time. In private life he was harsh and
+unamiable, seeking only the gratification of his own pleasures
+and desires. His enforced and loveless marriage embittered
+his life, and it was only in his last years, when he had done
+with ambition, that the more humane side of his character
+appeared in his devotion to literature.</p>
+
+<p>Condé&rsquo;s unhappy wife had some years before been banished
+to Châteauroux. An accident brought about her ruin. Her
+contemporaries, greedy as they were of scandal, refused to
+believe any evil of her, but the prince declared himself convinced
+of her unfaithfulness, placed her in confinement, and carried
+his resentment so far that his last letter to the king was to request
+him never to allow her to be released.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;See, besides the numerous <i>Mémoires</i> of the time,
+Puget de la Serre, <i>Les Sičges, les batailles, &amp;c., de Mr. le prince de
+Condé</i> (Paris, 1651); J. de la Brune, <i>Histoire de la vie, &amp;c., de Louis
+de Bourbon, prince de Condé</i> (Cologne, 1694); P. Coste, <i>Histoire de
+Louis de Bourbon, &amp;c.</i> (Hague, 1748); Desormeaux, <i>Histoire de
+Louis de Bourbon, &amp;c.</i> (Paris, 1768); Turpin, <i>Vie de Louis de Bourbon,
+&amp;c.</i> (Paris and Amsterdam, 1767); <i>Éloge militaire de Louis de
+Bourbon</i> (Dijon, 1772); <i>Histoire du grand Condé</i>, by A. Lemercier
+(Tours, 1862); J. J. E. Roy (Lille, 1859); L. de Voivreuil (Tours,
+1846); Fitzpatrick, <i>The Great Condé</i>, and Lord Mahon, <i>Life of Louis,
+prince of Condé</i> (London, 1845). Works on the Condé family by the
+prince de Condé and de Sevilinges (Paris, 1820), the due d&rsquo;Aumale,
+and Guibout (Rouen, 1856), should also be consulted.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDÉ,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> the name of some twenty villages in France and of
+two towns of some importance. Of the villages, Condé-en-Brie
+(Lat. <i>Condetum</i>) is a place of great antiquity and was in the
+middle ages the seat of a principality, a sub-fief of that of
+Montmirail; Condé-sur-Aisne (<i>Condatus</i>) was given in 870 by
+Charles the Bald to the abbey of St Ouen at Rouen, gave its
+name to a seigniory during the middle ages, and possessed a
+priory of which the church and a 12th-century chapel remain;
+Condé-sur-Marne (<i>Condate</i>), once a place of some importance,
+preserves one of its parish churches, with a fine Romanesque
+tower. The two towns are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Condé-sur-l&rsquo;Escaut</span>, in the department of Nord, at the
+junction of the canals of the Scheldt and of Condé-Mons. Pop.
+(1906) town, 2701; commune, 5310. It lies 7 m. N. by E. of
+Valenciennes and 2 m. from the Belgian frontier. It has a church
+dating from the middle of the 18th century. Trade is in coal and
+cattle. The industries include brewing, rope-making and boat-building,
+and there is a communal college. Condé (<i>Condate</i>) is
+of considerable antiquity, dating at least from the later Roman
+period. Taken in 1676 by Louis XIV., it definitely passed into
+the possession of France by the treaty of Nijmwegen two years
+later, and was afterwards fortified by Vauban. During the
+revolutionary war it was besieged and taken by the Austrians
+(1793); and in 1815 it again fell to the allies. It was from
+this place that the princes of Condé (<i>q.v.</i>) took their title. See
+Perron-Gelineau, <i>Condé ancien et moderne</i> (Nantes, 1887).</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Condé-sur-Noireau</span>, in the department of Calvados, at
+the confluence of the Noireau and the Drouance, 33 m. S.S.W. of
+Caen on the Ouest-État railway. Pop. (1906) 5709. The town
+is the seat of a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade-arbitration
+and a chamber of arts and manufactures, and has a communal
+college. It is important for its cotton-spinning and weaving, and
+carries on dyeing, printing and machine-construction; there are
+numerous nursery-gardens in the vicinity. Important fairs
+are held in the town. The church of St Martin has a choir of
+the 12th and 15th centuries, and a stained-glass window (15th
+century) representing the Crucifixion. There is a statue to
+Dumont d&rsquo;Urville, the navigator (b. 1790), a native of the town.
+Throughout the middle ages Condé (<i>Condatum</i>, <i>Condetum</i>) was
+the seat of an important castellany, which was held by a long
+succession of powerful nobles and kings, including Robert, count
+of Mortain, Henry II. and John of England, Philip Augustus
+of France, Charles II. (the Bad) and Charles III. of Navarre.
+The place was held by the English from 1417 to 1449. Of the
+castle some ruins of the keep survive. See L. Huet, <i>Hist. de
+Condé-sur-Noireau, ses seigneurs, son industrie, &amp;c.</i> (Caen, 1883).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDE, JOSÉ ANTONIO<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1766-1820), Spanish Orientalist,
+was born at Peraleja (Cuenca) on the 28th of October 1766,
+and was educated at the university of Alcalá. His translation of
+Anacreon (1791) obtained him a post in the royal library in 1795,
+and in 1796-1797 he published paraphrases from Theocritus,
+Bion, Moschus, Sappho and Meleager. These were followed by
+a mediocre edition of the Arabic text of Edrisi&rsquo;s <i>Description
+of Spain</i> (1799), with notes and a translation. Conde became
+a member of the Spanish Academy in 1802 and of the Academy
+of History in 1804, but his appointment as interpreter to Joseph
+Bonaparte led to his expulsion from both bodies in 1814. He
+escaped to France in February 1813, and returned to Spain in
+1814, but was not allowed to reside at Madrid till 1816. Two
+years later he was re-elected by both academies; he died in
+poverty on the 12th of June 1820. His <i>Historia de la Dominación
+de los Árabes en Espańa</i> was published in 1820-1821. Only the
+first volume was corrected by the author, the other two being
+compiled from his manuscript by Juan Tineo. This work was
+translated into German (1824-1825), French (1825) and English
+(1854). Conde&rsquo;s pretensions to scholarship have been severely
+criticized by Dozy, and his history is now discredited. It had,
+however, the merit of stimulating abler workers in the same field.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDENSATION OF GASES.<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> If the volume of a gas continually
+decreases at a constant temperature, for which an
+increasing pressure is required, two cases may occur:&mdash;(1)
+The volume may continue to be homogeneously
+<span class="sidenote">Critical temperature.</span>
+filled. (2) If the substance is contained in a certain
+volume, and if the pressure has a certain value,
+the substance may divide into two different phases, each
+of which is again homogeneous. The value of the temperature
+T decides which case will occur. The temperature which
+is the limit above which the space will always be homogeneously
+filled, and below which the substance divides into
+two phases, is called the <i>critical temperature</i> of the substance.
+It differs greatly for different substances, and if we represent it by
+T<span class="su">c</span>, the condition for the condensation of a gas is that T must
+be below T<span class="su">c</span>. If the substance is divided into two phases, two
+different cases may occur. The denser phase may be either a
+liquid or a solid. The limiting temperature for these two cases,
+at which the division into three phases may occur, is called the
+<i>triple point</i>. Let us represent it by T<span class="su">3</span>; if the term &ldquo;condensation
+of gases&rdquo; is taken in the sense of &ldquo;liquefaction of gases&rdquo;&mdash;which
+is usually done&mdash;the condition for condensation is T<span class="su">c</span> &gt; T &gt; T<span class="su">3</span>.
+The opinion sometimes held that for all substances T<span class="su">3</span> is the same
+fraction of T<span class="su">c</span> (the value being about ˝) has decidedly not been
+rigorously confirmed. Nor is this to be expected on account of
+the very different form of crystallization which the solid state
+presents. Thus for carbon dioxide, CO<span class="su">2</span>, for which T<span class="su">c</span> = 304°
+on the absolute scale, and for which we may put T<span class="su">3</span> = 216°, this
+fraction is about 0.7; for water it descends down to 0.42, and
+for other substances it may be still lower.</p>
+
+<p>If we confine ourselves to temperatures between T<span class="su">c</span> and T<span class="su">3</span>, the
+gas will pass into a liquid if the pressure is sufficiently increased.
+When the formation of liquid sets in we call the gas a <i>saturated
+vapour</i>. If the decrease of volume is continued, the gas pressure
+remains constant till all the vapour has passed into liquid. The
+invariability of the properties of the phases is in close connexion
+with the invariability of the pressure (called <i>maximum tension</i>).
+Throughout the course of the process of condensation these
+properties remain unchanged, provided the temperature remain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span>
+constant; only the relative quantity of the two phases changes.
+Until all the gas has passed into liquid a further decrease of
+volume will not require increase of pressure. But as soon as
+the liquefaction is complete a slight decrease of volume will
+require a great increase of pressure, liquids being but slightly
+compressible.</p>
+
+<p>The pressure required to condense a gas varies with the
+temperature, becoming higher as the temperature rises. The
+highest pressure will therefore be found at T<span class="su">c</span> and
+the lowest at T<span class="su">3</span>. We shall represent the pressure at
+<span class="sidenote">Critical pressure.</span>
+T<span class="su">c</span> by p<span class="su">c</span>. It is called the <i>critical pressure</i>. The
+pressure at T<span class="su">3</span> we shall represent by p<span class="su">3</span>. It is called the <i>pressure
+of the triple point</i>. The values of T<span class="su">c</span> and p<span class="su">c</span> for different substances
+will be found at the end of this article. The values of T<span class="su">3</span> and p<span class="su">3</span>
+are accurately known only for a few substances. As a rule p<span class="su">3</span>
+is small, though occasionally it is greater than 1 atmosphere.
+This is the case with CO<span class="su">2</span>, and we may in general expect it if the
+value of T<span class="su">3</span>/T<span class="su">c</span> is large. In this case there can only be a question
+of a real boiling-point (under the normal pressure) if the liquid
+can be supercooled.</p>
+
+<p>We may find the value of the pressure of the saturated vapour
+for each T in a geometrical way by drawing in the theoretical
+isothermal a straight line parallel to the v-axis in such a way
+that &int;<span class="sp1">v2</span><span class="su1">v1</span> pdv will have the same value whether the straight
+line or the theoretical isothermal is followed. This construction,
+given by James Clerk Maxwell, may be considered as a result
+of the application of the general rules for coexisting equilibrium,
+which we owe to J. Willard Gibbs. The construction derived
+from the rules of Gibbs is as follows:&mdash;Construe the free energy at
+a constant temperature, <i>i.e.</i> the quantity - &int;pdv as ordinate, if the
+abscissa represents v, and determine the inclination of the double
+tangent. Another construction derived from the rules of Gibbs
+might be expressed as follows:&mdash;Construe the value of pv - &int;pdv
+as ordinate, the abscissa representing p, and determine the point
+of intersection of two of the three branches of this curve.</p>
+
+<p>As an approximate half-empirical formula for the calculation of the pressure,
+-log<span class="su">10</span> p/p<span class="su">c</span> = &int;(T<span class="su">c</span> - T)/T may be used. It would
+follow from the law of corresponding states that in this formula
+the value of f is the same for all substances, the molecules of
+which do not associate to form larger molecule-complexes.
+In fact, for a great many substances, we find a value for &int;, which
+differs but little from 3, <i>e.g.</i> ether, carbon dioxide, benzene,
+benzene derivatives, ethyl chloride, ethane, &amp;c. As the chemical
+structure of these substances differs greatly, and association,
+if it takes place, must largely depend upon the structure of the
+molecule, we conclude from this approximate equality that the
+fact of this value of &int; being equal to about 3 is characteristic for
+normal substances in which, consequently, association is excluded.
+Substances known to associate, such as organic acids
+and alcohols, have a sensibly higher value of &int;. Thus T. Estreicher
+(Cracow, 1896) calculates that for fluor-benzene &int; varies between
+3.07 and 2.94; for ether between 3.0 and 3.1; but for water
+between 3.2 and 3.33, and for methyl alcohol between 3.65 and
+3.84, &amp;c. For isobutyl alcohol &int; even rises above 4. It is,
+however, remarkable that for oxygen &int; has been found almost
+invariably equal to 2.47 from K. Olszewski&rsquo;s observations, a
+value which is appreciably smaller than 3. This fact makes us
+again seriously doubt the correctness of the supposition that &int; = 3
+is a characteristic for non-association.</p>
+
+<p>It is a general rule that the volume of saturated vapour
+decreases when the temperature is raised, while that of the
+coexisting liquid increases. We know only one
+exception to this rule, and that is the volume of water
+<span class="sidenote">Critical volume.</span>
+below 4° C. If we call the liquid volume v<span class="su">l</span>, and the
+vapour v<span class="su">v</span>, v<span class="su">v</span> - v<span class="su">l</span> decreases if the temperature rises, and becomes
+zero at T<span class="su">c</span>. The limiting value, to which v<span class="su">l</span> and v<span class="su">v</span> converge at T<span class="su">c</span>,
+is called the <i>critical volume</i>, and we shall represent it by v<span class="su">c</span>.
+According to the law of corresponding states the values both of
+v<span class="su">l</span>/v<span class="su">c</span> and v<span class="su">v</span>/v<span class="su">c</span> must be the same for all substances, if T/T<span class="su">c</span> has been
+taken equal for them all. According to the investigations of
+Sydney Young, this holds good with a high degree of approximation
+for a long series of substances. Important deviations from
+this rule for the values of v<span class="su">v</span>/v<span class="su">l</span> are only found for those substances
+in which the existence of association has already been discovered
+by other methods. Since the lowest value of T, for which
+investigations on v<span class="su">l</span> and v<span class="su">v</span> may be made, is the value of T<span class="su">3</span>;
+and since T<span class="su">3</span>/T<span class="su">c</span>, as has been observed above, is not the same
+for all substances, we cannot expect the smallest value of v<span class="su">l</span>/v<span class="su">c</span>
+to be the same for all substances. But for low values of T, viz.
+such as are near T<span class="su">3</span>, the influence of the temperature on the
+volume is but slight, and therefore we are not far from the truth
+if we assume the minimum value of the ratio v<span class="su">l</span>/v<span class="su">c</span> as being
+identical for all normal substances, and put it at about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>.
+Moreover, the influence of the polymerization (association) on
+the liquid volume appears to be small, so that we may even
+attribute the value <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> to substances which are not normal. The
+value of v<span class="su">v</span>/v<span class="su">c</span> at T = T<span class="su">3</span> differs widely for different substances.
+If we take p<span class="su">3</span> so low that the law of Boyle-Gay Lussac may be
+applied, we can calculate v<span class="su">3</span>/v<span class="su">c</span> by means of the formula
+p<span class="su">3</span>v<span class="su">3</span>/T<span class="su">3</span> = k ˇ p<span class="su">c</span>v<span class="su">c</span>/T<span class="su">c</span>,
+provided k be known. According to the observations
+of Sydney Young, this factor has proved to be 3.77 for normal substances. In consequence
+v<span class="su">3</span>/v<span class="su">c</span> = 3.77 p<span class="su">c</span>/p<span class="su">3</span> ˇ T<span class="su">3</span>/T<span class="su">c</span>.
+A similar formula, but with another value of k, may be given for associating substances,
+but with another value of k, may be given for associating substances,
+provided the saturated vapour does not contain any
+complex molecules. But if it does, as is the case with acetic
+acid, we must also know the degree of association. It can,
+however, only be found by measuring the volume itself.</p>
+
+<p>E. Mathias has remarked that the following relation exists
+between the densities of the saturated vapour and of
+<span class="sidenote">Rule of the rectilinear diameter.</span>
+the coexisting liquid:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center1">&rho;<span class="su">l</span> + &rho;<span class="su">v</span> = 2&rho;<span class="su">c</span> <span class="f150">{</span>1 + a<span class="f150">(</span>1 - T/T<span class="su">c</span><span class="f150">)}</span>,</p>
+
+<p>and that, accordingly, the curve which represents the densities
+at different temperatures possesses a rectilinear diameter.
+According to the law of corresponding states, a would be the
+same for all substances. Many substances, indeed, actually
+appear to have a rectilinear diameter, and the value of a appears
+approximatively to be the same. In a <i>Mémoire présentę ŕ la
+société royale ŕ Ličge</i>, 15th June 1899, E. Mathias gives a list of
+some twenty substances for which a has a value lying between
+0.95 and 1.05. It had been already observed by Sydney Young
+that a is not perfectly constant even for normal substances.
+For associating substances the diameter is not rectilinear.
+Whether the value of a, near 1, may serve as a characteristic
+for normal substances is rendered doubtful by the fact that for
+nitrogen a is found equal to 0.6813 and for oxygen to 0.8. At
+T = T<span class="su">c</span>/2, the formula of E. Mathias, if &rho;<span class="su">v</span> be neglected with respect
+to &rho;<span class="su">l</span>, gives the value 2 + a for &rho;<span class="su">l</span>/&rho;<span class="su">c</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The heat required to convert a molecular quantity of liquid
+coexisting with vapour into saturated vapour at the same
+temperature is called <i>molecular latent heat</i>. It decreases
+with the rise of the temperature, because at a higher
+<span class="sidenote">Latent heat.</span>
+temperature the liquid has already expanded, and
+because the vapour into which it has to be converted is denser.
+At the critical temperature it is equal to zero on account of the
+identity of the liquid and the gaseous states. If we call the
+molecular weight m and the latent heat per unit of weight r,
+then, according to the law of corresponding states, mr/T is the
+same for all normal substances, provided the temperatures are
+corresponding. According to F. T. Trouton, the value of mr/T
+is the same for all substances if we take for T the boiling-point.
+As the boiling-points under the pressure of one atmosphere are
+generally not equal fractions of T<span class="su">c</span>, the two theorems are not
+identical; but as the values of p<span class="su">c</span> for many substances do not
+differ so much as to make the ratios of the boiling-points under
+the pressure of one atmosphere differ greatly from the ratios
+of T<span class="su">c</span>, an approximate confirmation of the law of Trouton may
+be compatible with an approximate confirmation of the consequence
+of the law of corresponding states. If we take the term
+boiling-point in a more general sense, and put T in the law of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span>
+Trouton to represent the boiling-point under an arbitrary equal
+pressure, we may take the pressure equal to p<span class="su">c</span> for a certain
+substance. For this substance mr/T would be equal to zero,
+and the values of mr/T would no longer show a trace of equality.
+At present direct trustworthy investigations about the value of
+r for different substances are wanting; hence the question
+whether as to the quantity mr/T the substances are to be divided
+into normal and associating ones cannot be answered. Let
+us divide the latent heat into heat necessary for internal work
+and heat necessary for external work. Let r&prime; represent the
+former of these two quantities, then:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center1">r = r&prime; + p(v<span class="su">v</span> - v<span class="su">l</span>).</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Then the same remark holds good for mr&prime;/T as has been made
+for mr/T. The ratio between r and that part that is necessary
+for external work is given in the formula,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>r</td> <td rowspan="2"> = </td> <td>T dp</td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">p(v<span class="su">v</span> - v<span class="su">l</span>)</td>
+    <td class="denom">p dT</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>By making use of the approximate formula for the vapour
+tension:&mdash;log<span class="su">&epsilon;</span>
+p/p<span class="su">c</span> = &int;&prime; [(T<span class="su">c</span> - T) / T], we find&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>r</td> <td rowspan="2"> = &int;&prime;</td> <td>T<span class="su">c</span></td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">p(v<span class="su">v</span> - v<span class="su">l</span>)</td>
+    <td class="denom">T</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>At T = T<span class="su">c</span> we find for this ratio &int;&prime;, a value which, for normal
+substances is equal to 3/0.4343 = 7. At the critical temperature
+the quantities r and v<span class="su">v</span>-v<span class="su">l</span> are both equal to 0, but they have a
+finite ratio. As we may equate p(v<span class="su">v</span> - v<span class="su">l</span>) with pv<span class="su">v</span> = RT at very
+low temperatures, we get, if we take into consideration that
+R expressed in calories is nearly equal to 2/m, the value 2&int;&prime;T<span class="su">c</span> =
+14T<span class="su">c</span> as limiting value for mr for normal substances. This value
+for mr has, however, merely the character of a rough approximation&mdash;especially
+since the factor &int;&prime; is not perfectly constant.</p>
+
+<p>All the phenomena which accompany the condensation of
+gases into liquids may be explained by the supposition, that the
+condition of aggregation which we call liquid differs
+only in quantity, and not in quality, from that which
+<span class="sidenote">Nature of a liquid.</span>
+we call gas. We imagine a gas to consist of separate
+molecules of a certain mass &mu;, having a certain velocity depending
+on the temperature. This velocity is distributed according to
+the law of probabilities, and furnishes a quantity of <i>vis viva</i>
+proportional to the temperatures. We must attribute extension
+to the molecules, and they will attract one another with a force
+which quickly decreases with the distance. Even those suppositions
+which reduce molecules to centra of forces, like that
+of Maxwell, lead us to the result that the molecules behave
+in mutual collisions as if they had extension&mdash;an extension
+which in this case is not constant, but determined by the law
+of repulsion in the collision, the law of the distribution,
+and the value of the velocities. In order to explain capillary
+phenomena it was assumed so early as Laplace, that between
+the molecules of the same substance an attraction exists
+which quickly decreases with the distance. That this attraction
+is found in gases too is proved by the fall which occurs in the
+temperature of a gas that is expanded without performing external
+work. We are still perfectly in the dark as to the cause
+of this attraction, and opinion differs greatly as to its dependence
+on the distance. Nor is this knowledge necessary in order to
+find the influence of the attraction, for a homogeneous state, on
+the value of the external pressure which is required to keep the
+moving molecules at a certain volume (T being given). We may,
+viz., assume either in the strict sense, or as a first approximation,
+that the influence of the attraction is quite equal to a pressure
+which is proportional to the square of the density. Though
+this molecular pressure is small for gases, yet it will be considerable
+for the great densities of liquids, and calculation shows
+that we may estimate it at more than 1000 atmos., possibly
+increasing up to 10,000. We may now make the same supposition
+for a liquid as for a gas, and imagine it to consist of molecules,
+which for non-associating substances are the same as those of
+the rarefied vapour; these, if T is the same, have the same mean
+<i>vis viva</i> as the vapour molecules, but are more closely massed
+together. Starting from this supposition and all its consequences,
+van der Waals derived the following formula which would hold
+both for the liquid state and for the gaseous state:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center1">(p + a/v˛) (v - b) = RT.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">It follows from this deduction that for the rarefied gaseous
+state b would be four times the volume of the molecules, but that
+for greater densities the factor 4 would decrease. If we represent
+the volume of the molecules by &beta;, the quantity b will be found
+to have the following form:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center1">b = 4&beta; <span class="f150">{</span> 1 - &gamma;<span class="su">1</span>
+(4&beta;/v) + &gamma;<span class="su">2</span> (4&beta;/v)˛ &amp;c. <span class="f150">}</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">Only two of the successive coefficients &gamma;<span class="su">1</span>, &gamma;<span class="su">2</span>, &amp;c., have been
+worked out, for the determination requires very lengthy calculations,
+and has not even led to definitive results (L. Boltzmann,
+<i>Proc. Royal Acad. Amsterdam</i>, March 1899). The latter formula
+supposes the molecules to be rigid spheres of invariable size.
+If the molecules are things which are compressible, another
+formula for b is found, which is different according to the number
+of atoms in the molecule (<i>Proc. Royal Acad. Amsterdam</i>, 1900-1901).
+If we keep the value of a and b constant, the given
+equation will not completely represent the net of isothermals
+of a substance. Yet even in this form it is sufficient as to the
+principal features. From it we may argue to the existence of a
+critical temperature, to a minimum value of the product pv, to
+the law of corresponding states, &amp;c. Some of the numerical
+results to which it leads, however, have not been confirmed by
+experience. Thus it would follow from the given equation that
+p<span class="su">c</span>v<span class="su">c</span>/T<span class="su">c</span>
+= <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> ˇ pv/T,
+if the value of v is taken so great that the gaseous
+laws may be applied, whereas Sydney Young has found <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3.77</span>
+for a number of substances instead of the factor <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>. Again it
+follows from the given equation, that if a is thought to be independent
+of the temperature,
+T<span class="su">c</span>/p<span class="su">c</span> ˇ (dp/dT)<span class="su">c</span> = 4,
+whereas for a number
+of substances a value is found for it which is near 7. If we
+assume with Clausius that a depends on the temperature, and has
+a value a&prime; ˇ 273/T, we find
+T<span class="su">c</span>/p<span class="su">c</span> ˇ (dp/dT)<span class="su">c</span> = 7.</p>
+
+<p>That the accurate knowledge of the equation of state is of the
+highest importance is universally acknowledged, because, in
+connexion with the results of thermodynamics, it will enable
+us to explain all phenomena relating to ponderable matter.
+This general conviction is shown by the numerous efforts made
+to complete or modify the given equation, or to replace it by
+another, for instance, by R. Clausius, P. G. Tait, E. H. Amagat,
+L. Boltzmann, T. G. Jager, C. Dieterici, B. Galitzine, T. Rose
+Innes and M. Reinganum.</p>
+
+<p>If we hold to the supposition that the molecules in the gaseous
+and the liquid state are the same&mdash;which we may call the supposition
+of the identity of the two conditions of aggregation&mdash;then
+the heat which is given out by the condensation at constant T
+is due to the potential energy lost in consequence of the coming
+closer of the molecules which attract each other, and then it is
+equal to a(1/v<span class="su">l</span> - 1/v<span class="su">v</span>).
+If a should be a function of the temperature,
+it follows from thermodynamics that it would be equal to
+(a - Tˇda/dT) (1/v<span class="su">l</span> - 1/v<span class="su">v</span>).
+Not only in the case of liquid and gas, but
+always when the volume is diminished, a quantity of heat is
+given out equal to
+a(1/v<span class="su">1</span> - 1/v<span class="su">2</span>) or
+(a - Tˇda/dT) (1/v<span class="su">1</span> - 1/v<span class="su">2</span>).</p>
+
+<p>If, however, when the volume is diminished at a given temperature,
+and also during the transition from the gaseous to the
+liquid state, combination into larger molecule-complexes
+takes place, the total internal heat may be considered
+<span class="sidenote">Associating substances.</span>
+as the sum of that which is caused by the combination
+of the molecules into greater molecule-complexes
+and by their approach towards each other. We have the simplest
+case of possible greater complexity when two molecules combine
+to one. From the course of the changes in the density of the
+vapour we assume that this occurs, <i>e.g.</i> with nitrogen peroxide,
+NO<span class="su">2</span>, and acetic acid, and the somewhat close agreement of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span>
+observed density of the vapour with that which is calculated
+from the hypothesis of such an association to double-molecules,
+makes this supposition almost a certainty. In such cases the
+molecules in the much denser liquid state must therefore be
+considered as double-molecules, either completely so or in a
+variable degree depending on the temperature. The given
+equation of state cannot hold for such substances. Even though
+we assume that a and b are not modified by the formation of
+double-molecules, yet RT is modified, and, since it is proportional
+to the number of the molecules, is diminished by the combination.
+The laws found for normal substances will, therefore,
+not hold for such associating substances. Accordingly for
+substances for which we have already found an anormal density
+of the vapour, we cannot expect the general laws for the liquid
+state, which have been treated above, to hold good without
+modification, and in many respects such substances will therefore
+not follow the law of corresponding states. There are, however,
+also substances of which the anormal density of vapour has not
+been stated, and which yet cannot be ranged under this law,
+<i>e.g.</i> water and alcohols. The most natural thing, of course,
+is to ascribe the deviation of these substances, as of the others,
+to the fact that the molecules of the liquid are polymerized.
+In this case we have to account for the following circumstance,
+that whereas for NO<span class="su">2</span> and acetic acid in the state of saturated
+vapour the degree of association increases if the temperature
+falls, the reverse must take place for water and alcohols. Such
+a difference may be accounted for by the difference in the
+quantity of heat released by the polymerization to double-molecules
+or larger molecule-complexes. The quantity of heat
+given out when two molecules fall together may be calculated
+for NO<span class="su">2</span> and acetic acid from the formula of Gibbs for the
+density of vapour, and it proves to be very considerable. With
+this the following fact is closely connected. If in the pv diagram,
+starting from a point indicating the state of saturated vapour,
+a geometrical locus is drawn of the points which have the same
+degree of association, this curve, which passes towards isothermals
+of higher T if the volume diminishes, requires for the
+same change in T a greater diminution of volume than is indicated
+by the border-curve. For water and alcohols this geometrical
+locus will be found on the other side of the border-curve, and
+the polymerization heat will be small, <i>i.e.</i> smaller than the
+latent heat. For substances with a small polymerization heat
+the degree of association will continually decrease if we move
+along the border-curve on the side of the saturated vapour in
+the direction towards lower T. With this, it is perfectly compatible
+that for such substances the saturated vapour, <i>e.g.</i> under
+the pressure of one atmosphere, should show an almost normal
+density. Saturated vapour of water at 100° has a density which
+seems nearly 4% greater than the theoretical one, an amount
+which is greater than can be ascribed to the deviation from
+the gas-laws. For the relation between v, T, and x, if x represents
+the fraction of the number of double-molecules, the following
+formula has been found (&ldquo;Moleculartheorie,&rdquo; <i>Zeits. Phys. Chem.</i>,
+1890, vol. v):</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">log</td> <td>x(v - b)</td>  <td rowspan="2"> = 2 </td> <td>E<span class="su">1</span> - E<span class="su">2</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2"> + C,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">(1 - x)˛</td>  <td class="denom">R<span class="su">1</span>T</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">from which</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>T</td> <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">(</td> <td>dv</td> <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">)</td> <td>&nbsp;</td>
+     <td rowspan="2"> = -2 </td> <td>E<span class="su">1</span>-E<span class="su">2</span></td>  <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">v - b</td> <td class="denom">dT</td> <td class="np"><span class="su">x</span></td> <td class="denom">R<span class="su">1</span>T</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">which may elucidate what precedes.</p>
+
+<p>By far the majority of substances have a value of T<span class="su">c</span> above
+the ordinary temperature, and diminution of volume (increase
+of pressure) is sufficient to condense such gaseous
+substances into liquids. If T<span class="su">c</span> is but little above the
+<span class="sidenote">Condensation of substances with low T<span class="su">c</span>.</span>
+ordinary temperature, a great increase of pressure is
+in general required to effect condensation. Substances
+for which T<span class="su">c</span> is much higher than the ordinary temperature
+T<span class="su">0</span>, <i>e.g.</i> T<span class="su">c</span> &gt; <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> T<span class="su">0</span>, occur as liquids, even without increase of
+pressure; that is, at the pressure of one atmosphere. The
+value <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> is to be considered as only a mean value, because of the
+inequality of p<span class="su">c</span>. The substances for which T<span class="su">c</span> is smaller than
+the ordinary temperature are but few in number. Taking the
+temperature of melting ice as a limit, these gases are in successive
+order: CH<span class="su">4</span>, NO, O<span class="su">2</span>, CO, N<span class="su">2</span> and H<span class="su">2</span> (the recently discovered
+gases argon, helium, &amp;c., are left out of account). If these gases
+are compressed at 0° centigrade they do not show a trace of
+liquefaction, and therefore they were long known under the
+name of &ldquo;permanent gases.&rdquo; The discovery, however, of the
+critical temperature carried the conviction that these substances
+would not be &ldquo;permanent gases&rdquo; if they were compressed at
+much lower T. Hence the problem arose how &ldquo;low temperatures&rdquo;
+were to be brought about. Considered from a general
+point of view the means to attain this end may be described as
+follows: we must make use of the above-mentioned circumstance
+that heat disappears when a substance expands, either
+with or without performing external work. According as this
+heat is derived from the substance itself which is to be condensed,
+or from the substance which is used as a means of cooling, we
+may divide the methods for condensing the so-called permanent
+gases into two principal groups.</p>
+
+<p>In order to use a liquid as a cooling bath it must be placed
+in a vacuum, and it must be possible to keep the pressure of the
+vapour in that space at a small value. According to
+the boiling-law, the temperature of the liquid must
+<span class="sidenote"><i>Liquids as means of cooling.</i></span>
+descend to that at which the maximum tension of the
+vapour is equal to the pressure which reigns on the
+surface of the liquid. If the vapour, either by means of absorption
+or by an air-pump, is exhausted from the space, the temperature
+of the liquid and that of the space itself depend upon the
+value of the pressure which finally prevails in the space. From
+a practical point of view the value of T<span class="su">3</span> may be regarded as the
+limit to which the temperature falls. It is true that if the air
+is exhausted to the utmost possible extent, the temperature
+may fall still lower, but when the substance has become solid,
+a further diminution of the pressure in the space is of little
+advantage. At any rate, as a solid body evaporates only on
+the surface, and solid gases are bad conductors of heat, further
+cooling will only take place very slowly, and will scarcely
+neutralize the influx of heat. If the pressure p<span class="su">3</span> is very small,
+it is perhaps practically impossible to reach T<span class="su">3</span>; if so, T<span class="su">3</span> in the
+following lines will represent the temperature practically attainable.
+There is thus for every gas a limit below which it is not
+to be cooled further, at least not in this way. If, however,
+we can find another gas for which the critical temperature is
+sufficiently above T<span class="su">3</span> of the first chosen gas, and if it is converted
+into a liquid by cooling with the first gas, and then treated in
+the same way as the first gas, it may in its turn be cooled down
+to (T<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>. Going on in this way, continually lower temperatures
+may be attained, and it would be possible to condense all gases,
+provided the difference of the successive critical temperatures
+of two gases fulfils certain conditions. If the ratio of the absolute
+critical temperatures for two gases, which succeed one another
+in the series, should be sensibly greater than 2, the value of T<span class="su">3</span>
+for the first gas is not, or not sufficiently, below the T<span class="su">c</span> of the
+second gas. This is the case when one of the gases is nitrogen,
+on which hydrogen would follow as second gas. Generally,
+however, we shall take atmospheric air instead of nitrogen.
+Though this mixture of N<span class="su">2</span> and O<span class="su">2</span> will show other critical
+phenomena than a simple substance, yet we shall continue to
+speak of a T<span class="su">c</span> for air, which is given at -140° C., and for which,
+therefore, T<span class="su">c</span> amounts to 133° absolute. The lowest T which
+may be expected for air in a highly rarefied space may be
+evaluated at 60° absolute&mdash;a value which is higher than the T<span class="su">c</span>
+for hydrogen. Without new contrivances it would, accordingly,
+not be possible to reach the critical temperature of H<span class="su">2</span>. The
+method by which we try to obtain successively lower temperatures
+by making use of successive gases is called the &ldquo;cascade method.&rdquo;
+It is not self-evident that by sufficiently diminishing the pressure
+on a liquid it may be cooled to such a degree that the temperature
+will be lowered to T<span class="su">3</span>, if the initial temperature was equal to T<span class="su">c</span>,
+or but little below it, and we can even predict with certainty
+that this will not be the case for all substances. It is possible,
+too, that long before the triple point is reached the whole liquid
+will have evaporated. The most favourable conditions will, of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span>
+course, be attained when the influx of heat is reduced to a
+minimum. As a limiting case we imagine the process to be
+isentropic. Now the question has become, Will an isentropic
+line, which starts from a point of the border-curve on the side
+of the liquid not far from the critical-point, remain throughout
+its descending course in the heterogeneous region, or will it
+leave the region on the side of the vapour? As early as 1878
+van der Waals (<i>Verslagen Kon. Akad. Amsterdam</i>) pointed out
+that the former may be expected to be the case only for substances
+for which c<span class="su">p</span>/c<span class="su">v</span> is large, and the latter for those for which
+it is small; in other words, the former will take place for substances
+the molecules of which contain few atoms, and the latter
+for substances the molecules of which contain many atoms.
+Ether is an example of the latter class, and if we say that the
+quantity h (specific heat of the saturated vapour) for ether is
+found to be positive, we state the same thing in other words.
+It is not necessary to prove this theorem further here, as the
+molecules of the gases under consideration contain only two
+atoms and the total evaporation of the liquid is not to be feared.</p>
+
+<p>In the practical application of this cascade-method some
+variation is found in the gases chosen for the successive stages.
+Thus methyl chloride, ethylene and oxygen are used in the
+cryogenic laboratory of Leiden, while Sir James Dewar has used
+air as the last term. Carbonic acid is not to be recommended
+on account of the comparatively high value of T<span class="su">3</span>. In order to
+prevent loss of gas a system of &ldquo;circulation&rdquo; is employed.
+This method of obtaining low temperatures is decidedly laborious,
+and requires very intricate apparatus, but it has the great
+advantage that very <i>constant</i> low temperatures may be obtained,
+and can be regulated arbitrarily within pretty wide limits.</p>
+
+<p>In order to lower the temperature of a substance down to T<span class="su">3</span>,
+it is not always necessary to convert it first into the liquid state
+by means of another substance, as was assumed
+in the last method for obtaining low temperatures.
+<span class="sidenote">Cooling by expansion.</span>
+Its own expansion is sufficient, provided the initial
+condition be properly chosen, and provided we take care, even
+more than in the former method, that there is no influx of heat.
+Those conditions being fulfilled, we may, simply by adiabatic
+expansion, not only lower the temperature of some substances
+down to T<span class="su">3</span>, but also convert them into the liquid state. This
+is especially the case with substances the molecules of which
+contain few atoms.</p>
+
+<p>Let us imagine the whole net of isothermals for homogeneous
+phases drawn in a pv diagram, and in it the border-curve.
+Within this border-curve, as in the heterogeneous region, the
+theoretical part of every isothermal must be replaced by a straight
+line. The isothermals may therefore be divided into two groups,
+viz. those which keep outside the heterogeneous region, and
+those which cross this region. Hence an isothermal, belonging
+to the latter group, enters the heterogeneous region on the liquid
+side, and leaves it at the same level on the vapour side. Let us
+imagine in the same way all the isentropic curves drawn for
+homogeneous states. Their form resembles that of isothermals
+in so far as they show a maximum and a minimum, if the entropy-constant
+is below a certain value, while if it is above this value,
+both the maximum and the minimum disappear, the isentropic
+line in a certain point having at the same time dp/dv and d˛p/dv˛ = 0
+for this particular value of the constant. This point, which we
+might call the critical point of the isentropic lines, lies in the
+heterogeneous region, and therefore cannot be realized, since
+as soon as an isentropic curve enters this region its theoretical
+part will be replaced by an empiric part. If an isentropic curve
+crosses the heterogeneous region, the point where it enters this
+region must, just as for the isothermals, be connected with the
+point where it leaves the region by another curve. When
+c<span class="su">p</span>/c<span class="su">v</span> = k (the limiting value of c<span class="su">p</span>/c<span class="su">v</span> for infinite rarefaction is
+meant) approaches unity, the isentropic curves approach the
+isothermals and vice versa. In the same way the critical point
+of the isentropic curves comes nearer to that of the isothermals.
+And if k is not much greater than 1, <i>e.g.</i> k &lt; 1.08, the following
+property of the isothermals is also preserved, viz. that an
+isentropic curve, which enters the heterogeneous region on the
+side of the liquid, leaves it again on the side of the vapour, not
+of course at the same level, but at a lower point. If, however, k
+is greater, and particularly if it is so great as it is with molecules
+of one or two atoms, an isentropic curve, which enters on the
+side of the liquid, however far prolonged, always remains within
+the heterogeneous region. But in this case all isentropic curves,
+if sufficiently prolonged, will enter the heterogeneous region.
+Every isentropic curve has one point of intersection with the
+border-curve, but only a small group intersect the border-curve
+in three points, two of which are to be found not far from the top
+of the border-curve and on the side of the vapour. Whether
+the sign of h (specific heat of the saturated vapour) is negative
+or positive, is closely connected with the preceding facts. For
+substances having k great, h will be negative if T is low, positive
+if T rises, while it will change its sign again before T<span class="su">c</span> is reached.
+The values of T, at which change of sign takes place, depend
+on k. The law of corresponding states holds good for this value
+of T for all substances which have the same value of k.</p>
+
+<p>Now the gases which were considered as permanent are
+exactly those for which k has a high value. From this it would
+follow that every adiabatic expansion, provided it be sufficiently
+continued, will bring such substances into the heterogeneous
+region, <i>i.e.</i> they can be condensed by adiabatic expansion. But
+since the final pressure must not fall below a certain limit,
+determined by experimental convenience, and since the quantity
+which passes into the liquid state must remain a fraction as
+large as possible, and since the expansion never can take place
+in such a manner that no heat is given out by the walls or the
+surroundings, it is best to choose the initial condition in such a
+way that the isentropic curve of this point cuts the border-curve
+in a point on the side of the liquid, lying as low as possible. The
+border-curve being rather broad at the top, there are many
+isentropic curves which penetrate the heterogeneous region
+under a pressure which differs but little from p<span class="su">c</span>. Availing
+himself of this property, K. Olszewski has determined p<span class="su">c</span> for
+hydrogen at 15 atmospheres. Isentropic curves, which lie on
+the right and on the left of this group, will show a point of condensation
+at a lower pressure. Olszewski has investigated this
+for those lying on the right, but not for those on the left.</p>
+
+<p>From the equation of state (p + a/v˛)(v-b) = RT, the equation
+of the isentropic curve follows as (p + a/v˛)(v - b)<span class="sp">k</span> = C, and
+from this we may deduce T(v - b)<span class="sp">k-1</span> = C&prime;. This latter relation
+shows in how high a degree the cooling depends on the
+amount by which k surpasses unity, the change in v - b being
+the same.</p>
+
+<p>What has been said concerning the relative position of the
+border-curve and the isentropic curve may be easily tested for
+points of the border-curve which represent rarefied gaseous states,
+in the following way. Following the border-curve we found
+before &int;&prime; (T<span class="su">c</span>/T) for the value of T/pˇdp/dT. Following the isentropic curve
+the value of T/pˇdp/dT is equal to k/(k - 1). If
+k/(k - 1) &lt; &int;&prime; (T<span class="su">c</span>/T), the isentropic
+curve rises more steeply than the border-curve. If we take &int;&prime; = 7
+and choose the value of T<span class="su">c</span>/2 for T&mdash;a temperature at which the
+saturated vapour may be considered to follow the gas-laws&mdash;then
+k/(k - 1) = 14, or k = 1.07 would be the limiting value for the two
+cases. At any rate k = 1.41 is great enough to fulfil the condition,
+even for other values of T. Cailletet and Pictet have availed
+themselves of this adiabatic expansion for condensing some
+permanent gases, and it must also be used when, in the cascade
+method, T<span class="su">3</span> of one of the gases lies above T<span class="su">c</span> of the next.</p>
+
+<p>A third method of condensing the permanent gases is applied
+in C. P. G. Linde&rsquo;s apparatus for liquefying air. Under a high
+pressure p<span class="su">1</span> a current of gas is conducted through a
+narrow spiral, returning through another spiral which
+<span class="sidenote">Linde&rsquo;s apparatus.</span>
+surrounds the first. Between the end of the first spiral
+and the beginning of the second the current of gas is reduced
+to a much lower pressure p<span class="su">2</span> by passing through a tap with a fine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span>
+orifice. On account of the expansion resulting from this sudden
+decrease of pressure, the temperature of the gas, and consequently
+of the two spirals, falls sensibly. If this process is
+repeated with another current of gas, this current, having been
+cooled in the inner spiral, will be cooled still further, and the
+temperature of the two spirals will become still lower. If the
+pressures p<span class="su">1</span> and p<span class="su">2</span> remain constant the cooling will increase
+with the lowering of the temperature. In Linde&rsquo;s apparatus
+this cycle is repeated over and over again, and after some time
+(about two or three hours) it becomes possible to draw off liquid
+air.</p>
+
+<p>The cooling which is the consequence of such a decrease of
+pressure was experimentally determined in 1854 by Lord Kelvin
+(then Professor W. Thomson) and Joule, who represent the
+result of their experiments in the formula</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">T<span class="su">1</span>-T<span class="su">2</span> = &gamma;</td> <td>p<span class="su">1</span> - p<span class="su">2</span></td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">T˛</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">In their experiments p<span class="su">2</span> was always 1 atmosphere, and the amount
+of p<span class="su">1</span> was not large. It would, therefore, be certainly wrong,
+even though for a small difference in pressure the empiric
+formula might be approximately correct, without closer investigation
+to make use of it for the differences of pressure used in
+Linde&rsquo;s apparatus, where p<span class="su">1</span> = 200 and p<span class="su">2</span> = 18 atmospheres.
+For the existence of a most favourable value of p<span class="su">1</span> is in contradiction
+with the formula, since it would follow from it that
+T<span class="su">1</span> - T<span class="su">2</span> would always increase with the increase of p<span class="su">1</span>. Nor
+would it be right to regard as the cause for the existence of this
+most favourable value of p<span class="su">1</span> the fact that the heat produced in
+the compression of the expanded gas, and therefore p<span class="su">1</span>/p<span class="su">2</span>, must
+be kept as small as possible, for the simple reason that the heat
+is produced in quite another part of the apparatus, and might
+be neutralized in different ways.</p>
+
+<p>Closer examination of the process shows that if p<span class="su">2</span> is given, a
+most favourable value of p<span class="su">1</span> must exist for the cooling itself.
+If p<span class="su">1</span> is taken still higher, the cooling decreases again; and we
+might take a value for p<span class="su">1</span> for which the cooling would be zero,
+or even negative.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>If we call the energy per unit of weight &epsilon; and the specific volume
+v, the following equation holds:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 15em;">&epsilon;<span class="su">1</span> + p<span class="su">1</span>v<span class="su">1</span> - p<span class="su">2</span>v<span class="su">2</span> = &epsilon;<span class="su">2</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">or</p>
+
+<p style="padding-left: 15em;">&epsilon;<span class="su">1</span> + p<span class="su">1</span>v<span class="su">1</span> = &epsilon;<span class="su">2</span> + p<span class="su">2</span>v<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p>According to the symbols chosen by Gibbs, &chi;<span class="su">1</span> = &chi;<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p>As &chi;<span class="su">1</span> is determined by T<span class="su">1</span> and p<span class="su">1</span>, and &chi;<span class="su">2</span> by T<span class="su">2</span> and p<span class="su">2</span>, we obtain,
+if we take T<span class="su">1</span> and p<span class="su">2</span> as being constant,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">(</td>  <td>&delta;&chi;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">)</td>
+     <td class="np">&nbsp;</td> <td rowspan="2">dp<span class="su">1</span> = <span class="f200">(</span></td>
+     <td>&delta;&chi;<span class="su">2</span></td>  <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">)</td>
+     <td class="np">&nbsp;</td>  <td rowspan="2">dT<span class="su">2</span>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="denom">&delta;p<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="np"><span class="su">T1</span></td>
+     <td class="denom">&delta;T<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="np"><span class="su">p2</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>If T<span class="su">2</span> is to have a minimum value, we have</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">(</td>  <td>&delta;&chi;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">)</td>
+     <td class="np">&nbsp;</td> <td rowspan="2"> = 0 or <span class="f200">(</span></td>
+     <td>&delta;&chi;<span class="su">1</span></td>  <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">)</td>
+     <td class="np">&nbsp;</td>  <td rowspan="2"> = 0.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="denom">&delta;p<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="np"><span class="su">T1</span></td>
+     <td class="denom">&delta;v<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="np"><span class="su">T1</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>From this follows</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">(</td>  <td>&delta;&epsilon;<span class="su">1</span></td> <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">)</td>
+     <td class="np">&nbsp;</td> <td rowspan="2"> + <span class="f200">[</span></td>
+     <td>&delta;(p<span class="su">1</span>v<span class="su">1</span>)</td>  <td rowspan="2" class="f200 np">]</td>
+     <td class="np">&nbsp;</td>  <td rowspan="2"> = 0.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="denom">&delta;v<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="np"><span class="su">T1</span></td>
+     <td class="denom">&delta;v<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="np"><span class="su">T1</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>As (&delta;&epsilon;<span class="su">1</span>/&delta;v<span class="su">1</span>)<span class="su">T</span> is positive, we shall have to take for the maximum
+cooling such a pressure that the product pv decreases with v, viz.
+a pressure larger than that at which pv has the minimum value.
+By means of the equation of state mentioned already, we find for
+the value of the specific volume that gives the greatest cooling the
+formula</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td>RT<span class="su">1</span>b</td>  <td rowspan="2"> = </td> <td>2a</td>  <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">(v<span class="su">1</span> - b)˛</td>  <td class="denom">v<span class="su">1</span>˛</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and for the value of the pressure</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr> <td rowspan="2">p<span class="su">1</span> = 27 p<span class="su">c</span><span class="f200">[</span>1 - <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td>
+     <td class="tb">4</td> <td class="tb">T<span class="su">1</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">] [</span>3 <span class="f200">&radic;</span></td>
+     <td class="tb">4</td> <td class="tb">T<span class="su">1</span></td>
+     <td rowspan="2"> - 1<span class="f200">]</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="denom">27</td> <td class="denom">T<span class="su">c</span></td>
+     <td class="denom">27</td> <td class="denom">T<span class="su">c</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>If we take the value 2T<span class="su">c</span> for T<span class="su">1</span>, as we may approximately for
+air when we begin to work with the apparatus, we find for p<span class="su">1</span> about
+8p<span class="su">c</span>, or more than 300 atmospheres. If we take T<span class="su">1</span> = T<span class="su">c</span>, as we may
+at the end of the process, we find p<span class="su">1</span> = 2.5p<span class="su">c</span>, or 100 atmospheres.
+The constant pressure which has been found the most favourable
+in Linde&rsquo;s apparatus is a mean of the two calculated pressures.
+In a theoretically perfect apparatus we ought, therefore, to be able
+to regulate p<span class="su">1</span> according to the temperature in the inner spiral.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The critical temperatures and pressures of the permanent
+gases are given in the following table, the former being expressed
+on the absolute scale and the latter in atmospheres:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;T<span class="su">c</span></td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;p<span class="su">c</span></td>
+<td class="tcl lb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;T<span class="su">c</span></td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;p<span class="su">c</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">CH<span class="su">4</span></td> <td class="tcl">191.2°</td> <td class="tcl">55</td> <td class="tcl lb">CO</td> <td class="tcl">133.5°</td> <td class="tcl">35.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">NO</td> <td class="tcl">179.5°</td> <td class="tcl">71.2</td> <td class="tcl lb">N<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcl">127°</td> <td class="tcl">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">O<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcl">155°</td> <td class="tcl">50</td> <td class="tcl lb">Air</td> <td class="tcl">133°</td> <td class="tcl">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Argon</td> <td class="tcl">152°</td> <td class="tcl">50.6</td> <td class="tcl lb">H<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;32°</td> <td class="tcl">15</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The values of T<span class="su">c</span> and p<span class="su">c</span> for hydrogen are those of Dewar.
+They are in approximate accordance with those given by K.
+Olszewski. Liquid hydrogen was first collected by J. Dewar in
+1898. Apparatus for obtaining moderate and small quantities
+have been described by M. W. Travers and K. Olszewski. H.
+Kamerlingh Onnes at Leiden has brought about a circulation
+yielding more than 3 litres per hour, and has made use of it to
+keep baths of 1.5 litre capacity at all temperatures between
+20.2° and 13.7° absolute, the temperatures remaining constant
+within 0.01°. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span>.)</p>
+<div class="author">(J. D. v. d. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDENSER<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span>, the name given to many forms of apparatus
+which have for their object the concentration of matter, or
+bringing it into a smaller volume, or the intensification of energy.
+In chemistry the word is applied to an apparatus which cools
+down, or condenses, a vapour to a liquid; reference should be
+made to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Distillation</a></span> for the various types in use,
+and also to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gas</a></span> (<i>Gas Manufacture</i>) and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal Tar</a></span>; the device
+for the condensation of the exhaust steam of a steam-engine is
+treated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steam-Engine</a></span>. In woollen manufactures,
+&ldquo;condensation&rdquo; of the wool is an important operation and is
+accomplished by means of a &ldquo;condenser.&rdquo; The term is also
+given&mdash;generally as a qualification, <i>e.g.</i> condensing-syringe,
+condensing-pump,&mdash;to apparatus by which air or a vapour may
+be compressed. In optics a &ldquo;condenser&rdquo; is a lens, or system
+of lenses, which serves to concentrate or bring the luminous
+rays to a focus; it is specially an adjunct to the optical lantern
+and microscope. In electrostatics a condenser is a device for
+concentrating an electrostatic charge (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electrostatics</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leyden Jar</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electrophorus</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDER, CHARLES<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1868-1909), English artist, son of a
+civil engineer, was born in London, and spent his early years
+in India. After an English education he went into the government
+service in Australia, but in 1890 determined to devote
+himself to art, and studied for several years in Paris, where in
+1893 he became an associate of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts.
+About 1895 his reputation as an original painter, particularly
+of Watteau-like designs for fans, spread among a limited
+circle of artists in London, mainly connected first with the New
+English Art Club, and later the International Society; and
+his unique and charming decorative style, in dainty pastoral
+scenes, gradually gave him a peculiar vogue among connoisseurs.
+Examples of his work were bought for the Luxembourg and other
+art galleries. Conder suffered much in later years from ill-health,
+and died on the 9th of February 1909.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDILLAC, ÉTIENNE BONNOT DE<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1715-1780), French
+philosopher, was born at Grenoble of a legal family on the 30th
+of September 1715, and, like his elder brother, the well-known
+political writer, abbé de Mably, took holy orders and became
+abbé de Mureau.<a name="FnAnchor_1k" id="FnAnchor_1k" href="#Footnote_1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In both cases the profession was hardly
+more than nominal, and Condillac&rsquo;s whole life, with the exception
+of an interval as tutor at the court of Parma, was devoted to
+speculation. His works are <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;origine des connaissances
+humaines</i> (1746), <i>Traité des systčmes</i> (1749), <i>Traité des sensations</i>
+(1754), <i>Traité des animaux</i> (1755), a comprehensive <i>Cours d&rsquo;études</i>
+(1767-1773) in 13 vols., written for the young Duke Ferdinand
+of Parma, a grandson of Louis XV., <i>Le Commerce et le gouvernement,
+considérés relativement l&rsquo;un ŕ l&rsquo;autre</i> (1776), and two
+posthumous works, <i>Logique</i> (1781) and the unfinished <i>Langue
+des calculs</i> (1798). In his earlier days in Paris he came much
+into contact with the circle of Diderot. A friendship with
+Rousseau, which lasted in some measure to the end, may have
+been due in the first instance to the fact that Rousseau had been
+domestic tutor in the family of Condillac&rsquo;s uncle, M. de Mably,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span>
+at Lyons. Thanks to his natural caution and reserve, Condillac&rsquo;s
+relations with unorthodox philosophers did not injure his career;
+and he justified abundantly the choice of the French court in
+sending him to Parma to educate the orphan duke, then a child
+of seven years. In 1768, on his return from Italy, he was elected
+to the French Academy, but attended no meeting after his reception.
+He spent his later years in retirement at Flux, a small
+property which he had purchased near Beaugency, and died there
+on the 3rd of August 1780.</p>
+
+<p>Though Condillac&rsquo;s genius was not of the highest order, he
+is important both as a psychologist and as having established
+systematically in France the principles of Locke, whom Voltaire
+had lately made fashionable. In setting forth his empirical
+sensationism, Condillac shows many of the best qualities of his
+age and nation, lucidity, brevity, moderation and an earnest
+striving after logical method. Unfortunately it must be said of
+him as of so many of his contemporaries, &ldquo;er hat die Theile in
+seiner Hand, fehlt leider nur der geistiger Band&rdquo;; in the analysis
+of the human mind on which his fame chiefly rests, he has missed
+out the active and spiritual side of human experience. His first
+book, the <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;origine des connaissances humaines</i>, keeps
+close to his English master. He accepts with some indecision
+Locke&rsquo;s deduction of our knowledge from two sources, sensation
+and reflection, and uses as his main principle of explanation the
+association of ideas. His next book, the <i>Traité des systčmes</i>,
+is a vigorous criticism of those modern systems which are based
+upon abstract principles or upon unsound hypotheses. His
+polemic, which is inspired throughout with the spirit of Locke,
+is directed against the innate ideas of the Cartesians, Malebranche&rsquo;s
+faculty&mdash;psychology, Leibnitz&rsquo;s monadism and preestablished
+harmony, and, above all, against the conception of
+substance set forth in the first part of the <i>Ethics</i> of Spinoza. By
+far the most important of his works is the <i>Traité des sensations</i>,
+in which he emancipates himself from the tutelage of Locke and
+treats psychology in his own characteristic way. He had been
+led, he tells us, partly by the criticism of a talented lady, Mademoiselle
+Ferrand, to question Locke&rsquo;s doctrine that the senses
+give us intuitive knowledge of objects, that the eye, for example,
+judges naturally of shapes, sizes, positions and distances. His
+discussions with the lady had convinced him that to clear up such
+questions it was necessary to study our senses separately, to
+distinguish precisely what ideas we owe to each sense, to observe
+how the senses are trained, and how one sense aids another.
+The result, he was confident, would show that all human faculty
+and knowledge are transformed sensation only, to the exclusion
+of any other principle, such as reflection. The plan of the book
+is that the author imagines a statue organized inwardly like a
+man, animated by a soul which has never received an idea,
+into which no sense-impression has ever penetrated. He then
+unlocks its senses one by one, beginning with smell, as the sense
+that contributes least to human knowledge. At its first experience
+of smell, the consciousness of the statue is entirely
+occupied by it; and this occupancy of consciousness is attention.
+The statue&rsquo;s smell-experience will produce pleasure or pain;
+and pleasure and pain will thenceforward be the master-principle
+which, determining all the operations of its mind, will raise it
+by degrees to all the knowledge of which it is capable. The next
+stage is memory, which is the lingering impression of the smell-experience
+upon the attention: &ldquo;memory is nothing more than
+a mode of feeling.&rdquo; From memory springs comparison: the
+statue experiences the smell, say, of a rose, while remembering
+that of a carnation; and &ldquo;comparison is nothing more than
+giving one&rsquo;s attention to two things simultaneously.&rdquo; And
+&ldquo;as soon as the statue has comparison it has judgment.&rdquo; Comparisons
+and judgments become habitual, are stored in the mind
+and formed into series, and thus arises the powerful principle
+of the association of ideas. From comparison of past and present
+experiences in respect of their pleasure-giving quality arises
+desire; it is desire that determines the operation of our faculties,
+stimulates the memory and imagination, and gives rise to the
+passions. The passions, also, are nothing but sensation transformed.
+These indications will suffice to show the general course
+of the argument in the first section of the <i>Traité des sensations</i>.
+To show the thoroughness of the treatment it will be enough to
+quote the headings of the chief remaining chapters: &ldquo;Of the
+Ideas of a Man limited to the Sense of Smell,&rdquo; &ldquo;Of a Man limited
+to the Sense of Hearing,&rdquo; &ldquo;Of Smell and Hearing combined,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Of Taste by itself, and of Taste combined with Smell and
+Hearing,&rdquo; &ldquo;Of a Man limited to the Sense of Sight.&rdquo; In the
+second section of the treatise Condillac invests his statue with
+the sense of touch, which first informs it of the existence of
+external objects. In a very careful and elaborate analysis, he
+distinguishes the various elements in our tactile experiences&mdash;the
+touching of one&rsquo;s own body, the touching of objects other
+than one&rsquo;s own body, the experience of movement, the exploration
+of surfaces by the hands: he traces the growth of the statue&rsquo;s
+perceptions of extension, distance and shape. The third section
+deals with the combination of touch with the other senses. The
+fourth section deals with the desires, activities and ideas of an
+isolated man who enjoys possession of all the senses; and ends
+with observations on a &ldquo;wild boy&rdquo; who was found living among
+bears in the forests of Lithuania. The conclusion of the whole
+work is that in the natural order of things everything has its
+source in sensation, and yet that this source is not equally
+abundant in all men; men differ greatly in the degree of vividness
+with which they feel; and, finally, that man is nothing but
+what he has acquired; all innate faculties and ideas are to be
+swept away. The last dictum suggests the difference that has
+been made to this manner of psychologizing by modern theories
+of evolution and heredity.</p>
+
+<p>Condillac&rsquo;s work on politics and history, contained, for the
+most part, in his <i>Cours d&rsquo;études</i>, offers few features of interest,
+except so far as it illustrates his close affinity to English thought:
+he had not the warmth and imagination to make a good historian.
+In logic, on which he wrote extensively, he is far less successful
+than in psychology. He enlarges with much iteration, but with
+few concrete examples, upon the supremacy of the analytic
+method; argues that reasoning consists in the substitution of
+one proposition for another which is identical with it; and lays
+it down that science is the same thing as a well-constructed
+language, a proposition which in his <i>Langue des calculs</i> he tries
+to prove by the example of arithmetic. His logic has in fact
+the good and bad points that we might expect to find in a
+sensationist who knows no science but mathematics. He rejects
+the medieval apparatus of the syllogism; but is precluded by
+his standpoint from understanding the active, spiritual character
+of thought; nor had he that interest in natural science and
+appreciation of inductive reasoning which form the chief merit
+of J. S. Mill. It is obvious enough that Condillac&rsquo;s anti-spiritual
+psychology, with its explanation of personality as an aggregate
+of sensations, leads straight to atheism and determinism. There
+is, however, no reason to question the sincerity with which he
+repudiates both these consequences. What he says upon religion
+is always in harmony with his profession; and he vindicated
+the freedom of the will in a dissertation that has very little in
+common with the <i>Traité des sensations</i> to which it is appended.
+The common reproach of materialism should certainly not be
+made against him. He always asserts the substantive reality
+of the soul; and in the opening words of his <i>Essai</i>, &ldquo;Whether
+we rise to heaven, or descend to the abyss, we never get outside
+ourselves&mdash;it is always our own thoughts that we perceive,&rdquo;
+we have the subjectivist principle that forms the starting-point
+of Berkeley.</p>
+
+<p>As was fitting to a disciple of Locke, Condillac&rsquo;s ideas have
+had most importance in their effect upon English thought. In
+matters connected with the association of ideas, the supremacy
+of pleasure and pain, and the general explanation of all mental
+contents as sensations or transformed sensations, his influence
+can be traced upon the Mills and upon Bain and Herbert Spencer.
+And, apart from any definite propositions, Condillac did a notable
+work in the direction of making psychology a science; it is a
+great step from the desultory, genial observation of Locke to
+the rigorous analysis of Condillac, short-sighted and defective
+as that analysis may seem to us in the light of fuller knowledge.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span>
+His method, however, of imaginative reconstruction was by no
+means suited to English ways of thinking. In spite of his
+protests against abstraction, hypothesis and synthesis, his
+allegory of the statue is in the highest degree abstract, hypothetical
+and synthetic. James Mill, who stood more by the
+study of concrete realities, put Condillac into the hands of his
+youthful son with the warning that here was an example of what
+to avoid in the method of psychology. In France Condillac&rsquo;s
+doctrine, so congenial to the tone of 18th century philosophism,
+reigned in the schools for over fifty years, challenged only by a
+few who, like Maine de Biran, saw that it gave no sufficient
+account of volitional experience. Early in the 19th century,
+the romantic awakening of Germany had spread to France, and
+sensationism was displaced by the eclectic spiritualism of Victor
+Cousin.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Condillac&rsquo;s collected works were published in 1798 (23 vols.) and
+two or three times subsequently; the last edition (1822) has
+an introductory dissertation by A. F. Théry. The <i>Encyclopédie
+méthodique</i> has a very long article on Condillac (Naigeon). Biographical
+details and criticism of the <i>Traité des systčmes</i> in J. P.
+Damiron&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires pour servir ŕ l&rsquo;histoire de la philosophie au dixhuitičme
+sičcle</i>, tome iii.; a full criticism in V. Cousin&rsquo;s <i>Cours de
+l&rsquo;histoire de la philosophie moderne</i>, ser. i. tome iii. Consult also
+F. Rethoré, <i>Condillac ou l&rsquo;empirisme et le rationalisme</i> (1864);
+L. Dewaule, <i>Condillac et la psychologie anglaise contemporaine</i> (1891);
+histories of philosophy.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. St.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1k" id="Footnote_1k" href="#FnAnchor_1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> abbot <i>in commendam</i> of the Premonstratensian abbey of
+Mureau in the Vosges. (Ed.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDITION<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (Lat. <i>condicio</i>, from <i>condicere</i>, to agree upon,
+arrange; not connected with <i>conditio</i>, from <i>condere, conditum</i>,
+to put together), a stipulation, agreement. The term is applied
+technically to any circumstance, action or event which is
+regarded as the indispensable prerequisite of some other circumstance,
+action or event. It is also applied generally to the sum
+of the circumstances in which a person is situated, and more
+specifically to favourable or prosperous circumstances; thus a
+person of wealth or birth is described as a person &ldquo;of condition,&rdquo;
+or an athlete as being &ldquo;in condition,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> physically fit, having
+gone through the necessary course of preliminary training. In
+all these senses there is implicit the idea of limitation or restraint
+imposed with a view to the attainment of a particular end.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>In Logic</i>, the term &ldquo;condition&rdquo; is closely related to
+&ldquo;cause&rdquo; in so far as it is applied to prior events, &amp;c., in the
+absence of which another event would not take place. It is,
+however, different from &ldquo;cause&rdquo; inasmuch as it has a predominantly
+negative or passive significance. Hence the adjective
+&ldquo;conditional&rdquo; is applied to propositions in which the truth of
+the main statement is made to depend on the truth of another;
+these propositions are distinguished from categorical propositions,
+which simply state a fact, as being &ldquo;composed of two categorical
+propositions united by a conjunction,&rdquo; <i>e.g.</i> if A is B, C is D.
+The second statement (the &ldquo;consequent&rdquo;) is restricted or
+qualified by the first (the &ldquo;antecedent&rdquo;). By some logicians
+these propositions are classified as (1) Hypothetical, and (2)
+Disjunctive, and their function in syllogistic reasoning gives
+rise to the following classification of conditional arguments:&mdash;(a)
+Constructive hypothetical syllogism (<i>modus ponens</i>, &ldquo;affirmative
+mood&rdquo;): If A is B, C is D; but A is B; therefore C
+is D. (b) Destructive hypothetical syllogism (<i>modus tollens</i>,
+mood which &ldquo;removes,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the consequent): if A is B, C is D;
+but C is not D; therefore A is not B. In (a) the antecedent
+must be affirmed, in (b) the consequent must be denied; otherwise
+the arguments become fallacious. A second class of conditional
+arguments are disjunctive syllogisms consisting of (c)
+the <i>modus ponendo tollens</i>: A is either B or C; but A is B;
+therefore C is not D; and (d) <i>modus tollendo ponens</i>: A is either
+B or C; A is not B; therefore A is C. A more complicated
+conditional argument is the dilemma (<i>q.v.</i>).<a name="FnAnchor_1l" id="FnAnchor_1l" href="#Footnote_1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The limiting or restrictive significance of &ldquo;condition&rdquo; has
+led to its use in metaphysical theory in contradistinction to the
+conception of absolute being, the <i>aseitas</i> of the Schoolmen.
+Thus all finite things exist in certain relations not only to all
+other things but also to thought; in other words, all finite
+existence is &ldquo;conditioned.&rdquo; Hence Sir Wm. Hamilton speaks
+of the &ldquo;philosophy of the unconditioned,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> of thought in
+distinction to things which are determined by thought in relation
+to other things. An analogous distinction is made (cf. H. W. B.
+Joseph, <i>Introduction to Logic</i>, pp. 380 foll.) between the so-called
+universal laws of nature and conditional principles, which,
+though they are regarded as having the force of law, are yet
+dependent or derivative, <i>i.e.</i> cannot be treated as universal truths.
+Such principles hold good under present conditions, but other
+conditions might be imagined under which they would be
+invalid; they hold good only as corollaries from the laws of
+nature under existing conditions.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>In Law</i>, condition in its general sense is a restraint annexed
+to a thing, so that by the non-performance the party to it shall
+receive prejudice and loss, and by the performance commodity
+or advantage. Conditions may be either: (1) condition in a
+deed or <i>express</i> condition, <i>i.e.</i> the condition being expressed in
+actual words; or (2) condition in law or <i>implied</i> condition, <i>i.e.</i>
+where, although no condition is actually expressed, the law
+implies a condition. The word is also used indifferently to mean
+either the event upon the happening of which some estate or
+obligation is to begin or end, or the provision or stipulation that
+the estate or obligation will depend upon the happening of the
+event. A condition may be of several kinds: (1) a condition
+<i>precedent</i>, where, for example, an estate is granted to one for life
+upon condition that, if the grantee pay the grantor a certain
+sum on such a day, he shall have the fee simple; (2) a condition
+<i>subsequent</i>, where, for example, an estate is granted in fee upon
+condition that the grantee shall pay a certain sum on a certain
+day, or that his estate shall cease. Thus a condition precedent
+gets or gains, while a condition subsequent keeps and continues.
+A condition may also be <i>affirmative</i>, that is, the doing of an act;
+<i>negative</i>, the not doing of an act; <i>restrictive, compulsory</i>, &amp;c.
+The word is also used adjectivally in the sense set out above, as
+in the phrases &ldquo;conditional legacy,&rdquo; &ldquo;conditional limitation,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;conditional promise,&rdquo; &amp;c.; that is, the legacy, the limitation,
+the promise is to take effect only upon the happening of a
+certain event.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1l" id="Footnote_1l" href="#FnAnchor_1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The terminology used above has not been adopted by all
+logicians. &ldquo;Conditional&rdquo; has been used as equivalent to &ldquo;hypothetical&rdquo;
+in the widest sense (including &ldquo;disjunctive&rdquo;); or
+narrowed down to be synonymous with &ldquo;conjunctive&rdquo; (the condition
+being there more explicit), as a subdivision of &ldquo;hypothetical.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDITIONAL FEE,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> at English common law, a fee or estate
+restrained in its form of donation to some particular heirs, as,
+to the heirs of a man&rsquo;s body, or to the heirs male of his body.
+It was called a conditional fee by reason of the condition expressed
+or implied in the donation of it, that if the donee died without
+such particular heirs, the land should revert to the donor. In
+other words, it was a fee simple on condition that the donee had
+issue, and as soon as such issue was born, the estate was supposed
+to become absolute by the performance of the condition. A
+conditional fee was converted by the statute <i>De Donis Conditionalibus</i>
+into an estate tail (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Real Property</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDITIONAL LIMITATION,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> in law, a phrase used in two
+senses. (1) The qualification annexed to the grant of an estate
+or interest in land, providing for the determination of that grant
+or interest upon a particular contingency happening. An estate
+with such a limitation can endure only until the particular
+contingency happens; it is a present interest, to be divested
+on a future contingency. The grant of an estate to a man so
+long as he is parson of Dale, or while he continues unmarried, are
+instances of conditional limitations of estates for life. (2) A
+future use or interest in land limited to take effect upon a given
+contingency. For instance, a grant to N. and his heirs to the
+use of A., provided that when C. returns from Rome the land
+shall go to the use of B. in fee simple. B. is said to take under a
+conditional limitation, operating by executory devise or springing
+or shifting use (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Remainder</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reversion</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDOM,<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Gers, on the right bank of
+the Baďse, at its junction with the Gčle, 27 m. by road N.N.W.
+of Auch. Pop. (1906) town, 4046; commune, 6435. Two
+stone bridges unite Condom with its suburb on the left bank of
+the river. The streets are small and narrow and several old
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span>
+houses still remain, but to the east the town is bordered by
+pleasant promenades. The Gothic church of St Pierre, its
+chief building, was erected from 1506 to 1521, and was till
+1790 a cathedral. The interior, which is without aisles or
+transept, is surrounded by lateral chapels. On the south is a
+beautifully sculptured portal. An adjoining cloister of the 16th
+century is occupied by the hôtel de ville. The former episcopal
+palace with its graceful Gothic chapel is used as a law-court.
+The sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal
+college, are among the public institutions. Brandy-distilling,
+wood-sawing, iron-founding and the manufacture of stills are
+among the industries. The town is a centre for the sale of
+Armagnac brandy and has commerce in grain and flour, much
+of which is river-borne.</p>
+
+<p>Condom (<i>Condomus</i>) was founded in the 8th century, but in
+840 was sacked and burnt by the Normans. A monastery built
+here c. 900 by the wife of Sancho of Gascony was soon destroyed
+by fire, but in 1011 was rebuilt, by Hugh, bishop of Agen. Round
+this abbey the town grew up, and in 1317 was made into an
+episcopal see by Pope John XXII. The line of bishops, which
+included Bossuet (1668-1671), came to an end in 1790 when the
+see was suppressed. Condom was, during the middle ages, a
+fortress of considerable strength. During the Hundred Years&rsquo;
+War, after several unsuccessful attempts, it was finally captured
+and held by the English. In 1569 it was sacked by the Huguenots
+under Gabriel, count of Montgomery.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A list of monographs, &amp;c., on the abbey, see and town of Condom
+is given s.v. in U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources. Topobibliogr</i>.
+(Montbéliard, 1894-1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDOR<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (<i>Sarcorhamphus gryphus</i>), an American vulture, and
+almost the largest of existing birds of flight, although by no
+means attaining the dimensions attributed to it by early writers.
+It usually measures about 4 ft. from the point of the beak to the
+extremity of the tail, and 9 ft. between the tips of its wings,
+while it is probable that the expanse of wing never exceeds 12 ft.
+The head and neck are destitute of feathers, and the former,
+which is much flattened above, is in the male crowned with a
+caruncle or comb, while the skin of the latter in the same sex
+lies in folds, forming a wattle. The adult plumage is of a uniform
+black, with the exception of a frill of white feathers nearly
+surrounding the base of the neck, and certain wing feathers
+which, especially in the male, have large patches of white. The
+middle toe is greatly elongated, and the hinder one but slightly
+developed, while the talons of all the toes are comparatively
+straight and blunt, and are thus of little use as organs of prehension.
+The female, contrary to the usual rule among birds of
+prey, is smaller than the male.</p>
+
+<p>The condor is a native of South America, where it is confined
+to the region of the Andes, from the Straits of Magellan to 4°
+north latitude,&mdash;the largest examples, it is said, being found
+about the volcano of Cayambi, situated on the equator. It is
+often seen on the shores of the Pacific, especially during the
+rainy season, but its favourite haunts for roosting and breeding
+are at elevations of 10,000 to 16,000 ft. There, during the
+months of February and March, on inaccessible ledges of rock,
+it deposits two white eggs, from 3 to 4 in. in length, its nest
+consisting merely of a few sticks placed around the eggs. The
+period of incubation lasts for seven weeks, and the young are
+covered with a whitish down until almost as large as their
+parents. They are unable to fly till nearly two years old, and
+continue for a considerable time after taking wing to roost and
+hunt with their parents. The white ruff on the neck, and the
+similarly coloured feathers of the wing, do not appear until the
+completion of the first moulting. By preference the condor
+feeds on carrion, but it does not hesitate to attack sheep, goats
+and deer, and for this reason it is hunted down by the shepherds,
+who, it is said, train their dogs to look up and bark at the condors
+as they fly overhead. They are exceedingly voracious, a
+single condor of moderate size having been known, according
+to Orton, to devour a calf, a sheep and a dog in a single week.
+When thus gorged with food, they are exceedingly stupid, and
+may then be readily caught. For this purpose a horse or mule
+is killed, and the carcase surrounded with palisades to which the
+condors are soon attracted by the prospect of food, for the
+weight of evidence seems to favour the opinion that those
+vultures owe their knowledge of the presence of carrion more
+to sight than to scent. Having feasted themselves to excess,
+they are set upon by the hunters with sticks, and being unable,
+owing to the want of space within the pen, to take the run
+without which they are unable to rise on wing, they are readily
+killed or captured. They sleep during the greater part of the
+day, searching for food in the clearer light of morning and
+evening. They are remarkably heavy sleepers, and are readily
+captured by the inhabitants ascending the trees on which they
+roost, and noosing them before they awaken. Great numbers
+of condors are thus taken alive, and these, in certain districts,
+are employed in a variety of bull-fighting. They are exceedingly
+tenacious of life, and can exist, it is said, without food for over
+forty days. Although the favourite haunts of the condor are
+at the level of perpetual snow, yet it rises to a much greater
+height, Humboldt having observed it flying over Chimborazo
+at a height of over 23,000 ft. On wing the movements of the
+condor, as it wheels in majestic circles, are remarkably graceful.
+The birds flap their wings on rising from the ground, but after
+attaining a moderate elevation they seem to sail on the air,
+Charles Darwin having watched them for half an hour without
+once observing a flap of their wings.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDORCET, MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS CARITAT,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1743-1794), French mathematician, philosopher
+and Revolutionist, was born at Ribemont, in Picardy, on the
+17th of September 1743. He descended from the ancient family
+of Caritat, who took their title from Condorcet, near Nyons in
+Dauphiné, where they were long settled. His father dying
+while he was very young, his mother, a very devout woman,
+had him educated at the Jesuit College in Reims and at the
+College of Navarre in Paris, where he displayed the most varied
+mental activity. His first public distinctions were gained in
+mathematics. At the age of sixteen his performances in analysis
+gained the praise of D&rsquo;Alembert and A. C. Clairaut, and at the
+age of twenty-two he wrote a treatise on the integral calculus
+which obtained warm approbation from competent judges.
+With his many-sided intellect and richly-endowed emotional
+nature, however, it was impossible for him to be a specialist,
+and least of all a specialist in mathematics. Philosophy and
+literature attracted him, and social work was dearer to him than
+any form of intellectual exercise. In 1769 he became a member
+of the Academy of Sciences. His contributions to its memoirs
+are numerous, and many of them are on the most abstruse and
+difficult mathematical problems.</p>
+
+<p>Being of a very genial, susceptible and enthusiastic disposition,
+he was the friend of almost all the distinguished men of his time,
+and a zealous propagator of the religious and political views
+then current among the literati of France. D&rsquo;Alembert, Turgot
+and Voltaire, for whom he had great affection and veneration,
+and by whom he was highly respected and esteemed, contributed
+largely to the formation of his opinions. His <i>Lettre d&rsquo;un laboureur
+de Picardie ŕ M. N...</i> (Necker) was written under the inspiration
+of Turgot, in defence of free internal trade in corn. Condorcet
+also wrote on the same subject the <i>Réflexions sur le commerce
+des blés</i> (1776). His <i>Lettre d&rsquo;un théologien</i>, &amp;c., was attributed
+to Voltaire, being inspired throughout by the Voltairian anti-clerical
+spirit. He was induced by D&rsquo;Alembert to take an active
+part in the preparation of the <i>Encyclopédie</i>. His <i>Éloges des
+Académiciens de l&rsquo;Académie Royale des Sciences morts depuis
+1666 jusqu&rsquo;en 1699</i> (1773) gained him the reputation of being an
+eloquent and graceful writer. He was elected to the perpetual
+secretaryship of the Academy of Sciences in 1777, and to the
+French Academy in 1782. He was also member of the academies
+of Turin, St Petersburg, Bologna and Philadelphia. In 1785
+he published his <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;application de l&rsquo;analyse aux probabilités
+des décisions prises ŕ la pluralité des voix</i>,&mdash;a remarkable
+work which has a distinguished place in the history of the doctrine
+of probability; a second edition, greatly enlarged and completely
+recast, appeared in 1804 under the title of <i>Éléments du calcul
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span>
+des probabilités et son application aux jeux de hazard, ŕ la loterie,
+et aux jugements des hommes, &amp;c.</i> In 1786 he married Sophie
+de Grouchy, a sister of Marshal Grouchy, said to have been
+one of the most beautiful women of her time. Her <i>salon</i> at the
+Hôtel des Monnaies, where Condorcet lived in his capacity as
+inspector-general of the mint, was one of the most famous of
+the time. In 1786 Condorcet published his <i>Vie de Turgot</i>, and
+in 1787 his <i>Vie de Voltaire</i>. Both works were widely and eagerly
+read, and are perhaps, from a merely literary point of view,
+the best of Condorcet&rsquo;s writings.</p>
+
+<p>The political tempest which had been long gathering over
+France now began to break and to carry everything before it.
+Condorcet was, of course, at once hurried along by it into the
+midst of the conflicts and confusion of the Revolution. He
+greeted with enthusiasm the advent of democracy, and laboured
+hard to secure and hasten its triumph. He was indefatigable
+in writing pamphlets, suggesting reforms, and planning constitutions.
+He was not a member of the States-General of 1789,
+but he had expressed his ideas in the electoral assembly of the
+noblesse of Mantes. The first political functions which he
+exercised were those of a member of the municipality of Paris
+(1790). He was next chosen by the Parisians to represent
+them in the Legislative Assembly, and then appointed by that
+body one of its secretaries. In this capacity he drew up most
+of its addresses, but seldom spoke, his pen being more effective
+than his tongue. He was the chief author of the address to the
+European powers when they threatened France with war. He
+was keenly interested in education, and, as a member of the
+committee of public instruction, presented to the Assembly
+(April 21 and 22, 1792) a bold and comprehensive scheme for
+the organization of a system of state education which, though
+more urgent questions compelled its postponement, became the
+basis of that adopted by the Convention, and thus laid the
+foundations on which the modern system of national education
+in France is built up. After the attempted flight of the king,
+in June 1791, Condorcet was one of the first to declare in favour
+of a republic, and it was he who drew up the memorandum
+which led the Assembly, on the 4th of September 1792, to decree
+the suspension of the king and the summoning of the National
+Convention. He had, meanwhile, resigned his offices and left the
+Hôtel des Monnaies; his declaration in favour of republicanism
+had alienated him from his former friends of the constitutional
+party, and he did not join the Jacobin Club, which had not yet
+declared against the monarchy. Though attached to no powerful
+political group, however, his reputation gave him great influence.
+At the elections for the Convention he was chosen for five
+departments, and took his seat for that of Aisne. He now
+became the most influential member of the committee on the
+constitution, and as &ldquo;reporter&rdquo; he drafted and presented to the
+Convention (February 15, 1793) a constitution, which was, however,
+after stormy debates, rejected in favour of that presented
+by Hérault de Séchelles. The work of constitution-making had
+been interrupted by the trial of Louis XVI. Condorcet objected
+to the assumption of judicial functions by the Convention, objected
+also on principle to the infliction of the death penalty; but
+he voted the king guilty of conspiring against liberty and worthy
+of any penalty short of death, and against the appeal to the people
+advocated by the Girondists. In the atmosphere of universal
+suspicion that inspired the Terror his independent attitude could
+not, however, be maintained with impunity. His severe and
+public criticism of the constitution adopted by the Convention,
+his denunciation of the arrest of the Girondists, and his opposition
+to the violent conduct of the Mountain, led to his being
+accused of conspiring against the Republic. He was condemned
+and declared to be <i>hors la loi</i>. Friends, sought for him an
+asylum in the house of Madame Vernet, widow of the sculptor
+and a near connexion of the painters of the same name.
+Without even asking his name, this heroic woman, as soon as
+she was assured that he was an honest man, said, &ldquo;Let him come,
+and lose not a moment, for while we talk he may be seized.&rdquo;
+When the execution of the Girondists showed him that his
+presence exposed his protectress to a terrible danger, he resolved
+to seek a refuge elsewhere. &ldquo;I am outlawed,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;and if
+I am discovered you will meet the same sad end as myself.  I
+must not stay.&rdquo;  Madame Vernet&rsquo;s reply deserves to be immortal,
+and should be given in her own words: &ldquo;La Convention,
+Monsieur, a le droit de mettre hors la loi: elle n&rsquo;a pas le pouvoir
+de mettre hors de l&rsquo;humanité; vous resterez.&rdquo;  From that
+time she had his movements strictly watched lest he should
+attempt to quit her house.  It was partly to turn his mind from
+the idea of attempting this, by occupying it otherwise, that his
+wife and some of his friends, with the co-operation of Madame
+Vernet, prevailed on him to engage in the composition of the
+work by which he is best known&mdash;the <i>Esquisse d&rsquo;un tableau
+historique des progrčs de l&rsquo;esprit humain</i>.  In his retirement
+Condorcet wrote also his justification, and several small works,
+such as the <i>Moyen d&rsquo;apprendre ŕ compter sűrement et avec facilitę</i>,
+which he intended for the schools of the republic.  Several of
+these works were published at the time, thanks to his friends;
+the rest appeared after his death.  Among the latter was the
+admirable <i>Avis d&rsquo;un proscrit ŕ sa fille</i>.  While in hiding he also
+continued to take an active interest in public affairs.  Thus, he
+wrote several important memoranda on the conduct of the war
+against the Coalition, which were laid before the Committee of
+Public Safety anonymously by a member of the Mountain named
+Marcoz, who lived in the same house as Condorcet without
+thinking it his duty to denounce him.  In the same way he forwarded
+to Arbogast, president of the committee for public instruction,
+the solutions of several problems in higher mathematics.</p>
+
+<p>Certain circumstances having led him to believe that the
+house of Madame Vernet, 21 rue Servandoni, was suspected
+and watched by his enemies, Condorcet, by a fatally successful
+artifice, at last baffled the vigilance of his generous friend and
+escaped.  Disappointed in finding even a night&rsquo;s shelter at the
+château of one whom he had befriended, he had to hide for three
+days and nights in the thickets and stone-quarries of Clamart.
+Oh the evening of the 7th of April 1794&mdash;not, as Carlyle says,
+on a &ldquo;bleared May morning,&rdquo;&mdash;with garments torn, with
+wounded leg, with famished looks, <span class="correction" title="amended from be">he</span> entered a tavern in the
+village named, and called for an omelette.  &ldquo;How many eggs in
+your omelette?&rdquo;  &ldquo;A dozen.&rdquo;  &ldquo;What is your trade?&rdquo;  &ldquo;A
+carpenter.&rdquo;  &ldquo;Carpenters have not hands like these, and do
+not ask for a dozen eggs in an omelette.&rdquo;  When his papers were
+demanded he had none to show; when his person was searched
+a Horace was found on him.  The villagers seized him, bound
+him, haled him forthwith on bleeding feet towards Bourg-la-Reine;
+he fainted by the way, was set on a horse offered in pity
+by a passing peasant, and, at the journey&rsquo;s end, was cast into
+a cold damp cell.  Next morning he was found dead on the floor.
+Whether he had died from suffering and exhaustion, from
+apoplexy or from poison, is an undetermined question.</p>
+
+<p>Condorcet was undoubtedly a most sincere, generous and noble-minded
+man.  He was eager in the pursuit of truth, ardent in his
+love of human good, and ever ready to undertake labour or
+encounter danger on behalf of the philanthropic plans which
+his fertile mind contrived and his benevolent heart inspired.
+It was thus that he worked for the suppression of slavery, for
+the rehabilitation of the chevalier de La Barre, and in defence
+of Lally-Tollendal.  He lived at a time when calumny was rife,
+and various slanders were circulated regarding him, but fortunately
+the slightest examination proves them to have been
+inexcusable fabrications.  That while openly opposing royalty he
+was secretly soliciting the office of tutor to the Dauphin; that he
+was accessory to the murder of the duc de la Rochefoucauld;
+or that he sanctioned the burning of the literary treasures of the
+learned congregations, are stories which can be shown to be
+utterly untrue.</p>
+
+<p>His philosophical fame is chiefly associated with the <i>Esquisse
+ ... des&rsquo;progrčs</i> mentioned above.  With the vision of the guillotine
+before him, with confusion and violence around him, he comforted
+himself by trying to demonstrate that the evils of life had
+arisen from a conspiracy of priests and rulers against their fellows,
+and from the bad laws and institutions which they had succeeded
+in creating, but that the human race would finally conquer its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span>
+enemies and free itself of its evils. His fundamental idea is that
+of a human perfectibility which has manifested itself in continuous
+progress in the past, and must lead to indefinite progress
+in the future. He represents man as starting from the lowest
+stage of barbarism, with no superiority over the other animals
+save that of bodily organization, and as advancing uninterruptedly,
+at a more or less rapid rate, in the path of enlightenment, virtue
+and happiness. The stages which the human race has already
+gone through, or, in other words, the great epochs of history, are
+regarded as nine in number. The first three can confessedly be
+described only conjecturally from general observations as to the
+development of the human faculties, and the analogies of savage
+life. In the first epoch, men are united into hordes of hunters and
+fishers, who acknowledge in some degree public authority and
+the claims of family relationship, and who make use of an
+articulate language. In the second epoch&mdash;the pastoral state&mdash;property
+is introduced, and along with it inequality of conditions,
+and even slavery, but also leisure to cultivate intelligence, to
+invent some of the simpler arts, and to acquire some of the more
+elementary truths of science. In the third epoch&mdash;the agricultural
+state&mdash;as leisure and wealth are greater, labour better
+distributed and applied, and the means of communication
+increased and extended, progress is still more rapid. With the
+invention of alphabetic writing the conjectural part of history
+closes, and the more or less authenticated part commences.
+The fourth and fifth epochs are represented as corresponding to
+Greece and Rome. The middle ages are divided into two epochs,
+the former of which terminates with the Crusades, and the latter
+with the invention of printing. The eighth epoch extends from
+the invention of printing to the revolution in the method of philosophic
+thinking accomplished by Descartes. And the ninth epoch
+begins with that great intellectual revolution, and ends with the
+great political and moral revolution of 1789, and is illustrious,
+according to Condorcet, through the discovery of the true system
+of the physical universe by Newton, of human nature by Locke
+and Condillac, and of society by Turgot, Richard Price and
+Rousseau. There is an epoch of the future&mdash;a tenth epoch,&mdash;and
+the most original part of Condorcet&rsquo;s treatise is that which
+is devoted to it. After insisting that general laws regulative
+of the past warrant general inferences as to the future, he argues
+that the three tendencies which the entire history of the past
+shows will be characteristic features of the future are:&mdash;(1) the
+destruction of inequality between nations; (2) the destruction
+of inequality between classes; and (3) the improvement of
+individuals, the indefinite perfectibility of human nature itself&mdash;intellectually,
+morally and physically. These propositions
+have been much misunderstood. The equality to which he represents
+nations and individuals as tending is not absolute
+equality, but equality of freedom and of rights. It is that
+equality which would make the inequality of the natural advantages
+and faculties of each community and person beneficial to all.
+Nations and men, he thinks, are equal, if equally free, and are
+all tending to equality because all tending to freedom. As to
+indefinite perfectibility, he nowhere denies that progress is
+conditioned both by the constitution of humanity and the character
+of its surroundings. But he affirms that these conditions
+are compatible with endless progress, and that the human mind
+can assign no fixed limits to its own advancement in knowledge
+and virtue, or even to the prolongation of bodily life. This
+theory explains the importance he attached to popular education,
+to which he looked for all sure progress.</p>
+
+<p>The book is pervaded by a spirit of excessive hopefulness, and
+contains numerous errors of detail, which are fully accounted
+for by the circumstances in which it was written. Its value lies
+entirely in its general ideas. Its chief defects spring from its
+author&rsquo;s narrow and fanatical aversion to all philosophy which
+did not attempt to explain the world exclusively on mechanical
+and sensational principles, to all religion whatever, and especially
+to Christianity and Christian institutions, and to monarchy.
+His ethical position, however, gives emphasis to the sympathetic
+impulses and social feelings, and had considerable influence
+upon Auguste Comte.</p>
+
+<p>Madame de Condorcet (b. 1764), who was some twenty years
+younger than her husband, was rendered penniless by his
+proscription, and compelled to support not only herself and her
+four years old daughter but her younger sister, Charlotte de
+Grouchy. After the end of the Jacobin Terror she published
+an excellent translation of Adam Smith&rsquo;s <i>Theory of Moral
+Sentiments</i>; in 1798 a work of her own, <i>Lettres sur la sympathie</i>;
+and in 1799 her husband&rsquo;s <i>Éloges des acadęmiciens</i>. Later she
+co-operated with Cabanis, who had married her sister, and
+with Garat in publishing the complete works of Condorcet
+(1801-1804). She adhered to the last to the political views of
+her husband, and under the Consulate and Empire her <i>salon</i>
+became a meeting-place of those opposed to the autocratic
+régime. She died at Paris on the 8th of September 1822. Her
+daughter was married, in 1807, to General O&rsquo;Connor.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A <i>Biographie de Condorcet</i>, by M. F. Arago, is prefixed to A.
+Condorcet-O&rsquo;Connor&rsquo;s edition of Condorcet&rsquo;s works, in 12 volumes
+(1847-1849). There is an able essay on Condorcet in Lord Morley
+of Blackburn&rsquo;s <i>Critical Miscellanies</i>. On Condorcet as an historical
+philosopher see Comte&rsquo;s <i>Cours de philosophie positive</i>, iv. 252-253,
+and <i>Systčme de politique positive</i>, iv. Appendice Général, 109-111;
+F. Laurent, <i>Études</i>, xii. 121-126, 89-110; and R. Flint, <i>Philosophy
+of History in France and Germany</i>, i. 125-138. The <i>Mémoires de
+Condorcet sur la Révolution française, extraits de sa correspondance
+et de celles de ses amis</i> (2 vols., Paris, Ponthieu, 1824), which were in
+fact edited by F. G. de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, are spurious.
+See also Dr J. F. E. Robinet, <i>Condorcet, sa vie et son &oelig;uvre</i>, and more
+especially L. Cahen, <i>Condorcet et la Révolution française</i> (Paris, 1904).
+On Madame de Condorcet see Antoine Guillois, <i>La Marquise de
+Condorcet, sa famille, son salon et ses &oelig;uvres</i> (Paris, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CONDOTTIERE<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (plural, <i>condottieri</i>), an Italian term, derived
+ultimately from Latin <i>conducere</i>, meaning either &ldquo;to conduct&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;to hire,&rdquo; for the leader of the mercenary military companies,
+often several thousand strong, which used to be hired out to
+carry on the wars of the Italian states. The word is often extended
+so as to include the soldiers as well as the leader of a
+company. The condottieri played a very important part in
+Italian history from the middle of the 13th to the middle of the
+15th century. The special political and military circumstances
+of medieval Italy, and in particular the wars of the Guelphs
+and Ghibellines, brought it about that the condottieri and their
+leaders played a more conspicuous and important part in history
+than the &ldquo;Free Companies&rdquo; elsewhere. Amongst these circumstances
+the absence of a numerous feudal cavalry, the relative
+luxury of city life, and the incapacity of city militia for wars of
+aggression were the most prominent. From this it resulted
+that war was not merely the trade of the condottiere, but also
+his monopoly, and he was thus able to obtain whatever terms
+he asked, whether money payments or political concessions.
+These companies were recruited from wandering mercenary
+bands and individuals of all nations, and from the ranks of the
+many armies of middle Europe which from time to time overran
+Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Montreal d&rsquo;Albarno, a gentleman of Provence, was the first
+to give them a definite form. A severe discipline and an elaborate
+organization were introduced within the company itself, while
+in their relations to the people the most barbaric licence was
+permitted. Montreal himself was put to death at Rome by
+Rienzi, and Conrad Lando succeeded to the command. The
+Grand Company, as it was called, soon numbered about 7000
+cavalry and 1500 select infantry, and was for some years the
+terror of Italy. They seem to have been Germans chiefly. On
+the conclusion (1360) of the peace of Bretigny between England
+and France, Sir John Hawkwood (<i>q.v.</i>) led an army of English
+mercenaries, called the White Company, into Italy, which took
+a prominent part in the confused wars of the next thirty years.
+Towards the end of the century the Italians began to organize
+armies of the same description. This ended the reign of the
+purely mercenary company, and began that of the semi-national
+mercenary army which endured in Europe till replaced by the
+national standing army system. The first company of importance
+raised on the new basis was that of St George, originated by
+Alberigo, count of Barbiano, many of whose subordinates and
+pupils conquered principalities for themselves. Shortly after,
+the organization of these mercenary armies was carried to the
+highest perfection by Sforza Attendolo, condottiere in the
+service of Naples, who had been a peasant of the Romagna, and
+by his rival Brancaccio di Montone in the service of Florence.
+The army and the renown of Sforza were inherited by his son
+Francesco Sforza, who eventually became duke of Milan (1450).
+Less fortunate was another great condottiere, Carmagnola, who
+first served one of the Visconti, and then conducted the wars of
+Venice against his former masters, but at last awoke the suspicion
+of the Venetian oligarchy, and was put to death before the palace
+of St Mark (1432). Towards the end of the 15th century, when
+the large cities had gradually swallowed up the small states,
+and Italy itself was drawn into the general current of European
+politics, and became the battlefield of powerful armies&mdash;French,
+Spanish and German&mdash;the condottieri, who in the end proved
+quite unequal to the gendarmerie of France and the improved
+troops of the Italian states, disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The soldiers of the condottieri were almost entirely heavy
+armoured cavalry (men-at-arms). They had, at any rate before
+1400, nothing in common with the people among whom they
+fought, and their disorderly conduct and rapacity seem often to
+have exceeded that of other medieval armies. They were always
+ready to change sides at the prospect of higher pay. They were
+connected with each other by the interest of a common profession,
+and by the possibility that the enemy of to-day might be the
+friend and fellow-soldier of to-morrow. Further, a prisoner
+was always more valuable than a dead enemy. In consequence
+of all this their battles were often as bloodless as they were
+theatrical. Splendidly equipped armies were known to fight
+for hours with hardly the loss of a man (Zagonara, 1423;
+Molinella, 1467).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 6, Slice 7, by Various
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,16868 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 7
+       "Columbus" to "Condottiere"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 11, 2010 [EBook #31950]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 7 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. When letters are subscripted, they are
+      preceded by an underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were originally printed in
+      superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(5) [oo] stands for infinity; [int] for integral; [alpha], [beta], etc.
+      for greek letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON: "In 1834 he was sworn a privy
+      councillor, and in 1852 he succeeded Wellington as constable of the
+      Tower and lord lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets." 'Wellington'
+      amended from 'Wellingtion'.
+
+    Article COMMERCE: "But in the ancient records we see commerce
+      exposed to great risks, subject to constant pillage, hunted down in
+      peace and utterly extinguished in war." 'pillage' amended from
+      'pilage'.
+
+    Article COMPANY: "But they also contemplate the ultimate
+      controlling power as residing in the shareholders." 'contemplate'
+      amended from 'comtemplate'.
+
+    Article COMPASS: "and if the magnetic variation and the disturbing
+      effects of the ship's iron are known, the desired angle between the
+      ship's course and the geographical meridian can be computed."
+      'ship's' amended from 'ships's'.
+
+    Article COMTE, AUGUSTE: "Comte began to fret under Saint-Simon's
+      pretensions to be his director. Saint-Simon, on the other hand,
+      perhaps began to feel uncomfortably conscious of the superiority
+      of his disciple." 'feel' from 'fell'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+           VOLUME VI, SLICE VII
+
+         Columbus to Condottiere
+
+
+
+
+Articles in This Slice:
+
+
+  COLUMBUS (city of Georgia, U.S.A.)      COMO (city of Italy)
+  COLUMBUS (city of Indiana, U.S.A.)      COMO (lake of Italy)
+  COLUMBUS (city of Mississippi, U.S.A.)  COMONFORT, IGNACIO
+  COLUMBUS (city of Ohio, U.S.A.)         COMORIN, CAPE
+  COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS      COMORO ISLANDS
+  COLUMN                                  COMPANION
+  COLURE                                  COMPANY
+  COLUTHUS                                COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
+  COLVILLE, JOHN                          COMPARETTI, DOMENICO
+  COLVIN, JOHN RUSSELL                    COMPASS
+  COLVIN, SIDNEY                          COMPASS PLANT
+  COLWYN BAY                              COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL
+  COLZA OIL                               COMPENSATION
+  COMA                                    COMPIEGNE
+  COMA BERENICES                          COMPLEMENT
+  COMACCHIO                               COMPLUVIUM
+  COMANA (city of Cappadocia)             COMPOSITAE
+  COMANA (city of Pontus)                 COMPOSITE ORDER
+  COMANCHES                               COMPOSITION
+  COMAYAGUA                               COMPOUND
+  COMB                                    COMPOUND PIER
+  COMBACONUM                              COMPRADOR
+  COMBE, ANDREW                           COMPRESSION
+  COMBE, GEORGE                           COMPROMISE
+  COMBE, WILLIAM                          COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850
+  COMBE (closed-in valley)                COMPSA
+  COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON            COMPTON, HENRY
+  COMBES, EMILE                           COMPTROLLER
+  COMBINATION                             COMPURGATION
+  COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS                  COMTE, AUGUSTE
+  COMBUSTION                              COMUS
+  COMEDY                                  COMYN, JOHN
+  COMENIUS, JOHANN AMOS                   CONACRE
+  COMET                                   CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON
+  COMET-SEEKER                            CONATION
+  COMILLA                                 CONCA, SEBASTIANO
+  COMINES                                 CONCARNEAU
+  COMITIA                                 CONCEPCION (province of Chile)
+  COMITY                                  CONCEPCION (city of Chile)
+  COMMA                                   CONCEPCION (town of Paraguay)
+  COMMANDEER                              CONCEPT
+  COMMANDER                               CONCEPTUALISM
+  COMMANDERY                              CONCERT
+  COMMANDO                                CONCERTINA
+  COMMEMORATION                           CONCERTO
+  COMMENDATION                            CONCH
+  COMMENTARII                             CONCHOID
+  COMMENTRY                               CONCIERGE
+  COMMERCE (trade)                        CONCINI, CONCINO
+  COMMERCE (card-game)                    CONCLAVE
+  COMMERCIAL COURT                        CONCORD (Massachusetts, U.S.A)
+  COMMERCIAL LAW                          CONCORD (North Carolina, U.S.A.)
+  COMMERCIAL TREATIES                     CONCORD (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)
+  COMMERCY                                CONCORD, BOOK OF
+  COMMERS                                 CONCORDANCE
+  COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE                   CONCORDAT
+  COMMISSARIAT                            CONCORDIA (Roman goddess)
+  COMMISSARY                              CONCORDIA (town of Venetia)
+  COMMISSION                              CONCRETE (solidity)
+  COMMISSIONAIRE                          CONCRETE (building material)
+  COMMISSIONER                            CONCRETION
+  COMMITMENT                              CONCUBINAGE
+  COMMITTEE                               CONDE, PRINCES OF
+  COMMODIANUS                             CONDE, LOUIS DE BOURBON
+  COMMODORE                               CONDE, LOUIS II. DE BOURBON
+  COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS        CONDE (villages of France)
+  COMMON LAW                              CONDE, JOSE ANTONIO
+  COMMON LODGING-HOUSE                    CONDENSATION OF GASES
+  COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF                   CONDENSER
+  COMMONPLACE                             CONDER, CHARLES
+  COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF                  CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT DE
+  COMMONS                                 CONDITION
+  COMMONWEALTH                            CONDITIONAL FEE
+  COMMUNE                                 CONDITIONAL LIMITATION
+  COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL                       CONDOM
+  COMMUNISM                               CONDOR
+  COMMUTATION                             CONDORCET, CARITAT
+  COMNENUS                                CONDOTTIERE
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Muscogee county, Georgia,
+U.S.A., on the E. bank and at the head of navigation of the
+Chattahoochee river, about 100 m. S.S.W. of Atlanta. Pop. (1890) 17,303;
+(1900) 17,614, of whom 7267 were negroes; (1910, census) 20,554. There
+is also a considerable suburban population. Columbus is served by the
+Southern, the Central of Georgia, and the Seaboard Air Line railways,
+and three steamboat lines afford communication with Apalachicola,
+Florida. The city has a public library. A fall in the river of 115 ft.
+within a mile of the city furnishes a valuable water-power, which has
+been utilized for public and private enterprises. The most important
+industry is the manufacture of cotton goods; there are also cotton
+compresses, iron works, flour and woollen mills, wood-working
+establishments, &c. The value of the city's factory products increased
+from $5,061,485 in 1900 to $7,079,702 in 1905, or 39.9%; of the total
+value in 1905, $2,759,081, or 39%, was the value of the cotton goods
+manufactured. There are many large factories just outside the city
+limits. Columbus was one of the first cities in the United States to
+maintain, at public expense, a system of trade schools. It has a large
+wholesale and retail trade. The city was founded in 1827 and was
+incorporated in 1828. In the latter year Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar
+(1798-1859) established here the Columbus _Independent_, a
+State's-Rights newspaper. For the first twenty years the city's leading
+industry was trade in cotton. As this trade was diverted by the railways
+to Savannah, the water-power was developed and manufactories were
+established. During the Civil War the city ranked next to Richmond in
+the manufacture of supplies for the Confederate army. On the 16th of
+April 1865 it was captured by a Union force under General James Harrison
+Wilson (b. 1837); 1200 Confederates were taken prisoners; large
+quantities of arms and stores were seized, and the principal
+manufactories and much other property were destroyed.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Bartholomew county, Indiana,
+U.S.A., situated on the E. fork of White river, a little S. of the
+centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 6719; (1900) 8130, of whom 313 were
+foreign-born and 224 were of negro descent (1910 census) 8813. In 1900
+the centre of population of the United States was 5 m. S.E. of Columbus.
+The city is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and
+the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and is connected
+with Indianapolis and with Louisville, Ky., by an electric interurban
+line. Columbus is situated in a fine farming region, and has extensive
+tanneries, threshing-machine and traction and automobile engine works,
+structural iron works, tool and machine shops, canneries and furniture
+factories. In 1905 the value of the city's factory product was
+$2,983,160, being 28.4% more than in 1900. The water-supply system and
+electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the city.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Lowndes county, Mississippi,
+U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Tombigbee river, at the head of steam
+navigation, 150. m. S.E. of Memphis, Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 4559; (1900)
+6484 (3366 negroes); (1910) 8988. It is served by the Mobile & Ohio and
+the Southern railways, and by passenger and freight steamboat lines. It
+has cotton and knitting mills, cotton-seed oil factories, machine shops,
+and wagon, stove, plough and fertilizer factories; and is a market and
+jobbing centre for a fertile agricultural region. It has a public
+library, and is the seat of the Mississippi Industrial Institute and
+College (1885) for women, the first state college for women--the
+successor of the Columbus Female Institute (1848)--of Franklin Academy
+(1821), and of the Union Academy (1873) for negroes. The site was first
+settled about 1818; the city was incorporated in 1821, and in 1830 it
+became the county-seat of the newly formed Lowndes county. During the
+Civil War the legislature met here in 1863 and 1865, and in the former
+year Governor Charles Clark (1810-1877) was inaugurated here.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBUS, a city, a port of entry, the capital of Ohio, U.S.A., and the
+county-seat of Franklin county, at the confluence of the Scioto and
+Olentangy rivers, near the geographical centre of the state, 120 m. N.E.
+of Cincinnati, and 138 m. S.S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 88,150;
+(1900) 125,560, of whom 12,328 were foreign-born and 8201 were negroes;
+(1910) 181,511. Columbus is an important railway centre and is served by
+the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, the Pittsburg,
+Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania system), the Baltimore &
+Ohio, the Ohio Central, the Norfolk & Western, the Hocking Valley, and
+the Cleveland, Akron & Columbus (Pennsylvania system) railways, and by
+nine interurban electric lines. It occupies a land area of about 17 sq.
+m., the principal portion being along the east side of the Scioto in the
+midst of an extensive plain. High Street, the principal business
+thoroughfare, is 100 ft. wide, and Broad Street, on which are many of
+the finest residences, is 120 ft. wide, has four rows of trees, a
+roadway for heavy vehicles in the middle, and a driveway for carriages
+on either side.
+
+The principal building is the state capitol (completed in 1857) in a
+square of ten acres at the intersection of High and Broad streets. It is
+built in the simple Doric style, of grey limestone taken from a quarry
+owned by the state, near the city; is 304 ft. long and 184 ft. wide, and
+has a rotunda 158 ft. high, on the walls of which are the original
+painting, by William Henry Powell (1823-1879), of O. H. Perry's victory
+on Lake Erie, and portraits of most of the governors of Ohio. Other
+prominent structures are the U.S. government and the judiciary
+buildings, the latter connected with the capitol by a stone terrace, the
+city hall, the county court house, the union station, the board of
+trade, the soldiers' memorial hall (with a seating capacity of about
+4500), and several office buildings. The city is a favourite
+meeting-place for conventions. Among the state institutions in Columbus
+are the university (see below), the penitentiary, a state hospital for
+the insane, the state school for the blind, and the state institutions
+for the education of the deaf and dumb and for feeble-minded youth. In
+the capitol grounds are monuments to the memory of Ulysses S. Grant,
+Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, William T. Sherman, Philip H.
+Sheridan, Salmon P. Chase, and Edwin M. Stanton, and a beautiful
+memorial arch (with sculpture by H. A. M'Neil) to William McKinley.
+
+The city has several parks, including the Franklin of 90 acres, the
+Goodale of 44 acres, and the Schiller of 24 acres, besides the
+Olentangy, a well-equipped amusement resort on the banks of the river
+from which it is named, the Indianola, another amusement resort, and the
+United States military post and recruiting station, which occupies 80
+acres laid out like a park. The state fair grounds of 115 acres adjoin
+the city, and there is also a beautiful cemetery of 220 acres.
+
+The Ohio State University (non-sectarian and co-educational), opened as
+the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College in 1873, and reorganized
+under its present name in 1878, is 3 m. north of the capitol. It
+includes colleges of arts, philosophy and science, of education (for
+teachers), of engineering, of law, of pharmacy, of agriculture and
+domestic science, and of veterinary medicine. It occupies a campus of
+110 acres, has an adjoining farm of 325 acres, and 18 buildings devoted
+to instruction, 2 dormitories, and a library containing (1906) 67,709
+volumes, besides excellent museums of geology, zoology, botany and
+archaeology and history, the last being owned jointly by the university
+and by the state archaeological and historical society. In 1908 the
+faculty numbered 175, and the students 2277. The institution owed its
+origin to federal land grants; it is maintained by the state, the United
+States, and by small fees paid by the students; tuition is free in all
+colleges except the college of law. The government of the university is
+vested in a board of trustees appointed by the governor of the state for
+a term of seven years. The first president of the institution (from 1873
+to 1881) was the distinguished geologist, Edward Orton (1829-1899), who
+was professor of geology from 1873 to 1899.
+
+Other institutions of learning are the Capital University and
+Evangelical Lutheran Theological Seminary (Theological Seminary opened
+in 1830; college opened as an academy in 1850), with buildings just east
+of the city limits; Starling Ohio Medical College, a law school, a
+dental school and an art institute. Besides the university library,
+there is the Ohio state library occupying a room in the capitol and
+containing in 1908 126,000 volumes, including a "travelling library" of
+about 36,000 volumes, from which various organizations in different
+parts of the state may borrow books; the law library of the supreme
+court of Ohio, containing complete sets of English, Scottish, Irish,
+Canadian, United States and state reports, statutes and digests; the
+public school library of about 68,000 volumes, and the public library
+(of about 55,000), which is housed in a marble and granite building
+completed in 1906.
+
+Columbus is near the Ohio coal and iron-fields, and has an extensive
+trade in coal, but its largest industrial interests are in manufactures,
+among which the more important are foundry and machine-shop products
+(1905 value, $6,259,579); boots and shoes (1905 value, $5,425,087, being
+more than one-sixtieth of the total product value of the boot and shoe
+industry in the United States, and being an increase from $359,000 in
+1890); patent medicines and compounds (1905 value, $3,214,096);
+carriages and wagons (1905 value, $2,197,960); malt liquors (1905 value,
+$2,133,955); iron and steel; regalia and society emblems; steam-railway
+cars, construction and repairing; and oleo-margarine. In 1905 the city's
+factory products were valued at $40,435,531, an increase of 16.4% in
+five years. Immediately outside the city limits in 1905 were various
+large and important manufactories, including railway shops, foundries,
+slaughter-houses, ice factories and brick-yards. In Columbus there is a
+large market for imported horses. Several large quarries also are
+adjacent to the city.
+
+The waterworks are owned by the municipality. In 1904-1905 the city
+built on the Scioto river a concrete storage dam, having a capacity of
+5,000,000,000 gallons, and in 1908 it completed the construction of
+enormous works for filtering and softening the water-supply, and of
+works for purifying the flow of sewage--the two costing nearly
+$5,000,000. The filtering works include 6 lime saturators, 2 mixing or
+softening tanks, 6 settling basins, 10 mechanical filters and 2
+clear-water reservoirs. A large municipal electric-lighting plant was
+completed in 1908.
+
+The first permanent settlement within the present limits of the city was
+established in 1797 on the west bank of the Scioto, was named
+Franklinton, and in 1803 was made the county-seat. In 1810 four citizens
+of Franklinton formed an association to secure the location of the
+capital on the higher ground of the east bank; in 1812 they were
+successful and the place was laid out while still a forest. Four years
+later, when the legislature held its first session here, the settlement
+was incorporated as the Borough of Columbus. In 1824 the county-seat was
+removed here from Franklinton; in 1831 the Columbus branch of the Ohio
+Canal was completed; in 1834 the borough was made a city; by the close
+of the same decade the National Road extending from Wheeling to
+Indianapolis and passing through Columbus was completed; in 1871 most of
+Franklinton, which was never incorporated, was annexed, and several
+other annexations followed.
+
+  See J. H. Studer, _Columbus, Ohio; its History and Resources_
+  (Columbus, 1873); A. E. Lee, _History of the City of Columbus, Ohio_
+  (New York, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS, of Gades, writer on agriculture,
+contemporary of Seneca the philosopher, flourished about the middle of
+the 1st century A.D. His extant works treat, with great fulness and in a
+diffuse but not inelegant style which well represents the silver age, of
+the cultivation of all kinds of corn and garden vegetables, trees,
+flowers, the vine, the olive and other fruits, and of the rearing of
+cattle, birds, fishes and bees. They consist of the twelve books of the
+_De re rustica_ (the tenth, which treats of gardening, being in dactylic
+hexameters in imitation of Virgil), and of a book _De arboribus_, the
+second book of an earlier and less elaborate work on the same subject.
+
+  The best complete edition is by J. G. Schneider (1794). Of a new
+  edition by K. J. Lundstrom, the tenth book appeared in 1902 and _De
+  arboribus_ in 1897. There are English translations by R. Bradley
+  (1725), and anonymous (1745); and treatises, _De Columellae vita et
+  scriptis_, by V. Barberet (1887), and G. R. Becher (1897), a compact
+  dissertation with notes and references to authorities.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMN (Lat. _columna_), in architecture, a vertical support consisting
+of capital, shaft and base, used to carry a horizontal beam or an arch.
+The earliest example in wood (2684 B.C.) was that found at Kahun in
+Egypt by Professor Flinders Petrie, which was fluted and stood on a
+raised base, and in stone the octagonal shafts of the early temple at
+Deir-el-Bahri (c. 2850). In the tombs at Beni Hasan (2723 B.C.) are
+columns of two kinds, the octagonal or polygonal shaft, and the reed or
+lotus column, the horizontal section of which is a quatrefoil. This
+became later the favourite type, but it was made circular on plan. In
+all these examples the column rests on a stone base. (See also CAPITAL
+and ORDER.)
+
+The column was employed in Assyria in small structures only, such as
+pavilions or porticoes. In Persia the column, employed to carry timber
+superstructures only, was very lofty, being sometimes 12 diameters high;
+the shaft was fluted, the number of flutes varying from 30 to 52.
+
+The earliest example of the Greek column is that represented in the
+temple fresco at Cnossus (c. 1600 B.C.), of which portions have been
+found. The columns were in cypress wood raised on a stone base and
+tapered downwards.[1] The same, though to a less degree, is found in the
+stone semi-detached columns which flank the doorway of the Tomb of
+Agamemnon at Mycenae; the shafts of these columns were carved with the
+chevron design.
+
+The earliest Greek columns in stone as isolated features are those of
+the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse (early 7th century B.C.) the shafts of
+which were monoliths, but as a rule the Greek columns were all built of
+drums, sometimes as many as ten or twelve. There was no base to the
+Doric column, but the shafts were fluted, 20 flutes being the usual
+number. In the Archaic Temple of Diana at Ephesus there were 52 flutes.
+In the later examples of the Ionic order the shaft had 24 flutes. In the
+Roman temples the shafts were very often monoliths.
+
+Columns were occasionally used as supports for figures or other
+features. The Naxian column at Delphi of the Ionic order carried a
+sphinx. The Romans employed columns in various ways: the Trajan and the
+Antonine columns carried figures of the two emperors; the columna
+rostrata (260 B.C.) in the Forum was decorated with the beaks of ships
+and was a votive column, the miliaria column marked the centre of Rome
+from which all distances were measured. In the same way the column in
+the Place Vendome in Paris carries a statue of Napoleon I.; the monument
+of the Fire of London, a finial with flames sculptured on it; the duke
+of York's column (London), a statue of the duke of York.
+
+With the exception of the Cretan and Mycenaean, all the shafts of the
+classic orders tapered from the bottom upwards, and about one-third up
+the column had an increment, known as the _entasis_, to correct an
+optical illusion which makes tapering shafts look concave; the
+proportions of diameter to height varied with the order employed. Thus,
+broadly speaking, a Roman Doric column will be eight, a Roman Ionic
+nine, a Corinthian ten diameters in height. Except in rare cases, the
+columns of the Romanesque and Gothic styles were of equal diameter at
+top and bottom, and had no definite dimensions as regards diameter and
+height. They were also grouped together round piers which are known as
+clustered piers. When of exceptional size, as in Gloucester and Durham
+cathedrals, Waltham Abbey and Tewkesbury, they are generally called
+"pillars," which was apparently the medieval term for column. The word
+_columna_, employed by Vitruvius, was introduced into England by the
+Italian writers of the Revival.
+
+In the Renaissance period columns were frequently banded, the bands
+being concentric with the column as in France, and occasionally richly
+carved as in Philibert De L'Orme's work at the Tuileries. In England
+Inigo Jones introduced similar features, but with square blocks
+sometimes rusticated, a custom lately revived in England, but of which
+there are few examples either in Italy or Spain.
+
+The word "column" is used, by analogy with architecture, for any upright
+body or mass, in chemistry, anatomy, typography, &c.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The tree-trunk used as a column was inverted to retain the sap;
+    hence the shape.
+
+
+
+
+COLURE (from Gr. [Greek: kolos], shortened, and [Greek: oura], tail), in
+astronomy, either of the two principal meridians of the celestial
+sphere, one of which passes through the poles and the two solstices, the
+other through the poles and the two equinoxes; hence designated as
+_solstitial colure_ and _equinoxial colure_, respectively.
+
+
+
+
+COLUTHUS, or COLLUTHUS, of Lycopolis in the Egyptian Thebaid, Greek epic
+poet, flourished during the reign of Anastasius I. (491-518). According
+to Suidas, he was the author of _Calydoniaca_ (probably an account of
+the Calydonian boar hunt), _Persica_ (an account of the Persian wars),
+and _Encomia_ (laudatory poems). These are all lost, but his poem in
+some 400 hexameters on _The Rape of Helen_ ([Greek: Harpage Helenes]) is
+still extant, having been discovered by Cardinal Bessarion in Calabria.
+The poem is dull and tasteless, devoid of imagination, a poor imitation
+of Homer, and has little to recommend it except its harmonious
+versification, based upon the technical rules of Nonnus. It related the
+history of Paris and Helen from the wedding of Peleus and Thetis down to
+the elopement and arrival at Troy.
+
+  The best editions are by Van Lennep (1747), G. F. Schafer (1825), E.
+  Abel (1880).
+
+
+
+
+COLVILLE, JOHN (c. 1540-1605), Scottish divine and author, was the son
+of Robert Colville of Cleish, in the county of Kinross. Educated at St
+Andrews University, he became a Presbyterian minister, but occupied
+himself chiefly with political intrigue, sending secret information to
+the English government concerning Scottish affairs. He joined the party
+of the earl of Gowrie, and took part in the Raid of Ruthven in 1582. In
+1587 he for a short time occupied a seat on the judicial bench, and was
+commissioner for Stirling in the Scottish parliament. In December 1591
+he was implicated in the earl of Bothwell's attack on Holyrood Palace,
+and was outlawed with the earl. He retired abroad, and is said to have
+joined the Roman Church. He died in Paris in 1605. Colville was the
+author of several works, including an _Oratio Funebris_ on Queen
+Elizabeth, and some political and religious controversial essays. He is
+said to be the author also of _The Historie and Life of King James the
+Sext_ (edited by T. Thompson for the Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh, 1825).
+
+  Colville's _Original Letters_, 1582-1603, published by the Bannatyne
+  Club in 1858, contains a biographical memoir by the editor, David
+  Laing.
+
+
+
+
+COLVIN, JOHN RUSSELL (1807-1857), lieutenant-governor of the North-West
+Provinces of India during the mutiny of 1857, belonged to an
+Anglo-Indian family of Scottish descent, and was born in Calcutta on the
+29th of May 1807. Passing through Haileybury he entered the service of
+the East India Company in 1826. In 1836 he became private secretary to
+Lord Auckland, and his influence over the viceroy has been held partly
+responsible for the first Afghan war of 1837; but it has since been
+shown that Lord Auckland's policy was dictated by the secret committee
+of the company at home. In 1853 Mr Colvin was appointed
+lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces by Lord Dalhousie. On
+the outbreak of the mutiny in 1857 he had with him at Agra only a weak
+British regiment and a native battery, too small a force to make head
+against the mutineers; and a proclamation which he issued to the natives
+was censured at the time for its clemency, but it followed the same
+lines as those adopted by Sir Henry Lawrence and subsequently followed
+by Lord Canning. Exhausted by anxiety and misrepresentation he died on
+the 9th of September, his death shortly preceding the fall of Delhi.
+
+His son, SIR AUCKLAND COLVIN (1838-1908), followed him in a
+distinguished career in the same service, from 1858 to 1879. He was
+comptroller-general in Egypt (1880 to 1882), and financial adviser to
+the khedive (1883 to 1887), and from 1883 till 1892 was back again in
+India, first as financial member of council, and then, from 1887, as
+lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces and Oudh. He was created
+K.C.M.G. in 1881, and K.C.S.I. in 1892, when he retired. He published
+_The Making of Modern Egypt_ in 1906, and a biography of his father, in
+the "Rulers of India" series, in 1895. He died at Surbiton on the 24th
+of March 1908.
+
+
+
+
+COLVIN, SIDNEY (1845-   ), English literary and art critic, was born at
+Norwood, London, on the 18th of June 1845. A scholar of Trinity College,
+Cambridge, he became a fellow of his college in 1868. In 1873 he was
+Slade professor of fine art, and was appointed in the next year to the
+directorship of the Fitzwilliam Museum. In 1884 he removed to London on
+his appointment as keeper of prints and drawings in the British Museum.
+His chief publications are lives of Landor (1881) and Keats (1887), in
+the English Men of Letters series; the Edinburgh edition of R. L.
+Stevenson's works (1894-1897); editions of the letters of Keats (1887),
+and of the _Vailima Letters_ (1899), which R. L. Stevenson chiefly
+addressed to him; _A Florentine Picture-Chronicle_ (1898), and _Early
+History of Engraving in England_ (1905). But in the field both of art
+and of literature, Mr Colvin's fine taste, wide knowledge and high
+ideals made his authority and influence extend far beyond his published
+work.
+
+
+
+
+COLWYN BAY, a watering-place of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on the Irish
+Sea, 40-1/2 m. from Chester by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. of
+urban district of Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (1901) 8689. Colwyn Bay has
+become a favourite bathing-place, being near to, and cheaper than, the
+fashionable Llandudno, and being a centre for picturesque excursions.
+Near it is Llaneilian village, famous for its "cursing well" (St
+Eilian's, perhaps Aelianus'). The stream Colwyn joins the Gwynnant. The
+name Colwyn is that of lords of Ardudwy; a Lord Colwyn of Ardudwy, in
+the 10th century, is believed to have repaired Harlech castle, and is
+considered the founder of one of the fifteen tribes of North Wales. Nant
+Colwyn is on the road from Carnarvon to Beddgelert, beyond Llyn y gader
+(gadair), "chair pool," and what tourists have fancifully called Pitt's
+head, a roadside rock resembling, or thought to resemble, the great
+statesman's profile. Near this is Llyn y dywarchen (sod pool), with a
+floating island.
+
+
+
+
+COLZA OIL, a non-drying oil obtained from the seeds of _Brassica
+campestris_, var. _oleifera_, a variety of the plant which produces
+Swedish turnips. Colza is extensively cultivated in France, Belgium,
+Holland and Germany; and, especially in the first-named country, the
+expression of the oil is an important industry. In commerce colza is
+classed with rape oil, to which both in source and properties it is very
+closely allied. It is a comparatively inodorous oil of a yellow colour,
+having a specific gravity varying from 0.912 to 0.920. The cake left
+after expression of the oil is a valuable feeding substance for cattle.
+Colza oil is extensively used as a lubricant for machinery, and for
+burning in lamps.
+
+
+
+
+COMA (Gr. [Greek: koma], from [Greek: koiman], to put to sleep), a deep
+sleep; the term is, however, used in medicine to imply something more
+than its Greek origin denotes, namely, a complete and prolonged loss of
+consciousness from which a patient cannot be roused. There are various
+degrees of coma: in the slighter forms the patient can be partially
+roused only to relapse again into a state of insensibility; in the
+deeper states, the patient cannot be roused at all, and such are met
+with in apoplexy, already described. Coma may arise abruptly in a
+patient who has presented no pre-existent indication of such a state
+occurring. Such a condition is called _primary coma_, and may result
+from the following causes:--(1) concussion, compression or laceration of
+the brain from head injuries, especially fracture of the skull; (2) from
+alcoholic and narcotic poisoning; (3) from cerebral haemorrhage,
+embolism and thrombosis, such being the causes of apoplexy. _Secondary
+coma_ may arise as a complication in the following diseases:--diabetes,
+uraemia, general paralysis, meningitis, cerebral tumour and acute yellow
+atrophy of the liver; in such diseases it is anticipated, for it is a
+frequent cause of the fatal termination. The depth of insensibility to
+stimulus is a measure of the gravity of the symptom; thus the
+conjunctival reflex and even the spinal reflexes may be abolished, the
+only sign of life being the respiration and heart-beat, the muscles of
+the limbs being sometimes perfectly flaccid. A characteristic change in
+the respiration, known as Cheyne-Stokes breathing occurs prior to death
+in some cases; it indicates that the respiratory centre in the medulla
+is becoming exhausted, and is stimulated to action only when the
+venosity of the blood has increased sufficiently to excite it. The
+breathing consequently loses its natural rhythm, and each successive
+breath becomes deeper until a maximum is reached; it then diminishes in
+depth by successive steps until it dies away completely. The condition
+of apnoea, or cessation of breathing, follows, and as soon as the
+venosity of the blood again affords sufficient stimulus, the signs of
+air-hunger commence; this altered rhythm continues until the respiratory
+centre becomes exhausted and death ensues.
+
+_Coma Vigil_ is a state of unconsciousness met with in the algide stage
+of cholera and some other exhausting diseases. The patient's eyes remain
+open, and he may be in a state of low muttering delirium; he is entirely
+insensible to his surroundings, and neither knows nor can indicate his
+wants.
+
+There is a distinct word "coma" (Gr. [Greek: kome], hair), which is used
+in astronomy for the envelope of a comet, and in botany for a tuft.
+
+
+
+
+COMA BERENICES ("BERENICE'S HAIR"), in astronomy, a constellation of the
+northern hemisphere; it was first mentioned by Callimachus, and
+Eratosthenes (3rd century B.C.), but is not included in the 48 asterisms
+of Ptolemy. It is said to have been named by Conon, in order to console
+Berenice, queen of Ptolemy Euergetes, for the loss of a lock of her
+hair, which had been stolen from a temple to Venus. This constellation
+is sometimes, but wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe. The most
+interesting member of this group is _24 Comae_, a fine, wide double
+star, consisting of an orange star of magnitude 5-1/2, and a blue star,
+magnitude 7.
+
+
+
+
+COMACCHIO, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara, 30 m.
+E.S.E. by road from the town of Ferrara, on the level of the sea, in the
+centre of the lagoon of Valli di Comacchio, just N. of the present mouth
+of the Reno. Pop. (1901) 7944 (town), 10,745 (commune). It is built on
+no less than thirteen different islets, joined by bridges, and its
+industries are the fishery, which belongs to the commune, and the
+salt-works. The seaport of Magnavacca lies 4 m. to the east. Comacchio
+appears as a city in the 6th century, and, owing to its position in the
+centre of the lagoons, was an important fortress. It was included in the
+"donation of Pippin"; it was taken by the Venetians in 854, but
+afterwards came under the government of the archbishops of Ravenna; in
+1299 it came under the dominion of the house of Este. In 1508 it became
+Venetian, but in 1597 was claimed by Clement VIII. as a vacant fief.
+
+
+
+
+COMANA, a city of Cappadocia [frequently called CHRYSE or AUREA, i.e.
+the golden, to distinguish it from Comana in Pontus; mod. _Shahr_],
+celebrated in ancient times as the place where the rites of M[=a]-Enyo,
+a variety of the great west Asian Nature-goddess, were celebrated with
+much solemnity. The service was carried on in a sumptuous temple with
+great magnificence by many thousands of _hieroduli_ (temple-servants).
+To defray expenses, large estates had been set apart, which yielded a
+more than royal revenue. The city, a mere apanage of the temple, was
+governed immediately by the chief priest, who was always a member of the
+reigning Cappadocian family, and took rank next to the king. The number
+of persons engaged in the service of the temple, even in Strabo's time,
+was upwards of 6000, and among these, to judge by the names common on
+local tombstones, were many of Persian race. Under Caracalla, Comana
+became a Roman colony, and it received honours from later emperors down
+to the official recognition of Christianity. The site lies at Shahr, a
+village in the Anti-Taurus on the upper course of the Sarus (Sihun),
+mainly Armenian, but surrounded by new settlements of Avshar Turkomans
+and Circassians. The place has derived importance both in antiquity and
+now from its position at the eastern end of the main pass of the western
+Anti-Taurus range, the Kuru Chai, through which passed the road from
+Caesarea-Mazaca (mod. _Kaisarieh_) to Melitene (Malatia), converted by
+Septimius Severus into the chief military road to the eastern frontier
+of the empire. The extant remains at Shahr include a theatre on the left
+bank of the river, a fine Roman doorway and many inscriptions; but the
+exact site of the great temple has not been satisfactorily identified.
+There are many traces of Severus' road, including a bridge at Kemer, and
+an immense number of milestones, some in their original positions,
+others in cemeteries.
+
+  See P. H. H. Massy in _Geog. Journ._ (Sept. 1905); E. Chantre,
+  _Mission en Cappadocie_ (1898).     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+COMANA (mod. _Gumenek_), an ancient city of Pontus, said to have been
+colonized from Comana in Cappadocia. It stood on the river Iris (Tozanli
+Su or Yeshil Irmak), and from its central position was a favourite
+emporium of Armenian and other merchants. The moon-goddess was
+worshipped in the city with a pomp and ceremony in all respects
+analogous to those employed in the Cappadocian city. The slaves attached
+to the temple alone numbered not less than 6000. St John Chrysostom died
+there on the way to Constantinople from his exile at Cocysus in the
+Anti-Taurus. Remains of Comana are still to be seen near a village
+called Gumenek on the Tozanli Su, 7 m. from Tokat, but they are of the
+slightest description. There is a mound; and a few inscriptions are
+built into a bridge, which here spans the river, carrying the road from
+Niksar to Tokat.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+COMANCHES, a tribe of North American Indians of Shoshonean stock, so
+called by the Spaniards, but known to the French as Padoucas, an
+adaptation of their Sioux name, and among themselves _nimenim_ (people).
+They number some 1400, attached to the Kiowa agency, Oklahoma. When
+first met by Europeans, they occupied the regions between the upper
+waters of the Brazos and Colorado on the one hand, and the Arkansas and
+Missouri on the other. Until their final surrender in 1875 the Comanches
+were the terror of the Mexican and Texan frontiers, and were always
+famed for their bravery. They were brought to nominal submission in 1783
+by the Spanish general Anza, who killed thirty of their chiefs. During
+the 19th century they were always raiding and fighting, but in 1867, to
+the number of 2500, they agreed to go on a reservation. In 1872 a
+portion of the tribe, the Quanhada or Staked Plain Comanches, had again
+to be reduced by military measures.
+
+
+
+
+COMAYAGUA, the capital of the department of Comayagua in central
+Honduras, on the right bank of the river Ulua, and on the interoceanic
+railway from Puerto Cortes to Fonseca Bay. Pop. (1900) about 8000.
+Comayagua occupies part of a fertile valley, enclosed by mountain
+ranges. Under Spanish rule it was a city of considerable size and
+beauty, and in 1827 its inhabitants numbered more than 18,000. A fine
+cathedral, dating from 1715, is the chief monument of its former
+prosperity, for most of the handsome public buildings erected in the
+colonial period have fallen into disrepair. The present city chiefly
+consists of low adobe houses and cane huts, tenanted by Indians. The
+university founded in 1678 has ceased to exist, but there is a school of
+jurisprudence. In the neighbourhood are many ancient Indian ruins (see
+CENTRAL AMERICA: _ARCHAEOLOGY_).
+
+Founded in 1540 by Alonzo Caceres, who had been instructed by the
+Spanish government to find a site for a city midway between the two
+oceans, Valladolid la Nueva, as the town was first named, soon became
+the capital of Honduras. It received the privileges of a city in 1557,
+and was made an episcopal see in 1561. Its decline dates from 1827, when
+it was burned by revolutionaries; and in 1854 its population had
+dwindled to 2000. It afterwards suffered through war and rebellion,
+notably in 1872 and 1873, when it was besieged by the Guatemalans. In
+1880 Tegucigalpa (q.v.), a city 37 m. east-south-east, superseded it as
+the capital of Honduras.
+
+
+
+
+COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger.
+_Kamm_, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in [Greek: gomphos], a
+peg or pin, and Sanskrit, _gambhas_, a tooth), a toothed article of the
+toilet used for cleaning and arranging the hair, and also for holding it
+in place after it has been arranged; the word is also applied, from
+resemblance in form or in use, to various appliances employed for
+dressing wool and other fibrous substances, to the indented fleshy crest
+of a cock, and to the ridged series of cells of wax filled with honey in
+a beehive. Hair combs are of great antiquity, and specimens made of
+wood, bone and horn have been found in Swiss lake-dwellings. Among the
+Greeks and Romans they were made of boxwood, and in Egypt also of ivory.
+For modern combs the same materials are used, together with others such
+as tortoise-shell, metal, india-rubber and celluloid. There are two
+chief methods of manufacture. A plate of the selected material is taken
+of the size and thickness required for the comb, and on one side of it,
+occasionally on both sides, a series of fine slits are cut with a
+circular saw. This method involves the loss of the material cut out
+between the teeth. The second method, known as "twinning" or "parting,"
+avoids this loss and is also more rapid. The plate of material is rather
+wider than before, and is formed into two combs simultaneously, by the
+aid of a twinning machine. Two pairs of chisels, the cutting edges of
+which are as long as the teeth are required to be and are set at an
+angle converging towards the sides of the plate, are brought down
+alternately in such a way that the wedges removed from one comb form the
+teeth of the other, and that when the cutting is complete the plate
+presents the appearance of two combs with their teeth exactly
+inosculating or dovetailing into each other. In india-rubber combs the
+teeth are moulded to shape and the whole hardened by vulcanization.
+
+
+
+
+COMBACONUM, or KUMBAKONAM, a city of British India, in the Tanjore
+district of Madras, in the delta of the Cauvery, on the South Indian
+railway, 194 m. from Madras. Pop. (1901) 59,623, showing an increase of
+10% in the decade. It is a large town with wide and airy streets, and is
+adorned with pagodas, gateways and other buildings of considerable
+pretension. The great _gopuram_, or gate-pyramid, is one of the most
+imposing buildings of the kind, rising in twelve stories to a height of
+upwards of 100 ft., and ornamented with a profusion of figures of men
+and animals formed in stucco. One of the water-tanks in the town is
+popularly reputed to be filled with water admitted from the Ganges every
+twelve years by a subterranean passage 1200 m. long; and it consequently
+forms a centre of attraction for large numbers of devotees. The city is
+historically interesting as the capital of the Chola race, one of the
+oldest Hindu dynasties of which any traces remain, and from which the
+whole coast of Coromandel, or more properly Cholamandal, derives its
+name. It contains a government college. Brass and other metal wares,
+silk and cotton cloth and sugar are among the manufactures.
+
+
+
+
+COMBE, ANDREW (1797-1847), Scottish physiologist, was born in Edinburgh
+on the 27th of October 1797, and was a younger brother of George Combe.
+He served an apprenticeship in a surgery, and in 1817 passed at
+Surgeons' Hall. He proceeded to Paris to complete his medical studies,
+and whilst there he investigated phrenology on anatomical principles. He
+became convinced of the truth of the new science, and, as he acquired
+much skill in the dissection of the brain, he subsequently gave
+additional interest to the lectures of his brother George, by his
+practical demonstrations of the convolutions. He returned to Edinburgh
+in 1819 with the intention of beginning practice; but being attacked by
+the first symptoms of pulmonary disease, he was obliged to seek health
+in the south of France and in Italy during the two following winters. He
+began to practise in 1823, and by careful adherence to the laws of
+health he was enabled to fulfil the duties of his profession for nine
+years. During that period he assisted in editing the _Phrenological
+Journal_ and contributed a number of articles to it, defended phrenology
+before the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, published his
+_Observations on Mental Derangement_ (1831), and prepared the greater
+portion of his _Principles of Physiology Applied to Health and
+Education_, which was issued in 1834, and immediately obtained extensive
+public favour. In 1836 he was appointed physician to Leopold I., king of
+the Belgians, and removed to Brussels, but he speedily found the climate
+unsuitable and returned to Edinburgh, where he resumed his practice. In
+1836 he published his _Physiology of Digestion_, and in 1838 he was
+appointed one of the physicians extraordinary to the queen in Scotland.
+Two years later he completed his _Physiological and Moral Management of
+Infancy_, which he believed to be his best work and it was his last. His
+latter years were mostly occupied in seeking at various health resorts
+some alleviation of his disease; he spent two winters in Madeira, and
+tried a voyage to the United States, but was compelled to return within
+a few weeks of the date of his landing at New York. He died at Gorgie,
+near Edinburgh, on the 9th of August 1847.
+
+  His biography, written by George Combe, was published in 1850.
+
+
+
+
+COMBE, GEORGE (1788-1858), Scottish phrenologist, elder brother of the
+above, was born in Edinburgh on the 21st of October 1788. After
+attending Edinburgh high school and university he entered a lawyer's
+office in 1804, and in 1812 began to practise on his own account. In
+1815 the _Edinburgh Review_ contained an article on the system of
+"craniology" of F. J. Gall and K. Spurzheim, which was denounced as "a
+piece of thorough quackery from beginning to end." Combe laughed like
+others at the absurdities of this so-called new theory of the brain, and
+thought that it must be finally exploded after such an exposure; and
+when Spurzheim delivered lectures in Edinburgh, in refutation of the
+statements of his critic, Combe considered the subject unworthy of
+serious attention. He was, however, invited to a friend's house where he
+saw Spurzheim dissect the brain, and he was so far impressed by the
+demonstration that he attended the second course of lectures.
+Investigating the subject for himself, he became satisfied that the
+fundamental principles of phrenology were true--namely "that the brain
+is the organ of mind; that the brain is an aggregate of several parts,
+each subserving a distinct mental faculty; and that the size of the
+cerebral organ is, _caeteris paribus_, an index of power or energy of
+function." In 1817 his first essay on phrenology was published in the
+_Scots Magazine_; and a series of papers on the same subject appeared
+soon afterwards in the _Literary and Statistical Magazine_; these were
+collected and published in 1819 in book form as _Essays on Phrenology_,
+which in later editions became _A System of Phrenology_. In 1820 he
+helped to found the Phrenological Society, which in 1823 began to
+publish a _Phrenological Journal_. By his lectures and writings he
+attracted public attention to the subject on the continent of Europe and
+in America, as well as at home; and a long discussion with Sir William
+Hamilton in 1827-1828 excited general interest.
+
+His most popular work, _The Constitution of Man_, was published in 1828,
+and in some quarters brought upon him denunciations as a materialist and
+atheist. From that time he saw everything by the light of phrenology. He
+gave time, labour and money to help forward the education of the poorer
+classes; he established the first infant school in Edinburgh; and he
+originated a series of evening lectures on chemistry, physiology,
+history and moral philosophy. He studied the criminal classes, and tried
+to solve the problem how to reform as well as to punish them; and he
+strove to introduce into lunatic asylums a humane system of treatment.
+In 1836 he offered himself as a candidate for the chair of logic at
+Edinburgh, but was rejected in favour of Sir William Hamilton. In 1838
+he visited America and spent about two years lecturing on phrenology,
+education and the treatment of the criminal classes. On his return in
+1840 he published his _Moral Philosophy_, and in the following year his
+_Notes on the United States of North America_. In 1842 he delivered, in
+German, a course of twenty-two lectures on phrenology in the university
+of Heidelberg, and he travelled much in Europe, inquiring into the
+management of schools, prisons and asylums. The commercial crisis of
+1855 elicited his remarkable pamphlet on _The Currency Question_ (1858).
+The culmination of the religious thought and experience of his life is
+contained in his work _On the Relation between Science and Religion_,
+first publicly issued in 1857. He was engaged in revising the ninth
+edition of the _Constitution of Man_ when he died at Moor Park, Farnham,
+on the 14th of August 1858. He married in 1833 Cecilia Siddons, a
+daughter of the great actress.
+
+
+
+
+COMBE, WILLIAM (1741-1823), English writer, the creator of "Dr Syntax,"
+was born at Bristol in 1741. The circumstances of his birth and
+parentage are somewhat doubtful, and it is questioned whether his father
+was a rich Bristol merchant, or a certain William Alexander, a London
+alderman, who died in 1762. He was educated at Eton, where he was
+contemporary with Charles James Fox, the 2nd Baron Lyttelton and William
+Beckford. Alexander bequeathed him some L2000--a little fortune that
+soon disappeared in a course of splendid extravagance, which gained him
+the nickname of Count Combe; and after a chequered career as private
+soldier, cook and waiter, he finally settled in London (about 1771), as
+a law student and bookseller's hack. In 1776 he made his first success
+in London with _The Diaboliad_, a satire full of bitter personalities.
+Four years afterwards (1780) his debts brought him into the King's
+Bench; and much of his subsequent life was spent in prison. His spurious
+_Letters of the Late Lord Lyttelton_[1] (1780) imposed on many of his
+contemporaries, and a writer in the _Quarterly Review_, so late as 1851,
+regarded these letters as authentic, basing upon them a claim that
+Lyttelton was "Junius." An early acquaintance with Lawrence Sterne
+resulted in his _Letters supposed to have been written by Yorick and
+Eliza_ (1779). Periodical literature of all sorts--pamphlets, satires,
+burlesques, "two thousand columns for the papers," "two hundred
+biographies"--filled up the next years, and about 1789 Combe was
+receiving L200 yearly from Pitt, as a pamphleteer. Six volumes of a
+_Devil on Two Sticks in England_ won for him the title of "the English
+le Sage"; in 1794-1796 he wrote the text for Boydell's _History of the
+River Thames_; in 1803 he began to write for _The Times_. In 1809-1811
+he wrote for Ackermann's _Political Magazine_ the famous _Tour of Dr
+Syntax in search of the Picturesque_ (descriptive and moralizing verse
+of a somewhat doggerel type), which, owing greatly to Thomas
+Rowlandson's designs, had an immense success. It was published
+separately in 1812 and was followed by two similar _Tours_, "in search
+of Consolation," and "in search of a Wife," the first Mrs Syntax having
+died at the end of the first _Tour_. Then came _Six Poems_ in
+illustration of drawings by Princess Elizabeth (1813), _The English
+Dance of Death_ (1815-1816), _The Dance of Life_ (1816-1817), _The
+Adventures of Johnny Quae Genus_ (1822)--all written for Rowlandson's
+caricatures; together with _Histories_ of Oxford and Cambridge, and of
+Westminster Abbey for Ackermann; _Picturesque Tours_ along the Rhine and
+other rivers, _Histories of Madeira_, _Antiquities of York_, texts for
+_Turner's Southern Coast Views_, and contributions innumerable to the
+_Literary Repository_. In his later years, notwithstanding a by no means
+unsullied character, Combe was courted for the sake of his charming
+conversation and inexhaustible stock of anecdote. He died in London on
+the 19th of June 1823.
+
+  Brief obituary memoirs of Combe appeared in Ackermann's _Literary
+  Repository_ and in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for August 1823; and in
+  May 1859 a list of his works, drawn up by his own hand, was printed in
+  the latter periodical. See also _Diary of H. Crabb Robinson_, _Notes
+  and Queries for 1869_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Thomas, 2nd Baron Lyttelton (1744-1779), commonly known as the
+    "wicked Lord Lyttelton," was famous for his abilities and his
+    libertinism, also for the mystery attached to his death, of which it
+    was alleged he was warned in a dream three days before the event.
+
+
+
+
+COMBE, or COOMB, a term particularly in use in south-western England for
+a short closed-in valley, either on the side of a down or running up
+from the sea. It appears in place-names as a termination, e.g.
+Wiveliscombe, Ilfracombe, and as a prefix, e.g. Combemartin. The
+etymology of the word is obscure, but "hollow" seems a common meaning to
+similar forms in many languages. In English "combe" or "cumb" is an
+obsolete word for a "hollow vessel," and the like meaning attached to
+Teutonic forms _kumm_ and _kumme_. The Welsh _cwm_, in place-names,
+means hollow or valley, with which may be compared _cum_ in many Scots
+place-names. The Greek [Greek: kumbe] also means a hollow vessel, and
+there is a French dialect word _combe_ meaning a little valley.
+
+
+
+
+COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON, 1ST VISCOUNT (1773-1865), British
+field-marshal and colonel of the 1st Life Guards, was the second son of
+Sir Robert Salusbury Cotton of Combermere Abbey, Cheshire, and was born
+on the 14th of November 1773, at Llewenny Hall in Denbighshire. He was
+educated at Westminster School, and when only sixteen obtained a second
+lieutenancy in the 23rd regiment (Royal Welsh Fusiliers). A few years
+afterwards (1793) he became by purchase captain in the 6th Dragoon
+Guards, and he served in this regiment during the campaigns of the duke
+of York in Flanders. While yet in his twentieth year, he joined the 25th
+Light Dragoons (subsequently 22nd) as lieutenant-colonel, and, while in
+attendance with his regiment on George III. at Weymouth, he became a
+great favourite of the king. In 1796 he went with his regiment to India,
+taking part _en route_ in the operations in Cape Colony (July-August
+1796), and in 1799 served in the war with Tippoo Sahib, and at the
+storming of Seringapatam. Soon after this, having become heir to the
+family baronetcy, he was, at his father's desire, exchanged into a
+regiment at home, the 16th Light Dragoons. He was stationed in Ireland
+during Emmett's insurrection, became colonel in 1800, and major-general
+five years later. From 1806 to 1814 he was M.P. for Newark. In 1808 he
+was sent to the seat of war in Portugal, where he shortly rose to the
+position of commander of Wellington's cavalry, and it was here that he
+most displayed that courage and judgment which won for him his fame as a
+cavalry officer. He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1809, but continued
+his military career. His share in the battle of Salamanca (22nd of July
+1812) was especially marked, and he received the personal thanks of
+Wellington. The day after, he was accidentally wounded. He was now a
+lieutenant-general in the British army and a K.B., and on the conclusion
+of peace (1814) was raised to the peerage under the style of Baron
+Combermere. He was not present at Waterloo, the command, which he
+expected, and bitterly regretted not receiving, having been given to
+Lord Uxbridge. When the latter was wounded Cotton was sent for to take
+over his command, and he remained in France until the reduction of the
+allied army of occupation. In 1817 he was appointed governor of
+Barbadoes and commander of the West Indian forces. From 1822 to 1825 he
+commanded in Ireland. His career of active service was concluded in
+India (1826), where he besieged and took Bhurtpore--a fort which
+twenty-two years previously had defied the genius of Lake and was deemed
+impregnable. For this service he was created Viscount Combermere. A long
+period of peace and honour still remained to him at home. In 1834 he was
+sworn a privy councillor, and in 1852 he succeeded Wellington as
+constable of the Tower and lord lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets. In 1855
+he was made a field-marshal and G.C.B. He died at Clifton on the 21st of
+February 1865. An equestrian statue in bronze, the work of Baron
+Marochetti, was raised in his honour at Chester by the inhabitants of
+Cheshire. Combermere was succeeded by his only son, Wellington Henry
+(1818-1891), and the viscountcy is still held by his descendants.
+
+  See Viscountess Combermere and Captain W. W. Knollys, _The Combermere
+  Correspondence_ (London, 1866).
+
+
+
+
+COMBES, [JUSTIN LOUIS] EMILE (1835-   ), French statesman, was born at
+Roquecourbe in the department of the Tarn. He studied for the
+priesthood, but abandoned the idea before ordination, and took the
+diploma of doctor of letters (1860), then he studied medicine, taking
+his degree in 1867, and setting up in practice at Pons in
+Charente-Inferieure. In 1881 he presented himself as a political
+candidate for Saintes, but was defeated. In 1885 he was elected to the
+senate by the department of Charente-Inferieure. He sat in the
+Democratic left, and was elected vice-president in 1893 and 1894. The
+reports which he drew up upon educational questions drew attention to
+him, and on the 3rd of November 1895 he entered the Bourgeois cabinet as
+minister of public instruction, resigning with his colleagues on the
+21st of April following. He actively supported the Waldeck-Rousseau
+ministry, and upon its retirement in 1903 he was himself charged with
+the formation of a cabinet. In this he took the portfolio of the
+Interior, and the main energy of the government was devoted to the
+struggle with clericalism. The parties of the Left in the chamber,
+united upon this question in the _Bloc republicain_, supported Combes in
+his application of the law of 1901 on the religious associations, and
+voted the new bill on the congregations (1904), and under his guidance
+France took the first definite steps toward the separation of church and
+state. He was opposed with extreme violence by all the Conservative
+parties, who regarded the secularization of the schools as a persecution
+of religion. But his stubborn enforcement of the law won him the
+applause of the people, who called him familiarly _le petit pere_.
+Finally the defection of the Radical and Socialist groups induced him to
+resign on the 17th of January 1905, although he had not met an adverse
+vote in the Chamber. His policy was still carried on; and when the law
+of the separation of church and state was passed, all the leaders of the
+Radical parties entertained him at a noteworthy banquet in which they
+openly recognized him as the real originator of the movement.
+
+
+
+
+COMBINATION (Lat. _combinare_, to combine), a term meaning an
+association or union of persons for the furtherance of a common object,
+historically associated with agreements amongst workmen for the purpose
+of raising their wages. Such a combination was for a long time expressly
+prohibited by statute. See TRADE UNIONS; also CONSPIRACY and STRIKES AND
+LOCK OUTS.
+
+
+
+
+COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS.
+
+
+  Historical Introduction.
+
+The Combinatorial Analysis, as it was understood up to the end of the
+18th century, was of limited scope and restricted application. P.
+Nicholson, in his _Essays on the Combinatorial Analysis_, published in
+1818, states that "the Combinatorial Analysis is a branch of mathematics
+which teaches us to ascertain and exhibit all the possible ways in which
+a given number of things may be associated and mixed together; so that
+we may be certain that we have not missed any collection or arrangement
+of these things that has not been enumerated." Writers on the subject
+seemed to recognize fully that it was in need of cultivation, that it
+was of much service in facilitating algebraical operations of all kinds,
+and that it was the fundamental method of investigation in the theory of
+Probabilities. Some idea of its scope may be gathered from a statement
+of the parts of algebra to which it was commonly applied, viz., the
+expansion of a multinomial, the product of two or more multinomials, the
+quotient of one multinomial by another, the reversion and conversion of
+series, the theory of indeterminate equations, &c. Some of the
+elementary theorems and various particular problems appear in the works
+of the earliest algebraists, but the true pioneer of modern researches
+seems to have been Abraham Demoivre, who first published in _Phil.
+Trans._ (1697) the law of the general coefficient in the expansion of
+the series a + bx + cx^2 + dx^3 + ... raised to any power. (See also
+_Miscellanea Analytica_, bk. iv. chap. ii. prob. iv.) His work on
+Probabilities would naturally lead him to consider questions of this
+nature. An important work at the time it was published was the _De
+Partitione Numerorum_ of Leonhard Euler, in which the consideration of
+the reciprocal of the product (1 - xz) (1 - x^2z) (1 - x^3z) ...
+establishes a fundamental connexion between arithmetic and algebra,
+arithmetical addition being made to depend upon algebraical
+multiplication, and a close bond is secured between the theories of
+discontinuous and continuous quantities. (Cf. Numbers, Partition of.)
+The multiplication of the two powers x^a, x^b, viz. x^a + x^b = x^(a+b),
+showed Euler that he could convert arithmetical addition into
+algebraical multiplication, and in the paper referred to he gives the
+complete formal solution of the main problems of the partition of
+numbers. He did not obtain general expressions for the coefficients
+which arose in the expansion of his generating functions, but he gave
+the actual values to a high order of the coefficients which arise from
+the generating functions corresponding to various conditions of
+partitionment. Other writers who have contributed to the solution of
+special problems are James Bernoulli, Ruggiero Guiseppe Boscovich, Karl
+Friedrich Hindenburg (1741-1808), William Emerson (1701-1782), Robert
+Woodhouse (1773-1827), Thomas Simpson and Peter Barlow. Problems of
+combination were generally undertaken as they became necessary for the
+advancement of some particular part of mathematical science: it was not
+recognized that the theory of combinations is in reality a science by
+itself, well worth studying for its own sake irrespective of
+applications to other parts of analysis. There was a total absence of
+orderly development, and until the first third of the 19th century had
+passed, Euler's classical paper remained alike the chief result and the
+only scientific method of combinatorial analysis.
+
+In 1846 Karl G. J. Jacobi studied the partitions of numbers by means of
+certain identities involving infinite series that are met with in the
+theory of elliptic functions. The method employed is essentially that of
+Euler. Interest in England was aroused, in the first instance, by
+Augustus De Morgan in 1846, who, in a letter to Henry Warburton,
+suggested that combinatorial analysis stood in great need of
+development, and alluded to the theory of partitions. Warburton, to some
+extent under the guidance of De Morgan, prosecuted researches by the aid
+of a new instrument, viz. the theory of finite differences. This was a
+distinct advance, and he was able to obtain expressions for the
+coefficients in partition series in some of the simplest cases (_Trans.
+Camb. Phil. Soc._, 1849). This paper inspired a valuable paper by Sir
+John Herschel (_Phil. Trans._ 1850), who, by introducing the idea and
+notation of the circulating function, was able to present results in
+advance of those of Warburton. The new idea involved a calculus of the
+imaginary roots of unity. Shortly afterwards, in 1855, the subject was
+attacked simultaneously by Arthur Cayley and James Joseph Sylvester, and
+their combined efforts resulted in the practical solution of the problem
+that we have to-day. The former added the idea of the prime circulator,
+and the latter applied Cauchy's theory of residues to the subject, and
+invented the arithmetical entity termed a denumerant. The next distinct
+advance was made by Sylvester, Fabian Franklin, William Pitt Durfee and
+others, about the year 1882 (_Amer. Journ. Math._ vol. v.) by the
+employment of a graphical method. The results obtained were not only
+valuable in themselves, but also threw considerable light upon the
+theory of algebraic series. So far it will be seen that researches had
+for their object the discussion of the partition of numbers. Other
+branches of combinatorial analysis were, from any general point of view,
+absolutely neglected. In 1888 P. A. MacMahon investigated the general
+problem of distribution, of which the partition of a number is a
+particular case. He introduced the method of symmetric functions and the
+method of differential operators, applying both methods to the two
+important subdivisions, the theory of composition and the theory of
+partition. He introduced the notion of the separation of a partition,
+and extended all the results so as to include multipartite as well as
+unipartite numbers. He showed how to introduce zero and negative
+numbers, unipartite and multipartite, into the general theory; he
+extended Sylvester's graphical method to three dimensions; and finally,
+1898, he invented the "Partition Analysis" and applied it to the
+solution of novel questions in arithmetic and algebra. An important
+paper by G. B. Mathews, which reduces the problem of compound partition
+to that of simple partition, should also be noticed. This is the problem
+which was known to Euler and his contemporaries as "The Problem of the
+Virgins," or "the Rule of Ceres"; it is only now, nearly 200 years
+later, that it has been solved.
+
+
+  Fundamental problem.
+
+The most important problem of combinatorial analysis is connected with
+the distribution of objects into classes. A number n may be regarded as
+enumerating n similar objects; it is then said to be unipartite. On the
+other hand, if the objects be not all similar they cannot be effectively
+enumerated by a single integer; we require a succession of integers. If
+the objects be p in number of one kind, q of a second kind, r of a
+third, &c., the enumeration is given by the succession pqr... which is
+termed a multipartite number, and written,
+
+  ______
+  pqr...,
+
+where p + q + r + ... = n. If the order of magnitude of the numbers p,
+q, r, ... is immaterial, it is usual to write them in descending order
+of magnitude, and the succession may then be termed a partition of the
+number n, and is written (pqr...). The succession of integers thus has a
+twofold signification: (i.) as a multipartite number it may enumerate
+objects of different kinds; (ii.) it may be viewed as a partitionment
+into separate parts of a unipartite number. We may say either that the
+objects are represented by the multipartite number
+
+  ______
+  pqr...,
+
+or that they are defined by the partition (pqr...) of the unipartite
+number n. Similarly the classes into which they are distributed may be m
+in number all similar; or they may be p1 of one kind, q1 of a second, r1
+of a third, &c., where p1 + q1 + r1 + ... = m. We may thus denote the
+classes either by the multipartite numbers
+
+  _________
+  p1q1r1...,
+
+or by the partition (p1q1r1...) of the unipartite number m. The
+distributions to be considered are such that any number of objects may
+be in any one class subject to the restriction that no class is empty.
+Two cases arise. If the order of the objects in a particular class is
+immaterial, the class is termed a _parcel_; if the order is material,
+the class is termed a _group_. The distribution into parcels is alone
+considered here, and the main problem is the enumeration of the
+distributions of objects defined by the partition (pqr...) of the number
+n into parcels defined by the partition (p1q1r1...) of the number m.
+(See "Symmetric Functions and the Theory of Distributions," _Proc.
+London Mathematical Society_, vol. xix.) Three particular cases are of
+great importance. Case I. is the "one-to-one distribution," in which the
+number of parcels is equal to the number of objects, and one object is
+distributed in each parcel. Case II. is that in which the parcels are
+all different, being defined by the partition (1111...), conveniently
+written (1^m); this is the theory of the compositions of unipartite and
+multipartite numbers. Case III. is that in which the parcels are all
+similar, being defined by the partition (m); this is the theory of the
+partitions of unipartite and multipartite numbers. Previous to
+discussing these in detail, it is necessary to describe the method of
+symmetric functions which will be largely utilized.
+
+
+  The distribution function.
+
+Let [alpha], [beta], [gamma], ... be the roots of the equation
+
+  x^n - a1x^(n-1) + a2x^(n-2) - ... = 0.
+
+The symmetric function [Sigma][alpha]^p[beta]^q[gamma]^r..., where p
++ q + r + ... = n is, in the partition notation, written (pqr...). Let
+
+  A_[(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)]
+
+denote the number of ways of distributing the n objects defined by the
+partition (pqr...) into the m parcels defined by the partition
+(p1q1r1...). The expression
+
+  [Sigma]A_[(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)].(pqr...),
+
+where the numbers p1, q1, r1 ... are fixed and assumed to be in
+descending order of magnitude, the summation being for every partition
+(pqr...) of the number n, is defined to be the distribution function of
+the objects defined by (pqr...) into the parcels defined by (p1q1r1...).
+It gives a complete enumeration of n objects of whatever species into
+parcels of the given species.
+
+
+  Case I.
+
+1. _One-to-One Distribution. Parcels m in number (i.e. m = n)._--Let hs
+be the homogeneous product-sum of degree s of the quantities [alpha],
+[beta], [gamma], ... so that
+
+  (1 - [alpha]x. 1 - [beta]x. 1 - [gamma]x. ...)^-1 =
+         1 + h1x + h2x^2 + h3x^3 + ...
+
+      h1 = [Sigma][alpha] = (1)
+      h2 = [Sigma][alpha]^2 + [Sigma][alpha][beta] = (2) + (1^2)
+      h3 = [Sigma][alpha]^3 + [Sigma][alpha]^2[beta] +
+              [Sigma][alpha][beta][gamma] = (3) + (21) + (1^3).
+
+Form the product h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1)...
+
+Any term in h_(p1) may be regarded as derived from p1 objects distributed
+into p1 similar parcels, one object in each parcel, since the order of
+occurrence of the letters [alpha], [beta], [gamma], ... in any term is
+immaterial. Moreover, every selection of p1 letters from the letters in
+[alpha]^p[beta]^q[gamma]^r ... will occur in some term of h_(p1), every
+further selection of q1 letters will occur in some term of h_(q1), and so
+on. Therefore in the product h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1) ... the term
+[alpha]^p[beta]^q[gamma]^r ..., and therefore also the symmetric function
+(pqr ...), will occur as many times as it is possible to distribute
+objects defined by (pqr ...) into parcels defined by (p1q1r1 ...) one
+object in each parcel. Hence
+
+  [Sigma]A_[(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)].(pqr ...) = h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1)....
+
+This theorem is of algebraic importance; for consider the simple
+particular case of the distribution of objects (43) into parcels (52),
+and represent objects and parcels by small and capital letters
+respectively. One distribution is shown by the scheme
+
+  A A A A A B B
+  a a a a b b b
+
+wherein an object denoted by a small letter is placed in a parcel
+denoted by the capital letter immediately above it. We may interchange
+small and capital letters and derive from it a distribution of objects
+(52) into parcels (43); viz.:--
+
+  A A A A B B B
+  a a a a a b b.
+
+The process is clearly of general application, and establishes a
+one-to-one correspondence between the distribution of objects (pqr ...)
+into parcels (p1q1r1 ...) and the distribution of objects (p1q1r1 ...)
+into parcels (pqr ...). It is in fact, in Case I., an intuitive
+observation that we may either consider an object placed in or attached
+to a parcel, or a parcel placed in or attached to an object.
+Analytically we have
+
+_Theorem._--"The coefficient of symmetric function (pqr ...) in the
+development of the product h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1) ... is equal to the
+coefficient of symmetric function (p1q1r1 ...) in the development of the
+product h_p.h_q.h_r...."
+
+The problem of Case I. may be considered when the distributions are
+subject to various restrictions. If the restriction be to the effect
+that an aggregate of similar parcels is not to contain more than one
+object of a kind, we have clearly to deal with the elementary symmetric
+functions a1, a2, a3, ... or (1), (1^2), (1^3), ... in lieu of the
+quantities h1, h2, h3, ... The distribution function has then the value
+a_(p1)a_(q1)a_(r1)... or (1^p1) (1^q1) (1^r1) ..., and by interchange of
+object and parcel we arrive at the well-known theorem of symmetry in
+symmetric functions, which states that the coefficient of symmetric
+function (pqr ...) in the development of the product ap1aq1ar1 ... in
+a series of monomial symmetric functions, is equal to the coefficient of
+the function (p1q1r1 ...) in the similar development of the product
+a_p.a_q.a_r....
+
+The general result of Case I. may be further analysed with important
+consequences.
+
+  Write    X1 = (1)x1,
+           X2 = (2)x2 + (1^2)x1^2,
+           X3 = (3)x3 + (21)x2x1 + (1^3){x1}^3
+
+       .       .       .       .       .
+
+  and generally
+
+           X_s = [Sigma]([lambda][mu][nu] ...)x_[lambda]x_[mu]x_[nu] ...
+
+the summation being in regard to every partition of s. Consider the
+result of the multiplication--
+
+  X_p1 X_q1 X_r1 ... =
+          [Sigma]P(x_s1)^[sigma]1 (x_s2)^[sigma]2 (x_s3)^[sigma]3 ...
+
+To determine the nature of the symmetric function P a few definitions
+are necessary.
+
+_Definition I._--Of a number n take any partition
+([lambda]1[lambda]2[lambda]3 ... [lambda]s) and separate it into
+component partitions thus:--
+
+  ([lambda]1[lambda]2) ([lambda]3[lambda]4[lambda]5) ([lambda]6) ...
+
+in any manner. This may be termed a _separation_ of the partition, the
+numbers occurring in the separation being identical with those which
+occur in the partition. In the theory of symmetric functions the
+separation denotes the product of symmetric functions--
+
+  [Sigma] [alpha]^[lambda]1 [beta]^[lambda]2 [Sigma][alpha]^[lambda]3
+      [beta]^[lambda]4 [gamma]^[lambda]5 [Sigma][alpha]^[lambda]6 ...
+
+The portions ([lambda]1[lambda]2), ([lambda]3[lambda]4[lambda]5),
+([lambda]6)... are termed _separates_, and if [lambda]1 + [lambda]2 =
+p1, [lambda]3 + [lambda]4 + [lambda]5 = q1, [lambda]6 = r1... be in
+descending order of magnitude, the usual arrangement, the separation is
+said to have a _species_ denoted by the partition (p1q1r1...) of the
+number n.
+
+_Definition II._--If in any distribution of n objects into n parcels
+(one object in each parcel), we write down a number [xi], whenever we
+observe [xi] similar objects in similar parcels we will obtain a
+succession of numbers [xi]1, [xi]2, [xi]3, ..., where ([xi]1, [xi]2,
+[xi]3 ...) is some partition of n. The distribution is then said to have
+a _specification_ denoted by the partition ([xi]1[xi]2[xi]3...).
+
+Now it is clear that P consists of an aggregate of terms, each of which,
+to a numerical factor _pres_, is a separation of the partition
+
+  ( s1^{[sigma]1} s2^{[sigma]2} s3^{[sigma]3} ...)
+
+of species (p1q1r1...). Further, P is the distribution function of
+objects into parcels denoted by (p1q1r1...), subject to the restriction
+that the distributions have each of them the specification denoted by
+the partition
+
+  ( s1^{[sigma]1} s2^{[sigma]2} s3^{[sigma]3} ...).
+
+Employing a more general notation we may write
+
+  X_p1^[pi]1 X_p2^[pi]2 X_p3^[pi]3 ... =
+         [Sigma]P x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ...
+
+and then P is the distribution function of objects into parcels
+
+  (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...),
+
+the distributions being such as to have the specification
+
+  (s1^[sigma]1 s2^[sigma]2 s3^[sigma]3 ...),
+
+Multiplying out P so as to exhibit it as a sum of monomials, we get a
+result--
+
+  X_p1^[pi]1 X_p2^[pi]2 X_p3^[pi]3 ... =
+      [Sigma][Sigma][theta] ([lambda]1^l1 [lambda]2^l2 [lambda]3^l3)
+        x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ...
+
+indicating that for distributions of specification
+
+  (s1^[sigma]1 s2^[sigma]2 s3^[sigma]3 ...)
+
+there are [theta] ways of distributing n objects denoted by
+
+  ([lambda]1^l1 [lambda]2^l2 [lambda]3^l3 ...)
+
+amongst n parcels denoted by
+
+  (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...),
+
+one object in each parcel. Now observe that as before we may interchange
+parcel and object, and that this operation leaves the specification of
+the distribution unchanged. Hence the number of distributions must be
+the same, and if
+
+  X_p1^[pi]1 X_p2^[pi]2 X_p3^[pi]3 ... =
+      = ... + [theta]([lambda]1^l1 [lambda]2^l2 [lambda]3^l3)
+                x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ... + ...
+
+then also
+
+    X_[lambda]1^l1 X_[lambda]2^l2 X_[lambda]3^l3 ... =
+       = ... + [theta](p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3)
+                x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ... + ...
+
+This extensive theorem of algebraic reciprocity includes many known
+theorems of symmetry in the theory of Symmetric Functions.
+
+The whole of the theory has been extended to include symmetric functions
+symbolized by partitions which contain as well zero and negative parts.
+
+
+  Case II.
+
+2. _The Compositions of Multipartite Numbers. Parcels denoted by
+(I^m)._--There are here no similarities between the parcels.
+
+  Let ([pi]1 [pi]2 [pi]3) be a partition of m.
+
+      (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3) a partition of n.
+
+Of the whole number of distributions of the n objects, there will be a
+certain number such that n1 parcels each contain p1 objects, and in
+general [pi]s parcels each contain ps objects, where s = 1, 2, 3, ...
+Consider the product h_p1^[pi]1 h_p2^[pi]2 h_p3^[pi]3 ... which can be
+permuted in m! / ([pi]1![pi]2![pi]3! ...) ways. For each of these ways
+h_p1^[pi]1 h_p2^[pi]2 h_p3^[pi]3 ... will be a distribution function for
+distributions of the specified type. Hence, regarding all the
+permutations, the distribution function is
+
+              m!
+  ------------------------ h_p1^[pi]1  h_p2^[pi]2  h_p3^[pi]3 ...
+  [pi]1! [pi]2! [pi]3! ...
+
+and regarding, as well, all the partitions of n into exactly m parts,
+the desired distribution function is
+
+                     m!
+ [Sigma] ------------------------ h_p1^[pi]1  h_p2^[pi]2  h_p3^[pi]3 ...
+         [pi]1! [pi]2! [pi]3! ...
+                                 [ [Sigma]_[pi] = ([Sigma]_[pi])p = n ],
+
+that is, it is the coefficient of x^n in (h1x + h2x^2 + h3x^3 + ... )^m.
+The value of A_{(p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...), (1^m)} is the
+coefficient of (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...)x^n in the development of
+the above expression, and is easily shown to have the value
+
+          /p1 + m - 1\^[pi]1  /p2 + m - 1\^[pi]2  /p3 + m - 1\^[pi]3
+          \    p1    /        \    p2    /        \    p3    /      ...
+
+  -  /m\  /p1 + m - 2\^[pi]1  /p2 + m - 2\^[pi]2  /p3 + m - 2\^[pi]3
+     \1/  \    p1    /        \    p2    /        \    p3    /      ...
+
+  -  /m\  /p1 + m - 3\^[pi]1  /p2 + m - 3\^[pi]2  /p3 + m - 3\^[pi]3
+     \1/  \    p1    /        \    p2    /        \    p3    /      ...
+
+  - ... to m terms.
+
+Observe that when p1 = p2 = p3 = ... = [pi]1 = [pi]1 = [pi]1 ... = 1
+this expression reduces to the mth divided differences of 0^n. The
+expression gives the compositions of the multipartite number
+  ______________________________
+  p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...
+
+into m parts. Summing the distribution function from m = 1 to w = [oo]
+and putting x = 1, as we may without detriment, we find that the
+totality of the compositions is given by
+
+    h1 + h2 + h3 + ...
+  ----------------------  which may be given the form
+  1 - h1 - h2 - h3 + ...
+
+     a1 - a2 + a3 - ...
+  -------------------------.
+  1 - 2(a1 - a2 + a3 - ...)
+
+Adding 1/2 we bring this to the still more convenient form
+
+               1
+  1/2 -------------------------.
+      1 - 2(a1 - a2 + a3 - ...)
+
+Let F(p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...) denote the total number of
+compositions of the multipartite /{p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3}....
+Then 1/2{1/1 - 2[alpha]} = 1/2 + [Sigma]F(p)[alpha]^p, and thence
+F(p) = 2^(p-1).
+
+                            1
+ Again 1/2 --------------------------------------- =
+           1 - 2([alpha] + [beta] - [alpha][beta])
+
+          = 1/2 + [Sigma]F(p)[alpha]^p1 [beta]^p2,
+
+and expanding the left-hand side we easily find
+
+
+                        (p1 + p2)!                   (p1 + p2 - 1)!
+  F(p1p2) = 2^(p1+p2-1) ---------- - 2^(p1+p2-2) ---------------------
+                        0! p1! p2!               1!(p1 - 1)! (p2 - 1)!
+
+                    (p1 + p2 - 2)!
+   + 2^(p1+p2-3) --------------------- - ....
+                 2!(p1 - 2)! (p2 - 2)!
+
+We have found that the number of compositions of the multipartite
+/(p1p2p3 ... ps) is equal to the coefficient of symmetric function
+(p1p2p3...ps) _or_ of the single term [alpha]1^p1 [alpha]2^p2
+[alpha]3^p3 ... [alpha]s^ps in the development according to ascending
+powers of the algebraic fraction
+
+                                                       1
+  1/2 . ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
+        1 - 2([Sigma][a]1 - [Sigma][a]1 [a]2 + [Sigma][a]1 [a]2 [a]3) - ... + (-)^(s+1)[a]1 [a]2 [a]3...[a]s
+
+This result can be thrown into another suggestive form, for it can be
+proved that this portion of the expanded fraction
+
+                                                              1
+  1/2 . -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
+        {1 - t1(2[a]1 + [a]2  + ... + [a]3)} {1 - t2(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + [a]s)} ... {1 - t_s(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + 2[a]s)}
+
+which is composed entirely of powers of
+
+  t1[alpha]1, t2[alpha]2, t3[alpha]3, ... t_s[alpha]_s
+
+has the expression
+
+                                                                   1
+  1/2 . -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
+        1 - 2([Sigma]t1[a]1  - [Sigma]t1t2[a]1[a]2 + [Sigma]t1t2[a]1[a]2[a]3 - ... + (-)^(s+1) t1t2...t_s[a]1[a]2...[a]_s)
+
+and therefore the coefficient of [alpha]1^p1 [alpha]2^p2...[alpha]s^ps
+in the latter fraction, when t1, t2, &c., are put equal to unity, is
+equal to the coefficient of the same term in the product
+
+  1/2 (2[a]1 + [a]2 + ... + [a]s)^p1 (2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... +[a]s)^p2 ... (2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + 2[a]s)^ps.
+
+This result gives a direct connexion between the number of compositions
+and the permutations of the letters in the product [alpha]1^p1
+[alpha]2^p2...[alpha]s^ps. Selecting any permutation, suppose that the
+letter a_r occurs q_r times in the last p_r + p_(r+1) + ... + p_s places
+of the permutation; the coefficient in question may be represented by
+1/2[Sigma] 2^(q1+q2+...+qs), the summation being for every permutation,
+and since q1 = p1 this may be written
+
+  2p1^(-1)[Sigma] 2^(q2+q3+...+qs).
+
+_Ex. Gr._--For the bipartite /22, p1 = p2 = 2, and we have the following
+scheme:--
+
+  [a]1 [a]1  |  [a]2 [a]2  q2 = 2
+  [a]1 [a]2  |  [a]1 [a]2     = 1
+  [a]1 [a]2  |  [a]2 [a]1     = 1
+  [a]2 [a]1  |  [a]1 [a]2     = 1
+  [a]2 [a]1  |  [a]2 [a]1     = 1
+  [a]2 [a]2  |  [a]1 [a]1     = 0
+
+Hence F(22) = 2(2^2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2^0) = 26.
+
+We may regard the fraction
+
+                                                                 1
+        -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
+  1/2 . {1 - t1(2[a]1 + [a]2 + ... + [a]s)} {1 - t2(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + [a]s)} ... {1 - t_s(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + 2[a]s)}
+
+as a redundant generating function, the enumeration of the compositions
+being given by the coefficient of
+
+  (t1[alpha]1)^p1 (t2[alpha]2)^p2 ... (t_s[alpha]_s )^ps.
+
+The transformation of the pure generating function into a factorized
+redundant form supplies the key to the solution of a large number of
+questions in the theory of ordinary permutations, as will be seen later.
+
+
+  The theory of permutations.
+
+[The transformation of the last section involves a comprehensive theory
+of Permutations, which it is convenient to discuss shortly here.
+
+If X1, X2, X3, ... Xn be linear functions given by the matricular
+relation
+
+  (X1, X2, X3, ... Xn) = (a11 a12 ... a1n)(x1, x2, ... xn)
+                         |a21 a22 ... a2n|
+                         |  .  .  ...  . |
+                         |  .  .  ...  . |
+                         |an1 an2 ... ann|
+
+that portion of the algebraic fraction,
+
+                  1
+  ---------------------------------,
+  (1 - s1X1)(1 - s2X2)...(1 - snXn)
+
+which is a function of the products s1x1, s2x2, s3x3, ... snxn only is
+
+                            1
+  --------------------------------------------------------
+  |(1 - a11s1x1)(1 - a22s2x2)(1 - a33s3x3)(1 - ann.sn.xn)|
+
+where the denominator is in a symbolic form and denotes on expansion
+
+  1 - [Sigma]|a11|s1x1 + [Sigma]|a11a22|s1s2x1x2 - ... + (-)^n|a11a22a33...ann|s1s2 ... sn.x1x2...xn,
+
+where |a11|, |a11a22|, ... |a11a22,...ann| denote the several co-axial
+minors of the determinant
+
+  |a11a22...ann|
+
+of the matrix. (For the proof of this theorem see MacMahon, "A certain
+Class of Generating Functions in the Theory of Numbers," _Phil. Trans.
+R. S._ vol. clxxxv. A, 1894). It follows that the coefficient of
+
+  x1^[xi]1 x2^[xi]2 ... xn^[xi]n
+
+in the product
+
+  (a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1n.xn  )^[xi]^1 (a21x1 + a22x2 + ... +
+       + a2n.xn)^[xi]^2...(an1x1 + an2x2 + ... + ann.xn)^[xi]n
+
+is equal to the coefficient of the same term in the expansion
+ascending-wise of the fraction
+
+                                      1
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------------.
+  1 - [Sigma]|a11|x1 + [Sigma]|a11a22|x1x2 - ... + (-)^n|a11a22...|x1x2...xn
+
+If the elements of the determinant be all of them equal to unity, we
+obtain the functions which enumerate the unrestricted permutations of
+the letters in
+
+  x1^[xi]1 x2^[xi]2 ... xn^[xi]n,
+
+viz.   (x1 + x2 + ... - xn)^{[xi]1 + [xi]2 + ... + [xi]n}
+
+                  1
+and    ------------------------.
+       1 - (x1 + x2 + ... + xn)
+
+Suppose that we wish to find the generating function for the enumeration
+of those permutations of the letters in x1^[xi]1 x2^[xi]2...x3^[xi]n
+which are such that no letter xs is in a position originally occupied by
+an x3 for all values of s. This is a generalization of the "Probleme des
+rencontres" or of "derangements." We have merely to put
+
+  a11 = a22 = a33 = ... = ann = 0
+
+and the remaining elements equal to unity. The generating product is
+
+  (x2 + x3 + ... + xn)^[xi]1 (x1 + x3 + ... + xn)^[xi]2 ...
+       (x1 + x2 + ... + x_n-1)^[xi]n,
+
+and to obtain the condensed form we have to evaluate the co-axial minors
+of the invertebrate determinant--
+
+  | 0  1  1  ...  1 |
+  | 1  0  1  ...  1 |
+  | 1  1  0  ...  1 |
+  | .  .  .  ...  . |
+  | 1  1  1  ...  0 |
+
+The minors of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd ... nth orders have respectively the
+values
+
+           0
+           -1
+           +2
+          ...
+   (-)^(n-1)(n - 1),
+
+therefore the generating function is
+
+                                           1
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------;
+  1 - [Sigma]x1x2 - 2[Sigma]x1x2x3 - ... - s[Sigma]x1x2...x_s+1 - ... - (n - 1)x1x2...xn
+
+or writing
+
+  (x - x1)(x - x2)...(x - xn) = x^n - a1x^(n-1) + a2x^(n-2) - ...,
+
+this is
+
+                    1
+  -------------------------------------
+  1 - a2 - 2a3 - 3a4 - ... - (n - 1)a_n
+
+Again, consider the general problem of "derangements." We have to find
+the number of permutations such that exactly _m_ of the letters are in
+places they originally occupied. We have the particular redundant
+product
+
+  (ax1 + x2 + ... + xn)^[xi]^1 (x1 + ax2 + ... + xn)^[xi]^2 ...
+        (x1 + x2 + ... + ax_n)^[xi]n,
+
+in which the sought number is the coefficient of
+a^m x1^[xi]^1 x2^[xi]^2...xn^[xi]n. The true generating function is
+derived from the determinant
+
+  | a  1  1  1  .  .  . |
+  | 1  a  1  1  .  .  . |
+  | 1  1  a  1  .  .  . |
+  | 1  1  1  a  .  .  . |
+  | .  .  .  .          |
+  | .  .  .  .          |
+
+and has the form
+
+                                             1
+  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------.
+  1 - a[Sigma]x1 + (a - 1)(a + 1)[Sigma]x1x2 - ... + (-)^n(a - 1)^(n-1)(a + n - 1)x1x2... xn
+
+It is clear that a large class of problems in permutations can be solved
+in a similar manner, viz. by giving special values to the elements of
+the determinant of the matrix. The redundant product leads uniquely to
+the real generating function, but the latter has generally more than one
+representation as a redundant product, in the cases in which it is
+representable at all. For the existence of a redundant form, the
+coefficients of x1, x2, ... x1x2 ... in the denominator of the real
+generating function must satisfy 2^n - n^2 + n - 2 conditions, and
+assuming this to be the case, a redundant form can be constructed which
+involves n - 1 undetermined quantities. We are thus able to pass from
+any particular redundant generating function to one equivalent to it,
+but involving n - 1 undetermined quantities. Assuming these quantities
+at pleasure we obtain a number of different algebraic products, each of
+which may have its own meaning in arithmetic, and thus the number of
+arithmetical correspondences obtainable is subject to no finite limit
+(cf. MacMahon, _loc. cit._ pp. 125 et seq.)]
+
+
+  Case III.
+
+3. _The Theory of Partitions. Parcels defined by (m)._--When an ordinary
+unipartite number n is broken up into other numbers, and the order of
+occurrence of the numbers is immaterial, the collection of numbers is
+termed a partition of the number n. It is usual to arrange the numbers
+comprised in the collection, termed the parts of the partition, in
+descending order of magnitude, and to indicate repetitions of the same
+part by the use of exponents. Thus (32111), a partition of 8, is written
+(321^3). Euler's pioneering work in the subject rests on the observation
+that the algebraic multiplication
+
+  x^a X x^b X x^c X ... =  x^(a+b+c+...)
+
+is equivalent to the arithmetical addition of the exponents a, b, c, ...
+He showed that the number of ways of composing n with p integers drawn
+from the series a, b, c, ..., repeated or not, is equal to the
+coefficient of [zeta]^p.x^n in the ascending expansion of the fraction
+
+                         1
+  ------------------------------------------------,
+  1 - [zeta]x^a. 1 - [zeta]x^b. 1 - [zeta]x^c. ...
+
+which he termed the generating function of the partitions in question.
+
+If the partitions are to be composed of p, or fewer parts, it is merely
+necessary to multiply this fraction by 1/(1 - [zeta]). Similarly, if the
+parts are to be unrepeated, the generating function is the algebraic
+product
+
+  (1 + [zeta]x^a)(1 + [zeta]x^b)(1 + [zeta]x^c)...;
+
+if each part may occur at most twice,
+
+  (1 + [zeta]x^a + [zeta]^2x^2a)(1 + [zeta]x^b + [zeta]^2x^2b)
+      (1 + [zeta]x^c + [zeta]^2x^2c)...;
+
+and generally if each part may occur at most k - 1 times it is
+
+  1 - [zeta]^k.x^ka   1 - [zeta]^k.x^kb   1 - [zeta]^k.x^kc
+  ----------------- . ----------------- . ----------------- . ...
+    1 - [zeta]x^a       1 - [zeta]x^b       1 - [zeta]x^c
+
+It is thus easy to form generating functions for the partitions of
+numbers into parts subject to various restrictions. If there be no
+restriction in regard to the numbers of the parts, the generating
+function is
+
+                1
+  ------------------------------
+  1 - x^a. 1 - x^b. 1 - x^c. ...
+
+and the problems of finding the partitions of a number n, and of
+determining their number, are the same as those of solving and
+enumerating the solutions of the indeterminate equation in positive
+integers
+
+  ax + by + cz + ... = n.
+
+Euler considered also the question of enumerating the solutions of the
+indeterminate simultaneous equation in positive integers
+
+  ax + by + cz + ... = n
+  a'x + b'y + c'z + ... = n'
+  a"x + b"y + c"z + ... = n"
+
+which was called by him and those of his time the "Problem of the
+Virgins." The enumeration is given by the coefficient of x^n.y^n'.z^n" ...
+in the expansion of the fraction
+
+                                    1
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  (1 - x^a.y^b.z^c...)(1 - x^a'.y^b'.z^c'...)(1 - x^a".y^b".z^c"...) ...
+
+which enumerates the partitions of the multipartite number /nn'n"...
+into the parts
+
+  /abc..., /a'b'c'..., /a"b"c"..., ...
+
+Sylvester has determined an analytical expression for the coefficient of
+x^n in the expansion of
+
+                1
+  ------------------------------
+  (1 - x^a)(1 - x^b)...(1 - x^i)
+
+To explain this we have two lemmas:--
+
+_Lemma 1._--The coefficient of x^-1, i.e., after Cauchy, the residue in
+the ascending expansion of (1 - e^x)^-i, is -1. For when i is unity, it
+is obviously the case, and
+
+     (1 - e^x)^-i-1 = (1 - e^x)^-i + e^x(1 - e^x)^-i-1
+
+                                     d                1
+                    = (1 - e^x)^-i + -- (1 - e^x)^-i.--.
+                                     dx               i
+
+                    d               1
+Here the residue of -- (1 - e^x)^-i.-- is zero, and therefore the residue
+                    dx              i
+of (1 - e^x)^-i is unchanged when i is increased by unity, and is
+therefore always -1 for all values of i.
+
+_Lemma 2._--The constant term in any proper algebraical fraction
+developed in ascending powers of its variable is the same as the
+residue, with changed sign, of the sum of the fractions obtained by
+substituting in the given fraction, in lieu of the variable, its
+exponential multiplied in succession by each of its values (zero
+excepted, if there be such), which makes the given fraction infinite.
+For write the proper algebraical fraction
+
+                        c_{[lambda],[mu]}            [gamma]_[lambda]
+  F(x) = [Sigma][Sigma]-------------------- + [Sigma]----------------.
+                       (a_[mu] - x)[lambda]              x^[lambda]
+
+                                   c_{[lambda],[mu]}
+The constant term is [Sigma][Sigma]-----------------.
+                                    a_[mu]^[lambda]
+
+Let a_[nu] be a value of x which makes the fraction infinite. The residue
+of
+
+                             c_{[lambda],[mu]}                       [gamma]_[lambda]
+  [Sigma][Sigma][Sigma]------------------------------ + [Sigma]-----------------------------
+                       (a_[mu] - a_[nu].e^x)^[lambda]          a_[nu]^[lambda].e^{[lambda]x}
+
+is equal to the residue of
+
+                             c_{[lambda],[mu]}
+  [Sigma][Sigma][Sigma]------------------------------,
+                       (a_[mu] - a_[nu].e^x)^[lambda]
+
+and when [nu] = [mu], the residue vanishes, so that we have to consider
+
+                        c_{[lambda],[mu]}
+  [Sigma][Sigma]----------------------------------,
+                a_[mu]^[lambda].(1 - e^x)^[lambda]
+
+and the residue of this is, by the first lemma,
+
+                  c_{[lambda],[mu]}
+  - [Sigma][Sigma]-----------------,
+                   a_[mu]^[lambda]
+
+which proves the lemma.
+
+                            1                   f(x)
+Take F(x) = --------------------------------- = ----, since the sought
+            x^n(1 - x^a)(1 - x^b)...(1 - x^l)   x^n
+
+number is its constant term.
+
+Let [rho] be a root of unity which makes f(x) infinite when substituted
+for x. The function of which we have to take the residue is
+
+    [Sigma][rho]^-n.e^nx.f([rho]e^-x)
+
+                                 [rho]^-n.e^nx
+  = [Sigma]------------------------------------------------------------.
+           (1 - [rho]^a.e^-ax)(1 - [rho]^b.e^-bx)...(1 - [rho]^l.e^-lx)
+
+We may divide the calculation up into sections by considering separately
+that portion of the summation which involves the primitive qth roots of
+unity, q being a divisor of one of the numbers a, b, ... l. Thus the qth
+_wave_ is
+
+                                  [rho]_q^-n.e^nx
+  [Sigma]------------------------------------------------------------------,
+         (1 - [rho]_q^a.e^-ax)(1 - [rho]_q^b.e^-bx)...(1 - [rho]_q^l.e^-lx)
+
+which, putting 1/[rho]_q for [rho]_q and [nu] = 1/2(a + b + ... + l), may
+be written
+
+                                                                        [rho]_q^[nu].e^[nu]x
+  [Sigma]------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
+         ([rho]_q^1/2a.e^1/2ax - [rho]_q^-1/2a.e^-1/2ax)([rho]_q^1/2b.e^1/2bx - [rho]_q^-1/2b.e^-1/2bx)...([rho]_q^1/2l.e^1/2lx - [rho]_q^-1/2l.e^-1/2lx)
+
+and the calculation in simple cases is practicable.
+
+Thus Sylvester finds for the coefficient of x^n in
+
+              1
+  -----------------------
+  1 - x. 1 - x^2. 1 - x^3
+
+               [nu]^2   7    1           1
+the expression ------ - -- - --(-)[nu] + --([rho]_3^[nu] + [rho]_3^-[nu]),
+                 12     72   8           9
+
+where [nu] = n + 3.
+
+
+  Sylvester's graphical method.
+
+Sylvester, Franklin, Durfee, G. S. Ely and others have evolved a
+constructive theory of partitions, the object of which is the
+contemplation of the partitions themselves, and the evolution of their
+properties from a study of their inherent characters. It is concerned
+for the most part with the partition of a number into parts drawn from
+the natural series of numbers 1, 2, 3.... Any partition, say (521) of
+the number 8, is represented by nodes placed in order at the points of a
+rectangular lattice,
+
+  o---o---o---o---o------
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  o---o---+---+---+------
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  o---+---+---+---+------
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  |   |   |   |   |
+  |   |   |   |   |
+
+when the partition is given by the enumeration of the nodes by lines. If
+we enumerate by columns we obtain another partition of 8, viz. (321^3),
+which is termed the conjugate of the former. The fact or conjugacy was
+first pointed out by Norman Macleod Ferrers. If the original partition
+is one of a number n in i parts, of which the largest is j, the
+conjugate is one into j parts, of which the largest is i, and we obtain
+the theorem:--"The number of partitions of any number into [i parts]/[i
+parts or fewer], and having the largest part [equal to j]/[equal or less
+than j], remains the same when the numbers i and j are interchanged."
+
+The study of this representation on a lattice (termed by Sylvester the
+"graph") yields many theorems similar to that just given, and, moreover,
+throws considerable light upon the expansion of algebraic series.
+
+The theorem of reciprocity just established shows that the number of
+partitions of n into; parts or fewer, is the same as the number of ways
+of composing n with the integers 1, 2, 3, ... j. Hence we can
+
+                           1
+expand ------------------------------------------- in ascending powers of
+       1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax^2. 1 - ax^3...ad inf.
+
+a; for the coefficient of a^j.x^n in the expansion is the number of ways
+of composing n with j or fewer parts, and this we have seen in the
+coefficients of x^n in the ascending expansion of
+
+              1
+  ------------------------.
+  1 - x. 1 - x^2...1 - x^j
+
+Therefore
+
+              1                       a           a^2
+  --------------------------- = 1 + ----- + -------------- + ...
+  1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax^2....       1 - x   1 - x. 1 - x^2
+
+                                             a^j
+                                 + ------------------------ + ....
+                                   1 - x. 1 - x^2...1 - x^j
+
+The coefficient of a^j.x^n in the expansion of
+
+                    1
+  -------------------------------------
+  1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax^2. ... 1 - ax^i
+
+denotes the number of ways of composing n with j or fewer parts, none of
+which are greater than i. The expansion is known to be
+
+         1 - x^(j+1). 1 - x^(j+2). ... 1 - x^(j+i)
+  [Sigma]-----------------------------------------a^j.
+                1 - x. 1 - x^2. ... 1 - x^i
+
+It has been established by the constructive method by F. Franklin
+(_Amer. Jour. of Math._ v. 254), and shows that the generating function
+for the partitions in question is
+
+  1 - x^(j+1). 1 - x^(j+2). ... 1 - x^(j+i)
+  -----------------------------------------,
+         1 - x. 1 - x^2. ... 1 - x^i
+
+which, observe, is unaltered by interchange of i and j.
+
+Franklin has also similarly established the identity of Euler
+
+                                         j=-[oo]
+  (1 - x)(1 - x^2)(1 - x^3)...ad inf. = [Sigma](-)jx^{1/2(3j^2+j)},
+                                         j=+[oo]
+
+known as the "pentagonal number theorem," which on interpretation shows
+that the number of ways of partitioning n into an even number of
+unrepeated parts is equal to that into an uneven number, except when n
+has the pentagonal form 1/2(3j^2 + j), j positive or negative, when the
+difference between the numbers of the partitions is (-)^j.
+
+  +----------+
+  |.  .  .  .| .  .  .  .  .
+  |.  .  .  .| .  .
+  |.  .  .  .| .
+  |.  .  .  .|
+  +----------+
+   .   .   .
+   .   .
+   .
+   .
+   .
+
+To illustrate an important dissection of the graph we will consider
+those graphs which read the same by columns as by lines; these are
+called self-conjugate. Such a graph may be obviously dissected into a
+square, containing say [theta]^2 nodes, and into two graphs, one lateral
+and one subjacent, the latter being the conjugate of the former. The
+former graph is limited to contain not more than [theta] parts, but is
+subject to no other condition. Hence the number of self-conjugate
+partitions of n which are associated with a square of [theta]^2 nodes is
+clearly equal to the number of partitions of 1/2(n = [theta]^2) into
+[theta] or few parts, i.e. it is the coefficient of x^{1/2(n-[theta]^2)}
+in
+
+                       1
+  -------------------------------------------,
+  1 - x. 1 - x^2. 1 - x^3. ... 1 - x^[theta].
+
+                              x^[theta]^2
+or of x^n in ---------------------------------------------.
+             1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[theta]
+
+and the whole generating function is
+
+     [theta]=[oo]                x^[theta]^2
+  1 + [Sigma]   ---------------------------------------------.
+     [theta]=1  1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[theta]
+
+Now the graph is also composed of [theta] angles of nodes, each angle
+containing an uneven number of nodes; hence the partition is
+transformable into one containing [theta] unequal uneven numbers. In the
+case depicted this partition is (17, 9, 5, 1). Hence the number of the
+partitions based upon a square of [theta]^2 nodes is the coefficient of
+a^[theta].x^n in the product (1 + ax)(1 + ax^3)(1 + ax^5)...(1 +
+ax^{2s-1}), and thence the coefficient of a^[theta] in this product is
+
+                   x^[theta]^2
+  ---------------------------------------------, and we have the expansion
+  1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[theta]
+
+  (1 + ax)(1 + ax^3)(1 + ax^5)...ad inf.
+
+           x              x^4                      x^9
+  = 1 + ------- a + ---------------- a^2 + ----------------------- a^3 + ...
+        1 - x^2     1 - x^2. 1 - x^4       1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. - x^6
+
+Again, if we restrict the part magnitude to i, the largest angle of
+nodes contains at most 2i - 1 nodes, and based upon a square of
+[theta]^2 nodes we have partitions enumerated by the coefficient of
+a^[theta].x^n in the product (1 + ax)(1 + ax^3)(1 + ax^5)...(1 +
+ax^{2i-1}); moreover the same number enumerates the partition of 1/2(n -
+[theta]^2) into [theta] or fewer parts, of which the largest part is
+equal to or less than i -[theta], and is thus given by the coefficient
+of x^{1/2(n-[theta]^2)} in the expansion of
+
+  1 - x^{i-[t]+1}. 1 - x^{i-[t]+2}. 1 - x^{i-[t]+3}. ... 1 - x^i
+  --------------------------------------------------------------,
+              1 - x. 1 - x^2. 1 - x^3. ... 1 - x^[t]
+                                                     ([t] = [theta])
+or of x^n in
+
+  1 - x^{2i-2[t]+2}. 1 - x^{2i-2[t]+4}. ... 1 - x^2i
+  -------------------------------------------------- x[t]^2;
+        1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^[t]
+
+hence the expansion
+
+  (1 + ax)(1 + ax^3)(1 + ax^5)...(1 + ax^{2i-1})
+
+         [t]=i  1 - x^{2i-2[t]+2}. 1 - x^{2i-2[t]+4}. ... 1 + x^2i
+  = 1 + [Sigma] -------------------------------------------------- x^[t]^2.a^[t].
+         [t]=1       1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[t]
+
+
+  Extension to three dimensions.
+
+There is no difficulty in extending the graphical method to three
+dimensions, and we have then a theory of a special kind of partition of
+multipartite numbers. Of such kind is the partition
+
+   _________    _________    _________
+  (a1a2a3...), (b1b2b3...), (c1c2c3..., ...)
+
+of the multipartite number
+   _______________________________________________________________
+  (a1 + b1 + c1 + ..., a2 + b2 + c2 + ..., a3 + b3 + c3 + ..., ...)
+
+if          a1 >= a2 >= a3 >= ...; b1 >= b2 >= b3 >= ..., ...
+                           a3 >= b3 >= c3 >= ...,
+
+for then the graphs of the parts /a1a2a3..., /b1b2b3..., ... are
+superposable, and we have what we may term a _regular_ graph in three
+dimensions. Thus the partition (/643, /632, /411) of the multipartite
+/(16, 8, 6) leads to the graph
+
+    0+------------------------------------ x
+     |
+     | ((.)) ((.)) ((.)) ((.))  (.)  (.)
+     |
+     | ((.))  (.)   (.)    .
+     |
+     | ((.))  (.)    .
+     |
+     y
+
+and every such graph is readable in six ways, the axis of z being
+perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
+
+                               _Ex. Gr._
+                                            ___ ___ ___
+  Plane parallel to xy, direction Ox reads (643,632,411)
+                                            ______ ______ ______
+    "       "       xy,     "     Oy   "   (333211,332111,311100)
+                                            ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
+    "       "       yz,     "     Oy   "   (333,331,321,211,110,110)
+                                            ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
+    "       "       yz,     "     Oz   "   (333,322,321,310,200,200)
+                                            ______ ______ ______
+    "       "       zx,     "     Oz   "   (333322,322100,321000)
+                                            ___ ___ ___
+    "       "       zx,     "     Ox   "   (664,431,321)
+
+the partitions having reference to the multipartite numbers /16, 8, 6,
+976422, /13, 11, 6, which are brought into relation through the medium
+of the graph. The graph in question is more conveniently represented by
+a numbered diagram, viz.--
+
+  3  3  3  3  2  2
+  3  2  2  1
+  3  2  1
+
+and then we may evidently regard it as a unipartite partition on the
+points of a lattice,
+
+  0 +-----+-----+-----+-----+------- x
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    +-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    +-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    +-----+-----+-----+-----+-------
+    |     |     |     |     |
+    y
+
+the descending order of magnitude of part being maintained along _every_
+line of route which proceeds from the origin in the positive directions
+of the axes.
+
+This brings in view the modern notion of a partition, which has
+enormously enlarged the scope of the theory. We consider any number of
+points _in plano_ or _in solido_ connected (or not) by lines in pairs in
+any desired manner and fix upon any condition, such as is implied by the
+symbols >=, >, =, <=, <>, as affecting any pair of points so connected.
+Thus in ordinary unipartite partition we have to solve in integers such
+a system as
+
+  [a]1 >= [a]2 >= [a]3 >= ... [a]n
+
+  [a]1 + [a]2 + [a]3 + ... + [a]n = n,
+                                         ([a] = [alpha])
+
+the points being in a straight line. In the simplest example of the
+three-dimensional graph we have to solve the system
+
+  [a]1 >= [a]2
+  v         =       [a]1 + [a]2 + [a]3 + [a]4 = n,
+  =         v
+  [a]3 >= [a]4
+
+and a system for the general lattice constructed upon the same
+principle. The system has been discussed by MacMahon, _Phil. Trans._
+vol. clxxxvii. A, 1896, pp. 619-673, with the conclusion that if the
+numbers of nodes along the axes of x, y, z be limited not to exceed the
+numbers m, n, l respectively, then writing for brevity 1 - x^s = (s),
+the generating function is given by the product of the factors
+
+  +----------------------------------------------x
+  |
+  |  (l + 1)      (l + 2)             (l + m)
+  |  ------- .    -------    ...      -------
+  |    (1)          (2)                 (m)
+  |
+  |  (l + 2)      (l + 3)           (l + m + 1)
+  |  ------- .    -------    ...    -----------
+  |    (2)          (3)               (m + 1)
+  |     .            .       ...         .
+  |     .            .       ...         .
+  |     .            .       ...         .
+  |  (l + n)    (l + n + 1)       (l + m + n - 1)
+  |  ------- .  -----------  ...  ---------------
+  |    (n)        (n + 1)           (m + n - 1)
+  y
+
+one factor appearing at each point of the lattice.
+
+In general, partition problems present themselves which depend upon the
+solution of a number of simultaneous relations in integers of the form
+
+  [lambda]_1.[alpha]_1  + [lambda]_2.[alpha]_2  +
+        [lambda]_3.[alpha]_3 + ... >= 0,
+
+the coefficients [lambda] being given positive or negative integers, and
+in some cases the generating function has been determined in a form
+which exhibits the fundamental solutions of the problems from which all
+other solutions are derivable by addition. (See MacMahon, _Phil. Trans._
+vol. cxcii. (1899), pp. 351-401; and _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._ vol.
+xviii. (1899), pp. 12-34.)
+
+
+  Method of symmetric functions.
+
+The number of distributions of n objects (p1p2p3 ...) into parcels (m)
+is the coefficient of b^m(p1p2p3 ...)x^n in the development of the
+fraction
+
+                                          1
+     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    (1 - b[alpha]x. 1 - b[beta]x. 1 - b[gamma]x ...                              )
+  X (1 - b[alpha]^2x^2. 1 - b[alpha][beta]x^2. 1 - b[beta]^2x^2 ...              )
+  X (1 - b[alpha]^3x^3. 1 - b[alpha]^2[beta]x^3. 1 - b[alpha][beta][gamma]x^3 ...)
+
+          .          .          .          .          .          .
+
+and if we write the expansion of that portion which involves products of
+the letters [alpha], [beta], [gamma], ... of degree r in the form
+
+  1 + h_r1.bx^r + h_r2.b^2x^2r + ...,
+
+we may write the development
+
+  r=[oo]
+   [Pi] (1 + h_r1.bx^r + h_r2.b^2x^2r + ...),
+  r=1
+
+and picking out the coefficient of b^m x^n we find
+
+  [Sigma] h_[tau]1.h_[tau]2.h_[tau]3 ...,
+            t1       t2       t3
+
+where [Sigma][tau] = m, [Sigma][tau]t = n.
+
+The quantities h are symmetric functions of the quantities [alpha],
+[beta], [gamma], ... which in simple cases can be calculated without
+difficulty, and then the distribution function can be formed.
+
+_Ex. Gr._--Required the enumeration of the partitions of all
+multipartite numbers (p1p2p2 ...) into exactly two parts. We find
+
+      h2^2 = h4 - h3h1 + (h2)^2
+
+      h3^2 = h6 - h5h1 + h4h2
+
+      h4^2 = h8 - h7h1 + h6h2 + h5h3 + (h4)^2,
+
+and paying attention to the fact that in the expression of h_r2 the term
+(h_r)^2 is absent when r is uneven, the law is clear. The generating
+function is
+
+  h2x^2 + h2h1x^3 + (h4 + h2^2)x^4 + (h4h1 + h3h2)x^5 + (h6 + 2h4h2)x^6
+   + (h6h1 + h6h2 + h4h3)x^7 + (h8 + 2h6h2 + h4^2)x8 + ...
+
+Taking h4 + h2^2 = h4 + {(2) + (1^2)}^2
+
+                   = 2(4) + 3(31) + 4(2^2) + 5(21^2) + 7(1^4),
+
+the term 5(21^2) indicates that objects such as a, a, b, c can be
+partitioned in five ways into two parts. These are a|a, b, c; b|a; a, c;
+c|a, a, b; a, a|b, c; a, b|a, c. The function h_{r^s} has been studied.
+(See MacMahon, _Proc. Lond. Math. Soc._ vol. xix.) Putting x equal to
+unity, the function may be written (h2 + h4 + h6 + ...)(1 + h1 + h2 + h3
++ h4 + ...), a convenient formula.
+
+
+  Method of differential operators.
+
+The method of differential operators, of wide application to problems of
+combinatorial analysis, has for its leading idea the designing of a
+function and of a differential operator, so that when the operator is
+performed upon the function a number is reached which enumerates the
+solutions of the given problem. Generally speaking, the problems
+considered are such as are connected with lattices, or as it is possible
+to connect with lattices.
+
+  To take the simplest possible example, consider the problem of finding
+  the number of permutations of n different letters. The function is
+  here x^n, and the operator (d/dx)^n = [delta]_x^n, yielding
+  [delta]_x^n.x^n = n! the number which enumerates the permutations. In
+  fact--
+
+    [delta]_x.x^n = [delta]_x. x. x. x. x. x. ...,
+
+  and differentiating we obtain a sum of n terms by striking out an x
+  from the product in all possible ways. Fixing upon any one of these
+  terms, say x. [x]. x. x. ..., we again operate with [delta]_x by
+  striking out an x in all possible ways, and one of the terms so
+  reached is x. [x]. x. [x]. x. .... Fixing upon this term, and again
+  operating and continuing the process, we finally arrive at one
+  solution of the problem, which (taking say n = 4) may be said to be in
+  correspondence with the operator diagram--
+                                            ([x] = striken-out x)
+
+                                  or say
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |       | [d]_x |       |       |     |       |   1   |       |       |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |       |       |       | [d]_x |     |       |       |       |   1   |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  |       |       | [d]_x |       |     |       |       |   1   |       |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+-------+
+  | [d]_x |       |       |       |     |   1   |       |       |       |
+  +-------+-------+-------+-------+     +-------+-------+-------+-------+
+                   ([d] = [delta])
+
+  the number in each row of cempartments denoting an operation of
+  [delta]_x. Hence the permutation problem is equivalent to that of
+  placing n units in the compartments of a square lattice of order n in
+  such manner that each row and each column contains a single unit.
+  Observe that the method not only enumerates, but also gives a process
+  by which each solution is actually formed. The same problem is that of
+  placing n rooks upon a chess-board of n^2 compartments, so that no rook
+  can be captured by any other rook.
+
+  Regarding these elementary remarks as introductory, we proceed to give
+  some typical examples of the method. Take a lattice of m columns and n
+  rows, and consider the problem of placing units in the compartments in
+  such wise that the sth column shall contain [lambda]_s units (s = 1,
+  2, 3, ... m), and the tth row p1 units (t = l, 2, 3, ... n).
+
+  Writing
+
+    1 + a1x + a2x^2 + ... + ... = (1 + a1x)(1 + a2x)(1 + a3x) ...
+
+             1
+  and D_p = --([d]_[a]1 + [a]1[d]_[a]2 + [a]2[d]_[a]3 + ...)^p,
+            p!
+                    ([d] = [delta], [a] = [alpha])
+
+  the multiplication being symbolic, so that D_p is an operator of order
+  p, the function is
+
+    a_[lambda]1.a_[lambda]2.a_[lambda]3...a_[lambda]m,
+
+  and the operator D_p1.D_p2.D_p3...D_pn. The number
+  D_p1.D_p2...D_pn.a_[lambda]1.a_[lambda]2.a_[lambda]3...a_[lambda]m
+  enumerates the solutions. For the mode of operation of D_p upon a
+  product reference must be made to the section on "Differential
+  Operators" in the article ALGEBRAIC FORMS. Writing
+
+    a_[l]1.a_[l]2...a_[l]m =
+        ... + [Delta][Sigma][a]1^p1.[a]2^p2...[a]n^pn + ...,
+
+  or, in partition notation,
+
+
+    (1^[l]1)(1^[l]2)...(1^[l]m) = ... + A(p1p2...pn) ... +
+         D_p1.D_p2...D_pn.(1^[l]1)(1^[l]2)...(1^[l]m) = A,
+                                         ([l] = [lambda])
+
+  and the law by which the operation is performed upon the product shows
+  that the solutions of the given problem are enumerated by the number
+  A, and that the process of operation actually represents each
+  solution.
+
+  _Ex. Gr._--Take  [lambda]1 = 3, [lambda]2 = 2, [lambda]4 = 1,
+
+                   p1 = 2, p2 = 2, p3 = 1, p4 = 1,
+
+                   D2^2D1^2.a3a2a1 = 8,
+
+  and the process yields the eight diagrams:--
+
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 | 1 |   |    |   | 1 | 1 |    | 1 | 1 |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 | 1 |   |    |   | 1 | 1 |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 |   |   |    |   |   | 1 |    | 1 |   |   |    | 1 |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    |   |   | 1 |    | 1 |   |   |    | 1 |   |   |    | 1 |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 |   | 1 |    | 1 |   | 1 |    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 | 1 |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 | 1 |   |    | 1 |   | 1 |    | 1 |   | 1 |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    | 1 |   |   |    |   | 1 |   |    | 1 |   |   |    |   | 1 |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+    |   | 1 |   |    | 1 |   |   |    |   | 1 |   |    | 1 |   |   |
+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+    +---+---+---+
+
+  viz. every solution of the problem. Observe that transposition of the
+  diagrams furnishes a proof of the simplest of the laws of symmetry in
+  the theory of symmetric functions.
+
+  For the next example we have a similar problem, but no restriction is
+  placed upon the magnitude of the numbers which may appear in the
+  compartments. The function is now
+  h_[lambda]1.h_[lambda]2...h_[lambda]m, h_[lambda]m being the
+  homogeneous product sum of the quantities a, of order [lambda]. The
+  operator is as before
+
+    D_p1.D_p2...D_pn,
+
+  and the solutions are enumerated by
+
+    D_p1.D_p2...D_pn.h_[lambda]1.h_[lambda]2...h_[lambda]m.
+
+  Putting as before [lambda]1 = 2, [lambda]2 = 2, [lambda]1 = 1, p1 = 2,
+  P2 = 2, p3 = 1, p4 = 1, the reader will have no difficulty in
+  constructing the diagrams of the eighteen solutions.
+
+  The next and last example of a multitude that might be given shows the
+  extraordinary power of the method by solving the famous problem of the
+  "Latin Square," which for hundreds of years had proved beyond the
+  powers of mathematicians. The problem consists in placing n letters a,
+  b, c, ... n in the compartments of a square lattice of n^2
+  compartments, no compartment being empty, so that no letter occurs
+  twice either in the same row or in the same column. The function is
+  here
+
+    {[Sigma][a]1^(2^n-1).[a]2^(2^n-2)...([a]_n-1)^2.[a]n}^n,
+
+  and the operator D_n^{2^(n-1)}, the enumeration being given by
+
+    D_n^{2^(n-1)}.{[Sigma][a]1^(2^n-1).[a]2^(2^n-2)...([a]_n-1)^2.[a]n}^n,
+                                         ([a] = [alpha])
+
+  See _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._ vol. xvi. pt. iv. pp. 262-290.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--P. A. MacMahon, "Combinatory Analysis: A Review of the
+  Present State of Knowledge," _Proc. Lond. Math. Soc._ vol. xxviii.
+  (London, 1897). Here will be found a bibliography of the Theory of
+  Partitions. Whitworth, _Choice and Chance_; Edouard Lucas, _Theorie
+  des nombres_ (Paris, 1891); Arthur Cayley, _Collected Mathematical
+  Papers_ (Cambridge, 1898), ii. 419; iii. 36, 37; iv. 166-170; v.
+  62-65, 617; vii. 575; ix. 480-483; x. 16, 38, 611; xi. 61, 62,
+  357-364, 589-591; xii. 217-219, 273-274; xiii. 47, 93-113, 269;
+  Sylvester, _Amer. Jour, of Math._ v. 119 251; MacMahon, _Proc. Lond.
+  Math. Soc._ xix. 228 et seq.; _Phil. Trans._ clxxxiv. 835-901; clxxxv.
+  111-160; clxxxvii. 619-673; cxcii. 351-401; _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._
+  xvi. 262-290.     (P. A. M.)
+
+
+
+
+COMBUSTION (from the Lat. _comburere_, to burn up), in chemistry, the
+process of burning or, more scientifically, the oxidation of a
+substance, generally with the production of flame and the evolution of
+heat. The term is more customarily given to productions of flame such as
+we have in the burning of oils, gas, fuel, &c., but it is conveniently
+extended to other cases of oxidation, such as are met with when metals
+are heated for a long time in air or oxygen. The term "spontaneous
+combustion" is used when a substance smoulders or inflames apparently
+without the intervention of any external heat or light; in such cases,
+as, for example, in heaps of cotton-waste soaked in oil, the oxidation
+has proceeded slowly, but steadily, for some time, until the heat
+evolved has raised the mass to the temperature of ignition.
+
+The explanation of the phenomena of combustion was attempted at very
+early times, and the early theories were generally bound up in the
+explanation of the nature of fire or flame. The idea that some
+extraneous substance is essential to the process is of ancient date;
+Clement of Alexandria (c. 3rd century A.D.) held that some "air" was
+necessary, and the same view was accepted during the middle ages, when
+it had been also found that the products of combustion weighed more than
+the original combustible, a fact which pointed to the conclusion that
+some substance had combined with the combustible during the process.
+This theory was supported by the French physician Jean Ray, who showed
+also that in the cases of tin and lead there was a limit to the increase
+in weight. Robert Boyle, who made many researches on the origin and
+nature of fire, regarded the increase as due to the fixation of the
+particles of fire. Ideas identical with the modern ones were expressed
+by John Mayow in his _Tractatus quinque medico-physici_ (1674), but his
+death in 1679 undoubtedly accounts for the neglect of his suggestions by
+his contemporaries. Mayow perceived the similarity of the processes of
+respiration and combustion, and showed that one constituent of the
+atmosphere, which he termed _spiritus nitro-aereus_, was essential to
+combustion and life, and that the second constituent, which he termed
+_spiritus nitri acidi_, inhibited combustion and life. At the beginning
+of the 18th century a new theory of combustion was promulgated by Georg
+Ernst Stahl. This theory regarded combustibility as due to a principle
+named phlogiston (from the Gr. [Greek: phlogistos], burnt), which was
+present in all combustible bodies in an amount proportional to their
+degree of combustibility; for instance, coal was regarded as practically
+pure phlogiston. On this theory, all substances which could be burnt
+were composed of phlogiston and some other substance, and the operation
+of burning was simply equivalent to the liberation of the phlogiston.
+The Stahlian theory, originally a theory of combustion, came to be a
+general theory of chemical reactions, since it provided simple
+explanations of the ordinary chemical processes (when regarded
+qualitatively) and permitted generalizations which largely stimulated
+its acceptance. Its inherent defect--that the products of combustion
+were invariably heavier than the original substance instead of less as
+the theory demanded--was ignored, and until late in the 18th century it
+dominated chemical thought. Its overthrow was effected by Lavoisier, who
+showed that combustion was simply an oxidation, the oxygen of the
+atmosphere (which was isolated at about this time by K. W. Scheele and
+J. Priestley) combining with the substance burnt.
+
+
+
+
+COMEDY, the general term applied to a type of drama the chief object of
+which, according to modern notions, is to amuse. It is contrasted on the
+one hand with tragedy and on the other with farce, burlesque, &c. As
+compared with tragedy it is distinguished by having a happy ending (this
+being considered for a long time the essential difference), by quaint
+situations, and by lightness of dialogue and character-drawing. As
+compared with farce it abstains from crude and boisterous jesting, and
+is marked by some subtlety of dialogue and plot. It is, however,
+difficult to draw a hard and fast line of demarcation, there being a
+distinct tendency to combine the characteristics of farce with those of
+true comedy. This is perhaps more especially the case in the so-called
+"musical comedy," which became popular in Great Britain and America in
+the later 19th century, where true comedy is frequently subservient to
+broad farce and spectacular effects.
+
+The word "comedy" is derived from the Gr. [Greek: komoidia], which is a
+compound either of [Greek: komos] (revel) and [Greek: aoidos] (singer;
+[Greek: aeidein], [Greek: aidein], to sing), or of [Greek: kome]
+(village) and [Greek: aoidos]: it is possible that [Greek: komos] itself
+is derived from [Greek: kome], and originally meant a village revel. The
+word comes into modern usage through the Lat. _comoedia_ and Ital.
+_commedia_. It has passed through various shades of meaning. In the
+middle ages it meant simply a story with a happy ending. Thus some of
+Chaucer's Tales are called comedies, and in this sense Dante used the
+term in the title of his poem, _La Commedia_ (cf. his _Epistola_ X., in
+which he speaks of the comic style as "loquutio vulgaris, in qua et
+mulierculae communicant"; again "comoedia vero remisse et humiliter";
+"differt a tragoedia per hoc, quod t. in principio est admirabilis et
+quieta, in fine sive exitu est foetida et horribilis"). Subsequently the
+term is applied to mystery plays with a happy ending. The modern usage
+combines this sense with that in which Renaissance scholars applied it
+to the ancient comedies.
+
+The adjective "comic" (Gr. [Greek: komikos]), which strictly means that
+which relates to comedy, is in modern usage generally confined to the
+sense of "laughter-provoking": it is distinguished from "humorous" or
+"witty" inasmuch as it is applied to an incident or remark which
+provokes spontaneous laughter without a special mental effort. The
+phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it, the comic,
+have been carefully investigated by psychologists, in contrast with
+other phenomena connected with the emotions. It is very generally agreed
+that the predominating characteristics are incongruity or contrast in
+the object, and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject.
+It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential,
+if not the essential, factor: thus Hobbes speaks of laughter as a
+"sudden glory." Physiological explanations have been given by Kant,
+Spencer and Darwin. Modern investigators have paid much attention to the
+origin both of laughter and of smiling, babies being watched from
+infancy and the date of their first smile being carefully recorded. For
+an admirable analysis and account of the theories see James Sully, _On
+Laughter_ (1902), who deals generally with the development of the "play
+instinct" and its emotional expression.
+
+  See DRAMA; also HUMOUR; CARICATURE; PLAY, &c.
+
+
+
+
+COMENIUS (or KOMENSKY), JOHANN AMOS (1592-1671), a famous writer on
+education, and the last bishop of the old church of the Moravian and
+Bohemian Brethren, was born at Comna, or, according to another account,
+at Niwnitz, in Moravia, of poor parents belonging to the sect of the
+Moravian Brethren. Having studied at Herborn and Heidelberg, and
+travelled in Holland and England, he became rector of a school at
+Prerau, and after that pastor and rector of a school at Fulnek. In 1621
+the Spanish invasion and persecution of the Protestants robbed him of
+all he possessed, and drove him into Poland. Soon after he was made
+bishop of the church of the Brethren. He supported himself by teaching
+Latin at Lissa, and it was here that he published his _Pansophiae
+prodromus_ (1630), a work on education, and his _Janua linguarum
+reserata_ (1631), the latter of which gained for him a widespread
+reputation, being produced in twelve European languages, and also in
+Arabic, Persian and Turkish. He subsequently published several other
+works of a similar kind, as the _Eruditionis scholasticae janua_ and the
+_Janua linguarum trilinguis_. His method of teaching languages, which he
+seems to have been the first to adopt, consisted in giving, in parallel
+columns, sentences conveying useful information, in the vernacular and
+the languages intended to be taught (i.e. in Comenius's works, Latin and
+sometimes Greek). In some of his books, as the _Orbis sensualium pictus_
+(1658), pictures are added; this work is, indeed, the first children's
+picture-book. In 1638 Comenius was requested by the government of Sweden
+to draw up a scheme for the management of the schools of that country;
+and a few years after he was invited to join the commission that the
+English parliament then intended to appoint, in order to reform the
+system of education. He visited England in 1641, but the disturbed state
+of politics prevented the appointment of the commission, and Comenius
+passed over to Sweden in August 1642. The great Swedish minister,
+Oxenstjerna, obtained for him a pension, and a commission to furnish a
+plan for regulating the Swedish schools according to his own method.
+Devoting himself to the elaboration of his scheme, Comenius settled
+first at Elbing, and then at Lissa; but, at the burning of the latter
+city by the Poles, he lost nearly all his manuscripts, and he finally
+removed to Amsterdam, where he died in 1671.
+
+As an educationist, Comenius holds a prominent place in history. He was
+disgusted at the pedantic teaching of his own day, and he insisted that
+the teaching of words and things must go together. Languages should be
+taught, like the mother tongue, by conversation on ordinary topics;
+pictures, object lessons, should be used; teaching should go hand in
+hand with a happy life. In his course he included singing, economy,
+politics, world-history, geography, and the arts and handicrafts. He was
+one of the first to advocate teaching science in schools.
+
+As a theologian, Comenius was greatly influenced by Boehme. In his
+_Synopsis physicae ad lumen divinum reformatae_ he gives a physical
+theory of his own, said to be taken from the book of Genesis. He was
+also famous for his prophecies and the support he gave to visionaries.
+In his _Lux in tenebris_ he published the visions of Kotterus, Dabricius
+and Christina Poniatovia. Attempting to interpret the book of
+Revelation, he promised the millennium in 1672, and guaranteed
+miraculous assistance to those who would undertake the destruction of
+the Pope and the house of Austria, even venturing to prophesy that
+Cromwell, Gustavus Adolphus, and Rakoczy, prince of Transylvania, would
+perform the task. He also wrote to Louis XIV., informing him that the
+empire of the world should be his reward if he would overthrow the
+enemies of God.
+
+  Comenius also wrote against the Socinians, and published three
+  historical works--_Ratio disciplinae ordinisque in unitate fratrum
+  Bohemorum_, which was republished with remarks by Buddaeus, _Historia
+  persecutionum ecclesiae Bohemicae_ (1648), and _Martyrologium
+  Bohemicum_. See Raumer's _Geschichte der Padogogik_, and Carpzov's
+  _Religionsuntersuchung der bohmischen und mahrischen Bruder_.
+
+
+
+
+COMET (Gr. [Greek: kometes], long-haired), in astronomy, one of a class
+of seemingly nebulous bodies, moving under the influence of the sun's
+attraction in very eccentric orbits. A comet is visible only in a small
+arc of its orbit near perihelion, differing but slightly from the arc
+of a parabola. An obvious but not sharp classification of comets is into
+bright comets visible to the naked eye, and telescopic comets which can
+be seen only with a telescope. The telescopic class is much the more
+numerous of the two, only from 20 to 30 bright comets usually appearing
+in any one century, while several telescopic comets, frequently 6 or 8,
+are generally observed in the course of a year.
+
+A bright comet consists of (1) a star-like nucleus; (2) a nebulous haze,
+called the _coma_, surrounding this nucleus, the latter fading into the
+haze by insensible gradations; (3) a tail or luminous stream flowing
+from the coma in a direction opposite to that of the sun. The nuclei and
+comae of different comets exhibit few peculiarities to the unaided
+vision except in respect to brightness; but the tails of comets differ
+widely, both in brightness and in extent. They range from a barely
+visible brush or feather of light to a phenomenon extending over a
+considerable arc of the heavens, which, comparatively bright near the
+head of the comet, becomes gradually fainter and more diffuse towards
+its end, fading out by gradations so insensible that a precise length
+cannot be assigned to it. When a telescopic comet is first discovered
+the nucleus is frequently invisible, the object presenting the
+appearance of a faint nebulous haze, scarcely distinguishable in aspect
+from a nebula. When the nucleus appears it may at first be only a
+comparatively faint condensation, and may or may not develop into a
+point of light as the comet approaches the sun. A tail also is generally
+not seen at great distances from the sun, but gradually develops as the
+comet approaches perihelion, to fade away again as the comet recedes
+from the sun.
+
+A few comets are known to revolve in orbits with a regular period,
+while, in the case of others, no evidence is afforded by observation
+that the orbit deviates from a parabola. Were the orbit a parabola or
+hyperbola the comet would never return (see ORBIT). Periodicity may be
+recognized in two ways: observations during the apparition may show that
+the motion is in an elliptic and not in a parabolic orbit; or a comet
+may have been observed at more than one return. In the latter case the
+comet is recognized as distinctly periodic, and therefore a member of
+the solar system. The shortest periods range between 3 and 10 years. The
+majority of comets which have been observed are shown by observation to
+be periodic; the period is usually very long, being sometimes measured
+by centuries, but generally by thousands of years. It is conceivable
+that a comet might revolve in a hyperbolic orbit. Although there are
+several of these bodies observations on which indicate such an orbit,
+the deviation from the parabolic form has not in any case been so well
+marked as to be fully established. Circumstances lead to the
+classification of newly appearing comets as _expected_ and _unexpected_.
+An expected comet is a periodic one of which the return is looked for at
+a determinate time and in a certain region of the heavens. When this is
+not the case the comet is an unexpected one.
+
+_Physical Constitution of Comets._--The subject of the physical
+constitution of these bodies is one as to the details of which much
+uncertainty still exists. The considerations on which conclusions in
+this field rest are very various, and can best be set forth by beginning
+with what we may consider to be the best established facts.
+
+We must regard it as well established that comets are not, like planets
+and satellites, permanent in mass, but are continuously losing minute
+portions of the matter which belongs to them, through a progressive
+dissipation--at least when they are in the neighbourhood of the sun.
+When near perihelion the matter of a comet is seen to be undergoing a
+process in the nature of evaporation, successive envelopes of vapour
+rising from the nucleus to form the coma, and then gradually repelled
+from the sun to form the tail. If this process went on indefinitely
+every comet would, in the course of ages, be entirely dissipated. This
+result has actually happened in the case of some known comets, the best
+established example of which is that of Biela, in which the process of
+disintegration was clearly followed. As the amount of matter lost by a
+comet at any one return cannot be estimated, and may be very small, it
+is impossible to set any limit to the period during which its life may
+continue. It is still an unsettled question whether, in every case, the
+evaporation will ultimately cease, leaving a residuum as permanent as
+any other mass of matter.
+
+The next question in logical order is one of great difficulty. It is
+whether the nucleus of a comet is an opaque solid body, a cluster of
+such bodies, or a mass of particles of extreme tenuity. Some light is
+thrown on this and other questions by the spectroscope. This instrument
+shows in the spectrum of nearly every comet three bright bands,
+recognized as those of hydrocarbons. The obvious conclusion is that the
+light forming these bands is not reflected sunlight, but light radiated
+by the gaseous hydrocarbons. Since a gas at so great a distance from the
+sun cannot be heated to incandescence, the question arises how
+incandescence is excited. The generalizations of recent years growing
+out of the phenomena of radioactivity make it highly probable that the
+source is to be found in some form of electrical excitation, produced by
+electrons or other corpuscles thrown out by the sun. The resemblance of
+the cometary spectrum to the spectrum of hydrocarbons in the Geissler
+tube lends great plausibility to this view. It is remarkable that the
+great comet of 1882 also showed the bright lines of sodium with such
+intensity that they were observed in daylight by R. Copeland and W. O.
+Lohse. In addition to these gaseous spectra, all but the fainter comets
+show a continuous spectrum, crossed by the Fraunhofer lines, which is
+doubtless due to reflected sunlight. It happens that, since the
+spectroscope has been perfected, no comet of great brilliancy has been
+favourably situated for observation. Until the opportunity is offered,
+the conclusions to be derived from spectroscopic observation cannot be
+further extended.
+
+PLATE I.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--COMET 1892, I. (SWIFT), 1892, APRIL 26.
+    By permission of Lick Observatory (E. E. Barnard)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--COMET C, 1908, NOV. 16d. 13h. 10m.
+    By permission of Yerkes Observatory (E. E. Barnard).]
+
+PLATE II.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--HALLEY'S COMET, 1910, APRIL 27.
+    By permission of Helwan Observatory, Egypt.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--HALLEY'S COMET, 1910, MAY 4.
+    By permission of Yerkes Observatory (E. E. Barnard).]
+
+In the telescope the nucleus of a bright comet appears as an opaque
+mass, one or more seconds in diameter, the absolute dimensions comparing
+with those of the satellites of the planets, sometimes, indeed, equal to
+our moon. But the actual results of micrometric measures are found to
+differ very widely. In the case of Donati's comet of 1858 the nucleus
+seemed to grow smaller as perihelion was approached. This is evidently
+due to the fact that the coma immediately around the nucleus was so
+bright as apparently to form a part of it at considerable distances from
+the sun. G. P. Bond estimated the diameter of the actual nucleus at 500
+m. That the nucleus is a body of appreciable mass seems to be made
+probable by the fact that, except for the central attraction of such a
+body, a comet would speedily be dissipated by the different attractions
+of the sun on different parts of the mass, which would result in each
+particle pursuing an orbit of its own. It follows that there must be a
+mass sufficient to hold the parts of the comet, if not absolutely
+together, at least in each other's immediate neighbourhood. How great a
+central mass may be required for this is a subject not yet investigated.
+It might be supposed that the amount of matter must be sufficient to
+make the nucleus quite opaque. But two considerations based on
+observations militate against this view. One is that an opaque body,
+reflecting much sunlight, would show a brighter continuous spectrum than
+has yet been found in any comet. Another and yet more remarkable
+observation is on record which goes far to prove not only the tenuity,
+but the transparency of a cometary nucleus. The great comet of 1882 made
+a transit over the sun on the 17th of September, an occurrence unique in
+the history of astronomy. But the fact of the transit escaped attention
+except at the observatory of the Cape of Good Hope. Here the comet was
+watched by W. H. Finlay and by W. L. Elkin as it approached the sun, and
+was kept in sight until it came almost or quite in contact with the
+sun's disk, when it disappeared. It should, if opaque, have appeared a
+few minutes later, projected on the sun's disk; but not a trace of it
+could be seen. The sun was approaching Table Mountain at the critical
+moment, and its limb was undulating badly, making the detection of a
+minute point difficult. The possibility of a very small opaque nucleus
+is therefore still left open; yet the remarkable conclusion still holds,
+that, immediately around a possible central nucleus, the matter of the
+head of the comet was so rare as not to intercept any appreciable
+fraction of the sun's light. This result seems also to show that, with
+the possible exception of a very small central mass, what seems to
+telescopic vision as a nucleus is really only the central portion of the
+coma, which, as the distance from the centre increases, becomes less and
+less dense by imperceptible gradations.
+
+Another fact tending towards this same conclusion is that after this
+comet passed perihelion it showed several nuclei following each other.
+Evidently the powerful attraction of the sun had separated the parts of
+the apparent nucleus, which were following each other in nearly the same
+orbit. As they could not have been completely brought together again, we
+may suppose that in such cases the smaller nuclei were permanently
+separated from the main body. In addition to this, the remarkable
+similarity of the orbit of this comet to that of several others
+indicates a group of bodies moving in nearly the same orbit. The other
+members of the group were the great comets of 1843, 1880 and 1887. The
+latter, though so bright as to be conspicuous to the naked eye, showed
+no nucleus whatever. The closely related orbits of the four bodies are
+also remarkable for approaching nearer the sun at perihelion than does
+the orbit of any other known body. All of these comets pass through the
+matter of the sun's corona with a velocity of more than 100 m. per
+second without suffering any retardation. As it is beyond all reasonable
+probability that several independent bodies should have moved in orbits
+so nearly the same, the conclusion is that the comets were originally
+portions of one mass, which gradually separated in the course of ages by
+the powerful attraction of the sun as the collection successively passed
+the perihelion. It may be remarked that observations on the comet of
+1843 seemed to show a slight ellipticity of the orbit, corresponding to
+a period of several centuries; but the deviation of all the orbits from
+a parabola is too slight to be established by observations. The periods
+of the comets are therefore unknown except that they must be counted by
+centuries and possibly by thousands of years.
+
+Another fact which increases the complexity of the question is the
+well-established connexion of comets with meteoric showers. The shower
+of November 13-15, now known as the Leonids, which recurred for several
+centuries at intervals of about one-third of a century, are undoubtedly
+due to a stream of particles left behind by a comet observed in 1866.
+The same is true of Biela's comet, the disintegrated particles of which
+give rise to the Andromedids, and probably true also of the Perseids, or
+August meteors, the orbits of which have a great similarity to a comet
+seen in 1862. The general and well-established conclusion seems to be
+that, in addition to the visible features of a comet, every such body is
+followed in its orbit by a swarm of meteoric particles which must have
+been gradually detached and separated from it. (See METEOR.)
+
+The source of the repulsive force by which the matter forming the tail
+of a comet is driven away from the sun is another question that has not
+yet been decisively answered. Two causes have been suggested, of which
+one has only recently been brought to light. This is the repulsion of
+the sun's rays, a form of action the probability of which was shown by
+J. Clerk Maxwell in 1870, and which was experimentally established about
+thirty years later. The intensity of this action on a particle is
+proportional to the surface presented by the particle to the rays, and
+therefore to the square of its diameter, while its mass, and therefore
+its gravitation to the sun, are proportional to the cube of the
+diameter. It follows that if the size and mass of a particle in space
+are below a certain limit, the repulsion of the rays will exceed the
+attraction of the sun, and the particle will be driven off into space.
+But, in order that this repulsive force may act, the particles, however
+minute they may be, must be opaque. Moreover, theory shows that there is
+a lower as well as an upper limit to their magnitude, and that it is
+only between certain definable limits of magnitude that the force acts.
+Conceiving the particle to be of the density of water, and considering
+its diameter as a diminishing variable, theory shows that the repulsion
+will balance gravity when the diameter has reached 0.0015 of a
+millimetre. As the diameter is reduced below this limit the ratio of
+the repulsive to the attractive force increases, but soon reaches a
+maximum, after which it diminishes down to a diameter of 0.00007 mm.,
+when the two actions are again balanced. Below this limit the light
+speedily ceases to act. It follows that a purely gaseous body, such as
+would emit a characteristic bright line spectrum, would not be subject
+to the repulsion. We must therefore conclude that both the solid and
+gaseous forms of matter are here at play, and this view is consonant
+with the fact that the comet leaves behind it particles of meteoric
+matter.
+
+Another possible cause is electrical repulsion. The probability of this
+cause is suggested by recent discoveries in radioactivity and by the
+fact that the sun undoubtedly sends forth electrical emanations which
+may ionize the gaseous molecules rising from the nucleus, and lead to
+their repulsion from the sun, thus resulting in the phenomena of the
+tail. But well-established laws are not yet sufficiently developed to
+lead to definite conclusions on this point, and the question whether
+both causes are combined, and, if not, to which one the phenomena in
+question are mainly due, must be left to the future.
+
+A curious circumstance, which may be explained by a duplex character of
+the matter forming a cometary tail, is the great difference between the
+visual and photographic aspect of these bodies. The soft, delicate,
+feathery-like form which the comet with its tail presents to the eye is
+wanting in a photograph, which shows principally a round head with an
+irregularly formed tail much like the knotted stalk of a plant. It
+follows that the light emitted by the central axis of the tail greatly
+exceeds in actinic power the diffuse light around it. A careful
+comparison of the form and intensity of the photographic and visual
+tails may throw much light on the question of the constitution of these
+bodies, but no good opportunity of making the comparison has been
+afforded since the art of celestial photography has been brought to its
+present state of perfection.
+
+The main conclusion to which the preceding facts and considerations
+point is that the matter of a comet is partly solid and partly gaseous.
+The gaseous form is shown conclusively by the spectroscope, but in view
+of the extreme delicacy of the indications with this instrument no
+quantitative estimate of the gas can be made. As there is no central
+mass sufficient to hold together a continuous atmosphere of elastic gas
+of any sort, it seems probable that the gaseous molecules are only those
+rising from the coma, possibly by ordinary evaporation, but more
+probably by the action of the ultra-violet and other rays of the sun
+giving rise to an ionization of disconnected gaseous molecules. The
+matter cannot be wholly gaseous because in this case there could be no
+central force sufficient to keep the parts of the comet together.
+
+The facts also point to the conclusion that the solid matter of a comet
+is formed of a swarm or cloud of small disconnected masses, probably
+having much resemblance to the meteoric masses which are known to be
+flying through the solar system and possibly of the same general kind as
+these. The question whether there is any central solid of considerable
+mass is still undecided; it can only be said that if so, it is probably
+small relative to cosmic masses in general--more likely less than
+greater than 100 m. in diameter. The light of the comet therefore
+proceeds from two sources: one the incandescence of gases, the other the
+sunlight reflected from the solid parts. No estimate can be formed of
+the ratio between these two kinds of light until a bright comet shall be
+spectroscopically observed during an entire apparition.
+
+_Origin and Orbits of Comets._--The great difference which we have
+pointed out between comets and the permanent bodies of the solar system
+naturally suggested the idea that these bodies do not belong to that
+system at all, but are nebulous masses, scattered through the stellar
+spaces, and brought one by one into the sphere of the sun's attraction.
+The results of this view are easily shown to be incompatible with the
+observed facts. The sun, carrying the whole solar system with it, is
+moving through space with a speed of about 10 m. per second. If it
+approached a comet nearly at rest the result would be a relative motion
+of this amount which, as the comet came nearer, would be constantly
+increased, and would result in the comet describing relative to the sun
+a markedly hyperbolic orbit, deviating too widely from a parabola to
+leave any doubt, even in the most extreme cases. Moreover, a large
+majority of comets would then have their aphelia in the direction of the
+sun's motion, and therefore their perihelia in the opposite direction.
+Neither of these results corresponds to the fact. The conclusion is that
+if we regard a comet as a body not belonging to the solar system, it is
+at least a body which before its approach to the sun had the same motion
+through the stellar spaces that the sun has. As this unity of motion
+must have been maintained from the beginning, we may regard comets as
+belonging to the solar system in the sense of not being visitors from
+distant regions of space.
+
+The acceptance of this seemingly inevitable conclusion leads to another:
+that no comet yet known moves in a really hyperbolic orbit, but that the
+limit of eccentricity must be regarded as 1, or that of the parabola. It
+is true that seeming evidence of hyperbolic eccentricity is sometimes
+afforded by observations and regarded by some astronomers as sufficient.
+The objections to the reality of the hyperbolic orbit are two: (1) A
+comet moving in a decidedly hyperbolic orbit must have come from so
+great a distance within a finite time, say a few millions of years, as
+to have no relation to the sun, and must after its approach to the sun
+return into space, never again to visit our system. In this case the
+motion of the sun through space renders it almost infinitely improbable
+that the orbit would have been so nearly a parabola as all such orbits
+are actually found to be. (2) The apparent deviation from a very
+elongated ellipse has never been in any case greater than might have
+been the result of errors of observation on bodies of this class.
+
+This being granted, a luminous view of the causes which lead to the
+observed orbits of comets is readily gained by imagining these bodies to
+be formed of nebulous masses, which originally accompanied the sun in
+its journey through space, but at distances, in most cases, vastly
+greater than that of the farthest planet. Such a mass, when drawn
+towards the sun, would move round it in a nearly parabolic orbit,
+similar to the actual orbits of the great majority of comets. The period
+might be measured by thousands, tens of thousands, or hundreds of
+thousands of years, according to the distances of the comet in the
+beginning; but instead of bodies extraneous to the system, we should
+have bodies properly belonging to the system and making revolutions
+around the sun.
+
+Were it not for the effect of planetary attraction long periods like
+these would be the general rule, though not necessarily universal. But
+at every return to perihelion the motion of a comet will be to some
+extent either accelerated or retarded by the action of Jupiter or any
+other planet in the neighbourhood of which it may pass. Commonly the
+action will be so slight as to have little influence on the orbit and
+the time of revolution. But should the comet chance to pass the orbit of
+Jupiter just in front of the planet, its motion would be retarded and
+the orbit would be changed into one of shorter period. Should it pass
+behind the planet, its motion would be accelerated and its period
+lengthened. In such cases the orbit might be changed to a hyperbola, and
+then the comet would never return. It follows that there is a tendency
+towards a gradual but constant diminution in the total number of comets.
+If we call [Delta]e the amount by which the eccentricity of a cometary
+orbit is less than unity, [Delta]e will be an extremely minute fraction
+in the case of the original orbits. If we call [+-][delta] the change which
+the eccentricity 1 - [Delta]e undergoes by the action of the planets
+during the passage of the comet through our system, it will leave the
+system with the eccentricity 1 - [Delta]e [+-] [delta]. The possibilities
+are even whether [delta] shall be positive or negative. If negative, the
+eccentricity will be diminished and the period shortened. If positive,
+and greater than [Delta]e, the eccentricity 1 - [Delta]e + [delta] will
+be greater than 1, and then the comet will be thrown into a hyperbolic
+orbit and become for ever a wanderer through the stellar spaces.
+
+The nearer a comet passes to a planet, especially to Jupiter, the
+greatest planet, the greater [delta] may be. If [delta] is a
+considerable negative fraction, the eccentricity will be so reduced that
+the comet will after the approach be one of short period. It follows
+that, however long the period of a comet may be, there is a possibility
+of its becoming one of short period if it approaches Jupiter. There have
+been several cases of this during the past two centuries, the most
+recent being that of Brooks's comet, 1889, V. Soon after its discovery
+this body was found to have a period of only about seven years. The
+question why it had not been observed at previous returns was settled
+after the orbit had been determined by computing its motion in the past.
+It was thus found that in October 1886 the comet had passed in the
+immediate neighbourhood of Jupiter, the action of which had been such as
+to change its orbit from one of long period to the short observed
+period. A similar case was that of Lexel's comet, seen in 1770.
+Originally moving in an unknown orbit, it encountered the planet
+Jupiter, made two revolutions round the sun, in the second of which it
+was observed, then again encountered the planet, to be thrown out of its
+orbit into one which did not admit of determination. The comet was never
+again found.
+
+A general conclusion which seems to follow from these conditions, and is
+justified by observations, so far as the latter go, is that comets are
+not to be regarded as permanent bodies like the planets, but that the
+conglomerations of matter which compose them are undergoing a process of
+gradual dissipation in space. This process is especially rapid in the
+case of the fainter periodic comets. It was first strikingly brought out
+in the case of Biela's comet. This object was discovered in 1772, was
+observed to be periodic after several revolutions had been made, and was
+observed with a fair degree of regularity at different returns until
+1852. At the previous apparition it was found to have separated into two
+masses, and in 1852 these masses were so widely separated that they
+might be considered as forming two comets. Notwithstanding careful
+search at times and places when the comet was due, no trace of it has
+since been seen. An examination of the table of periodic comets given at
+the end of this article will show that the same thing is probably true
+of several other comets, especially Brorsen's and Tempel's, which have
+each made several revolutions since last observed, and have been sought
+for in vain.
+
+In view of the seemingly inevitable dissipation of comets in the course
+of ages, and of the actually observed changes of their orbits by the
+attraction of Jupiter, the question arises whether the orbits of all
+comets of short period may not have been determined by the attraction of
+the planets, especially of Jupiter. In this case the orbit would, for a
+period of several centuries, have continued to nearly intersect that of
+the planet. We find, as a matter of fact, that several periodic comets
+either pass near Jupiter or have their aphelia in the neighbourhood of
+the orbit of Jupiter. The approach, however, is not sufficiently close
+to have led to the change unless in former times the proximity of the
+orbits was much greater than it is now. As the orbits of all the bodies
+of the solar system are subject to a slow secular change of their form
+and position, this may only show that it must have been thousands of
+years since the comet became one of short period. The two cases of most
+difficulty are those of Halley's and Encke's comets. The orbit of the
+former is so elongated and so inclined to the general plane of the
+planetary orbits that its secular variation must be very slow indeed.
+But it does not pass near the orbit of any planet except Venus; and even
+here the proximity is far from being sufficient to have produced an
+appreciable change in the period. The orbit of Encke's comet is entirely
+within the orbit of Jupiter, and it also cannot have passed near enough
+to a planet for thousands of years to have had its orbit changed by the
+action in question. It therefore seems difficult to regard these two
+comets as other than permanent members of the solar system.
+
+_Special Periodic Comets._--One of the most remarkable periodic comets
+with which we are acquainted is that known to astronomers as Halley's.
+Having perceived that the elements of the comet of 1682 were nearly the
+same as those of two comets which had respectively appeared in 1531 and
+1607, Edmund Halley concluded that all the three orbits belonged to the
+same comet, of which the periodic time was about 76 years. After a rough
+estimate of the perturbations it must sustain from the attraction of the
+planets, he predicted its return for 1757,--a bold prediction at that
+time, but justified by the event, for the comet again made its
+appearance as was expected, though it did not pass through its
+perihelion till the month of March 1759, the attraction of Jupiter and
+Saturn having caused, as was computed by Clairault previously to its
+return, a retardation of 618 days. This comet had been observed in 1066,
+and the accounts which have been preserved represent it as having then
+appeared to be four times the size of Venus, and to have shone with a
+light equal to a fourth of that of the moon. History is silent
+respecting it from that time till the year 1456, when it passed very
+near to the earth: its tail then extended over 60 deg. of the heavens,
+and had the form of a sabre. It returned to its perihelion in 1835, and
+was well observed in almost every observatory. But its brightness was
+far from comparing with the glorious accounts of its former apparitions.
+That this should have been due to the process of dissipation does not
+seem possible in so short a period; we must therefore consider either
+that the earlier accounts are greatly exaggerated, or that the
+brightness of the comet is subject to changes from some unknown cause.
+Previous appearances of Halley's comet have been calculated by J. R.
+Hind, and more recently by P. H. Cowell and A. C. D. Crommelin of
+Greenwich, the latter having carried the comet back to 87 B.C. with
+certainty, and to 240 B.C. with fair probability. It was detected by Max
+Wolf at Heidelberg on plates exposed on Sept. 11, 1909, and subsequently
+on a Greenwich plate of Sept. 9.
+
+The known comet of shortest period bears the name of J. F. Encke, the
+astronomer who first investigated its orbit and showed its periodicity.
+It was originally discovered in 1789, but its periodicity was not
+recognized until 1818, after it had been observed at several returns.
+This comet has given rise to a longer series of investigations than any
+other, owing to Encke's result that the orbit was becoming smaller, and
+the revolutions therefore accelerated, by some unknown cause, of which
+the most plausible was a resisting medium surrounding the sun. As this
+comet is almost the only one that passes within the orbit of Mercury, it
+is quite possible that it alone would show the effect of such a medium.
+Recent investigations of this subject have been made at the Pulkova
+Observatory, first by F. E. von Asten and later by J. O. Backlund who,
+in 1909, was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
+for his researches in this field. During some revolutions there was
+evidence of a slight acceleration of the return, and during others there
+was not.
+
+The following is a list (compiled in 1909) of comets which are well
+established as periodic, through having been observed at one or more
+returns. In addition to what has already been said of several comets in
+this list the following remarks may be made. Tuttle's comet was first
+seen by P. F. A. Mechain in 1790, but was not recognized as periodic
+until found by Tuttle in 1858, when the resemblance of the two orbits
+led to the conclusion of the identity of the bodies, the period of which
+was soon made evident by continued observations. The comets of Pons and
+Olbers are remarkable for having an almost equal period. But their
+orbits are otherwise totally different, so that there does not seem to
+be any connexion between them. Brorsen's comet seems also to be
+completely dissipated, not having been seen since 1879.
+
+  _List of Periodic Comets observed at more than one Return._
+
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Designation.|    1st Perih.   |   Last Perih.   | Period|Least Dist.| Gr. Dist. |
+  |            |    Passage.     |   Passage obs.  | Years.|Ast. Units.|Ast. Units.|
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+-----------+-----------+
+  |Halley      | 1456 June 8.2   | 1835 Nov. 15.9  | 75.9  |    0.58   |   35.42   |
+  |Biela       | 1772 Feb. 16.7  | 1852 Sept. 23.4 |  6.67 |    0.98   |    6.18   |
+  |Encke       | 1786 Jan. 30.9  | 1905 Jan. 11.4  |  3.29 |    0.34   |    4.08   |
+  |Tuttle      | 1790 Jan. 30.9  | 1899 May 4.5    | 13.78 |    1.03   |   10.53   |
+  |Poris       | 1812 Sept. 15.3 | 1884 Jan. 25.7  | 72.28 |    0.78   |   33.70   |
+  |Olbers      | 1815 April 26.0 | 1887 Oct. 8.5   | 73.32 |    1.21   |   33.99   |
+  |Winnecke    | 1819 July 18.9  | 1898 Mar. 20.4  |  5.67 |    0.77   |    5.55   |
+  |Faye        | 1843 Oct. 17.1  | 1896 Mar. 19.3  |  7.50 |    1.69   |    5.93   |
+  |De Vico     | 1844 Sept. 2.5  | 1894 Oct. 12.2  |  5.66 |    1.19   |    5.01   |
+  |Brorsen     | 1846 Feb. 11.1  | 1879 Mar. 30.5  |  5.52 |    0.65   |    5.63   |
+  |D'Arrest    | 1851 July 8.7   | 1897 May 21.7   |  6.56 |    1.17   |    5.71   |
+  |Tempel I.   | 1867 May 23.9   | 1879 May 7.0    |  5.84 |    1.56   |    4.82   |
+  |Tempel-Swift| 1869 Nov. 18.8  | 1891 Nov. 15.0  |  5.51 |    1.06   |    5.16   |
+  |Tempel II.  | 1873 June 25.2  | 1904 Nov. 10.5  |  5.28 |    1.34   |    4.66   |
+  |Wolf        | 1884 Nov. 17.8  | 1898 July 4.6   |  6.80 |    1.59   |    5.57   |
+  |Finlay      | 1886 Nov. 22.4  | 1893 July 12.2  |  6.64 |    0.99   |    6.17   |
+  |Brooks      | 1889 Sept. 30.3 | 1903 Dec. 6.5   |  7.10 |    1.95   |    5.44   |
+  |Holmes      | 1892 June 13.2  | 1899 April 28.1 |  6.89 |    2.14   |    4.50   |
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+-----------+-----------+
+
+There are also a number of cases in which a comet has been observed
+through one apparition, and found to be apparently periodic, but which
+was not seen to return at the end of its supposed period. In some of
+these cases it seems likely that the comet passed near the planet
+Jupiter and thus had its orbit entirely changed. It is possible that in
+other cases the apparent periodicity is due to the unavoidable errors of
+observation to which, owing to their diffused outline, the nuclei of
+comets are liable.     (S. N.)
+
+
+
+
+COMET-SEEKER, a small telescope (q.v.) adapted especially to searching
+for comets: commonly of short focal length and large aperture, in order
+to secure the greatest brilliancy of light.
+
+
+
+
+COMILLA, or KUMILLA, a town of British India, headquarters of Tippera
+district in Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated on the river Gumti, with
+a station on the Assam-Bengal railway, 96 m. from the coast terminus at
+Chittagong. Pop. (1901) 19,169. The town has many large tanks and an
+English church, built in 1875.
+
+
+
+
+COMINES, or COMMINES (Flem. _Komen_), a town of western Flanders, 13 m.
+N.N.W. of Lille by rail. It is divided by the river Lys, leaving one
+part on French (department of Nord), the other on Belgian territory
+(province of West Flanders). Pop. of the French town 6359 (1906); of the
+Belgian town, 6453 (1904). The former has a belfry of the 14th century,
+restored in the 17th and 19th centuries, and remains of a chateau.
+Comines carries on the spinning of flax, wool and cotton.
+
+
+
+
+COMITIA, the name applied, always in technical and generally in popular
+phraseology, to the most formal types of gathering of the sovereign
+people in ancient Rome. It is the plural of _comitium_, the old
+"meeting-place" (Lat. _cum_, together, _ire_, to go) on the north-west
+of the Forum. The Romans had three words for describing gatherings of
+the people. These were _concilium_, _comitia_ and _contio_. Of these
+concilium had the most general significance. It could be applied to any
+kind of meeting and is often used to describe assemblies in foreign
+states. It was, therefore, a word that might be employed to denote an
+organized gathering of a portion of the Roman people such as the plebs,
+and in this sense is contrasted with _comitia_, which when used strictly
+should signify an assembly of the whole people. Thus the Roman
+draughtsman who wishes to express the idea "magistrates of any kind as
+president of assemblies" writes "Magistratus queiquomque comitia
+conciliumve habebit" (_Lex Latina tabulae Bantinae_, l. 5), and
+formalism required that a magistrate who summoned only a portion of the
+people to meet him should, in his summons, use the word _concilium_.
+This view is expressed by Laelius Felix, a lawyer probably of the age of
+Hadrian, when he writes "Is qui non universum populum, sed partem
+aliquam adesse jubet, non comitia, sed concilium edicere debet"
+(Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, xv. 27). But popular phraseology did not
+conform to this canon, and _comitia_, which gained in current Latin the
+sense of "elections" was sometimes used of the assemblies of the plebs
+(see the instances in Botsford, distinction between _Comitia_ and
+_Concilium_, p. 23). The distinction between _comitia_ and _contio_ was
+more clearly marked. Both were formal assemblies convened by a
+magistrate; but while, in the case of the _comitia_, the magistrate's
+purpose was to ask a question of the people and to elicit their binding
+response, his object in summoning a _contio_ was merely to bring the
+people together either for their instruction or for a declaration of his
+will as expressed in an edict ("contionem habere est verba facere ad
+populum sine ulla rogatione," Gell. op. cit. xiii. 6). The word comitia
+merely means "meetings."
+
+The earliest _comitia_ was one organized on the basis of parishes
+(_curiae_) and known in later times as the _comitia curiata_. The
+_curia_ voted as a single unit and thus furnished the type for that
+system of group-voting which runs through all the later organization of
+the popular assemblies. This _comitia_ must originally have been
+composed exclusively of patricians (q.v.); but there is reason to
+believe that, at an early period of the Republic, it had, in imitation
+of the centuriate organization, come to include plebeians (see CURIA).
+The organization which gave rise to the _comitia centuriata_ was the
+result of the earliest steps in the political emancipation of the plebs.
+Three stages in this process may be conjectured. In the first place the
+plebeians gained full rights of ownership and transfer, and could thus
+become freeholders of the land which they occupied and of the
+appurtenances of this land (_res mancipi_). This legal capacity rendered
+them liable to military service as heavy-armed fighting men, and as such
+they were enrolled in the military units called _centuriae_. When the
+enrolment was completed the whole host (_exercitus_) was the best
+organized and most representative gathering that Rome could show. It
+therefore either usurped, or became gradually invested with voting
+powers, and gained a range of power which for two centuries (508-287
+B.C.) made it the dominant assembly in the state. But its aristocratic
+organization, based as this was on property qualifications which gave
+the greatest voting power to the richest men, prevented it from being a
+fitting channel for the expression of plebeian claims. Hence the plebs
+adopted a new political organization of their own. The tribunate called
+into existence a purely plebeian assembly, firstly, for the election of
+plebeian magistrates; secondly, for jurisdiction in cases where these
+magistrates had been injured; thirdly, for presenting petitions on
+behalf of the plebs through the consuls to the _comitia centuriata_.
+This right of petitioning developed into a power of legislation. The
+stages of the process (marked by the Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C.,
+the Publilian law of 339 B.C., and the Hortensian law of 287 B.C.) are
+unknown; but it is probable that the two first of the laws progressively
+weakened the discretionary power of senate and consuls in admitting such
+petitions; and that the Hortensian law fully recognized the right of
+resolutions of the plebs (_plebiscita_) to bind the whole community. The
+plebeian assembly, which had perhaps originally met by _curiae_, was
+organized on the basis of the territorial tribes in 471 B.C. This change
+suggested a renewed organization of the whole people for comitial
+purposes. The _comitia tributa populi_ was the result. This assembly
+seems to have been already in existence at the epoch of the Twelve
+Tables in 451 B.C., its electoral activity is perhaps attested in 447
+B.C., and it appears as a legislative body in 357 B.C.
+
+In spite of the formal differences of these four assemblies and the real
+distinction springing from the fact that patricians were not members of
+the plebeian bodies, the view which is appropriate to the developed
+Roman constitution is that the people expressed its will equally through
+all, although the mode of expression varied with the channel. This will
+was in theory unlimited. It was restricted only by the conservatism of
+the Roman, by the condition that the initiative must always be taken by
+a magistrate, by the _de facto_ authority of the senate, and by the
+magisterial veto which the senate often had at its command (see SENATE).
+There were no limitations on the legislative powers of the _comitia_
+except such as they chose to respect or which they themselves created
+and might repeal. They never during the Republican period lost the right
+of criminal jurisdiction, in spite of the fact that so many spheres of
+this jurisdiction had been assigned in perpetuity to standing
+commissions (_quaestiones perpetuae_). This power of judging exercised
+by the assemblies had in the main developed from the use of the right of
+appeal (_provocatio_) against the judgments of the magistrates. But it
+is probable that, in the developed procedure, where it was known that
+the judgment pronounced might legally give rise to the appeal, the
+magistrate pronounced no sentence, but brought the case at once before
+the people. The case was then heard in four separate _contiones_. After
+these hearings the _comitia_ gave its verdict. Finally, the people
+elected to every magistracy with the exception of the occasional offices
+of Dictator and Interrex. The distribution of these functions amongst
+the various _comitia_, and the differences in their organization, were
+as follows:--
+
+The _comitia curiata_ had in the later Republic become a merely formal
+assembly. Its main function was that of passing the _lex curiata_ which
+was necessary for the ratification both of the _imperium_ of the higher
+magistracies of the people, and of the _potestas_ of those of lower
+rank. This assembly also met, under the name of the _comitia calata_ and
+under the presidency of the pontifex maximus, for certain religious
+acts. These were the inauguration of the rex sacrorum and the flamens,
+and that abjuration of hereditary worship (_detestatio sacrorum_) which
+was made by a man who passed from his clan (_gens_) either by an act of
+adrogation (see ROMAN LAW and ADOPTION) or by transition from the
+patrician to the plebeian order. For the purpose of passing the _lex
+curiata_, and probably for its other purposes as well, this _comitia_
+was in Cicero's day represented by but thirty lictors (Cic. _de Lege
+Agraria_, ii. 12, 31).
+
+The _comitia centuriata_ could be summoned and presided over only by the
+magistrates with _imperium_. The consuls were its usual presidents for
+elections and for legislation, but the praetors summoned it for purposes
+of jurisdiction. It elected the magistrates with _imperium_ and the
+censors, and alone had the power of declaring war. According to the
+principle laid down in the Twelve Tables (Cicero, _de Legibus_, iii. 4.
+11) capital cases were reserved for this assembly. It was not frequently
+employed as a legislative body after the two assemblies of the tribes,
+which were easier to summon and organize, had been recognized as
+possessing sovereign rights. The internal structure of the _comitia
+centuriata_ underwent a great change during the Republic--a change which
+has been conjecturally attributed to the censorship of Flaminius in 220
+B.C. (Mommsen, _Staatsrecht_, iii. p. 270). In the early scheme, at a
+time when a pecuniary valuation had replaced land and its appurtenances
+(_res mancipi_) as the basis of qualification, five divisions
+(_classes_) were recognized whose property was assessed respectively at
+100,000, 75,000, 50,000, 25,000 and 11,000 (or 12,500) asses. The first
+class contained 80 centuries; the second, third and fourth 20 each; the
+fifth 30. Added to these were the 18 centuries of knights (see EQUITES).
+The combined vote of the first class and the knights was thus
+represented by 98 centuries; that of the whole of the other _classes_
+(including 4 or 5 centuries of professional corporations connected with
+the army, such as the _fabri_ and 1 century of _proletarii_, i.e. of all
+persons below the minimum census) was represented by 95 or 96 centuries.
+Thus the upper classes in the community possessed more than half the
+votes in the assembly. The newer scheme aimed at a greater equality of
+voting power; but it has been differently interpreted. The
+interpretation most usually accepted, which was first suggested by
+Pantagathus, a 17th-century scholar, is based on the view that the five
+_classes_ were distributed over the tribes in such a manner that there
+were 2 centuries of each class in a single tribe. As the number of the
+tribes was 35, the total number of centuries would be 350. To these we
+must add 18 centuries of knights, 4 of _fabri_, &c., and 1 of
+_proletarii_. Here the first class and the knights command but 88 votes
+out of a total of 373. Mommsen's interpretation (_Staatsrecht_, iii. p.
+275) was different. He allowed the 70 votes for the 70 centuries of the
+first class, but thought that the 280 centuries of the other classes
+were so combined as to form only 100 votes. The total votes in the
+comitia would thus be 70 + 100 + 5 (_fabri_, &c.) + 18 (knights), i.e.
+193, as in the earlier arrangement. In 88 B.C. a return was made to the
+original and more aristocratic system by a law passed by the consuls
+Sulla and Pompeius. At least this seems to be the meaning of Appian
+(_Bellum Civile_, i. 59) when he says [Greek: esegounto ... tas
+cheirotonias me kata phylas alla kata lochous ... gignesthai]. But this
+change was not permanent as the more liberal system prevails in the
+Ciceronian period.
+
+The _comitia tributa_ was in the later Republic the usual organ for laws
+passed by the whole people. Its presidents were the magistrates of the
+people, usually the consuls and praetors, and, for purposes of
+jurisdiction, the curule aediles. It elected these aediles and other
+lower magistrates of the people. Its jurisdiction was limited to
+monetary penalties.
+
+The _concilium plebis_, although voting, like this last assembly, by
+tribes, could be summoned and presided over only by plebeian
+magistrates, and never included the patricians. Its utterances
+(_plebiscita_) had the full force of law; it elected the tribunes of the
+plebs and the plebeian aediles, and it pronounced judgment on the
+penalties which they proposed. The right of this assembly to exercise
+capital jurisdiction was questioned; but it possessed the undisputed
+right of pronouncing outlawry (_aquae et ignis interdictio_) against any
+one already in exile (Livy xxv. 4, and xxvi. 3).
+
+When the tenure of the religious colleges--formerly filled up by
+co-optation--was submitted to popular election, a change effected by a
+_lex Domitia_ of 104 B.C., a new type of _comitia_ was devised for this
+purpose. The electoral body was composed of 17 tribes selected by lot
+from the whole body of 35.
+
+There was a body of rules governing the _comitia_ which were concerned
+with the time and place of meeting, the forms of promulgation and the
+methods of voting. Valid meetings might be held on any of the 194
+"comitial" days of the year which were not market or festal days
+(_nundinae, feriae_). The _comitia curiata_ and the two assemblies of
+the tribes met within the walls, the former usually in the Comitium, the
+latter in the Forum or on the Area Capitolii; but the elections at these
+assemblies were in the later Republic held in the Campus Martius outside
+the walls. The _comitia centuriata_ was by law compelled to meet outside
+the city and its gathering place was usually the Campus. Promulgation
+was required for the space of 3 _nundinae_ (i.e. 24 days) before a
+matter was submitted to the people. The voting was preceded by a
+_contio_ at which a limited debate was permitted by the magistrate. In
+the assemblies of the _curiae_ and the tribes the voting of the groups
+took place simultaneously, in that of the centuries in a fixed order. In
+elections as well as in legislative acts an absolute majority was
+required, and hence the candidate who gained a mere relative majority
+was not returned.
+
+The _comitia_ survived the Republic. The last known act of comitial
+legislation belongs to the reign of Nerva (A.D. 96-98). After the
+essential elements in the election of magistrates had passed to the
+senate in A.D. 14, the formal announcement of the successful candidates
+(_renuntiatio_) still continued to be made to the popular assemblies.
+Early in the 3rd century Dio Cassius still saw the _comitia centuriata_
+meeting with all its old solemnities (Dio Cassius lviii. 20).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Mommsen, _Romisches Staatsrecht_, iii. p. 300 foll.
+  (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887), and _Romische Forschungen_, Bd. i. (Berlin,
+  1879); Soltau, _Entstehung und Zusammensetzung der altromischen
+  Volksversammlungen_, and _Die Gultigkeit der Plebiscite_ (Berlin,
+  1884); Huschke, _Die Verfassung des Konigs Servius Tullius als
+  Grundlage zu einer romischen Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Heidelberg,
+  1838); Borgeaud, _Le Plebiscite dans l'antiquite. Grece et Rome_
+  (Geneva, 1838); Greenidge, _Roman Public Life_, p. 65 foll., 102, 238
+  foll. and App. i. (1901); G. W. Botsford, _Roman Assemblies_ (1909).
+       (A. H. J. G.)
+
+
+
+
+COMITY (from the Lat. _comitas_, courtesy, from _cemis_, friendly,
+courteous), friendly or courteous behaviour; a term particularly used in
+international law, in the phrase "comity of nations," for the courtesy
+of nations towards each other. This has been held by some authorities to
+be the basis for the recognition by courts of law of the judgments and
+rules of law of foreign tribunals (see INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE).
+"Comity of nations" is sometimes wrongly used, from a confusion with the
+Latin _comes_, a companion, for the whole body or company of nations
+practising such international courtesy.
+
+
+
+
+COMMA (Gr. [Greek: komma], a thing stamped or cut off, from [Greek:
+koptein], to strike), originally, in Greek rhetoric, a short clause,
+something less than the "colon"; hence a mark (,), in punctuation, to
+show the smallest break in the construction of a sentence. The mark is
+also used to separate numerals, mathematical symbols and the like.
+Inverted commas, or "quotation-marks," i.e. pairs of commas, the first
+inverted, and the last upright, are placed at the beginning and end of a
+sentence or word quoted, or of a word used in a technical or
+conventional sense; single commas are similarly used for quotations
+within quotations. The word is also applied to comma-shaped objects,
+such as the "comma-bacillus," the causal agent in cholera.
+
+
+
+
+COMMANDEER (from the South African Dutch _kommanderen_, to command),
+properly, to compel the performance of military duty in the field,
+especially of the military service of the Boer republics (see COMMANDO);
+also to seize property for military purposes; hence used of any
+peremptory seizure for other than military purposes.
+
+
+
+
+COMMANDER, in the British navy, the title of the second grade of
+captains. He commands a small vessel, or is second in command of a large
+one. A staff commander is entrusted with the navigation of a large ship,
+and ranks above a navigating lieutenant. Since 1838 the officer next in
+rank to a captain in the U.S. navy has been called commander.
+
+
+
+
+COMMANDERY (through the Fr. _commanderie_, from med. Lat. _commendaria_,
+a trust or charge), a division of the landed property in Europe of the
+Knights Hospitallers (see St John of Jerusalem). The property of the
+order was divided into "priorates," subdivided into "bailiwicks," which
+in turn were divided into "commanderies"; these were placed in charge of
+a "commendator" or commander. The word is also applied to the emoluments
+granted to a commander of a military order of knights.
+
+
+
+
+COMMANDO, a Portuguese word meaning "command," adopted by the Boers in
+South Africa through whom it has come into English use, for military and
+semi-military expeditions against the natives. More particularly a
+"commando" was the administrative and tactical unit of the forces of the
+former Boer republics, "commandeered" under the law of the constitutions
+which made military service obligatory on all males between the ages of
+sixteen and sixty. Each "commando" was formed from the burghers of
+military age of an electoral district.
+
+
+
+
+COMMEMORATION, a general term for celebrating some past event. It is
+also the name for the annual act, or _Encaenia_, the ceremonial closing
+of the academic year at Oxford University. It consists of a Latin
+oration in commemoration of benefactors and founders; of the recitation
+of prize compositions in prose and verse, and the conferring of honorary
+degrees upon English or foreign celebrities. The ceremony, which is
+usually on the third Wednesday after Trinity Sunday, is held in the
+Sheldonian Theatre, in Broad St., Oxford. "Commencement" is the term for
+the equivalent ceremony at Cambridge, and this is also used in the case
+of American universities.
+
+
+
+
+COMMENDATION (from the Lat. _commendare_, to entrust to the charge of,
+or to procure a favour for), approval, especially when expressed to one
+person on behalf of another, a recommendation. The word is used in a
+liturgical sense for an office commending the souls of the dying and
+dead to the mercies of God. In feudal law the term is applied to the
+practice of a freeman placing himself under the protection of a lord
+(see FEUDALISM), and in ecclesiastical law to the granting of benefices
+_in commendam_. A benefice was held _in commendam_ when granted either
+temporarily until a vacancy was filled up, or to a layman, or, in case
+of a monastery or abbey, to a secular cleric to enjoy the revenues and
+privileges for life (see ABBOT), or to a bishop to hold together with
+his see. An act of 1836 prohibited the holding of benefices _in
+commendam_ in England.
+
+
+
+
+COMMENTARII (Lat. = Gr. [Greek: hypomnemata]), notes to assist the
+memory, memoranda. This original idea of the word gave rise to a variety
+of meanings: notes and abstracts of speeches for the assistance of
+orators; family memorials, the origin of many of the legends introduced
+into early Roman history from a desire to glorify a particular family;
+diaries of events occurring in their own circle kept by private
+individuals,--the day-book, drawn up for Trimalchio in Petronius
+(_Satyricon_, 53) by his _actuarius_ (a slave to whom the duty was
+specially assigned) is quoted as an example; memoirs of events in which
+they had taken part drawn up by public men,--such were the
+"Commentaries" of Caesar on the Gallic and Civil wars, and of Cicero on
+his consulship. Different departments of the imperial administration and
+certain high functionaries kept records, which were under the charge of
+an official known as a _commentariis_ (cf. _a secretis_, _ab
+epistulis_). Municipal authorities also kept a register of their
+official acts.
+
+The _Commentarii Principis_ were the register of the official acts of
+the emperor. They contained the decisions, favourable or unfavourable,
+in regard to certain citizens; accusations brought before him or ordered
+by him; lists of persons in receipt of special privileges. These must be
+distinguished from the _commentarii diurni_, a daily court-journal. At a
+later period records called _ephemerides_ were kept by order of the
+emperor; these were much used by the Scriptores Historiae Augustae (see
+AUGUSTAN HISTORY). The _Commentarii Senatus_, only once mentioned
+(Tacitus, _Annals_, xv. 74) are probably identical with the Acta Senatus
+(q.v.). There were also Commentarii of the priestly colleges: (a)
+_Pontificum_, collections of their decrees and responses for future
+reference, to be distinguished from their _Annales_, which were
+historical records, and from their _Acta_, minutes of their meetings;
+(b) _Augurum_, similar collections of augural decrees and responses; (c)
+_Decemvirorum_; (d) _Fratrum Arvalium_. Like the priests, the
+magistrates also had similar notes, partly written by themselves, and
+partly records of which they formed the subject. But practically nothing
+is known of these _Commentarii Magistratuum_. Mention should also be
+made of the _Commentarii Regum_, containing decrees concerning the
+functions and privileges of the kings, and forming a record of the acts
+of the king in his capacity of priest. They were drawn up in historical
+times like the so-called _leges regiae_ (_jus Papirianum_), supposed to
+contain the decrees and decisions of the Roman kings.
+
+  See the exhaustive article by A. von Premerstein in Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopadie_ (1901); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Lit._
+  (Eng. trans.), pp. 72, 77-79; and the concise account by H. Thedenat
+  in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites_.
+
+
+
+
+COMMENTRY, a town of central France, in the department of Allier, 42 m.
+S.W. of Moulins by the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 7581. Commentry
+gives its name to a coalfield over 5000 acres in extent, and has
+important foundries and forges.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCE (Lat. _commercium_, from _cum_, together, and _merx_,
+merchandise), in its general acceptation, the international traffic in
+goods, or what constitutes the foreign trade of all countries as
+distinct from their domestic trade.
+
+In tracing the history of such dealings we may go back to the early
+records found in the Hebrew Scriptures. Such a transaction as that of
+Abraham, for example, weighing down "four hundred shekels of silver,
+_current with the merchant_," for the field of Ephron, is suggestive of
+a group of facts and ideas indicating an advanced condition of
+commercial intercourse,--property in land, sale of land, arts of mining
+and purifying metals, the use of silver of recognized purity as a common
+medium of exchange, and merchandise an established profession, or
+division of labour. That other passage in which we read of Joseph being
+sold by his brethren for twenty pieces of silver to "a company of
+Ishmaelites, coming from Gilead, with their camels bearing spicery and
+balm and myrrh to Egypt," extends our vision still farther, and shows us
+the populous and fertile Egypt in commercial relationship with Chaldaea,
+and Arabians, foreign to both, as intermediaries in their traffic,
+generations before the Hebrew commonwealth was founded.
+
+The first foreign merchants of whom we read, carrying goods and bags of
+silver from one distant region to another, were the southern Arabs,
+reputed descendants of Ishmael and Esau. The first notable navigators
+and maritime carriers of goods were the Phoenicians. In the commerce of
+the ante-Christian ages the Jews do not appear to have performed any
+conspicuous part. Both the agricultural and the theocratic constitution
+of their society were unfavourable to a vigorous prosecution of foreign
+trade. In such traffic as they had with other nations they were served
+on their eastern borders by Arabian merchants, and on the west and south
+by the Phoenician shippers. The abundance of gold, silver and other
+precious commodities gathered from distant parts, of which we read in
+the days of greatest Hebrew prosperity, has more the character of spoils
+of war and tributes of dependent states than the conquest by free
+exchange of their domestic produce and manufacture. It was not until the
+Jews were scattered by foreign invasions, and finally cast into the
+world by the destruction of Jerusalem, that they began to develop those
+commercial qualities for which they have since been famous.
+
+
+  Primary conditions of commerce.
+
+There are three conditions as essential to extensive international
+traffic as diversity of natural resources, division of labour,
+accumulation of stock, or any other primal element--(1) means of
+transport, (2) freedom of labour and exchange, and (3) security; and in
+all these conditions the ancient world was signally deficient.
+
+The great rivers, which became the first seats of population and empire,
+must have been of much utility as channels of transport, and hence the
+course of human power of which they are the geographical delineation,
+and probably the idolatry with which they were sometimes honoured. Nor
+were the ancient rulers insensible of the importance of opening roads
+through their dominions, and establishing post and lines of
+communication, which, though primarily for official and military
+purposes, must have been useful to traffickers and to the general
+population. But the free navigable area of great rivers is limited, and
+when diversion of traffic had to be made to roads and tracks through
+deserts, there remained the slow and costly carriage of beasts of
+burden, by which only articles of small bulk and the rarest value could
+be conveyed with any hope of profit. Corn, though of the first
+necessity, could only be thus transported in famines, when beyond price
+to those who were in want, and under this extreme pressure could only be
+drawn from within a narrow sphere, and in quantity sufficient to the
+sustenance of but a small number of people. The routes of ancient
+commerce were thus interrupted and cut asunder by barriers of transport,
+and the farther they were extended became the more impassable to any
+considerable quantity or weight of commodities. As long as navigation
+was confined to rivers and the shores of inland gulfs and seas, the
+oceans were a _terra incognita_, contributing nothing to the facility or
+security of transport from one part of the world to another, and leaving
+even one populous part of Asia as unapproachable from another as if they
+had been in different hemispheres. The various routes of trade from
+Europe and north-western Asia to India, which have been often referred
+to, are to be regarded more as speculations of future development than
+as realities of ancient history. It is not improbable that the ancient
+traffic of the Red Sea may have been extended along the shores of the
+Arabian Sea to some parts of Hindustan, but that vessels braved the
+Indian Ocean and passed round Cape Comorin into the Bay of Bengal, 2000
+or even 1000 years before mariners had learned to double the Cape of
+Good Hope, is scarcely to be believed. The route by the Euxine and the
+Caspian Sea has probably never in any age reached India. That by the
+Euphrates and the Persian Gulf is shorter, and was besides the more
+likely from passing through tracts of country which in the most remote
+times were seats of great population. There may have been many merchants
+who traded on all these various routes, but that commodities were passed
+in bulk over great distances is inconceivable. It may be doubted whether
+in the ante-Christian ages there was any heavy transport over even 500
+m., save for warlike or other purposes, which engaged the public
+resources of imperial states, and in which the idea of commerce, as now
+understood, is in a great measure lost.
+
+The advantage which absolute power gave to ancient nations in their
+warlike enterprises, and in the execution of public works of more or
+less utility, or of mere ostentation and monumental magnificence, was
+dearly purchased by the sacrifice of individual freedom, the right to
+labour, produce and exchange under the steady operation of natural
+economic principles, which more than any other cause vitalizes the
+individual and social energies, and multiplies the commercial resource
+of communities. Commerce in all periods and countries has obtained a
+certain freedom and hospitality from the fact that the foreign merchant
+has something desirable to offer; but the action of trading is
+reciprocal, and requires multitudes of producers and merchants, as free
+agents, on both sides, searching out by patient experiment wants more
+advantageously supplied by exchange than by direct production, before it
+can attain either permanence or magnitude, or can become a vital element
+of national life. The ancient polities offered much resistance to this
+development, and in their absolute power over the liberty, industry and
+property of the masses of their subjects raised barriers to the
+extension of commerce scarcely less formidable than the want of means of
+communication itself. The conditions of security under which foreign
+trade can alone flourish equally exceeded the resources of ancient
+civilization. Such roads as exist must be protected from robbers, the
+rivers and seas from pirates; goods must have safe passage and safe
+storage, must be held in a manner sacred in the territories through
+which they pass, be insured against accidents, be respected even in the
+madness of hostilities; the laws of nations must give a guarantee on
+which traders can proceed in their operations with reasonable
+confidence; and the governments, while protecting the commerce of their
+subjects with foreigners as if it were their own enterprise, must in
+their fiscal policy, and in all their acts, be endued with the highest
+spirit of commercial honour. Every great breach of this security stops
+the continuous circulation, which is the life of traffic and of the
+industries to which it ministers. But in the ancient records we see
+commerce exposed to great risks, subject to constant pillage, hunted
+down in peace and utterly extinguished in war. Hence it became necessary
+that foreign trade should itself be an armed force in the world; and
+though the states of purely commercial origin soon fell into the same
+arts and wiles as the powers to which they were opposed, yet their
+history exhibits clearly enough the necessity out of which they arose.
+Once organized, it was inevitable that they should meet intrigue with
+intrigue, and force with force. The political empires, while but
+imperfectly developing industry and traffic within their own
+territories, had little sympathy with any means of prosperity from
+without. Their sole policy was either to absorb under their own spirit
+and conditions of rule, or to destroy, whatever was rich or great beyond
+their borders. Nothing is more marked in the past history of the world
+than this struggle of commerce to establish conditions of security and
+means of communication with distant parts. When almost driven from the
+land, it often found both on the sea; and often, when its success had
+become brilliant and renowned, it perished under the assault of stronger
+powers, only to rise again in new centres and to find new channels of
+intercourse.
+
+
+  Carthage.
+
+  Roman conquests.
+
+  Palmyra.
+
+While Rome was giving laws and order to the half-civilized tribes of
+Italy, Carthage, operating on a different base, and by other methods,
+was opening trade with less accessible parts of Europe. The strength of
+Rome was in her legions, that of Carthage in her ships; and her ships
+could cover ground where the legions were powerless. Her mariners had
+passed the mythical straits into the Atlantic, and established the port
+of Cadiz. Within the Mediterranean itself they founded Carthagena and
+Barcelona on the same Iberian peninsula, and ahead of the Roman legions
+had depots and traders on the shores of Gaul. After the destruction of
+Tyre, Carthage became the greatest power in the Mediterranean, and
+inherited the trade of her Phoenician ancestors with Egypt, Greece and
+Asia Minor, as well as her own settlements in Sicily and on the European
+coasts. An antagonism between the great naval and the great military
+power, whose interests crossed each other at so many points, was sure to
+occur; and in the three Punic wars Carthage measured her strength with
+that of Rome both on sea and on land with no unequal success. But a
+commercial state impelled into a series of great wars has departed from
+its own proper base; and in the year 146 B.C. Carthage was so totally
+destroyed by the Romans that of the great city, more than 20 m. in
+circumference, and containing at one period near a million of
+inhabitants, only a few thousands were found within its ruined walls. In
+the same year Corinth, one of the greatest of the Greek capitals and
+seaports, was captured, plundered of vast wealth and given to the flames
+by a Roman consul. Athens and her magnificent harbour of the Piraeus
+fell into the same hands 60 years later. It may be presumed that trade
+went on under the Roman conquests in some degree as before; but these
+were grave events to occur within a brief period, and the spirit of the
+seat of trade in every case having been broken, and its means and
+resources more or less plundered and dissipated--in some cases, as in
+that of Carthage, irreparably--the most necessary commerce could only
+proceed with feeble and languid interest under the military, consular
+and proconsular licence of Rome at that period. Tyre, the great seaport
+of Palestine, having been destroyed by Alexander the Great, Palmyra, the
+great inland centre of Syrian trade, was visited with a still more
+complete annihilation by the Roman Emperor Aurelian within little more
+than half a century after the capture and spoliation of Athens. The
+walls were razed to their foundations; the population--men, women,
+children and the rustics round the city--were all either massacred or
+dispersed; and the queen Zenobia was carried captive to Rome. Palmyra
+had for centuries, as a centre of commercial intercourse and transit,
+been of great service to her neighbours, east and west. In the wars of
+the Romans and Parthians she was respected by both as an asylum of
+common interests which it would have been simple barbarity to invade or
+injure; and when the Parthians were subdued, and Palmyra became a Roman
+_annexe_, she continued to flourish as before. Her relations with Rome
+were more than friendly; they became enthusiastic and heroic; and her
+citizens having inflicted signal chastisement on the king of Persia for
+the imprisonment of the emperor Valerian, the admiration of this conduct
+at Rome was so great that their spirited leader Odaenathus, the husband
+of Zenobia, was proclaimed Augustus, and became co-emperor with
+Gallienus. It is obvious that the destruction of Palmyra must not only
+have doomed Palestine, already bereft of her seaports, to greater
+poverty and commercial isolation than had been known in long preceding
+ages, but have also rendered it more difficult to Rome herself to hold
+or turn to any profitable account her conquests in Asia; and, being an
+example of the policy of Rome to the seats of trade over nearly the
+whole ancient world, it may be said to contain in graphic characters a
+presage of what came to be the actual event--the collapse and fall of
+the Roman empire itself.
+
+
+  Venice.
+
+The repeated invasions of Italy by the Goths and Huns gave rise to a
+seat of trade in the Adriatic, which was to sustain during more than a
+thousand years a history of unusual splendour. The Veneti cultivated
+fertile lands on the Po, and built several towns, of which Padua was the
+chief. They appear from the earliest note of them in history to have
+been both an agricultural and trading people; and they offered a rich
+prey to the barbarian hordes when these broke through every barrier into
+the plains of Italy. Thirty years before Attila razed the neighbouring
+city of Aquileia, the consuls and senate of Padua, oppressed and
+terrified by the prior ravages of Alaric, passed a decree for erecting
+Rialto, the largest of the numerous islets at the mouth of the Po, into
+a chief town and port, not more as a convenience to the islanders than
+as a security for themselves and their goods. But every fresh incursion,
+every new act of spoliation by the dreaded enemies, increased the flight
+of the rich and the industrious to the islands, and thus gradually arose
+the second Venice, whose glory was so greatly to exceed that of the
+first. Approachable from the mainland only by boats, through river
+passes easily defended by practised sailors against barbarians who had
+never plied an oar, the Venetian refugees could look in peace on the
+desolation which swept over Italy; their warehouses, their markets,
+their treasures were safe from plunder; and stretching their hands over
+the sea, they found in it fish and salt, and in the rich possessions of
+trade and territory which it opened to them more than compensation for
+the fat lands and inland towns which had long been their home. The
+Venetians traded with Constantinople, Greece, Syria and Egypt. They
+became lords of the Morea, and of Candia, Cyprus and other islands of
+the Levant. The trade of Venice with India, though spoken of, was
+probably never great. But the crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries
+against the Saracens in Palestine extended her repute more widely east
+and west, and increased both her naval and her commercial resources. It
+is enough, indeed, to account for the grandeur of Venice that in course
+of centuries, from the security of her position, the growth and energy
+of her population, and the regularity of her government at a period when
+these sources of prosperity were rare, she became the great emporium of
+the Mediterranean--all that Carthage, Corinth and Athens had been in a
+former age on a scene the most remarkable in the world for its fertility
+and facilities of traffic,--and that as Italy and other parts of the
+Western empire became again more settled her commerce found always a
+wider range. The bridge built from the largest of the islands to the
+opposite bank became the "Rialto," or famous exchange of Venice, whose
+transactions reached farther, and assumed a more consolidated form, than
+had been known before. There it was where the first public bank was
+organized; that bills of exchange were first negotiated, and funded debt
+became transferable; that finance became a science and book-keeping an
+art. Nor must the effect of the example of Venice on other cities of
+Italy be left out of account. Genoa, following her steps, rose into
+great prosperity and power at the foot of the Maritime Alps, and became
+her rival, and finally her enemy. Naples, Gaeta, Florence, many other
+towns of Italy, and Rome herself, long after her fall, were encouraged
+to struggle for the preservation of their municipal freedom, and to
+foster trade, arts and navigation, by the brilliant success set before
+them on the Adriatic; but Venice, from the early start she had made, and
+her command of the sea, had the commercial pre-eminence.
+
+
+  The middle ages.
+
+The state of things which arose on the collapse of the Roman empire
+presents two concurrent facts, deeply affecting the course of trade--(1)
+the ancient seats of industry and civilization were undergoing constant
+decay, while (2) the energetic races of Europe were rising into more
+civilized forms and manifold vigour and copiousness of life. The fall of
+the Eastern division of the empire prolonged the effect of the fall of
+the Western empire; and the advance of the Saracens over Asia Minor,
+Syria, Greece, Egypt, over Cyprus and other possessions of Venice in the
+Mediterranean, over the richest provinces of Spain, and finally across
+the Hellespont into the Danubian provinces of Europe, was a new
+irruption of barbarians from another point of the compass, and revived
+the calamities and disorders inflicted by the successive invasions of
+Goths, Huns and other Northern tribes. For more than ten centuries the
+naked power of the sword was vivid and terrible as flashes of lightning
+over all the seats of commerce, whether of ancient or more modern
+origin. The feudal system of Europe, in organizing the open country
+under military leaders and defenders subordinated in possession and
+service under a legal system to each other and to the sovereign power,
+must have been well adapted to the necessity of the times in which it
+spread so rapidly; but it would be impossible to say that the feudal
+system was favourable to trade, or the extension of trade. The
+commercial spirit in the feudal, as in preceding ages, had to find for
+itself places of security, and it could only find them in towns, armed
+with powers of self-regulation and defence, and prepared, like the
+feudal barons themselves, to resist violence from whatever quarter it
+might come. Rome, in her best days, had founded the municipal system,
+and when this system was more than ever necessary as the bulwark of arts
+and manufactures, its extension became an essential element of the whole
+European civilization. Towns formed themselves into leagues for mutual
+protection, and out of leagues not infrequently arose commercial
+republics. The Hanseatic League, founded as early as 1241, gave the
+first note of an increasing traffic between countries on the Baltic and
+in northern Germany, which a century or two before were sunk in isolated
+barbarism. From Lubeck and Hamburg, commanding the navigation of the
+Elbe, it gradually spread over 85 towns, including Amsterdam, Cologne
+and Frankfort in the south, and Danzig, Konigsberg and Riga in the
+north. The last trace of this league, long of much service in protecting
+trade, and as a means of political mediation, passed away in the
+erection of the German empire (1870), but only from the same cause that
+had brought about its gradual dissolution--the formation of powerful
+and legal governments--which, while leaving to the free cities their
+municipal rights, were well capable of protecting their mercantile
+interests. The towns of Holland found lasting strength and security from
+other causes. Their foundations were laid as literally in the sea as
+those of Venice had been. They were not easily attacked whether by sea
+or land, and if attacked had formidable means of defence. The Zuyder
+Zee, which had been opened to the German Ocean in 1282, carried into the
+docks and canals of Amsterdam the traffic of the ports of the Baltic, of
+the English Channel and of the south of Europe, and what the seas did
+for Amsterdam from without the Rhine and the Maese did for Dort and
+Rotterdam from the interior. By the Union of Utrecht in 1579 Holland
+became an independent republic, and for long after, as it had been for
+some time before, was the greatest centre of maritime traffic in Europe.
+The rise of the Dutch power in a low country, exposed to the most
+destructive inundations, difficult to cultivate or even to inhabit,
+affords a striking illustration of those conditions which in all times
+have been found specially favourable to commercial development, and
+which are not indistinctly reflected in the mercantile history of
+England, preserved by its insular position from hostile invasions, and
+capable by its fleets and arms to protect its goods on the seas and the
+rights of its subjects in foreign lands.
+
+The progress of trade and productive arts in the middle ages, though not
+rising to much international exchange, was very considerable both in
+quality and extent. The republics of Italy, which had no claim to rival
+Venice or Genoa in maritime power or traffic, developed a degree of art,
+opulence and refinement commanding the admiration of modern times; and
+if any historian of trans-Alpine Europe, when Venice had already
+attained some greatness, could have seen it five hundred years
+afterwards, the many strong towns of France, Germany and the Low
+Countries, the great number of their artizans, the products of their
+looms and anvils, and their various cunning workmanship, might have
+added many a brilliant page to his annals. Two centuries before England
+had discovered any manufacturing quality, or knew even how to utilize
+her most valuable raw materials, and was importing goods from the
+continent for the production of which she was soon to be found to have
+special resources, the Flemings were selling their woollen and linen
+fabrics, and the French their wines, silks and laces in all the richer
+parts of the British Islands. The middle ages placed the barbarous
+populations of Europe under a severe discipline, trained them in the
+most varied branches of industry, and developed an amount of handicraft
+and ingenuity which became a solid basis for the future. But trade was
+too walled in, too much clad in armour, and too incessantly disturbed by
+wars and tumults, and violations of common right and interest, to exert
+its full influence over the general society, or even to realize its most
+direct advantages. It wanted especially the freedom and mobility
+essential to much international increase, and these it was now to
+receive from a series of the most pregnant events.
+
+
+  Opening of a new era.
+
+The mariner's compass had become familiar in the European ports about
+the beginning of the 14th century, and the seamen of Italy, Portugal,
+France, Holland and England entered upon a more enlightened and
+adventurous course of navigation. The Canary Islands were sighted by a
+French vessel in 1330, and colonized in 1418 by the Portuguese, who two
+years later landed on Madeira. In 1431 the Azores were discovered by a
+shipmaster of Bruges. The Atlantic was being gradually explored. In
+1486, Diaz, a Portuguese, steering his course almost unwittingly along
+the coast of Africa, came upon the land's-end of that continent; and
+eleven years afterwards Vasco da Gama, of the same nation, not only
+doubled the Cape of Good Hope, but reached India. About the same period
+Portuguese travellers penetrated to India by the old time-honoured way
+of Suez; and a land which tradition and imagination had invested with
+almost fabulous wealth and splendour was becoming more real to the
+European world at the moment when the expedition of Vasco da Gama had
+made an oceanic route to its shores distinctly visible. One can hardly
+now realize the impression made by these discoveries in an age when the
+minds of men were awakening out of a long sleep, when the printing press
+was disseminating the ancient classical and sacred literature, and when
+geography and astronomy were subjects of eager study in the seats both
+of traffic and of learning. But their practical effect was seen in
+swiftly-succeeding events. Before the end of the century Columbus had
+thrice crossed the Atlantic, touched at San Salvador, discovered
+Jamaica, Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien, and had seen the waters
+of the Orinoco in South America. Meanwhile Cabot, sent out by England,
+had discovered Newfoundland, planted the English flag on Labrador, Nova
+Scotia and Virginia, and made known the existence of an expanse of land
+now known as Canada. This tide of discovery by navigators flowed on
+without intermission. But the opening of a maritime route to India and
+the discovery of America, surprising as these events must have been at
+the time, were slow in producing the results of which they were a sure
+prognostic. The Portuguese established in Cochin the first European
+factory in India a few years after Vasco da Gama's expedition, and other
+maritime nations of Europe traced a similar course. But it was not till
+1600 that the English East India Company was established, and the
+opening of the first factory of the Company in India must be dated some
+ten or eleven years later. So also it was one thing to discover the two
+Americas, and another, in any real sense, to possess or colonize them,
+or to bring their productions into the general traffic and use of the
+world. Spain, following the stroke of the valiant oar of Columbus, found
+in Mexico and Peru remarkable remains of an ancient though feeble
+civilization, and a wealth of gold and silver mines, which to Europeans
+of that period was fascinating from the rarity of the precious metals in
+their own realms, and consequently gave to the Spanish colonizations and
+conquests in South America an extraordinary but unsolid prosperity. The
+value of the precious metals in Europe was found to fall as soon as they
+began to be more widely distributed, a process in itself at that period
+of no small tediousness; and it was discovered further, after a century
+or two, that the production of gold and silver is limited like the
+production of other commodities for which they exchange, and only
+increased in quantity at a heavier cost, that is only reduced again by
+greater art and science in the process of production. Many difficulties,
+in short, had to be overcome, many wars to be waged, and many deplorable
+errors to be committed, in turning the new advantages to account. But
+given a maritime route to India and the discovery of a new world of
+continent and islands in the richest tropical and sub-tropical
+latitudes, it could not be difficult to foresee that the course of trade
+was to be wholly changed as well as vastly extended.
+
+
+  Maritime route to India.
+
+The substantial advantage of the oceanic passage to India by the Cape of
+Good Hope, as seen at the time, was to enable European trade with the
+East to escape from the Moors, Algerines and Turks who now swarmed round
+the shores of the Mediterranean, and waged a predatory war on ships and
+cargoes which would have been a formidable obstacle even if traffic,
+after running this danger, had not to be further lost, or filtered into
+the smallest proportions, in the sands of the Isthmus, and among the
+Arabs who commanded the navigation of the Red and Arabian Seas. Venice
+had already begun to decline in her wars with the Turks, and could
+inadequately protect her own trade in the Mediterranean. Armed vessels
+sent out in strength from the Western ports often fared badly at the
+hands of the pirates. European trade with India can scarcely be said,
+indeed, to have yet come into existence. The maritime route was round
+about, and it lay on the hitherto almost untrodden ocean, but the ocean
+was a safer element than inland seas and deserts infested by the
+lawlessness and ferocity of hostile tribes of men. In short, the
+maritime route enabled European traders to see India for themselves, to
+examine what were its products and its wants, and by what means a
+profitable exchange on both sides could be established; and on this
+basis of knowledge, ships could leave the ports of their owners in
+Europe with a reasonable hope, via the Cape, of reaching the places to
+which they were destined without transhipment or other intermediary
+obstacle. This is the explanation to be given of the joy with which the
+Cape of Good Hope route was received, as well as the immense influence
+it exerted on the future course and extension of trade, and of the no
+less apparent satisfaction with which it was to some extent discarded in
+favour of the ancient line, via the Mediterranean, Isthmus of Suez and
+the Red Sea.
+
+
+  Discovery of America.
+
+The maritime route to India was the discovery to the European nations of
+a "new world" quite as much as the discovery of North and South America
+and their central isthmus and islands. The one was the far, populous
+Eastern world, heard of from time immemorial, but with which there had
+been no patent lines of communication. The other was a vast and
+comparatively unpeopled solitude, yet full of material resources, and
+capable in a high degree of European colonization. America offered less
+resistance to the action of Europe than India, China and Japan; but on
+the other hand this new populous Eastern world held out much attraction
+to trade. These two great terrestrial discoveries were contemporaneous;
+and it would be difficult to name any conjuncture of material events
+bearing with such importance on the history of the world. The Atlantic
+Ocean was the medium of both; and the waves of the Atlantic beat into
+all the bays and tidal rivers of western Europe. The centre of
+commercial activity was thus physically changed; and the formative power
+of trade over human affairs was seen in the subsequent phenomena--the
+rise of great seaports on the Atlantic seaboard, and the ceaseless
+activity of geographical exploration, manufactures, shipping and
+emigration, of which they became the outlets.
+
+
+  Increase of trading settlements and colonies.
+
+The Portuguese are entitled to the first place in utilizing the new
+sources of wealth and commerce. They obtained Macao as a settlement from
+the Chinese as early as 1537, and their trading operations followed
+close on the discoveries of their navigators on the coast of Africa, in
+India and in the Indian Archipelago. Spain spread her dominion over
+Central and South America, and forced the labour of the subject natives
+into the gold and silver mines, which seemed in that age the chief prize
+of her conquests. France introduced her trade in both the East and West
+Indies, and was the first to colonize Canada and the Lower Mississippi.
+The Dutch founded New York in 1621; and England, which in boldness of
+naval and commercial enterprize had attained high rank in the reign of
+Elizabeth, established the thirteen colonies which became the United
+States, and otherwise had a full share in all the operations which were
+transforming the state of the world. The original disposition of affairs
+was destined to be much changed by the fortune of war; and success in
+foreign trade and colonization, indeed, called into play other qualities
+besides those of naval and military prowess. The products of so many new
+countries--tissues, dyes, metals, articles of food, chemical
+substances--greatly extended the range of European manufacture. But in
+addition to the mercantile faculty of discovering how they were to be
+exchanged and wrought into a profitable trade, their use in arts and
+manufactures required skill, invention and aptitude for manufacturing
+labour, and those again, in many cases, were found to depend on abundant
+possession of natural materials, such as coal and iron. In old and
+populous countries, like India and China, modern manufacture had to meet
+and contend with ancient manufacture, and had at once to learn from and
+improve economically on the established models, before an opening could
+be made for its extension. In many parts of the New World there were
+vast tracts of country, without population or with native races too wild
+and savage to be reclaimed to habits of industry, whose resources could
+only be developed by the introduction of colonies of Europeans; and
+innumerable experiments disclosed great variety of qualification among
+the European nations for the adventure, hardship and perseverance of
+colonial life. There were countries which, whatever their fertility of
+soil or favour of climate, produced nothing for which a market could be
+found; and products such as the sugar-cane and the seed of the cotton
+plant had to be carried from regions where they were indigenous to other
+regions where they might be successfully cultivated, and the art of
+planting had to pass through an ordeal of risk and speculation. There
+were also countries where no European could labour; and the ominous
+work of transporting African negroes as slaves into the colonies--begun
+by Spain in the first decade of the 16th century, followed up by
+Portugal, and introduced by England in 1562 into the West Indies, at a
+later period into New England and the Southern States, and finally
+domiciled by royal privilege of trade in the Thames and three or more
+outports of the kingdom,--after being done on an elaborate scale, and
+made the basis of an immense superstructure of labour, property and
+mercantile interest over nearly three centuries, had, under a more just
+and ennobling view of humanity, to be as elaborately undone at a future
+time.
+
+These are some of the difficulties that had to be encountered in
+utilizing the great maritime and geographical conquests of the new
+epoch. But one cannot leave out of view the obstacles, arising from
+other sources, to what might be expected to be the regular and easy
+course of affairs. Commerce, though an undying and prevailing interest
+of civilized countries, is but one of the forces acting on the policy of
+states, and has often to yield the pace to other elements of national
+life. It were needless to say what injury the great but vain and
+purposeless wars of Louis XIV. of France inflicted in that country, or
+how largely the fruitful and heroic energies of England were absorbed in
+the civil wars between Charles and the Parliament, to what poverty
+Scotland was reduced, or in what distraction and savagery Ireland was
+kept by the same course of events. The grandeur of Spain in the
+preceding century was due partly to the claim of her kings to be Holy
+Roman emperors, in which imperial capacity they entailed intolerable
+mischief on the Low Countries and on the commercial civilization of
+Europe, and partly to their command of the gold and silver mines of
+Mexico and Peru, in an eager lust of whose produce they brought cruel
+calamities on a newly-discovered continent where there were many traces
+of antique life, the records of which perished in their hands or under
+their feet. These ephemeral causes of greatness removed, the hollowness
+of the situation was exposed; and Spain, though rich in her own natural
+resources, was found to be actually poor--poor in number of people, poor
+in roads, in industrial art, and in all the primary conditions of
+interior development. An examination of the foreign trade of Europe two
+centuries after the opening of the maritime route to India and the
+discovery of America would probably give more reason to be surprised at
+the smallness than the magnitude of the use that had been made of these
+events.
+
+
+  19th century.
+
+By the beginning of the 19th century the world had been well explored.
+Colonies had been planted on every coast; great nations had sprung up in
+vast solitudes or in countries inhabited only by savage or decadent
+races of men; the most haughty and exclusive of ancient nations had
+opened their ports to foreign merchantmen; and all parts of the world
+been brought into habitual commercial intercourse. The seas, subdued by
+the progress of navigation to the service of man, had begun to yield
+their own riches in great abundance and the whale, seal, herring, cod
+and other fisheries, prosecuted with ample capital and hardy seamanship,
+had become the source of no small traffic in themselves. The lists of
+imports and exports and of the places from which they flowed to and from
+the centres of trade, as they swelled in bulk from time to time, show
+how busily and steadily the threads of commerce had been weaving
+together the labour and interests of mankind, and extending a security
+and bounty of existence unknown in former ages. The 19th century
+witnessed an extension of the commercial relations of mankind of which
+there was no parallel in previous history. The heavy debts and taxes,
+and the currency complications in which the close of the Napoleonic wars
+left the European nations, as well as the fall of prices which was the
+necessary effect of the sudden closure of a vast war expenditure and
+absorption of labour, had a crippling effect for many years on trading
+energies. Yet even under such circumstances commerce is usually found,
+on its well-established modern basis, to make steady progress from one
+series of years to another. The powers of production had been greatly
+increased by a brilliant development of mechanical arts and inventions.
+The United States had grown into a commercial nation of the first rank.
+The European colonies and settlements were being extended, and
+assiduously cultivated, and were opening larger and more varied markets
+for manufactures. In 1819 the first steamboat crossed the Atlantic from
+New York to Liverpool, and a similar adventure was accomplished from
+England to India in 1825--events in themselves the harbingers of a new
+era in trade. China, after many efforts, was opened under treaty to an
+intercourse with foreign nations which was soon to attain surprising
+dimensions. These various causes supported the activity of commerce in
+the first four decades; but the great movement which made the 19th
+century so remarkable was chiefly disclosed in practical results from
+about 1840. The outstanding characteristics of the 19th century were the
+many remarkable inventions which so widened the field of commerce by the
+discovery of new and improved methods of production, the highly
+organized division of labour which tended to the same end, and, above
+all, the powerful forces of steam navigation, railways and telegraphs.
+
+Commerce has thus acquired a security and extension, in all its most
+essential conditions, of which it was void in any previous age. It can
+hardly ever again exhibit that wandering course from route to route, and
+from one solitary centre to another, which is so characteristic of its
+ancient history, because it is established in every quarter of the
+globe, and all the seas and ways are open to it on terms fair and equal
+to every nation. Wherever there is population, industry, resource, art
+and skill, there will be international trade. Commerce will have many
+centres, and one may relatively rise or relatively fall; but such decay
+and ruin as have smitten many once proud seats of wealth into dust
+cannot again occur without such cataclysms of war, violence and disorder
+as the growing civilization and reason of mankind, and the power of law,
+right and common interest forbid us to anticipate. But the present
+magnitude of commerce devolves serious work on all who are engaged in
+it. If in the older times it was thought that a foreign merchant
+required to be not only a good man of business, but even a statesman, it
+is evident that all the higher faculties of the mercantile profession
+must still more be called into request when imports and exports are
+reckoned by hundreds instead of fives or tens of millions, when the
+markets are so much larger and more numerous, the competition so much
+more keen and varied, the problems to be solved in every course of
+transaction so much more complex, the whole range of affairs to be
+overseen so immensely widened. It is not a company of merchants, having
+a monopoly, and doing whatever they please, whether right or wrong, that
+now hold the commerce of the world in their hands, but large communities
+of free merchants in all parts of the world, affiliated to manufacturers
+and producers equally free, each under strong temptation to do what may
+be wrong in the pursuit of his own interest, and the only security of
+doing right being to follow steady lights of information and economic
+science common to all. Easy transport of goods by land and sea, prompt
+intelligence from every point of the compass, general prevalence of
+mercantile law and safety, have all been accomplished; and the world is
+opened to trade. But intellectual grasp of principles and details, and
+the moral integrity which is the root of all commercial success, are
+severely tested in this vaster sphere.
+
+  See TRADE ORGANIZATION; ECONOMICS; COMMERCIAL TREATIES, and the
+  sections under the headings of countries.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCE, the name of a card-game. Any number can play with an ordinary
+pack. There are several variations of the game, but the following is a
+common one. Each player receives three cards, and three more are turned
+up as a "pool." The first player may exchange one or two of his cards
+for one or two of the exposed cards, putting his own, face upwards, in
+their place. His object is to "make his hand" (see below), but if he
+changes all three cards at once he cannot change again. The next player
+can do likewise, and so on. Usually there are as many rounds as there
+are players, and a fresh card is added to the pool at the beginning of
+each. If a player passes once he cannot exchange afterwards. When the
+rounds are finished the hands are shown, the holder of the best either
+receiving a stake from all the others, or, supposing each has started
+with three "lives," taking one life from the lowest. The hands, in order
+of merit, are: (i.) _Tricon_--three similar cards, three aces ranking
+above three kings, and so on. (ii.) _Sequence_--three cards of the same
+suit in consecutive order; the highest sequence is the best. (iii.)
+_Flush_--three cards of the same suit, the highest "point" wins, i.e.
+the highest number of pips, ace counting eleven and court-cards ten.
+(iv.) _Pair_--two similar cards, the highest pair winning. (v.)
+_Point_--the largest number of pips winning, as in "flush," but there is
+no restriction as to suit. Sometimes "pair" and "point" are not
+recognized. A popular variation of Commerce is _Pounce Commerce_. In
+this, if a player has already three similar cards, e.g. three nines, and
+the fourth nine comes into the pool, he says "Pounce!" and takes it,
+thus obtaining a hand of four, which is higher than any hand of three:
+whenever a pounce occurs, a new card is turned up from the pack.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCIAL COURT, in England, a court presided over by a single judge of
+the king's bench division, for the trial, as expeditiously as may be, of
+commercial cases. By the Rules of the Supreme Court, Order xviii. a
+(made in November 1893), a plaintiff was allowed to dispense with
+pleadings altogether, provided that the indorsement of his writ of
+summons contained a statement sufficient to give notice of his claim, or
+of the relief or remedy required in the action, and stating that the
+plaintiff intended to proceed to trial without pleadings. The judge
+might, on the application of the defendant, order a statement of claim
+to be delivered, or the action to proceed to trial without pleadings,
+and if necessary particulars of the claim or defence to be delivered.
+Out of this order grew the commercial court. It is not a distinct court
+or division or branch of the High Court, and is not regulated by any
+special rules of court made by the rule committee. It originated in a
+notice issued by the judges of the queen's bench division, in February
+1895 (see W.N., 2nd of March 1895), the provisions contained in which
+represent only "a practice agreed on by the judges, who have the right
+to deal by convention among themselves with this mode of disposing of
+the business in their courts" (per Lord Esher in _Barry_ v. _Peruvian
+Corporation_, 1896, 1 Q. B. p. 209). A separate list of causes of a
+commercial character is made and assigned to a particular judge, charged
+with commercial business, to whom all applications before the trial are
+made. The 8th paragraph is as follows:--
+
+  Such judge may at any time after appearance and without pleadings make
+  such order as he thinks fit for the speedy determination, in
+  accordance with existing rules, of the questions really in controversy
+  between the parties.
+
+Practitioners before Sir George Jessel, at the rolls, in the years 1873
+to 1880, will be reminded of his mode of ascertaining the point in
+controversy and bringing it to a speedy determination. Obviously the
+scheme is only applicable to cases in which there is some single issue
+of law or fact, or the case depends on the construction of some contract
+or other instrument or section of an act of parliament, and such issue
+or question is either agreed upon by the parties or at once
+ascertainable by the judge. The success of the scheme also depends
+largely on the personal qualities of the judge to whom the list is
+assigned. Under the able guidance of Mr (afterwards Lord) Justice Mathew
+(d. 1908), the commercial court became very successful in bringing cases
+to a speedy and satisfactory determination without any technicality or
+unnecessary expense.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCIAL LAW, a term used rather indefinitely to include those main
+rules and principles which, with more or less minor differences,
+characterize the commercial transactions and customs of most European
+countries. It includes within its compass such titles as principal and
+agent; carriage by land and sea; merchant shipping; guarantee; marine,
+fire, life and accident insurance; bills of exchange, partnership, &c.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCIAL TREATIES. A commercial treaty is a contract between states
+relative to trade. It is a bilateral act whereby definite arrangements
+are entered into by each contracting party towards the other--not mere
+concessions. As regards technical distinctions, an "agreement," an
+"exchange of notes," or a "convention" properly applies to one specific
+subject; whereas a "treaty" usually comprises several matters, whether
+commercial or political.
+
+In ancient times foreign intercourse, trade and navigation were in many
+instances regulated by international arrangements. The text is extant of
+treaties of commerce and navigation concluded between Carthage and Rome
+in 509 and 348 B.C. Aristotle mentions that nations were connected by
+commercial treaties; and other classical writers advert to these
+engagements. Under the Roman empire the matters thus dealt with became
+regulated by law, or by usages sometimes styled laws. When the
+territories of the empire were contracted, and the imperial authority
+was weakened, some kind of international agreements again became
+necessary. At Constantinople in the 10th century treaties cited by
+Gibbon protected "the person, effects and privileges of the Russian
+merchant"; and, in western Europe, intercourse, trade and navigation
+were carried on, at first tacitly by usage derived from Roman times, or
+under verbal permission given to merchants by the ruler to whose court
+they resorted. Afterwards, security in these transactions was afforded
+by means of formal documents, such as royal letters, charters, laws and
+other instruments possessing the force of government measures. Instances
+affecting English commercial relations are the letter of Charlemagne in
+796, the Brabant Charter of 1305, and the Russian ukase of 1569.
+Medieval treaties of truce or peace often contained a clause permitting
+in general terms the renewal of personal and commercial communication as
+it subsisted before the war. This custom is still followed. But these
+medieval arrangements were precarious: they were often of temporary
+duration, and were usually only effective during the lifetime of the
+contracting sovereigns.
+
+Passing over trade agreements affecting the Eastern empire, the modern
+commercial treaty system came into existence in the 12th century. Genoa,
+Pisa and Venice were then well-organized communities, and were in keen
+rivalry. Whenever their position in a foreign country was strong, a
+trading centre was established, and few or no specific engagements were
+made on their part. But in serious competition or difficulty another
+course was adopted: a formal agreement was concluded for the better
+security of their commerce and navigation. The arrangements of 1140
+between Venice and Sicily; the Genoese conventions of 1149 with
+Valencia, of 1161 with Morocco, and of 1181 with the Balearic Islands;
+the Pisan conventions of 1173 with Sultan Saladin, and of 1184 with the
+Balearic Islands, were the earliest Western commercial treaties. Such
+definite arrangements, although still of a personal character, were soon
+perceived to be preferable to general provisions in a treaty of truce or
+peace. They afforded also greater security than privileges enjoyed under
+usage; or under grants of various kinds, whether local or royal. The
+policy thus inaugurated was adopted gradually throughout Europe. The
+first treaties relative to the trade of the Netherlands were between
+Brabant and Holland in 1203, Holland and Utrecht in 1204, and Brabant
+and Cologne in 1251. Early northern commercial treaties are those
+between Riga and Smolensk 1229, and between Lubeck and Sweden 1269. The
+first commercial relations between the Hanse Towns and foreign countries
+were arrangements made by gilds of merchants, not by public authorities
+as a governing body. For a long period the treaty system did not
+entirely supersede conditions of intercourse between nations dependent
+on permission.
+
+The earliest English commercial treaty is that with Norway in 1217. It
+provides "ut mercatores et homines qui sunt de potestate vestra libere
+et sine impedimento terram nostram adire possint, et homines et
+mercatores nostri similiter vestram." These stipulations are in due
+treaty form. The next early English treaties are:--with Flanders, 1274
+and 1314; Portugal, 1308, 1352 and 1386; Baltic Cities, 1319 and 1388;
+Biscay and Castile, 1351; Burgundy, 1417 and 1496; France, 1471, 1497
+and 1510; Florence, 1490. The commercial treaty policy in England was
+carried out systematically under Henry IV. and Henry VII. It was
+continued under James I. to extend to Scotland English trading
+privileges. The results attained in the 17th century were--regularity in
+treaty arrangements; their durable instead of personal nature; the
+conversion of permissive into perfect rights; questions as to contraband
+and neutral trade stated in definite terms. Treaties were at first
+limited to exclusive and distinct engagements between the contracting
+states; each treaty differing more or less in its terms from other
+similar compacts. Afterwards by extending to a third nation privileges
+granted to particular countries, the _most favoured nation article_
+began to be framed, as a unilateral engagement by a particular state.
+The Turkish capitulations afford the earliest instances; and the treaty
+of 1641 between the Netherlands and Portugal contains the first European
+formula. Cromwell continued the commercial treaty policy partly in order
+to obtain a formal recognition of the commonwealth from foreign powers.
+His treaty of 1654 with Sweden contains the first reciprocal "most
+favoured nation clause":--Article IV. provides that the people, subjects
+and inhabitants of either confederate "shall have and possess in the
+countries, lands, dominions and kingdoms of the other as full and ample
+privileges, and as many exemptions, immunities and liberties, as any
+foreigner doth or shall possess in the dominions and kingdoms of the
+said confederate." The government of the Restoration replaced and
+enlarged the Protectorate arrangements by fresh agreements. The general
+policy of the commonwealth was maintained, with further provisions on
+behalf of colonial trade. In the new treaty of 1661 with Sweden the
+privileges secured were those which "any foreigner whatsoever doth or
+shall enjoy in the said dominions and kingdoms on both sides."
+
+In contemporary treaties France obtained from Spain (1659) that French
+subjects should enjoy the same liberties as had been granted to the
+English; and England obtained from Denmark (1661) that the English
+should not pay more or greater customs than the people of the United
+Provinces and other foreigners, the Swedes only excepted. The colonial
+and navigation policy of the 17th century, and the proceedings of Louis
+XIV., provoked animosities and retaliatory tariffs. During the War of
+the Spanish Succession the Methuen Treaty of 1703 was concluded.
+Portugal removed prohibitions against the importation of British
+woollens; Great Britain engaged that Portuguese wines should pay
+one-third less duty than the rate levied on French wines. At the peace
+of Utrecht in 1713 political and commercial treaties were concluded.
+England agreed to remove prohibitions on the importation of French
+goods, and to grant most favoured nation treatment in relation to goods
+and merchandise of the like nature from any other country in Europe; the
+French general tariff of the 18th of September 1664, was to be again put
+in force for English trade. The English provision was at variance with
+the Methuen Treaty. A violent controversy arose as to the relative
+importance in 1713 of Anglo-Portuguese or Anglo-French trade. In the end
+the House of Commons, by a majority of 9, rejected the bill to give
+effect to the commercial treaty of 1713; and trade with France remained
+on an unsatisfactory footing until 1786. The other commercial treaties
+of Utrecht were very complete in their provisions, equal to those of the
+present time; and contained most favoured nation articles--England
+secured in 1715 reduction of duties on woollens imported into the
+Austrian Netherlands; and trading privileges in Spanish America.
+Moderate import duties for woollens were obtained in Russia by the
+commercial treaty of 1766. In the meanwhile the Bourbon family compact
+of the 15th of August 1761 assured national treatment for the subjects
+of France, Spain and the Two Sicilies, and for their trade in the
+European territories of the other two states; and most favoured nation
+treatment as regards any special terms granted to any foreign country.
+The first commercial treaties concluded by the United States with
+European countries contained most favoured nation clauses: this policy
+has been continued by the United States, but the wording of the clause
+has often varied.
+
+In 1786 France began to effect tariff reform by means of commercial
+treaties. The first was with Great Britain, and it terminated the
+long-continued tariff warfare. But the wars of the French Revolution
+swept away these reforms, and brought about a renewal of hostile
+tariffs. Prohibitions and differential duties were renewed, and
+prevailed on the continent until the sixth decade of the 19th century.
+In 1860 a government existed in France sufficiently strong and liberal
+to revert to the policy of 1786. The bases of the Anglo-French treaty of
+1860, beyond its most favoured nation provisions, were in France a
+general transition from prohibition or high customs duties to a moderate
+tariff; in the United Kingdom abandonment of all protective imposts, and
+reduction of duties maintained for fiscal purposes to the lowest rates
+compatible with these exigencies. Other European countries were obliged
+to obtain for their trade the benefit of the conventional tariff thus
+established in France, as an alternative to the high rates inscribed in
+the general tariff. A series of commercial treaties was accordingly
+concluded by different European states between 1861 and 1866, which
+effected further reductions of customs duties in the several countries
+that came within this treaty system. In 1871 the Republican government
+sought to terminate the treaties of the empire. The British negotiators
+nevertheless obtained the relinquishment of the attempt to levy
+protective duties under the guise of compensation for imposts on raw
+materials; the duration of the treaty of 1860 was prolonged; and
+stipulations better worded than those before in force were agreed to for
+shipping and most favoured nation treatment. In 1882, however, France
+terminated her existing European tariff treaties. Belgium and some other
+countries concluded fresh treaties, less liberal than those of the
+system of 1860, yet much better than anterior arrangements. Great
+Britain did not formally accept these higher duties; the treaty of the
+28th of February 1882, with France, which secured most favoured nation
+treatment in other matters, provided that customs duties should be
+"henceforth regulated by the internal legislation of each of the two
+states." In 1892 France also fell out of international tariff
+arrangements; and adopted the system of double columns of customs
+duties--one, of lower rates, to be applied to the goods of all nations
+receiving most favoured treatment; and the other, of higher rates, for
+countries not on this footing. Germany then took up the treaty tariff
+policy; and between 1891 and 1894 concluded several commercial treaties.
+
+International trade in Europe in 1909 was regulated by a series of
+tariffs which came into operation, mainly on the initiative of Germany
+in 1906. Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, Rumania,
+Russia, Servia and Switzerland, were parties to them. Their object and
+effect was protectionist. The British policy then became one of
+obtaining modifications to remedy disadvantages to British trade, as was
+done in the case of Bulgaria and Rumania. An important series of
+commercial arrangements had been concluded between 1884 and 1900
+respecting the territories and spheres of interest of European powers in
+western, central and eastern Africa. In these regions exclusive
+privileges were not claimed; most favoured nation treatment was
+recognized, and there was a disposition to extend national treatment to
+all Europeans and their trade.
+
+The Turkish _Capitulations_ (q.v.) are grants made by successive sultans
+to Christian nations, conferring rights and privileges in favour of
+their subjects resident or trading in the Ottoman dominions, following
+the policy towards European states of the Eastern empire. In the first
+instance capitulations were granted separately to each Christian state,
+beginning with the Genoese in 1453, which entered into pacific relations
+with Turkey. Afterwards new capitulations were obtained which summed up
+in one document earlier concessions, and added to them in general terms
+whatever had been conceded to one or more other states; a stipulation
+which became a most favoured nation article. The English capitulations
+date from 1569, and then secured the same treatment as the Venetians,
+French, Poles and the subjects of the emperor of Germany; they were
+revised in 1675, and as then settled were confirmed by treaties of
+subsequent date "now and for ever." Capitulations signify that which is
+arranged under distinct "headings"; the Turkish phrase is "ahid nameh,"
+whereas a treaty is "mouahede"--the latter does, and the former does
+not, signify a reciprocal engagement. Thus, although the Turkish
+capitulations are not in themselves treaties, yet by subsequent
+confirmation they have acquired the force of commercial treaties of
+perpetual duration as regards substance and principles, while details,
+such as rates of customs duties, may, by mutual consent, be varied from
+time to time.
+
+The _most favoured nation_ article already referred to concedes to the
+state in the treaty with which it is concluded whatever advantages in
+the matters comprised within its stipulations have been allowed to any
+foreign or third state. It does not in itself directly confer any
+particular rights, but sums up the whole of the rights in the matters
+therein mentioned which have been or may be granted to foreign
+countries. The value of the privileges under this article accordingly
+varies with the conditions as to these rights in each state which
+concedes this treatment.
+
+  The article is drafted in different form:
+
+  (1) That contracting states A. and B. agree to extend to each other
+  whatever rights and privileges they concede to countries C. and D., or
+  to C. and D. and any other country. The object in this instance is to
+  ensure specifically to B. and A. whatever advantages C. and D. may
+  possess. A recent instance is Article XI. of the treaty of May 10,
+  1871, between France and Germany, which binds them respectively to
+  extend to each other whatever advantages they grant to Austria,
+  Belgium, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia and Switzerland.
+
+  (2) The present general formula: A. and B. agree to extend to each
+  other whatever advantages they concede to any third country; and
+  engage that no other or higher duties shall be levied on the
+  importation into A. and B. respectively of goods the produce or
+  manufacture of B. and A. than are levied on the like goods the produce
+  or manufacture of any third country the most favoured in this respect.
+  There is a similar clause in regard to exportation.
+
+  (3) The conditional or reciprocity formula, often used in the 18th and
+  in the early part of the 19th century, namely, that whenever A. and B.
+  make special concessions in return for corresponding concessions, B.
+  and A. respectively are either excluded from participation therein, or
+  must make some additional equivalent concession in order to
+  participate in those advantages.
+
+  It may further be observed that the word "like" relates to the goods
+  themselves, to their material or quality, not to conditions of
+  manufacture, mode of conveyance or anything beyond the fact of their
+  precise description; small local facilities allowed to traffic between
+  conterminous land districts are not at variance with this article.
+
+  A recent complete and concise English formula is that of Article 2 of
+  the treaty of commerce and navigation of the 31st of October 1905,
+  with Rumania. "The contracting parties agree that, in all matters
+  relating to commerce, navigation and industry, any privilege, favour
+  or immunity which either contracting party has actually granted, or
+  may hereafter grant, to the subjects or citizens of any other foreign
+  state, shall be extended immediately and unconditionally to the
+  subjects of the other; it being their intention that the commerce,
+  navigation and industry of each country shall be placed, in all
+  respects, on the footing of the most favoured nation."
+
+_Colonies._--The application of commercial treaties to colonies depends
+upon the wording of each treaty. The earlier colonial policy of European
+states was to subordinate colonial interests to those of the mother
+country, to reserve colonial trade for the mother country, and to
+abstain from engagements contrary to these general rules. France,
+Portugal and Spain have adhered in principle to this policy. Germany and
+Holland have been more liberal. The self-government enjoyed by the
+larger British colonies has led since 1886 to the insertion of an
+article in British commercial and other treaties whereby the assent of
+each of these colonies, and likewise of India, is reserved before they
+apply to each of these possessions. And further, the fact that certain
+other British colonies are now within the sphere of commercial
+intercourse controlled by the United States, has since 1891 induced the
+British government to enter into special agreements on behalf of
+colonies for whose products the United States is now the chief market.
+As regards the most favoured nation article, it is to be remembered that
+the mother country and colonies are not distinct--not foreign or
+third--countries with respect to each other. The most favoured nation
+article, therefore, does not preclude special arrangements between the
+mother country and colonies, nor between colonies.
+
+_Termination._--Commercial treaties are usually concluded for a term of
+years, and either lapse at the end of this period, or are terminable
+then, or subsequently, if either state gives the required notice. When a
+portion of a country establishes its independence, for example the
+several American republics, according to present usage foreign trade is
+placed on a uniform most favoured nation footing, and fresh treaties
+are entered into to regulate the commercial relations of the new
+communities. In the case of former Turkish provinces, the capitulations
+remain in force in principle until they are replaced by new engagements.
+If one state is absorbed into another, for instance Texas into the
+United States, or when territory passes by conquest, for instance Alsace
+to Germany, the commercial treaties of the new supreme government take
+effect. In administered territories, as Cyprus and formerly Bosnia, and
+in protected territories, it depends on the policy of the administering
+power how far the previous fiscal system shall remain in force. When the
+separate Italian states were united into the kingdom of Italy in 1861,
+the commercial engagements of Sardinia superseded those of the other
+states, but fresh treaties were concluded by the new kingdom to place
+international relations on a regular footing. When the German empire was
+established under the king of Prussia in 1871, the commercial
+engagements of any state which were at variance with a Zollverein treaty
+were superseded by that treaty.
+
+_Scope._--The scope of commercial treaties is well expressed by Calvo in
+his work on international law. They provide for the importation,
+exportation, transit, transhipment and bonding of merchandise; customs
+tariffs; navigation charges; quarantine; the admission of vessels to
+roadsteads, ports and docks; coasting trade; the admission of consuls
+and their rights; fisheries; they determine the local position of the
+subjects of each state in the other country in regard to residence,
+property, payment of taxes or exemptions, and military service;
+nationality; and a most favoured nation clause. They usually contain a
+termination, and sometimes a colonial article. Some of the matters
+enumerated by Calvo--consular privileges, fisheries and nationality--are
+now frequently dealt with by separate conventions. Contraband and
+neutral trade are not included as frequently as they were in the 18th
+century.
+
+The preceding statement shows that commercial treaties afford to
+foreigners, personally, legal rights, and relief from technical
+disabilities: they afford security to trade and navigation, and regulate
+other matters comprised in their provisions. In Europe the general
+principles established by the series of treaties 1860-1866 hold good,
+namely, the substitution of uniform rates of customs duties for
+prohibitions or differential rates. The disadvantages urged are that
+these treaties involve government interference and bargaining, whereas
+each state should act independently as its interests require, that they
+are opposed to free trade, and restrict the fiscal freedom of the
+legislature. It may be observed that these objections imply some
+confusion of ideas. All contracts may be designated bargains, and some
+of the details of commercial treaties in Calvo's enumeration enter
+directly into the functions of government; moreover, countries cannot
+remain isolated. If two countries agree by simultaneous action to adopt
+fixed rates of duty, this agreement is favourable to commerce, and it is
+not apparent how it is contrary, even to free trade principles.
+Moreover, security in business transactions, a very important
+consideration, is provided.
+
+Our conclusions are--
+
+(1) that under the varying jurisprudence of nations commercial treaties
+are adopted by common consent;
+
+(2) that their provisions depend upon the general and fiscal policy of
+each state;
+
+(3) that tariff arrangements, if judiciously settled, benefit trade;
+
+(4) that commercial treaties are now entered into by all states; and
+that they are necessary under present conditions of commercial
+intercourse between nations.     (C. M. K.*)
+
+  See the British parliamentary _Return_ (Cd. 4080) of all commercial
+  treaties between various countries in force on Jan. 1, 1908.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERCY, a town of north-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Meuse, on the left bank of the Meuse, 26 m. E. of
+Bar-le-Duc by rail. Pop. (1906) 5622. Commercy possesses a chateau of
+the 17th century, now used as cavalry barracks, a Benedictine convent
+occupied by a training-college for primary teachers, and a communal
+college for boys. A statue of Dom Calmet, the historian, born in the
+vicinity, stands in one of the squares. The industries include
+iron-working and the manufacture of nails, boots and shoes, embroidery
+and hosiery. The town has trade in cattle, grain and wood, and is well
+known for its cakes (_madeleines_). Commercy dates back to the 9th
+century, and at that time its lords were dependent on the bishop of
+Metz. In 1544 it was besieged by Charles V. in person. For some time the
+lordship was in the hands of Francois Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz,
+who lived in the town for a number of years, and there composed his
+memoirs. From him it was purchased by Charles IV., duke of Lorraine. In
+1744 it became the residence of Stanislas, king of Poland, who spent a
+great deal of care on the embellishment of the town, castle and
+neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+COMMERS (from Lat. _commercium_), the German term for the German
+students' social gatherings held annually on occasions such as the
+breaking-up of term and the anniversary of the university's founding. A
+Commers consists of speeches and songs and the drinking of unlimited
+quantities of beer. The arrangements are governed by officials
+(_Chargierte_) elected by the students from among themselves. Strict
+rules as to drinking exist, and the chairman after each speech calls for
+what is called a salamander (_ad exercitium Salamandris bibite,
+tergite_). All rise and having emptied their glasses hammer three times
+on the table with them. On the death of a student, his memory is
+honoured with a salamander, the glasses being broken to atoms at the
+close.
+
+
+
+
+COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE (c. 1445-c. 1511), French historian, called the
+father of modern history, was born at the castle of Renescure, near
+Hazebrouck in Flanders, a little earlier than 1447. He lost both father
+and mother in his earliest years. In 1463 his godfather, Philip V., duke
+of Burgundy, summoned him to his court, and soon after transferred him
+to the household of his son, afterwards known as Charles the Bold. He
+speedily acquired considerable influence over Charles, and in 1468 was
+appointed chamberlain and councillor; consequently when in the same year
+Louis XI. was entrapped at Peronne, Commines was able both to soften the
+passion of Charles and to give useful advice to the king, whose life he
+did much to save. Three years later he was charged with an embassy to
+Louis, who gained him over to himself by many brilliant promises, and in
+1472 he left Burgundy for the court of France. He was at once made
+chamberlain and councillor; a pension of 6000 livres was bestowed on
+him; he received the principality of Talmont, the confiscated property
+of the Amboise family, over which the family of La Tremoille claimed to
+have rights. The king arranged his marriage with Helene de Chambes, who
+brought him the fine lordship of Argenton, and Commines took the name
+d'Argenton from then (27th of January 1473). He was employed to carry
+out the intrigues of Louis in Burgundy, and spent several months as
+envoy in Italy. On his return he was received with the utmost favour,
+and in 1479 obtained a decree confirming him in possession of his
+principality.
+
+On the death of Louis in 1483 a suit was commenced against Commines by
+the family of La Tremoille, and he was cast in heavy damages. He plotted
+against the regent, Anne of Beaujeu, and joined the party of the duke of
+Orleans, afterwards Louis XII. Having attempted to carry off the king,
+Charles VIII., and so free him from the tutelage of his sister, he was
+arrested, and put in one of his old master's iron cages at Loches. In
+1489 he was banished to one of his own estates for ten years, and made
+to give bail to the amount of 10,000 crowns of gold for his good
+behaviour. Recalled to the council in 1492, he strenuously opposed the
+Italian expedition of Charles VIII., in which, however, he took part,
+notably as representing the king in the negotiations which resulted in
+the treaty of Vercelli. During the rest of his life, notwithstanding the
+accession of Louis XII., whom he had served as duke of Orleans, he held
+no position of importance; and his last days were disturbed by lawsuits.
+He died at Argenton on the 18th of October, probably in 1511. His wife
+Helene de Chambes survived him till 1532; their tomb is now in the
+Louvre.
+
+The _Memoirs_, to which Commines owes his reputation as a statesman and
+man of letters, were written during his latter years. The graphic style
+of his narrative and above all the keenness of his insight into the
+motives of his contemporaries, an insight undimmed by undue regard for
+principles of right and wrong, make this work one of the great classics
+of history. His portrait of Louis XI. remains unique, in that to such a
+writer was given such a subject. Scott in _Quentin Durward_ gives an
+interesting picture of Commines, from whom he largely draws.
+Sainte-Beuve, after speaking of Commines as being in date the first
+truly modern writer, and comparing him with Montaigne, says that his
+history remains the definitive history of his time, and that from it all
+political history took its rise. None of this applause is undeserved,
+for the pages of Commines abound with excellences. He analyses motives
+and pictures manners; he delineates men and describes events; his
+reflections are pregnant with suggestiveness, his conclusions strong
+with the logic of facts.
+
+The _Memoirs_ divided themselves into two parts, the first from the
+reign of Louis XI., 1464-1483, the second on the Italian expedition and
+the negotiations at Venice leading to the Vercelli treaty, 1494-1495.
+The first part was written between 1489 and 1491, while Commines was at
+the chateau of Dreux, the second from 1495 to 1498. Seven MSS. are
+known, derived from a single holograph, and as this was undoubtedly
+badly written, the copies were inaccurate; the best is that which
+belonged to Anne de Polignac, niece of Commines, and it is the only one
+containing books vii. and viii.
+
+The best edition of Commines is the one edited by B. de Mandrot and
+published at Paris in 1901-1903. For this edition the author used a
+manuscript hitherto unknown and more complete than the others, and in
+his introduction he gives an account of the life of Commines.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Memoirs_ remained in MS. till 1524, when part of
+  them were printed by Galliot du Pre, the remainder first seeing light
+  in 1525. Subsequent editions were put forth by Denys Sauvage in 1552,
+  by Denys Godefroy in 1649, and by Lenglet Dufresnoy in 1747. Those of
+  Mademoiselle Dupont (1841-1848) and of M. de Chantelauze (1881) have
+  many merits, but the best was given by Bernard de Mandrot: _Memoirs de
+  Philippe de Commynes_, from the MS. of Anne de Polignac (1901).
+  Various translations of Commines into English have appeared, from that
+  of T. Danett in 1596 to that, based on the Dupont edition, which was
+  printed in Bohn's series in 1855.     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+COMMISSARIAT, the department of an army charged with the provision of
+supplies, both food and forage, for the troops. The supply of military
+stores such as ammunition is not included in the duties of a
+commissariat. In almost every army the duties of transport and supply
+are performed by the same corps of departmental troops.
+
+
+
+
+COMMISSARY (from Med. Lat. _commissarius_, one to whom a charge or trust
+is committed), generally, a representative; e.g., the emperor's
+representative who presided in his absence over the imperial diet; and
+especially, an ecclesiastical official who exercises in special
+circumstances the jurisdiction of a bishop (q.v.); in the Church of
+England this jurisdiction is exercised in a Consistory Court (q.v.),
+except in Canterbury, where the court of the diocesan as opposed to the
+metropolitan jurisdiction of the archbishop is called a commissary
+court, and the judge is the commissary general of the city and diocese
+of Canterbury. When a see is vacant the jurisdiction is exercised by a
+"special commissary" of the metropolitan. Commissary is also a general
+military term for an official charged with the duties of supply,
+transport and finance of an army. In the 17th and 18th centuries the
+_commissaire des guerres_, or _Kriegskommissar_ was an important
+official in continental armies, by whose agency the troops, in their
+relation to the civil inhabitants, were placed upon semi-political
+control. In French military law, _commissaires du gouvernement_
+represent the ministry of war on military tribunals, and more or less
+correspond to the British judge-advocate (see COURT-MARTIAL).
+
+
+
+
+COMMISSION (from Lat. _commissio_, _committere_), the action of
+committing or entrusting any charge or duty to a person, and the charge
+or trust thus committed, and so particularly an authority, or the
+document embodying such authority, given to some person to act in a
+particular capacity. The term is thus applied to the written authority
+to command troops, which the sovereign or president, as the ultimate
+commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces, grants to persons
+selected as officers, or to the similar authority issued to certain
+qualified persons to act as justices of the peace. For the various
+commissions of assize see ASSIZE. The word is also used of the order
+issued to a naval officer to take the command of a ship of war, and when
+manned, armed and fully equipped for active service she is said to be
+"put in commission."
+
+In the law of evidence (q.v.) the presence of witnesses may, for certain
+necessary causes, be dispensed with by the order of the court, and the
+evidence be taken by a commissioner. Such evidence in England is said to
+be "on commission" (see R.S.C. Order XXXVII.). Such causes may be
+illness, the intention of the witness to leave the country before the
+trial, residence out of the country or the like. Where the witness is
+out of the jurisdiction of the court, and his place of residence is a
+foreign country where objection is taken to the execution of a
+commission, or is a British colony or India, "letters of request" for
+the examination of the witness are issued, addressed to the head of the
+tribunal in the foreign country, or to the secretary of state for the
+colonies or for India.
+
+Where the functions of an office are transferred from an individual to a
+body of persons, the body exercising these delegated functions is
+generally known as a commission and the members as commissioners; thus
+the office of lord high admiral of Great Britain is administered by a
+permanent board, the lords of the admiralty. Such a delegation may be
+also temporary, as where the authority under the great seal to give the
+royal assent to legislation is issued to lords commissioners. Similarly
+bodies of persons or single individuals may be specially charged with
+carrying out particular duties; these may be permanent, such as the
+Charity Commission or the Ecclesiastical and Church Estates Commission,
+or may be temporary, such as various international bodies of inquiry,
+like the commission which met in Paris in 1905 to inquire into the North
+Sea incident (see DOGGER BANK), or such as the various commissions of
+inquiry, royal, statutory or departmental, of which an account is given
+below.
+
+A commission may be granted by one person to another to act as his
+agent, and particularly in business; thus the term is applied to that
+method of business in which goods are entrusted to an agent for sale,
+the remuneration being a percentage on the sales. This percentage is
+known as the "commission," and hence the word is extended to all
+remuneration which is based on a percentage on the value of the work
+done. The right of an agent to remuneration in the form of a
+"commission" is always founded upon an express or implied contract
+between himself and his principal. Such a contract may be implied from
+custom or usage, from the conduct of the principal or from the
+circumstances of the particular case. Such commissions are only payable
+on transactions directly resulting from agency and may be payable though
+the principal acquires no benefit. In order to claim remuneration an
+agent must be legally qualified to act in the capacity in which he
+claims remuneration. He cannot recover in respect of unlawful or
+wagering transactions, or in cases of misconduct or breach of duty.
+
+_Secret Commissions._--The giving of a commission, in the sense of a
+bribe or unlawful payment to an agent or employe in order to influence
+him in relation to his principal's or employer's affairs, has grown to
+considerable proportions in modern times; it has been rightly regarded
+as a gross breach of trust upon the part of employes and agents,
+inasmuch as it leads them to look to their own interests rather than to
+those of their employers. In order to suppress this bribing of employes
+the English legislature in 1906 passed the Prevention of Corruption Act,
+which enacts that if an agent corruptly accepts or obtains for himself
+or for any other person any gift or consideration as an inducement or
+reward for doing or forbearing to do any act or business, or for showing
+or forbearing to show favour or disfavour to any person in relation to
+his principal's affairs, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour and shall
+be liable on conviction or indictment to imprisonment with or without
+hard labour for a term not exceeding two years, or to a fine not
+exceeding L500, or to both, or on summary conviction to imprisonment not
+exceeding four months with or without hard labour or to a fine not
+exceeding L50, or both. The act also applies the same punishment to any
+person who corruptly gives or offers any gift or consideration to an
+agent. Also if a person knowingly gives an agent, or if an agent
+knowingly uses, any receipt, account or document with intent to mislead
+the principal, they are guilty of a misdemeanour and liable to the
+punishment already mentioned. For the purposes of the act
+"consideration" includes valuable consideration of any kind, and "agent"
+includes any person employed by or acting for another. No prosecution
+can be instituted without the consent of the attorney-general, and every
+information must be upon oath.
+
+Legislation to the same effect has been adopted in Australia. A federal
+act was passed in 1905 dealing with secret commissions, and in the same
+year both Victoria and Western Australia passed drastic measures to
+prevent the giving or receiving corruptly of commissions. The Victorian
+act applies to trustees, executors, administrators and liquidators as
+well as to agents. Both the Victorian and the Western Australian acts
+enact that gifts to the parent, wife, child, partner or employer of an
+agent are to be deemed gifts to the agent unless the contrary is proved;
+also that the custom of any trade or calling is not in itself a defence
+to a prosecution.
+
+_Commissions of Inquiry_, i.e. commissions for the purpose of eliciting
+information as to the operation of laws, or investigating particular
+matters, social, educational, &c., are distinguished, according to the
+terms of their appointment, as _royal_, _statutory_ and _departmental_.
+A royal commission in England is appointed by the crown, and the
+commissions usually issue from the office of the executive government
+which they specially concern. The objects of the inquiry are carefully
+defined in the warrant constituting the commission, which is termed the
+"reference." The commissioners give their services gratuitously, but
+where they involve any great degree of professional skill compensation
+is allowed for time and labour. The expenses incurred are provided out
+of money annually voted for the purpose. Unless expressly empowered by
+act of parliament, a commission cannot compel the production of
+documents or the giving of evidence, nor can it administer an oath. A
+commission may hold its sittings in any part of the United Kingdom, or
+may institute and conduct experiments for the purpose of testing the
+utility of invention, &c. When the inquiry or any particular portion of
+it is concluded, a report is presented to the crown through the home
+department. All the commissioners, if unanimous, sign the report, but
+those who are unable to agree with the majority can record their
+dissent, and express their individual opinions, either in paragraphs
+appended to the report or in separately signed memoranda.
+
+Statutory commissions are created by acts of parliament, and, with the
+exception that they are liable to have their proceedings questioned in
+parliament, have absolute powers within the limits of their prescribed
+functions and subject to the provisions of the act defining the same.
+Departmental commissions or committees are appointed either by a
+treasury minute or by the authority of a secretary of state, for the
+purpose of instituting inquiries into matters of official concern or
+examining into proposed changes in administrative arrangements. They are
+generally composed of two or more permanent officials of the department
+concerned in the investigation, along with a subordinate member of the
+administration. Reports of such committees are usually regarded as
+confidential documents.
+
+  A full account of the procedure in royal commissions will be found in
+  A. Todd's _Parliamentary Government in England_, vol. ii.
+
+
+
+
+COMMISSIONAIRE, the designation of an attendant, messenger or
+subordinate employe in hotels on the continent of Europe, whose chief
+duty is to attend at railway stations, secure customers, take charge of
+their luggage, carry out the necessary formalities with respect to it
+and have it sent on to the hotel. They are also employed in Paris as
+street messengers, light porters, &c. The Corps of Commissionaires, in
+England, is an association of pensioned soldiers of trustworthy
+character, founded in 1859 by Captain Sir Edward Walter, K.C.B.
+(1823-1904). It was first started in a very small way, with the
+intention of providing occupation for none but wounded soldiers. The
+nucleus of the corps consisted of eight men, each of whom had lost a
+limb. The demand, however, for neat, uniformed, trusty men, to perform
+certain light duties, encouraged the founder to extend his idea, and the
+corps developed into a large self-supporting organization. In 1906 there
+were over 3000 members of the corps, more than 2000 of whom served in
+London. Out-stations were established in various large towns of the
+kingdom, and the corps extended its operations also to the colonies.
+
+
+
+
+COMMISSIONER, in general an officer appointed to carry out some
+particular work, or to discharge the duty of a particular office; one
+who is a member of a commission (q.v.). In this sense the word is
+applied to members of a permanently constituted department of the
+administration, as civil service commissioners, commissioners of income
+tax, commissioners in lunacy, &c. It is also the title given to the
+heads of or important officials in various governmental departments, as
+commissioner of customs. In some British possessions in Africa and the
+Pacific the head of the government is styled high commissioner. In India
+a commissioner is the chief administrative official of a division which
+includes several districts. The office does not exist in Madras, where
+the same duties are discharged by a board of revenue, but is found in
+most of the other provinces. The commissioner comes midway between the
+local government and the district officer. In the regulation provinces
+the district officer is called a collector (q.v.), and in the
+non-regulation provinces a deputy-commissioner. In the former he must
+always be a member of the covenanted civil service, but in the latter he
+may be a military officer.
+
+A chief commissioner is a high Indian official, governing a province
+inferior in status to a lieutenant-governorship, but in direct
+subordination to the governor-general in council. The provinces which
+have chief commissioners are the Central Provinces and Berar, the
+North-West Frontier Province and Coorg. The agent to the
+governor-general of Baluchistan is also chief commissioner of British
+Baluchistan, the agent to the governor-general of Rajputana is also
+chief commissioner of the British district of Ajmere-Merwara, and there
+is a chief commissioner of the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Several
+provinces, such as the Punjab, Oudh, Burma and Assam, were administered
+by chief commissioners before they were raised to the status of
+lieutenant-governorships (see LIEUTENANT).
+
+A commissioner for oaths in England is a solicitor appointed by the lord
+chancellor to administer oaths to persons making affidavits for the
+purpose of any cause or matter. The Commissioner for Oaths Act 1889
+(with an amending act 1891), amending and consolidating various other
+acts, regulates the appointment and powers of such commissioners. In
+most large towns the minimum qualification for appointment is six years'
+continuous practice, and the application must be supported by two
+barristers, two solicitors and at least six neighbours of the applicant.
+The charge made by commissioners for every oath, declaration,
+affirmation or attestation upon honour is one shilling and sixpence; for
+marking each exhibit (a document or other thing sworn to in an affidavit
+and shown to a deponent when being sworn), one shilling.
+
+
+
+
+COMMITMENT, in English law, a precept or warrant _in writing_, made and
+issued by a court or judicial officer (including, in cases of treason,
+the privy council or a secretary of state), directing the conveyance of
+a person named or sufficiently described therein to a prison or other
+legal place of custody, and his detention therein for a time specified,
+or until the person to be detained has done a certain act specified in
+the warrant, e.g. paid a fine imposed upon him on conviction. Its
+character will be more easily grasped by reference to a form now in use
+under statutory authority:--
+
+  In the county of A, Petty Sessional Division of B.
+
+  To each and all of the constables of the county of A and the governor
+  of His Majesty's Prison at C.
+
+  E. F. hereinafter called the defendant has this day been convicted
+  before the court of summary jurisdiction sitting at D.
+
+  (Here the conviction and adjudication is stated.)
+
+  You the said constables are hereby commanded to convey the defendant
+  to the said prison, and there deliver him to the governor thereof
+  together with this warrant: and you the governor of the said prison to
+  receive the defendant into your custody and keep him to hard labour
+  for the space of three calendar months.
+
+    Dated                  Signature and seal of a justice of the peace.
+
+A commitment as now understood differs from "committal," which is the
+decision of a court to send a person to prison, and not the document
+containing the directions to executive and ministerial officers of the
+law which are consequent on the decision. An interval must necessarily
+elapse between the decision to commit and the making out of the warrant
+of commitment, during which interval the detention in custody of the
+person committed is undoubtedly legal. A commitment differs also from a
+warrant of arrest (_mandat d'amener_), in that it is not made until
+after the person to be detained has actually appeared, or has been
+summoned, before the court which orders committal, to answer to some
+charge.
+
+If not always, at any rate since 1679, a warrant of commitment has been
+necessary to justify officers of the law in conveying a prisoner to gaol
+and a gaoler in receiving and detaining him there. It is ordinarily
+essential to a valid commitment that it should contain a specific
+statement of the particular cause of the detention ordered. To this the
+chief, if not the only exception, is in the case of commitments by order
+of either House of Parliament (May, _Parl. Pr._, 11th ed., 63, 70, 90).
+Commitments by justices of the peace must be under their hands and
+seals. Commitments by a court of record if formally drawn up are under
+the seal of the court.
+
+Every person in custody is entitled, under the Habeas Corpus Act 1679,
+to receive within six hours of demand from the officer in whose custody
+he is, a copy of any warrant of commitment under which he is detained,
+and may challenge its legality by application for a writ of habeas
+corpus.
+
+So far as concerns the acts of justices and tribunals of limited
+jurisdiction, the stringency of the rules as to commitments is an
+important aid to the liberty of the subject.
+
+In the case of superior courts no statutory forms of commitment exist,
+and the same formalities are not so strictly enforced. Committal of a
+person present in court for contempt of the court is enforced by his
+immediate arrest by the tipstaff as soon as committal is ordered, and he
+may be detained in prison on a memorandum of the clerk or registrar of
+the court while a formal order is being drawn up. And in the case of
+persons sentenced at assizes and quarter sessions the only written
+authority for enforcement is a calendar of the prisoners tried, on which
+the sentences are entered up, signed by the presiding judge.
+
+Commitments are usually made by courts of criminal jurisdiction in
+respect of offences against the criminal law, but are also occasionally
+made as a punishment for disobedience to the orders made in a civil
+court, e.g. where a judgment debtor having means to pay refuses to
+satisfy the judgment debt, or in cases where the person committed has
+been guilty of a direct contempt of the court.
+
+The expenses of executing a warrant of commitment, so far as not paid by
+the prisoner, are defrayed out of the parliamentary grants for the
+maintenance of prisons.
+
+
+
+
+COMMITTEE (from _committe_, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of _commettre_,
+Lat. _committere_, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent _comite_ is
+derived from the Eng.), a person or body of persons to whom something is
+"committed" or entrusted. The term is used of a person or persons to
+whom the charge of the body ("committee of the person") or of the
+property and business affairs ("committee of the estate") of a lunatic
+is committed by the court (see INSANITY). In this sense the English
+usage is to pronounce the word _commi-ttee_. The more common meaning of
+"committee" (pronounced _committ-y_) is that of a body of persons
+elected or appointed to consider and deal with certain matters of
+business, specially or generally referred to it.
+
+
+
+
+COMMODIANUS, a Christian Latin poet, who flourished about A.D. 250. The
+only ancient writers who mention him are Gennadius, presbyter of
+Massilia (end of 5th century), in his _De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis_,
+and Pope Gelasius in _De libris recipiendis et non recipiendis_, in
+which his works are classed as _Apocryphi_, probably on account of
+certain heterodox statements contained in them. Commodianus is supposed
+to have been an African. As he himself tells us, he was originally a
+heathen, but was converted to Christianity when advanced in years, and
+felt called upon to instruct the ignorant in the truth. He was the
+author of two extant Latin poems, _Instructiones_ and _Carmen
+apologeticum_ (first published in 1852 by J. B. Pitra in the
+_Spicilegium Solesmense_, from a MS. in the Middlehill collection, now
+at Cheltenham, supposed to have been brought from the monastery of
+Bobbio). The _Instructiones_ consist of 80 poems, each of which is an
+acrostic (with the exception of 60, where the initial letters are in
+alphabetical order). The initials of 80, read backwards, give
+Commodianus Mendicus Christi. The _Apologeticum_, undoubtedly by
+Commodianus, although the name of the author (as well as the title) is
+absent from the MS., is free from the acrostic restriction. The first
+part of the _Instructiones_ is addressed to the heathens and Jews, and
+ridicules the divinities of classical mythology; the second contains
+reflections on Antichrist, the end of the world, the Resurrection, and
+advice to Christians, penitents and the clergy. In the _Apologeticum_
+all mankind are exhorted to repent, in view of the approaching end of
+the world. The appearance of Antichrist, identified with Nero and the
+Man from the East, is expected at an early date. Although they display
+fiery dogmatic zeal, the poems cannot be considered quite orthodox. To
+the classical scholar the metre alone is of interest. Although they are
+professedly written in hexameters, the rules of quantity are sacrificed
+to accent. The first four lines of the _Instructiones_ may be quoted by
+way of illustration:
+
+  "Praefatio nostra viam erranti demonstrat,
+   Respectumque bonum, cum venerit saeculi meta,
+   Aeternum fieri, quod discredunt inscia corda:
+   Ego similiter erravi tempore multo."
+
+These _versus politici_ (as they are called) show that the change was
+already passing over Latin which resulted in the formation of the
+Romance languages. The use of cases and genders, the construction of
+verbs and prepositions, and the verbal forms exhibit striking
+irregularities. The author, however, shows an acquaintance with Latin
+poets--Horace, Virgil, Lucretius.
+
+  The best edition of the text is by B. Dombart (Vienna, 1887), and a
+  good account of the poems will be found in M. Manitius, _Geschichte
+  der christlich-lateinischen Poesie_ (1891), with bibliography, to
+  which may be added G. Boissier, "Commodien," in the _Melanges Renier_
+  (1887); H. Brewer, _Kommodian von Gaza_ (Paderborn, 1906); L. Vernier,
+  "La Versification latine populaire en Afrique," in _Revue de
+  philologie_, xv. (1891); and C. E. Freppel, _Commodien, Arnobe,
+  Lactance_ (1893). Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng.
+  trans., 384), should also be consulted.
+
+
+
+
+COMMODORE (a form of "commander"; in the 17th century the term
+"commandore" is used), a temporary rank in the British navy for an
+officer in command of a squadron. There are two kinds, one with and the
+other without a captain below him in his ship, the first holding the
+temporary rank, pay, &c., of a rear-admiral, the other that of captain.
+It is also given as a courtesy title to the senior officer of a squadron
+of more than three vessels. In the United States navy "commodore" was a
+courtesy title given to captains who had been in command of a squadron.
+In 1862 it was made a commissioned rank, but was abolished in 1899. The
+name is given to the president of a yacht club, as of the Royal Yacht
+Squadron, and to the senior captain of a fleet of merchant vessels.
+
+
+
+
+COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS (161-192), also called Marcus
+Antoninus, emperor of Rome, son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina, was
+born at Lanuvium on the 31st of August 161. In spite of a careful
+education he soon showed a fondness for low society and amusement. At
+the age of fifteen he was associated by his father in the government. On
+the death of Aurelius, whom he had accompanied in the war against the
+Quadi and Marcomanni, he hastily concluded peace and hurried back to
+Rome (180). The first years of his reign were uneventful, but in 183 be
+was attacked by an assassin at the instigation of his sister Lucilla
+and many members of the senate, which felt deeply insulted by the
+contemptuous manner in which Commodus treated it. From this time he
+became tyrannical. Many distinguished Romans were put to death as
+implicated in the conspiracy, and others were executed for no reason at
+all. The treasury was exhausted by lavish expenditure on gladiatorial
+and wild beast combats and on the soldiery, and the property of the
+wealthy was confiscated. At the same time Commodus, proud of his bodily
+strength and dexterity, exhibited himself in the arena, slew wild
+animals and fought with gladiators, and commanded that he should be
+worshipped as the Roman Hercules. Plots against his life naturally began
+to spring up. That of his favourite Perennis, praefect of the praetorian
+guard, was discovered in time. The next danger was from the people, who
+were infuriated by the dearth of corn. The mob repelled the praetorian
+guard, but the execution of the hated minister Cleander quieted the
+tumult. The attempt also of the daring highwayman Maternus to seize the
+empire was betrayed; but at last Eclectus the emperor's chamberlain,
+Laetus the praefect of the praetorians, and his mistress Marcia, finding
+their names on the list of those doomed to death, united to destroy him.
+He was poisoned, and then strangled by a wrestler named Narcissus, on
+the 31st of December 192. During his reign unimportant wars were
+successfully carried on by his generals Clodius Albinus, Pescennius
+Niger and Ulpius Marcellus. The frontier of Dacia was successfully
+defended against the Scythians and Sarmatians, and a tract of territory
+reconquered in north Britain. In 1874 a statue of Commodus was dug up at
+Rome, in which he is represented as Hercules--a lion's skin on his head,
+a club in his right and the apples of the Hesperides in his left hand.
+
+  See Aelius Lampridius, Herodian, and fragments in Dio Cassius; H.
+  Schiller, _Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit_; J. Zurcher,
+  "Commodus" (1868, in Budinger's _Untersuchungen zur romischen
+  Kaisergeschichte_, a criticism of Herodian's account); Pauly-Wissowa,
+  _Realencyclopadie_, ii. 2464 ff. (von Rohden); Heer, "Der historische
+  Wert des Vita Commodi" (_Philologus_, Supplementband ix.).
+
+
+
+
+COMMON LAW, like "civil law," a phrase with many shades of meaning, and
+probably best defined with reference to the various things to which it
+is opposed. It is contrasted with statute law, as law not promulgated by
+the sovereign body; with equity, as the law prevailing between man and
+man, unless when the court of chancery assumed jurisdiction; and with
+local or customary law, as the general law for the whole realm,
+tolerating variations in certain districts and under certain conditions.
+It is also sometimes contrasted with civil, or canon, or international
+law, which are foreign systems recognized in certain special courts only
+and within limits defined by the common law. As against all these
+contrasted kinds of law, it may be described broadly as the universal
+law of the realm, which applies wherever they have not been introduced,
+and which is supposed to have a principle for every possible case.
+Occasionally, it would appear to be used in a sense which would exclude
+the law developed by at all events the more modern decisions of the
+courts.
+
+Blackstone divides the civil law of England into _lex scripta_ or
+statute law, and _lex non scripta_ or common law. The latter, he says,
+consists of (1) general customs, which are the common law strictly so
+called, (2) particular customs prevailing in certain districts, and (3)
+laws used in particular courts. The first is the law by which
+"proceedings and determinations in the king's ordinary courts of justice
+are guided and directed." That the eldest son alone is heir to his
+ancestor, that a deed is of no validity unless sealed and delivered,
+that wills shall be construed more favourably and deeds more strictly,
+are examples of common law doctrines, "not set down in any written
+statute or ordinance, but depending on immemorial usage for their
+support." The validity of these usages is to be determined by the
+judges--"the depositaries of the law, the living oracles who must decide
+in all cases of doubt, and who are bound by an oath to decide according
+to the law of the land." Their judgments are preserved as records, and
+"it is an established rule to abide by former precedents where the same
+points come again in litigation." The extraordinary deference paid to
+precedents is the source of the most striking peculiarities of the
+English common law. There can be little doubt that it was the rigid
+adherence of the common law courts to established precedent which caused
+the rise of an independent tribunal administering justice on more
+equitable principles--the tribunal of the chancellor, the court of
+chancery. And the old common law courts--the king's bench, common pleas
+and exchequer--were always, as compared with the court of chancery,
+distinguished for a certain narrowness and technicality of reasoning. At
+the same time the common law was never a fixed or rigid system. In the
+application of old precedents to the changing circumstances of society,
+and in the development of new principles to meet new cases, the common
+law courts displayed an immense amount of subtlety and ingenuity, and a
+great deal of sound sense. The continuity of the system was not less
+remarkable than its elasticity. Two great defects of form long
+disfigured the English law. One was the separation of common law and
+equity. The Judicature Act of 1873 remedied this by merging the
+jurisdiction of all the courts in one supreme court, and causing
+equitable principles to prevail over those of the common law where they
+differ. The other is the overwhelming mass of precedents in which the
+law is embedded. This can only be removed by some well-conceived scheme
+of the nature of a code or digest; to some extent this difficulty has
+been overcome by such acts as the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, the
+Partnership Act 1890 and the Sale of Goods Act 1893.
+
+The English common law may be described as a pre-eminently national
+system. Based on Saxon customs, moulded by Norman lawyers, and jealous
+of foreign systems, it is, as Bacon says, as mixed as the English
+language and as truly national. And like the language, it has been taken
+into other English-speaking countries, and is the foundation of the law
+in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+COMMON LODGING-HOUSE, "a house, or part of a house, where persons of the
+poorer classes are received for gain, and in which they use one or more
+rooms in common with the rest of the inmates, who are not members of one
+family, whether for eating or sleeping" (_Langdon_ v. _Broadbent_, 1877,
+37 L.T. 434; _Booth_ v. _Ferrett_, 1890, 25 Q.B.D. 87). There is no
+statutory definition of the class of houses in England intended to be
+included in the expression "common lodging-house," but the above
+definition is very generally accepted as embracing those houses which,
+under the Public Health and other Acts, must be registered and
+inspected. The provisions of the Public Health Act 1875 are that every
+urban and rural district council must keep registers showing the names
+and residences of the keepers of all common lodging-houses in their
+districts, the situation of every such house, and the number of lodgers
+authorized by them to be received therein. They may require the keeper
+to affix and keep undefaced and legible a notice with the words
+"registered common lodging-house" in some conspicuous place on the
+outside of the house, and may make by-laws fixing the number of lodgers,
+for the separation of the sexes, for promoting cleanliness and
+ventilation, for the giving of notices and the taking of precautions in
+case of any infectious disease, and generally for the well ordering of
+such houses. The keeper of a common lodging-house is required to
+limewash the walls and ceilings twice a year--in April and October--and
+to provide a proper water-supply. The whole of the house must be open at
+all times to the inspection of any officer of a council. The county of
+London (except the city) is under the Common Lodging Houses Acts 1851
+and 1853, with the Sanitary Act 1866 and the Sanitary Law Amendment Act
+1874. The administration of these acts was, from 1851 to 1894, in the
+hands of the chief commissioner of police, when it was transferred to
+the London County Council.
+
+
+
+
+COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF, sometimes called _The Order of Geneva_ or _Knox's
+Liturgy_, a directory for public worship in the Reformed Church in
+Scotland. In 1557 the Scottish Protestant lords in council enjoined the
+use of the English Common Prayer, i.e. the Second Book of Edward VI.
+Meanwhile, at Frankfort, among British Protestant refugees, a
+controversy was going on between the upholders of the English liturgy
+and the French Reformed Order of Worship respectively. By way of
+compromise John Knox and other ministers drew up a new liturgy based
+upon earlier Continental Reformed Services, which was not deemed
+satisfactory, but which on his removal to Geneva he published in 1556
+for the use of the English congregations in that city. The Geneva book
+made its way to Scotland, and was used here and there by Reformed
+congregations. Knox's return in 1559 strengthened its position, and in
+1562 the General Assembly enjoined the uniform use of it as the "Book of
+Our Common Order" in "the administration of the Sacraments and
+solemnization of marriages and burials of the dead." In 1564 a new and
+enlarged edition was printed in Edinburgh, and the Assembly ordered that
+"every Minister, exhorter and reader" should have a copy and use the
+Order contained therein not only for marriage and the sacraments but
+also "in Prayer," thus ousting the hitherto permissible use of the
+Second Book of Edward VI. at ordinary service. "The rubrics as retained
+from the Book of Geneva made provision for an extempore prayer before
+the sermon, and allowed the minister some latitude in the other two
+prayers. The forms for the special services were more strictly imposed,
+but liberty was also given to vary some of the prayers in them. The
+rubrics of the Scottish portion of the book are somewhat stricter, and,
+indeed, one or two of the Geneva rubrics were made more absolute in the
+Scottish emendations; but no doubt the 'Book of Common Order' is best
+described as a discretionary liturgy."
+
+It will be convenient here to give the contents of the edition printed
+by Andrew Hart at Edinburgh in 1611, and described (as was usually the
+case) as _The Psalmes of David in Meeter, with the Prose, whereunto is
+added Prayers commonly used in the Kirke, and private houses; with a
+perpetuall Kalendar and all the Changes of the Moone that shall happen
+for the space of Six Yeeres to come_. They are as follows:--
+
+(i.) The Calendar; (ii.) The names of the Faires of Scotland; (iii.) The
+Confession of Faith used at Geneva and received by the Church of
+Scotland; (iv.-vii.) Concerning the election and duties of Ministers,
+Elders and Deacons, and Superintendent; (viii.) An order of
+Ecclesiastical Discipline; (ix.) The Order of Excommunication and of
+Public Repentance; (x.) The Visitation of the Sick; (xi.) The Manner of
+Burial; (xii.) The Order of Public Worship--Forms of Confession and
+Prayer after Sermon; (xiii.) Other Public Prayers; (xiv.) The
+Administration of the Lord's Supper; (xv.) The Form of Marriage; (xvi.)
+The Order of Baptism; (xvii.) A Treatise on Fasting with the order
+thereof; (xviii.) The Psalms of David; (xix.) Conclusions or Doxologies;
+(xx.) Hymns--metrical versions of the Decalogue, Magnificat, Apostles'
+Creed, &c.; (xxi.) Calvin's Catechism; (xxii. and xxiii.) Prayers for
+Private Houses and Miscellaneous Prayers, e.g. for a man before he
+begins his work.
+
+The Psalms and Catechism together occupy more than half the book. The
+chapter on burial is significant. In place of the long office of the
+Catholic Church we have simply this statement:--"The corpse is
+reverently brought to the grave, accompanied with the Congregation,
+without any further ceremonies: which being buried, the Minister (if he
+be present and required) goeth to the Church, if it be not far off, and
+maketh some comfortable exhortation to the people, touching death and
+resurrection." This (with the exception of the bracketed words) was
+taken over from the Book of Geneva. The Westminster Directory which
+superseded the Book of Common Order also enjoins interment "without any
+ceremony," such being stigmatized as "no way beneficial to the dead and
+many ways hurtful to the living." Civil honours may, however, be
+rendered.
+
+Revs. G. W. Sprott and Thomas Leishman, in the introduction to their
+edition of the Book of Common Order, and of the Westminster Directory
+published in 1868, collected a valuable series of notices as to the
+actual usage of the former book for the period (1564-1645) during which
+it was enjoined by ecclesiastical law. Where ministers were not
+available suitable persons (often old priests, sometimes schoolmasters)
+were selected as readers. Good contemporary accounts of Scottish worship
+are those of W. Cowper (1568-1619), bishop of Galloway, in his _Seven
+Days' Conference between a Catholic Christian and a Catholic Roman_
+(_c._ 1615), and Alexander Henderson in _The Government and Order of the
+Church of Scotland_ (1641). There was doubtless a good deal of variety
+at different times and in different localities. Early in the 17th
+century under the twofold influence of the Dutch Church, with which the
+Scottish clergy were in close connexion, and of James I.'s endeavours to
+"justle out" a liturgy which gave the liberty of "conceiving" prayers,
+ministers began in prayer to read less and extemporize more.
+
+Turning again to the legislative history, in 1567 the prayers were done
+into Gaelic; in 1579 parliament ordered all gentlemen and yeomen holding
+property of a certain value to possess copies. The assembly of 1601
+declined to alter any of the existing prayers but expressed a
+willingness to admit new ones. Between 1606 and 1618 various attempts
+were made under English and Episcopal influence, by assemblies
+afterwards declared unlawful, to set aside the "Book of Common Order."
+The efforts of James I., Charles I. and Archbishop Laud proved
+fruitless; in 1637 the reading of Laud's draft of a new form of service
+based on the English prayer book led to riots in Edinburgh and to
+general discontent in the country. The General Assembly of Glasgow in
+1638 abjured Laud's book and took its stand again by the Book of Common
+Order, an act repeated by the assembly of 1639, which also demurred
+against innovations proposed by the English separatists, who objected
+altogether to liturgical forms, and in particular to the Lord's Prayer,
+the _Gloria Patri_ and the minister kneeling for private devotion in the
+pulpit. An Aberdeen printer named Raban was publicly censured for having
+on his own authority shortened one of the prayers. The following years
+witnessed a counter attempt to introduce the Scottish liturgy into
+England, especially for those who in the southern kingdom were inclined
+to Presbyterianism. This effort culminated in the Westminster Assembly
+of divines which met in 1643, at which six commissioners from the Church
+of Scotland were present, and joined in the task of drawing up a Common
+Confession, Catechism and Directory for the three kingdoms. The
+commissioners reported to the General Assembly of 1644 that this Common
+Directory "is so begun ... that we could not think upon any particular
+Directory for our own Kirk." The General Assembly of 1645 after careful
+study approved the new order. An act of Assembly on the 3rd of February
+and an act of parliament on the 6th of February ordered its use in every
+church, and henceforth, though there was no act setting aside the "Book
+of Common Order," the Westminster Directory was of primary authority.
+The Directory was meant simply to make known "the general heads, the
+sense and scope of the Prayers and other parts of Public Worship," and
+if need be, "to give a help and furniture." The act of parliament
+recognizing the Directory was annulled at the Restoration and the book
+has never since been acknowledged by a civil authority in Scotland. But
+General Assemblies have frequently recommended its use, and worship in
+Presbyterian churches is largely conducted on the lines of the
+Westminster Assembly's Directory.
+
+The modern _Book of Common Order_ or _Euchologion_ is a compilation
+drawn from various sources and issued by the Church Service Society, an
+organization which endeavours to promote liturgical usages within the
+Established Church of Scotland.
+
+
+
+
+COMMONPLACE, a translation of the Gr. [Greek: koivos topos], i.e. a
+passage or argument appropriate to several cases; a "common-place book"
+is a collection of such passages or quotations arranged for reference
+under general heads either alphabetically or on some method of
+classification. To such a book the name _adversaria_ was given, which is
+an adaptation of the Latin _adversaria scripta_, notes written on one
+side, the side opposite (_adversus_), of a paper or book. From its
+original meaning the word came to be used as meaning something
+hackneyed, a platitude or truism, and so, as an adjective, equivalent to
+trivial or ordinary. It was first spelled as two words, then with a
+hyphen, and so still in the sense of a "common-place book."
+
+
+
+
+COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF, formerly one of the three English common law
+courts at Westminster--the other two being the king's bench and
+exchequer. The court of common pleas was an offshoot of the Curia Regis
+or king's council. Previous to Magna Carta, the king's council,
+especially that portion of it which was charged with the management of
+judicial and revenue business, followed the king's person. This, as far
+as private litigation was concerned, caused great inconvenience to the
+unfortunate suitors whose plaints awaited the attention of the court,
+for they had, of necessity, also to follow the king from place to place,
+or lose the opportunity of having their causes tried. Accordingly, Magna
+Carta enacted that common pleas (_communia placita_) or causes between
+subject and subject, should be held in some fixed place and not follow
+the court. This place was fixed at Westminster. The court was presided
+over by a chief (_capitalis justiciarius de communi banco_) and four
+puisne judges. The jurisdiction of the common pleas was, by the
+Judicature Act 1873, vested in the king's bench division of the High
+Court of Justice.
+
+
+
+
+COMMONS,[1]
+
+
+  Early history.
+
+the term for the lands held in commonalty, a relic of the system on
+which the lands of England were for the most part cultivated during the
+middle ages. The country was divided into vills, or townships--often,
+though not necessarily, or always, coterminous with the parish. In each
+stood a cluster of houses, a village, in which dwelt the men of the
+township, and around the village lay the arable fields and other lands,
+which they worked as one common farm. Save for a few small inclosures
+near the village--for gardens, orchards or paddocks for young stock--the
+whole township was free from permanent fencing. The arable lands lay in
+large tracts divided into compartments or fields, usually three in
+number, to receive in constant rotation the triennial succession of
+wheat (or rye), spring crops (such as barley, oats, beans or peas), and
+fallow. Low-lying lands were used as meadows, and there were sometimes
+pastures fed according to fixed rules. The poorest land of the township
+was left waste--to supply feed for the cattle of the community, fuel,
+wood for repairs, and any other commodity of a renewable or practically
+inexhaustible character.[2] This waste land is the common of our own
+days.
+
+It would seem likely that at one time there was no division, as between
+individual inhabitants or householders, of any of the lands of the
+township, but only of the products. But so far back as accurate
+information extends the arable land is found to be parcelled out, each
+householder owning strips in each field. These strips are always long
+and narrow, and lie in sets parallel with one another. The plough for
+cultivating the fields was maintained at the common expense of the
+village, and the draught oxen were furnished by the householders. From
+the time when the crop was carried till the next sowing, the field lay
+open to the cattle of the whole vill, which also had the free run of the
+fallow field throughout the year. But when two of the three fields were
+under crops, and the meadows laid up for hay, it is obvious that the
+cattle of the township required some other resort for pasturage. This
+was supplied by the waste or common. Upon it the householder turned out
+the oxen and horses which he contributed to the plough, and the cows and
+sheep, which were useful in manuring the common fields,--in the words of
+an old law case: "horses and oxen to plough the land, and cows and sheep
+to compester it." Thus the use of the common by each householder was
+naturally measured by the stock which he kept for the service of the
+common fields; and when, at a later period, questions arose as to the
+extent of the rights on the common, the necessary practice furnished the
+rule, that the commoner could turn out as many head of cattle as he
+could keep by means of the lands which were parcelled out to him,--the
+rule of levancy and couchancy, which has come down to the present day.
+
+
+  Status of township.
+
+In the earliest post-conquest times the vill or township is found to be
+associated with an over-lord. There has been much controversy on the
+question, whether the vill originally owned its lands free from any
+control, and was subsequently reduced to a state of subjection and to a
+large extent deprived of its ownership, or whether its whole history has
+been one of gradual emancipation, the ownership of the waste, or
+common, now ascribed by the law to the lord being a remnant of his
+ownership of all the lands of the vill. (See MANOR.)
+
+At whatever date the over-lord first appeared, and whatever may have
+been the personal relations of the villagers to him from time to time
+after his appearance, there can be hardly any doubt that the village
+lands, whether arable, meadow or waste, were substantially the property
+of the villagers for the purposes of use and enjoyment. They resorted
+freely to the common for such purposes as were incident to their system
+of agriculture, and regulated its use amongst themselves. The idea that
+the common was the "lord's waste," and that he had the power to do what
+he liked with it, subject to specific and limited qualifying rights in
+others, was, there is little doubt, the creation of the Norman lawyers.
+
+
+  Statutes of Merton and Westminster the Second.
+
+One of the earliest assertions of the lord's proprietary interest in
+waste lands is contained in the Statute of Merton, a statute which, it
+is well to notice, was passed in one of the first assemblies of the
+barons of England, before the commons of the realm were summoned to
+parliament. This statute, which became law in the year 1235, provided
+"that the great men of England (which had enfeoffed knights and their
+freeholders of small tenements in their great manors)" might "make their
+profit of their lands, wastes, woods and pastures," if they left
+sufficient pasture for the service of the tenements they had granted.
+Some fifty years later, another statute, that of Westminster the Second,
+supplemented the Statute of Merton by enabling the lord of the soil to
+inclose common lands, not only against his own tenants, but against
+"neighbours" claiming pasture there. These two pieces of legislation
+undoubtedly mark the growth of the doctrine which converted the
+over-lord's territorial sway into property of the modern kind, and a
+corresponding loosening of the hold of the rural townships on the wastes
+of their neighbourhood. To what extent the two acts were used, it is
+very difficult to say. We know, from later controversies, that they made
+no very great change in the system on which the country was cultivated,
+a system to which, as we have seen, commons were essential. In some
+counties, indeed, inclosures had, by the Tudor period, made greater
+progress than in others. T. Tusser, in his eulogium on inclosed farming,
+cites Suffolk and Essex as inclosed counties by way of contrast to
+Norfolk, Cambridgeshire and Leicestershire, where the open or "champion"
+(champain) system prevailed. The Statutes of Merton and Westminster may
+have had something to do with the progress of inclosed farming; but it
+is probable that their chief operation lay in furnishing the lord of the
+manor with a farm on the new system, side by side with the common
+fields, or with a deer park.
+
+
+  The Black Death.
+
+The first event which really endangered the village system was the
+coming of the Black Death. This scourge is said to have swept away half
+the population of the country. The disappearance, by no means uncommon,
+of a whole family gave the over-lord of the vill the opportunity of
+appropriating, by way of escheat, the holding of the household in the
+common fields. The land-holding population of the townships and the
+persons interested in the commons were thus sensibly diminished.
+
+During the Wars of the Roses the small cultivator is thought to have
+again made headway. But his diminished numbers, and the larger interest
+which the lords had acquired in the lands of each vill, no doubt
+facilitated the determined attack on the common-field system which
+marked the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI.
+
+
+  The Tudor agrarian revolution.
+
+This attack, which had for its chief object the conversion of arable
+land into pasture for the sake of sheep-breeding, was the outcome of
+many causes. It was no longer of importance to a territorial magnate to
+possess a large body of followers pledged to his interests by their
+connexion with the land. On the other hand, wool commanded a high price,
+and the growth of towns and of foreign commerce supplied abundant
+markets. At the same time the confiscation of the monastic possessions
+introduced a race of new over-lords--not bound to their territories by
+any family traditions, and also tended to spread the view that the
+strong hand was its own justification. In order to keep large flocks
+and send many bales of wool to market, each landowner strove to increase
+his range of pasture, and with this view to convert the arable fields of
+his vill into grass land. There is abundant evidence both from the
+complaints of writers such as Latimer and Sir Thomas More, and from the
+Statutes and royal commissions of the day, that large inclosures were
+made at this time, and that the process was effected with much injustice
+and accompanied by great hardship. "Where," says Bishop Latimer in one
+of his courageous and vigorous denunciations of "inclosers and
+rent-raisers," "there have been many householders and inhabitants, there
+is now but a shepherd and his dog." In the full tide of this movement,
+and despite Latimer's appeals, the Statutes of Merton and Westminster
+the Second were confirmed and re-enacted. Both common fields and commons
+no doubt disappeared in many places; and the country saw the first
+notable instalment of inclosure. But from the evidence of later years it
+is clear that a very large area of the country was still cultivated on
+the common-field system for another couple of centuries. When inclosure
+on any considerable scale again came into favour, it was effected on
+quite different principles; and before describing what was essentially a
+modern movement, it will be convenient to give a brief outline of the
+principles of law applicable to commons at the present day.
+
+
+  Rights of common.
+
+_Law._--The distinguishing feature in law of common land is, that it is
+land the soil of which belongs to one person, and from which certain
+other persons take certain profits--for example, the bite of the grass
+by the mouth of cattle, or gorse, bushes or heather for fuel or litter.
+The right to take such a profit is a right of common; the right to feed
+cattle on common land is a right of common of pasture; while the right
+of cutting bushes, gorse or heather (more rarely of lopping trees) is
+known as a right of common of _estovers_ (_estouviers_) or _botes_
+(respectively from the Norman-French _estouffer_, and the Saxon _botan_,
+to furnish). Another right of common is that of _turbary_, or the right
+to cut turf or peat for fuel. There are also rights of taking sand,
+gravel or loam for the repair and maintenance of land. The persons who
+enjoy any of these rights are called commoners.
+
+From the sketch of the common-field system of agriculture which has been
+given, we shall readily infer that a large proportion of the commons of
+the country, and of the peculiarities of the law relating to commons,
+are traceable to that system. Thus, common rights are mostly attached
+to, or enjoyed with, certain lands or houses. A right of common of
+pasture usually consists of the right to turn out as many cattle as the
+farm or other private land of the commoner can support in winter; for,
+as we have seen, the enjoyment of the common, in the village system,
+belonged to the householders of the village, and was necessarily
+measured by their holdings in the common fields. The cattle thus
+commonable are said to be _levant_ and _couchant_, i.e. uprising and
+down-lying on the land. But it has now been decided that they need not
+in fact be so kept. At the present day a commoner may turn out any
+cattle belonging to him, wherever they are kept, provided they do not
+exceed in number the head of cattle which can be supported by the stored
+summer produce of the land in respect of which the right is claimed,
+together with any winter herbage it produces. The animals which a
+commoner may usually turn out are those which were employed in the
+village system--horses, oxen, cows and sheep. These animals are termed
+commonable animals. A right may be claimed for other animals, such as
+donkeys, pigs and geese; but they are termed non-commonable, and the
+right can only be established on proof of special usage. A right of
+pasture attached to land in the way we have described is said to be
+_appendant_ or _appurtenant_ to such land. Common of pasture appendant
+to land can only be claimed for commonable cattle; and it is held to
+have been originally attached only to arable land, though in claiming
+the right no proof that the land was originally arable is necessary.
+This species of common right is, in fact, the direct survival of the use
+by the village householder of the common of the township; while common
+of pasture appurtenant represents rights which grew up between
+neighbouring townships, or, in later times, by direct grant from the
+owner of the soil of the common to some other landowner, or (in the case
+of copyholders) by local custom.
+
+The characteristic of connexion with house or land also marks other
+rights of common. Thus a right of taking gorse or bushes, or of lopping
+wood for fuel, called _fire-bote_, is limited to the taking of such fuel
+as may be necessary for the hearths of a particular house, and no more
+may be taken than is thus required. The same condition applies to common
+of _turbary_, which in its more usual form authorizes the commoner to
+cut the heather, which grows thickly upon poor soils, with the roots and
+adhering earth, to a depth of about 9 in. Similarly, wood taken for the
+repairs of buildings (_house-bote_), or of hedges (_hedge-bote_ or
+_hey-bote_), must be limited in quantity to the requirements of the
+house, farm buildings and hedges of the particular property to which the
+right is attached. And heather taken for litter cannot be taken in
+larger quantities than is necessary for manuring the lands in respect of
+which the right is enjoyed. It is illegal to take the wood or heather
+from the common, and to sell it to any one who has not himself a right
+to take it. So, also, a right of digging sand, gravel, clay or loam is
+usually appurtenant to land, and must be exercised with reference to the
+repair of the roads, or the improvement of the soil, of the particular
+property to which the right is attached.
+
+We have already alluded to the fact that, in Norman and later days,
+every vill or township was associated with some over-lord,--some one
+responsible to the crown, either directly or through other superior
+lords, for the holding of the land and the performance of certain duties
+of defence and military support. To this lord the law has assigned the
+ownership of the soil of the common of the vill; and the common has for
+many centuries been styled the waste of the manor. The trees and bushes
+on the common belong to the lord, subject to any rights of lopping or
+cutting which the commoners may possess. The ground, sand and subsoil
+are his, and even the grass, though the commoners have the right to take
+it by the mouths of their cattle. To the over-lord, also, was assigned a
+seignory over all the other lands of the vill; and the vill came to be
+termed his manor. At the present day it is the manorial system which
+must be invoked in most cases as the foundation of the curiously
+conflicting rights which co-exist on a common. (See MANOR.)
+
+
+  Manorial commons.
+
+Within the bounds of a manor, speaking generally, there are three
+classes of persons possessing an interest in the land, viz.:--
+
+(a) Persons holding land freely of the manor, or freehold tenants.
+
+(b) Persons holding land of the manor by copy of court roll, or copyhold
+tenants.
+
+(c) Persons holding from the lord of the manor, by lease or agreement,
+or from year to year, land which was originally demesne, or which was
+once freehold or copyhold and has come into the lord's hands by escheat
+or forfeiture.
+
+Amongst the first two classes we usually find the majority of the
+commoners on the wastes or commons of the manor. To every freehold
+tenant belongs a right of common of pasture on the commons, such right
+being "appendant" to the land which he holds freely of the manor. This
+right differs from most other rights of common in the characteristic
+that actual exercise of the right need not be proved. When once it is
+shown that certain land is held freely of the manor, it follows of
+necessity that a right of common of pasture for commonable cattle
+attaches to the land, and therefore belongs to its owner, and may be
+exercised by its occupant. "Common appendant," said the Elizabethan
+judges, "is of common right, and commences by operation of law and in
+favour of tillage."
+
+Now this is exactly what we saw to be the case with reference to the use
+of the common of the vill by the householder cultivating the arable
+fields. The use was a necessity, not depending upon the habits of this
+or that householder; it was a use for commonable cattle only, and was
+connected with the tillage of the arable lands. It seems almost
+necessarily to follow that the freehold tenants of the manor are the
+representatives of the householders of the vill. However this may be, it
+is amongst the freehold tenants of the manor that we must first look for
+commoners on the waste of the manor.
+
+Owing, however, to the light character of the services rendered by the
+freeholders, the connexion of their lands with the manor is often
+difficult to prove. Copyhold tenure, on the other hand, cannot be lost
+sight of; and in many manors copyholders are numerous, or were, till
+quite recently. Copyholders almost invariably possess a right of common
+on the waste of the manor; and when (as is usual) they exist side by
+side with freeholders, their rights are generally of the same character.
+They do not, however, exist as of common right, without proof of usage,
+but by the custom of the manor. Custom has been defined by a great judge
+(Sir George Jessel, M.R., in _Hammerton_ v. _Honey_) as local law. Thus,
+while the freehold tenants enjoy their rights by the general law of the
+land, the copyholders have a similar enjoyment by the local law of the
+manor. This, again, is what one might expect from the ancient
+constitution of a village community. The copyholders, being originally
+serfs, had no rights at law; but as they had a share in the tillage of
+the land, and gradually became possessed of strips in the common fields,
+or of other plots on which they were settled by the lord, they were
+admitted by way of indulgence to the use of the common; and the practice
+hardened into a custom. As might be expected, there is more variety in
+the details of the rights they exercise. They may claim common for
+cattle which are not commonable, if the custom extends to such cattle;
+and their claim is not necessarily connected with arable land.
+
+In the present day large numbers of copyhold tenements have been
+enfranchised, i.e. converted into freehold. The effect of this step is
+to sever all connexion between the land enfranchised and the manor of
+which it was previously held. Technically, therefore, the common rights
+previously enjoyed in respect of the land would be gone. When, however,
+there is no indication of any intention to extinguish such rights, the
+courts protect the copyholders in their continued enjoyment; and when an
+enfranchisement is effected under the statutes passed in modern years,
+the rights are expressly preserved. The commoners on a manorial common
+then will be, prima facie, the freeholders and copyholders of the manor,
+and the persons who own lands which were copyhold of the manor but have
+been enfranchised.
+
+The occupants of lands belonging to the lord of the manor, though they
+usually turn out their cattle on the common, do so by virtue of the
+lord's ownership of the soil of the common, and can, as a rule, make no
+claim to any right of common as against the lord, even though the
+practice of turning out may have obtained in respect of particular lands
+for a long series of years. When, however, lands have been sold by the
+lord of the manor, although no right of common attached by law to such
+lands in the lord's hands, their owners may subsequently enjoy such a
+right, if it appears from the language of the deeds of conveyance, and
+all the surrounding circumstances, that there was an intention that the
+use of the common should be enjoyed by the purchaser. The rules on this
+point are very technical; it is sufficient here to indicate that lands
+bought from a lord of a manor are not necessarily destitute of common
+rights.
+
+
+  Rights of common not connected with manorial system.
+
+So far we have considered common rights as they have arisen out of the
+manorial system, and out of the still older system of village
+communities. There may, however, be rights of common quite unconnected
+with the manorial system. Such rights may be proved either by producing
+a specific grant from the owner of the manor or by long usage. It is
+seldom that an actual grant is produced, although it would seem likely
+that such grants were not uncommon at one time. But a claim founded on
+actual user is by no means unusual. Such a claim may be based (a) on
+immemorial usage, i.e. usage for which no commencement later than the
+coronation of Richard I. (1189) can be shown, (b) on a presumed modern
+grant which has been lost, or (c) (in some cases) on the Prescription
+Act 1832. There are special rules applicable to each kind of claim.
+
+A right of common not connected with the manorial system may be, and
+usually is, attached to land; it may be measured, like a manorial right,
+by levancy and couchancy, or it may be limited to a fixed number of
+animals. Rights of the latter character seem to have been not uncommon
+in the middle ages. In one of his sermons against inclosure, Bishop
+Latimer tells us his father "had walk (i.e. right of common) for 100
+sheep." This may have been a right in gross, but was more probably
+attached to the "farm of L3 or L4 by year at the uttermost" which his
+father held. A right of common appurtenant may be sold separately, and
+enjoyed by a purchaser independently of the tenement to which it was
+originally appurtenant. It then becomes a right of common in gross.
+
+A right of common in gross is a right enjoyed irrespective of the
+ownership or occupancy of any lands. It may exist by express grant, or
+by user implying a modern lost grant, or by immemorial usage. It must be
+limited to a certain number of cattle, unless the right is claimed by
+actual grant. Such rights seldom arise in connexion with commons in the
+ordinary sense, but are a frequent incident of regulated or stinted
+pastures; the right is then generally known as a cattle-gate or
+beast-gate.
+
+There may be rights over a common which exclude the owner of the soil
+from all enjoyment of some particular product of the common. Thus a
+person, or a class of persons, may be entitled to the whole of the corn,
+grass, underwood, or sweepage, (i.e. everything which falls to the sweep
+of the scythe) of a tract of land, without possessing any ownership in
+the land itself, or in the trees or mines. Such a right is known as a
+right of sole vesture.
+
+A more limited right of the same character is a right of sole
+pasturage--the exclusive right to take everything growing on the land in
+question by the mouths of cattle, but not in any other way. Either of
+these rights may exist throughout the whole year, or during part only. A
+right of sole common pasturage and herbage was given to a certain class
+of commoners in Ashdown Forest on the partition of the forest at the end
+of the 18th century.
+
+
+  Rights in common fields.
+
+We have seen that the common arable fields and common meadows of a vill
+were thrown open to the stock of the community between harvest and
+seed-time. There is still to be found, here and there, a group of arable
+common fields, and occasionally a piece of grass land with many of the
+characteristics of a common, which turns out to be a common field or
+meadow. The Hackney Marshes and the other so-called commons of Hackney
+are really common fields or common meadows, and along the valley of the
+Lea a constant succession of such meadows is met with. They are still
+owned in parcels marked by metes; the owners have the right to grow a
+crop of hay between Lady day and Lammas day; and from Lammas to March
+the lands are subject to the depasturage of stock. In the case of some
+common fields and meadows the right of feed during the open time belongs
+exclusively to the owners; in others to a larger class, such as the
+owners and occupiers of all lands within the bounds of the parish.
+Anciently, as we have seen, the two classes would be identical. In some
+places newcomers not owning strips in the fields were admitted to the
+right of turn out; in others, not. Hence the distinction. Similar
+divergences of practice will be found to exist in Switzerland at the
+present day; _nieder-gelassene_, or newcomers, are in some communes
+admitted to all rights, while, in others, privileges are reserved to the
+_burger_, or old inhabitant householders.
+
+
+  Rights in royal forests.
+
+Some of the largest tracts of waste land to be found in England are the
+waste or commonable lands of royal forests or chases. The thickets and
+pastures of Epping Forest, now happily preserved for London under the
+guardianship of the city corporation, and the noble woods and
+far-stretching heaths of the New Forest, will be called to mind. Cannock
+Chase, unhappily inclosed according to law, though for the most part
+still lying waste, Dartmoor, and Ashdown Forest in Sussex, are other
+instances; and the list might be greatly lengthened. Space will not
+permit of any description of the forest system; it is enough, in this
+connexion, to say that the common rights in a forest were usually
+enjoyed by the owners and occupiers of land within its bounds (the class
+may differ in exact definition, but is substantially equivalent to this)
+without reference to manorial considerations. Epping Forest was saved by
+the proof of this right. It is often said that the right was given, or
+confirmed, to the inhabitants in consideration of the burden of
+supporting the deer for the pleasure of the king or of the owner of the
+chase. It seems more probable that the forest law prevented the growth
+of the manorial system, and with it those rules which have tended to
+restrict the class of persons entitled to enjoy the waste lands of the
+district.
+
+
+  Prevention of inclosure.
+
+We have seen that in the case of each kind of common there is a division
+of interest. The soil belongs to one person; other persons are entitled
+to take certain products of the soil. This division of interest
+preserves the common as an open space. The commoners cannot inclose,
+because the land does not belong to them. The owner of the soil cannot
+inclose, because inclosure is inconsistent with the enjoyment of the
+commoners' rights. At a very early date it was held that the right of a
+commoner proceeded out of every part of the common, so that the owner of
+the soil could not set aside part for the commoner and inclose the rest.
+The Statutes of Merton and Westminster the Second were passed to get
+over this difficulty. But under these statutes the burden of proving
+that sufficient pasture was left was thrown upon the owner of the soil;
+such proof can very seldom be given. Moreover, the statutes have never
+enabled an inclosure to be made against commoners entitled to _estovers_
+or _turbary_. It seems clear that the statutes had become obsolete in
+the time of Edward VI., or they would not have been re-enacted. And we
+know that the zealous advocates of inclosure in the 18th century
+considered them worthless for their purposes. Practically it may be
+taken that, save where the owner of the soil of a common acquires all
+the lands in the township (generally coterminous with the parish) with
+which the common is connected, an inclosure cannot legally be effected
+by him. And even in the latter case it may be that rights of common are
+enjoyed in respect of lands outside the parish, and that such rights
+prevent an inclosure.
+
+
+  The modern Inclosure Act.
+
+_Modern Inclosure._--When, therefore, the common-field system began to
+fall out of gear, and the increase of population brought about a demand
+for an increased production of corn, it was felt to be necessary to
+resort to parliament for power to effect inclosure. The legislation
+which ensued was based on two principles. One was that all persons
+interested in the open land to be dealt with should receive a
+proportionate equivalent in inclosed land; the other, that inclosure
+should not be prevented by the opposition, or the inability to act, of a
+small minority. Assuming that inclosure was desirable, no more equitable
+course could have been adopted, though in details particular acts may
+have been objectionable. The first act was passed in 1709; but the
+precedent was followed but slowly, and not till the middle of the 18th
+century did the annual number of acts attain double figures. The
+high-water mark was reached in the period from 1765 to 1785, when on an
+average forty-seven acts were passed every year. From some cause,
+possibly the very considerable expense attending upon the obtaining of
+an act, the numbers then began slightly to fall off. In the year 1793 a
+board of agriculture, apparently similar in character to the chambers of
+commerce of our own day, was established. Sir John Sinclair was its
+president, and Arthur Young, the well-known agricultural reformer, was
+its secretary. Owing to the efforts of this body, and of a select
+committee appointed by the House of Commons on Sinclair's motion, the
+first General Inclosure Act was passed in 1801. This act would at the
+present day be called an Inclosure Clauses Act. It contained a number of
+provisions applicable to inclosures, which could be incorporated by
+reference, in a private bill. By this means, it was hoped, the length
+and complexity, and consequently the expense, of inclosure bills would
+be greatly diminished. Under the stimulus thus applied inclosure
+proceeded apace. In the year 1801 no less than 119 acts were passed, and
+the total area inclosed probably exceeded 300,000 acres. Three
+inclosures in the Lincolnshire Fens account for over 53,000 acres. As
+before, the movement after a time spent its force, the annual average of
+acts falling to about twelve in the decade 1830-1840. Another
+parliamentary committee then sat to consider how inclosure might be
+promoted; and the result was the Inclosure Act 1845, which, though much
+amended by subsequent legislation, still stands on the statute-book. The
+chief feature of that act was the appointment of a permanent commission
+to make in each case all the inquiries previously made (no doubt
+capriciously and imperfectly) by committees of the two Houses. The
+commission, on being satisfied of the propriety of an inclosure was to
+draw up a provisional order prescribing the general conditions on which
+it was to be carried out, and this order was to be submitted to
+parliament by the government of the day for confirmation. It is believed
+that these inclosure orders afford the first example of the provisional
+order system of legislation, which has attained such large proportions.
+
+Again inclosure moved forward, and between 1845 and 1869 (when it
+received a sudden check) 600,000 acres passed through the hands of the
+inclosure commission. Taking the whole period of about a century and a
+half, when parliamentary inclosure was in favour, and making an estimate
+of acreage where the acts do not give it, the result may be thus
+summarized:--
+
+                                                 Acres.
+  From 1709 to 1797                            2,744,926
+    "  1801 to 1842                            1,307,964
+    "  1845 to 1869                              618,000
+  Add for Forests inclosed under Special Acts    100,000
+                                               ---------
+                                               4,770,890
+
+The total area of England being 37,000,000 acres, we shall probably not
+be far wrong in concluding that about one acre in every seven was
+inclosed during the period in question. During the first period, the
+lands inclosed consisted mainly of common arable fields; during the
+second, many great tracts of moor and fen were reduced to severalty
+ownership. In the third period, inclosure probably related chiefly to
+the ordinary manorial common; and it seems likely that, on the whole,
+England would have gained, had inclosure stopped in 1845.
+
+
+  Open Space movement.
+
+As a fact it stopped in 1869. Before the inclosure commission had been
+in existence twenty years the feeling of the nation towards commons
+began to change. The rapid growth of towns, and especially of London,
+and the awakening sense of the importance of protecting the public
+health, brought about an appreciation of the value of commons as open
+spaces. Naturally, the metropolis saw the birth of this sentiment. An
+attempted inclosure in 1864 of the commons at Epsom and Wimbledon
+aroused strong opposition; and a select committee of the House of
+Commons was appointed to consider how the London commons could best be
+preserved. The Metropolitan Board of Works, then in the vigour of youth,
+though eager to become the open-space authority for London, could make
+no better suggestion than that all persons interested in the commons
+should be bought out, that the board should defray the expense by
+selling parts for building, and should make parks of what was left. Had
+this advice been followed, London would probably have lost two-thirds of
+the open space which she now enjoys. Fortunately a small knot of men,
+who afterwards formed the Commons Preservation Society, took a broader
+and wiser view. Chief amongst them were the late Philip Lawrence, who
+acted as solicitor to the Wimbledon opposition, and subsequently
+organized the Commons Preservation Society, George Shaw-Lefevre,
+chairman of that society since its foundation, the late John Locke, and
+the late Lord Mount Temple (then Mr W. F. Cowper). They urged that the
+conflict of legal interests, which is the special characteristic of a
+common, might be trusted to preserve it as an open space, and that all
+that parliament could usefully do, was to restrict parliamentary
+inclosure, and to pass a measure of police for the protection of commons
+as open spaces. The select committee adopted this view. On their report,
+was passed the Metropolitan Commons Act 1866, which prohibited any
+further parliamentary inclosures within the metropolitan police area,
+and provided means by which a common could be put under local
+management. The lords of the manors in which the London commons lay felt
+that their opportunity of making a rich harvest out of land, valuable
+for building, though otherwise worthless, was slipping away; and a
+battle royal ensued. Inclosures were commenced, and the Statute of
+Merton prayed in aid. The public retorted by legal proceedings taken in
+the names of commoners. These proceedings--which culminated in the
+mammoth suit as to Epping Forest, with the corporation of London as
+plaintiffs and fourteen lords of manors as defendants--were uniformly
+successful; and London commons were saved. By degrees the manorial
+lords, seeing that they could not hope to do better, parted with their
+interest for a small sum to some local authority; and a large area of
+the common land, not only in the county of London, but in the suburbs,
+is now in the hands of the representatives of the ratepayers, and is
+definitely appropriated to the recreation of the public.
+
+
+  Amendment of Statue of Merton.
+
+Moreover, the Commons Preservation Society was able to base, upon the
+uniform success of the commoners in the law courts, a plea for the
+amendment of the law. The Statute of Merton, we have seen, purports to
+enable the lord of the soil to inclose a common, if he leaves sufficient
+pasture for the commoners. This statute was constantly vouched in the
+litigation about London commons; but in no single instance was an
+inclosure justified by virtue of its provisions. It thus remained a trap
+to lords of manors, and a source of controversy and expense. In the year
+1893 Lord Thring, at the instance of the Commons Preservation Society,
+carried through parliament the Commons Law Amendment Act, which provided
+that in future no inclosure under the Statute of Merton should be valid,
+unless made with the consent of the Board of Agriculture, which was to
+consider the expediency of the inclosure from a public point of view.
+
+
+  Rural commons.
+
+The movement to preserve commons as open spaces soon spread to the rural
+districts. Under the Inclosure Act of 1845 provision was made for the
+allotment of a part of the land to be inclosed for field gardens for the
+labouring poor, and for recreation. But those who were interested in
+effecting an inclosure often convinced the inclosure commissioners that
+for some reason such allotments would be useless. To such an extent did
+the reservation of such allotments become discredited that, in 1869, the
+commission proposed to parliament the inclosure of 13,000 acres, with
+the reservation of only one acre for recreation, and none at all for
+field gardens. This proposal attracted the attention of Henry Fawcett,
+who, after much inquiry and consideration, came to the conclusion that
+inclosures were, speaking generally, doing more harm than good to the
+agricultural labourer, and that, under such conditions as the
+commissioners were prescribing, they constituted a serious evil. With
+characteristic intrepidity he opposed the annual inclosure bill (which
+had come to be considered a mere form) and moved for a committee on the
+whole subject. The ultimate result was the passing, seven years later,
+of the Commons Act 1876. This measure, introduced by a Conservative
+government, laid down the principle that an inclosure should not be
+allowed unless distinctly shown to be for the benefit, not merely of
+private persons, but of the neighbourhood generally and the public. It
+imposed many checks upon the process, and following the course already
+adopted in the case of metropolitan commons, offered an alternative
+method of making commons more useful to the nation, viz. their
+management and regulation as open spaces. The effect of this legislation
+and of the changed attitude of the House of Commons towards inclosure
+has been almost to stop that process, except in the case of common
+fields or extensive mountain wastes.
+
+
+  Regulation.
+
+We have alluded to the regulation of commons as open spaces. The primary
+object of this process is to bring a common under the jurisdiction of
+some constituted authority, which may make by-laws, enforceable in a
+summary way before the magistrates of the district, for its protection,
+and may appoint watchers or keepers to preserve order and prevent wanton
+mischief. There are several means of attaining this object. Commons
+within the metropolitan police district--the Greater London of the
+registrar-general--are in this respect in a position by themselves.
+Under the Metropolitan Commons Acts, schemes for their local management
+may be made by the Board of Agriculture (in which the inclosure
+commission is now merged) without the consent either of the owner of the
+soil or the commoners--who, however, are entitled to compensation if
+they can show that they are injuriously affected. Outside the
+metropolitan police district a provisional order for regulation may be
+made under the Commons Act 1876, with the consent of the owner of the
+soil and of persons representing two-thirds in value of all the
+interests in the common. And under an act passed in 1899 the council of
+any urban or rural district may, with the approval of the Board of
+Agriculture and without recourse to parliament, make a scheme for the
+management of any common within its district, provided no notice of
+dissent is served on the board by the lord of the manor or by persons
+representing one-third in value of such interests in the common as are
+affected by the scheme. There is yet another way of protecting a common.
+A parish council may, by agreement, acquire an interest in it, and may
+make by-laws for its regulation under the Local Government Act 1894. The
+acts of 1894 and 1899 undoubtedly proceed on right lines. For, with the
+growth of efficient local government, commons naturally fall to be
+protected and improved by the authority of the district.
+
+
+  Statistics.
+
+It remains to say a word as to the extent of common land still remaining
+open in England and Wales. In 1843 it was estimated that there were
+still 10,000,000 acres of common land and common-field land. In 1874
+another return made by the inclosure commission made a guess of
+2,632,772. These two returns were made from the same materials, viz. the
+tithe commutation awards. As less than 700,000 acres had been inclosed
+in the intervening period, it is obvious that the two estimates are
+mutually destructive. In July 1875 another version was given in the
+Return of Landowners (generally known as the Modern Domesday Book),
+compiled from the valuation lists made for the purposes of rating. This
+return put the commons of the country (not including common fields) at
+1,542,648 acres. It is impossible to view any of these returns as
+accurate. Those compiled from the tithe commutation awards are based
+largely on estimates, since there are many parishes where the tithes had
+not been commuted. On the other hand, the valuation lists do not show
+waste and unoccupied land (which is not rated), and consequently the
+information as to such lands in the Return of Landowners was based on
+any materials which might happen to be at the disposal of the clerk of
+the guardians. All we can say, therefore, is that the acreage of the
+remaining common land of the country is probably somewhere between
+1,500,000 and 2,000,000 acres. It is most capriciously distributed. In
+the Midlands there is very little to be found, while in a county of poor
+soil, like Surrey, nearly every parish has its common, and there are
+large tracts of heath and moor. In 1866, returns were made to parliament
+by the overseers of the poor of the commons within 15 and within 25 m.
+of Charing Cross. The acreage within the larger area was put at 38,450
+acres, and within the smaller at 13,301; but owing to the difference of
+opinion which sometimes prevails upon the question, whether land is
+common or not, and the carelessness of some parish authorities as to the
+accuracy of their returns, even these figures cannot be taken as more
+than approximately correct. The metropolitan police district, within
+which the Metropolitan Commons Acts are in force, approaches in extent
+to a circle of 15 miles' radius. Within this district nearly 12,000
+acres of common land have been put under local management, either by
+means of the Commons Acts or under special legislation. London is
+fortunate in having secured so much recreation ground on its borders.
+But when the enormous population of the capital and its rapid growth and
+expansion are considered, the conclusion is inevitable, that not one
+acre of common land within an easy railway journey of the metropolis can
+be spared.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Marshall, _Elementary and Practical Treatise on Landed
+  Property_ (London, 1804); F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_
+  (Cambridge, 1897); _Borough and Township_ (Cambridge, 1898); F.
+  Seebohm, _The English Village Community_ (London, 1883); Williams,
+  Joshua, _Rights of Common_ (London, 1880); C. I. Elton, _A Treatise on
+  Commons and Waste Lands_ (1868); T. E. Scrutton, _On Commons and
+  Common Fields_ (1887); H. R. Woolrych, _Rights of Common_ (1850); G.
+  Shaw-Lefevre, _English Commons and Forests_ (London, 1894); Sir W.
+  Hunter, _The Preservation of Open Spaces_ (London, 1896); "The
+  Movements for the Inclosure and Preservation of Open Lands," _Journal
+  of the Royal Statistical Society_, vol. lx. part ii. (June 1897);
+  _Returns to House of Commons_ (1843), No. 325; (1870), No. 326;
+  (1874), No. 85; _Return of Landowners_ (1875); _Annual Reports of
+  Inclosure Commission and Board of Agriculture_; Revised Statutes and
+  Statutes at large.     (R. H.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the commons (_communitates_) in a socio-political sense see
+    REPRESENTATION and PARLIAMENT.
+
+  [2] There is an entry on the court rolls of the manor of Wimbledon of
+    the division amongst the inhabitants of the vill of the crab-apples
+    growing on the common.
+
+
+
+
+COMMONWEALTH, a term generally synonymous with commonweal, i.e. public
+welfare, but more particularly signifying a form of government in which
+the general public have a direct voice. "The Commonwealth" is used in a
+special sense to denote the period in English history between the
+execution of Charles I. in 1649 and the Restoration in 1660.
+Commonwealth is also the official designation in America of the states
+of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky. The Commonwealth
+of Australia is the title of the federation of Australian colonies
+carried out in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+COMMUNE (Med. Lat. _communia_, Lat. _communis_, common), in its most
+general sense, a group of persons acting together for purposes of
+self-government, especially in towns. (See BOROUGH, and COMMUNE,
+MEDIEVAL, below.) "Commune" (Fr. _commune_, Ital. _comune_, Ger.
+_Gemeinde_, &c.) is now the term generally applied to the smallest
+administrative division in many European countries. (See the sections
+dealing with the administration of these countries under their several
+headings.) "The Commune" is the name given to the period of the history
+of Paris from March 18 to May 28, 1871, during which the commune of
+Paris attempted to set up its authority against the National Assembly at
+Versailles. It was a political movement, intended to replace the
+centralized national organization by one based on a federation of
+communes. Hence the "communists" were also called "federalists." It had
+nothing to do with the social theories of Communism (q.v.). (See FRANCE:
+_HISTORY_.)
+
+
+
+
+COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL. Under this head it is proposed to give a short
+account of the rise and development of towns in central and western
+continental Europe since the downfall of the Roman Empire. All these,
+including also the British towns (for which, however, see BOROUGH), may
+be said to have formed one unity, inasmuch as all arose under similar
+conditions, economic, legal and political, irrespective of local
+peculiarities. Kindred economic conditions prevailed in all the former
+provinces of the Western empire, while new law concepts were everywhere
+introduced by the Germanic invaders. It is largely for the latter reason
+that it seems advisable to begin with an account of the German towns,
+the term German to correspond to the limits of the old kingdom of
+Germany, comprising the present empire, German Austria, German
+Switzerland, Holland and a large portion of Belgium. In their
+development the problem, as it were, worked out least tainted by foreign
+interference, showing at the same time a rich variety in detail; and it
+may also be said that their constitutional and economic history has been
+more thoroughly investigated than any other.
+
+Like the others, the German towns should be considered from three points
+of view, viz. as jurisdictional units, as self-administrative units and
+as economic units. One of the chief distinguishing features of early as
+opposed to modern town-life is that each town formed a jurisdictional
+district distinct from the country around. Another trait, more in
+accordance with the conditions of to-day, is that local self-government
+was more fully developed and strongly marked in the towns than without.
+And, thirdly, each town in economic matters followed a policy as
+independent as possible of that of any other town or of the country in
+general. The problem is, how this state of things arose.
+
+From this point of view the German towns may be divided into two main
+classes: those that gradually resuscitated on the ruins of former Roman
+cities in the Rhine and Danube countries, and those that were newly
+founded at a later date in the interior.[1] Foremost in importance among
+the former stand the episcopal cities. Most of these had never been
+entirely destroyed during the Germanic invasion. Roman civic
+institutions perished; but probably parts of the population survived,
+and small Christian congregations with their bishops in most cases seem
+to have weathered all storms. Much of the city walls presumably remained
+standing, and within them German communities soon settled.
+
+In the 10th century it became the policy of the German emperors to hand
+over to the bishops full jurisdictional and administrative powers within
+their cities. The bishop henceforward directly or indirectly appointed
+all officers for the town's government. The chief of these was usually
+the _advocatus_ or _Vogt_, some neighbouring noble who served as the
+proctor of the church in all secular affairs. It was his business to
+preside three times a year over the chief law-court, the so-called
+_echte_ or _ungebotene Ding_, under the cognizance of which fell all
+cases relating to real property, personal freedom, bloodshed and
+robbery. For the rest of the legal business and as president of the
+ordinary court he appointed a _Schultheiss_, _centenarius_ or
+_causidicus_. Other officers were the _Burggraf_[2] or _praefectus_ for
+military matters, including the preservation of the town's defences,
+walls, moat, bridges and streets, to whom also appertained some
+jurisdiction over the craft-gilds in matters relating to their crafts;
+further the customs-officer or _teleonarius_ and the mint-master or
+_monetae magister_. It was not, however, the fact of their being placed
+under the bishop that constituted these towns as separate jurisdictional
+units. The chief feature rather is the existence within their walls of a
+special law, distinct in important points from that of the country at
+large. The towns enjoyed a special peace, as it was called, i.e.
+breaches of the peace were more severely punished if committed in a town
+than elsewhere. Besides, the inhabitants might be sued before the town
+court only, and to fugitives from the country who had taken refuge in
+the town belonged a similar privilege. This special legal status
+probably arose from the towns being considered in the first place as the
+king's fortresses[3] or burgs (see BOROUGH), and, therefore, as
+participating in the special peace enjoyed by the king's palace. Hence
+the terms "burgh," "borough" in English, _baurgs_ in Gothic, the
+earliest Germanic designations for a town; "burgher," "burgess" for its
+inhabitants. What struck the townless early Germans most about the Roman
+towns was their mighty walls. Hence they applied to all fortified
+habitations the term in use for their own primitive fortifications; the
+walls remained with them the main feature distinguishing a town from a
+village; and the fact of the town being a fortified place, likewise
+necessitated the special provisions mentioned for maintaining the peace.
+
+The new towns in the interior of Germany were founded on land belonging
+to the founder, some ecclesiastical or lay lord, and frequently
+adjoining the cathedral close of one of the new sees or the lord's
+castle, and they were laid out according to a regular plan. The most
+important feature was the market-square, often surrounded by arcades
+with stalls for the sale of the principal commodities, and with a number
+of straight streets leading thence to the city gates.[4] As for the
+fortifications, some time naturally passed before they were completed.
+Furthermore, the governmental machinery would be less complex than in
+the older towns. The legal peculiarities distinguishing town and
+country, on the other hand, may be said to have been conferred on the
+new towns in a more clearly defined form from the beginning.
+
+An important difference lay in the mode of settlement. There is evidence
+that in the quondam Roman towns the German newcomers settled much as in
+a village, i.e. each full member of the community had a certain portion
+of arable land allotted to him and a share in the common. Their pursuits
+would at first be mainly agricultural. The new towns, on the other hand,
+general economic conditions having meanwhile begun to undergo a marked
+change, were founded with the intention of establishing centres of
+trade. Periodical markets, weekly or annual, had preceded them, which
+already enjoyed the special protection of the king's ban, acts of
+violence against traders visiting them or on their way towards them
+being subject to special punishment. The new towns may be regarded as
+markets made permanent. The settlers invited were merchants (_mercatores
+personati_) and handicraftsmen. The land now allotted to each member of
+the community was just large enough for a house and yard, stabling and
+perhaps a small garden (50 by 100 ft. at Freiburg, 60 by 100 ft. at
+Bern). These building plots were given as free property or, more
+frequently, at a merely nominal rent (_Wurtzins_) with the right of free
+disposal, the only obligation being that of building a house. All that
+might be required besides would be a common for the pasture of the
+burgesses' cattle.
+
+The example thus set was readily followed in the older towns. The
+necessary land was placed at the disposal of new settlers, either by the
+members of the older agricultural community, or by the various churches.
+The immigrants were of widely differing status, many being serfs who
+came either with or without their lords' permission. The necessity of
+putting a stop to belated prosecutions on this account in the town court
+led to the acceptance of the rule that nobody who had lived in a town
+undisturbed for the term of a year and a day could any longer be claimed
+by a lord as his serf. But even those who had migrated into a town with
+their lords' consent could not very well for long continue in serfdom.
+When, on the other hand, certain bishops attempted to treat all
+new-comers to their city as serfs, the emperor Henry V. in charters for
+Spires and Worms proclaimed that in these towns all serf-like conditions
+should cease. This ruling found expression in the famous saying:
+_Stadtluft macht frei_, "town-air renders free." As may be imagined,
+this led to a rapid increase in population, mainly during the 11th to
+13th centuries. There would be no difficulty for the immigrants to find
+a dwelling, or to make a living, since most of them would be versed in
+one or other of the crafts in practice among villagers.
+
+The most important further step in the history of the towns was the
+establishment of an organ of self-government, the town-council (_Rat_,
+_consilium_, its members, _Ratmanner_, _consules_, less frequently
+_consiliarii_), with one, two or more burgomasters (_Burgermeister_,
+_magistri civium_, _proconsules_) at its head. (It was only after the
+Renaissance that the town-council came to be styled _senate_, and the
+burgomasters in Latin documents, _consules_.) As _units of local
+government_ the towns must be considered as originally placed on the
+same legal basis as the villages, viz. as having the right of taking
+care of all common interests below the cognizance of the public courts
+or of those of their lord.[5] In the towns, however, this right was
+strengthened at an early date by the _jus negotiale_. At least as early
+as the beginning of the 11th century, but probably long before that
+date, mercantile communities claimed the right, confirmed by the
+emperors, of settling mercantile disputes according to a law of their
+own, to the horror of certain conservative-minded clerics.[6]
+Furthermore, in the rapidly developing towns, opportunities for the
+exercise of self-administrative functions constantly increased. The new
+self-governing body soon began to legislate in matters of local
+government, imposing fines for the breach of its by-laws. Thus it
+assumed a jurisdiction, partly concurrent with that of the lord, which
+it further extended to breaches of the peace. And, finally, it raised
+funds by means of an excise-duty, _Ungeld_ (cf. the English _malatolta_)
+or _Accise_, _Zeise_. In the older and larger towns it soon went beyond
+what the bishops thought proper to tolerate; conflicts ensued; and in
+the 13th century several bishops obtained decrees in the imperial court,
+either to suppress the _Rat_ altogether, or to make it subject to their
+nomination, and more particularly to abolish the _Ungeld_, as
+detrimental to episcopal finances. In the long run, however, these
+attempts proved of little avail.
+
+Meanwhile the tendency towards self-government spread even to the lower
+ranks of town society, resulting in the establishment of craft-gilds.
+From a very early period there is reason to believe merchants among
+themselves formed gilds for social and religious purposes, and for the
+furtherance of their economic interests. These gilds would, where they
+existed, no doubt also influence the management of town affairs; but
+nowhere has the _Rat_, as used to be thought, developed out of a gild,
+nor has the latter anywhere in Germany played a part at all similar in
+importance to that of the English gild merchant, the only exception
+being for a time the _Richerzeche_, or Gild of the Rich of Cologne, from
+early times by far the largest, the richest, and the most important
+trading centre among German cities, and therefore provided with an
+administration more complex, and in some respects more primitive, than
+any other. On the other hand, the most important commodities offered for
+sale in the market had been subject to official examination already in
+Carolingian times. Bakers', butchers', shoemakers' stalls were grouped
+together in the market-place to facilitate control, and with the same
+object in view a master was appointed for each craft as its responsible
+representative. By and by these crafts or "offices" claimed the right of
+electing their master and of assisting him in examining the goods, and
+even of framing by-laws regulating the quality of the wares and the
+process of their manufacture. The bishops at first resented these
+attempts at self-management, as they had done in the case of the town
+council, and imperial legislation in their interests was obtained. But
+each craft at the same time formed a society for social, beneficial and
+religious purposes, and, as these were entirely in accordance with the
+wishes of the clerical authorities, the other powers could not in the
+long run be withheld, including that of forcing all followers of any
+craft to join the gild (_Zunftzwang_). Thus the official inspection of
+markets, community of interests on the part of the craftsmen, and
+co-operation for social and religious ends, worked together in the
+formation of craft-gilds. It is not suggested that in each individual
+town the rise of the gilds was preceded by an organization of crafts on
+the part of the lord and his officers; but it is maintained that as a
+general thing voluntary organization could hardly have proceeded on such
+orderly lines as on the whole it did, unless the framework had in the
+first instance been laid down by the authorities: much as in modern
+times the working together in factories has practically been an
+indispensable preliminary to the formation of trade unions. Much less
+would the principle of forced entrance have found such ready acceptance
+both on the part of the authorities and on that of the men, unless it
+had previously been in full practice and recognition under the system of
+official market-control. The different names for the societies, viz.
+_fraternitas_, _Bruderschaft_, _officium_, _Amt_, _condictum_, _Zunft_,
+_unio_, _Innung_, do not signify different kinds of societies, but only
+different aspects of the same thing. The word _Gilde_ alone forms an
+exception, inasmuch as, generally speaking, it was used by merchant
+gilds only.[7]
+
+From an early date the towns, more particularly the older episcopal
+cities, took a part in imperial politics. Legally the bishops were in
+their cities mere representatives of the imperial government. This fact
+found formal expression mainly in two ways. The _Vogt_, although
+appointed by the bishop, received the "ban," i.e. the power of having
+justice executed, which he passed on to the lesser officers, from the
+king or emperor direct. Secondly, whenever the emperor held a _curia
+generalis_ (or general assembly, or diet) in one of the episcopal
+cities, and for a week before and after, all jurisdictional and
+administrative power reverted to him and his immediate officers. The
+citizens on their part clung to this connexion and made use of it
+whenever their independence was threatened by their bishops, who
+strongly inclined to consider themselves lords of their cathedral
+cities, much as if these had been built on church-lands. As early as
+1073, therefore, we find the citizens of Worms successfully rising
+against their bishop in order to provide the emperor Henry IV. with a
+refuge against the rebellious princes. Those of Cologne made a similar
+attempt in 1074. But a second class of imperial cities (_Reichsstadte_),
+much more numerous than the former, consisted of those founded on
+demesne-land belonging either to the Empire or to one of the families
+who rose to imperial rank. This class was largely reinforced, when after
+the extinction of the royal house of Hohenstaufen in the 13th century, a
+great number of towns founded by them on their demesne successfully
+claimed immediate subjection to the crown. About this time, during the
+interregnum, a federation of more than a hundred towns was formed,
+beginning on the Rhine, but spreading as far as Bremen in the north,
+Zurich in the south, and Regensburg in the east, with the object of
+helping to preserve the peace. After the death of King William in 1256,
+they resolved to recognize no king unless unanimously elected. This
+league was joined by a powerful group of princes and nobles and found
+recognition by the prince-electors of the Empire; but for want of
+leadership it did not stand the test, when Richard of Cornwall and
+Alphonso of Castile were elected rival kings in 1257.[8] In the
+following centuries the imperial cities in south Germany, where most of
+them were situated, repeatedly formed leagues to protect their interests
+against the power of the princes and the nobles, and destructive wars
+were waged; but no great political issue found solution, the relative
+position of the parties after each war remaining much what it had been
+before. On the part of the towns this was mainly due to lack of
+leadership and of unity of purpose. At the time of the Reformation the
+imperial towns, like most of the others, stood forward as champions of
+the new cause and did valuable service in upholding and defending it.
+After that, however, their political part was played out, mainly because
+they proved unable to keep up with modern conditions of warfare. It
+should be stated that seven among the episcopal cities, viz. Cologne,
+Mainz, Worms, Spires, Strassburg, Basel and Regensburg, claimed a
+privileged position as "Free Cities," but neither is the ground for this
+claim clearly established, nor its nature well defined. The general
+obligations of the imperial cities towards the Empire were the payment
+of an annual fixed tax and the furnishing of a number of armed men for
+imperial wars, and from these the above-named towns claimed some measure
+of exemption. Some of the imperial cities lost their independence at an
+early date, as unredeemed pledges to some prince who had advanced money
+to the emperor. Others seceded as members of the Swiss Confederation.
+But a considerable number survived until the reorganization of the
+Empire in 1803. At the peace in 1815, however, only four were spared,
+namely, Frankfort, Bremen, Hamburg and Lubeck, these being practically
+the only ones still in a sufficiently flourishing and economically
+independent position to warrant such preferential treatment. But finally
+Frankfort, having chosen the wrong side in the war of 1866, was annexed
+by Prussia, and only the three seaboard towns remain as full members of
+the new confederate Empire under the style of _Freie und Hansestadte_.
+But until modern times most of the larger _Landstadte_ or mesne-towns
+for all intents and purposes were as independent under their lords as
+the imperial cities were under the emperor. They even followed a foreign
+policy of their own, concluded treaties with foreign powers or made war
+upon them. Nearly all the _Hanseatic towns_ belonged to this category.
+With others like Bremen, Hamburg and Magdeburg, it was long in the
+balance which class they belonged to. All towns of any importance,
+however, were for a considerable time far ahead of the principalities in
+administration. It was largely this fact that gave them power. When,
+therefore, from about the 15th century the princely territories came to
+be better organized, much of the _raison d'etre_ for the exceptional
+position held by the towns disappeared. The towns from an early date
+made it their policy to suppress the exercise of all handicrafts in the
+open country. On the other hand, they sought an increase of power by
+extending rights of citizenship to numerous individual inhabitants of
+the neighbouring villages (_Pfalburger_, a term not satisfactorily
+explained). By this and other means, e.g. the purchase of estates by
+citizens, many towns gradually acquired a considerable territory. These
+tendencies both princes and lesser nobles naturally tried to thwart, and
+the mediate towns or _Landstadte_ were finally brought to stricter
+subjection, at least in the greater principalities such as Austria and
+Brandenburg. Besides, the less favourably situated towns suffered
+through the concentration of trade in the hands of their more fortunate
+sisters. But the economic decay and consequent loss of political
+influence among both imperial and territorial towns must be chiefly
+ascribed to inner causes.
+
+Certain leading political economists, notably K. Bucher (_Die
+Bevolkerung von Frankfurt a. M. im 14ten und 15ten Jahrhundert_, i.,
+Tubingen, 1886; _Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft_, 5th ed., Tubingen,
+1906), and, in a modified form, W. Sombart (_Der moderne Kapitalismus_,
+2 vols., Leipzig, 1902), have propounded the doctrine of one gradual
+progression from an agricultural state to modern capitalistic
+conditions. This theory, however, is nothing less than an outrage on
+history. As a matter of fact, as far as modern Europe is concerned,
+there has twice been a progression, separated by a period of
+retrogression, and it is to the latter that Bucher's picture of the
+agricultural and strictly protectionist town (the _geschlossene
+Stadtwirtschaft_) of the 14th and 15th centuries belongs, while
+Sombart's notion of an entire absence of a spirit of capitalistic
+enterprise before the middle of the 15th century in Europe north of the
+Alps, or the 14th century in Italy, is absolutely fantastic.[9] The
+period of the rise of cities till well on in the 13th century was
+naturally a period of expansion and of a considerable amount of freedom
+of trade. It was only afterwards that a protectionist spirit gained the
+upper hand, and each town made it its policy to restrict as far as
+possible the trade of strangers. In this revolution the rise of the
+lower strata of the population to power played an important part.
+
+The craft-gilds had remained subordinate to the _Rat_, but by-and-by
+they claimed a share in the government of the towns. Originally any
+inhabitant holding a certain measure of land, freehold or subject to the
+mere nominal ground-rent above-mentioned, was a full citizen
+independently of his calling, the clergy and the lord's retainers and
+servants of whatever rank, who claimed exemption from scot and lot, to
+use the English formula, alone excepted. The majority of the artisans,
+however, were not in this happy position. Moreover, the town council,
+instead of being freely elected, filled up vacancies in its ranks by
+co-optation, with the result that all power became vested in a limited
+number of rich families. Against this state of things the crafts
+rebelled, alleging mismanagement, malversation and the withholding of
+justice. During the 14th and 15th centuries revolutions and
+counter-revolutions, sometimes accompanied by considerable slaughter,
+were frequent, and a great variety of more democratic constitutions were
+tried. Zurich, however, is the only German place where a kind of
+_tyrannis_, so frequent in Italy, came to be for a while established. On
+the whole it must be said that in those towns where the democratic party
+gained the upper hand an unruly policy abroad and a narrow-minded
+protection at home resulted. An inclination to hasty measures of war and
+an unwillingness to observe treaties among the democratic towns of
+Swabia were largely responsible for the disasters of the war of the
+Swabian League in the 14th century. At home, whereas at first markets
+had been free and open to any comer, a more and more protective policy
+set in, traders from other towns being subjected more and more to
+vexatious restrictions. It was also made increasingly difficult to
+obtain membership in the craft-gilds, high admission fees and so-called
+masterpieces being made a condition. Finally, the number of members
+became fixed, and none but members' sons and sons-in-law, or members'
+widows' husbands were received. The first result was the formation of a
+numerous proletariate of life-long assistants and of men and women
+forcibly excluded from following any honest trade; and the second
+consequence, the economic ruin of the town to the exclusive advantage of
+a limited number. From the end of the 15th century population in many
+towns decreased, and not only most of the smaller ones, but even some
+once important centres of trade, sank to the level almost of villages.
+Those cities, on the other hand, where the mercantile community remained
+in power, like Nuremberg and the seaboard towns, on the whole followed a
+more enlightened policy, although even they could not quite keep clear
+of the ever-growing protective tendencies of the time. Many even of the
+richer towns, notably Nuremberg, ran into debt irretrievably, owing
+partly to an exorbitant expenditure on magnificent public buildings and
+extensive fortifications, calculated to resist modern instruments of
+destruction, partly to a faulty administration of the public debt. From
+the 13th century the towns had issued ("sold," as it was called)
+annuities, either for life or for perpetuity in ever-increasing number,
+until it was at last found impossible to raise the funds necessary to
+pay them.
+
+One of the principal achievements of the towns lay in the field of
+_legislation_. Their law was founded originally on the general national
+(or provincial) law, on custom, and on special privilege. New
+foundations were regularly provided by their lord with a charter
+embodying the most important points of the special law of the town in
+question. This miniature code would thenceforth be developed by means of
+statutes passed by the town council. The codification of the law of
+Augsburg in 1276 already fills a moderate volume in print (ed. by
+Christian Meyer, Augsburg, 1872). Later foundations were frequently
+referred by their founders to the nearest existing town of importance,
+though that might belong to a different lord. Afterwards, if a question
+in law arose which the court of a younger town found itself unable to
+answer, the court next senior in affiliation was referred to, which in
+turn would apply to the court above, until at last that of the original
+mother town was reached, whose decision was final. This system was
+chiefly developed in the colonial east, where most towns were affiliated
+directly or indirectly either to Lubeck or to Magdeburg; but it was by
+no means unknown in the home country. A number of collections of such
+judgments (_Schoffenspruche_) have been published. It is also worth
+mentioning that it was usual to read the police by-laws of a town at
+regular intervals to the assembled citizens in a morning-speech
+(_Morgenspraehe_).[10]
+
+To turn to _Italy_, the country for so many centuries in close political
+connexion with Germany, the foremost thing to be noted is that here the
+towns grew to even greater independence, many of them in the end
+acknowledging no overlord whatever after the yoke of the German kings
+had been shaken off. On the other hand, nearly all of them in the long
+run fell under the sway of some local tyrant-dynasty.
+
+From Roman times the country had remained thickly studded with towns,
+each being the seat of a bishop. From this arose their most important
+peculiarity. For it was largely due to an identification of dioceses and
+municipal territories that the nobles of the surrounding country took up
+their headquarters in the cities, either voluntarily or because forced
+to do so by the citizens, who made it their policy thus to turn possible
+opponents into partisans and defenders. In Germany, on the other hand,
+nobles and knights were carefully shut out so long as the town's
+independence was at stake, the members of a princely garrison being
+required to take up their abode in the citadel, separated from the town
+proper by a wall. Only in the comparatively few cathedral cities this
+rule does not obtain. It will be seen that, in consequence of this,
+municipal life in Italy was from the first more complex, the main
+constituent parts of the population being the _capitani_, or greater
+nobles, the _valvassori_, or lesser nobles (knights) and the people
+(_popolo_). Furthermore, the bishops being in most cases the exponents
+of the imperial power, the struggle for freedom from the latter ended in
+a radical riddance from all temporal episcopal government as well.
+Foremost in this struggle stood the cities of Lombardy, most of which
+all through the barbarian invasions had kept their walls in repair and
+maintained some importance as economic centres, and whose _popolo_
+largely consisted of merchants of some standing. As early as the 8th
+century the laws of the Langobard King Aistulf distinguished three
+classes of merchants (_negotiantes_), among whom the _majores et
+potentes_ were required to keep themselves provided with horse, lance,
+shield and a cuirass. The valley of the Po formed the main artery of
+trade between western Europe and the East, Milan being besides the point
+of convergence for all Alpine passes west of the Brenner (the St
+Gotthard, however, was not made accessible until early in the 13th
+century). Lombard merchants soon spread all over western Europe, a chief
+source of their ever-increasing wealth being their employment as bankers
+of the papal see.
+
+The struggle against the bishops, in which a clamour for a reform of
+clerical life and a striving for local self-government were strangely
+interwoven, had raged for a couple of generations when King Henry V.,
+great patron of municipal freedom as he was, legalized by a series of
+charters the _status quo_ (Cremona, 1114, Mantua, 1116). But under his
+weak successors the independence of the cities reached such a pitch as
+to be manifestly intolerable to an energetic monarch like Frederick I.
+Besides, the more powerful among them would subdue or destroy their
+weaker neighbours, and two parties were formed, one headed by Milan, the
+other by Cremona. Como and Lodi complained of the violence used to them
+by the former city. Therefore in 1158 a commission was appointed
+embracing four Roman legists as representatives of the emperor, as well
+as those of fourteen towns, to examine into the imperial and municipal
+rights. The claims of the imperial government, jurisdictional and other,
+were acknowledged, only such rights of self-government being admitted as
+could be shown to be grounded on imperial charters. But when it came to
+carrying into effect these Roncaglian decrees, a general rising
+resulted. Milan was besieged by the emperor and destroyed in 1162 in
+accordance with the verdict of her rivals. Nevertheless, after a defeat
+at Legnano in 1176, Frederick was forced to renounce all pretensions to
+interference with the government of the cities, merely retaining an
+overlordship that was not much more than formal (peace of Constance in
+1183). All through this war the towns had been supported by Pope
+Alexander III. Similarly under Frederick II. the renewal of the struggle
+between emperor and pope dovetailed with a fresh outbreak of the war
+with the cities, who feared lest an imperial triumph over the church
+would likewise threaten their independence. The emperor's death finally
+decided the issue in their favour.
+
+Constitutionally, municipal freedom was based on the formation of a
+commune headed by elected consuls, usually to the number of twelve,
+representing the three orders of _capitani_, _valvassori_ and _popolo_.
+Frequently, however, the number actually wielding power was much more
+restricted, and their position altogether may rather be likened to that
+of their Roman predecessors than to that of their German contemporaries.
+In all important matters they asked the advice and support of "wise
+men," _sapientes, discretiores, prudentes_, as a body called the
+_credenza_, while the popular assembly (_parlamentum, concio, consilium
+generale_) was the true sovereign. The consuls with the assistance of
+_judices_ also presided in the law-courts; but besides the consuls of
+the commune there were _consules de placitis_ specially appointed for
+jurisdictional purposes.
+
+In spite of these multifarious safeguards, however, family factions
+early destroyed the fabric of liberty, especially as, just as there was
+an imperial, or Ghibelline, and a papal, or Guelph party among the
+cities as a whole, thus also within each town each faction would allege
+adherence to and claim support by one or other of the great
+world-powers. To get out of the dilemma of party-government, resort was
+thereupon had to the appointment as chief magistrate of a _podesta_ from
+among the nobles or knights of a different part of the country not mixed
+up with the local feuds. But the end was in most cases the establishment
+of the despotism of some leading family, such as the Visconti at Milan,
+the Gonzaga at Mantua, the della Scala in Verona and the Carrara in
+Padua.
+
+In Tuscany, the historic role of the cities, with the exception of Pisa,
+begins at a later date, largely owing to the overlordship of the
+powerful margraves of the house of Canossa and their successors, who
+here represented the emperor. Pisa, however, together with Genoa, all
+through the 11th century distinguished itself by war waged in the
+western Mediterranean and its isles against the Saracens. Both cities,
+along with Venice, but especially the Genoese, also did excellent
+service in reducing the Syrian coast towns still in the hands of the
+Turks in the reigns of Kings Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. of Jerusalem,
+while more particularly Pisa with great constancy placed her fleet at
+the disposal of the Hohenstaufen emperors for warfare with Sicily.
+
+Meanwhile communes with consuls at their head were formed in Tuscany
+much as elsewhere. On the other hand the Tuscan cities managed to
+prolong the reign of liberty to a much later epoch, no _podesta_ ever
+quite succeeding here in his attempts to establish the rule of his
+dynasty. Even when in the second half of the 15th century the Medici in
+Florence attained to power, the form at least of a republic was still
+maintained, and not till 1531 did one of them, supported by Charles V.,
+assume the ducal title.
+
+Long before the last stage, the rule of _signori_, was reached, however,
+the commune as originally constituted had everywhere undergone radical
+changes. As early as the 13th century the lower orders among the
+inhabitants formed an organization under officers of their own, side by
+side with that of the commune, which was controlled by the great and the
+rich; e.g. at Florence the people in 1250 rose against the turbulent
+nobles and chose a _capitano del popolo_ with twelve _anziani_, two from
+each of the six city-wards (_sestieri_), as his council. The _popolo_
+itself was divided into twenty armed companies, each under a
+_gonfaloniere_. But later the _arti_ (craft-gilds), some of whom,
+however, can be shown to have existed under consuls of their own as
+early as 1203, attained supreme importance, and in 1282 the government
+was placed in the hands of their _priori_, under the name of the
+_signoria_. The Guelph nobles were at first admitted to a share in the
+government, on condition of their entering a gild, but in 1293 even this
+privilege was withdrawn. The _ordinamenti della giustizia_ of that year
+robbed the nobility of all political power. The lesser or lower _arti_,
+on the other hand, were conceded a full share in it, and a _gonfaloniere
+della giustizia_ was placed at the head of the militia. In the 14th
+century twelve _buoni uomini_ representing the wards (_sestieri_) were
+superadded, all these dignitaries holding office for two months only.
+And besides all these, there existed three competing chief justices and
+commanders of the forces called in from abroad and holding office for
+six months, viz. the _podesta_, the _capitano del popolo_, and the
+_esecutore della giustizia_. In spite of all this complicated machinery
+of checks and balances, revolution followed upon revolution, nor could
+an occasional reign of terror be prevented like that of the Signore
+Gauthier de Brienne, duke of Athens (1342-1343). It was not till after a
+rising of the lowest order of all, the industrial labourers, had been
+suppressed in 1378 (_tumulto dei Ciompi_, the wool-combers), that
+quieter times ensued under the wise leadership, first of the Albizzi and
+finally of the Medici.
+
+The history of the other Tuscan towns was equally tumultuous, all of
+them save Lucca, after many fitful changes finally passing under the
+sway of Florence, or the grand-duchy of Tuscany, as the state was now
+called. Pisa, one time the mightiest, had been crushed between its
+inland neighbour and its maritime rival Genoa (battle of Meloria, 1282).
+
+Apart in its constitutional development from all other towns in Italy,
+and it might be added, in Europe, stands Venice. Almost alone among
+Italian cities its origin does not go back to Roman times. It was not
+till the invasions of Hun and Langobard that fugitives from the Venetian
+mainland took refuge among the poor fishermen on the small islands in
+the lagoons and on the _lido_--the narrow stretch of coast-line which
+separates the lagoons from the Adriatic--some at Grado, some at
+Malamocco, others on Rialto. A number of small communities was formed
+under elected tribunes, acknowledging as their sovereign the emperor at
+Constantinople. Treaties of commerce were concluded with the Langobard
+kings, thus assuring a market for the sale of imports from the East and
+for the purchase of agricultural produce. Just before or after A.D. 700
+the young republic seems to have thrown off the rule of the Byzantine
+_dux Histriae et Venetiae_ and elected a duke (_doge_) of its own, in
+whom was vested the executive power, the right to convoke the popular
+assembly (_concio_) and appoint tribunes and justices. Political unity
+was thus established, but it was not till after another century of civil
+war that Rialto was definitely chosen the seat of government and thus
+the foundation of the present city laid. After a number of attempts to
+establish a hereditary dukedom, Duke Domenico Flabianico in 1032 passed
+a law providing that no duke was to appoint his successor or procure him
+to be elected during his own lifetime. Besides this two councils were
+appointed without whose consent nothing of importance was to be done.
+After the murder by the people of Duke Vitale Michiel in 1172, who had
+suffered naval defeat, it was deemed necessary to introduce a stricter
+constitutional order. According to the orthodox account, some details of
+which have, however, recently been impugned,[11] the irregular popular
+meeting was replaced by a great council of from 450 to 480 members
+elected annually by special appointed electors in equal proportion from
+each of the six wards. One of the functions of this body was to appoint
+most of the state officials or their electors. There was also an
+executive council of six, one from each ward. Besides these, the duke,
+who was henceforward elected by a body of eleven electors from among the
+aristocracy, would invite persons of prominence (the _pregadi_) in order
+to secure their assent and co-operation, whenever a measure of
+importance was to be placed before the great council. Only under
+extraordinary circumstances the _concio_ was still to be called. The
+tenure of the duke's office was for life. The general tendency of
+constitutional development in Venice henceforward ran in an exactly
+opposite direction to that of all other Italian cities towards a growing
+restriction of popular rights, until in 1296 the great council was for
+all future time closed to all but the descendants of a limited number of
+noble families, whose names were in that year entered in the Golden
+Book. It still remained to appoint a board to superintend the executive
+power. These were the _avvogadori di commune_, and, since Tiepolo's
+conspiracy in 1310, the _Consiglio dei Dieci_, the Council of Ten, which
+controlled the whole of the state, and out of which there developed in
+the 16th century the state inquisition.
+
+While in all prominent Italian cities the leading classes of the
+community were largely made up of merchants, in Venice the nobility was
+entirely commercial. The marked steadiness in the evolution of the
+Venetian constitution is no doubt largely due to this fact. Elsewhere
+the presence of large numbers of turbulent country nobles furnished the
+first germ for the unending dissensions which ruined such promising
+beginnings. In Venice, on the contrary, its businesslike habits of mind
+led the ruling class to make what concessions might seem needful, while
+both the masses and the head of the state were kept in due subjection to
+the laws. Too much stability, however, finally changed into stagnation,
+and decay followed. The foreign policy of Venice was likewise mainly
+dictated by commercial motives, the chief objectives being commercial
+privilege in the Byzantine empire and in the Frankish states in the
+East, domination of the Adriatic, occupation of a sufficient hinterland
+on the _terra firma_, non-sufferance of the rivalry of Genoa, and,
+finally, maintenance of trade-supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean
+through a series of alternating wars and treaties with Turkey, the
+lasting monument of which was the destruction of the Parthenon in 1685
+by a Venetian bomb. At last the proud republic surrendered to Napoleon
+without a stroke.
+
+The cities of southern Italy do not here call for special attention.
+Several of them developed a certain amount of independence and free
+institutions, and took an important part in trade with the East, notably
+so Amalfi. But after incorporation in the Norman kingdom all individual
+history for them came to an end.
+
+Rome, finally, derived its importance from being the capital of the
+popes and from its proud past. From time to time spasmodic attempts were
+made to revive the forms of the ancient republic, as under Arnold of
+Brescia in the 12th and by Niccolo di Rienzo in the 14th century; but
+there was no body of stalwart, self-reliant citizens to support such
+measures: nothing but turbulent nobles on the one hand and a rabble on
+the other.
+
+In no country is there such a clear grouping of the towns on
+geographical lines as in _France_, these geographical lines, of course,
+having in the first instance been drawn by historical causes. Another
+feature is the extent to which, in the unruly times preceding the civic
+movement, serfdom had spread among the inhabitants even of the towns
+throughout the greater part of the country, and the application of
+feudal ideas to town government. In some other respects the constitution
+of the cities in the south of France, as will be seen, has more in
+common with that of the Italian communes, and that of the northern
+French towns with those of Germany, than the constitutions of the
+various groups of French towns have among each other.
+
+In the group of the _villes consulaires_, comprising all important towns
+in the south, the executive was, as in Italy, in the hands of a body of
+_consules_, whose number in most cases rose to twelve. They were elected
+for the term of one year and re-eligible only after an interval, and
+they were supported by a municipal council (_commune consilium,
+consilium magnum_ or _secretum_ or _generale_, or _colloquium_) and a
+general assembly (_parlamentum, concio, commune consilium, commune,
+universitas civium_), which, however, as a rule was far from comprising
+the whole body of citizens. Another feature which these southern towns
+had in common with their Italian neighbours was the prominent part
+played by the native nobility. The relations with the clergy were
+generally of a more friendly character than in the north, and in some
+cases the bishop or archbishop even retained a considerable influence in
+the management of the town's affairs. Dissensions among the citizens, or
+between the nobles and the bourgeois, frequently ended in the adoption
+of a _podestat_. And in several cities of the Languedoc, each of the two
+classes composing the population retained its separate laws and customs.
+It is matter of dispute whether vestiges of Roman institutions had
+survived in these parts down to the time when the new constitutions
+sprang into being; but all investigators are pretty well agreed that in
+no case did such remnants prove of any practical importance. Roman law,
+however, was never quite superseded by Germanic law, as appears from the
+_statuts municipaux_. In the improvement and expansion of these statutes
+a remarkable activity was displayed by means of an annual _correctio
+statutorum_ carried out by specially appointed _statutores_. In the
+north, on the other hand, the _carta communiae_, forming as it were the
+basis of the commune's existence, seems to have been considered almost
+as something sacred and unchangeable.
+
+The constitutional history of the communes in northern France in a
+number of points widely differed from that of these _villes
+consulaires_. First of all the movement for their establishment in most
+cases was to a far greater degree of a revolutionary character. These
+revolutions were in the first place directed against the bishops; but
+the position both of the higher clergy and of the nobility was here of a
+nature distinctly more hostile to the aspirations of the citizens than
+it was in the south. As a result the clergy and the nobles were excluded
+from all membership of the commune, except inasmuch as that those
+residing in the town might be required to swear not to conspire against
+it. The commune (_communia, communa, communio, communitas, conjuratio,
+confoederatio_) was formed by an oath of mutual help (_sacramentum,
+juramentum communiae_). The members were described as _jurati_ (also
+_burgenses, vicini, amici_), although in some communes that term was
+reserved for the members of the governing body. None but men of free and
+legitimate birth, and free from debt and contagious or incurable disease
+were received. The members of the governing body were styled _jures_
+(_jurati_), _pairs_ (_pares_) or _echevins_ (_scabini_). The last was,
+however, as in Germany, more properly the title of the jurors in the
+court of justice, which in many cases remained in the hands of the lord.
+In some cases the town council developed out of this body; but in the
+larger cities, like Rouen, several councils worked and all these names
+were employed side by side. The number of the members of the governing
+body proper varies from twelve to a hundred, and its functions were both
+judicial and administrative. There was also known an arrangement
+corresponding to the German _alte und sitzende Rat_, viz. of retired
+members who could be called in to lend assistance on important
+occasions. The most striking distinction, however, as against the
+_villes consulaires_ was the elevation of the president of the body to
+the position of _maire_ or _mayeur_ (sometimes also called _prevot_,
+_praepositus_). As elsewhere, at first none but the civic aristocracy
+were admitted to take part in the management of the town's affairs; but
+from the end of the 13th century a share had to be conceded to
+representatives of the crafts. Dissatisfaction, however, was not easily
+allayed; the lower orders applied for the intervention of the king; and
+that effectively put an end to political freedom. This tendency of
+calling in state help marks a most striking difference as against the
+policy followed by the German towns, where all classes appear to have
+been always far too jealous of local independence. The result for the
+nation was in the one case despotism, equality and order, in the other
+individual liberty and an inability to move as a whole. At an earlier
+stage the king had frequently come to the assistance of the communes in
+their struggle with their lords. By-and-by the king's confirmation came
+to be considered necessary for their lawful existence. This proved a
+powerful lever for the extension of the king's authority. It may seem
+strange that in France the towns never had recourse to those interurban
+leagues which played so important a part in Italian and in German
+history.
+
+These two varieties, the _communes_ and the _villes consulaires_
+together form the group of _villes libres_. As opposed to these stand
+the _villes franches_, also called _villes prevotales_ after the chief
+officer, _villes de bourgeoisie_ or _villes soumises_. They make up by
+far the majority of French towns, comprising all those situated in the
+centre of the kingdom, and also a large number in the north and the
+south. They are called _villes franches_ on account of their possessing
+a franchise, a charter limiting the services due by the citizens to
+their lord, but political status they had little or none. According to
+the varying extent of the liberties conceded them, there may be
+distinguished towns governed by an elective body and more or less fully
+authorized to exercise jurisdiction; towns possessing some sort of
+municipal organization, but no rights of jurisdiction, except that of
+simple police; and, thirdly, those governed entirely by seignorial
+officers. To this last class belong some of the most important cities in
+France, wherever the king had power enough to withhold liberties deemed
+dangerous and unnecessary. On the other hand, towns of the first
+category often come close to the _villes libres_. A strict line of
+demarcation, however, remains in the mutual oath which forms the basis
+of the civic community in both varieties of the latter, and in the fact
+that the _ville libre_ stands to its lord in the relation of vassal and
+not in that of an immediate possession. But however _completement
+assujettie_ Paris might be, its organization, naturally, was immensely
+more complex than that of hundreds of smaller places which, formally,
+might stand in an identical relationship to their lords. Like other
+_villes franches_ under the king, Paris was governed by a _prevot_
+(provost), but certain functions of self-government for the city were
+delegated to the company of the _marchands de l'eau, mercatores aquae_,
+also called _mercatores ansati_, that is, the gild of merchants whose
+business lay down the river Seine, in other words, a body naturally
+exclusive, not, however, to the citizens as such. At their head stood a
+_prevot des marchands_ and four _eschevins de la marchandise_. Other
+_prud'hommes_ were occasionally called in, and from 1296 _prevot_ and
+_echevins_, appointed twenty-four councillors to form with themselves a
+_parloir aux bourgeois_. The crafts of Paris were organized in
+_metiers_, whose masters were appointed, some by the _prevot de Paris_,
+and some by certain great officers of the court. In the tax rolls of
+A.D. 1292 to 1300 no fewer than 448 names of crafts occur, while the
+_Livre des metiers_ written in 1268 by Etienne de Boileau, then _prevot
+de Paris_, enumerates 101 organized bodies of tradesmen or women and
+artisans. Among the duties of these bodies, as elsewhere, was the _guet_
+or night-watch, which necessitated a military organization under
+_quartiniers, cinquantainiers_ and _dixainiers_. This gave them a
+certain power. But both their revolutions, under the _prevot des
+marchands_, Etienne Marcel, after the battle of Maupertuis, and again in
+1382, were extremely short-lived, and the only tangible result was a
+stricter subjection to the king and his officers.
+
+An exceptional position among the cities of France is taken up by those
+of _Flanders_, more particularly the three "Great Towns," Bruges, Ghent
+and Ypres, whose population was Flemish, i.e. German. They sprang up at
+the foot of the count's castles and rose in close conjunction with his
+power. On the accession of a new house they made their power felt as
+early as 1128. Afterwards the counts of the house of Dampierre fell into
+financial dependence on the burghers, and therefore allied themselves
+with the rising artisans, led by the weavers. These, however, proved far
+more unruly, bloody conflicts ensued, and for a considerable period the
+three great cities ruled the whole of Flanders with a high hand. Their
+influence in the foreign relations of the country was likewise great, it
+being in their interest to keep up friendly relations with England, on
+whose wool the flourishing state of the staple industry of Flanders
+depended. It is a remarkable fact that the historical position taken up
+by these cities, which politically belonged to France, is much more akin
+to the part played by the German towns, whereas Cambrai, whose
+population was French, is the only city politically situated in Germany,
+where a commune came to be established.
+
+In the _Spanish peninsula_, the chief importance of the numerous small
+towns lay in the part they played as fortresses during the unceasing
+wars with the Moors. The kings therefore extended special privileges
+(_fueros_) to the inhabitants, and they were even at an early date
+admitted to representation in the Cortes (parliament). Of greater
+individual importance than all the rest was Barcelona. Already in 1068
+Count Berengarius gave the city a special law (_usatici_) based on its
+ancient usages, and from the 14th century its commercial code (_libro
+del consolat del mar_) became influential all over southern Europe.
+
+The constitutions of the _Scandinavian_ towns were largely modelled on
+those of Germany, but the towns never attained anything like the same
+independence. Their dependence on the royal government most strongly
+comes out in the fact of their being uniformly regulated by royal law in
+each of the three kingdoms. In Sweden particularly, German merchants by
+law took an equal share in the government of the towns. In Denmark their
+influence was also great, and only in Norway did they remain in the
+position of foreigners in spite of their famous settlement at Bergen.
+The details, as well as those of the German settlement at Wisby and on
+the east coast of the Baltic, belong rather to the history of the
+Hanseatic League (q.v.). Denmark appears to be the only one of the three
+kingdoms where gilds at an early date played a part of importance.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The only book dealing with the subject in general, viz.
+  K. D. Hullmann, _Stadtewesen des Mittelalters_ (4 vols., Bonn,
+  1826-1828), is quite antiquated. For Germany it is best to consult
+  Richard Schroder, _Lehrbruch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (5th ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1907), SS 51 and 56, where a bibliography as complete as need
+  be is given, both of monographs dealing with various aspects of the
+  question, and of works on the history of individual towns. The latter
+  alone covers two large octavo pages of small print. As a sort of
+  complement to Schroder's chapters may be considered, F. Keutgen,
+  _Urkunden zur stadtischen Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1901 =
+  _Ausgewahlte Urkunden zur deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte_, by G. von
+  Below and F. Keutgen, vol. i.), a collection of 437 select charters
+  and other documents, with a very full index. The great work of G. L.
+  von Maurer, _Geschichte der Stadteverfassung von Deutschland_ (4 thick
+  vols., Erlangen, 1869-1871), contains an enormous mass of information
+  not always treated quite so critically as the present age requires.
+  There is an excellent succinct account for general readers by Georg
+  von Below, "Das altere deutsche Stadtewesen und Burgertum,"
+  _Monographien zur Weltgeschichte_, vol. vi. (Bielefeld and Leipzig,
+  1898, illustrated). A number of the most important recent monographs
+  have been mentioned above. As fpr Italy, the most valuable general
+  work for the early times is still Carl Hegel, _Geschichte der
+  Stadteverfassung von Italien seit der Zeit der romischen Herrschaft
+  bis zum Ausgang des zwolften Jahrhunderts_ (2 small vols., Leipzig,
+  1847, price second-hand, M. 40), in which it was for the first time
+  fully proved that there is no connexion between Roman and modern
+  municipal constitutions. For the period from the 13th century it will
+  perhaps be best to consult W. Assmann, _Geschichte des Mittelalters_,
+  3rd ed., by L. Viereck, dritte Abteilung, _Die letzten beiden
+  Jahrhunderts des Mittelalters: Deutschland, die Schweiz, und Italien_,
+  by R. Fischer, R. Scheppig and L. Viereck (Brunswick, 1906). In this
+  volume, pp. 679-943 contain an excellent account of the various
+  Italian states and cities during that period, with a full bibliography
+  for each. Among recent critical contributions to the history of
+  individual towns, the following works deserve to be specially
+  mentioned: Robert Davidsohn, _Geschichte von Florenz_ (Berlin,
+  1896-1908); down to the beginning of the 14th century; the same,
+  _Forschungen zur Geschichte von Florenz_ (vols. i.-iv., Berlin,
+  1896-1908); Heinrich Kretschmayr, _Geschichte von Venedig_ (vol. i.,
+  Gotha, 1905, to 1205). For France, there are the works by Achille
+  Luchaire, _Les Communes francaises a l'epoque des Capetiens directs_
+  (Paris, 1890), and Paul Viollet, "Les Communes francaises au moyen
+  age," _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres_,
+  tome xxxvi. (Paris, 1900). There are, of course, also accounts in the
+  great works on French institutions by Flach, Glasson, Viollet,
+  Luchaire, but perhaps the one in Luchaire's _Manuel des institutions
+  francaises, periode des Capetiens directs_ (Paris, 1892) deserves
+  special recommendation. Another valuable account for France north of
+  the Loire is that contained in the great work by Karl Hegel, _Stadte
+  und Gilden der germanischen Volker im Mittelaller_ (2 vols., Leipzig,
+  1891; see _English Historical Review_, viii. 120-127). Of course,
+  there are also numerous monographs, among which the following may be
+  mentioned: Edouard Bonvalot, _Le Tiers Etat d'apres la charte de
+  Beaumont et ses filiales_ (Paris, 1884); and A. Giry, _Les
+  Etablissements de Rouen_ (2 vols., Paris, 1883-1885); also a
+  collection of documents by Gustave Fagniez, _Documents relatifs a
+  l'histoire de l'industrie et du commerce en France_ (2 vols., Paris,
+  1898, 1900). Some valuable works on the commercial history of southern
+  Europe should still be mentioned, such as W. Heyd, _Geschichte des
+  Levantehandels im Mittelalter_ (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1879; French
+  edition by Furcy Raynaud, 2 vols., Paris, 1885 seq., improved by the
+  author), recognized as a standard work; Adolf Schaube,
+  _Handelsgeschichte der romanischen Volker des Mittelmeergebietes bis
+  zum Ende der Kreuzzuge_ (Munich and Berlin, 1906); Aloys Schulte,
+  _Geschichte des mittelalterlichen Handels und Verkehrs zwischen
+  Westdeutschland und Italien mit Ausschluss Venedigs_ (2 vols.,
+  Leipzig, 1900); L. Goldschmidt, _Universalgesdiichte des
+  Handelsrechts_ (vol. i., Stuttgart, 1891). As for the Scandinavian
+  towns, the best guide is perhaps the book by K. Hegel, _Stadte und
+  Gilden der germanischen Volker_, already mentioned; but see also
+  Dietrich Schafer, "Der Stand der Geschichtswissenschaft im
+  skandinavischen Norden," _Internationale Wochenschrift_, November 16,
+  1907.     (F. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] As to the former, see S. Rietschel, _Die Civitas auf deutschem
+    Boden bis zum Ausgange der Karolingerzeit_ (Leipzig, 1894); and, for
+    the newly founded towns, the same author, _Markt und Stadt in ihrem
+    rechtlichen Verhaltnis_ (Leipzig, 1897).
+
+  [2] About the _Burggraf_, see S. Rietschel, _Das Burggrafenamt und die
+    hohe Gerichtsbarkeit in den deutschen Bischofsstadten wahrend des
+    fruheren Mittelalters_ (Leipzig, 1905).
+
+  [3] As to the towns as fortresses, see also F. Keutgen,
+    _Untersuchungen uber den Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung_
+    (Leipzig, 1895); and "Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung"
+    (_Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum_, &c, N.F. vol. v.).
+
+  [4] See S. Rietschel, _Markt und Stadt_, and J. Fritz, _Deutsche
+    Stadtanlagen_ (Strassburg, 1894).
+
+  [5] G. von Below, _Die Entstehung der deutschen Stadtgemeinde_
+    (Dusseldorf, 1889); and _Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung_
+    (Dusseldorf, 1892).
+
+  [6] F. Keutgen, _Urkunden zur stadtischen Verfassungsgeschichte_, No.
+    74 and No. 75 (Berlin, 1901).
+
+  [7] F. Keutgen, _Amter und Zunfte_ (Jena, 1903).
+
+  [8] J. Weizsacker, _Der rheinische Bund_ (Tubingen, 1879).
+
+  [9] G. v. Below, _Der Untergang der mittelalterlichen Stadtwirtschaft;
+    Uber Theorien der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Volker_; F.
+    Keutgen, "Hansische Handelsgesellschaften, vornehmlich des 14ten
+    Jahrhunderts," in _Vierteljahrsschrift fur Sozial- und
+    Wirtschaftsgeschichte_, vol. iv. (1906).
+
+  [10] On this whole subject see Richard Schroder, _Lehrbuch der
+    deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (5th ed., Leipzig, 1907), S 56, "Die
+    Stadtrechte." Also Charles Gross, _The Gild Merchant_ (Oxford, 1890),
+    vol. i. Appendix E, "Affiliation of Medieval Boroughs."
+
+  [11] H. Kretschmayr, _Geschichte von Venedig_, vol. i. (Gotha, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+COMMUNISM, the name loosely given to schemes of social organizations
+depending on the abolition of private property and its absorption into
+the property of a community as such. It is a form of what is now
+generally called socialism (q.v.), the terminology of which has varied a
+good deal according to time and place; but the expression "communism"
+may be conveniently used, as opposed to "socialism" in its wider
+political sense, or to the political and municipal varieties known as
+"collectivism," "state socialism," &c., in order to indicate more
+particularly the historical schemes propounded or put into practice for
+establishing certain ideally arranged communities composed of
+individuals living and working on the basis of holding their property in
+common. It has nothing, of course, to do with the Paris Commune,
+overthrown in May 1871, which was a political and not an economic
+movement. Communistic schemes have been advocated in almost every age
+and country, and have to be distinguished from mere anarchism or from
+the selfish desire to transfer other people's property into one's own
+pockets. The opinion that a communist is merely a man who has no
+property to lose, and therefore advocates a redistribution of wealth, is
+contrary to the established facts as to those who have historically
+supported the theory of communism. The Corn-law Rhymer's lines on this
+subject are amusing, but only apply to the baser sort:--
+
+  "What is a Communist!  One that hath yearnings
+   For equal division of unequal earnings.
+   Idler or bungler, or both, he is willing
+   To fork out his penny and pocket your shilling."
+
+This is the communist of hostile criticism--a criticism, no doubt,
+ultimately based on certain fundamental facts in human nature, which
+have usually wrecked communistic schemes of a purely altruistic type in
+conception. But the great communists, like Plato, More, Saint-Simon,
+Robert Owen, were the very reverse of selfish or idle in their aims; and
+communism as a force in the historical evolution of economic and social
+opinion must be regarded on its ideal side, and not merely in its
+lapses, however natural the latter may be in operation, owing to the
+defects of human character. As a theory it has inspired not only some of
+the finest characters in history, but also much of the gradual evolution
+of economic organization--especially in the case of co-operation (q.v.);
+and its opportunities have naturally varied according to the state of
+social organization in particular countries. The communism of the early
+Christians, for instance, was rather a voluntary sharing of private
+property than any abnegation of property as such. The Essenes and the
+Therapeutae, however, in Palestine, had a stricter form of communism,
+and the former required the surrender of individual property; and in the
+middle ages various religious sects, followed by the monastic orders,
+were based on the communistic principle.
+
+Communistic schemes have found advocates in almost every age and in many
+different countries. The one thing that is shared by all communists,
+whether speculative or practical, is deep dissatisfaction with the
+economic conditions by which they are surrounded. In Plato's _Republic_
+the dissatisfaction is not limited to merely economic conditions. In his
+examination of the body politic there is hardly any part which he can
+pronounce to be healthy. He would alter the life of the citizens of his
+state from the very moment of birth. Children are to be taken away from
+their parents and nurtured under the supervision of the state. The old
+nursery tales, "the blasphemous nonsense with which mothers fool the
+manhood out of their children," are to be suppressed. Dramatic and
+imitative poetry are not to be allowed. Education, marriage, the number
+of births, the occupations of the citizens are to be controlled by the
+guardians or heads of the state. The most perfect equality of conditions
+and careers is to be preserved; the women are to have similar training
+with the men, no careers and no ambition are to be forbidden to them;
+the inequalities and rivalries between rich and poor are to cease,
+because all will be provided for by the state. Other cities are divided
+against themselves. "Any ordinary city, however small, is in fact two
+cities, one the city of the poor, the other of the rich, at war with one
+another" (_Republic_, bk. iv. p. 249, Jowett's translation). But this
+ideal state is to be a perfect unit; although the citizens are divided
+into classes according to their capacity and ability, there is none of
+the exclusiveness of birth, and no inequality is to break the accord
+which binds all the citizens, both male and female, together into one
+harmonious whole. The marvellous comprehensiveness of the scheme for the
+government of this ideal state makes it belong as much to the modern as
+to the ancient world. Many of the social problems to which Plato draws
+attention are yet unsolved, and some are in process of solution in the
+direction indicated by him. He is not appalled by the immensity of the
+task which he has sketched out for himself and his followers. He admits
+that there are difficulties to be overcome, but he says in a sort of
+parenthesis, "Nothing great is easy." He refuses to be satisfied with
+half measures and patchwork reforms. "Enough, my friend! but what is
+enough while anything remains wanting?" These sentences indicate the
+spirit in which philosophical as distinguished from practical communists
+from the time of Plato till to-day have undertaken to reconstruct human
+society.
+
+Sir Thomas More's _Utopia_ has very many of the characteristics of _The
+Republic_. There is in it the same wonderful power of shaking off the
+prejudices of the place and time in which it was written. The government
+of Utopia is described as founded on popular election; community of
+goods prevailed, the magistrates distributed the instruments of
+production among the inhabitants, and the wealth resulting from their
+industry was shared by all. The use of money and all outward ostentation
+of wealth were forbidden. All meals were taken in common, and they were
+rendered attractive by the accompaniment of sweet strains of music,
+while the air was filled by the scent of the most delicate perfumes.
+More's ideal state differs in one important respect from Plato's. There
+was no community of wives in Utopia. The sacredness of the family
+relation and fidelity to the marriage contract were recognized by More
+as indispensable to the well-being of modern society. Plato,
+notwithstanding all the extraordinary originality with which he
+advocated the emancipation of women, was not able to free himself from
+the theory and practice of regarding the wife as part and parcel of the
+property of her husband. The fact, therefore, that he advocated
+community of property led him also to advocate community of wives. He
+speaks of "the _possession and use_ of women and children," and proceeds
+to show how this possession and use must be regulated in his ideal
+state. Monogamy was to him mere exclusive possession on the part of one
+man of a piece of property which ought to be for the benefit of the
+public. The circumstance that he could not think of wives otherwise than
+as the property of their husbands only makes it the more remarkable that
+he claimed for women absolute equality of training and careers. The
+circumstance that communists have so frequently wrecked their projects
+by attacking marriage and advocating promiscuous intercourse between the
+sexes may probably be traced to the notion which regards a wife as being
+a mere item among the goods and chattels of her husband. It is not
+difficult to find evidence of the survival of this ancient habit of
+mind. "I will be master of what is mine own," says Petruchio. "She is my
+goods, my chattels."
+
+The Perfectionists of Oneida, on the other hand, held that there was "no
+intrinsic difference between property in persons and property in things;
+and that the same spirit which abolished exclusiveness in regard to
+money would abolish, if circumstances allowed full scope to it,
+exclusiveness in regard to women and children" (Nordhoff's _Communistic
+Societies of the United States_). It is this notion of a wife as
+property that is responsible for the wild opinions communists have often
+held in favour of a community of wives and the break-up of family
+relations. If they could shake off this notion and take hold of the
+conception of marriage as a contract, there is no reason why their views
+on the community of property should lead them to think that this
+contract should not include mutual fidelity and remain in force during
+the life of the contracting parties. It was probably not this conception
+of the marriage relation so much as the influence of Christianity which
+led More to discountenance community of wives in Utopia. It is strange
+that the same influence did not make him include the absence of slavery
+as one of the characteristics of his ideal state. On the contrary,
+however, we find in Utopia the anomaly of slavery existing side by side
+with institutions which otherwise embody the most absolute personal,
+political and religious freedom. The presence of slaves in Utopia is
+made use of to get rid of one of the practical difficulties of
+communism, viz. the performance of disagreeable work. In a society where
+one man is as good as another, and the means of subsistence are
+guaranteed to all alike, it is easy to imagine that it would be
+difficult to ensure the performance of the more laborious, dangerous and
+offensive kinds of labour. In Utopia, therefore, we are expressly told
+that "all the uneasy and sordid services" are performed by slaves. The
+institution of slavery was also made supplementary to the criminal
+system of Utopia, as the slaves were for the most part men who had been
+convicted of crime; slavery for life was made a substitute for capital
+punishment.
+
+In many respects, however, More's views on the labour question were
+vastly in advance of his own time. He repeats the indignant protest of
+the _Republic_ that existing society is a warfare between rich and poor.
+"The rich," he says, "desire every means by which they may in the first
+place secure to themselves what they have amassed by wrong, and then
+take to their own use and profit, at the lowest possible price, the work
+and labour of the poor. And so soon as the rich decide on adopting these
+devices in the name of the public, then they become law." One might
+imagine these words had been quoted from the programme of The
+International (q.v.), so completely is their tone in sympathy with the
+hardships of the poor in all ages. More shared to the full the keen
+sympathy with the hopeless misery of the poor which has been the strong
+motive power of nearly all speculative communism. The life of the poor
+as he saw it was so wretched that he said, "Even a beast's life seems
+enviable!" Besides community of goods and equality of conditions, More
+advocated other means of ameliorating the condition of the people.
+Although the hours of labour were limited to six a day there was no
+scarcity, for in Utopia every one worked; there was no idle class, no
+idle individual even. The importance of this from an economic point of
+view is insisted on by More in a passage remarkable for the importance
+which he attaches to the industrial condition of women. "And this you
+will easily apprehend," he says, "if you consider how great a part of
+all other nations is quite idle. First, women generally do little, who
+are the half of mankind." Translated into modern language his proposals
+comprise universal compulsory education, a reduction of the hours of
+labour to six a day, the most modern principles of sanitary reform, a
+complete revision of criminal legislation, and the most absolute
+religious toleration. The romantic form which Sir Thomas More gave to
+his dream of a new social order found many imitators. The _Utopia_ may
+be regarded as the prototype of Campanella's _City of the Sun_,
+Harrington's _Oceana_, Bacon's _Nova Atlantis_, Defoe's _Essay on
+Projects_, Fenelon's _Voyage dans l'Ile des Plaisirs_, and other works
+of minor importance.
+
+All communists have made a great point of the importance of universal
+education. All ideal communes have been provided by their authors with a
+perfect machinery for securing the education of every child. One of the
+first things done in every attempt to carry communistic theories into
+practice has been to establish a good school and guarantee education to
+every child. The first impulse to national education in the 19th century
+probably sprang from the very marked success of Robert Owen's schools in
+connexion with the cotton mills at New Lanark. Compulsory education,
+free trade, and law reform, the various movements connected with the
+improvement of the condition of women, have found their earliest
+advocates among theoretical and practical communists. The communists
+denounce the evils of the present state of society; the hopeless poverty
+of the poor, side by side with the self-regarding luxury of the rich,
+seems to them to cry aloud to Heaven for the creation of a new social
+organization. They proclaim the necessity of sweeping away the
+institution of private property, and insist that this great revolution,
+accompanied by universal education, free trade, a perfect administration
+of justice, and a due limitation of the numbers of the community, would
+put an end to half the self-made distress of humanity.
+
+The various communistic experiments in America are the most interesting
+in modern times, opportunities being naturally greater there for such
+deviations from the normal forms of regulations as compared with the
+closely organized states of Europe, and particularly in the means of
+obtaining land cheaply for social settlements with peculiar views. They
+have been classified by Morris Hillquit (_History of Socialism in the
+United States_, 1903) as (1) sectarian, (2) Owenite, (3) Fourieristic,
+(4) Icarian.
+
+1. The oldest of the sectarian group was the society of the Shakers
+(q.v.), whose first settlement at Watervliet was founded in 1776. The
+Harmony Society or Rappist Community was introduced into Pennsylvania by
+George Rapp (1770-1847) from Wurttemberg in 1804, and in 1815 they moved
+to a settlement (New Harmony) in Indiana, returning to Pennsylvania
+again in 1824, and founding the village of Economy, from which they were
+also known as Economites. Emigrants from Wurttemberg also founded the
+community of Zoar in Ohio in 1817, being incorporated in 1832 as the
+Society of Separatists of Zoar; it was dissolved in 1898. The Amana
+(q.v.) community, the strongest of all American communistic societies,
+originated in Germany in the early part of the 18th century as "the True
+Inspiration Society," and some 600 members removed to America in
+1842-1844. The Bethel (Missouri) and Aurora (Oregon) sister communities
+were founded by Dr Keil (1812-1877) in 1844 and 1856 respectively, and
+were dissolved in 1880 and 1881. The Oneida Community (q.v.), created by
+John Humphrey Noyes (1811-1886), the author of a famous _History of
+American Socialisms_ (1870), was established in 1848 as a settlement for
+the Society of Perfectionists. All these bodies had a religious basis,
+and were formed with the object of enjoying the free exercise of their
+beliefs, and though communistic in character they had no political or
+strictly economic doctrine to propagate.
+
+2. The Owenite communities rose under the influence of Robert Owen's
+work at New Lanark, and his propaganda in America from 1824 onwards, the
+principal being New Harmony (acquired from the Rappists in 1825); Yellow
+Springs, near Cincinnati, 1824; Nashoba, Tennessee, 1825; Haverstraw,
+New York, 1826; its short-lived successors, Coxsackie, New York, and the
+Kendal Community, Canton, Ohio, 1826. All these had more or less short
+existences, and were founded on Owen's theories of labour and economics.
+
+3. The Fourierist communities similarly were due to the Utopian
+teachings of the Frenchman Charles Fourier (q.v.), introduced into
+America by his disciple Albert Brisbane (1809-1890), author of _The
+Social Destiny of Man_ (1840), who was efficiently helped by Horace
+Greeley, George Ripley and others. The North American Phalanx, in New
+Jersey, was started in 1843 and lasted till 1855. Brook Farm (q.v.) was
+started as a Fourierist Phalanx in 1844, after three years' independent
+career, and became the centre of Fourierist propaganda, lasting till
+1847. The Wisconsin Phalanx, or Ceresco, was organized in 1844, and
+lasted till 1850. In Pennsylvania seven communities were established
+between 1843 and 1845, the chief of which were the Sylvania Association,
+the Peace Union Settlement, the Social Reform Unity, and the Leraysville
+Phalanx. In New York state the chief were the Clarkson Phalanx, the
+Sodus Bay Phalanx, the Bloomfield Association, and the Ontario Union. In
+Ohio the principal were the Trumbull Phalanx, the Ohio Phalanx, the
+Clermont Phalanx, the Integral Phalanx, and the Columbian Phalanx; and
+of the remainder the Alphadelphia Phalanx, in Michigan, was the
+best-known. It is pointed out by Morris Hillquit that while only two
+Fourierist Phalanxes were established in France, over forty were started
+in the United States.
+
+4. The Icarian communities were due to the communistic teachings of
+another Frenchman, Etienne Cabet (q.v.) (1788-1856), the name being
+derived from his social romance, _Voyage en Icarie_ (1840), sketching
+the advantages of an imaginary country called Icaria, with a
+co-operative system, and criticizing the existing social organization.
+It was his idea, in fact, of a Utopia. Robert Owen advised him to
+establish his followers, already numerous, in Texas, and thither about
+1500 went in 1848. But disappointment resulted, and their numbers
+dwindled to less than 500 in 1849; some 280 went to Nauvoo, Illinois;
+after a schism in 1856 some formed a new colony (1858) at Cheltenham,
+near St Louis; others went to Iowa, others to California. The last
+branch was dissolved in 1895.
+
+  See also the articles SOCIALISM; OWEN; SAINT-SIMON; FOURIER, &c.; and
+  the bibliography to SOCIALISM. The whole subject is admirably covered
+  in Morris Hillquit's work, referred to above; and see also Noyes's
+  _History of American Socialisms_ (1870); Charles Nordhoff's
+  _Communistic Societies of the United States_ (1875); and W. A. Hinds's
+  _American Communities_ (1878; 2nd edition, 1902), a very complete
+  account.
+
+
+
+
+COMMUTATION (from Lat. _commutare_, to change), a process of exchanging
+one thing for another, particularly of one method of payment for
+another, such as payment in money for payment in kind or by service, or
+of payment of a lump sum for periodical payments; for various kinds of
+such substitution see ANNUITY; COPYHOLD and TITHES. The word is also
+used similarly of the substitution of a lesser sentence on a criminal
+for a greater. In electrical engineering, the word is applied to the
+reversal of the course of an electric current, the contrivance for so
+doing being known as a "commutator" (see DYNAMO). In America, a
+"commutation ticket" on a railway is one which allows a person to travel
+at a lower rate over a particular route for a certain time or for a
+certain number of times; the person holding such a ticket is known as a
+"commuter."
+
+
+
+
+COMNENUS, the name of a Byzantine family which from 1081 to 1185
+occupied the throne of Constantinople. It claimed a Roman origin, but
+its earliest representatives appear as landed proprietors in the
+district of Castamon (mod. _Kastamuni_) in Paphlagonia. Its first member
+known in Byzantine history is Manuel Eroticus Comnenus, an able general
+who rendered great services to Basil II. (976-1025) in the East. At his
+death he left his two sons Isaac and John in the care of Basil, who gave
+them a careful education and advanced them to high official positions.
+The increasing unpopularity of the Macedonian dynasty culminated in a
+revolt of the nobles and the soldiery of Asia against its feeble
+representative Michael VI. Stratioticus, who abdicated after a brief
+resistance. Isaac was declared emperor, and crowned in St Sophia on the
+2nd of September 1057. For the rulers of this dynasty see ROMAN EMPIRE,
+LATER, and separate articles.
+
+With Andronicus I. (1183-1185) the rule of the Comneni proper at
+Constantinople came to an end. A younger line of the original house,
+after the establishment of the Latins at Constantinople in 1204, secured
+possession of a fragment of the empire in Asia Minor, and founded the
+empire of Trebizond (q.v.), which lasted till 1461, when David Comnenus,
+the last emperor, was deposed by Mahommed II.
+
+  For a general account of the family and its alleged survivors see
+  article "Komnenen," by G. F. Hertzberg, in Ersch and Gruber's
+  _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_, and an anonymous monograph, _Precis
+  historique de la maison imperiale des Comnenes_ (Amsterdam, 1784);
+  and, for the history of the period, the works referred to under ROMAN
+  EMPIRE, LATER.
+
+
+
+
+COMO (anc. _Comum_), a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, the
+capital of the province of Como, situated at the S. end of the W. branch
+of the Lake of Como, 30 m. by rail N. by W. of Milan. Pop. (1881)
+25,560; (1905) 34,272 (town), 41,124 (commune). The city lies in a
+valley enclosed by mountains, the slopes of which command fine views of
+the lake. The old town, which preserves its rectangular plan from Roman
+times, is enclosed by walls, with towers constructed in the 12th
+century. The cathedral, built entirely of marble, occupies the site of
+an earlier church, and was begun in 1396, from which period the nave
+dates: the facade belongs to 1457-1486, while the east of the exterior
+was altered into the Renaissance style, and richly decorated with
+sculptures by Tommaso Rodari in 1487-1526. The dome is an unsuitable
+addition of 1731 by the Sicilian architect Filippo Juvara (1685-1735),
+and its baroque decorations spoil the effect of the fine Gothic
+interior. It contains some good pictures and fine tapestries. In the
+same line as the facade of the cathedral are the Broletto (in black and
+white marble), dating from 1215, the seat of the original rulers of the
+commune, and the massive clock-tower. The Romanesque church of S.
+Abondio outside the town was founded in 1013 and consecrated in 1095; it
+has two fine campanili, placed at the ends of the aisles close to the
+apse. It occupies the site of the 5th-century church of SS. Peter and
+Paul. Near it is the Romanesque church of S. Carpoforo. Above it is the
+ruined castle of Baradello. The churches of S. Giacomo (1095-1117) and
+S. Fedele (12th century), both in the town, are also Romanesque, and the
+apses have external galleries. The Palazzo Giovio contains the Museo
+Civico. Como is a considerable tourist resort, and the steamboat traffic
+on the lake is largely for travellers. A climate station is established
+on the hill of Brunate (2350 ft.) above the town to the E., reached by a
+funicular railway. The Milanese possess many villas here. Como is an
+industrial town, having large silk factories and other industries (see
+LOMBARDY). It is connected with Milan by two lines of railway, one via
+Monza (the main line, which goes on to Chiasso--Swiss frontier--and the
+St Gotthard), the other via Saronno and also with Lecco and Varese.
+
+Of the Roman Comum little remains above ground; a portion of its S.E.
+wall was discovered and may be seen in the garden of the Liceo Volta, 88
+ft. within the later walls: later fortifications (but previous to 1127),
+largely constructed with Roman inscribed sepulchral urns and other
+fragments, had been superimposed on it. Thermae have also been
+discovered (see V. Barelli in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1880, 333; 1881,
+333; 1882, 285). The inscriptions, on the other hand, are numerous, and
+give an idea of its importance. The statements as to the tribe which
+originally possessed it are various. It belonged to Gallia Cisalpina,
+and first came into contact with Rome in 196 B.C., when M. Claudius
+Marcellus conquered the Insubres and the Comenses. In 89 B.C., having
+suffered damage from the Raetians, it was restored by Cn. Pompeius
+Strabo, and given Latin rights with the rest of Gallia Transpadana.
+Shortly after this 3000 colonists seem to have been sent there; 5000
+were certainly sent by Caesar in 59 B.C., and the place received the
+name Novum Comum. It appears in the imperial period as a _municipium_,
+and is generally spoken of as Comum simply. The place was prosperous; it
+had an important iron industry; and the banks of the lake were, as now,
+dotted with villas. It was also important as the starting-point for the
+journey across the lake in connexion with the Splugen and Septimer
+passes (see CHIAVENNA). It was the birthplace of both the elder and the
+younger Pliny, the latter of whom founded baths and a library here and
+gave money for the support of orphan children. There was a _praefectus
+classis Comensis_ under the late empire, and it was regarded as a strong
+fortress. See Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, Suppl.
+Heft i. (Stuttgart, 1903), 326.
+
+Como suffered considerably from the early barbarian invasions, many of
+the inhabitants taking refuge on the Isola Comacina off Sala, but
+recovered in Lombard times. It was from that period that the _magistri
+Comacini_ formed a privileged corporation of architects and sculptors,
+who were employed in other parts of Italy also, until, at the end of the
+11th century, individuals began to come more to the front (G. T.
+Rivoira, _Origini del l'architettura Lombarda_, Rome, 1901, i. 127 f.).
+Como then became subject to the archbishops of Milan, but gained its
+freedom towards the end of the 11th century. At the beginning of the
+12th century war broke out between Como and Milan, and after a ten
+years' war Como was taken and its fortifications dismantled in 1127. In
+1154, however, it took advantage of the arrival of Barbarossa, and
+remained faithful to him throughout the whole war of the Lombard League.
+After frequent struggles with Milan, it fell under the power of the
+Visconti in 1335. In 1535, like the rest of Lombardy, it fell under
+Spanish dominion, and in 1714 under Austrian. Thenceforth it shared the
+fortunes of Milan, becoming in the Napoleonic period the chief town of
+the department of the Lario. Its silk industry and its position at the
+entrance to the Alpine passes gave it some importance even then. It bore
+a considerable part in the national risings of 1848-1859 against
+Austrian rule. (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+COMO, Lake of (the _Lacus Larius_ of the Romans, and so sometimes called
+Lario to the present day, though in the 4th century it is already termed
+_Lacus Comacinus_), one of the most celebrated lakes in Lombardy,
+Northern Italy. It lies due N. of Milan and is formed by the Adda that
+flows through the Valtelline to the north end of the lake (here falls in
+the Maira or Mera, coming from the Val Bregaglia) and flows out of it at
+its south-eastern extremity, on the way to join the Po. Its area is 55-1/2
+sq. m., it is about 43 m. from end to end (about 30-1/2 m. from the north
+end of Bellagio), it is from 1 to 2-1/2 m. in breadth, its surface is 653
+ft. above the sea, and its greatest depth is 1365 ft. A railway line now
+runs along its eastern shore from Colico to Lecco (24-1/2 m.), while on its
+western shore Menaggio is reached by a steam tramway from Porlezza on
+the Lake of Lugano (8 m.). Colico, at the northern extremity, is by rail
+17 m. from Chiavenna and 42 m. from Tirano, while at its southern end
+Como (on the St Gotthard line) is 32 m. from Milan, and Lecco about the
+same distance. The lake fills a remarkable depression which has been
+cut through the limestone ranges that enclose it, and once doubtless
+extended as far as Chiavenna, the Lake of Mezzola being a surviving
+witness of its ancient bed. Towards the south the promontory of Bellagio
+divides the lake into two arms. That to the south-east ends at Lecco and
+is the true outlet, for the south-western arm, ending at Como, is an
+enclosed bay. During the morning the _Tivano_ wind blows from the north,
+while in the afternoon the _Breva_ wind blows from the south. But, like
+other Alpine lakes, the Lake of Como is exposed to sudden violent
+storms. Its beauties have been sung by Virgil and Claudian, while the
+two Plinys are among the celebrities associated with the lake. The
+shores are bordered by splendid villas, while perhaps the most lovely
+spot on it is Bellagio, built in an unrivalled position. Among the other
+villages that line the lake, the best-known are Varenna (E.) and
+Menaggio (W.), nearly opposite one another, while Cadenabbia (W.) faces
+Bellagio.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+COMONFORT, IGNACIO (1812-1863), a Mexican soldier and politician, who,
+after occupying a variety of civil and military posts, was in December
+1855 made provisional president by Alvarez, and from December 1857 was
+for a few weeks constitutional president. (See MEXICO.)
+
+
+
+
+COMORIN, CAPE, a headland in the state of Travancore, forming the
+extreme southern point of the peninsula of India. It is situated in 8
+deg. 4' 20" N., 77 deg. 35' 35" E., and is the terminating point of the
+western Ghats. The village of Comorin, with the temple of Kanniyambal,
+the "virgin goddess," on the coast at the apex of the headland, is a
+frequented place of pilgrimage.
+
+
+
+
+COMORO ISLANDS, a group of volcanic islands belonging to France, in the
+Indian Ocean, at the northern entrance of the Mozambique Channel midway
+between Madagascar and the African continent. The following table of the
+area and population of the four largest islands gives one of the sets of
+figures offered by various authorities:--
+
+  +-------------------+-------------+--------------+
+  |                   | Area sq. m. |  Population. |
+  +-------------------+-------------+--------------+
+  | Great Comor       |     385     |    50,000    |
+  | Anjuan or Johanna |     145     |    12,000    |
+  | Mayotte           |     140     |    11,000    |
+  | Moheli            |      90     |     9,000    |
+  |                   +-------------+--------------+
+  |        Total      |     760     |    82,000    |
+  +-------------------+-------------+--------------+
+
+There are besides a large number of islets of coral formation.
+Particulars of the four islands named follow.
+
+1. Great Comoro, or Angazia, the largest and most westerly, has a length
+of about 38 m., with a width of about 12 m. Near its southern extremity
+it rises into a fine dome-shaped volcanic mountain, Kartola (Karthala),
+which is over 8500 ft. high, and is visible for more than 100 m. Up to
+about 6000 ft. it is clothed with dense vegetation. Eruptions are
+recorded for the years 1830, 1855 and 1858; and another eruption
+occurred in 1904. In the north the ground rises gradually to a plateau
+some 2000 ft. above the sea; from this plateau many regularly shaped
+truncated cones rise another 2000 ft. The centre of the island consists
+of a desert field of lava streams, about 1600 ft. high. The chief towns
+are Maroni (pop. about 2000), Itzanda and Mitsamuli; the first, situated
+at the head of a bay in 11 deg. 40' S., being the seat of the French
+administrator.
+
+2. Anjuan, or Johanna, next in size, lies E. by S. of Comoro. It is some
+30 m. long by 20 at its greatest breadth. The land rises in a succession
+of richly wooded heights till it culminates in a central peak, upwards
+of 5000 ft. above the sea, in 12 deg. 14' S., 44 deg. 27' E. The former
+capital, Mossamondu, on the N.W. coast, is substantially built of stone,
+surrounded by a wall, and commanded by a dilapidated citadel; it is the
+residence of the sultan and of the French administrator. There is a
+small but safe anchorage at Pomony, on the S. side, formerly used as a
+coal depot by ships of the British navy.
+
+3. Mayotte, about 21 m. long by 6 or 7 m. broad, is surrounded by an
+extensive and dangerous coral reef. The principal heights on its
+extremely irregular surface are: Mavegani Mountain, which rises in two
+peaks to a maximum of 2164 ft., and Uchongin, 2100 ft. The French
+headquarters are on the islet of Zaudzi, which lies within the reef in
+12 deg. 46' S., 45 deg. 20' E. There are substantial government
+buildings and store-houses. On the mainland opposite Zaudzi is Msapere,
+the chief centre of trade. Mayotte was devastated in 1898 by a cyclone
+of great severity.
+
+4. Moheli or Mohilla lies S. of and between Anjuan and Grand Comoro. It
+is 15 m. long and 7 or 8 m. at its maximum breadth. Unlike the other
+three it has no peaks, but rises gradually to a central ridge about 1900
+ft. in height. Fomboni (pop. about 2000) in the N.W. and Numa Choa in
+the S.W. are the chief towns.
+
+All the islands possess a very fertile soil; there are forests of
+coco-nut palms, and among the products are rice, maize, sweet-potatoes,
+yams, coffee, cotton, vanilla and various tropical fruits, the papaw
+tree being abundant. The fauna is allied to that of Madagascar rather
+than to the mainland of Africa; it includes some land birds and a
+species of lemur peculiar to the islands. Large numbers of cattle and
+sheep, the former similar to the small species at Aden, are reared as
+well as, in Great Comoro, the zebra. Turtles are caught in abundance
+along the coasts, and form an article of export. The climate is in
+general warm, but not torrid nor unsuitable for Europeans. The dry
+season lasts from May to the end of October, the rest of the year being
+rainy. The natives are of mixed Malagasy, Negro and Arab blood. The
+majority are Mahommedans. The European inhabitants, mostly French,
+number about 600. There are some 200 British Indians, traders, in the
+islands. The external trade of the islands has developed since the
+annexation of Madagascar to France, and is of the value of about
+L100,000 a year. Sugar refineries, distilleries of rum, and sawmills are
+worked in Mayotte by French settlers. Cane sugar and vanilla are the
+chief exports. The islands are regularly visited by vessels of the
+Messageries Maritimes fleet, and a coaling station for the French navy
+has been established.
+
+The islands were first visited by Europeans in the 16th century; they
+are marked on the map of Diego Ribero made in 1527. At that time, and
+for long afterwards, the dominant influence in, and the civilization of,
+the islands was Arab. According to tradition the islands were first
+peopled by Arab voyagers driven thither by tempests. The petty sultans
+who exercised authority were notorious slave traders. A Sakalava chief
+who had been driven from Madagascar by the Hovas took refuge in Mayotte
+_c._ 1830, and, with the aid of the sultan of Johanna, conquered the
+island, which for a century had been given over to civil war. French
+naval officers having reported on the strategic value of Mayotte,
+Admiral de Hell, governor of Reunion, sent an officer there in 1841, and
+a treaty was negotiated ceding the island to France. Possession was
+taken in 1843, the sultan of Johanna renouncing his claims in the same
+year. In 1886 the sultans of the other three islands were placed under
+French protection, France fearing that otherwise the islands would be
+taken by Germany. The French experienced some difficulty with the
+natives, but by 1892 had established their position. The islands, as
+regulated by the decree of the 9th of April 1908, are under the supreme
+authority of the governor-general of Madagascar. The local
+administration is in the hands of an official who himself governs
+Mayotte but is represented in the other islands by administrators. On
+the council which assists the governor are two nominated native
+notables. In 1910 the sultan of Great Comoro ceded his sovereign rights
+to France. In Anjuan the native government is continued under French
+supervision. The budgets of the four islands in 1904 came to some
+L30,000, that of Mayotte being about half the total. The chief sources
+of revenue are poll and house taxes, and, in Mayotte, a land tax.
+
+The _Iles Glorieuses_, three islets 160 m. N.E. of Mayotte, with a
+population of some 20 souls engaged in the collection of guano and the
+capture of turtles, were in 1892 annexed to France and placed under the
+control of the administrator of Mayotte.
+
+  See _Notice sur Mayotte et les Comores_, by Emile Vienne, one of the
+  memoirs on the French colonies prepared for the Paris Exhibition of
+  1900; _Le Sultanat d'Anjouan_, by Jules Repiquet (Paris, 1901), a
+  systematic account of the geography, ethnology and history of Johanna;
+  _Les colonies francaises_ (Paris, 1900), vol. ii. pp. 179-197, in
+  which the story of the archipelago is set forth by various writers; an
+  account of the islands by A. Voeltzkow in the _Zeitschrift_ of the
+  Berlin Geog. Soc. (No. 9, 1906), and _Carte des Iles Comores_, by A.
+  Meunier (Paris, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+COMPANION (through the O. Fr. _compaignon_ or _compagnon_, from the Late
+Lat. _companio_,--_cum_, with, and _panis_, bread,--one who shares meals
+with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat.
+_compagnus_, one of the same _pagus_ or district), a mess-mate or
+"comrade" (a term which itself has a similar origin, meaning one who
+shares the same _camera_ or room). "Companion" is particularly used of
+soldiers, as in the expression "companion in arms," and so is the title
+of the lowest rank in a military or other order of knighthood; the word
+is also used of a person who lives with another in a paid position for
+the sake of company, and is looked on rather as a friend than a servant;
+and of a pair or match, as of pictures and the like. Similar in ultimate
+origin but directly adapted from the Fr. _chambre de la compagne_, and
+Ital. _camera della compagna_, the storeroom for provisions on board
+ship, is the use of "companion" for the framed windows over a hatchway
+on the deck of a ship, and also for the hooded entrance-stairs to the
+captain's cabin.
+
+
+
+
+COMPANY, one of a number of words like "partnership," "union," "gild,"
+"society," "corporation," denoting--each with its special shade of
+meaning--the association of individuals in pursuit of some common
+object. The taking of meals together was, as the word signifies (_cum_,
+with, _panis_, bread,) a characteristic of the early company. Gild had a
+similar meaning: but this characteristic, though it survives in the
+Livery company (see LIVERY COMPANIES), has in modern times disappeared.
+The word "company" is now monopolized--in British usage--by two great
+classes of companies--(1) the joint stock company, constituted under the
+Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, which consolidated the various acts
+from 1862 to 1907, and (2) the "public company," constituted under a
+special act to carry on some work of public utility, such as a railway,
+docks, gasworks or waterworks, and regulated by the Companies Clauses
+Acts 1845 and 1863.
+
+
+1. _Joint Stock Companies._
+
+The joint stock company may be defined as an association of persons
+incorporated to promote by joint contributions to a common stock the
+carrying on of some commercial enterprise. Associations formed not for
+"the acquisition of gain" but to promote art, science, religion, charity
+or some other useful or philanthropic object, though they may be
+constituted under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, seldom call
+themselves companies, but adopt some name more appropriate to express
+their objects, such as society, club, institute, college or chamber. The
+joint stock company has had a long history which can only be briefly
+sketched here. The name of "joint stock company" is--or was--used to
+distinguish such a company from the "regulated company," which did not
+trade on a joint stock but was in the nature of a trade gild, the
+members of which had a monopoly of foreign trade with particular
+countries or places (see Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, bk. v. ch. i.
+pt. iii.).
+
+The earliest kind of joint stock company is the chartered (see CHARTERED
+COMPANIES). The grant of a charter is one of the exclusive privileges of
+the crown, and the crown has from time to time exercised it in
+furtherance of trading enterprise. Examples of such grants are the
+Merchant Adventurers of England, chartered by Richard II. (1390); the
+East India Co., chartered by Queen Elizabeth (1600); the Bank of
+England, chartered by William and Mary (1694); the Hudson's Bay Co.; the
+Royal African Co.; the notorious South Sea Co.; and in later times the
+New Zealand Co., the North Borneo Co., and the Royal Niger Co. Chartered
+companies had, however, several disadvantages. A charter was not easily
+obtainable. It was costly. The members could not be made personally
+liable for the debts of the company: and once created--though only for
+defined objects--such a company was invested with entire independence
+and could not be kept to the conditions imposed by the grant, which was
+against public policy. A new form of commercial association was wanted,
+free from these defects, and it was found in the common law
+company--the lineal ancestor of the modern trading company. The common
+law company was not an incorporated association: it was simply a great
+partnership with transferable shares. Companies of this kind multiplied
+rapidly towards the close of the 17th century and the beginning of the
+18th century, but they were regarded with strong disfavour by the law,
+for reasons not very intelligible to modern notions; the chief of these
+reasons being that such companies purported to act as corporate bodies,
+raised transferable stock, used charters for purposes not warranted by
+the grant, and were--or were supposed to be--dangerous and mischievous,
+tending (in the words of the preamble of the Bubble Act) to "the common
+grievance, prejudice and inconvenience of His Majesty's subjects or
+great numbers of them in trade, commerce or other lawful affairs." They
+were too often--and this no doubt was the real ground of the prejudice
+against them--utilized by unprincipled persons to promote fantastic and
+often fraudulent schemes. Matthew Green, in his poem "The Spleen," notes
+how
+
+  "Wrecks appear each day,
+   And yet fresh fools are cast away."
+
+The result was that by the act (6 Geo. I. c. 18) commonly known as the
+Bubble Act (1719) such companies were declared to be common nuisances
+and indictable as such. But the act, though it remained on the statute
+book for more than one hundred years and was not formally repealed till
+1825, proved quite ineffectual to check the growth of joint stock
+enterprise, and the legislature, finding that such companies had to be
+tolerated, adopted the wiser course of regulating what it could not
+repress. One great inconvenience of these common law trading companies
+arose from their being unincorporated. They were formed of large
+fluctuating bodies of individuals, and a person dealing with them did
+not know with whom he was contracting or whom he was to sue. This evil
+the legislature sought to rectify by empowering the crown to grant to
+companies by letters patent without incorporation the privilege of suing
+and being sued by a public officer. Ten years afterwards--in 1844--a
+more important line of policy was adopted, and all companies with some
+exceptions were enabled to obtain a certificate of incorporation without
+applying for a charter or special act. The act of 1862 carried this
+policy one step farther by prohibiting all associations of more than
+twenty persons from carrying on business without registering under the
+act. These were all useful amendments, but they were amendments of form
+rather than substance. The real vitality of joint stock enterprise lies
+in the co-operative principle, and the natural growth and expansion of
+this fruitful principle was checked until the middle of the 19th century
+by the notorious risks attaching to unlimited liability. In the case of
+an ordinary partnership, though their liability is unlimited (or was
+until the Limited Partnerships Act 1907), the partners can generally
+tell what risks they are incurring. Not so the shareholders of a
+company. They delegate the management of their business to a board of
+directors, and they may easily find themselves committed by the fraud or
+folly of its members to engagements which in the days of unlimited
+liability meant ruin. Failures like those of Overend and Gurney, and of
+the Glasgow Bank, caused widespread misery and alarm. It was not until
+limited liability had been grafted on the stock of the co-operative
+system that the real potency of the principle of industrial co-operation
+became apparent. We owe the adoption of the limited liability principle
+to the clear-sightedness of Lord Sherbrooke--then Mr Robert Lowe--and to
+the vigorous advocacy of Lord Bramwell. We owe it to Lord Bramwell also
+that the principle was made a feasible one. The practical difficulty was
+how to bring home to persons dealing with the company notice that the
+liability of the shareholders was limited. Lord Bramwell solved the
+problem by a happy suggestion--"write it on my tombstone," he said
+humorously to a friend. This was that the company should add to its name
+the word "Limited "--paint it up on its premises, and use it on all
+invoices, bills, promissory notes and other documents. The proposal was
+adopted by the Legislature and has worked successfully. While limited
+companies have been multiplying at the rate of over 4000 a year, the
+unlimited company has become practically an extinct species. The growth
+of limited companies is, indeed, one of the most striking phenomena of
+our day. Their number may be estimated at quite 40,000. Their paid-up
+capital amounts to the stupendous sum of L1,850,000,000 and, what is
+even more significant, as the 1st Viscount Goschen remarks in his
+_Essays and Addresses_, is that "the number of shareholders has grown in
+a much greater ratio than the colossal growth of the aggregate capital.
+The profits and risks of nearly every kind of business have been spread
+from year to year over fresh thousands of individuals, and the middle
+class with moderate incomes are more and more participating in that
+accumulation of wealth from business of every description which formerly
+built up the fortunes of individual traders or of bankers or of single
+families."
+
+It is with the limited company then--the company limited by shares--as
+the normal type and incomparably the most important, that this article
+mainly deals.
+
+_Companies Limited by Shares._--The Companies Act 1862, was intended to
+constitute a comprehensive code of law applicable to joint stock trading
+companies for the whole of the United Kingdom. Recognizing the mischief
+above alluded to--of trading concerns being carried on by large and
+fluctuating bodies, the act begins by declaring that no company,
+association or partnership, consisting of more than twenty persons, or
+ten in the case of banking, shall be formed after the commencement of
+the act for the purpose of carrying on any business which has for its
+object the acquisition of gain by the company, association or
+partnership, or by the individual members thereof, unless it is
+registered as a company under the act, or is formed in pursuance of some
+other act of parliament or of letters patent, or is a company engaged in
+working mines within and subject to the jurisdiction of the Stannaries.
+Broadly speaking, the meaning of the act is that all commercial
+undertakings, as distinguished from literary or charitable associations,
+shall be registered. "Business" has a more extensive signification than
+"trade." Having thus cleared the ground the act goes on to provide in
+what manner a company may be formed under the act. The machinery is
+simple, and is described as follows:--
+
+"Any seven or more persons associated for any lawful purpose may, by
+subscribing their names to a memorandum of association and otherwise
+complying with the requisitions of this act in respect of registration,
+form an incorporated company with or without limited liability" (S 6).
+It is not necessary that the subscribers should be traders nor will the
+fact that six of the subscribers are mere dummies, clerks or nominees of
+the seventh affect the validity of the company; so the House of Lords
+decided in _Salomon_ v. _Salomon & Co._, 1897, A. C. 22.
+
+
+  Memorandum of Association.
+
+The document to be subscribed--the Memorandum of
+Association--corresponds, in the case of companies formed under the
+Companies Act 1862, to the charter or deed of settlement in the case of
+other companies. The form of it is given in the schedule to the act, and
+varies slightly according as the company is limited by shares or
+guarantee, or is unlimited. (See the 3rd schedule to the Consolidation
+Act 1908, forms A, B, C, D.) It is required to state, in the case of a
+company limited by shares, the five following matters:--
+
+1. The name of the proposed company, with the addition of the word
+"limited" as the last word in such name.
+
+2. The part of the United Kingdom, whether England, Scotland or Ireland,
+in which the registered office of the company is proposed to be situate.
+
+3. The objects for which the proposed company is to be established.
+
+4. A declaration that the liability of the members is limited.
+
+5. The amount of capital with which the company proposes to be
+registered, divided into shares of a certain fixed amount.
+
+No subscriber of the memorandum is to take less than one share, and each
+subscriber is to write opposite his name the number of shares he takes.
+
+These five matters the legislature has deemed of such intrinsic
+importance that it has required them to be set out in the company's
+Memorandum of Association. They are the essential conditions of
+incorporation, and as such they must not only be stated, but the policy
+of the legislature has made them with certain exceptions unalterable.
+
+The most important of these five conditions is the third, and its
+importance consists in this, that the objects defined in the memorandum
+circumscribe the sphere of the company's activities. This principle,
+which is one of public policy and convenience, and is known as the
+"_ultra vires_ doctrine," carries with it important consequences,
+because every act done or contract made by a company _ultra vires_, i.e.
+in excess of its powers, is absolutely null and void. The policy, too,
+is a sound one. Shareholders contribute their money on the faith that it
+is to be employed in prosecuting certain objects, and it would be a
+violation of good faith if the company, i.e. the majority of
+shareholders, were to be allowed to divert it to something quite
+different. So strict is the rule that not even the consent of every
+individual shareholder can give validity to an _ultra vires_ act.
+
+
+  Articles of Association.
+
+The articles of association are the regulations for internal management
+of the company--the terms of the partnership agreed upon by the
+shareholders among themselves. A model or specimen set of articles known
+as Table A was given by the Companies Act 1862, and is appended in a
+revised form to the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908. When a company
+is to be registered the memorandum of association accompanied by a copy
+of the articles is taken to the office of the registrar of joint stock
+companies at Somerset House, together with the following documents:--
+
+1. A list of persons who have consented to be directors of the company
+(fee stamp 5s.).
+
+2. A statutory declaration by a solicitor of the High Court engaged in
+the formation of the company, or by a person named in the articles of
+association as a director or secretary of the company, that the
+requisitions of the act in respect of registration and of matters
+precedent and incidental thereto have been complied with (fee stamp
+5s.).
+
+3. A statement as to the nominal share capital (stamped with an _ad
+valorem_ duty of 5s. per L100).
+
+4. If no prospectus is to be issued, a company must now (Companies Act
+1907, s. 1; Consolidation Act 1908, s. 82) in lieu thereof file with the
+registrar a statement, in the form prescribed by the 1st schedule to the
+act, of all the material facts relating to the company. Till this has
+been done the company cannot allot any shares or debentures.
+
+If these documents are in order the registrar registers the company and
+issues a certificate of incorporation (see Companies (Consolidation) Act
+1908, sect. 82); on registration, the memorandum and articles of
+association become public documents, and any person may inspect them on
+payment of a fee of one shilling. This has important consequences,
+because every person dealing with the company is presumed to be
+acquainted with its constitution, and to have read its memorandum and
+articles. The articles also, upon registration, bind the company and its
+members to the same extent as if each member had subscribed his name and
+affixed his seal to them.
+
+The total cost of registering a company with a capital of L1000 is about
+L7; L10,000 about L34; L100,000 about L280.
+
+
+  Capital.
+
+The capital which is required to be stated in the memorandum of
+association, and which represents the amount which the company is
+empowered to issue, is what is known as the nominal capital. This
+nominal capital must be distinguished from the subscribed capital.
+Subscribed capital is the aggregate amount agreed to be paid by those
+who have taken shares in the company. Under the Companies Act 1900,
+Companies Act 1908, s. 85, a "minimum subscription" may be fixed by the
+articles, and if it is the directors cannot go to allotment on less: if
+it is not, then the whole of the capital offered for subscription must
+be subscribed. A company may increase its capital, consolidate it,
+subdivide it into shares of smaller amount and convert paid-up shares
+into stock. It may also, with the sanction of the court, otherwise
+reorganize its capital (Companies Act 1907, s. 39; Companies
+(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 45), and for this purpose modify its
+Memorandum of Association; but a limited company cannot reduce its
+capital either by direct or indirect means without the sanction of the
+court. The inviolability of the capital is a condition of
+incorporation--the price of the privilege of trading with limited
+liability, and by no subterfuge will a company be allowed to evade this
+cardinal rule of policy, either by paying dividends out of capital, or
+buying its own shares, or returning money to shareholders. But the
+prohibition against reduction means that the capital must not be reduced
+by the voluntary act of the company, not that a company's capital must
+be kept intact. It is embarked in the company's business, and it must
+run the risks of such business. If part of it is lost there is no
+obligation on the company to replace it and to cease paying dividends
+until such lost capital is repaid. The company may in such a case write
+off the lost capital and go on trading with the reduced amount. But for
+this purpose the sanction of the court must be obtained by petition.
+
+
+  Shares.
+
+A share is an aliquot part of a company's nominal capital. The amount
+may be anything from 1s. to L1000. The tendency of late years has been
+to keep the denomination low, and so to appeal to a wider public. Shares
+of L100, or even L10, are now the exception. The most common amount is
+either L1 or L5. Shares are of various kinds--ordinary, preference,
+deferred, founders' and management. Into what classes of shares the
+original capital of the company shall be divided, what shall be the
+amount of each class, and their respective rights, privileges and
+priorities, are matters for the consideration of the promoters of the
+company, and must depend on its special circumstances and requirements.
+
+A company may issue preference shares even if there is no mention of
+them in the Memorandum of Association, and any preference or special
+privilege so given to a class of shares cannot be interfered with on any
+reorganization of capital except by a resolution passed by a majority of
+shareholders of that class representing three-fourths of the capital of
+that class (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 45). The preference
+given may be as to dividends only, or as to dividends and capital. The
+dividend, again, may be payable out of the year's profits only, or it
+may be cumulative, that is, a deficiency in one year is to be made good
+out of the profits of subsequent years. Prima facie, a preferential
+dividend is cumulative. For issuing preference shares the question for
+the directors is, what must be offered to attract investors. Preference
+shareholders are given by the Companies Act 1907, s. 23; Companies
+(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 114, the right to inspect balance sheets.
+Founders' shares--which originated with private companies--are shares
+which usually take the whole or half the profits after payment of a
+dividend of 7 or 10% to the ordinary shareholders. They are much less in
+favour than they used to be.
+
+
+  Promoters and promotion.
+
+The machinery of company formation is generally set in motion by a
+person known as a promoter. This is a term of business, not law. It
+means, to use Chief Justice Cockburn's words, a person "who undertakes
+to form a company with reference to a given project and to set it going,
+and who takes the necessary steps to accomplish that purpose." Whether
+what a person has done towards this end constitutes him a promoter or
+not, is a question of fact; but once an affirmative conclusion is
+reached, equity clothes such promoter with a fiduciary relation towards
+the company which he has been instrumental in creating. This doctrine is
+now well established, and its good sense is apparent when once the
+position of the promoter towards the company is understood.
+Promoters--to use Lord Cairns's language in _Erlanger_ v. _New Sombrero
+Phosphate Co._, 3 A. C. 1236--"have in their hands the creation and
+moulding of the company. They have the power of defining how and when
+and in what shape and under what supervision it shall start into
+existence and begin to act as a trading corporation." Such a control
+over the destinies of the company involves correlative obligations
+towards it, and one of these obligations is that the promoter must not
+take advantage of the company's helplessness. A promoter may sell his
+property to the company, but he must first see that the company is
+furnished with an independent board of directors to protect its
+interests and he must make full and fair disclosure of his interest in
+order that the company may determine whether it will or will not
+authorize its trustee or agent (for such the promoter in equity is) to
+make a profit out of the sale. It is not a sufficient disclosure in such
+a case for the promoter merely to refer in the prospectus to a contract
+which, if read by the shareholders, would inform them of his interest.
+They are under no obligation to inquire. It is for the promoter to bring
+home notice, not constructive but actual, to the shareholders.
+
+When a company is promoted for acquiring property--to work a mine or
+patent, for instance, or carry on a going business--the usual course is
+for the promoter to frame a draft agreement for the sale of the property
+to the company or to a trustee on its behalf. The memorandum and
+articles of the intended company are then prepared, and an article is
+inserted authorizing or requiring the directors to adopt the draft
+agreement for sale. In pursuance of this authority the directors at the
+first meeting after incorporation take the draft agreement into
+consideration; and if they approve, adopt it. Where they do so in the
+exercise of an honest and independent judgment, no exception can be
+taken to the transaction; but where the directors happen to be nominees
+of the promoter, perhaps qualified by him and acting in his interest,
+the situation is obviously open to grave abuse. It is not too much,
+indeed, to say that the fastening of an onerous or improvident contract
+on a company at its start, by interested promoters acting in collusion
+with the directors, has been the principal cause of the scandals
+associated with company promotion.
+
+Concurrently with the adoption of the contract for the acquisition of
+the property which is the company's _raison d'etre_, the directors have
+to consider how they will best get the company's capital subscribed.
+Down to the passing of the Companies Act 1900 the usual mode of doing
+this was to issue a prospectus inviting the public to subscribe for
+shares. After the act of 1900 the prospectus fell into general disuse.
+In the year 1903, out of a total of 3596 companies which registered,
+only 358 issued a prospectus, the directors preferring, it would seem,
+to place the share capital through the medium of brokers, financial
+agents and other intermediaries rather than run the risk of incurring,
+personally, liability under the stringent provisions for disclosure
+contained in the act (s. 10). Of late the prospectus has, however,
+returned into favour. Under the act of 1907, incorporated in the
+Consolidation Act 1908 (s. 82), a company, if it does not issue a
+prospectus, must file a statement of all the material facts relating to
+the company.
+
+
+  Prospectus.
+
+A prospectus is an invitation to the public to take shares on the faith
+of the statements therein contained, and is thus the basis of the
+agreement to take the shares; there therefore rests on those who are
+responsible for its issue an obligation to act with the most perfect
+good faith--_uberrima fides_--and this obligation has been repeatedly
+emphasized by judges of the highest eminence. (See the observations of
+Kindersley, V.C., in _New Brunswick Railway Co._ v. _Muggeridge_, 1860,
+1 Dr. & Sm. 383, and of Lord Herschell in _Derry_ v. _Peek_, 1889, 14 A.
+C. 376.) Directors must be perfectly candid with the public; they must
+not only state what they do state with strict and scrupulous accuracy,
+but they must not omit any fact which, if disclosed, would falsify the
+statements made. This is the general obligation of directors when
+issuing a prospectus; but on this general obligation the legislature has
+engrafted special requirements. By the Companies Act 1867, it required
+the dates and names of the parties to any contract entered into by the
+company or its promoters or directors before the issue of the
+prospectus, to be disclosed in the prospectus; otherwise the prospectus
+was to be deemed fraudulent. This enactment was repealed by the
+Companies Act 1900, but only in favour of more stringent provisions
+incorporated in the Consolidation Act of 1908. Now, not only is every
+prospectus to be signed and filed with the registrar of Joint Stock
+Companies before it can be issued, but the prospectus must set forth a
+long and elaborate series of particulars about the company--the
+contents of the Memorandum of Association, with the names of the
+signatories, the share qualification (if any) of the directors, the
+minimum subscription on which the directors may proceed to allotment,
+the shares and debentures issued otherwise than for cash, the names and
+addresses of the vendors, the amount paid for underwriting the company,
+the amount of preliminary expenses, of promotion money (if any), and the
+interest (if any) of every director in the promotion or in property to
+be acquired by the company. Neglect of this statutory duty of disclosure
+will expose directors to personal liability. For false or fraudulent
+statements--as distinguished from non-disclosure--in a prospectus
+directors are liable in an action of deceit or under the Directors'
+Liability Act 1890, now incorporated in the act of 1908. This act was
+passed to meet the decision of the House of Lords in _Peek_ v. _Derry_
+(12 A. C. 337), that a director could not be made liable in an action of
+deceit for an untrue statement in a prospectus, unless the plaintiff
+could prove that the director had made the untrue statement
+fraudulently. The Directors' Liability Act enacted in substance that
+when once a prospectus is proved to contain a material statement of fact
+which is untrue, the persons responsible for the prospectus are to be
+liable to pay compensation to any one who has subscribed on the faith of
+the prospectus, unless they can prove that they had reasonable ground to
+believe, and did in fact believe, the statement to be true. Actions
+under this act have been rare, but their rarity may be due to the act
+having had the effect of making directors more careful in their
+statements.
+
+
+  Allotment of shares.
+
+Before the passing of the Companies Act 1900, it was a matter for
+directors' discretion on what subscription they should go to allotment.
+They often did so on a scandalously inadequate subscription. To remedy
+this abuse the Companies Act 1900 (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908,
+s. 85) provided that no allotment of any share capital offered to the
+public for subscription is to be made unless the amount fixed by the
+memorandum and articles of association and named in the prospectus as
+"the minimum subscription" upon which the directors may proceed to
+allotment has been subscribed and the application moneys--which must not
+be less than 5% of the nominal amount of the share--paid to and received
+by the company. If no minimum is fixed the whole amount of the share
+capital offered for subscription must have been subscribed before the
+directors can go to allotment. The "minimum subscription" is to be
+reckoned exclusively of any amount payable otherwise than in cash. If
+these conditions are not complied with within forty days the application
+moneys must be returned. Any "waiver clause" or contract to waive
+compliance with the section is to be void.
+
+An allotment of shares made in contravention of these provisions is
+irregular and voidable at the option of the applicant for shares within
+one month after the first or statutory meeting of the company (Companies
+(Consolidation) Act, s. 86). Even when a company has got what under the
+name of the "minimum subscription" the directors deem enough capital for
+its enterprise, it cannot now commence business or make any binding
+contract or exercise any borrowing powers until it has obtained a
+certificate entitling it to commence business (Companies (Consolidation)
+Act 1908, s. 87). To obtain this certificate the company must have
+fulfilled certain statutory conditions, which are briefly these:--
+
+  (a) The company must have allotted shares to the amount of not less
+  than the "minimum subscription."
+
+  (b) Every director must have paid up his shares in the same proportion
+  as the other members of the company.
+
+  (c) A statutory declaration, made by the secretary of the company or
+  one of the directors, must have been filed with the registrar of joint
+  stock companies, that these conditions have been complied with.
+
+These conditions fulfilled, the company gets its certificate and starts
+on its business career, carrying on its business through the agency of
+directors, as to whose powers and duties see DIRECTORS.
+
+
+  Meetings.
+
+The Companies Act as consolidated in the act of 1908, and the
+regulations under them, treat the directors of a company as the persons
+in whom the management of the company's affairs is vested. But they also
+contemplate the ultimate controlling power as residing in the
+shareholders. A controlling power of this kind can only assert itself
+through general meetings; and that it may have proper opportunities of
+doing so, every company is required to hold a general meeting, commonly
+called the statutory meeting, within--as fixed by the Companies Act
+1900--three months from the date at which it is entitled to commence
+business. This first statutory meeting acquired new significance under
+the Companies Act of 1900 and marks an important stage in the early
+history of a company. Seven days before it takes place the directors are
+required to send round to the members a certified report informing them
+of the general state of the company's affairs--the number of shares
+allotted, cash received for them, and names and addresses of the
+members, the amount of preliminary expenses, the particulars of any
+contract to be submitted to the meeting, &c. Furnished with this report
+the members come to the meeting in a position to discuss and exercise an
+intelligent judgment upon the state and prospects of the company.
+Besides the statutory meeting a company must hold one general meeting at
+least in every calendar year, and not more than fifteen months after the
+holding of the last preceding general meeting (Companies (Consolidation)
+Act 1908, s. 64). This annual general meeting is usually called the
+ordinary general meeting. Other meetings are extraordinary general
+meetings. Notices convening a general meeting must inform the
+shareholders of the particular business to be transacted; otherwise any
+resolutions passed at the meeting will be invalidated. Voting is
+generally regulated by the articles. Sometimes a vote is given to a
+shareholder for every share held by him, but more often a scale is
+adopted; for instance, one vote is given for every share up to ten, with
+an additional vote for every five shares beyond the first ten shares up
+to one hundred, and an additional vote for every ten shares beyond the
+first hundred. In default of any regulations, every member has one vote
+only. Sometimes preference shareholders are given no vote at all. A poll
+may be demanded on any special resolution by three persons unless the
+articles require five (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 69).
+
+
+  Agreement for shares.
+
+A contract to take shares is like any other contract. It is constituted
+by offer, acceptance and communication of the acceptance to the offerer.
+The offer in the case of shares is usually in the form of an application
+in writing to the company, made in response to a prospectus, requesting
+the company to allot the applicant a certain number of shares in the
+undertaking on the terms of the prospectus, and agreeing to accept the
+shares, or any smaller number, which may be allotted to the applicant.
+An allottee is under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 86,
+entitled to rescind his contract where the allotment is irregular, e.g.
+where the minimum subscription has not been obtained. When an
+application is accepted the shares are allotted, and a letter of
+allotment is posted to the applicant. Allotment is the usual, but not
+the only, evidence of acceptance. As soon as the letter of allotment is
+posted the contract is complete, even though the letter never reaches
+the applicant. An application for shares can be withdrawn at any time
+before acceptance. As soon as the contract is complete, it is the duty
+of the company to enter the shareholder's name in the register of
+members, and to issue to him a certificate under the seal of the
+company, evidencing his title to the shares.
+
+
+  Register of members.
+
+The register of members plays an important part in the scheme of the
+company system, under the Companies Act 1862. The principle of limited
+liability having been once adopted by the legislature, justice required
+not only that such limitation of liability should be brought home by
+every possible means to persons dealing with the company, but also that
+such persons should know as far as possible what was the limited capital
+which was the sole fund available to satisfy their claims--what amount
+had been called up, what remained uncalled, who were the persons to pay,
+and in what amounts. These data might materially assist a person
+dealing with the company in determining, whether he would give it credit
+or not; in any case they are matters which the public had a right to
+know. The legislature, recognizing this, has exacted as a condition of
+the privilege of trading with limited liability that the company shall
+keep a register with those particulars in it, which shall be accessible
+to the public at all reasonable times. In order that this register may
+be accurate, and correspond with the true liability of membership for
+the time being, the court is empowered under the Companies Act 1862, and
+the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 32, to rectify it in a
+summary way, on application by motion, by ordering the name of a person
+to be entered on or removed therefrom. This power can be exercised by
+the court, whether the dispute as to membership is one between the
+company and an alleged member, or between one alleged member and
+another, but the machinery of the section is not meant to be used to try
+claims to rescind agreements to take shares. The proper proceeding in
+such cases is by action.
+
+
+  Payment for shares.
+
+The same policy of guarding against an abuse of limited liability is
+evinced in the Companies Act 1862, which required that shares in the
+case of a limited company should be paid for in full. The legislature
+has allowed such companies to trade with limited liability, but the
+price of the privilege is that the limited capital to which alone the
+creditors can look shall at least be a reality. It is therefore _ultra
+vires_ for a limited company to issue its shares at a discount; but
+there was nothing in the Companies Act 1862 which required that the
+shares of a limited company, though they must be paid up in full, must
+be paid up in cash. They might be paid "in meal or in malt," and it
+accordingly became common for shares to be allotted in payment for
+furniture, plate, advertisements or services. The result was that the
+consideration was often illusory, shares being issued to be paid for in
+some commodity which had no certain criterion of value. To remedy this
+evil the legislature enacted in the Companies Act 1867, s. 25, that
+every share in any company should be held subject to the payment of the
+whole amount thereof in cash, unless otherwise determined by a contract
+in writing filed with the registrar of joint stock companies at or
+before the issue of the shares. This section not infrequently caused
+hardship where shares had been honestly paid for in the equivalent of
+cash, but owing to inadvertence no contract had been filed; and it was
+repealed by the Companies Act 1900, and the old law restored. In
+reverting to the earlier law, and allowing shares to be paid for in any
+adequate consideration, the legislature has, however, exacted a
+safeguard. It has required the company to file with the registrar of
+joint stock companies a return stating, in the case of shares allotted
+in whole or in part for a consideration other than cash, the number of
+the shares so allotted, and the nature of the consideration--property,
+services, &c.--for which they have been allotted.
+
+Though every share carries with it the liability to pay up the full
+amount in cash or its equivalent, the liability is only to pay when and
+if the directors call for it to be paid up. A call must fix the time and
+place for payment, otherwise it is bad.
+
+
+  Rescission of agreement.
+
+When a person takes shares from a company on the faith of a prospectus
+containing any false or fraudulent representations of fact material to
+the contract, he is entitled to rescind the contract. The company cannot
+keep a contract obtained by the misrepresentation or fraud of its
+agents. This is an elementary principle of law. The misrepresentation,
+for purposes of rescission, need not be fraudulent; it is sufficient
+that it is false in fact: fraud or recklessness of assertion will give
+the shareholder a further remedy by action of deceit, or under the
+Directors' Liability Act 1890 (see _supra_); but, to entitle a
+shareholder to rescind, he must show that he took the shares on the
+faith or partly on the faith of the false representation: if not, it was
+innocuous. A shareholder claiming to rescind must do so promptly. It is
+too late to commence proceedings after a winding-up has begun.
+
+
+
+  Transfer of shares.
+
+The shares or other interest of any member in a company are personal
+estate and may be transferred in the manner provided by the regulations
+of the company. As Lord Blackburn said, one of the chief objects when
+joint stock companies were established was that the shares should be
+capable of being easily transferred; but though every shareholder has a
+prima facie right to transfer his shares, this right is subject to the
+regulations of the company, and the company may and usually does by its
+regulations require that a transfer shall receive the approval of the
+board of directors before being registered,--the object being to secure
+the company against having an insolvent or undesirable shareholder (the
+nominee perhaps of a rival company) substituted for a solvent and
+acceptable one. This power of the directors to refuse a transfer must
+not, however, be exercised arbitrarily or capriciously. If it were, it
+would amount to a confiscation of the shares. Directors, for instance,
+cannot veto a transfer because they disapprove of the purpose for which
+it is being made (e.g. to multiply votes), if there is no objection to
+the transferee.
+
+
+  Blank transfers.
+
+It is a common and convenient practice to deposit share or stock
+certificates with bankers and others to secure an advance. When this is
+done the share or stock certificate is usually accompanied by a blank
+transfer--that is, a transfer executed by the shareholder borrower, but
+with a blank left for the name of the transferee. The handing over by
+the borrower of such blank transfer signed by him is an implied
+authority to the banker, or other pledgee, if the loan is not paid, to
+fill in the blank with his name and get himself registered as the owner.
+
+
+  Dividends.
+
+A company can only pay dividends out of profits--which have been defined
+as the "earnings of a concern after deducting the expenses of earning
+them." To pay dividends out of capital is not only _ultra vires_ but
+illegal, as constituting a return of capital to shareholders. Before
+paying dividends, directors must take reasonable care to secure the
+preparation of proper balance-sheets and estimates, and must exercise
+their judgment as business men on the balance-sheets and estimates
+submitted to them. If they fail to do this, and pay dividends out of
+capital, they will not be held excused, unless the court should think
+that they ought to be under the new discretion given to the court by ss.
+32-34 of the Companies Act 1907 (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s.
+279). The onus is on them to show that the dividends have been paid out
+of profits. The court as a rule does not interfere with the discretion
+of directors in the matter of paying dividends, unless they are doing
+something _ultra vires_.
+
+
+  Auditors.
+
+By the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, ss. 112, 113, incorporating
+provisions of the act of 1900 (ss. 21-23), as amended by the act of 1907
+(s. 19), the legislature has made strict provisions for the appointment
+and remuneration of auditors by a company, and has defined their rights
+and duties. Prior to the act of 1900 audit clauses, except in the case
+of banking companies, were left to the articles of association and were
+not matter of statutory obligation.
+
+
+  Private companies.
+
+The "private company" may best be described as an incorporated
+partnership. The term is statutorily defined--for the first time--by s.
+37 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 121 of the Consolidating Act of 1908).
+Individual traders and trading firms have in recent years become much
+more alive to the advantages offered by incorporation. They have
+discovered that incorporation gives them the protection of limited
+liability; that it prevents dislocation of a business by the death,
+bankruptcy or lunacy of any of its members; that it enables a trader to
+distribute among the members of his family interests in his business on
+his decease through the medium of shares; that it facilitates borrowing
+on debentures or debenture stock, and with a view to secure these
+advantages thousands of traders have converted their businesses into
+limited companies. To so large an extent has this been done that private
+companies now form one-third of the whole number of companies
+registered.
+
+A private company does not appeal to the public to subscribe its
+capital, but in the main features of its constitution a private company
+differs little from a public one. It is only in one or two particulars
+that special provisions are requisite. It is generally desired for
+instance: (1) to keep all the shares among the members--the partners or
+the family--and not to let them get into the hands of the public; and
+(2) to give the principal shareholders, the original partners, a
+paramount control over the management. For this purpose it is usual to
+provide specially in the articles that no share shall be transferred to
+a stranger so long as any member is willing to purchase it at a fair
+value; that a member desirous of transferring his shares shall give
+notice to the company; that the company shall offer the shares to the
+other members; that if within a certain period the company finds a
+purchaser the shares shall be transferred to him, and that in case of
+dispute the value shall be settled by arbitration or shall be such a sum
+as the auditor certifies to be in his opinion the fair value. So in
+regard to the management it is common to provide that the owner or
+owners of the business shall be entitled to hold office as directors for
+a term of years or for life, provided he or they continue to hold a
+certain number of shares; or an owner is empowered to authorize his
+executors or trustees whilst holding a certain number of shares to
+appoint directors. Directors holding office on these special terms are
+described as "governing" or "permanent" or "life" directors. This union
+of interest and management in the same persons gives a private company
+an unquestionable advantage over a public company.
+
+The so-called "one-man company" is merely a variety of the private
+company. The fact that a company is formed by one man, with the aid of
+six dummy subscribers, is not in itself (as was at one time supposed) a
+fraud on the policy of the Companies Act, but it is occasionally used
+for the purpose of committing a fraud, as where an insolvent trader
+turns himself into a limited company in order to evade bankruptcy; and
+it is to an abuse of this kind that the term "one-man company" owes its
+opprobrious signification.
+
+_Companies Limited by Guarantee._--The second class of limited companies
+are those limited by guarantee, as distinguished from those limited by
+shares. In the company limited by guarantee each member agrees, in the
+event of a winding-up, to contribute a certain amount to the
+assets,--L5, L1 or 10s.--whatever may be the amount of the guarantee.
+The peculiarity of this form of company is that the interests of the
+members of a guarantee company are not expressed in any terms of nominal
+money value like the shares of other companies, a form of constitution
+designed, as stated by Lord Thring, the draftsman of the Companies Act
+1862, to give a superior elasticity to the company. The property of the
+company simply belongs to the company in certain fractional amounts.
+This makes it convenient for clubs, syndicates and other associations
+which do not require the interest of members to be expressed in terms of
+cash.
+
+_Companies not for Gain._--Associations formed to promote commerce, art,
+science, religion, charity or any other useful object may, with the
+sanction of the Board of Trade, register under the Companies Act 1862,
+with limited liability, but without the addition of the word "Limited,"
+upon proving to the board that it is the intention of the association to
+apply the profits or income of the association in promoting its objects,
+and not in payment of dividends to members (C.A. 1867, s. 23). This
+licence was made revocable by s. 42 of the Companies Act 1907
+(Consolidation Act of 1908, ss. 19, 20). In lieu of the word "Company,"
+the association may adopt as part of its name some such title as
+chamber, club, college, guild, institute or society. The power given by
+this section has proved very useful, and many kinds of associations have
+availed themselves of it, such as medical institutes, law societies,
+nursing homes, chambers of commerce, clubs, high schools,
+archaeological, horticultural and philosophical societies. The guarantee
+form (see _supra_) is well adapted for associations of this kind
+intended as they usually are to be supported by annual subscriptions. No
+such association can hold more than two acres of land without the
+licence of the Board of Trade.
+
+_Cost-Book Mining Companies._--These are in substance mining
+partnerships. They derive their name from the fact of the partnership
+agreement, the expenses and receipts of the mine, the names of the
+shareholders, and any transfers of shares being entered in a
+"cost-book." The affairs of the company are managed by an agent known as
+a "purser," who from time to time makes calls on the members for the
+expenses of working. A cost-book company is not bound to register under
+the Companies Act 1862, but it may do so.
+
+
+  Winding-up.
+
+  Voluntary.
+
+A company once incorporated under the Companies Act 1862 cannot be put
+an end to except through the machinery of a winding-up, though the name
+of a company which is commercially defunct may be struck off the
+register of joint stock companies by the registrar (s. 242 of the
+Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, incorporating s. 7 of the act of
+1880, as amended by s. 26 of the act of 1900). Winding-up is of two
+kinds: (1) voluntary winding-up, either purely voluntary or carried on
+under the supervision of the court; and (2) winding-up by the court. Of
+these voluntary winding-up is by far the more common. Of the companies
+that come to an end 90% are so wound up; and this is in accordance with
+the policy of the legislature, evinced throughout the Companies Acts,
+that shareholders should manage their own affairs--winding-up being one
+of such affairs. A voluntary winding-up is carried out by the
+shareholders passing a special resolution requiring the company to be
+wound up voluntarily, or an extraordinary resolution (now defined by s.
+182 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908) to the effect that it has
+been proved to the shareholders' satisfaction that the company cannot,
+by reason of its liabilities, continue its business, and that it is
+advisable to wind it up (C.A. 1862, s. 129). The resolution is generally
+accompanied by the appointment of a liquidator. In a purely voluntary
+winding-up there is a power given by s. 138 for the company or any
+contributory to apply to the court in any matter arising in the
+winding-up, but seemingly by an oversight of the legislature the same
+right was not given to creditors. This was rectified by the Companies
+Act 1900, s. 25. Section 27 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 188 of the
+Consolidation Act 1908) further provides for the liquidator under a
+voluntary winding-up summoning a meeting of creditors to determine on
+the choice of a liquidator. A creditor may also in a proper case obtain
+an order for continuing the voluntary winding-up under the supervision
+of the court. Such an order has the advantage of operating as a stay of
+any actions or executions pending against the company. Except in these
+respects, the winding-up remains a voluntary one. The court does not
+actively intervene unless set in motion; but it requires the liquidator
+to bring his accounts into chambers every quarter, so that it may be
+informed how the liquidation is proceeding. When the affairs of the
+company are fully wound up, the liquidator calls a meeting, lays his
+accounts before the shareholders, and the company is dissolved by
+operation of law three months after the date of the meeting (C.A. 1862,
+ss. 142, 143).
+
+
+  By the court.
+
+Irrespective of voluntary winding-up, the legislature has defined
+certain events in which a company formed under the Companies Act 1862
+may be wound up by the court. These events are: (1) when the company has
+passed a resolution requiring the company to be wound up by the court;
+(2) when the company does not commence its business within a year or
+suspends it for a year; (3) when the members are reduced to less than
+seven; (4) when the company is unable to pay its debts, and (5) whenever
+the court is of opinion that it is just and equitable that the company
+should be wound up (C.A. 1862, s. 79; s. 129 of the Consolidation Act
+1908). A petition for the purpose may be presented either by a creditor,
+a contributory or the company itself. Where the petition is presented by
+a creditor who cannot obtain payment of his debt, a winding-up order is
+_ex debito justitiae_ as against the company or shareholders, but not as
+against the wishes of a majority of creditors. A winding-up order is not
+to be refused because the company's assets are over mortgaged (Companies
+Act 1907, s. 29; s. 141 of Consolidation Act 1908).
+
+The procedure on the making of a winding-up order is now governed by ss.
+7, 8, 9 of the Winding-up Act 1890. The official receiver, as
+liquidator pro tem., requires a statement of the affairs of the company
+verified by the directors, and on it reports to the court as to the
+causes of the company's failure and whether further inquiry is
+desirable. If he further reports that in his opinion fraud has been
+committed in the promotion or formation of the company by a particular
+person, the court may order such person to be publicly examined.
+
+A liquidator's duty is to protect, collect, realize and distribute the
+company's assets in due course of administration; and for this purpose
+he advertises for creditors, makes calls on contributories, sues
+debtors, takes misfeasance proceedings, if necessary, against directors
+or promoters, and carries on the company's business--supposing the
+goodwill to be an asset of value--with a view to selling it as a going
+concern. He may be assisted, like a trustee in bankruptcy, by a
+committee of inspection, composed of creditors and contributories.
+
+When the affairs of the company have been completely wound up the court
+is, by s. 111 of the Companies Act 1862 (s. 127 of the act of 1908), to
+make an order that the company be dissolved from the date of such order,
+and the company is dissolved accordingly. A company which has been
+dissolved may, where necessary, on petition to the court be reinstated
+on the register (Companies Act 1880, s. 1).
+
+
+  Reconstruction.
+
+A large number of companies now wind up only to reconstruct. The reasons
+for a reconstruction are generally either to raise fresh capital, or to
+get rid of onerous preference shares, or to enlarge the scope of the
+company's objects, which is otherwise impracticable owing to the
+unalterability of the Memorandum of Association. Reconstructions are
+carried out in one of three ways: (1) by sale and transfer of the
+company's undertaking and assets to a new company, under a power to sell
+contained in the company's memorandum of association, or (2) by sale and
+transfer under s. 161 of the Companies Act 1862; or (3) by a scheme of
+arrangement, sanctioned by the court, under the Joint Stock Companies
+Arrangements Act 1870, as amended by the Companies Act 1907, s. 38 (C.A.
+1908, s. 192).
+
+The first of these modes is now the most in favour.
+
+
+  Wrongs by a company.
+
+A company, though a mere legal abstraction, without mind or will, may,
+it is now well settled, be liable in damages for malicious prosecution,
+for nuisance, for fraud, for negligence, for trespass. The sense of the
+thing is that the "company" is a _nomen collectivum_ for the members. It
+is they who have put the directors there to carry on their business and
+they must be answerable, collectively, for what is done negligently,
+fraudulently or maliciously by their agents.
+
+
+_2. Public Companies._
+
+Besides trading companies there is another large class, exceeding in
+their number even trading companies, which for shortness may be called
+public companies, that is to say, companies constituted by special act
+of parliament for the purpose of constructing and carrying on
+undertakings of public utility, such as railways, canals, harbours,
+docks, waterworks, gasworks, bridges, ferries, tramways, drainage,
+fisheries or hospitals. The objects of such companies nearly always
+involve an interference with the rights of private persons, often
+necessitate the commission of a public nuisance, and require therefore
+the sanction of the legislature. For this purpose a special act has to
+be obtained. A private bill to authorize the undertaking is introduced
+before one or other of the Houses of Parliament, considered in
+committee, and either passed or rejected like a public bill. These
+parliamentary (private bill) committees are tribunals acknowledging
+certain rules of policy, taking evidence from witnesses and hearing
+arguments from professional advocates. In many of these special acts,
+dealing as they do with a similar subject matter, similar provisions are
+required, and to avoid repetition and secure uniformity the legislature
+has passed certain general acts--codes of law for particular subject
+matters frequently recurring--which can be incorporated by reference in
+any special act with the necessary modifications. Thus the Companies
+Clauses Acts 1845, 1863 and 1869 supply the general powers and
+provisions which are commonly inserted in the constitution of such
+public company, regulating the distribution of capital, the transfer of
+shares, payment of calls, borrowing and general meetings. The Lands
+Clauses Consolidation Act 1845 supplies the machinery for the compulsory
+taking of land incident to most undertakings of a public character. The
+Railway Clauses Consolidation Act, the Waterworks Clauses Acts 1847 and
+1863, the Gasworks Clauses Act 1847, and the Electric Lighting (Clauses)
+Act 1899 are other codes of law designed for incorporation in special
+acts creating companies for the construction of railways or the supply
+of water, gas or electric light. A distinguishing feature of these
+companies is that, being sanctioned by the legislature for undertakings
+of public utility, the policy of the law will not allow them to be
+broken up or destroyed by creditors. It gives creditors only a
+charge--by a receiver--on the earnings of the undertaking--the "fruit of
+the tree."
+
+
+_3. British Companies Abroad._
+
+The status of British companies trading abroad, so far as Germany,
+France, Belgium, Greece, Italy and Spain are concerned, is expressly
+recognized in a series of conventions entered into between those
+countries and Great Britain. The value of the convention with France has
+been much impaired by the interpretation put upon the words of it by the
+court of cassation in _La Construction Lim_. According to this case the
+nationality of a company depends not on its place of origin but on where
+it has its centre of affairs, its principal establishment. The result is
+that a company registered in Britain under the Companies Acts may be
+transmuted by a French court into a French company in direct violation
+of the convention. The convention with Germany, which is in similar
+terms to that with France, has also been narrowed by judicial
+construction. The "power of exercising all their rights" given by the
+convention to British companies has been construed to mean that a
+British company will be recognized as a corporate body in Germany, but
+it does not follow from the terms of the convention that any British
+company may as a matter of course establish a branch and carry on
+business within the German empire. It must still get permission to
+trade, permission to hold land. It must register itself in the communal
+register. It must pay stamp duties.
+
+Foreign companies may found an affiliated company or have a branch
+establishment in Italy, provided they publish their memorandum and
+articles and the names of their directors. Where no convention exists
+the status of an immigrant corporation depends upon international
+comity, which allows foreign corporations, as it does foreign persons,
+to sue, to make contracts and hold real estate, in the same way as
+domestic corporations or citizens; provided the stranger corporation
+does not offend against the policy of the state in which it seeks to
+trade.
+
+There is, however, a growing practice now for states to impose by
+express legislation conditions on foreign corporations coming to do
+business within their territory. These conditions are mainly directed to
+securing that the immigrant corporation shall make known its
+constitution and shall be amenable to the jurisdiction of the courts of
+the country where it trades. Thus, by the law of Western Australia--to
+take a typical instance,--a foreign company is not to commence or carry
+on business until it empowers some person to act as its attorney to sue
+and be sued and has an office or place of business within the state, to
+be approved of by the registrar, where all legal proceedings may be
+served. New Zealand, Manitoba and many other states have adopted similar
+precautions; and by the Companies Act 1907, s. 35; C.A. 1908, s. 274
+foreign companies having a place of business within the United Kingdom
+are required to file with the registrar of joint stock companies a copy
+of the company's charter or memorandum and articles, a list of
+directors, and the names and addresses of one or more persons authorized
+to accept service of process. Special conditions of a more stringent
+nature are often imposed in the case of particular classes of companies
+of a quasi-public character, such as banking companies, building
+societies or insurance companies. Regulations of this kind are
+perfectly legitimate and necessary. They are in truth only an
+application of the law of vagrancy to corporations, and have their
+analogy in the restrictions now generally imposed by states on the
+immigration of aliens.
+
+
+_4. Company Law outside the United Kingdom._
+
+_Australia._--Company law in Australia and in New Zealand follows very
+closely the lines of company legislation in the United Kingdom.
+
+In New South Wales the law is consolidated by Act No. 40 of 1899,
+amended 1900 and 1906. In Victoria the law is contained in the Acts Nos.
+1074 of 1890 and 355 of 1896; in Queensland in a series of Acts--No. 4
+of 1863, No. 18 of 1899, No. 10 of 1891, No. 24 of 1892, No. 3 of 1893,
+No. 19 of 1894 and No. 21 of 1896; in South Australia in No. 56 of 1892,
+amended by No. 576 of 1893; in Tasmania by Nos. 22 of 1869, 19 of 1895
+and 3 of 1896; in Western Australia by No. 8 of 1893, amended 1897 and
+1898.
+
+In New Zealand the law was consolidated in 1903.
+
+_Canada._--The act governing joint stock companies in Canada is the
+Companies Act 1902, amended 1904. It empowers the secretary of state by
+letters patent to grant a charter to any number of persons not less than
+five for any objects other than railway or telegraph lines, banking or
+insurance.
+
+Applicants must file an application--analogous to the British memorandum
+of association--showing certain particulars--the purposes of
+incorporation, the place of business, the amount of the capital stock,
+the number of shares and the amount of each, the names and addresses of
+the applicants, the amount of stock taken by each and the amount and
+mode of payment. Other provisions may also be embodied. A company cannot
+commence business until 10% of its authorized capital has been
+subscribed and paid for. The word "limited" as part of the company's
+name is--as in the case of British companies--to be conspicuously
+exhibited and used in all documents. The directors are not to be less
+than three or more than fifteen, and must be holders of stock. Directors
+are jointly and severally liable to the clerks, labourers and servants
+of the company for six months' wages. Borrowing powers may be taken by a
+vote of holders of two-thirds in value of the subscribed stock of the
+company.
+
+_South Africa._--In Cape Colony the law is contained in No. 25 of 1892,
+amended 1895 and 1906; it follows English law.
+
+In Natal the law is contained in Nos. 10 of 1864, 18 of 1865, 19 of 1893
+and 3 of 1896.
+
+In the Orange Free State in Law Ch. 100 and Nos. 2 and 4 of 1892.
+
+For the Transvaal see Nos. 5 of 1874, 6 of 1874, 1 of 1894 and 30 of
+1904.
+
+In Rhodesia companies are regulated by the Companies Ordinance 1895--a
+combination of the Cape Companies Act 1892, and the British Companies
+Acts 1862-1890.
+
+_France._--There are two kinds of limited liability companies in
+France--the _societe en commandite_ and the _societe anonyme_. The
+_societe en commandite_ corresponds in some respects to the British
+private company or limited partnership, but with this difference, that
+in the _societe en commandite_ the managing partner is under unlimited
+liability of creditors; the sleeping partner's liability is limited to
+the amount of his capital. The French equivalent of the English ordinary
+joint stock company is the _societe anonyme_. The minimum number of
+subscribers necessary to form such a company is (as in the case of a
+British trading company) seven, but, unlike a British company, the
+_societe anonyme_ is not legally constituted unless the whole capital is
+subscribed and one-fourth of each share paid up. Another precaution
+unknown to British practice is that assets, not in money, brought into a
+company are subject to verification of value by a general meeting. The
+minimum nominal value of shares, where the company's capital is less
+than 200,000 fcs., is 25 fcs.; where the capital is more than 200,000
+fcs., 100 fcs. The _societe_ is governed by articles which appoint the
+directors, and there is one general meeting held every year. A _societe
+anonyme_ may, since 1902, issue preference shares. The doctrine that a
+corporation never dies has no place in French law. A _societe anonyme_
+may come to an end.
+
+_Germany._--In Germany the class of companies most nearly corresponding
+to English companies limited by shares are "share companies"
+(_Aktiengesellschaften_) and "commandite companies" with a share capital
+(_Kommanditgesellschaften auf Aktien_). Since 1892 a new form of
+association has come into existence known by the name of partnership
+with limited liability (_Gesellschaften mit beschrankter Haftung_),
+which has largely superseded the commandite company.
+
+[Sidenote: The "share company."]
+
+In forming this paid-up company certain preliminary steps have to be
+taken before registration:--
+
+  1. The articles must be agreed on;
+
+  2. A managing board and a board of supervision must be appointed;
+
+  3. The whole of the share capital must be allotted and 25%, at least,
+  must be paid up in coin or legal tender notes;
+
+  4. Reports on the formation of the company must be made by certain
+  persons; and
+
+  5. Certain documents must be filed in the registry.
+
+In all cases where shares are issued for any consideration, not being
+payment in full in cash, or in which contracts for the purchase of
+property have been entered into, the promoters must sign a declaration
+in which they must state on what grounds the prices agreed to be given
+for such property appear to be justified. In the great majority of cases
+shares are issued in certificates to bearer. The amount of such a
+share--to bearer--must as a general rule be not less than L50, but
+registered shares of L10 may be issued. Balance sheets have to be
+published periodically.
+
+
+  Limited partnerships.
+
+Partnerships with limited liability may be formed by two or more
+members. The articles of partnership must be signed by all the members,
+and must contain particulars as to the amount of the capital and of the
+individual shares. If the liability on any shares is not to be satisfied
+in cash this also must be stated. The capital of a limited partnership
+must amount to L1000. Shares must be registered. Insolvent companies in
+Germany are subject to the bankruptcy law in the same manner as natural
+persons.
+
+For further information see a memorandum on German companies printed in
+the appendix to the _Report of Lord Davey's Committee on the Amendment
+of Company Law_, pp. 13-26.
+
+_Italy._--Commercial companies in Italy are of three kinds:--(1) General
+partnerships, in which the members are liable for all debts incurred;
+(2) companies in _accomodita_, in which some members are liable to an
+unlimited extent and others within certain limits; (3) joint stock
+companies, in which the liability is limited to the capital of the
+company and no member is liable beyond the amount of his holding. None
+of these companies needs authority from the government for its
+constitution; all that is needed is a written agreement brought before
+the public in the ways indicated in the code (Art. 90 et seq.). In joint
+stock companies the trustees (directors) must give security. They are
+appointed by a general meeting for a period not exceeding four years
+(Art. 124). The company is not constituted until the whole of its
+capital is subscribed, and until three-tenths of the capital at least
+has been actually paid up. When a company's capital is diminished by
+one-third, the trustees must call the members together and consult as to
+what is to be done.
+
+An ordinary meeting is held once at least every year. Shares may not be
+made payable "to bearer" until fully paid up (Art. 166). A company may
+issue debentures if this is agreed to by a certain majority (Art. 172).
+One-twentieth, at least, of the dividends of the company must be added
+to the reserve fund, until this has become equal to one-fifth of the
+company's capital (Art. 182). Three or five assessors--members or
+non-members--keep watch over the way in which the company is carried on.
+
+_United States._--In the United States the right to create corporations
+is a sovereign right, and as such is exercisable by the several states
+of the Union. The law of private corporations must therefore be sought
+in some fifty collections or groups of statutory and case-made rules.
+These collections or groups of rules differ in many cases essentially
+from each other. The acts regulating business corporations generally
+provide that the persons proposing to form a corporation shall sign and
+acknowledge an instrument called the articles of association, setting
+forth the name of the corporation, the object for which it is to be
+formed, the principal place of business, the amount of its capital
+stock, and the number of shares into which it is to be divided, and the
+duration of its corporate existence. These articles are filed in the
+office of the secretary of state or in designated courts of record, and
+a certificate is then issued reciting that the provisions of the act
+have been complied with, and thereupon the incorporators are vested with
+corporate existence and the general powers incident thereto. This
+certificate is the charter of the corporation. The power to make bylaws
+is usually vested in the stockholders, but it may be conferred by the
+certificate on the directors. Stockholders remain liable until their
+subscriptions are fully paid. Nothing but money is considered payment of
+capital stock except where property is purchased. Directors must usually
+be stockholders.
+
+The right of a state to forfeit a corporation's charter for misuser or
+non-user of its franchises is an implied term of the grant of
+incorporation. Corporations are liable for every wrong they commit, and
+in such cases cannot set up by way of protection the doctrine of _ultra
+vires_.
+
+  See for authorities _Commentaries on the Law of Private Corporations_,
+  by Seymour D. Thompson, LL.D., 6 vols.; Beach on _Corporations_, and
+  the _American Encyclopaedia of Law_.     (E. MA.)
+
+
+
+
+COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, a term employed to designate the study of the
+structure of man as compared with that of lower animals, and sometimes
+the study of lower animals in contra-distinction to human anatomy; the
+term is now falling into desuetude, and lingers practically only in the
+titles of books or in the designation of university chairs. The change
+in terminology is chiefly the result of modern conceptions of zoology.
+From the point of view of structure, man is one of the animals; all
+investigations into anatomical structure must be comparative, and in
+this work the subject is so treated throughout. See ANATOMY and ZOOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+COMPARETTI, DOMENICO (1835-   ), Italian scholar, was born at Rome on the
+27th of June 1835. He studied at the university of Rome, took his degree
+in 1855 in natural science and mathematics, and entered his uncle's
+pharmacy as assistant. His scanty leisure was, however, given to study.
+He learned Greek by himself, and gained facility in the modern language
+by conversing with the Greek students at the university. In spite of all
+disadvantages, he not only mastered the language, but became one of the
+chief classical scholars of Italy. In 1857 he published, in the
+_Rheinisches Museum_, a translation of some recently discovered
+fragments of Hypereides, with a dissertation on that orator. This was
+followed by a notice of the annalist Granius Licinianus, and one on the
+oration of Hypereides on the Lamian War. In 1859 he was appointed
+professor of Greek at Pisa on the recommendation of the duke of
+Sermoneta. A few years later he was called to a similar post at
+Florence, remaining emeritus professor at Pisa also. He subsequently
+took up his residence in Rome as lecturer on Greek antiquities and
+greatly interested himself in the Forum excavations. He was a member of
+the governing bodies of the academies of Milan, Venice, Naples and
+Turin. The list of his writings is long and varied. Of his works in
+classical literature, the best known are an edition of the _Euxenippus_
+of Hypereides, and monographs on Pindar and Sappho. He also edited the
+great inscription which contains a collection of the municipal laws of
+Gortyn in Crete, discovered on the site of the ancient city. In the
+_Kalewala and the Traditional Poetry of the Finns_ (English translation
+by I. M. Anderton, 1898) he discusses the national epic of Finland and
+its heroic songs, with a view to solving the problem whether an epic
+could be composed by the interweaving of such national songs. He comes
+to a negative conclusion, and applies this reasoning to the Homeric
+problem. He treats this question again in a treatise on the so-called
+Peisistratean edition of Homer (_La Commissione omerica di Pisistrato_,
+1881). His _Researches concerning the Book of Sindib[=a]d_ have been
+translated in the _Proceedings_ of the Folk-Lore Society. His _Vergil
+in the Middle Ages_ (translated into English by E. F. Benecke, 1895)
+traces the strange vicissitudes by which the great Augustan poet became
+successively grammatical fetich, Christian prophet and wizard. Together
+with Professor Alessandro d'Ancona, Comparetti edited a collection of
+Italian national songs and stories (9 vols., Turin, 1870-1891), many of
+which had been collected and written down by himself for the first time.
+
+
+
+
+COMPASS (Fr. _compas_, ultimately from Lat. _cum_, with, and _passus_,
+step), a term of which the evolution of the various meanings is obscure;
+the general sense is "measure" or "measurement," and the word is used
+thus in various derived meanings--area, boundary, circuit. It is also
+more particularly applied to a mathematical instrument ("pair of
+compasses") for measuring or for describing a circle, and to the
+mariner's compass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Compass Card.]
+
+The mariner's compass, with which this article is concerned, is an
+instrument by means of which the directive force of that great magnet,
+the Earth, upon a freely-suspended needle, is utilized for a purpose
+essential to navigation. The needle is so mounted that it only moves
+freely in the horizontal plane, and therefore the horizontal component
+of the earth's force alone directs it. The direction assumed by the
+needle is not generally towards the geographical north, but diverges
+towards the east or west of it, making a horizontal angle with the true
+meridian, called the magnetic variation or declination; amongst mariners
+this angle is known as the variation of the compass. In the usual
+navigable waters of the world the variation alters from 30 deg. to the
+east to 45 deg. to the west of the geographical meridian, being westerly
+in the Atlantic and Indian oceans, easterly in the Pacific. The vertical
+plane passing through the longitudinal axis of such a needle is known as
+the magnetic meridian. Following the first chart of lines of equal
+variation compiled by Edmund Halley in 1700, charts of similar type have
+been published from time to time embodying recent observations and
+corrected for the secular change, thus providing seamen with values of
+the variation accurate to about 30' of arc. Possessing these data, it is
+easy to ascertain by observation the effects of the iron in a ship in
+disturbing the compass, and it will be found for the most part in every
+vessel that the needle is deflected from the magnetic meridian by a
+horizontal angle called the deviation of the compass; in some directions
+of the ship's head adding to the known variation of the place, in other
+directions subtracting from it. Local magnetic disturbance of the needle
+due to magnetic rocks is observed on land in all parts of the world, and
+in certain places extends to the land under the sea, affecting the
+compasses on board the ships passing over it. The general direction of
+these disturbances in the northern hemisphere is an attraction of the
+north-seeking end of the needle; in the southern hemisphere, its
+repulsion. The approaches to Cossack, North Australia; Cape St Francis,
+Labrador; the coasts of Madagascar and Iceland, are remarkable for such
+disturbance of the compass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Admiralty Compass (Frame and Needles).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Thomson's (Lord Kelvin's) Compass (Frame and
+Needles).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of Thomson's Compass Bowl. C, aluminium
+cap with sapphire centre; N, N', needles; P, pivot stem with pivot.]
+
+The compass as we know it is the result of the necessities of
+navigation, which have increased from century to century. It consists of
+five principal parts--the card, the needles, the bowl, a jewelled cap
+and the pivot. The card or "fly," formerly made of cardboard, now
+consists of a disk either of mica covered with paper or of paper alone,
+but in all cases the card is divided into points and degrees as shown in
+fig. 1. The outer margin is divided into degrees with 0 deg. at north
+and south, and 90 deg. at east and west; the 32 points with half and
+quarter points are seen immediately within the degrees. The north point
+is marked with _fleur de lis_, and the principal points, N.E., E., S.E.,
+&c., with their respective names, whilst the intermediate points in the
+figure have also their names engraved for present information. The arc
+contained between any two points is 11 deg. 15'. The mica card is
+generally mounted on a brass framework, F F, with a brass cap, C, fitted
+with a sapphire centre and carrying four magnetized needles, N, N, N, N,
+as in fig. 2. The more modern form of card consists of a broad ring of
+paper marked with degrees and points, as in fig. 1, attached to a frame
+like that in fig. 3, where an outer aluminium ring, A A, is connected by
+32 radial silk threads to a central disk of aluminium, in the centre of
+which is a round hole designed to receive an aluminium cap with a highly
+polished sapphire centre worked to the form of an open cone. To direct
+the card eight short light needles, N N, are suspended by silk threads
+from the outer ring. The magnetic axis of any system of needles must
+exactly coincide with the axis passing through the north and south
+points of the card. Single needles are never used, two being the least
+number, and these so arranged that the moment of inertia about every
+diameter of the card shall be the same. The combination of card, needles
+and cap is generally termed "the card"; on the continent of Europe it is
+called the "rose." The section of a compass bowl in fig. 4 shows the
+mounting of a Thomson card on its pivot, which in common with the pivots
+of most other compasses is made of brass, tipped with osmium-iridium,
+which although very hard can be sharply pointed and does not corrode.
+Fig. 4 shows the general arrangement of mounting all compass cards in
+the bowl. In fig. 5 another form of compass called a liquid or spirit
+compass is shown partly in section. The card nearly floats in a bowl
+filled with distilled water, to which 35% of alcohol is added to prevent
+freezing; the bowl is hermetically sealed with pure india-rubber, and a
+corrugated expansion chamber is attached to the bottom to allow for the
+expansion and contraction of the liquid. The card is a mica disk, either
+painted as in fig. 1, or covered with linen upon which the degrees and
+points are printed, the needles being enclosed in brass.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Liquid Compass.
+
+  A, Bowl, partly in section.     N, Hole for filling, with screw plug.
+  B, Expansion chamber.           O, O, Magnetic needles.
+  D, The glass.                   P, Buoyant chamber.
+  G, Gimbal ring.                 Q, Iridium pivot.
+  L, Nut to expand chamber when   R, Sapphire cap.
+      filling bowl.               S, Mica card.]
+  M, Screw connector.
+
+Great steadiness of card under severe shocks and vibrations, combined
+with a minimum of friction in the cap and pivot, is obtained with this
+compass. All compasses are fitted with a gimbal ring to keep the bowl
+and card level under every circumstance of a ship's motion in a seaway,
+the ring being connected with the binnacle or pedestal by means of
+journals or knife edges. On the inside of every compass bowl a vertical
+black line is drawn, called the "lubber's point," and it is imperative
+that when the compass is placed in the binnacle the line joining the
+pivot and the lubber's point be parallel to the keel of the vessel.
+Thus, when a degree on the card is observed opposite the lubber's point,
+the angle between the direction in which the ship is steering and the
+north point of the compass or course is at once seen; and if the
+magnetic variation and the disturbing effects of the ship's iron are
+known, the desired angle between the ship's course and the geographical
+meridian can be computed. In every ship a position is selected for the
+navigating or standard compass as free from neighbouring iron as
+possible, and by this compass all courses are shaped and bearings taken.
+It is also provided with an azimuth circle or mirror and a shadow pin or
+style placed in the centre of the glass cover, by either of which the
+variable angle between the compass north and true north, called the
+"total error," or variation and deviation combined, can be observed. The
+binnacles or pedestals for compasses are generally constructed of wood
+about 45 in. high, and fitted to receive and alter at pleasure the
+several magnet and soft iron correctors. They are also fitted with
+different forms of suspension in which the compass is mounted to obviate
+the mechanical disturbance of the card caused by the vibration of the
+hull in ships driven by powerful engines.
+
+The effects of the iron and steel used in the construction of ships upon
+the compass occupied the attention of the ablest physicists of the 19th
+century, with results which enable navigators to conduct their ships
+with perfect safety. The hull of an iron or steel ship is a magnet, and
+the distribution of its magnetism depends upon the direction of the
+ship's head when building, this result being produced by induction from
+the earth's magnetism, developed and impressed by the hammering of the
+plates and frames during the process of building. The disturbance of the
+compass by the magnetism of the hull is generally modified, sometimes
+favourably, more often unfavourably, by the magnetized fittings of the
+ship, such as masts, conning towers, deck houses, engines and boilers.
+Thus in every ship the compass needle is more or less subject to
+deviation differing in amount and direction for every azimuth of the
+ship's head. This was first demonstrated by Commander Matthew Flinders
+by experiments made in H.M.S. "Investigator" in 1800-1803, and in 1810
+led that officer to introduce the practice of placing the ship's head on
+each point of the compass, and noting the amount of deviation whether to
+the east or west of the magnetic north, a process which is in full
+exercise at the present day, and is called "swinging ship." When
+speaking of the magnetic properties of iron it is usual to adopt the
+terms "soft" and "hard." Soft iron is iron which becomes instantly
+magnetized by induction when exposed to any magnetic force, but has no
+power of retaining its magnetism. Hard iron is less susceptible of being
+magnetized, but when once magnetized it retains its magnetism
+permanently. The term "iron" used in these pages includes the "steel"
+now commonly employed in shipbuilding. If an iron ship be swung when
+upright for deviation, and the mean horizontal and vertical magnetic
+forces at the compass positions be also observed in different parts of
+the world, mathematical analysis shows that the deviations are caused
+partly by the permanent magnetism of hard iron, partly by the transient
+induced magnetism of soft iron both horizontal and vertical, and in a
+lesser degree by iron which is neither magnetically hard nor soft, but
+which becomes magnetized in the same manner as hard iron, though it
+gradually loses its magnetism on change of conditions, as, for example,
+in the case of a ship, repaired and hammered in dock, steaming in an
+opposite direction at sea. This latter cause of deviation is called
+sub-permanent magnetism. The horizontal directive force on the needle on
+board is nearly always less than on land, sometimes much less, whilst in
+armour-plated ships it ranges from .8 to .2 when the directive force on
+land = 1.0. If the ship be inclined to starboard or to port additional
+deviation will be observed, reaching a maximum on north and south
+points, decreasing to zero on the east and west points. Each ship has
+its own magnetic character, but there are certain conditions which are
+common to vessels of the same type.
+
+Instead of observing the deviation solely for the purposes of correcting
+the indications of the compass when disturbed by the iron of the ship,
+the practice is to subject all deviations to mathematical analysis with
+a view to their mechanical correction. The whole of the deviations when
+the ship is upright may be expressed nearly by five co-efficients, A, B,
+C, D, E. Of these A is a deviation constant in amount for every
+direction of the ship's head. B has reference to horizontal forces
+acting in a longitudinal direction in the ship, and caused partly by the
+permanent magnetism of hard iron, partly by vertical induction in
+vertical soft iron either before or abaft the compass. C has reference
+to forces acting in a transverse direction, and caused by hard iron. D
+is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron, the direction of
+which passes continuously under or over the compass. E is due to
+transient induction in horizontal soft iron unsymmetrically placed with
+regard to the compass. When data of this character have been obtained
+the compass deviations may be mechanically corrected to within
+1 deg.--always adhering to the principal that "like cures like." Thus the
+part of B caused by the permanent magnetism of hard iron must be
+corrected by permanent magnets horizontally placed in a fore and aft
+direction; the other part caused by vertical soft iron by means of bars
+of vertical soft iron, called Flinders bars, before or abaft the
+compass. C is compensated by permanent magnets athwart-ships and
+horizontal; D by masses of soft iron on both sides of the compass, and
+generally in the form of cast-iron spheres, with their centres in the
+same horizontal plane as the needles; E is usually too small to require
+correction; A is fortunately rarely of any value, as it cannot be
+corrected. The deviation observed when the ship inclines to either side
+is due--(1) to hard iron acting vertically upwards or downwards; (2) to
+vertical soft iron immediately below the compass; (3) to vertical
+induction in horizontal soft iron when inclined. To compensate (1)
+vertical magnets are used; (3) is partly corrected by the soft iron
+correctors of D; (2) and the remaining part of (3) cannot be
+conveniently corrected for more than one geographical position at a
+time. Although a compass may thus be made practically correct for a
+given time and place, the magnetism of the ship is liable to changes on
+changing her geographical position, and especially so when steaming at
+right angles or nearly so to the magnetic meridian, for then
+sub-permanent magnetism is developed in the hull. Some vessels are more
+liable to become sub-permanently magnetized than others, and as no
+corrector has been found for this source of deviation the navigator must
+determine its amount by observation. Hence, however carefully a compass
+may be placed and subsequently compensated, the mariner has no safety
+without constantly observing the bearings of the sun, stars or distant
+terrestrial objects, to ascertain its deviation. The results of these
+observations are entered in a compass journal for future reference when
+fog or darkness prevails.
+
+Every compass and corrector supplied to the ships of the British navy is
+previously examined in detail at the Compass Observatory established by
+the admiralty at Deptford. A trained observer acting under the
+superintendent of compasses is charged with this important work. The
+superintendent, who is a naval officer, has to investigate the magnetic
+character of the ships, to point out the most suitable positions for the
+compasses when a ship is designed, and subsequently to keep himself
+informed of their behaviour from the time of the ship's first trial. A
+museum containing compasses of various types invented during the 19th
+century is attached to the Compass Observatory at Deptford.
+
+  The mariner's compass during the early part of the 19th century was
+  still a very imperfect instrument, although numerous inventors had
+  tried to improve it. In 1837 the Admiralty Compass Committee was
+  appointed to make a scientific investigation of the subject, and
+  propose a form of compass suitable alike for azimuth and steering
+  purposes. The committee reported in July 1840, and after minor
+  improvements by the makers the admiralty compass, the card of which is
+  shown in figs. 1 and 2, was adopted by the government. Until 1876,
+  when Sir William Thomson introduced his patent compass, this compass
+  was not only the regulation compass of the British navy, but was
+  largely used in other countries in the same or a modified form. The
+  introduction of powerful engines causing serious vibration to compass
+  cards of the admiralty type, coupled with the prevailing desire for
+  larger cards, the deviation of which could also be more conveniently
+  compensated, led to the gradual introduction of the Thomson compass.
+  Several important points were gained in the latter: the quadrantal
+  deviation could be finally corrected for all latitudes; frictional
+  error at the cap and pivot was reduced to a minimum, the average
+  weight of the card being 200 grains; the long free vibrational period
+  of the card was found to be favourable to its steadiness when the
+  vessel was rolling. The first liquid compass used in England was
+  invented by Francis Crow, of Faversham, in 1813. It is said that the
+  idea of a liquid compass was suggested to Crow by the experience of
+  the captain of a coasting vessel whose compass card was oscillating
+  wildly until a sea broke on board filling the compass bowl, when the
+  card became steady. Subsequent improvements were made by E. J. Dent,
+  and especially by E. S. Ritchie, of Boston, Massachusetts. In 1888 the
+  form of liquid compass (fig. 5) now solely used in torpedo boats and
+  torpedo boat destroyers was introduced. It has also proved to be the
+  most trustworthy compass under the shock of heavy gun fire at present
+  available. The deflector is an instrument designed to enable an
+  observer to reduce the deviations of the compass to an amount not
+  exceeding 2 deg. during fogs, or at any time when bearings of distant
+  objects are not available. It is certain that if the directive forces
+  on the north, east, south and west points of a compass are equal,
+  there can be no deviation. With the deflector any inequality in the
+  directive force can be detected, and hence the power of equalizing the
+  forces by the usual soft iron and magnet correctors. Several kinds of
+  deflector have been invented, that of Lord Kelvin (Sir William
+  Thomson) being the simplest, but Dr Waghorn's is also very effective.
+  The use of the deflector is generally confined to experts.
+
+  _The Magnetism of Ships._--In 1814 Flinders first showed (see
+  Flinders's _Voyage_, vol. ii. appx. ii.) that the abnormal values of
+  the variation observed in the wood-built ships of his day was due to
+  deviation of the compass caused by the iron in the ship; that the
+  deviation was zero when the ship's head was near the north and south
+  points; that it attained its maximum on the east and west points, and
+  varied as the sine of the azimuth of the ship's head reckoned from the
+  zero points. He also described a method of correcting deviation by
+  means of a bar of vertical iron so placed as to correct the deviation
+  nearly in all latitudes. This bar, now known as a "Flinders bar," is
+  still in general use. In 1820 Dr T. Young (see Brande's _Quarterly
+  Journal_, 1820) investigated mathematically the magnetism of ships. In
+  1824 Professor Peter Barlow (1776-1862) introduced his correcting
+  plate of _soft_ iron. Trials in certain ships showed that their
+  magnetism consisted partly of hard iron, and the use of the plate was
+  abandoned. In 1835 Captain E. J. Johnson, R.N., showed from
+  experiments in the iron steamship "Garry Owen" that the vessel acted
+  on an external compass as a magnet. In 1838 Sir G. B. Airy
+  magnetically examined the iron steamship "Rainbow" at Deptford, and
+  from his mathematical investigations (see _Phil. Trans._, 1839)
+  deduced his method of correcting the compass by permanent magnets and
+  soft iron, giving practical rules for the same in 1840. Airy's and
+  Flinders's correctors form the basis of all compass correctors to this
+  day. In 1838 S. D. Poisson published his _Memoir on the Deviations of
+  the Compass caused by the Iron in a Vessel_. In this he gave equations
+  resulting from the hypothesis that the magnetism of a ship is partly
+  due to the permanent magnetism of hard iron and partly to the
+  transient induced magnetism of soft iron; that the latter is
+  proportional to the intensity of the inducing force, and that the
+  length of the needle is infinitesimally small compared to the distance
+  of the surrounding iron. From Poisson's equations Archibald Smith
+  deduced the formulae given in the _Admiralty Manual for Deviations of
+  the Compass_ (1st ed., 1862), a work which has formed the basis of
+  numerous other manuals since published in Great Britain and other
+  countries. In view of the serious difficulties connected with the
+  inclining of every ship, Smith's formulae for ascertaining and
+  providing for the correction of the heeling error with the ship
+  upright continue to be of great value to safe navigation. In 1855 the
+  Liverpool Compass Committee began its work of investigating the
+  magnetism of ships of the mercantile marine, resulting in three
+  reports to the Board of Trade, all of great value, the last being
+  presented in 1861.
+
+  See also MAGNETISM, and NAVIGATION; articles on Magnetism of Ships and
+  Deviations of the Compass, _Phil. Trans._, 1839-1883, _Journal United
+  Service Inst._, 1859-1889, _Trans. Inst. Nav. Archit._,
+  1860-1861-1862, _Report of Brit. Assoc._, 1862, _London Quarterly
+  Rev._, 1865; also _Admiralty Manual_, edit. 1862-1863-1869-1893-1900;
+  and Towson's _Practical Information on Deviations of the Compass_
+  (1886).     (E. W. C.)
+
+
+_History of the Mariner's Compass._
+
+The discovery that a lodestone, or a piece of iron which has been
+touched by a lodestone, will direct itself to point in a north and south
+position, and the application of that discovery to direct the navigation
+of ships, have been attributed to various origins. The Chinese, the
+Arabs, the Greeks, the Etruscans, the Finns and the Italians have all
+been claimed as originators of the compass. There is now little doubt
+that the claim formerly advanced in favour of the Chinese is
+ill-founded. In Chinese history we are told how, in the sixty-fourth
+year of the reign of Hwang-ti (2634 B.C.), the emperor Hiuan-yuan, or
+Hwang-ti, attacked one Tchi-yeou, on the plains of Tchou-lou, and
+finding his army embarrassed by a thick fog raised by the enemy,
+constructed a chariot (Tchi-nan) for indicating the south, so as to
+distinguish the four cardinal points, and was thus enabled to pursue
+Tchi-yeou, and take him prisoner. (Julius Klaproth, _Lettre a M. le
+Baron Humboldt sur l'invention de la boussole_, Paris, 1834. See also
+Mailla, _Histoire generale de la Chine_, tom. i. p. 316, Paris, 1777.)
+But, as other versions of the story show, this account is purely
+mythical. For the south-pointing chariots are recorded to have been
+first devised by the emperor Hian-tsoung (A.D. 806-820); and there is no
+evidence that they contained any magnet. There is no genuine record of a
+Chinese marine compass before A.D. 1297, as Klaproth admits. No
+sea-going ships were built in China before 139 B.C. The earliest
+allusion to the power of the lodestone in Chinese literature occurs in a
+Chinese dictionary, finished in A.D. 121, where the lodestone is defined
+as "a stone with which an attraction can be given to a needle," but this
+knowledge is no more than that existing in Europe at least five hundred
+years before. Nor is there any nautical significance in a passage which
+occurs in the Chinese encyclopaedia, _Poei-wen-yun-fou_, in which it is
+stated that under the Tsin dynasty, or between A.D. 265 and 419, "there
+were ships indicating the south."
+
+The Chinese, Sir J. F. Davis informs us, once navigated as far as India,
+but their most distant voyages at present extend not farther than Java
+and the Malay Islands to the south (_The Chinese_, vol. iii. p. 14,
+London, 1844). According to an Arabic manuscript, a translation of which
+was published by Eusebius Renaudot (Paris, 1718), they traded in ships
+to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in the 9th century. Sir G. L. Staunton,
+in vol. i. of his _Embassy to China_ (London, 1797), after referring to
+the early acquaintance of the Chinese with the property of the magnet to
+point southwards, remarks (p. 445), "The nature and the cause of the
+qualities of the magnet have at all times been subjects of contemplation
+among the Chinese. The Chinese name for the compass is _ting-nan-ching_,
+or needle pointing to the south; and a distinguishing mark is fixed on
+the magnet's southern pole, as in European compasses upon the northern
+one." "The sphere of Chinese navigation," he tells us (p. 447), "is too
+limited to have afforded experience and observation for forming any
+system of laws supposed to govern the variation of the needle.... The
+Chinese had soon occasion to perceive how much more essential the
+perfection of the compass was to the superior navigators of Europe than
+to themselves, as the commanders of the 'Lion' and 'Hindostan,' trusting
+to that instrument, stood out directly from the land into the sea." The
+number of points of the compass, according to the Chinese, is
+twenty-four, which are reckoned from the south pole; the form also of
+the instrument they employ is different from that familiar to Europeans.
+The needle is peculiarly poised, with its point of suspension a little
+below its centre of gravity, and is exceedingly sensitive; it is seldom
+more than an inch in length, and is less than a line in thickness. "It
+may be urged," writes Mr T. S. Davies, "that the different manner of
+constructing the needle amongst the Chinese and European navigators
+shows the independence of the Chinese of us, as theirs is the worse
+method, and had they copied from us, they would have used the better
+one" (Thomson's _British Annual_, 1837, p. 291). On the other hand, it
+has been contended that a knowledge of the mariner's compass was
+communicated by them directly or indirectly to the early Arabs, and
+through the latter was introduced into Europe. Sismondi has remarked
+(_Literature of Europe_, vol. i.) that it is peculiarly characteristic
+of all the pretended discoveries of the middle ages that when the
+historians mention them for the first time they treat them as things in
+general use. Gunpowder, the compass, the Arabic numerals and paper, are
+nowhere spoken of as discoveries, and yet they must have wrought a total
+change in war, in navigation, in science, and in education. G.
+Tiraboschi (_Storia della letteratura italiana_, tom. iv. lib. ii. p.
+204, et seq., ed. 2., 1788), in support of the conjecture that the
+compass was introduced into Europe by the Arabs, adduces their
+superiority in scientific learning and their early skill in navigation.
+He quotes a passage on the polarity of the lodestone from a treatise
+translated by Albertus Magnus, attributed by the latter to Aristotle,
+but apparently only an Arabic compilation from the works of various
+philosophers. As the terms _Zoron_ and _Aphron_, used there to signify
+the south and north poles, are neither Latin nor Greek, Tiraboschi
+suggests that they may be of Arabian origin, and that the whole passage
+concerning the lodestone may have been added to the original treatise by
+the Arabian translators.
+
+Dr W. Robertson asserts (_Historical Disquisition concerning Ancient
+India_, p. 227) that the Arabs, Turks and Persians have no original name
+for the compass, it being called by them _Bossola_, the Italian name,
+which shows that the thing signified is foreign to them as well as the
+word. The Rev. G. P. Badger has, however, pointed out (_Travels of
+Ludovico di Varthema_, trans. J. W. Jones, ed. G. P. Badger, Hakluyt
+Soc, 1863, note, pp. 31 and 32) that the name of Bushla or Busba, from
+the Italian _Bussola_, though common among Arab sailors in the
+Mediterranean, is very seldom used in the Eastern seas,--_Dairah_ and
+_Beit el-Ibrah_ (the Circle, or House of the Needle) being the ordinary
+appellatives in the Red Sea, whilst in the Persian Gulf
+_Kiblah-n[=a]meh_ is in more general use. Robertson quotes Sir J.
+Chardin as boldly asserting "that the Asiatics are beholden to us for
+this wonderful instrument, which they had from Europe a long time before
+the Portuguese conquests. For, first, their compasses are exactly like
+ours, and they buy them of Europeans as much as they can, scarce daring
+to meddle with their needles themselves. Secondly, it is certain that
+the old navigators only coasted it along, which I impute to their want
+of this instrument to guide and instruct them in the middle of the
+ocean.... I have nothing but argument to offer touching this matter,
+having never met with any person in Persia or the Indies to inform me
+when the compass was first known among them, though I made inquiry of
+the most learned men in both countries. I have sailed from the Indies to
+Persia in Indian ships, when no European has been aboard but myself. The
+pilots were all Indians, and they used the forestaff and quadrant for
+their observations. These instruments they have from us, and made by our
+artists, and they do not in the least vary from ours, except that the
+characters are Arabic. The Arabs are the most skilful navigators of all
+the Asiatics or Africans; but neither they nor the Indians make use of
+charts, and they do not much want them; some they have, but they are
+copied from ours, for they are altogether ignorant of perspective." The
+observations of Chardin, who flourished between 1643 and 1713, cannot be
+said to receive support from the testimony of some earlier authorities.
+That the Arabs must have been acquainted with the compass, and with the
+construction and use of charts, at a period nearly two centuries
+previous to Chardin's first voyage to the East, may be gathered from the
+description given by Barros of a map of all the coast of India, shown to
+Vasco da Gama by a Moor of Guzerat (about the 15th of July 1498), in
+which the bearings were laid down "after the manner of the Moors," or
+"with meridians and parallels very small (or close together), without
+other bearings of the compass; because, as the squares of these
+meridians and parallels were very small, the coast was laid down by
+these two bearings of N. and S., and E. and W., with great certainty,
+without that multiplication of bearings of the points of the compass
+usual in our maps, which serves as the root of the others." Further, we
+learn from Osorio that the Arabs at the time of Gama "were instructed in
+so many of the arts of navigation, that they did not yield much to the
+Portuguese mariners in the science and practice of maritime matters."
+(See _The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama_, Hakluyt Soc, 1869; note to
+chap. xv. by the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley, p. 138.) Also the Arabs that
+navigated the Red Sea at the same period are shown by Varthema to have
+used the mariner's chart and compass (_Travels_, p. 31).
+
+Again, it appears that compasses of a primitive description, which can
+hardly be supposed to have been brought from Europe, were employed in
+the East Indies certainly as early as several years previous to the
+close of the 16th century. In William Barlowe's _Navigator's Supply_,
+published in 1597, we read:--"Some fewe yeeres since, it so fell out
+that I had severall conferences with two East Indians which were brought
+into England by master Candish [Thomas Cavendish], and had learned our
+language: The one of them was of Mamillia [Manila] in the Isle of Luzon,
+the other of Miaco in Japan. I questioned with them concerning their
+shipping and manner of sayling. They described all things farre
+different from ours, and shewed, that in steade of our Compas, they use
+a magneticall needle of sixe ynches long, and longer, upon a pinne in a
+dish of white _China_ earth filled with water; In the bottome whereof
+they have two crosse lines, for the foure principall windes; the rest of
+the divisions being reserved to the skill of their Pilots." Bailak
+Kibdjaki, also, an Arabian writer, shows in his _Merchant's Treasure_, a
+work given to the world in 1282, that the magnetized needle, floated on
+water by means of a splinter of wood or a reed, was employed on the
+Syrian seas at the time of his voyage from Tripoli to Alexandria (1242),
+and adds:--"They say that the captains who navigate the Indian seas use,
+instead of the needle and splinter, a sort of fish made out of hollow
+iron, which, when thrown into the water, swims upon the surface, and
+points out the north and south with its head and tail" (Klaproth,
+_Lettre_, p. 57). E. Wiedemann, in _Erlangen Sitzungsberichte_ (1904, p.
+330), translates the phrase given above as splinter of wood, by the term
+wooden cross. Furthermore, although the sailors in the Indian vessels in
+which Niccola de' Conti traversed the Indian seas in 1420 are stated to
+have had no compass, still, on board the ship in which Varthema, less
+than a century later, sailed from Borneo to Java, both the mariner's
+chart and compass were used; it has been questioned, however, whether in
+this case the compass was of Eastern manufacture (_Travels of
+Varthema_, Introd. xciv, and p. 249). We have already seen that the
+Chinese as late as the end of the 18th century made voyages with
+compasses on which but little reliance could be placed; and it may
+perhaps be assumed that the compasses early used in the East were mostly
+too imperfect to be of much assistance to navigators, and were therefore
+often dispensed with on customary routes. The Arab traders in the Levant
+certainly used a floating compass, as did the Italians before the
+introduction of the pivoted needle; the magnetized piece of iron being
+floated upon a small raft of cork or reeds in a bowl of water. The
+Italian name of _calamita_, which still persists, for the magnet, and
+which literally signifies a frog, is doubtless derived from this
+practice.
+
+The simple water-compass is said to have been used by the Coreans so
+late as the middle of the 18th century; and Dr T. Smith, writing in the
+_Philosophical Transactions_ for 1683-1684, says of the Turks (p. 439),
+"They have no genius for Sea-voyages, and consequently are very raw and
+unexperienced in the art of Navigation, scarce venturing to sail out of
+sight of land. I speak of the natural _Turks_, who trade either into the
+_black Sea_ or some part of the _Morea_, or between _Constantinople_ and
+_Alexandria_, and not of the Pyrats of _Barbary_, who are for the most
+part Renegado's, and learnt their skill in Christendom. ... The Turkish
+compass consists but of 8 points, the four Cardinal and the four
+Collateral." That the value of the compass was thus, even in the latter
+part of the 17th century, so imperfectly recognized in the East may
+serve to explain how in earlier times that instrument, long after the
+first discovery of its properties, may have been generally neglected by
+navigators.
+
+The Arabic geographer, Edrisi, who lived about 1100, is said by Boucher
+to give an account, though in a confused manner, of the polarity of the
+magnet (Hallam, _Mid. Ages_, vol. iii. chap. 9, part 2); but the
+earliest definite mention as yet known of the use of the mariner's
+compass in the middle ages occurs in a treatise entitled _De
+utensilibus_, written by Alexander Neckam in the 12th century. He speaks
+there of a needle carried on board ship which, being placed on a pivot,
+and allowed to take its own position of repose, shows mariners their
+course when the polar star is hidden. In another work, _De naturis
+rerum_, lib. ii. c. 89, he writes,--"Mariners at sea, when, through
+cloudy weather in the day which hides the sun, or through the darkness
+of the night, they lose the knowledge of the quarter of the world to
+which they are sailing, touch a needle with the magnet, which will turn
+round till, on its motion ceasing, its point will be directed towards
+the north" (W. Chappell, _Nature_, No. 346, June 15, 1876). The
+magnetical needle, and its suspension on a stick or straw in water, are
+clearly described in _La Bible Guiot_, a poem probably of the 13th
+century, by Guiot de Provins, wherein we are told that through the
+magnet (_la manette_ or _l'amaniere_), an ugly brown stone to which iron
+turns of its own accord, mariners possess an art that cannot fail them.
+A needle touched by it, and floated by a stick on water, turns its point
+towards the pole-star, and a light being placed near the needle on dark
+nights, the proper course is known (_Hist. litteraire de la France_,
+tom. ix. p. 199; Barbazan, _Fabliaux_, tom. ii. p. 328). Cardinal
+Jacques de Vitry, bishop of Acon in Palestine, in his _History_ (cap.
+89), written about the year 1218, speaks of the magnetic needle as "most
+necessary for such as sail the sea";[1] and another French crusader, his
+contemporary, Vincent de Beauvais, states that the adamant (lodestone)
+is found in Arabia, and mentions a method of using a needle magnetized
+by it which is similar to that described by Kibdjaki. In 1248 Hugo de
+Bercy notes a change in the construction of compasses, which are now
+supported on two floats in a glass cup. From quotations given by Antonio
+Capmany (_Questiones Criticas_) from the _De contemplatione_ of Raimon
+Lull, of the date 1272, it appears that the latter was well acquainted
+with the use of the magnet at sea;[2] and before the middle of the 13th
+century Gauthier d'Espinois alludes to its polarity, as if generally
+known, in the lines:--
+
+  "Tous autresi comme l'aimant decoit [detourne]
+   L'aiguillette par force de vertu,
+   A ma dame tor le mont [monde] retenue
+   Qui sa beaute connoit et apercoit."
+
+Guido Guinizzelli, a poet of the same period, writes:--"In those parts
+under the north are the mountains of lodestone, which give the virtue to
+the air of attracting iron; but because it [the lodestone] is far off,
+[it] wishes to have the help of a similar stone to make it [the virtue]
+work, and to direct the needle towards the star."[3] Brunetto Latini
+also makes reference to the compass in his encyclopaedia _Livres dou
+tresor_, composed about 1260 (Livre i. pt. ii. ch. cxx.):--"Por ce
+nagent li marinier a l'enseigne des estoiles qui i sont, que il apelent
+tramontaines, et les gens qui sont en Europe et es parties deca nagent a
+la tramontaine de septentrion, et li autre nagent a cele de midi. Et qui
+n'en set la verite, praigne une pierre d'aimant, et troverez que ele a
+ij faces: l'une qui gist vers l'une tramontaine, et l'autre gist vers
+l'autre. Et a chascune des ij faces la pointe d'une aguille vers cele
+tramontaine a cui cele face gist. Et por ce seroient li marinier deceu
+se il ne se preissent garde" (p. 147, Paris edition, 1863). Dante
+(_Paradiso_, xii. 28-30) mentions the pointing of the magnetic needle
+toward the pole star. In Scandinavian records there is a reference to
+the nautical use of the magnet in the _Hauksbok_, the last edition of
+the _Landnamabok_ (Book of the Colonization of Iceland):--"Floki, son of
+Vilgerd, instituted a great sacrifice, and consecrated three ravens
+which should show him the way (to Iceland); for at that time no men
+sailing the high seas had lodestones up in northern lands."
+
+Haukr Erlendsson, who wrote this paragraph about 1300, died in 1334; his
+edition was founded on material in two earlier works, that of Styrmir
+Karason (who died 1245), which is lost, and that of Hurla Thordson (died
+1284) which has no such paragraph. All that is certain is a knowledge of
+the nautical use of the magnet at the end of the 13th century. From T.
+Torfaeus we learn that the compass, fitted into a box, was already in
+use among the Norwegians about the middle of the 13th century (_Hist.
+rer. Norvegicarum_, iv. c. 4, p. 345, Hafniae, 1711); and it is probable
+that the use of the magnet at sea was known in Scotland at or shortly
+subsequent to that time, though King Robert, in crossing from Arran to
+Carrick in 1306, as Barbour writing in 1375 informs us, "na nedill had
+na stane," but steered by a fire on the shore. Roger Bacon (_Opus majus_
+and _Opus minus_, 1266-1267) was acquainted with the properties of the
+lodestone, and wrote that if set so that it can turn freely (swimming on
+water) it points toward the poles; but he stated that this was not due
+to the pole-star, but to the influence of the northern region of the
+heavens.
+
+The earliest unquestionable description of a pivoted compass is that
+contained in the remarkable _Epistola de magnete_ of Petrus Peregrinus
+de Maricourt, written at Lucera in 1269 to Sigerus de Foncaucourt.
+(First printed edition Augsburg, 1558. See also Bertelli in
+Boncompagni's _Bollettino di bibliografia_, t. i., or S. P. Thompson in
+_Proc. British Academy_, vol. ii.) Of this work twenty-eight MSS. exist;
+seven of them being at Oxford. The first part of the epistle deals
+generally with magnetic attractions and repulsions, with the polarity of
+the stone, and with the supposed influence of the poles of the heavens
+upon the poles of the stone. In the second part Peregrinus describes
+first an improved floating compass with fiducial line, a circle
+graduated with 90 degrees to each quadrant, and provided with movable
+sights for taking bearings. He then describes a new compass with a
+needle thrust through a pivoted axis, placed in a box with transparent
+cover, cross index of brass or silver, divided circle, and an external
+"rule" or alhidade provided with a pair of sights. In the Leiden MS. of
+this work, which for long was erroneously ascribed to one Peter Adsiger,
+is a spurious passage, long believed to mention the variation of the
+compass.
+
+Prior to this clear description of a pivoted compass by Peregrinus in
+1269, the Italian sailors had used the floating magnet, probably
+introduced into this region of the Mediterranean by traders belonging to
+the port of Amalfi, as commemorated in the line of the poet Panormita:--
+
+  "Prima dedit nautis usum magnetis Amalphis."
+
+This opinion is supported by the historian Flavius Blondus in his
+_Italia illustrata_, written about 1450, who adds that its certain
+origin is unknown. In 1511 Baptista Pio in his _Commentary_ repeats the
+opinion as to the invention of the use of the magnet at Amalfi as
+related by Flavius. Gyraldus, writing in 1540 (_Libellus de re
+nautica_), misunderstanding this reference, declared that this
+observation of the direction of the magnet to the poles had been handed
+down as discovered "by a certain Flavius." From this passage arose a
+legend, which took shape only in the 17th century, that the compass was
+invented in the year 1302 by a person to whom was given the fictitious
+name of Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi.
+
+From the above it will have been evident that, as Barlowe remarks
+concerning the compass, "the lame tale of one Flavius at Amelphus, in
+the kingdome of Naples, for to have devised it, is of very slender
+probabilitie"; and as regards the assertion of Dr Gilbert, of Colchester
+(_De magnete_, p. 4, 1600), that Marco Polo introduced the compass into
+Italy from the East in 1260,[4] we need only quote the words of Sir H.
+Yule (_Book of Marco Polo_):--"Respecting the mariner's compass and
+gunpowder, I shall say nothing, as no one now, I believe, imagines Marco
+to have had anything to do with their introduction."
+
+When, and by whom, the compass card was added is a matter of conjecture.
+Certainly the _Rosa Ventorum_, or _Wind-rose_, is far older than the
+compass itself; and the naming of the eight principal "winds" goes back
+to the Temple of the Winds in Athens built by Andronicus Cyrrhestes. The
+earliest known wind-roses on the _portulani_ or sailing charts of the
+Mediterranean pilots have almost invariably the eight principal points
+marked with the initials of the principal winds, Tramontano, Greco,
+Levante, Scirocco, Ostro, Africo (or Libeccio), Ponente and Maestro, or
+with a cross instead of L, to mark the east point. The north point,
+indicated in some of the oldest compass cards with a broad arrow-head or
+a spear, as well as with a T for Tramontano, gradually developed by a
+combination of these, about 1492, into a _fleur de lis_, still
+universal. The cross at the east continued even in British compasses
+till about 1700. Wind-roses with these characteristics are found in
+Venetian and Genoese charts of early 14th century, and are depicted
+similarly by the Spanish navigators. The naming of the intermediate
+subdivisions making up the thirty-two points or rhumbs of the compass
+card is probably due to Flemish navigators; but they were recognized
+even in the time of Chaucer, who in 1391 wrote, "Now is thin Orisonte
+departed in xxiiii partiez by thi azymutz, in significacion of xxiiii
+partiez of the world: al be it so that ship men rikne thilke partiez in
+xxxii" (_Treatise on the Astrolabe_, ed. Skeat, Early English Text Soc.,
+London, 1872). The mounting of the card upon the needle or "flie," so as
+to turn with it, is probably of Amalphian origin. Da Buti, the Dante
+commentator, in 1380 says the sailors use a compass at the middle of
+which is pivoted a wheel of light paper to turn on its pivot, on which
+wheel the needle is fixed and the star (wind-rose) painted. The placing
+of the card at the bottom of the box, fixed, below the needle, was
+practised by the compass-makers of Nuremberg in the 16th century, and by
+Stevinus of Bruges about 1600. The gimbals or rings for suspension
+hinged at right-angles to one another, have been erroneously attributed
+to Cardan, the proper term being _cardine_, that is hinged or pivoted.
+The earliest description of them is about 1604. The term _binnacle_,
+originally _bittacle_, is a corruption of the Portuguese abitacolo, to
+denote the housing enclosing the compass, probably originating with the
+Portuguese navigators.
+
+The improvement of the compass has been but a slow process. _The Libel
+of English Policie_, a poem of the first half of the 15th century, says
+with reference to Iceland (chap. x.)--
+
+  "Out of Bristowe, and costes many one,
+   Men haue practised by nedle and by stone
+   Thider wardes within a litle while."
+
+     Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_, p. 201 (London, 1599).
+
+From this it would seem that the compasses used at that time by English
+mariners were of a very primitive description. Barlowe, in his treatise
+_Magnetical Advertisements_, printed in 1616 (p. 66), complains that
+"the Compasse needle, being the most admirable and usefull instrument of
+the whole world, is both amongst ours and other nations for the most
+part, so bungerly and absurdly contrived, as nothing more." The form he
+recommends for the needle is that of "a true circle, having his Axis
+going out beyond the circle, at each end narrow and narrower, unto a
+reasonable sharpe point, and being pure steele as the circle it selfe
+is, having in the middest a convenient receptacle to place the capitell
+in." In 1750 Dr Gowan Knight found that the needles of merchant-ships
+were made of two pieces of steel bent in the middle and united in the
+shape of a rhombus, and proposed to substitute straight steel bars of
+small breadth, suspended edgewise and hardened throughout. He also
+showed that the Chinese mode of suspending the needle conduces most to
+sensibility. In 1820 Peter Barlow reported to the Admiralty that half
+the compasses in the British Navy were mere lumber and ought to be
+destroyed. He introduced a pattern having four or five parallel straight
+strips of magnetized steel fixed under a card, a form which remained the
+standard admiralty type until the introduction of the modern Thomson
+(Kelvin) compass in 1876.     (F. H. B.; S. P. T.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Adamas in India reperitur ... Ferrum occulta quadam natura ad se
+    trahit. Acus ferrea postquam adamantem contigerit, ad stellam
+    septentrionalem ... semper convertitur, unde valde necessarius est
+    navigantibus in mari.
+
+  [2] Sicut acus per naturam vertitur ad septentrionem dum sit tacta a
+    magnete.--Sicut acus nautica dirigit marinarios in sua navigatione.
+
+  [3] Ginguene, _Hist. lit. de l'Italie_, t. i. p. 413.
+
+  [4] "According to all the texts he returned to Venice in 1295 or, as
+    is more probable, in 1296."--Yule.
+
+
+
+
+COMPASS PLANT, a native of the North American prairies, which takes its
+name from the position assumed by the leaves. These turn their edges to
+north and south, thus avoiding the excessive mid-day heat, while getting
+the full benefit of the morning and evening rays. The plant is known
+botanically as _Silphium laciniatum_, and belongs to the natural order
+Compositae. Another member of the same order, _Lactuca Scariola_, which
+has been regarded as the origin of the cultivated lettuce (_L. sativa_),
+behaves in the same way when growing in dry exposed places; it is a
+native of Europe and northern Asia which has got introduced into North
+America.
+
+
+
+
+COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL (1843-   ), French educationalist, was born at
+Albi. He entered the Ecole Normale Superieure in 1862 and became
+professor of philosophy. In 1876 he was appointed professor in the
+Faculty of Letters of Toulouse, and upon the creation of the Ecole
+normale d'institutrices at Fontenay aux Roses he became teacher of
+pedagogy (1880). From 1881 to 1889 he was deputy for Lavaur in the
+chamber, and took an active part in the discussions on public education.
+Defeated at the elections of 1889, he was appointed rector of the
+academy of Poitiers in 1890, and five years later to the academy of
+Lyons. His principal publications are his _Histoire critique des
+doctrines de l'education en France_ (1879); _Elements d'education
+civique_ (1881), a work placed on the index at Rome, but very widely
+read in the primary schools of France; _Cours de pedagogie theorique et
+pratique_ (1885, 13th ed., 1897); _The Intellectual and Moral
+Development of the Child_, in English (2 vols., New York, 1896-1902);
+and a series of monographs on _Les Grands Educateurs_.
+
+
+
+
+COMPENSATION (from Lat. _compensare_, to weigh one thing against
+another), a term applied in English law to a number of different forms
+of legal reparation; e.g. under the Forfeiture Act 1870 (s. 4), for loss
+of property caused by felony, or--under the Riot (Damages) Act 1886--to
+persons whose property has been stolen, destroyed or injured by rioters
+(see RIOT). It is due, under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1906,
+for agricultural improvements (see LANDLORD AND TENANT; cf. also
+Allotments and Small Holdings), and under the Workmen's Compensation Act
+1906 to workmen, in respect of accidents in the course of their
+employment (see EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY); and under the Licensing Act 1904,
+to the payments to be made on the extinction of licences to sell
+intoxicants. The term "Compensation water" is used to describe the
+water given from a reservoir in compensation for water abstracted from a
+stream, under statutory powers, in connexion with public works (see
+WATER SUPPLY). As to the use of the word "compensation" in horology, see
+CLOCK; WATCH.
+
+Compensation, in its most familiar sense, is however a _nomen juris_ for
+the reparation or satisfaction made to the owners of property which is
+taken by the state or by local authorities or by the promoters of
+parliamentary undertakings, under statutory authority, for public
+purposes. There are two main legal theories on which such appropriation
+of private property is justified. The American may be taken as a
+representative illustration of the one, and the English of the other.
+Though not included in the definition of "eminent domain," the necessity
+for compensation is recognized as incidental to that power. (See Eminent
+Domain, under which the American law of compensation, and the closely
+allied doctrine of _expropriation pour cause d'utilite_ publique of
+French law, and the law of other continental countries, are discussed.)
+The rule of English constitutional law, on the other hand, is that the
+property of the citizen cannot be seized for purposes which are really
+"public" without a fair pecuniary equivalent being given to him; and, as
+the money for such compensation must come from parliament, the practical
+result is that the seizure can only be effected under legislative
+authority. An action for illegal interference with the property of the
+subject is not maintainable against officials of the crown or government
+sued in their official capacity or as an official body. But crown
+officials may be sued in their individual capacity for such
+interference, even if they acted with the authority of the government
+(cp. _Raleigh_ v. _Goschen_ [1898], 1 Ch. 73).
+
+_Law of England._--Down to 1845 every act authorizing the purchase of
+lands had, in addition to a number of common form clauses, a variety of
+special clauses framed with a view to meeting the particular
+circumstances with which it dealt. In 1845, however, a statute based on
+the recommendations of a select committee, appointed in the preceding
+year, was passed; the object being to diminish the bulk of the special
+acts, and to introduce uniformity into private bill legislation by
+classifying the common form clauses, embodying them in general statutes,
+and facilitating their incorporation into the special statutes by
+reference. The statute by which this change was initiated was the Lands
+Clauses Consolidation Act 1845; and the policy has been continued by a
+series of later statutes which, together with the act of 1845, are now
+grouped under the generic title of the Lands Clauses Acts.
+
+The public purposes for which lands are taken are threefold. Certain
+public departments, such as the war office and the admiralty, may
+acquire lands for national purposes (see the Defence Acts 1842 to 1873;
+and the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1860, s. 7). Local authorities
+are enabled to exercise similar powers for an enormous variety of
+municipal purposes, e.g. the housing of the working classes, the
+improvement of towns, and elementary and secondary education. Lastly,
+the promoters of public undertakings of a commercial character, such as
+railways and harbours, carry on their operations under statutes in which
+the provisions of the Lands Clauses Acts are incorporated.
+
+Lands may be taken under the Lands Clauses Acts either by agreement or
+compulsorily. The first step in the proceedings is a "notice to treat,"
+or intimation by the promoters of their readiness to purchase the land,
+coupled with a demand for particulars as to the estate and the interests
+in it. The landowner on whom the notice is served may meet it by
+agreeing to sell, and the terms may then be settled by consent of the
+parties themselves, or by arbitration, if they decide to have recourse
+to that mode of adjusting the difficulty. If the property claimed is a
+house, or other building or manufactory, the owner has a statutory right
+to require the promoters by a counternotice to take the whole, even
+although a part would serve their purpose. This rule, however, is, in
+modern acts, often modified by special clauses. On receipt of the
+counter-notice the promoters must either assent to the requirement
+contained in it, or abandon their notice to treat. On the other hand,
+if the landowner fails within twenty-one days after receipt of the
+notice to treat to give the particulars which it requires, the promoters
+may proceed to exercise their compulsory powers and to obtain assessment
+of the compensation to be paid. As a general rule, it is a condition
+precedent to the exercise of these powers by a company that the capital
+of the undertaking should be fully subscribed. Compensation, under the
+Lands Clauses Acts, is assessed in four different modes:--(1) by
+justices, where the claim does not exceed L50, or a claimant who has no
+greater interest than that of a tenant for a year, or from year to year,
+is required to give up possession before the expiration of his tenancy;
+(2) by arbitration (a) when the claim exceeds L50, and the claimant
+desires arbitration, and the interest is not a yearly tenancy, (b) when
+the amount has been ascertained by a surveyor, and the claimant is
+dissatisfied, (c) when superfluous lands are to be sold, and the parties
+entitled to pre-emption and the promoters cannot agree as to the price.
+(Lands become "superfluous" if taken compulsorily on an erroneous
+estimate of the area needed, or if part only was needed and the owner
+compelled the promoters under the power above mentioned to take the
+whole, or in cases of abandonment); (3) by a jury, when the claim
+exceeds L50, and (a) the claimant does not signify his desire for
+arbitration, or no award has been made within the prescribed time, or
+(b) the claimant applies in writing for trial by jury; (4) by surveyors,
+nominated by justices, where the owner is under disability, or does not
+appear at the appointed time, or the claim is in respect of commonable
+rights, and a committee has not been appointed to treat with the
+promoters.
+
+Promoters are not allowed without the consent of the owner to enter upon
+lands which are the subject of proceedings under the Lands Clauses Acts,
+except for the purpose of making a survey, unless they have executed a
+statutory bond and made a deposit, at the Law Courts Branch of the Bank
+of England, as security for the performance of the conditions of the
+bond.
+
+_Measure of Value._--(1) Where land is taken, the basis on which
+compensation is assessed is the commercial value of the land to the
+owner at the date of the notice to treat. Potential value may be taken
+into account, and also good-will of the property in a business. This
+rule, however, excludes any consideration of the principle of
+"betterment." (2) Where land, although not taken, is "injuriously
+affected" by the works of the promoters, compensation is payable for
+loss or damage resulting from any act, legalized by the promoters'
+statutory powers, which would otherwise have been actionable, or caused
+by the execution (not the use) of the works authorized by the
+undertaking.
+
+The following examples of how land may be "injuriously affected," so as
+to give a right to compensation under the acts, may be given:--narrowing
+or obstructing a highway which is the nearest access to the lands in
+question; interference with a right of way; substantial interference
+with ancient lights; noise of children outside a board school.
+
+_Scotland and Ireland._--The Lands Clauses Act 1845 extends to Ireland.
+There is a Scots enactment similar in character (Lands Clauses
+[Scotland] Act 1845). The principles and practice of the law of
+compensation are substantially the same throughout the United Kingdom.
+
+_India and the British Colonies._--Legislation analogous to the Lands
+Clauses Acts is in force in India (Land Acquisition Act 1894 [Act I of
+1894]) and in most of the colonies (see western Australia, Lands
+Resumption Act 1894 [58 Vict. No. 33], Victoria, Lands Compensation Act
+1890 [54 Vict. No. 1109]; New Zealand, Public Works Act 1894 [58 Vict.
+No. 42]; Ontario [Revised Stats. 1897, c. 37]).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_English Law_: Balfour Browne and Allan, _Compensation_
+  (2nd ed., London, 1903); Cripps, _Compensation_ (5th edition, London,
+  1905); Hudson, _Compensation_ (London, 1906); Boyle and Waghorn,
+  _Compensation_ (London, 1903); Lloyd, _Compensation_ (6th ed. by
+  Brooks, London, 1895); Clifford, _Private Bill Legislation_, London,
+  1885 (vol. i.), 1887 (vol. ii.) _Scots Law_: Deas, _Law of Railways in
+  Scotland_ (ed. by Ferguson; Edinburgh, 1897); Rankine, _Law of
+  Landownership_ (3rd ed., 1891).     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+COMPIEGNE, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Oise, 52 m. N.N.E. of Paris on the Northern railway
+between Paris and St Quentin. Pop. (1906) 14,052. The town, which is a
+favourite summer resort, stands on the north-west border of the forest
+of Compiegne and on the left bank of the Oise, less than 1 m. below its
+confluence with the Aisne. The river is crossed by a bridge built in the
+reign of Louis XV. The Rue Solferino, a continuation of the bridge
+ending at the Place de l'Hotel de Ville, is the busy street of the town;
+elsewhere, except on market days, the streets are quiet. The hotel de
+ville, with a graceful facade surmounted by a lofty belfry, is in the
+late Gothic style of the early 16th century and was completed in modern
+times. Of the churches, St Antoine (13th and 16th centuries) with some
+fine Renaissance stained glass, and St Jacques (13th and 15th
+centuries), need alone be mentioned. The remains of the ancient abbey of
+St Corneille are used as a military storehouse. Compiegne, from a very
+early period until 1870, was the occasional residence of the French
+kings. Its palace, one of the most magnificent structures of its kind,
+was erected, chiefly by Louis XV. and Louis XVI., on the site of a
+chateau of King Charles V. of France. It now serves as an art museum. It
+has two facades, one overlooking the Place du Palais and the town, the
+other, more imposing, facing towards a fine park and the forest, which
+is chiefly of oak and beech and covers over 36,000 acres. Compiegne is
+the seat of a subprefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, a communal college, library and hospital. The industries
+comprise boat-building, rope-making, steam-sawing, distilling and the
+manufacture of chocolate, machinery and sacks and coarse coverings, and
+at Margny, a suburb, there are manufactures of chemicals and felt hats.
+Asparagus is cultivated in the environs. There is considerable trade in
+timber and coal, chiefly river-borne.
+
+Compiegne, or as it is called in the Latin chronicles, Compendium, seems
+originally to have been a hunting-lodge of the early Frankish kings. It
+was enriched by Charles the Bald with two castles, and a Benedictine
+abbey dedicated to Saint Corneille, the monks of which retained down to
+the 18th century the privilege of acting for three days as lords of
+Compiegne, with full power to release prisoners, condemn the guilty, and
+even inflict sentence of death. It was in Compiegne that King Louis I.
+the Debonair was deposed in 833; and at the siege of the town in 1430
+Joan of Arc was taken prisoner by the English. A monument to her faces
+the hotel de ville. In 1624 the town gave its name to a treaty of
+alliance concluded by Richelieu with the Dutch; and it was in the palace
+that Louis XV. gave welcome to Marie Antoinette, that Napoleon I.
+received Marie Louise of Austria, that Louis XVIII. entertained the
+emperor Alexander of Russia, and that Leopold I., king of the Belgians,
+was married to the princess Louise. In 1814 Compiegne offered a stubborn
+resistance to the Prussian troops. Under Napoleon III. it was the annual
+resort of the court during the hunting season. From 1870 to 1871 it was
+one of the headquarters of the German army.
+
+
+
+
+COMPLEMENT (Lat. _complementum_, from _complere_, to fill up), that
+which fills up or completes anything, e.g. the number of men necessary
+to man a ship. In geometry, the complement of an angle is the difference
+between the angle and a right angle; the complements of a parallelogram
+are formed by drawing parallel to adjacent sides of a parallelogram two
+lines intersecting on a diagonal; four parallelograms are thus formed,
+and the two not about the diagonal of the original parallelogram are the
+complements of the parallelogram. In analysis, a complementary function
+is a partial solution to a differential equation (q.v.); complementary
+operators are reciprocal or inverse operators, i.e. two operations A and
+B are complementary when both operating on the same figure or function
+leave it unchanged. A "complementary colour" is one which produces white
+when mixed with another (see COLOUR). In Spanish the word _cumplimento_
+was used in a particular sense of the fulfilment of the duties of polite
+behaviour and courtesy, and it came through the French and Italian forms
+into use in English, with a change in spelling to "compliment," with the
+sense of an act of politeness, especially of a polite expression of
+praise, or of social regard and greetings. The word "comply," meaning
+to act in accordance with wishes, orders or conditions, is also derived
+from the same origin, but in sense is connected with "ply" or "pliant,"
+from Lat. _plicare_, to bend, with the idea of subserviently yielding to
+the wishes of another.
+
+
+
+
+COMPLUVIUM (from Lat. _compluere_, to flow together, i.e. in reference
+to the rain being collected and falling through), in architecture, the
+Latin term for the open space left in the roof of the atrium of a Roman
+house for lighting it and the rooms round (see CAVAEDIUM).
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITAE, the name given to the largest natural order of flowering
+plants, containing about one-tenth of the whole number and characterized
+by the crowding of the flowers into heads. The order is cosmopolitan,
+and the plants show considerable variety in habit. The great majority,
+including most British representatives, are herbaceous, but in the
+warmer parts of the world shrubs and arborescent forms also occur; the
+latter are characteristic of the flora of oceanic islands. In herbaceous
+plants the leaves are often arranged in a rosette on a much shortened
+stem, as in dandelion, daisy and others; when the stem is elongated the
+leaves are generally alternate. The root is generally thickened,
+sometimes, as in dahlia, tuberous; root and stem contain oil passages,
+or, as in lettuce and dandelion, a milky white latex. The flowers are
+crowded in heads (_capitula_) which are surrounded by an involucre of
+green bracts,--these protect the head of flowers in the bud stage,
+performing the usual function of a calyx. The enlarged top of the axis,
+the receptacle, is flat, convex or conical, and the flowers open in
+centripetal succession. In many cases, as in the sunflower or daisy, the
+outer or ray-florets are larger and more conspicuous than the inner, or
+disk-florets; in other cases, as in dandelion, the florets are all
+alike. Ray-florets when present are usually pistillate, but neuter in
+some genera (as _Centaurea_); the disk-florets are hermaphrodite. The
+flower is epigynous; the calyx is sometimes absent, or is represented by
+a rim on the top of the ovary, or takes the form of hairs or bristles
+which enlarge in the fruiting stage to form the pappus by means of which
+the seed is dispersed. The corolla, of five united petals, is regular
+and tubular in shape as in the disk-florets, or irregular when it is
+either strap-shaped (ligulate), as in the ray-florets of daisy, &c., or
+all the florets of dandelion, or more rarely two-lipped. The five
+stamens are attached to the interior of the corolla-tube; the filaments
+are free; the anthers are joined (syngenesious) to form a tube round the
+single style, which ends in a pair of stigmas. The inferior ovary
+contains one ovule (attached to the base of the chamber), and ripens to
+form a dry one-seeded fruit; the seed is filled with the straight
+embryo.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.
+
+  1. Flower head of Marigold.      3. Head of fruits, nat. size.
+  2. Same in vertical section.     4. A single fruit.]
+
+The flower-heads are an admirable example of an adaptation for
+pollination by aid of insects. The crowding of the flowers in heads
+ensures the pollination of a large number as the result of a single
+insect visit. Honey is secreted at the base of the style, and is
+protected from rain or dew and the visits of short-lipped insects by the
+corolla-tube, the length of which is correlated with the length of
+proboscis of the visiting insect. When the flower opens, the two stigmas
+are pressed together below the tube formed by the anthers, the latter
+split on the inside, and the pollen fills the tube; the style gradually
+lengthens and carries the pollen out of the anther tube, and finally the
+stigmas spread and expose their receptive surface which has hitherto
+been hidden, the two being pressed together. Thus the life history of
+the flower falls into two stages, an earlier or male and a later or
+female. This favours cross-pollination as compared with
+self-pollination. In many cases there is a third stage, as in dandelion,
+where the stigmas finally curl back so that they touch any pollen grains
+which have been left on the style, thus ensuring self-pollination if
+cross-pollination has not been effected.
+
+The devices for distribution of the fruit are very varied. Frequently
+there is a hairy or silky pappus forming a tuft of hairs, as in thistle
+or coltsfoot, or a parachute-like structure as in dandelion; these
+render the fruit sufficiently light to be carried by the wind. In
+_Bidens_ the pappus consists of two or more stiff-barbed bristles which
+cause the fruit to cling to the coats of animals. Occasionally, as in
+sunflower or daisy, the fruits bear no special appendage and remain on
+the head until jerked off.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Flowering shoot of Cornflower. 1. Disk-floret in
+vertical section.]
+
+Compositae are generally considered to represent the most highly
+developed order of flowering plants. By the massing of the flowers in
+heads great economy is effected in the material required for one flower,
+as conspicuousness is ensured by the association; economy of time on the
+part of the pollinating insect is also effected, as a large number of
+flowers are visited at one time. The floral mechanism is both simple and
+effective, favouring cross-pollination, but ensuring self-pollination
+should that fail. The means of seed-distribution are also very
+effective.
+
+A few members of the order are of economic value, e.g. _Lactuca_
+(lettuce; q.v.), _Cichorium_ (chicory; q.v.), _Cynara_ (artichoke and
+cardoon; q.v.), _Helianthus_ (Jerusalem artichoke). Many are cultivated
+as garden or greenhouse plants, such as _Solidago_ (golden rod),
+_Ageratum_, Aster (q.v.) (Michaelmas daisy), _Helichrysum_
+(everlasting), _Zinnia, Rudbeckia, Helianthus_ (sunflower), _Coreopsis_,
+Dahlia (q.v.), _Tagetes_ (French and African marigold), _Gaillardia,
+Achillea_ (yarrow), _Chrysanthemum, Pyrethrum_ (feverfew; now generally
+included under _Chrysanthemum_), _Tanacetum_ (tansy), _Arnica,
+Doronicum, Cineraria Calendula_ (common marigold) (fig. 1), _Echinops_
+(globe thistle), _Centaurea_ (cornflower) (fig. 2). Some are of
+medicinal value, such as _Anthemis_ (chamomile), _Artemisia_ (wormwood),
+_Tussilago_ (coltsfoot), _Arnica_. Insect powder is prepared from
+species of _Pyrethrum_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_).
+
+  1. Disk-floret.               3. Ray-floret.
+  2. Same cut vertically.       4. Fruit with pappus.]
+
+The order is divided into two suborders:--_Tubuliflorae_, characterized
+by absence of latex, and the florets of the disk being not ligulate, and
+_Liguliflorae_, characterized by presence of latex and all the florets
+being ligulate. The first suborder contains the majority of the genera,
+and is divided into a number of tribes, characterized by the form of the
+anthers and styles, the presence or absence of scales on the receptacle,
+and the similarity or otherwise of the florets of one and the same head.
+The order is well represented in Britain, in which forty-two genera are
+native. These include some of the commonest weeds, such as dandelion
+(_Taraxacum Dens-leonis_), daisy (_Bellis perennis_), groundsel (fig. 3)
+(_Senecio vulgaris_) and ragwort (_S. Jacobaea_); coltsfoot (_Tussilago
+Farfara_) is one of the earliest plants to flower, and other genera are
+_Chrysanthemum_ (ox-eye daisy and corn-marigold), _Arctium_ (burdock),
+_Centaurea_ (knapweed and cornflower), _Carduus_ and _Cnicus_
+(thistles), _Hieracium_ (hawkweed), _Sonchus_ (sow-thistle), _Achillea_
+(yarrow, or milfoil, and sneezewort), _Eupatorium_ (hemp-agrimony),
+_Gnaphalium_ (cudweed), _Erigeron_ (fleabane), _Solidago_ (golden-rod),
+_Anthemis_ (may-weed and chamomile), _Cichorium_ (chicory), _Lapsana_
+(nipplewort), _Crepis_ (hawk's-beard), _Hypochaeris_ (cat's-ear), and
+_Tragopogon_ (goat's-beard).
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITE ORDER, in architecture, a compound of the Ionic and Corinthian
+orders (see ORDER), the chief characteristic of which is found in the
+capital (q.v.), where a double row of acanthus leaves, similar to those
+carved round the Corinthian capital, has been added under the Ionic
+volutes. The richer decoration of the Ionic capital had already been
+employed in those of the Erechtheum, where the necking was carved with
+the palmette or honeysuckle. Similar decorated Ionic capitals were found
+in the forum of Trajan. The earliest example of the Composite capital is
+found in the arch of Titus at Rome. The entablature was borrowed from
+that of the Corinthian order.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITION (Lat. _compositio_, from _componere_, to put together), the
+action of putting together and combining, and the product of such
+action. There are many applications of the word. In philology it is used
+of the putting together of two distinct words to form a single word; and
+in grammar, of the combination of words into sentences, and sentences
+into periods, and then applied to the result of such combination, and to
+the art of producing a work in prose or verse, or to the work itself. In
+music "composition" is used both of the art of combining musical sounds
+in accordance with the rules of musical form, and, more generally, of
+the whole art of creation or invention. The name "composer" is thus
+particularly applied to the musical creator in general. In the other
+fine arts the word is more strictly used of the balanced arrangement of
+the parts of a picture, of a piece of sculpture or a building, so that
+they should form one harmonious whole. The word also means an agreement
+or an adjustment of differences between two or more parties, and is thus
+the best general term to describe the agreement, often called by the
+equivalent German word "Ausgleich," between Austria and Hungary in 1867.
+A more particular use is the legal one, for an agreement by which a
+creditor agrees to take from his debtor a sum less than his debt in
+satisfaction of the whole (see BANKRUPTCY). In logic "composition" is
+the name given to a fallacy of equivocation, where what is true
+distributively of each member of a class is inferred to be true of the
+whole class collectively. The fallacy of "division" is the converse of
+this, where what is true of a term used collectively is inferred to be
+true of its several parts. A common source of these errors in reasoning
+is the confusion between the collective and distributive meanings of the
+word "all." Composition, often shortened to "compo," is the name given
+to many materials compounded of more than one substance, and is used in
+various trades and manufactures, as in building, for a mixture, such as
+stucco, cement and plaster, for covering walls, &c., often made to
+represent stone or marble; a similar moulded compound is employed to
+represent carved wood.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOUND (from Lat. _componere_, to combine or put together), a
+combination of various elements, substances or ingredients, so as to
+form one composite whole. A "chemical compound" is a substance which can
+be resolved into simple constituents, as opposed to an element which
+cannot be so resolved (see CHEMISTRY); a word is said to be a "compound"
+when it is made up of different words or parts of different words. The
+term is also used in an adjectival form with many applications; a
+"compound engine" is one where the expansion of the steam is effected in
+two or more stages (see STEAM-ENGINE); in zoology, the "compound eye"
+possessed by insects and crustacea is one which is made up of several
+_ocelli_ or simple eyes, set together so that the whole has the
+appearance of being faceted (see EYE); in botany, the "compound leaf"
+has two or more separate blades on a common leaf-stalk; in surgery, in a
+"compound fracture" the skin is broken as well as the bone, and there is
+a communication between the two. There are many mathematical and
+arithmetical uses of the term, particularly of those forms of addition,
+multiplication, division and subtraction which deal with quantities of
+more than one denomination. Compound interest is interest paid upon
+interest, the accumulation of interest forming, as it were, a secondary
+principal. The verb "to compound" is used of the arrangement or
+settlement of differences, and especially of an agreement made to accept
+or to pay part of a debt in full discharge of the whole, and thus of the
+arrangement made by an insolvent debtor with his creditors (see
+BANKRUPTCY); similarly of the substitution of one payment for annual or
+other periodic payments,--thus subscriptions, university or other dues,
+&c., may be "compounded"; a particular instance of this is the system of
+"compounding" for rates, where the occupier of premises pays an
+increased rent, and the owner makes himself responsible for the payment
+of the rates. The householder who thus compounds with the owner of the
+premises he occupies is known as a "compound householder." The payment
+of poor rate forming part of the qualification necessary for the
+parliamentary franchise in the United Kingdom, various statutes, leading
+up to the Compound Householders Act 1851, have enabled such occupiers to
+claim to be placed on the rate. In law, to compound a felony is to agree
+with the felon not to prosecute him for his crime, in return for
+valuable consideration, or, in the case of a theft, on return of the
+goods stolen. Such an agreement is a misdemeanour and is punishable with
+fine and imprisonment.
+
+The name "compounders" was given during the reign of William III. of
+England to the members of a Jacobite faction, who were prepared to
+restore James II. to the throne, on the condition of an amnesty and an
+undertaking to preserve the constitution. Until 1853, in the university
+of Oxford, those possessing private incomes of a certain amount paid
+special dues for their degrees, and were known as Grand and Petty
+Compounders.
+
+The corruption "compound" (from the Malay _kampung_ or _kampong_, a
+quarter of a village) is the name applied to the enclosed ground,
+whether garden or waste, which surrounds an Anglo-Indian house. In India
+the European quarter, as a rule, is separate from the native quarter,
+and consists of a number of single houses, each standing in a compound,
+sometimes many acres in extent.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOUND PIER, the architectural term given to a clustered column or
+pier which consists of a centre mass or newel, to which engaged or
+semi-detached shafts have been attached, in order to perform, or to
+suggest the performance of, certain definite structural objects, such as
+to carry arches of additional orders, or to support the transverse or
+diagonal ribs of a vault, or the tie beam of an important roof. In these
+cases, though performing different functions, the drums of the pier are
+often cut out of one stone. There are, however, cases where the shafts
+are detached from the pier and coupled to it by armulets at regular
+heights, as in the Early English period.
+
+
+
+
+COMPRADOR (a Portuguese word used in the East, derived from the Lat.
+_comparare_, to procure), originally a native servant in European
+households in the East, but now the name given to the native managers in
+European business houses in China, and also to native contractors
+supplying ships in the Philippines and elsewhere in the East.
+
+
+
+
+COMPRESSION, in astronomy, the deviation of a heavenly body from the
+spherical form, called also the "ellipticity." It is numerically
+expressed by the ratio of the differences of the axes to the major axis
+of the spheroid. The compression or "flattening" of the earth is about
+1/298, which means that the ratio of the equatorial to the polar axis is
+298:297 (see Earth, Figure of the). In engineering the term is applied
+to the arrangement by which the exhaust valve of a steam-engine is made
+to close, shutting a portion of the exhaust steam in the cylinder,
+before the stroke of the piston is quite complete. This steam being
+compressed as the stroke is completed, a cushion is formed against which
+the piston does work while its velocity is being rapidly reduced, and
+thus the stresses in the mechanism due to the inertia of the
+reciprocating parts are lessened. This compression, moreover, obviates
+the shock which would otherwise be caused by the admission of the fresh
+steam for the return stroke. In internal combustion engines it is a
+necessary condition of economy to compress the explosive mixture before
+it is ignited: in the Otto cycle, for instance, the second stroke of the
+piston effects the compression of the charge which has been drawn into
+the cylinder by the first forward stroke.
+
+
+
+
+COMPROMISE (pronounced _compr[)o]mize_; through Fr. from Lat.
+_compromittere_), a term, meaning strictly a joint agreement, which has
+come to signify such a settlement as involves a mutual adjustment, with
+a surrender of part of each party's claim. From the element of danger
+involved has arisen an invidious sense of the word, imputing discredit,
+so that being "compromised" commonly means injured in reputation.
+
+
+
+
+COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850, in American history, a series of measures
+the object of which was the settlement of five questions in dispute
+between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the United States.
+Three of these questions grew out of the annexation of Texas and the
+acquisition of western territory as a result of the Mexican War. The
+settlers who had flocked to California after the discovery of gold in
+1848 adopted an anti-slavery state constitution on the 13th of October
+1849, and applied for admission into the Union. In the second place it
+was necessary to form a territorial government for the remainder of the
+territory acquired from Mexico, including that now occupied by Nevada
+and Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. The
+fundamental issue was in regard to the admission of slavery into, or the
+exclusion of slavery from, this region. Thirdly, there was a dispute
+over the western boundary of Texas. Should the Rio Grande be the line of
+division north of Mexico, or should an arbitrary boundary be established
+farther to the eastward; in other words, should a considerable part of
+the new territory be certainly opened to slavery as a part of Texas, or
+possibly closed to it as a part of the organized territorial section?
+Underlying all of these issues was of course the great moral and
+political problem as to whether slavery was to be confined to the
+south-eastern section of the country or be permitted to spread to the
+Pacific. The two questions not growing out of the Mexican War were in
+regard to the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia,
+and the passage of a new fugitive slave law.
+
+Congress met on the 3rd of December 1849. Neither faction was strong
+enough in both houses to carry out its own programme, and it seemed for
+a time that nothing would be done. On the 29th of January 1850 Henry
+Clay presented the famous resolution which constituted the basis of the
+ultimate compromise. His idea was to combine the more conservative
+elements of both sections in favour of a settlement which would concede
+the Southern view on two questions, the Northern view on two, and
+balance the fifth. Daniel Webster supported the plan in his great speech
+of the 7th of March, although in doing so he alienated many of his
+former admirers. Opposed to the conservatives were the extremists of the
+North, led by William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase, and those of the
+South, led by Jefferson Davis. Most of the measures were rejected and
+the whole plan seemed likely to fail, when the situation was changed by
+the death of President Taylor and the accession of Millard Fillmore on
+the 9th of July 1850. The influence of the administration was now thrown
+in favour of the compromise. Under a tacit understanding of the
+moderates to vote together, five separate bills were passed, and were
+signed by the president between 9th and 20th September 1850. California
+was admitted as a free state, and the slave trade was abolished in the
+District of Columbia; these were concessions to the North. New Mexico
+(then including the present Arizona) and Utah were organized without any
+prohibition of slavery (each being left free to decide for or against,
+on admission to statehood), and a rigid fugitive slave law was enacted;
+these were concessions to the South. Texas (q.v.) was compelled to give
+up much of the western land to which it had a good claim, and received
+in return $10,000,000.
+
+This legislation had several important results. It helped to postpone
+secession and Civil War for a decade, during which time the North-West
+was growing more wealthy and more populous, and was being brought into
+closer relations with the North-East. It divided the Whigs into "Cotton
+Whigs" and "Conscience Whigs," and in time led to the downfall of the
+party. In the third place, the rejection of the Wilmot Proviso and the
+acceptance (as regards New Mexico and Utah) of "Squatter Sovereignty"
+meant the adoption of a new principle in dealing with slavery in the
+territories, which, although it did not apply to the same territory, was
+antagonistic to the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The sequel was the
+repeal of the Missouri Compromise in the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854.
+Fourthly, the enforcement of the fugitive slave law aroused a feeling of
+bitterness in the North which helped eventually to bring on the war, and
+helped to make it, when it came, quite as much an anti-slavery crusade
+as a struggle for the preservation of the Union. Finally, although Clay
+for his support of the compromises and Seward and Chase for their
+opposition have gained in reputation, Webster has been selected as the
+special target for hostile criticism. The Compromise Measures are
+sometimes spoken of collectively as the Omnibus Bill, owing to their
+having been grouped originally--when first reported (May 8) to the
+Senate--into one bill.
+
+  The best account of the above Compromises is to be found in J. F.
+  Rhodes, _History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850_,
+  vol. i. (New York, 1896).     (W. R. S.*)
+
+
+
+
+COMPSA (mod. _Conza_), an ancient city of the Hirpini, near the sources
+of the Aufidus, on the boundary of Lucania and not far from that of
+Apulia, on a ridge 1998 ft. above sea-level. It was betrayed to Hannibal
+in 216 B.C. after the defeat of Cannae, but recaptured two years later.
+It was probably occupied by Sulla in 89 B.C., and was the scene of the
+death of T. Annius Milo in 48 B.C. Most authorities (cf. Hulsen in
+Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, Stuttgart, 1901, iv. 797) refer Caes.
+_Bell. civ._ iii. 22, and Plin. _Hist. Nat._ ii. 147, to this place,
+supposing the MSS. to be corrupt. The usual identification of the site
+of Milo's death with Cassano on the Gulf of Taranto must therefore be
+rejected. In imperial times, as inscriptions show, it was a
+_municipium_, but it lay far from any of the main high-roads. There are
+no important ancient remains.
+
+
+
+
+COMPTON, HENRY (1632-1713), English divine, was the sixth and youngest
+son of the second earl of Northampton. He was educated at Queen's
+College, Oxford, and then travelled in Europe. After the restoration of
+Charles II. he became cornet in a regiment of horse, but soon quitted
+the army for the church. After a further period of study at Cambridge
+and again at Oxford, he held various livings. He was made bishop of
+Oxford in 1674, and in the following year was translated to the see of
+London. He was also appointed a member of the Privy Council, and
+entrusted with the education of the two princesses--Mary and Anne. He
+showed a liberality most unusual at the time to Protestant dissenters,
+whom he wished to reunite with the established church. He held several
+conferences on the subject with the clergy of his diocese; and in the
+hope of influencing candid minds by means of the opinions of unbiassed
+foreigners, he obtained letters treating of the question (since printed
+at the end of Stillingfleet's _Unreasonableness of Separation_) from Le
+Moyne; professor of divinity at Leiden, and the famous French Protestant
+divine, Jean Claude. But to Roman Catholicism he was strongly opposed.
+On the accession of James II. he consequently lost his seat in the
+council and his deanery in the Chapel Royal; and for his firmness in
+refusing to suspend John Sharp, rector of St Giles's-in-the-Fields,
+whose anti-papal writings had rendered him obnoxious to the king, he was
+himself suspended. At the Revolution Compton embraced the cause of
+William and Mary; he performed the ceremony of their coronation; his old
+position was restored to him; and among other appointments, he was
+chosen as one of the commissioners for revising the liturgy. During the
+reign of Anne he remained a member of the privy council, and was one of
+the commissioners appointed to arrange the terms of the union of England
+and Scotland; but, to his bitter disappointment, his claims to the
+primacy were twice passed over. He died at Fulham on the 7th of July
+1713. He had conspicuous defects both in spirit and intellect, but was
+benevolent and philanthropic. He was a successful botanist. He
+published, besides several theological works, _A Translation from the
+Italian of the Life of Donna Olympia Maladichini, who governed the
+Church during the time of Pope Innocent X., which was from the year 1644
+to 1655_ (1667), and _A Translation from the French of the Jesuits'
+Intrigues_ (1669).
+
+
+
+
+COMPTROLLER, the title of an official whose business primarily was to
+examine and take charge of accounts, hence to direct or control, e.g.
+the English comptroller of the household, comptroller and
+auditor-general (head of the exchequer and audit department),
+comptroller-general of patents, &c., comptroller-general (head of the
+national debt office). On the other hand, the word is frequently spelt
+_controller_, as in controller of the navy, controller or head of the
+stationery office. The word is used in the same sense in the United
+States, as comptroller of the treasury, an official who examines
+accounts and signs drafts, and comptroller of the currency, who
+administers the law relating to the national banks.
+
+
+
+
+COMPURGATION (from Lat. _compurgare_, to purify completely), a mode of
+procedure formerly employed in ecclesiastical courts, and derived from
+the canon law (_compurgatio canonica_), by which a clerk who was accused
+of crime was required to make answers on the oath of himself and a
+certain number of other clerks (compurgators) who would swear to his
+character or innocence. The term is more especially applied to a
+somewhat similar procedure, the old Teutonic or Anglo-Saxon mode of
+trial by oath-taking or oath-helping (see JURY).
+
+
+
+
+COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857),
+French Positive philosopher, was born on the 19th of January 1798 at
+Montpellier, where his father was a receiver-general of taxes for the
+district. He was sent for his earliest instruction to the school of the
+town, and in 1814 was admitted to the Ecole Polytechnique. His youth
+was marked by a constant willingness to rebel against merely official
+authority; to genuine excellence, whether moral or intellectual, he was
+always ready to pay unbounded deference. That strenuous application
+which was one of his most remarkable gifts in manhood showed itself in
+his youth, and his application was backed or inspired by superior
+intelligence and aptness. After he had been two years at the Ecole
+Polytechnique he took a foremost part in a mutinous demonstration
+against one of the masters; the school was broken up, and Comte like the
+other scholars was sent home. To the great dissatisfaction of his
+parents, he resolved to return to Paris (1816), and to earn his living
+there by giving lessons in mathematics. Benjamin Franklin was the
+youth's idol at this moment. "I seek to imitate the modern Socrates," he
+wrote to a school friend, "not in talents, but in way of living. You
+know that at five-and-twenty he formed the design of becoming perfectly
+wise and that he fulfilled his design. I have dared to undertake the
+same thing, though I am not yet twenty." Though Comte's character and
+aims were as far removed as possible from Franklin's type, neither
+Franklin nor any man that ever lived could surpass him in the heroic
+tenacity with which, in the face of a thousand obstacles, he pursued his
+own ideal of a vocation.
+
+For a moment circumstances led him to think of seeking a career in
+America, but a friend who preceded him thither warned him of the purely
+practical spirit that prevailed in the new country. "If Lagrange were to
+come to the United States, he could only earn his livelihood by turning
+land surveyor." So Comte remained in Paris, living as he best could on
+something less than L80 a year, and hoping, when he took the trouble to
+break his meditations upon greater things by hopes about himself, that
+he might by and by obtain an appointment as mathematical master in a
+school. A friend procured him a situation as tutor in the house of
+Casimir Perier. The salary was good, but the duties were too
+miscellaneous, and what was still worse, there was an end of the
+delicious liberty of the garret. After a short experience of three weeks
+Comte returned to neediness and contentment. He was not altogether
+without the young man's appetite for pleasure; yet when he was only
+nineteen we find him wondering, amid the gaieties of the carnival of
+1817, how a gavotte or a minuet could make people forget that thirty
+thousand human beings around them had barely a morsel to eat.
+
+Towards 1818 Comte became associated as friend and disciple with
+Saint-Simon, who was destined to exercise a very decisive influence upon
+the turn of his speculation. In after years he so far forgot himself as
+to write of Saint-Simon as a depraved quack, and to deplore his
+connexion with him as purely mischievous. While the connexion lasted he
+thought very differently. Saint-Simon is described as the most estimable
+and lovable of men, and the most delightful in his relations; he is the
+worthiest of philosophers. Even at the very moment when Comte was
+congratulating himself on having thrown off the yoke, he honestly admits
+that Saint-Simon's influence has been of powerful service in his
+philosophic education. "I certainly," he writes to his most intimate
+friend, "am under great personal obligations to Saint-Simon; that is to
+say, he helped in a powerful degree to launch me in the philosophical
+direction that I have now definitely marked out for myself, and that I
+shall follow without looking back for the rest of my life." Even if
+there were no such unmistakable expressions as these, the most cursory
+glance into Saint-Simon's writings is enough to reveal the thread of
+connexion between the ingenious visionary and the systematic thinker. We
+see the debt, and we also see that when it is stated at the highest
+possible, nothing has really been taken either from Comte's claims as a
+powerful original thinker, or from his immeasurable pre-eminence over
+Saint-Simon in intellectual grasp and vigour and coherence. As high a
+degree of originality may be shown in transformation as in invention, as
+Moliere and Shakespeare have proved in the region of dramatic art. In
+philosophy the conditions are not different. _Il faut prendre son bien
+ou on le trouve._
+
+It is no detriment to Comte's fame that some of the ideas which he
+recombined and incorporated in a great philosophic structure had their
+origin in ideas that were produced almost at random in the incessant
+fermentation of Saint-Simon's brain. Comte is in no true sense a
+follower of Saint-Simon, but it was undoubtedly Saint-Simon who launched
+him, to take Comte's own word, by suggesting the two starting-points of
+what grew into the Comtist system--first, that political phenomena are
+as capable of being grouped under laws as other phenomena; and second,
+that the true destination of philosophy must be social, and the true
+object of the thinker must be the reorganization of the moral, religious
+and political systems. We can readily see what an impulse these
+far-reaching conceptions would give to Comte's meditations. There were
+conceptions of less importance than these, in which it is impossible not
+to feel that it was Saint-Simon's wrong or imperfect idea that put his
+young admirer on the track to a right and perfected idea. The subject is
+not worthy of further discussion. That Comte would have performed some
+great intellectual achievement, if Saint-Simon had never been born, is
+certain. It is hardly less certain that the great achievement which he
+did actually perform was originally set in motion by Saint-Simon's
+conversation, though it was afterwards directly filiated with the
+fertile speculations of A. R. J. Turgot and Condorcet. Comte thought
+almost as meanly of Plato as he did of Saint-Simon, and he considered
+Aristotle the prince of all true thinkers; yet their vital difference
+about Ideas did not prevent Aristotle from calling Plato master.
+
+After six years the differences between the old and the young
+philosopher grew too marked for friendship. Comte began to fret under
+Saint-Simon's pretensions to be his director. Saint-Simon, on the other
+hand, perhaps began to feel uncomfortably conscious of the superiority
+of his disciple. The occasion of the breach between them (1824) was an
+attempt on Saint-Simon's part to print a production of Comte's as if it
+were in some sort connected with Saint-Simon's schemes of social
+reorganization. Not only was the breach not repaired, but long
+afterwards Comte, as we have said, with painful ungraciousness took to
+calling the encourager of his youth by very hard names.
+
+
+  Marriage.
+
+In 1825 Comte married a Mdlle Caroline Massin. His marriage was one of
+those of which "magnanimity owes no account to prudence," and it did not
+turn out prosperously. His family were strongly Catholic and royalist,
+and they were outraged by his refusal to have the marriage performed
+other than civilly. They consented, however, to receive his wife, and
+the pair went on a visit to Montpellier. Madame Comte conceived a
+dislike to the circle she found there, and this was the too early
+beginning of disputes which lasted for the remainder of their union. In
+the year of his marriage we find Comte writing to the most intimate of
+his correspondents:--"I have nothing left but to concentrate my whole
+moral existence in my intellectual work, a precious but inadequate
+compensation; and so I must give up, if not the most dazzling, still the
+sweetest part of my happiness." He tried to find pupils to board with
+him, but only one pupil came, and he was soon sent away for lack of
+companions. "I would rather spend an evening," wrote the needy
+enthusiast, "in solving a difficult question, than in running after some
+empty-headed and consequential millionaire in search of a pupil." A
+little money was earned by an occasional article in _Le Producteur_, in
+which he began to expound the philosophic ideas that were now maturing
+in his mind. He announced a course of lectures (1826), which it was
+hoped would bring money as well as fame, and which were to be the first
+dogmatic exposition of the Positive Philosophy. A friend had said to
+him, "You talk too freely, your ideas are getting abroad, and other
+people use them without giving you the credit; put your ownership on
+record." The lectures attracted hearers so eminent as Humboldt the
+cosmologist, Poinsot the geometer and Blainville the physiologist.
+
+
+  Serious illness.
+
+Unhappily, after the third lecture of the course, Comte had a severe
+attack of cerebral derangement, brought on by intense and prolonged
+meditation, acting on a system that was already irritated by the chagrin
+of domestic discomfort. He did not recover his health for more than a
+year, and as soon as convalescence set in he was seized by so profound
+a melancholy at the disaster which had thus overtaken him, that he threw
+himself into the Seine. Fortunately he was rescued, and the shock did
+not stay his return to mental soundness. One incident of this painful
+episode is worth mentioning. Lamennais, then in the height of his
+Catholic exaltation, persuaded Comte's mother to insist on her son being
+married with the religious ceremony, and as the younger Madame Comte
+apparently did not resist, the rite was duly performed, in spite of the
+fact that Comte was at the time raving mad. Philosophic assailants of
+Comtism have not always resisted the temptation to recall the
+circumstance that its founder was once out of his mind. As has been
+justly said, if Newton once suffered a cerebral attack without
+forfeiting our veneration for the _Principia_, Comte may have suffered
+in the same way, and still not have forfeited our respect for Positive
+Philosophy and Positive Polity.
+
+
+  Official work.
+
+In 1828 the lectures were renewed, and in 1830 was published the first
+volume of the _Course of Positive Philosophy_. The sketch and ground
+plan of this great undertaking had appeared in 1826. The sixth and last
+volume was published in 1842. The twelve years covering the publication
+of the first of Comte's two elaborate works were years of indefatigable
+toil, and they were the only portion of his life in which he enjoyed a
+certain measure, and that a very modest measure, of material prosperity.
+In 1833 he was appointed examiner of the boys who in the various
+provincial schools aspired to enter the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris.
+This and two other engagements as a teacher of mathematics secured him
+an income of some L400 a year. He made M. Guizot, then Louis Philippe's
+minister, the important proposal to establish a chair of general history
+of the sciences. If there are four chairs, he argued, devoted to the
+history of philosophy, that is to say, the minute study of all sorts of
+dreams and aberrations through the ages, surely there ought to be at
+least one to explain the formation and progress of our real knowledge?
+This wise suggestion, still unfulfilled, was at first welcomed,
+according to Comte's own account, by Guizot's philosophic instinct, and
+then repulsed by his "metaphysical rancour."
+
+Meanwhile Comte did his official work conscientiously, sorely as he
+grudged the time which it took from the execution of the great object of
+his thoughts. "I hardly know if even to you," he writes to his wife, "I
+dare disclose the sweet and softened feeling that comes over me when I
+find a young man whose examination is thoroughly satisfactory. Yes,
+though you may smile, the emotion would easily stir me to tears if I
+were not carefully on my guard." Such sympathy with youthful hope, in
+union with industry and intelligence, shows that Comte's dry and austere
+manner veiled the fires of a generous social emotion. It was this which
+made him add to his labours the burden of delivering every year from
+1831 to 1848 a course of gratuitous lectures on astronomy for a popular
+audience. The social feeling that inspired this disinterested act showed
+itself in other ways. He suffered imprisonment rather than serve in the
+national guard; his position was that though he would not take arms
+against the new monarchy of July, yet being a republican he would take
+no oath to defend it. The only amusement that Comte permitted himself
+was a visit to the opera. In his youth he had been a playgoer, but he
+shortly came to the conclusion that tragedy is a stilted and bombastic
+art, and after a time comedy interested him no more than tragedy. For
+the opera he had a genuine passion, which he gratified as often as he
+could, until his means became too narrow to afford even that single
+relaxation.
+
+Of his manner and personal appearance we have the following account from
+one who was his pupil:--"Daily as the clock struck eight on the horologe
+of the Luxembourg, while the ringing hammer on the bell was yet audible,
+the door of my room opened, and there entered a man, short, rather
+stout, almost what one might call sleek, freshly shaven, without vestige
+of whisker or moustache. He was invariably dressed in a suit of the most
+spotless black, as if going to a dinner party; his white neck-cloth was
+fresh from the laundress's hands, and his hat shining like a racer's
+coat. He advanced to the arm-chair prepared for him in the centre of the
+writing-table, laid his hat on the left-hand corner; his snuff-box was
+deposited on the same side beside the quire of paper placed in readiness
+for his use, and dipping the pen twice into the ink-bottle, then
+bringing it to within an inch of his nose to make sure it was properly
+filled, he broke silence: 'We have said that the chord AB,' &c. For
+three-quarters of an hour he continued his demonstration, making short
+notes as he went on, to guide the listener in repeating the problem
+alone; then, taking up another cahier which lay beside him, he went over
+the written repetition of the former lesson. He explained, corrected or
+commented till the clock struck nine; then, with the little finger of
+the right hand brushing from his coat and waistcoat the shower of
+superfluous snuff which had fallen on them, he pocketed his snuff-box,
+and resuming his hat, he as silently as when he came in made his exit by
+the door which I rushed to open for him."
+
+
+  Completion of "Positive Philosophy."
+
+In 1842, as we have said, the last volume of the _Positive Philosophy_
+was given to the public. Instead of that contentment which we like to
+picture as the reward of twelve years of meritorious toil devoted to the
+erection of a high philosophic edifice, Comte found himself in the midst
+of a very sea of small troubles, of that uncompensated kind that harass
+without elevating, and waste a man's spirit without softening or
+enlarging it. First, the jar of temperament between Comte and his wife
+had become so unbearable that they separated (1842). We know too little
+of the facts to allot blame to either of them. In spite of one or two
+disadvantageous facts in her career, Madame Comte seems to have
+uniformly comported herself towards her husband with an honourable
+solicitude for his well-being. Comte made her an annual allowance, and
+for some years after the separation they corresponded on friendly terms.
+Next in the list of the vexations was a lawsuit with his publisher. The
+publisher had inserted in the sixth volume a protest against a certain
+footnote, in which Comte had used some hard words about Arago. Comte
+threw himself into the suit with an energy worthy of Voltaire and won
+it. Third, and worst of all, he had prefixed a preface to the sixth
+volume, in which he went out of his way to rouse the enmity of the men
+on whom depended his annual re-election to the post of examiner for the
+Polytechnic school. The result was that he lost the appointment, and
+with it one-half of his very modest income. This was the occasion of an
+episode, which is of more than merely personal interest.
+
+
+  J. S. Mill.
+
+Before 1842 Comte had been in correspondence with J. S. Mill, who had
+been greatly impressed by Comte's philosophic ideas; Mill admits that
+his own _System of Logic_ owes many valuable thoughts to Comte, and
+that, in the portion of that work which treats of the logic of the moral
+sciences, a radical improvement in the conceptions of logical method was
+derived from the _Positive Philosophy_. Their correspondence, which was
+full and copious, turned principally upon the two great questions of the
+equality between men and women, and of the expediency and constitution
+of a sacerdotal or spiritual order. When Comte found himself straitened,
+he confided the entire circumstances to Mill. As might be supposed by
+those who know the affectionate anxiety with which Mill regarded the
+welfare of any one whom he believed to be doing good work in the world,
+he at once took pains to have Comte's loss of income made up to him,
+until Comte should have had time to repair that loss by his own
+endeavour. Mill persuaded Grote, Molesworth, and Raikes Currie to
+advance the sum of L240. At the end of the year (1845) Comte had taken
+no steps to enable himself to dispense with the aid of the three
+Englishmen. Mill applied to them again, but with the exception of Grote,
+who sent a small sum, they gave Comte to understand that they expected
+him to earn his own living. Mill had suggested to Comte that he should
+write articles for the English periodicals, and expressed his own
+willingness to translate any such articles from the French. Comte at
+first fell in with the plan, but he speedily surprised and disconcerted
+Mill by boldly taking up the position of "high moral magistrate," and
+accusing the three defaulting contributors of a scandalous falling away
+from righteousness and a high mind. Mill was chilled by these
+pretensions; and the correspondence came to an end. There is something
+to be said for both sides. Comte, regarding himself as the promoter of a
+great scheme for the benefit of humanity, might reasonably look for the
+support of his friends in the fulfilment of his designs. But Mill and
+the others were fully justified in not aiding the propagation of a
+doctrine in which they might not wholly concur. Comte's subsequent
+attitude of censorious condemnation put him entirely in the wrong.
+
+From 1845 to 1848 Comte lived as best he could, as well as made his wife
+her allowance, on an income of L200 a year. His little account books of
+income and outlay, with every item entered down to a few hours before
+his death, are accurate and neat enough to have satisfied an ancient
+Roman householder. In 1848, through no fault of his own, his salary was
+reduced to L80. Littre and others, with Comte's approval, published an
+appeal for subscriptions, and on the money thus contributed Comte
+subsisted for the remaining nine years of his life. By 1852 the subsidy
+produced as much as L200 a year. It is worth noticing that Mill was one
+of the subscribers, and that Littre continued his assistance after he
+had been driven from Comte's society by his high pontifical airs. We are
+sorry not to be able to record any similar trait of magnanimity on
+Comte's part. His character, admirable as it is for firmness, for
+intensity, for inexorable will, for iron devotion to what he thought the
+service of mankind, yet offers few of those softening qualities that
+make us love good men and pity bad ones.
+
+
+  Literary method.
+
+It is best to think of him only as the intellectual worker, pursuing in
+uncomforted obscurity the laborious and absorbing task to which he had
+given up his whole life. His singularly conscientious fashion of
+elaborating his ideas made the mental strain more intense than even so
+exhausting a work as the abstract exposition of the principles of
+positive science need have been. He did not write down a word until he
+had first composed the whole matter in his mind. When he had thoroughly
+meditated every sentence, he sat down to write, and then, such was the
+grip of his memory, the exact order of his thoughts came back to him as
+if without an effort, and he wrote down precisely what he had intended
+to write, without the aid of a note or a memorandum, and without check
+or pause. For example, he began and completed in about six weeks a
+chapter in the _Positive Philosophy_ (vol. v. ch. 55) which would fill
+forty pages of this Encyclopaedia. When we reflect that the chapter is
+not narrative, but an abstract exposition of the guiding principles of
+the movements of several centuries, with many threads of complex thought
+running along side by side all through the speculation, then the
+circumstances under which it was reduced to literary form are really
+astonishing. It is hardly possible, however, to share the admiration
+expressed by some of Comte's disciples for his style. We are not so
+unreasonable as to blame him for failing to make his pages picturesque
+or thrilling; we do not want sunsets and stars and roses and ecstasy;
+but there is a certain standard for the most serious and abstract
+subjects. When compared with such philosophic writing as Hume's,
+Diderot's, Berkeley's, then Comte's manner is heavy, laboured,
+monotonous, without relief and without light. There is now and then an
+energetic phrase, but as a whole the vocabulary is jejune; the sentences
+are overloaded; the pitch is flat. A scrupulous insistence on making his
+meaning clear led to an iteration of certain adjectives and adverbs,
+which at length deadened the effect beyond the endurance of all but the
+most resolute students. Only the interest of the matter prevents one
+from thinking of Rivarol's ill-natured remark upon Condorcet, that he
+wrote with opium on a page of lead. The general effect is impressive,
+not by any virtues of style, for we do not discern one, but by reason of
+the magnitude and importance of the undertaking, and the visible
+conscientiousness and the grasp with which it is executed. It is by
+sheer strength of thought, by the vigorous perspicacity with which he
+strikes the lines of cleavage of his subject, that he makes his way
+into the mind of the reader; in the presence of gifts of this power we
+need not quarrel with an ungainly style.
+
+
+  Hygiene cerebrale.
+
+Comte pursued one practice which ought to be mentioned in connexion with
+his personal history, the practice of what he style _hygiene cerebrale_.
+After he had acquired what he considered to be a sufficient stock of
+material, and this happened before he had completed the _Positive
+Philosophy_, he abstained from reading newspapers, reviews, scientific
+transactions and everything else, except two or three poets (notably
+Dante) and the _Imitatio Christi_. It is true that his friends kept him
+informed of what was going on in the scientific world. Still this
+partial divorce of himself from the record of the social and scientific
+activity of his time, though it may save a thinker from the deplorable
+evils of dispersion, moral and intellectual, accounts in no small
+measure for the exaggerated egoism, and the absence of all feeling for
+reality, which marked Comte's later days.
+
+
+  Madame de Vaux.
+
+In 1845 Comte made the acquaintance of Madame Clotilde de Vaux, a lady
+whose husband had been sent to the galleys for life. Very little is
+known about her qualities. She wrote a little piece which Comte rated so
+preposterously as to talk about George Sand in the same sentence; it is
+in truth a flimsy performance, though it contains one or two gracious
+thoughts. There is true beauty in the saying--"_It is unworthy of a
+noble nature to diffuse its pain._" Madame de Vaux's letters speak well
+for her good sense and good feeling, and it would have been better for
+Comte's later work if she had survived to exert a wholesome restraint on
+his exaltation. Their friendship had only lasted a year when she died
+(1846), but the period was long enough to give her memory a supreme
+ascendancy in Comte's mind. Condillac, Joubert, Mill and other eminent
+men have shown what the intellectual ascendancy of a woman can be. Comte
+was as inconsolable after Madame de Vaux's death as D'Alembert after the
+death of Mademoiselle L'Espinasse. Every Wednesday afternoon he made a
+reverential pilgrimage to her tomb, and three times every day he invoked
+her memory in words of passionate expansion. His disciples believe that
+in time the world will reverence Comte's sentiment about Clotilde de
+Vaux, as it reveres Dante's adoration of Beatrice--a parallel that Comte
+himself was the first to hit upon. Yet we cannot help feeling that it is
+a grotesque and unseemly anachronism to apply in grave prose, addressed
+to the whole world, those terms of saint and angel which are touching
+and in their place amid the trouble and passion of the great mystic
+poet. Whatever other gifts Comte may have had--and he had many of the
+rarest kind,--poetic imagination was not among them, any more than
+poetic or emotional expression was among them. His was one of those
+natures whose faculty of deep feeling is unhappily doomed to be
+inarticulate, and to pass away without the magic power of transmitting
+itself.
+
+
+  Positive Polity.
+
+Comte lost no time, after the completion of his _Course of Positive
+Philosophy_, in proceeding with the _System of Positive Polity_, for
+which the earlier work was designed to be a foundation. The first volume
+was published in 1851, and the fourth and last in 1854. In 1848, when
+the political air was charged with stimulating elements, he founded the
+Positive Society, with the expectation that it might grow into a reunion
+as powerful over the new revolution as the Jacobin Club had been in the
+revolution of 1789. The hope was not fulfilled, but a certain number of
+philosophic disciples gathered round Comte, and eventually formed
+themselves, under the guidance of the new ideas of the latter half of
+his life, into a kind of church, for whose use was drawn up the
+_Positivist Calendar_ (1849), in which the names of those who had
+advanced civilization replaced the titles of the saints. Gutenberg and
+Shakespeare were among the patrons of the thirteen months in this
+calendar. In the years 1849, 1850 and 1851 Comte gave three courses of
+lectures at the Palais Royal. They were gratuitous and popular, and in
+them he boldly advanced the whole of his doctrine, as well as the direct
+and immediate pretensions of himself and his system. The third course
+ended in the following uncompromising terms--"In the name of the Past
+and of the Future, the servants of Humanity--both its philosophical and
+its practical servants--come forward to claim as their due the general
+direction of this world. Their object is to constitute at length a real
+Providence in all departments,--moral, intellectual and material.
+Consequently they exclude once for all from political supremacy all the
+different servants of God--Catholic, Protestant or Deist--as being at
+once behindhand and a cause of disturbance." A few weeks after this
+invitation, a very different person stepped forward to constitute
+himself a real Providence.
+
+In 1852 Comte published the _Catechism of Positivism_. In the preface to
+it he took occasion to express his approval of Louis Napoleon's _coup
+d'etat_ of the 2nd of December,--"a fortunate crisis which has set aside
+the parliamentary system and instituted a dictatorial republic."
+Whatever we may think of the political sagacity of such a judgment, it
+is due to Comte to say that he did not expect to see his dictatorial
+republic transformed into a dynastic empire, and, next, that he did
+expect from the Man of December freedom of the press and of public
+meeting. His later hero was the emperor Nicholas, "the only statesman in
+Christendom,"--as unlucky a judgment as that which placed Dr Francia in
+the Comtist Calendar.
+
+
+  Death.
+
+In 1857 he was attacked by cancer, and died peaceably on the 5th of
+September of that year. The anniversary is celebrated by ceremonial
+gatherings of his French and English followers, who then commemorate the
+name and the services of the founder of their religion. By his will he
+appointed thirteen executors who were to preserve his rooms at 10 rue
+Monsieur-le-Prince as the headquarters of the new religion of Humanity.
+
+
+  Comte's philosophic consistency.
+
+  Early writing.
+
+In proceeding to give an Outline of Comte's system, we shall consider
+the _Positive Polity_ as the more or less legitimate sequel of the
+_Positive Philosophy_, notwithstanding the deep gulf which so eminent a
+critic as J. S. Mill insisted upon fixing between the earlier and the
+later work. There may be, as we think there is, the greatest difference
+in their value, and the temper is not the same, nor the method. But the
+two are quite capable of being regarded, and for the purposes of an
+account of Comte's career ought to be regarded, as an integral whole.
+His letters when he was a young man of one-and-twenty, and before he had
+published a word, show how strongly present the social motive was in his
+mind, and in what little account he should hold his scientific works, if
+he did not perpetually think of their utility for the species. "I feel,"
+he wrote, "that such scientific reputation as I might acquire would give
+more value, more weight, more useful influence to my political sermons."
+In 1822 he published a _Plan of the Scientific Works necessary to
+reorganize Society_. In this he points out that modern society is
+passing through a great crisis, due to the conflict of two opposing
+movements,--the first, a disorganizing movement owing to the break-up of
+old institutions and beliefs; the second, a movement towards a definite
+social state, in which all means of human prosperity will receive their
+most complete development and most direct application. How is this
+crisis to be dealt with? What are the undertakings necessary in order to
+pass successfully through it towards an organic state? The answer to
+this is that there are two series of works. The first is theoretic or
+spiritual, aiming at the development of a new principle of co-ordinating
+social relations, and the formation of the system of general ideas which
+are destined to guide society. The second work is practical or temporal;
+it settles the distribution of power, and the institutions that are most
+conformable to the spirit of the system which has previously been
+thought out in the course of the theoretic work. As the practical work
+depends on the conclusions of the theoretical, the latter must obviously
+come first in order of execution.
+
+In 1826 this was pushed farther in a most remarkable piece called
+_Considerations on the Spiritual Power_--the main object of which is to
+demonstrate the necessity of instituting a spiritual power, distinct
+from the temporal power and independent of it. In examining the
+conditions of a spiritual power proper for modern times, he indicates in
+so many terms the presence in his mind of a direct analogy between his
+proposed spiritual power and the functions of the Catholic clergy at the
+time of its greatest vigour and most complete independence,--that is to
+say, from about the middle of the 11th century until towards the end of
+the 13th. He refers to de Maistre's memorable book, _Du Pape_, as the
+most profound, accurate and methodical account of the old spiritual
+organization, and starts from that as the model to be adapted to the
+changed intellectual and social conditions of the modern time. In the
+_Positive Philosophy_, again (vol. v. p. 344), he distinctly says that
+Catholicism, reconstituted as a system on new intellectual foundations,
+would finally preside over the spiritual reorganization of modern
+society. Much else could be quoted to the same effect. If unity of
+career, then, means that Comte, from the beginning designed the
+institution of a spiritual power, and the systematic reorganization of
+life, it is difficult to deny him whatever credit that unity may be
+worth, and the credit is perhaps not particularly great. Even the
+readaptation of the Catholic system to a scientific doctrine was plainly
+in his mind thirty years before the final execution of the _Positive
+Polity_, though it is difficult to believe that he foresaw the religious
+mysticism in which the task was to land him. A great analysis was to
+precede a great synthesis, but it was the synthesis on which Comte's
+vision was centred from the first. Let us first sketch the nature of the
+analysis. Society is to be reorganized on the base of knowledge. What is
+the sum and significance of knowledge? That is the question which
+Comte's first master-work professes to answer.
+
+
+  Law of the Three States.
+
+The _Positive Philosophy_ opens with the statement of a certain law of
+which Comte was the discoverer, and which has always been treated both
+by disciples and dissidents as the key to his system. This is the Law of
+the Three States. It is as follows. Each of our leading conceptions,
+each branch of our knowledge, passes successively through three
+different phases; there are three different ways in which the human mind
+explains phenomena, each way following the other in order. These three
+stages are the Theological, the Metaphysical and the Positive.
+Knowledge, or a branch of knowledge, is in the Theological state, when
+it supposes the phenomena under consideration to be due to immediate
+volition, either in the object or in some supernatural being. In the
+Metaphysical state, for volition is substituted abstract force residing
+in the object, yet existing independently of the object; the phenomena
+are viewed as if apart from the bodies manifesting them; and the
+properties of each substance have attributed to them an existence
+distinct from that substance. In the Positive state, inherent volition
+or external volition and inherent force or abstraction personified have
+both disappeared from men's minds, and the explanation of a phenomenon
+means a reference of it, by way of succession or resemblance, to some
+other phenomenon,--means the establishment of a relation between the
+given fact and some more general fact. In the Theological and
+Metaphysical state men seek a cause or an essence; in the Positive they
+are content with a law. To borrow an illustration from an able English
+disciple of Comte:--"Take the phenomenon of the sleep produced by opium.
+The Arabs are content to attribute it to the 'will of God.' Moliere's
+medical student accounts for it by a _soporific principle_ contained in
+the opium. The modern physiologist knows that he cannot account for it
+at all. He can simply observe, analyse and experiment upon the phenomena
+attending the action of the drug, and classify it with other agents
+analogous in character."--(_Dr Bridges._)
+
+The first and greatest aim of the Positive Philosophy is to advance the
+study of society into the third of the three stages,--to remove social
+phenomena from the sphere of theological and metaphysical conceptions,
+and to introduce among them the same scientific observation of their
+laws which has given us physics, chemistry, physiology. Social physics
+will consist of the conditions and relations of the facts of society,
+and will have two departments,--one, statical, containing the laws of
+order; the other dynamical, containing the laws of progress. While
+men's minds were in the theological state, political events, for
+example, were explained by the will of the gods, and political authority
+based on divine right. In the metaphysical state of mind, then, to
+retain our instance, political authority was based on the sovereignty of
+the people, and social facts were explained by the figment of a falling
+away from a state of nature. When the positive method has been finally
+extended to society, as it has been to chemistry and physiology, these
+social facts will be resolved, as their ultimate analysis, into
+relations with one another, and instead of seeking causes in the old
+sense of the word, men will only examine the conditions of social
+existence. When that stage has been reached, not merely the greater
+part, but the whole, of our knowledge will be impressed with one
+character, the character, namely, of positivity or scientificalness; and
+all our conceptions in every part of knowledge will be thoroughly
+homogeneous. The gains of such a change are enormous. The new
+philosophical unity will now in its turn regenerate all the elements
+that went to its own formation. The mind will pursue knowledge without
+the wasteful jar and friction of conflicting methods and mutually
+hostile conceptions; education will be regenerated; and society will
+reorganize itself on the only possible solid base--a homogeneous
+philosophy.
+
+
+  Classification of sciences.
+
+The _Positive Philosophy_ has another object besides the demonstration
+of the necessity and propriety of a science of society. This object is
+to show the sciences as branches from a single trunk,--is to give to
+science the ensemble or spirit or generality hitherto confined to
+philosophy, and to give to philosophy the rigour and solidity of
+science. Comte's special object is a study of social physics, a science
+that before his advent was still to be formed; his second object is a
+review of the methods and leading generalities of all the positive
+sciences already formed, so that we may know both what system of inquiry
+to follow in our new science, and also where the new science will stand
+in relation to other knowledge.
+
+The first step in this direction is to arrange scientific method and
+positive knowledge in order, and this brings us to another cardinal
+element in the Comtist system, the classification of the sciences. In
+the front of the inquiry lies one main division, that, namely, between
+speculative and practical knowledge. With the latter we have no concern.
+Speculative or theoretic knowledge is divided into abstract and
+concrete. The former is concerned with the laws that regulate phenomena
+in all conceivable cases: the latter is concerned with the application
+of these laws. Concrete science relates to objects or beings; abstract
+science to events. The former is particular or descriptive; the latter
+is general. Thus, physiology is an abstract science; but zoology is
+concrete. Chemistry is abstract; mineralogy is concrete. It is the
+method and knowledge of the abstract sciences that the Positive
+Philosophy has to reorganize in a great whole.
+
+Comte's principle of classification is that the dependence and order of
+scientific study follows the dependence of the phenomena. Thus, as has
+been said, it represents both the objective dependence of the phenomena
+and the subjective dependence of our means of knowing them. The more
+particular and complex phenomena depend upon the simpler and more
+general. The latter are the more easy to study. Therefore science will
+begin with those attributes of objects which are most general, and pass
+on gradually to other attributes that are combined in greater
+complexity. Thus, too, each science rests on the truths of the sciences
+that precede it, while it adds to them the truths by which it is itself
+constituted. Comte's series or hierarchy is arranged as follows:--(1)
+Mathematics (that is, number, geometry, and mechanics), (2) Astronomy,
+(3) Physics, (4) Chemistry, (5) Biology, (6) Sociology. Each of the
+members of this series is one degree more special than the member before
+it, and depends upon the facts of all the members preceding it, and
+cannot be fully understood without them. It follows that the crowning
+science of the hierarchy, dealing with the phenomena of human society,
+will remain longest under the influence of theological dogmas and
+abstract figments, and will be the last to pass into the positive stage.
+You cannot discover the relations of the facts of human society without
+reference to the conditions of animal life; you cannot understand the
+conditions of animal life without the laws of chemistry; and so with the
+rest.
+
+
+  The double key of positive philosophy.
+
+This arrangement of the sciences, and the Law of the Three States, are
+together explanatory of the course of human thought and knowledge. They
+are thus the double key of Comte's systematization of the philosophy of
+all the sciences from mathematics to physiology, and his analysis of
+social evolution, which is the base of sociology. Each science
+contributes its philosophy. The co-ordination of all these partial
+philosophies produces the general Positive Philosophy. "Thousands had
+cultivated science, and with splendid success; not one had conceived the
+philosophy which the sciences when organized would naturally evolve. A
+few had seen the necessity of extending the scientific method to all
+inquiries, but no one had seen how this was to be effected.... The
+Positive Philosophy is novel as a philosophy, not as a collection of
+truths never before suspected. Its novelty is the organization of
+existing elements. Its very principle implies the absorption of all that
+great thinkers had achieved; while incorporating their results it
+extended their methods.... What tradition brought was the results; what
+Comte brought was the organization of these results. He always claimed
+to be the founder of the Positive Philosophy. That he had every right to
+such a title is demonstrable to all who distinguish between the positive
+sciences and the philosophy which co-ordinated the truths and methods of
+these sciences into a doctrine."--_G. H. Lewes._
+
+
+  Criticism on Comte's classification.
+
+Comte's classification of the sciences has been subjected to a vigorous
+criticism by Herbert Spencer. Spencer's two chief points are these:--(1)
+He denies that the principle of the development of the sciences is the
+principle of decreasing generality; he asserts that there are as many
+examples of the advent of a science being determined by increasing
+generality as by increasing speciality. (2) He holds that any grouping
+of the sciences in a succession gives a radically wrong idea of their
+genesis and their interdependence; no true filiation exists; no science
+develops itself in isolation; no one is independent, either logically or
+historically. Littre, by far the most eminent of the scientific
+followers of Comte, concedes a certain force to Spencer's objections,
+and makes certain secondary modifications in the hierarchy in
+consequence, while still cherishing his faith in the Comtist theory of
+the sciences. J. S. Mill, while admitting the objections as good, if
+Comte's arrangement pretended to be the only one possible, still holds
+the arrangement as tenable for the purpose with which it was devised. G.
+H. Lewes asserts against Spencer that the arrangement in a series is
+necessary, on grounds similar to those which require that the various
+truths constituting a science should be systematically co-ordinated
+although in nature the phenomena are intermingled.
+
+The first three volumes of the _Positive Philosophy_ contain an
+exposition of the partial philosophies of the five sciences that precede
+sociology in the hierarchy. Their value has usually been placed very low
+by the special followers of the sciences concerned; they say that the
+knowledge is second-hand, is not coherent, and is too confidently taken
+for final. The Comtist replies that the task is philosophic; and is not
+to be judged by the minute accuracies of science. In these three volumes
+Comte took the sciences roughly as he found them. His eminence as a man
+of science must be measured by his only original work in that
+department,--the construction, namely, of the new science of society.
+This work is accomplished in the last three volumes of the _Positive
+Philosophy_, and the second and third volumes of the _Positive Polity_.
+The Comtist maintains that even if these five volumes together fail in
+laying down correctly and finally the lines of the new science, still
+they are the first solution of a great problem hitherto unattempted.
+"Modern biology has got beyond Aristotle's conception; but in the
+construction of the biological science, not even the most
+unphilosophical biologist would fail to recognize the value of
+Aristotle's attempt. So for sociology. Subsequent sociologists may have
+conceivably to remodel the whole science, yet not the less will they
+recognize the merit of the first work which has facilitated their
+labours."--_Congreve._
+
+
+  Sociological conceptions.
+
+  Method.
+
+We shall now briefly describe Comte's principal conceptions in
+sociology, his position in respect to which is held by himself, and by
+others, to raise him to the level of Descartes or Leibnitz. Of course
+the first step was to approach the phenomena of human character and
+social existence with the expectation of finding them as reducible to
+general laws as the other phenomena of the universe, and with the hope
+of exploring these laws by the same instruments of observation and
+verification as had done such triumphant work in the case of the latter.
+Comte separates the collective facts of society and history from the
+individual phenomena of biology; then he withdraws these collective
+facts from the region of external volition, and places them in the
+region of law. The facts of history must be explained, not by
+providential interventions, but by referring them to conditions inherent
+in the successive stages of social existence. This conception makes a
+science of society possible. What is the method? It comprises, besides
+observation and experiment (which is, in fact, only the observation of
+abnormal social states), a certain peculiarity of verification. We begin
+by deducing every well-known historical situation from the series of its
+antecedents. Thus we acquire a body of empirical generalizations as to
+social phenomena, and then we connect the generalizations with the
+positive theory of human nature. A sociological demonstration lies in
+the establishment of an accordance between the conclusions of historical
+analysis and the preparatory conceptions of biological theory. As Mill
+puts it:--"If a sociological theory, collected from historical evidence,
+contradicts the established general laws of human nature; if (to use M.
+Comte's instances) it implies, in the mass of mankind, any very decided
+natural bent, either in a good or in a bad direction; if it supposes
+that the reason, in average human beings, predominates over the desires,
+or the disinterested desires over the personal,--we may know that
+history has been misinterpreted, and that the theory is false. On the
+other hand, if laws of social phenomena, empirically generalized from
+history, can, when once suggested, be affiliated to the known laws of
+human nature; if the direction actually taken by the developments and
+changes of human society, can be seen to be such as the properties of
+man and of his dwelling-place made antecedently probable, the empirical
+generalizations are raised into positive laws, and sociology becomes a
+science." The result of this method, is an exhibition of the events of
+human experience in co-ordinated series that manifest their own
+graduated connexion.
+
+Next, as all investigation proceeds from that which is known best to
+that which is unknown or less well known, and as, in social states, it
+is the collective phenomenon that is more easy of access to the observer
+than its parts, therefore we must consider and pursue all the elements
+of a given social state together and in common. The social organization
+must be viewed and explored as a whole. There is a nexus between each
+leading group of social phenomena and other leading groups; if there is
+a change in one of them, that change is accompanied by a corresponding
+modification of all the rest. "Not only must political institutions and
+social manners, on the one hand, and manners and ideas, on the other, be
+always mutually connected; but further, this consolidated whole must be
+always connected by its nature with the corresponding state of the
+integral development of humanity, considered in all its aspects of
+intellectual, moral and physical activity."--_Comte._
+
+
+  Decisive Importance of Intellectual development.
+
+Is there any one element which communicates the decisive impulse to all
+the rest,--any predominating agency in the course of social evolution?
+The answer is that all the other parts of social existence are
+associated with, and drawn along by, the contemporary condition of
+intellectual development. The Reason is the superior and preponderant
+element which settles the direction in which all the other faculties
+shall expand. "It is only through the more and more marked influence of
+the reason over the general conduct of man and of society, that the
+gradual march of our race has attained that regularity and persevering
+continuity which distinguish it so radically from the desultory and
+barren expansion of even the highest animal orders, which share, and
+with enhanced strength, the appetites, the passions, and even the
+primary sentiments of man." The history of intellectual development,
+therefore, is the key to social evolution, and the key to the history of
+intellectual development is the Law of the Three States.
+
+Among other central thoughts in Comte's explanation of history are
+these:--The displacement of theological by positive conceptions has been
+accompanied by a gradual rise of an industrial regime out of the
+military regime;--the great permanent contribution of Catholicism was
+the separation which it set up between the temporal and the spiritual
+powers;--the progress of the race consists in the increasing
+preponderance of the distinctively human elements over the animal
+elements;--the absolute tendency of ordinary social theories will be
+replaced by an unfailing adherence to the relative point of view, and
+from this it follows that the social state, regarded as a whole, has
+been as perfect in each period as the co-existing condition of humanity
+and its environment would allow.
+
+The elaboration of these ideas in relation to the history of the
+civilization of the most advanced portion of the human race occupies two
+of the volumes of the _Positive Philosophy_, and has been accepted by
+very different schools as a masterpiece of rich, luminous, and
+far-reaching suggestion. Whatever additions it may receive, and whatever
+corrections it may require, this analysis of social evolution will
+continue to be regarded as one of the great achievements of human
+intellect.
+
+
+  Social dynamics in the Positive Polity.
+
+The third volume of the _Positive Polity_ treats of social dynamics, and
+takes us again over the ground of historic evolution. It abounds with
+remarks of extraordinary fertility and comprehensiveness; but it is
+often arbitrary; and its views of the past are strained into coherence
+with the statical views of the preceding volume. As it was composed in
+rather less than six months, and as the author honestly warns us that he
+has given all his attention to a more profound co-ordination, instead of
+working out the special explanations more fully, as he had promised, we
+need not be surprised if the result is disappointing to those who had
+mastered the corresponding portion of the _Positive Philosophy_. Comte
+explains the difference between his two works. In the first his "chief
+object was to discover and demonstrate the laws of progress, and to
+exhibit in one unbroken sequence the collective destinies of mankind,
+till then invariably regarded as a series of events wholly beyond the
+reach of explanation, and almost depending on arbitrary will. The
+present work, on the contrary, is addressed to those who are already
+sufficiently convinced of the certain existence of social laws, and
+desire only to have them reduced to a true and conclusive system."
+
+
+  The Positivist system.
+
+  The Religion of humanity.
+
+The main principles of the Comtian system are derived from the _Positive
+Polity_ and from two other works,--the _Positivist Catechism: a Summary
+Exposition of the Universal Religion, in Twelve Dialogues between a
+Woman and a Priest of Humanity_; and, second, _The Subjective Synthesis_
+(1856), which is the first and only volume of a work upon mathematics
+announced at the end of the _Positive Philosophy_. The system for which
+the _Positive Philosophy_ is alleged to have been the scientific
+preparation contains a Polity and a Religion; a complete arrangement of
+life in all its aspects, giving a wider sphere to Intellect, Energy and
+Feeling than could be found in any of the previous organic
+types,--Greek, Roman or Catholic-feudal. Comte's immense superiority
+over such prae-Revolutionary utopians as the Abbe Saint Pierre, no less
+than over the group of post-revolutionary Utopians, is especially
+visible in this firm grasp of the cardinal truth that the improvement of
+the social organism can only be effected by a moral development, and
+never by any changes in mere political mechanism, or any violences in
+the way of an artificial redistribution of wealth. A moral
+transformation must precede any real advance. The aim, both in public
+and private life, is to secure to the utmost possible extent the
+victory of the social feeling over self-love, or Altruism over
+Egoism.[1] This is the key to the regeneration of social existence, as
+it is the key to that unity of individual life which makes all our
+energies converge freely and without wasteful friction towards a common
+end. What are the instruments for securing the preponderance of
+Altruism? Clearly they must work from the strongest element in human
+nature, and this element is Feeling or the Heart. Under the Catholic
+system the supremacy of Feeling was abused, and the Intellect was made
+its slave. Then followed a revolt of Intellect against Sentiment. The
+business of the new system will be to bring back the Intellect into a
+condition, not of slavery, but of willing ministry to the Feelings. The
+subordination never was, and never will be, effected except by means of
+a religion, and a religion, to be final, must include a harmonious
+synthesis of all our conceptions of the external order of the universe.
+The characteristic basis of a religion is the existence of a Power
+without us, so superior to ourselves as to command the complete
+submission of our whole life. This basis is to be found in the Positive
+stage, in Humanity, past, present and to come, conceived as the Great
+Being.
+
+  "A deeper study of the great universal order reveals to us at length
+  the ruling power within it of the true Great Being, whose destiny it
+  is to bring that order continually to perfection by constantly
+  conforming to its laws, and which thus best represents to us that
+  system as a whole. This undeniable Providence, the supreme dispenser
+  of our destinies, becomes in the natural course the common centre of
+  our affections, our thoughts, and our actions. Although this Great
+  Being evidently exceeds the utmost strength of any, even of any
+  collective, human force, its necessary constitution and its peculiar
+  function endow it with the truest sympathy towards all its servants.
+  The least amongst us can and ought constantly to aspire to maintain
+  and even to improve this Being. This natural object of all our
+  activity, both public and private, determines the true general
+  character of the rest of our existence, whether in feeling or in
+  thought; which must be devoted to love, and to know, in order rightly
+  to serve, our Providence, by a wise use of all the means which it
+  furnishes to us. Reciprocally this continued service, whilst
+  strengthening our true unity, renders us at once both happier and
+  better."
+
+
+  Remarks on the religion.
+
+The exaltation of Humanity into the throne occupied by the Supreme Being
+under monotheistic systems made all the rest of Comte's construction
+easy enough. Utility remains the test of every institution, impulse,
+act; his fabric becomes substantially an arch of utilitarian
+propositions, with an artificial Great Being inserted at the top to keep
+them in their place. The Comtist system is utilitarianism crowned by a
+fantastic decoration. Translated into the plainest English, the position
+is as follows: "Society can only be regenerated by the greater
+subordination of politics to morals, by the moralization of capital, by
+the renovation of the family, by a higher conception of marriage and so
+on. These ends can only be reached by a heartier development of the
+sympathetic instincts. The sympathetic instincts can only be developed
+by the Religion of Humanity." Looking at the problem in this way, even a
+moralist who does not expect theology to be the instrument of social
+revival, might still ask whether the sympathetic instincts will not
+necessarily be already developed to their highest point, before people
+will be persuaded to accept the religion, which is at the bottom hardly
+more than sympathy under a more imposing name. However that may be, the
+whole battle--into which we shall not enter--as to the legitimateness of
+Comtism as a religion turns upon this erection of Humanity into a Being.
+The various hypotheses, dogmas, proposals, as to the family, to capital,
+&c., are merely propositions measurable by considerations of utility and
+a balance of expediencies. Many of these proposals are of the highest
+interest, and many of them are actually available; but there does not
+seem to be one of them of an available kind, which could not equally
+well be approached from other sides, and even incorporated in some
+radically antagonistic system. Adoption, for example, as a practice for
+improving the happiness of families and the welfare of society, is
+capable of being weighed, and can in truth only be weighed, by
+utilitarian considerations, and has been commended by men to whom the
+Comtist religion is naught. The singularity of Comte's construction, and
+the test by which it must be tried, is the transfer of the worship and
+discipline of Catholicism to a system in which "the conception of God is
+superseded" by the abstract idea of Humanity, conceived as a kind of
+Personality.
+
+And when all is said, the invention does not help us. We have still to
+settle what _is_ for the good of Humanity, and we can only do that in
+the old-fashioned way. There is no guidance in the conception. No
+effective unity can follow from it, because you can only find out the
+right and wrong of a given course by summing up the advantages and
+disadvantages, and striking a balance, and there is nothing in the
+Religion of Humanity to force two men to find the balance on the same
+side. The Comtists are no better off than other utilitarians in judging
+policy, events, conduct.
+
+
+  The worship and discipline.
+
+The particularities of the worship, its minute and truly ingenious
+re-adaptations of sacraments, prayers, reverent signs, down even to the
+invocation of a New Trinity, need not detain us. They are said, though
+it is not easy to believe, to have been elaborated by way of Utopia. If
+so, no Utopia has ever yet been presented in a style so little
+calculated to stir the imagination, to warm the feelings, to soothe the
+insurgency of the reason. It is a mistake to present a great body of
+hypotheses--if Comte meant them for hypotheses--in the most dogmatic and
+peremptory form to which language can lend itself. And there is no more
+extraordinary thing in the history of opinion than the perversity with
+which Comte has succeeded in clothing a philosophic doctrine, so
+intrinsically conciliatory as his, in a shape that excites so little
+sympathy and gives so much provocation. An enemy defined Comtism as
+Catholicism _minus_ Christianity, to which an able champion retorted by
+calling it Catholicism _plus_ Science. Comte's Utopia has pleased the
+followers of the Catholic, just as little as those of the scientific,
+spirit.
+
+
+  The priesthood.
+
+The elaborate and minute systematization of life, proper to the religion
+of Humanity, is to be directed by a priesthood. The priests are to
+possess neither wealth nor material power; they are not to command, but
+to counsel; their authority is to rest on persuasion, not on force. When
+religion has become positive, and society industrial, then the influence
+of the church upon the state becomes really free and independent, which
+was not the case in the middle ages. The power of the priesthood rests
+upon special knowledge of man and nature; but to this intellectual
+eminence must also be added moral power and a certain greatness of
+character, without which force of intellect and completeness of
+attainment will not receive the confidence they ought to inspire. The
+functions of the priesthood are of this kind:--To exercise a systematic
+direction over education; to hold a consultative influence over all the
+important acts of actual life, public and private; to arbitrate in cases
+of practical conflict; to preach sermons recalling those principles of
+generality and universal harmony which our special activities dispose us
+to ignore; to order the due classification of society; to perform the
+various ceremonies appointed by the founder of the religion. The
+authority of the priesthood is to rest wholly on voluntary adhesion, and
+there is to be perfect freedom of speech and discussion. This provision
+hardly consists with Comte's congratulations to the tsar Nicholas on the
+"wise vigilance" with which he kept watch over the importation of
+Western books.
+
+
+  Women.
+
+From his earliest manhood Comte had been powerfully impressed by the
+necessity of elevating the condition of women. (See remarkable passage
+in his letters to M. Valat, pp. 84-87.) His friendship with Madame de
+Vaux had deepened the impression, and in the reconstructed society women
+are to play a highly important part. They are to be carefully excluded
+from public action, but they are to do many more important things than
+things political. To fit them for their functions, they are to be raised
+above material cares, and they are to be thoroughly educated. The
+family, which is so important an element of the Comtist scheme of
+things, exists to carry the influence of woman over man to the highest
+point of cultivation. Through affection she purifies the activity of
+man. "Superior in power of affection, more able to keep both the
+intellectual and the active powers in continual subordination to
+feeling, women are formed as the natural intermediaries between Humanity
+and man. The Great Being confides specially to them its moral
+Providence, maintaining through them the direct and constant cultivation
+of universal affection, in the midst of all the distractions of thought
+or action, which are for ever withdrawing men from its influence....
+Beside the uniform influence of every woman on every man, to attach him
+to Humanity, such is the importance and the difficulty of this ministry
+that each of us should be placed under the special guidance of one of
+these angels, to answer for him, as it were, to the Great Being. This
+moral guardianship may assume three types,--the mother, the wife and the
+daughter; each having several modifications, as shown in the concluding
+volume. Together they form the three simple modes of solidarity, or
+unity with contemporaries,--obedience, union and protection--as well as
+the three degrees of continuity between ages, by uniting us with the
+past, the present and the future. In accordance with my theory of the
+brain, each corresponds with one of our three altruistic
+instincts--veneration, attachment and benevolence."
+
+
+  Conclusion.
+
+How the positive method of observation and verification of real facts
+has landed us in this, and much else of the same kind, is extremely hard
+to guess. Seriously to examine an encyclopaedic system, that touches
+life, society and knowledge at every point, is evidently beyond the
+compass of such an article as this. There is in every chapter a whole
+group of speculative suggestions, each of which would need a long
+chapter to itself to elaborate or to discuss. There is at least one
+biological speculation of astounding audacity, that could be examined in
+nothing less than a treatise. Perhaps we have said enough to show that
+after performing a great and real service to thought Comte almost
+sacrificed his claims to gratitude by the invention of a system that, as
+such, and independently of detached suggestions, is markedly retrograde.
+But the world will take what is available in Comte, while forgetting
+that in his work which is as irrational in one way as Hegel is in
+another.
+
+  See also the article POSITIVISM.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Works, Editions and Translations: Cours de philosophie
+  positive_ (6 vols., Paris, 1830-1842; 2nd ed. with preface by E.
+  Littre, Paris, 1864; 5th ed., 1893-1894; Eng. trans. Harriet
+  Martineau, 2 vols., London, 1853; 3 vols. London and New York, 1896);
+  _Discours sur l'esprit positif_ (Paris, 1844; Eng. trans. with
+  explanation E. S. Beesley, 1905); _Ordre et progres_ (ib. 1848);
+  _Discours sur l'ensemble de positivisme_ (1848, Eng. trans. J. H.
+  Bridges, London, 1852); _Systeme de politique positive, ou Traite de
+  sociologie_ (4 vols., Paris, 1852-1854; ed. 1898; Eng. trans. with
+  analysis and explanatory summary by Bridges, F. Harrison, E. S.
+  Beesley and others, 1875-1879); _Catechisme positiviste_ (Paris, 1852;
+  3rd ed., 1890; Eng. trans. R. Congreve, Lond. 1858, 3rd ed., 1891);
+  _Appel aux Conservateurs_ (Paris, 1855 and 1898); _Synthese
+  subjective_ (1856 and 1878); _Essai de philos. mathematique_ (Paris,
+  1878); P. Descours and H. Gordon Jones, _Fundamental Principles of
+  Positive Philos._ (trans. 1905), with biog. preface by E. S. Beesley.
+  The Letters of Comte have been published as follows:--the letters to
+  M. Valat and J. S. Mill, in _La Critique philosophique_ (1877);
+  correspondence with Mde. de Vaux (ib., 1884); _Correspondance inedite
+  d'Aug. Comte_ (1903 foll.); _Lettres inedites de J. S. Mill a Aug.
+  Comte publ. avec les responses de Comte_ (1899).
+
+  _Criticism._--J. S. Mill, _Auguste Comte and Positivism_; J. H.
+  Bridges' reply to Mill, _The Unity of Comte's Life and Doctrines_
+  (1866); Herbert Spencer's essay on the _Genesis of Science_ and
+  pamphlet on _The Classification of the Sciences_; Huxley's "Scientific
+  Aspects of Positivism," in his _Lay Sermons_; R. Congreve, _Essays
+  Political, Social and Religious_ (1874); J. Fiske, _Outlines of Cosmic
+  Philosophy_ (1874); G. H. Lewes, _History of Philosophy_, vol. ii.;
+  Edward Caird, _The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte_ (Glasgow,
+  1885); Hermann Gruber, _Aug. Comte der Begrunder des Positivismus.
+  Sein Leben und seine Lehre_ (Freiburg, 1889) and _Der Positivismus vom
+  Tode Aug. Comtes bis auf unsere Tage, 1857-1891_ (Freib. 1891); L.
+  Levy-Bruhl, _La Philosophie d'Aug. Comte_ (Paris, 1900); H. D. Hutton,
+  _Comte's Theory of Man's Future_ (1877), _Comte, the Man and the
+  Founder_ (1891), _Comte's Life and Work_ (1892); E. de Roberty, _Aug.
+  Comte et Herbert Spencer_ (Paris, 1894); J. Watson, _Comte, Mill and
+  Spencer. An outline of Philos._ (1895 and 1899); Millet, _La
+  Souverainete d'apres Aug. Comte_ (1905); L. de Montesquieu Fezensac,
+  _Le Systeme politique d'Aug. Comte_ (1907); G. Dumas, _Psychologie de
+  deux Messies positivistes_ (1905).     (J. Mo.; X.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For Comte's place in the history of ethical theory see ETHICS.
+
+
+
+
+COMUS (from [Greek: komos], revel, or a company of revellers), in the
+later mythology of the Greeks, the god of festive mirth. In classic
+mythology the personification does not exist; but Comus appears in the
+[Greek: Eikones], or _Descriptions of Pictures_, of Philostratus, a
+writer of the 3rd century A.D. as a winged youth, slumbering in a
+standing attitude, his legs crossed, his countenance flushed with wine,
+his head--which is sunk upon his breast--crowned with dewy flowers, his
+left hand feebly grasping a hunting spear, his right an inverted torch.
+Ben Jonson introduces Comus, in his masque entitled _Pleasure reconciled
+to Virtue_ (1619), as the portly jovial patron of good cheer, "First
+father of sauce and deviser of jelly." In the _Comus, sive Phagesiposia
+Cimmeria; Somnium_ (1608, and at Oxford, 1634), a moral allegory by a
+Dutch author, Hendrik van der Putten, or Erycius Puteanus, the
+conception is more nearly akin to Milton's, and Comus is a being whose
+enticements are more disguised and delicate than those of Jonson's
+deity. But Milton's Comus is a creation of his own. His story is one
+
+  "Which never yet was heard in tale or song
+   From old or modern bard, in hall or bower."
+
+Born from the loves of Bacchus and Circe, he is "much like his father,
+but his mother more"--a sorcerer, like her, who gives to travellers a
+magic draught that changes their human face into the "brutal form of
+some wild beast," and, hiding from them their own foul disfigurement,
+makes them forget all the pure ties of life, "to roll with pleasure in a
+sensual sty."
+
+
+
+
+COMYN, JOHN (d. c. 1300), Scottish baron, was a son of John Comyn (d.
+1274), justiciar of Galloway, who was a nephew of the constable of
+Scotland, Alexander Comyn, earl of Buchan (d. 1289), and of the powerful
+and wealthy Walter Comyn, earl of Mentieth (d. 1258). With his uncle the
+earl of Buchan, the elder Comyn took a prominent part in the affairs of
+Scotland during the latter part of the 13th century, and he had
+interests and estates in England as well as in his native land. He
+fought for Henry III. at Northampton and at Lewes, and was afterwards
+imprisoned for a short time in London. The younger Comyn, who had
+inherited the lordship of Badenoch from his great-uncle the earl of
+Mentieth, was appointed one of the guardians of Scotland in 1286, and
+shared in the negotiations between Edward I. and the Scots in 1289 and
+1290. When Margaret, the Maid of Norway, died in 1290, Comyn was one of
+the claimants for the Scottish throne, but he did not press his
+candidature, and like the other Comyns urged the claim of John de
+Baliol. After supporting Baliol in his rising against Edward I., Comyn
+submitted to the English king in 1296; he was sent to reside in England,
+but returned to Scotland shortly before his death.
+
+Comyn's son, JOHN COMYN (d. 1306), called the "red Comyn," is more
+famous. Like his father he assisted Baliol in his rising against Edward
+I., and he was for some time a hostage in England. Having been made
+guardian of Scotland after the battle of Falkirk in 1298 he led the
+resistance to the English king for about five years, and then early in
+1304 made an honourable surrender. Comyn is chiefly known for his
+memorable quarrel with Robert the Bruce. The origin of the dispute is
+uncertain. Doubtless the two regarded each other as rivals; Comyn may
+have refused to join in the insurrection planned by Bruce. At all events
+the pair met at Dumfries in January 1306; during a heated altercation
+charges of treachery were made, and Comyn was stabbed to death either by
+Bruce or by his followers.
+
+Another member of the Comyn family who took an active part in Scottish
+affairs during these troubled times is JOHN COMYN, earl of Buchan (d. c.
+1313). This earl, a son of Earl Alexander, was constable of Scotland,
+and was first an ally and then an enemy of Robert the Bruce.
+
+
+
+
+CONACRE (a corruption of corn-acre), in Ireland, a system of letting
+land, mostly in small patches, and usually for the growth of potatoes as
+a kind of return instead of wages. It is now practically obsolete.
+
+
+
+
+CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1802-1891), American Biblical scholar, was
+born at Brandon, Vermont, on the 13th of December 1802. Graduating at
+Middlebury College in 1823, he became tutor in the Columbian University
+(now George Washington University) from 1825 to 1827, professor of
+Greek, Latin and German at Waterville College (now Colby College) from
+1827 to 1833, professor of biblical literature and criticism in Hamilton
+(New York) Theological Institute from 1835 to 1851, and professor of
+Hebrew and of Biblical exegesis in Rochester Theological Seminary from
+1851 to 1857. From 1857 to 1875 he was employed by the American Bible
+Union on the revision of the New Testament (1871). He married in 1830
+Hannah O'Brien Chaplin (1809-1865), who was herself the author of _The
+Earnest Man_, a biography of Adoniram Judson (1855), and of _The History
+of the English Bible_ (1859), besides being her husband's able assistant
+in his Hebrew studies. He died in Brooklyn, New York, on the 30th of
+April 1891. Conant was the foremost Hebrew scholar of his time in
+America. His treatise, _The Meaning and Use of "Baptizein"
+Philologically and Historically Investigated_ (1860), an "appendix to
+the revised version of the Gospel by Matthew," is a valuable summary of
+the evidence for Baptist doctrine. He translated and edited Gesenius's
+_Hebrew Grammar_ (1839; 1877), and published revised versions with notes
+of _Job_ (1856), _Genesis_ (1868), _Psalms_ (1871), _Proverbs_ (1872),
+_Isaiah_ i.-xiii. 22 (1874), and _Historical Books of the Old Testament,
+Joshua to II. Kings_ (1884).
+
+
+
+
+CONATION (from Lat. _conari_, to attempt, strive), a psychological term,
+originally chosen by Sir William Hamilton (_Lectures on Metaphysics_,
+pp. 127 foll.), used generally of an attitude of mind involving a
+tendency to take _action_, e.g. when one decides to remove an object
+which is causing a painful sensation, or to try to interrupt an
+unpleasant train of thought. This use of the word tends to lay emphasis
+on the mind as self-determined in relation to external objects. Another
+less common use of the word is to describe the pleasant or painful
+sensations which accompany muscular activity; the _conative_ phenomena,
+thus regarded, are psychic changes brought about by external causes.
+
+The chief difficulty in connexion with Conation is that of
+distinguishing it from Feeling, a term of very vague significance both
+in technical and in common usage. Thus the German psychologist F.
+Brentano holds that no real distinction can be made. He argues that the
+mental process from sorrow or dissatisfaction, through hope for a change
+and courage to act, up to the voluntary determination which issues in
+action, is a single homogeneous whole (_Psychologie_, pp. 308-309). The
+mere fact, however, that the series is continuous is no ground for not
+distinguishing its parts; if it were so, it would be impossible to
+distinguish by separate names the various colours in the solar spectrum,
+or indeed perception from conception. A more material objection,
+moreover, is that, in point of fact, the feeling of pleasure or pain
+roused by a given stimulus is specifically different from, and indeed
+may not be followed by, the determination to modify or remove it.
+Pleasure and pain, i.e. hedonic sensation _per se_, are essentially
+distinct from appetition and aversion; the pleasures of hearing music or
+enjoying sunshine are not in general accompanied by any volitional
+activity. It is true that painful sensations are generally accompanied
+by definite aversion or a tendency to take action, but the cases of
+positive pleasure are amply sufficient to support a distinction.
+Therefore, though in ordinary language such phrases as "feeling
+aversion" are quite legitimate, accurate psychology compels us to
+confine "feeling" to states of consciousness in which no conative
+activity is present, i.e. to the psychic phenomena of pleasure or pain
+considered in and by themselves. The study of such phenomena is
+specifically described as Hedonics (Gr. [Greek: hedone], pleasure) or
+Algedonics (Gr. [Greek: algedon], pain); the latter term was coined by
+H. R. Marshall (in _Pain, Pleasure and Aesthetics_, 1894), but has not
+been generally used.
+
+The problem of conation is closely related to that of Attention (q.v.),
+which indeed, regarded as active consciousness, implies conation (G. T.
+Ladd, _Psychology_, 1894, p. 213). Thus, whenever the mind deliberately
+focusses itself upon a particular object, there is implied a psychic
+effort (for the relation between Attention and Conation, see G. F.
+Stout, _Analytic Psychology_, book i. chap. vi.). All conscious action,
+and in a less degree even unconscious or reflex action, implies
+attention; when the mind "attends" to any given external object, the
+organ through the medium of which information regarding that object is
+conveyed to the mind is set in motion. (See PSYCHOLOGY.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCA, SEBASTIANO (1679-1764), Italian painter of the Florentine school,
+was born at Gaeta, and studied at Naples under Francesco Solimena. In
+1706, along with his brother Giovanni, who acted as his assistant, he
+settled at Rome, where for several years he worked in chalk only, to
+improve his drawing. He was patronized by the Cardinal Ottoboni, who
+introduced him to Clement XI.; and a Jeremiah painted in the church of
+St John Lateran was rewarded by the pope with knighthood and by the
+cardinal with a diamond cross. His fame grew quickly, and he received
+the patronage of most of the crowned heads of Europe. He painted till
+near the day of his death, and left behind him an immense number of
+pictures, mostly of a brilliant and showy kind, which are distributed
+among the churches of Italy. Of these the Probatica, or Pool of Siloam,
+in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala, at Siena, is considered the
+finest.
+
+
+
+
+CONCARNEAU, a fishing port of western France in the department of
+Finistere, 14 m. by road S.E. of Quimper. Pop. (1906) 7887. The town
+occupies a picturesque situation on an inlet opening into the Bay of La
+Foret. The old portion stands on an island, and is surrounded by
+ramparts, parts of which are believed to date from the 14th century. It
+is an important centre of the sardine, mackerel and lobster fisheries.
+Sardine-preserving, boat-building and the manufacture of sardine-boxes
+are carried on.
+
+
+
+
+CONCEPCION, a province of southern Chile, lying between the provinces of
+Maule and Nuble on the N. and Bio-Bio on the S., and extending from the
+Pacific to the Argentine boundary. Its outline is very irregular, the
+Itata river forming its northern boundary, and the Bio-Bio and one of
+its tributaries a part of its southern boundary. Area (estimated) 3252
+sq. m.; pop. (1895) 188,190. Concepcion is the most important province
+of southern Chile because of its advantageous commercial position,
+fertility and productive industries. Its coast is indented by two large
+well-sheltered bays, Talcahuano and Arauco, the former having the ports
+of Talcahuano, Penco and El Tome, and the latter Coronel and Lota. Its
+railway communications are good, and the Bio-Bio, which crosses its S.W.
+corner, has 100 m. of navigable channel. The province produces wheat and
+manufactures flour for export; its wines are reputed the best in Chile,
+cattle are bred in large numbers, wool is produced, and considerable
+timber is shipped. Near the coast are extensive deposits of coal, which
+is shipped from Lota and Coronel, the former being the site of the most
+productive coal-mine in South America. The climate is mild and the
+rainfall is abundant. Large copper-smelting and glass works have been
+established at Lota because of its coal resources. The valley of the
+Itata is largely devoted to vine cultivation, and the port of this
+district, El Tome, is noted for its wine vaults and trade. It also
+possesses a small woollen factory. The principal towns are on the coast
+and had in 1895 the following populations: Talcahuano, 10,431; Lota,
+9797 (largely operatives in the mines and smelting works); Coronel,
+4575; and El Tome, 3977.
+
+
+
+
+CONCEPCION, a city of southern Chile, capital of a province and
+department of the same name, on the right bank of the Bio-Bio river, 7
+m. above its mouth, and 355 m. S.S.W. of Santiago by rail. Pop. (1895)
+39,837; (1902, estimated) 49,351. It is the commercial centre of a rich
+agricultural region, but because of obstructions at the mouth of the
+Bio-Bio its trade passes in great part through the port of Talcahuano, 8
+m. distant by rail. The small port of Penco, situated on the same bay
+and 10 m. distant by rail, also receives a part of the trade because of
+official restrictions at Talcahuano. Concepcion is one of the southern
+termini of the Chilean central railway, by which it is connected with
+Santiago to the N., with Valdivia and Puerto Montt to the S., and with
+the port of Talcahuano. Another line extends southward through the
+Chilean coal-producing districts to Curanilhue, crossing the Bio-Bio by
+a steel viaduct 6000 ft. long on 62 skeleton piers; and a short line of
+10 m. runs northward to Penco. The Bio-Bio is navigable above the city
+for 100 m. and considerable traffic comes through this channel. The
+districts tributary to Concepcion produce wheat, wine, wool, cattle,
+coal and timber, and among the industrial establishments of the city are
+flour mills, furniture and carriage factories, distilleries and
+breweries. The city is built on a level plain but little above the
+sea-level, and is laid out in regular squares with broad streets. It is
+an episcopal see with a cathedral and several fine churches, and is the
+seat of a court of appeal. The city was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in
+1550, and received the singular title of "La Concepcion del Nuevo
+Extremo." It was located on the bay of Talcahuano where the town of
+Penco now stands, about 9 m. from its present site, but was destroyed by
+earthquakes in 1570, 1730 and 1751, and was then (1755) removed to the
+margin of the Bio-Bio. In 1835 it was again laid in ruins, a graphic
+description of which is given by Charles Darwin in _The Voyage of H.M.S.
+Beagle_. The city was twice burned by the Araucanians during their long
+struggle against the Spanish colonists.
+
+
+
+
+CONCEPCION, or VILLA CONCEPCION, the principal town and a river port of
+northern Paraguay, on the Paraguay river, 138 m. (234 m. by river) N. of
+Asuncion, and about 345 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1895, estimate)
+10,000, largely Indians and mestizos. It is an important commercial
+centre, and a port of call for the river steamers trading with the
+Brazilian town of Corumba, Matto Grosso. It is the principal point for
+the exportation of Paraguay tea, or "yerba mate" (_Ilex paraguayensis_).
+The town has a street railway and telephone service, a national college,
+a public school, a market, and some important commercial establishments.
+The neighbouring country is sparsely settled and produces little except
+forest products. Across the river, in the Paraguayan Chaco, is an
+English missionary station, whose territory extends inland among the
+Indians for many miles.
+
+
+
+
+CONCEPT[1] (Lat. _conceptus_, a thought, from _concipere_, to take
+together, combine in thought; Ger. _Begriff_), in philosophy, a term
+applied to a general idea derived from and considered apart from the
+particulars observed by the senses. The mental process by which this
+idea is obtained is called abstraction (q.v.). By the comparison, for
+instance, of a number of boats, the mind abstracts a certain common
+quality or qualities in virtue of which the mind affirms the general
+idea of "boat." Thus the connotation of the term "boat," being the sum
+of those qualities in respect of which all boats are regarded as alike,
+whatever their individual peculiarities may be, is described as a
+"concept." The psychic process by which a concept is affirmed is called
+"Conception," a term which is often loosely used in a concrete sense for
+"Concept" itself. It is also used even more loosely as synonymous in the
+widest sense with "idea," "notion." Strictly, however, it is contrasted
+with "perception," and implies the mental reconstruction and combination
+of sense-given data. Thus when one carries one's thoughts back to a
+series of events, one constructs a psychic whole made up of parts which
+take definite shape and character by their mutual interrelations. This
+process is called _conceptual synthesis_, the possibility of which is a
+_sine qua non_ for the exchange of information by speech and writing. It
+should be noticed that this (very common) psychological interpretation
+of "conception" differs from the metaphysical or general philosophical
+definition given above, in so far as it includes mental presentations in
+which the universal is not specifically distinguished from the
+particulars. Some psychologists prefer to restrict the term to the
+narrower use which excludes all mental states in which particulars are
+cognized, even though the universal be present also.
+
+In biology conception is the coalescence of the male and female
+generative elements, producing pregnancy.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word "conceit" in its various senses ("idea," "plan," "fancy,"
+    "imagination," and, by modern extension, an overweening sense of one's
+    own value) is likewise derived ultimately from the Latin _concipere_.
+    It appears to have been formed directly from the English derivative
+    "conceive" on the analogy of "deceit" from "deceive." According to the
+    _New English Dictionary_ there is no intermediate form in Old French.
+
+
+
+
+CONCEPTUALISM (from "Concept"), in philosophy, a term applied by modern
+writers to a scholastic theory of the nature of universals, to
+distinguish it from the two extremes of Nominalism and Realism. The
+scholastic philosophers took up the old Greek problem as to the nature
+of true reality--whether the general idea or the particular object is
+more truly real. Between Realism which asserts that the _genus_ is more
+real than the _species_, and that particulars have no reality, and
+Nominalism according to which _genus_ and _species_ are merely names
+(_nomina, flatus vocis_), Conceptualism takes a mean position. The
+conceptualist holds that universals have a real existence, but only in
+the mind, as the concepts which unite the individual things: e.g. there
+is in the mind a general notion or idea of boats, by reference to which
+the mind can decide whether a given object is, or is not, a boat. On the
+one hand "boat" is something more than a mere sound with a purely
+arbitrary conventional significance; on the other it has, apart from
+particular things to which it applies, no reality; its reality is purely
+abstract or conceptual. This theory was enunciated by Abelard in
+opposition to Roscellinus (nominalist) and William of Champeaux
+(realist). He held that it is only by becoming a predicate that the
+class-notion or general term acquires reality. Thus similarity
+(_conformitas_) is observed to exist between a number of objects in
+respect of a particular quality or qualities. This quality becomes real
+as a mental concept when it is predicated of all the objects possessing
+it ("quod de pluribus natum est praedicari"). Hence Abelard's theory is
+alternatively known as Sermonism (_sermo_, "predicate"). His statement
+of this position oscillates markedly, inclining sometimes towards the
+nominalist, sometimes towards the realist statement, using the arguments
+of the one against the other. Hence he is described by some as a
+realist, by others as a nominalist. When he comes to explain that
+objective similarity in things which is represented by the class-concept
+or general term, he adopts the theological Platonic view that the ideas
+which are the archetypes of the qualities exist in the mind of God. They
+are, therefore, _ante rem, in re_ and _post rem_, or, as Avicenna stated
+it, _universalia ante multiplicitatem, in multiplicitate, post
+multiplicitatem_. (See LOGIC, METAPHYSICS.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCERT (through the French from Lat. CON-, with, and _certare_, to
+strive), a term meaning, in general, co-operation, agreement or union;
+the more specific usages being, in music, for a public performance by
+instrumentalists, vocalists or both combined, and in diplomacy, for an
+understanding or agreement for common action between two or more states,
+whether defined by treaty or not. The term "Concert of Europe" has been
+commonly applied, since the congress of Vienna (1814-1815), to the
+European powers consulting or acting together in questions of common
+interest. (See ALLIANCE and EUROPE: _HISTORY_.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCERTINA, or MELODION (Fr. _concertina_, Ger. _Ziehharmonica_ or
+_Bandoneon_), a wind instrument of the seraphine family with free reeds,
+forming a link in the evolution of the harmonium from the mouth organ,
+intermediate links being the cheng and the accordion. The concertina
+consists of two hexagonal or rectangular keyboards connected by a long
+expansible bellows of many folds similar to that of the accordion. The
+keyboards are furnished with rows of knobs, which, on being pressed down
+by the fingers, open valves admitting the air compressed by the bellows
+to the free reeds, which are thus set in vibration. These free reeds
+consist of narrow tongues of brass riveted by one end to the inside
+surface of the keyboard, and having their free ends slightly bent, some
+outwards, some inwards, the former actuated by suction when the bellows
+are expanded, the latter by compression. The pitch of the note depends
+upon the length and thickness of the reeds, reduction of the length
+tending to sharpen the pitch of the note, while reduction of the
+thickness lowers it. The bellows being unprovided with a valve can only
+draw in and emit the air through the reed valves. In order to produce
+the sound, the concertina is held horizontally between the hands, the
+bellows being by turns compressed and expanded. The English concertina,
+invented and patented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1829, the year of the
+reputed invention of the accordion (q.v.), is constructed with a double
+action, the same note being produced on compressing and expanding the
+bellows, whereas in the German concertina or accordion two different
+notes are given out. Concertinas are made in complete families--treble,
+tenor, bass and double bass, having a combined total range of nearly
+seven octaves. The compass is as follows:--
+
+[Illustration: Treble concertina, double action]
+
+[Illustration: Tenor concertina, single action]
+
+[Illustration: Bass concertina, single action]
+
+[Illustration: Double bass concertina, single action]
+
+The timbre of the concertina is penetrating but soft, and capable of the
+most delicate gradations of tone. This quality is due to a law of
+acoustics governing the vibration of free reeds by means of which
+_fortes_ and _pianos_ are obtained by varying the pressure of the wind,
+as is also the case with the double reed or the single or beating reed,
+while the pressure of the reed with the lips combined with greater
+pressure of wind produces the harmonic overtones which are not given out
+by free reeds. The English concertina possesses one peculiarity which
+renders it unsuitable for playing with instruments tuned according to
+the law of equal temperament, such as the pianoforte, harmonium or
+melodion, i.e. it has enharmonic intervals between G# and A# and between
+D[flat] and E[flat]. The German concertina is not constructed according
+to this system; its compass extends down to C or even B[flat], but it is
+not provided with double action. It is possible on the English
+concertina to play diatonic and chromatic passages or arpeggios in
+legato or staccato style with rapidity, shakes single and double in
+thirds; it is also possible to play in parts as on the pianoforte or
+organ and to produce very rich chords. Concertos were written for
+concertina with orchestra by Molique and Regondi, a sonata with piano by
+Molique, while Tschaikowsky scored in his second orchestral suite for
+four accordions.
+
+The aeola, constructed by the representatives of the original firm of
+Wheatstone, is a still more artistically developed concertina, having
+among other improvements steel reeds instead of brass, which increase
+the purity and delicacy of the timbre.
+
+  See also ACCORDION; CHENG; HARMONIUM; Free-Reed Vibrator.     (K. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCERTO (Lat. _concertus_, from _certare_, to strive, also confused
+with _concentus_), in music, a term which appears as early as the
+beginning of the 17th century, at first as a title of no very definite
+meaning, but which early acquired a sense justified by its etymology and
+became applied chiefly to compositions in which unequal instrumental or
+vocal forces are brought into opposition.
+
+Although by Bach's time the concerto as a polyphonic instrumental form
+was thoroughly established, the term frequently appears in the autograph
+title-pages of his church cantatas, even when the cantata contains no
+instrumental prelude. Indeed, so entirely does the actual concerto form,
+as Bach understands it, depend upon the opposition of masses of tone
+unequal in volume with a compensating inequality in power of commanding
+attention, that Bach is able to rewrite an instrumental movement as a
+chorus without the least incongruity of style. A splendid example of
+this is the first chorus of a university festival cantata, _Vereinigte
+Zwietracht der wechselnden Saiten_, the very title of which ("united
+contest of turn-about strings") is a perfect definition of the earlier
+form of _concerto grosso_, in which the chief mass of the orchestra was
+opposed, not to a mere solo instrument, but to a small group called the
+_concertino_, or else the whole work was for a large orchestral mass in
+which tutti passages alternate with passages in which the whole
+orchestra is dispersed in every possible kind of grouping. But the
+special significance of this particular chorus is that it is arranged
+from the second movement of the first Brandenburg concerto; and that
+while the orchestral material is unaltered except for transposition of
+key, enlargement of force and substitution of trumpets and drums for the
+original horns, the whole chorus part has been evolved from the solo
+part for a kit violin (_violino piccolo_). This admirably illustrates
+Bach's grasp of the true idea of a concerto, namely, that whatever the
+relations may be between the forces in respect of volume or sound, the
+whole treatment of the form must depend upon the healthy relation of
+function between that force which commands more and that which commands
+less attention. _Ceteris paribus_ the individual, suitably placed, will
+command more attention than the crowd, whether in real life, drama or
+instrumental music. And in music the human voice, with human words, will
+thrust any orchestral force into the background, the moment it can make
+itself heard at all. Hence it is not surprising that the earlier
+concerto forms should show the closest affinity (not only in general
+aesthetic principle, but in many technical details) with the form of the
+vocal aria, as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti. And the treatment of the
+orchestra is, _mutatis mutandis_, exactly the same in both. The
+orchestra is entrusted with a highly pregnant and short summary of the
+main contents of the movement, and the solo, or the groups corresponding
+thereto, will either take up this material or first introduce new themes
+to be combined with it, and, in short, enter into relations with the
+orchestra very like those between the actors and the chorus in Greek
+drama. If the aria before Mozart may be regarded as a single large
+melody expanded by the device of the ritornello so as to give full
+expression to the power of a singer against an instrumental
+accompaniment, so the polyphonic concerto form may be regarded as an
+expansion of the aria form to a scale worthy of the larger and purely
+instrumental forces employed, and so rendered capable of absorbing large
+polyphonic and other types of structure incompatible with the lyric idea
+of the aria. The _da capo_ form, by which the aria had attained its full
+dimensions through the addition of a second strain in foreign keys
+followed by the original strain _da capo_, was absorbed by the
+polyphonic concerto on an enormous scale, both in first movements and
+finales (see Bach's Klavier concerto in E, Violin concerto in E, first
+movement), while for slow movements the _ground bass_ (see VARIATIONS),
+diversified by changes of key (Klavier concerto in D minor), the more
+melodic types of binary form, sometimes with the repeats ornamentally
+varied or inverted (Concerto for 3 klaviers in D minor, Concerto for
+klavier, flute and violin in A minor), and in finales the _rondo_ form
+(Violin concerto in E major, Klavier concerto in F minor) and the binary
+form (3rd Brandenburg concerto) may be found.
+
+When conceptions of musical form changed and the modern sonata style
+arose, the peculiar conditions of the concerto gave rise to problems the
+difficulty of which only the highest classical intellects could
+appreciate or solve. The number and contrast of the themes necessary to
+work out a first movement of a sonata are far too great to be contained
+within the single musical sentence of Bach's and Handel's ritornello,
+even when it is as long as the thirty bars of Bach's Italian concerto (a
+work in which every essential of the polyphonic concerto is reproduced
+on the harpsichord by means of the contrasts between its full register
+on the lower of its two keyboards and its solo stops on both). Bach's
+sons had taken shrewd steps in forming the new style; and Mozart, as a
+boy, modelled himself closely on Johann Christian Bach, and by the time
+he was twenty was able to write concerto ritornellos that gave the
+orchestra admirable opportunity for asserting its character and resource
+in the statement in charmingly epigrammatic style of some five or six
+sharply contrasted themes, afterwards to be worked out with additions by
+the solo with the orchestra's co-operation and intervention. As the
+scale of the works increases the problem becomes very difficult, because
+the alternation between solo and tutti easily produces a sectional type
+of structure incompatible with the high degree of organization required
+in first movements; yet frequent alternation is evidently necessary, as
+the orchestral solo is audible only above a very subdued orchestral
+accompaniment, and it would be highly inartistic to use the orchestra
+for no other purpose. Hence in the classical concerto the ritornello is
+never abandoned, in spite of the enormous dimensions to which the sonata
+style expanded it. And though from the time of Mendelssohn onwards most
+composers have seemed to regard it as a conventional impediment easily
+abandoned, it may be doubted whether any modern concerto, except the
+four magnificent examples of Brahms, and Dr Joachim's Hungarian
+concerto, possesses first movements in which the orchestra seems to
+enjoy breathing space. And certainly in the classical concerto the entry
+of the solo instrument, after the long opening tutti, is always dramatic
+in direct proportion to its delay. The great danger in handling so long
+an orchestral prelude is that the work may for some minutes be
+indistinguishable from a symphony and thus the entry of the solo may be
+unexpected without being inevitable. This is especially the case if the
+composer has treated his opening tutti like the exposition of a sonata
+movement, and made a deliberate transition from his first group of
+themes to a second group in a complementary key, even if the transition
+is only temporary, as in Beethoven's C minor concerto. Mozart keeps his
+whole tutti in the tonic, relieved only by his mastery of sudden
+subsidiary modulation; and so perfect is his marshalling of his
+resources that in his hands a tutti a hundred bars long passes by with
+the effect of a splendid pageant, of which the meaning is evidently
+about to be revealed by the solo. After the C minor concerto, Beethoven
+grasped the true function of the opening tutti and enlarged it to his
+new purposes. With an interesting experiment of Mozart's before him, he,
+in his G major concerto, _Op. 53_, allowed the solo player to state the
+opening theme, making the orchestra enter _pianissimo_ in a foreign key,
+a wonderful incident which has led to the absurd statement that he
+"abolished the opening tutti," and that Mendelssohn in so doing has
+"followed his example." In this concerto he also gave considerable
+variety of key to the opening tutti by the use of an important theme
+which executes a considerable series of modulations, an entirely
+different thing from a deliberate modulation from material in one key to
+material in another. His fifth and last pianoforte concerto, in E flat,
+commonly called the "Emperor," begins with a rhapsodical introduction of
+extreme brilliance for the solo player, followed by a tutti of unusual
+length which is confined to the tonic major and minor with a strictness
+explained by the gorgeous modulations with which the solo subsequently
+treats the second subject. In this concerto Beethoven also dispenses
+with the only really conventional feature of the form, namely, the
+_cadenza_, a custom elaborated from the operatic aria, in which the
+singer was allowed to extemporize a flourish on a pause near the end. A
+similar pause was made in the final ritornello of a concerto, and the
+soloist was supposed to extemporize what should be equivalent to a
+symphonic coda, with results which could not but be deplorable unless
+the player (or cadenza writer) were either the composer himself, or
+capable of entering into his intentions, like Joachim, who has written
+the finest extant cadenza of classical violin concertos.
+
+Brahms's first concerto in D minor, _Op. 15_, was the result of an
+immense amount of work, and, though on a mass of material originally
+intended for a symphony, was nevertheless so perfectly assimilated into
+the true concerto form that in his next essay, the violin concerto, _Op.
+77_, he had no more to learn, and was free to make true innovations. He
+succeeds in presenting the contrasts even of remote keys so immediately
+that they are serviceable in the opening tutti and give the form a wider
+range in definitely functional key than any other instrumental music.
+Thus in the opening tutti of the D minor concerto the second subject is
+announced in B flat minor. In the B flat pianoforte concerto, _Op. 83_,
+it appears in D minor, and in the double concerto, _Op. 102_, for violin
+and violoncello in A minor it appears in F major. In none of these cases
+is it in the key in which the solo develops it, and it is reached with
+a directness sharply contrasted with the symphonic deliberation with
+which it is approached in the solo. In the violin concerto, _Op. 77_,
+Brahms develops a counterplot in the opposition between solo and
+orchestra, inasmuch as after the solo has worked out its second subject
+the orchestra bursts in, not with the opening ritornello, but with its
+own version of the material with which the solo originally entered. In
+other words we have now not only the development by the solo of material
+stated by the orchestra but also a counter-development by the orchestra
+of material stated by the solo. This concerto is, on the other hand,
+remarkable as being the last in which a blank space is left for a
+cadenza, Brahms having in his friend Joachim a kindred spirit worthy of
+such trust. In the pianoforte concerto in B flat, and in the double
+concerto,[1] _Op. 102_, the idea of an introductory statement in which
+the solo takes part before the opening tutti is carried out on a large
+scale, and in the double concerto both first and second subjects are
+thus suggested. It is unnecessary to speak of the other movements of
+concerto form, as the sectional structure that so easily results from
+the opposition between solo and orchestra is not of great disadvantage
+to slow movements and finales, which accordingly do not show important
+differences from the ordinary types of symphonic and chamber music. The
+scherzo, on the other hand, is normally of too small a range of contrast
+for successful adaptation to concerto form, and the solitary great
+example of its use is the second movement of Brahms's B flat pianoforte
+concerto.
+
+Nothing is more easy to handle with inartistic or pseudo-classic
+effectiveness than the opposition between a brilliant solo player and an
+orchestra; and, as the inevitable tendency of even the most artistic
+concerto has been to exhaust the resources of the solo instrument in the
+increased difficulty of making a proper contrast between solo and
+orchestra, so the technical difficulty of concertos has steadily
+increased until even in classical times it was so great that the
+orthodox definition of a concerto is that it is "an instrumental
+composition designed to show the skill of an executant, and one which is
+almost invariably accompanied by orchestra." This idea is in flat
+violation of the whole history and aesthetics of the form, which can
+never be understood by means of a study of averages. In art the average
+is always false, and the individual organization of the greatest
+classical works is the only sound basis for generalizations, historic or
+aesthetic.     (D. F. T.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Double and triple concertos are concertos with two or three solo
+    players. A concerto for several solo players is called a concertante.
+
+
+
+
+CONCH (Lat. _concha_, Gr. [Greek: konche]), a shell, particularly one of
+a mollusc; hence the term "conchology," the science which deals with
+such shells, more used formerly when molluscs were studied and
+classified according to the shell formation; the word is chiefly now
+used for the collection of shells (see MOLLUSCA, and such articles as
+GASTROPODA, MALACOSTRACA, &c.). Large spiral conchs have been from early
+times used as a form of trumpet, emitting a very loud sound. They are
+used in the West Indies and the South Sea Islands. The Tritons of
+ancient mythology are represented as blowing such "wreathed horns." In
+anatomy, the term _concha_ or "conch" is used of the external ear, or of
+the hollowed central part leading to the meatus; and, in architecture,
+it is sometimes given to the half dome over the semicircular apse of the
+basilica. In late Roman work at Baalbek and Palmyra and in Renaissance
+buildings shells are frequently carved in the heads of circular niches.
+A low class of the negro or other inhabitants of the Bahamas and the
+Florida Keys are sometimes called "Conches" or "Conks" from the
+shell-fish which form their staple food.
+
+
+
+
+CONCHOID (Gr. [Greek: konche], shell, and [Greek: eidos], form), a plane
+curve invented by the Greek mathematician Nicomedes, who devised a
+mechanical construction for it and applied it to the problem of the
+duplication of the cube, the construction of two mean proportionals
+between two given quantities, and possibly to the trisection of an angle
+as in the 8th lemma of Archimedes. Proclus grants Nicomedes the credit
+of this last application, but it is disputed by Pappus, who claims that
+his own discovery was original. The conchoid has been employed by later
+mathematicians, notably Sir Isaac Newton, in the construction of various
+cubic curves.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The conchoid is generated as follows:--Let O be a fixed point and BC a
+fixed straight line; draw any line through O intersecting BC in P and
+take on the line PO two points X, X', such that PX = PX' = a constant
+quantity. Then the locus of X and X' is the conchoid. The conchoid is
+also the locus of any point on a rod which is constrained to move so
+that it always passes through a fixed point, while a fixed point on the
+rod travels along a straight line. To obtain the equation to the curve,
+draw AO perpendicular to BC, and let AO = a; let the constant quantity
+PX = PX' = b. Then taking O as pole and a line through O parallel to BC
+as the initial line, the polar equation is r = a cosec [theta] [+-] b,
+the upper sign referring to the branch more distant from O. The
+cartesian equation with A as origin and BC as axis of x is x^2y^2 = (a +
+y)^2 (b^2 -y^2). Both branches belong to the same curve and are included
+in this equation. Three forms of the curve have to be distinguished
+according to the ratio of a to b. If a be less than b, there will be a
+node at O and a loop below the initial point (curve 1 in the figure); if
+a equals b there will be a cusp at O (curve 2); if a be greater than b
+the curve will not pass through O, but from the cartesian equation it is
+obvious that O is a conjugate point (curve 3). The curve is symmetrical
+about the axis of y and has the axis of x for its asymptote.
+
+
+
+
+CONCIERGE (a French word of unknown origin; the Latinized form was
+_concergius_ or _concergerius_), originally the guardian of a house or
+castle, in the middle ages a court official who was the custodian of a
+royal palace. In Paris, when the _Palais de la Cite_ ceased about 1360
+to be a royal residence and became the seat of the courts of justice,
+the _Conciergerie_ was turned into a prison. In modern usage a
+"concierge" is a hall-porter or janitor.
+
+
+
+
+CONCINI, CONCINO (d. 1617), COUNT DELLA PENNA, MARSHAL D'ANCRE, Italian
+adventurer, minister of King Louis XIII. of France, was a native of
+Florence. He came to France in the train of Marie de' Medici, and
+married the queen's lady-in-waiting, Leonora Dori, known as Galigai. The
+credit which his wife enjoyed with the queen, his wit, cleverness and
+boldness made his fortune. In 1610 he had purchased the marquisate of
+Ancre and the position of first gentleman-in-waiting. Then he obtained
+successively the governments of Amiens and of Normandy, and in 1614 the
+baton of marshal. From then first minister of the realm, he abandoned
+the policy of Henry IV., compromised his wise legislation, allowed the
+treasury to be pillaged, and drew upon himself the hatred of all
+classes. The nobles were bitterly hostile to him, particularly Conde,
+with whom he negotiated the treaty of Loudun in 1616, and whom he had
+arrested in September 1616. This was done on the advice of Richelieu,
+whose introduction into politics was favoured by Concini. But Louis
+XIII., incited by his favourite Charles d'Albert, due de Luynes, was
+tired of Concini's tutelage. The baron de Vitry received in the king's
+name the order to imprison him. Apprehended on the bridge of the Louvre,
+Concini was killed by the guards on the 24th of April 1617. Leonora was
+accused of sorcery and sent to the stake in the same year.
+
+  In 1767 appeared at Brescia a _De Concini vita_, by D. Sandellius. On
+  the role of Concini see the _Histoire de France_, published under the
+  direction of E. Lavisse, vol. vi. (1905), by Mariejol.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLAVE (Lat. _conclave_, from _cum_, together, and _clavis_, a key),
+strictly a room, or set of rooms, locked with a key; in this sense the
+word is now obsolete in English, though the _New English Dictionary_
+gives an example of its use so late as 1753. Its present loose
+application to any private or close assembly, especially ecclesiastical,
+is derived from its technical application to the assembly of cardinals
+met for the election of the pope, with which this article is concerned.
+
+Conclave is the name applied to that system of strict seclusion to which
+the electors of the pope have been and are submitted, formerly as a
+matter of necessity, and subsequently as the result of a legislative
+enactment; hence the word has come to be used of the electoral assembly
+of the cardinals. This system goes back only as far as the 12th century.
+
+_Election of the Popes in Antiquity._--The very earliest episcopal
+nominations, at Rome as elsewhere, seem without doubt to have been made
+by the direct choice of the founders of the apostolic Christian
+communities. But this exceptional method was replaced at an early date
+by that of election. At Rome the method of election was the same as in
+other towns: the Roman clergy and people and the neighbouring bishops
+each took part in it in their several capacities. The people would
+signify their approbation or disapprobation of the candidates more or
+less tumultuously, while the clergy were, strictly speaking, the
+electoral body, met to elect for themselves a new head, and the bishops
+acted as presidents of the assembly and judges of the election. The
+choice had to meet with general consent; but we can well imagine that in
+an assembly of such size, in which the candidates were acclaimed rather
+than elected by counting votes, the various functions were not very
+distinct, and that persons of importance, whether clerical or lay, were
+bound to influence the elections, and sometimes decisively. Moreover,
+this form of election lent itself to cabals; and these frequently gave
+rise to quarrels, sometimes involving bloodshed and schisms, i.e. the
+election of antipopes, as they were later called. Such was the case at
+the elections of Cornelius (251), Damasus (366), Boniface (418),
+Symmachus (498), Boniface II. (530) and others. The remedy for this
+abuse was found in having recourse, more or less freely, to the support
+of the civil power. The emperor Honorius upheld Boniface against his
+competitor Eulalius, at the same time laying down that cases of
+contested election should henceforth be decided by a fresh election; but
+this would have been a dangerous method and was consequently never
+applied. Theodoric upheld Symmachus against Laurentius because he had
+been elected first and by a greater majority. The accepted fact soon
+became law, and John II. recognized (532) the right of the Ostrogothic
+court of Ravenna to ratify the pontifical elections. Justinian succeeded
+to this right together with the kingdom which he had destroyed; he
+demanded, together with the payment of a tribute of 3000 golden
+_solidi_, that the candidate elected should not receive the episcopal
+consecration till he had obtained the confirmation of the emperor. Hence
+arose long vacancies of the See, indiscreet interference in the
+elections by the imperial officials, and sometimes cases of simony and
+venality. This bondage became lighter in the 7th century, owing rather
+to the weakening of the imperial power than to any resistance on the
+part of the popes.
+
+_9th to 12th Centuries._--From the emperors of the East the power
+naturally passed to those of the West, and it was exercised after 824 by
+the descendants of Charlemagne, who claimed that the election should not
+proceed until the arrival of their envoys. But this did not last long;
+at the end of the 9th century, Rome, torn by factions, witnessed the
+scandal of the posthumous condemnation of Formosus. This deplorable
+state of affairs lasted almost without interruption till the middle of
+the 11th century. When the emperors were at Rome, they presided over the
+elections; when they were away, the rival factions of the barons, the
+Crescentii and the Alberici especially, struggled for the spiritual
+power as they did for the temporal. During this period were seen cases
+of popes imposed by a faction rather than elected, and then, at the
+mercy of sedition, deposed, poisoned and thrown into prison, sometimes
+to be restored by force of arms.
+
+
+  Election reserved to the cardinals.
+
+The influence of the Ottos (962-1002) was a lesser evil; that of the
+emperor Otto III. was even beneficial, in that it led to the election of
+Gerbert (Silvester II., in 999). But this was only a temporary check in
+the process of decadence, and in 1146 Clement II., the successor of the
+worthless Benedict IX., admitted that henceforth not only the
+consecration but even the _election_ of the Roman pontiffs could only
+take place in presence of the emperor. In fact, after the death of
+Clement II. the delegates of the Roman clergy did actually go to Polden
+to ask Henry III. to give them a pope, and similar steps were taken
+after the death of Damasus II., who reigned only twenty days.
+Fortunately on this occasion Henry III. appointed, just before his
+death, a man of high character, his cousin Bruno, bishop of Toul, who
+presented himself in Rome in company with Hildebrand. From this time
+began the reform. Hildebrand had the elections of Victor II. (1055),
+Stephen IX. (1057), and Nicholas II. (1058) carried out according to the
+canonical form, including the imperial ratification. The celebrated bull
+_In nomine Domini_ of the 13th of April 1059 determined the electoral
+procedure; it is curious to observe how, out of respect for tradition,
+it preserves all the former factors in the election though their scope
+is modified: "In the first place, the cardinal bishops shall carefully
+consider the election together, then they shall consult with the
+cardinal clergy, and afterwards the rest of the clergy and the people
+shall by giving their assent confirm the new election." The election,
+then, is reserved to the members of the higher clergy, to the cardinals,
+among whom the cardinal bishops have the preponderating position. The
+consent of the rest of the clergy and the people is now only a
+formality. The same was the case of the imperial intervention, in
+consequence of the phrase: "Saving the honour and respect due to our
+dear son Henry (Henry IV.), according to the concession we have made to
+him, and equally to his successors, who shall receive this right
+personally from the Apostolic See." Thus the emperor has no rights save
+those he has received as a concession from the Holy See. Gregory VII.,
+it is true, notified his election to the emperor; but as he set up a
+series of five antipopes, none of Gregory's successors asked any more
+for the imperial sanction. Further, by this bull, the emperors would
+have to deal with the _fait accompli_; for it provided that, in the
+event of disturbances aroused by mischievous persons at Rome preventing
+the election from being carried out there freely and without bias, the
+cardinal bishops, together with a small number of the clergy and of the
+laity, should be empowered to go and hold the election where they should
+think fit; that should difficulties of any sort prevent the enthronement
+of the new pope, the pope elect would be empowered immediately to act as
+if he were actually pope. This legislation was definitely accepted by
+the emperor by the concordat of Worms (1119).
+
+A limited electoral body lends itself to more minute legislation than a
+larger body; the college for electing the pope, thus reduced so as to
+consist in practice of the cardinals only, was subjected as time went on
+to laws of increasing severity. Two points of great importance were
+established by Alexander III. at the Lateran Council of 1179. The
+constitution _Licet de vitanda discordia_ makes all the cardinals
+equally electors, and no longer mentions the lower clergy or the people;
+it also requires a majority of two-thirds of the votes to decide an
+election. This latter provision, which still holds good, made imperial
+antipopes henceforth impossible.
+
+
+  The conclave.
+
+Abuses nevertheless arose. An electoral college too small in numbers,
+which no higher power has the right of forcing to haste, can prolong
+disagreements and draw out the course of the election for a long time.
+It is this period during which we actually find the Holy See left vacant
+most frequently for long spaces of time. The longest of these, however,
+gave an opportunity for reform and the remedy was found in the conclave,
+i.e. in the forced and rigid seclusion of the electors. As a matter of
+fact, this method had previously been used, but in a mitigated form: in
+1216, on the death of Innocent III., the people of Perugia had shut up
+the cardinals; and in 1241 the Roman magistrates had confined them
+within the "Septizonium"; they took two months, however, to perform the
+election. Celestine IV. died after eighteen days, and this time, in
+spite of the seclusion of the cardinals, there was an interregnum of
+twenty months. After the death of Clement IV. in 1268, the cardinals, of
+whom seventeen were gathered together at Viterbo, allowed two years to
+pass without coming to an agreement; the magistrates of Viterbo again
+had recourse to the method of seclusion: they shut up the electors in
+the episcopal palace, blocking up all outlets; and since the election
+still delayed, the people removed the roof of the palace and allowed
+nothing but bread and water to be sent in. Under the pressure of famine
+and of this strict confinement, the cardinals finally agreed, on the 1st
+of September 1271, to elect Gregory X., after an interregnum of two
+years, nine months and two days.
+
+
+  Laws made by Gregory X.
+
+Taught by experience, the new pope considered what steps could be taken
+to prevent the recurrence of such abuses; in 1274, at the council of
+Lyons, he promulgated the constitution _Ubi periculum_, the substance of
+which was as follows: At the death of the pope, the cardinals who were
+present are to await their absent colleagues for ten days; they are then
+to meet in one of the papal palaces in a closed conclave; none of them
+is to have to wait on him more than one servant, or two at most if he
+were ill; in the conclave they are to lead a life in common, not even
+having separate cells; they are to have no communication with the outer
+world, under pain of excommunication for any who should attempt to
+communicate with them; food is to be supplied to the cardinals through a
+window which would be under watch; after three days, their meals are to
+consist of a single dish only; and after five days, of bread and water,
+with a little wine. During the conclave the cardinals are to receive no
+ecclesiastical revenue. No account is to be taken of those who are
+absent or have left the conclave. Finally, the election is to be the
+sole business of the conclave, and the magistrates of the town where it
+was held are called upon to see that these provisions be observed.
+Adrian V. and John XX. were weak enough to suspend the constitution _Ubi
+periculum_; but the abuses at once reappeared; the Holy See was again
+vacant for long periods; this further proof was therefore decisive, and
+Celestine V., who was elected after a vacancy of more than two years,
+took care, before abdicating the pontificate, to revive the constitution
+of Gregory X., which was inserted in the Decretals (lib. i. tit. vi.,
+_de election._ cap. 3).
+
+
+  Julius II.
+
+Since then the laws relating to the conclave have been observed, even
+during the great schism; the only exception was the election of Martin
+V., which was performed by the cardinals of the three obediences, to
+which the council of Constance added five prelates of each of the six
+nations represented in that assembly. The same was the case up to the
+16th century. At this period the Italian republics, later Spain, and
+finally the other powers, took an intimate interest in the choice of the
+holder of what was a considerable political power; and each brought more
+or less honest means to bear, sometimes that of simony. It was against
+simony that Julius II. directed the bull _Cum tam divino_ (1503), which
+directed that simoniacal election of the pope should be declared null;
+that any one could attack it; that men should withdraw themselves from
+the obedience of a pope thus elected; that simoniacal agreements should
+be invalid; that the guilty cardinals should be excommunicate till their
+death, and that the rest should proceed immediately to a new election.
+The purpose of this measure was good, but the proposed remedy extremely
+dangerous; it was fortunately never applied. Similarly, Paul IV.
+endeavoured by severe punishments to check the intriguing and plotting
+for the election of a new pope while his predecessor was still living;
+but the bull _Cum secundum_ (1558) was of no effect.
+
+
+  Pius IV.
+
+  Gregory XV.
+
+Pius IV. undertook the task of reforming and completing the legislation
+of the conclave. The bull _In eligendis_ (of October 1st, 1562), signed
+by all the cardinals, is a model of precision and wisdom. In addition to
+the points already stated, we may add the following: that every day
+there was to be a scrutiny, i.e. a solemn voting by specially prepared
+voting papers (concealing the name of the voter, and to be opened only
+in case of an election being made at that scrutiny), and that this was
+to be followed by the "accessit," i.e. a second voting, in which the
+cardinals might transfer their suffrages to those who had obtained the
+greatest number of votes in the first. Except in case of urgent matters,
+the election was to form the whole business of the conclave. The cells
+were to be assigned by lot. The functionaries of the conclave were to be
+elected by the secret vote of the Sacred College. The most stringent
+measures were to be taken to ensure seclusion. The bull _Aeterni Patris_
+of Gregory XV. (15th of November 1621) is a collection of minute
+regulations. In it is the rule compelling each cardinal, before giving
+his vote, to take the oath that he will elect him whom he shall judge to
+be the most worthy; it also makes rules for the forms of voting and of
+the voting papers, for the counting, the scrutiny, and in fact all the
+processes of the election. A second bull, _Decet Romanum Pontificem_, of
+the 12th of March 1622, fixed the ceremonial of the conclave with such
+minuteness that it has not been changed since.
+
+All previous legislation concerning the conclave was codified and
+renewed by Pius X.'s bull, _Vacante Sede Apostolico_ (Dec. 25, 1904),
+which abrogates the earlier texts, except Leo XIII.'s constitution
+_Praedecessores Nostri_ (May 24, 1882), authorizing occasional
+derogations in circumstances of difficulty, e.g. the death of a pope
+away from Rome or an attempt to interfere with the liberty of the Sacred
+College. The bull of Pius X. is rather a codification than a reform, the
+principal change being the abolition of the scrutiny of accession and
+the substitution of a second ordinary scrutiny during the same session.
+
+On some occasions exceptional circumstances have given rise to
+transitory measures. In 1797 and 1798 Pius VI. authorized the cardinals
+to act contrary to such of the laws concerning the conclave as a
+majority of them should decide not to observe, as being impossible in
+practice. Similarly Pius IX., by means of various acts which remained
+secret up till 1892, had taken the most minute precautions in order to
+secure a free and rapid election, and to avoid all interference on the
+part of the secular powers. We know that the conclaves in which Leo
+XIII. and Pius X. were elected enjoyed the most complete liberty, and
+the hypothetical measures foreseen by Pius IX. were not applied.
+
+
+  The conclave at Rome.
+
+Until after the Great Schism the conclaves were held in various towns
+outside of Rome; but since then they have all been held in Rome, with
+the single exception of the conclave of Venice (1800), and in most cases
+in the Vatican.
+
+
+  Modern procedure.
+
+There was no place permanently established for the purpose, but
+removable wooden cells were installed in the various apartments of the
+palace, grouped around the Sistine chapel, in which the scrutinies took
+place. The arrangements prepared in the Quirinal in 1823 did duty only
+three times, and for the most recent conclaves it was necessary to
+arrange an inner enclosure within the vast but irregular palace of the
+Vatican. Each cardinal is accompanied by a clerk or secretary, known for
+this reason as a conclavist, and by one servant only. With the officials
+of the conclave, this makes about two hundred and fifty persons who
+enter the conclave and have no further communication with the outer
+world save by means of turning-boxes. Since 1870 the solemn ceremonies
+of earlier times have naturally not been seen; for instance the
+procession which used to celebrate the entry into conclave; or the daily
+arrival in procession of the clergy and the brotherhoods to enquire at
+the "rota" (turning-box) of the auditors of the Rota: "Habemusne
+Pontificem?" and their return accompanied by the chanting of the "_Veni
+Creator_"; or the "Marshal of the Holy Roman Church and perpetual
+guardian of the conclave" visiting the churches in state. But a crowd
+still collects morning and evening in the great square of St Peter's,
+towards the time of the completion of the vote, to look for the smoke
+which rises from the burning of the voting-papers after each session;
+when the election has not been effected, a little straw is burnt with
+the papers, and the column of smoke then apprises the spectators that
+they have still no pope. Within the conclave, the cardinals, alone in
+the common hall, usually the Sistine chapel, proceed morning and evening
+to their double vote, the direct vote and the "accessit." Sometimes
+these sessions have been very numerous; for example, in 1740, Benedict
+XIV. was only elected after 255 scrutinies; on other occasions, however,
+and notably in the case of the last few popes, a well-defined majority
+has soon been evident, and there have been but few scrutinies. Each vote
+is immediately counted by three scrutators, appointed in rotation, the
+most minute precautions being taken to ensure that the voting shall be
+secret and sincere. When one cardinal has at last obtained two-thirds of
+the votes, the dean of the cardinals formally asks him whether he
+accepts his election, and what name he wishes to assume. As soon as he
+has accepted, the first "obedience" or "adoration" takes place, and
+immediately after the first cardinal deacon goes to the _Loggia_ of St
+Peter's and announces the great news to the assembled people. The
+conclave is dissolved; on the following day take place the two other
+"obediences," and the election is officially announced to the various
+governments. If the pope be not a bishop (Gregory XVI. was not), he is
+then consecrated; and finally, a few days after his election, takes
+place the coronation, from which the pontificate is officially dated.
+The pope then receives the tiara with the triple crown, the sign of his
+supreme spiritual authority. The ceremony of the coronation goes back to
+the 9th century, and the tiara, in the form of a high conical cap, is
+equally ancient (see TIARA).
+
+
+  The right of veto.
+
+In conclusion, a few words should be said with regard to the right of
+_veto_. In the 16th and 17th centuries the character of the conclaves
+was determined by the influence of what were then known as the
+"factions," i.e. the formation of the cardinals into groups according to
+their nationality or their relations with one of the Catholic courts of
+Spain, France or the Empire, or again according as they favoured the
+political policy of the late pope or his predecessor. These groups
+upheld or opposed certain candidates. The Catholic courts naturally
+entrusted the cardinals "of the crown," i.e. those of their nation, with
+the mission of removing, as far as lay in their power, candidates who
+were distasteful to their party; the various governments could even make
+public their desire to exclude certain candidates. But they soon claimed
+an actual right of formal and direct exclusion, which should be notified
+in the conclave in their name by a cardinal charged with this mission,
+and should have a decisive effect; this is what has been called the
+right of veto. We cannot say precisely at what time during the 16th
+century this transformation of the practice into a right, tacitly
+accepted by the Sacred College, took place; it was doubtless felt to be
+less dangerous formally to recognize the right of the three sovereigns
+each to object to one candidate, than to face the inconvenience of
+objections, such as were formulated on several occasions by Philip II.,
+which, though less legal in form, might apply to an indefinite number of
+candidates. The fact remains, however, that it was a right based on
+custom, and was not supported by any text or written concession; but the
+diplomatic right was straightforward and definite, and was better than
+the intrigues of former days. During the 19th century Austria exercised,
+or tried to exercise, the right of veto at all the conclaves, except
+that which elected Leo XIII. (1878); it did so again at the conclave of
+1903. On the 2nd of August Cardinal Rampolla had received twenty-nine
+votes, when Cardinal Kolzielsko Puzina, bishop of Cracow, declared that
+the Austrian government opposed the election of Cardinal Rampolla; the
+Sacred College considered that it ought to yield, and on the 4th of
+August elected Cardinal Sarto, who took the name of Pius X. By the bull
+_Commissum Nobis_ (January 20, 1904), Pius X. suppressed all right of
+"veto" or "exclusion" on the part of the secular governments, and
+forbade, under pain of excommunication reserved to the future pope, any
+cardinal or conclavist to accept from his government the charge of
+proposing a "veto," or to exhibit it to the conclave under any form.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best and most complete work is Lucius Lector, _Le
+  Conclave, origine, histoire, organisation, legislation ancienne et
+  moderne_ (Paris, 1894). See also Ferraris, _Prompta Bibliotheca, s. v.
+  Papa_, art. i.; Moroni, _Dizionario di erudizione
+  storico-ecclesiastica, s. v. Conclave, Conclavisti, Cella, Elezione,
+  Esclusiva_; Bouix, _De Curia Romana_, part i. c. x.; _De Papa_, part
+  vii. (Paris, 1859, 1870); Barbier de Montault, _Le Conclave_ (Paris,
+  1878). On the conclave of Leo XIII., R. de Cesare, _Conclave di Leone
+  XIII._ (Rome, 1888). On the conclave of Pius X.: an eye-witness (Card.
+  Mathieu), _Les Derniers Jours de Leon XIII et le conclave_ (Paris,
+  1904). See further, for the right of veto: Phillips, _Kirchenrecht_,
+  t. v. p. 138; Sagmuller, _Die Papstwahlen und die Staate_ (Tubingen,
+  1890); _Die Papstwahlbullen und das staatliche Recht des Exclusive_
+  (Tubingen, 1892); Wahrmund, _Ausschliessungsrecht der katholischen
+  Staaten_ (Vienna, 1888).     (A. Bo.*)
+
+
+
+
+CONCORD, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 20
+m. N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1900) 5652; (1910, U.S. census) 6421. Area 25
+sq. m. It is traversed by the Boston & Maine railway. Where the Sudbury
+and Assabet unite to form the beautiful little Concord river, celebrated
+by Thoreau, is the village of Concord, straggling, placid and beautiful,
+full of associations with the opening of the War of Independence and
+with American literature. Of particular interest is the "Old Manse,"
+built in 1765 for Rev. William Emerson, in which his grandson R. W.
+Emerson wrote _Nature_, and Hawthorne his _Mosses from an Old Manse_,
+containing a charming description of the building and its associations.
+At Concord there is a state reformatory, whose inmates, about 800 in
+number, are employed in manufacturing various articles, but otherwise
+the town has only minor business and industrial interests. The
+introduction of the "Concord" grape, first produced here by Ephraim Bull
+in 1853, is said to have marked the beginning of the profitable
+commercial cultivation of table grapes in the United States. Concord was
+settled and incorporated as a township in 1635, and was (with Dedham)
+the first settlement in Massachusetts back from the sea-coast. A county
+convention at Concord village in August 1774 recommended the calling of
+the first Provincial Congress of Massachusetts--one of the first
+independent legislatures of America--which assembled here on the 11th of
+October 1774, and again in March and April 1775. The village became
+thereafter a storehouse of provisions and munitions of war, and hence
+became the objective of the British expedition that on the 19th of April
+1775 opened with the armed conflict at Lexington (q.v.) the American War
+of Independence. As the British proceeded to Concord the whole country
+was rising, and at Concord about 500 minute-men confronted the British
+regulars who were holding the village and searching for arms and stores.
+Volleys were exchanged, the British retreated, the minute-men hung on
+their flanks and from the hillsides shot them down, driving their
+columns on Lexington. A granite obelisk, erected in 1837, when Emerson
+wrote his ode on the battle, marks the spot where the first British
+soldiers fell; while across the stream a fine bionze "Minute-Man" (1875)
+by D. C. French (a native of Concord) marks the spot where once "the
+embattled farmers stood and fired the shot heard round the world"
+(Emerson). Concord was long one of the shire-townships of Middlesex
+county, losing this honour in 1867. The village is famous as the home of
+R. W. Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry D. Thoreau, Louisa M. Alcott
+and her father, A. Bronson Alcott, who maintained here from 1879 to 1888
+(in a building still standing) the Concord school of philosophy, which
+counted Benjamin Peirce, W. T. Harris, Mrs J. W. Howe, T. W. Higginson,
+Professor William James and Emerson among its lecturers. Emerson,
+Hawthorne, Thoreau and the Alcotts are buried here in the beautiful
+Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. Of the various orations (among others one by
+Edward Everett in 1825) that have been delivered at Concord
+anniversaries perhaps the finest is that of George William Curtis,
+delivered in 1875.
+
+  See A. S. Hudson, _The History of Concord_, vol. i. (Concord, 1904);
+  G. B. Bartlett, _Concord: Historic, Literary and Picturesque_ (Boston,
+  1885); and Mrs J. L. Swayne, _Story of Concord_ (Boston, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CONCORD, a city and the county-seat of Cabarrus county, North Carolina,
+U.S.A., on the Rocky river, about 150 m. W.S.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890)
+4339; (1900) 7910 (1789 negroes); (1910) 8715. It is served by the
+Southern railway. Concord is situated in a cotton-growing region, and
+its chief interest is in the manufacture of cotton goods. The city is
+the seat of Scotia seminary (for negro girls), founded in 1870 and under
+the care of the Presbyterian Board of Missions for Freedmen, Pittsburgh
+Pa. Concord was laid out in 1793 and was first incorporated in 1851.
+
+
+
+
+CONCORD, the capital of New Hampshire, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Merrimack county, on both sides of the Merrimac river, about 75 m. N.W.
+of Boston, Massachusetts. Pop. (1890) 17,004; (1900) 19,632, of whom
+3813 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 21,497. Concord is served by the
+Boston & Maine railway. The area of the city in 1906 was 45.16 sq. m.
+Concord has broad streets bordered with shade trees; and has several
+parks, including Penacook, White, Rollins and the Contoocook river.
+Among the principal buildings are the state capitol, the state library,
+the city hall, the county court-house, the post-office, a public library
+(17,000 vols.), the state hospital, the state prison, the Centennial
+home for the aged, the Margaret Pillsbury memorial hospital, the Rolfe
+and Rumford asylum for orphan girls, founded by Count Rumford's
+daughter, and some fine churches, including the Christian Science church
+built by Mrs Eddy. There are a soldiers' memorial arch, a statue of
+Daniel Webster by Thomas Ball, and statues of John P. Hale, John Stark,
+and Commodore George H. Perkins, the last by Daniel C. French; and at
+Penacook, 6 m. N.W. of Concord, there is a monument to Hannah Dustin
+(see HAVERHILL). Among the educational institutions are the well-known
+St Paul's school for boys (Protestant Episcopal, 1853), about 2 m. W. of
+the city, and St Mary's school for girls (Protestant Episcopal, 1885).
+From 1847 to 1867 Concord was the seat of the Biblical Institute
+(Methodist Episcopal), founded in Newbury, Vermont, in 1841, removed to
+Boston as the Boston Theological Seminary in 1867, and after 1871 a part
+of Boston University. The city has various manufactures, including flour
+and grist mill products, silver ware, cotton and woollen goods,
+carriages, harnesses and leather belting, furniture, wooden ware, pianos
+and clothing; the Boston & Maine Railroad has a large repair shop in the
+city, and there are valuable granite quarries in the vicinity. In 1905
+Concord ranked third among the cities of the state in the value of its
+factory products, which was $6,387,372, being an increase of 51.7% since
+1900. When first visited by the English settlers, the site of Concord
+was occupied by Penacook Indians; a trading post was built here about
+1660. In 1725 Massachusetts granted the land in this vicinity to some of
+her citizens; but this grant was not recognized by New Hampshire, whose
+legislature issued (1727) a grant (the Township of Bow) overlapping the
+Massachusetts grant, which was known as Penacook or Penny Cook. The New
+Hampshire grantees undertook to establish here a colony of Londonderry
+Irish; but the Massachusetts settlers were firmly established by the
+spring of 1727, Massachusetts definitely assumed jurisdiction in 1731,
+and in 1734 her general court incorporated the settlement under the name
+of Rumford. The conflicting rights of Rumford and Bow gave rise to one
+of the most celebrated of colonial land cases, and although the New
+Hampshire authorities enforced their claims of jurisdiction, the privy
+council in 1755 confirmed the Rumford settlers in their possession. In
+1765 the name was changed to the "parish of Concord," and in 1784 the
+town of Concord was incorporated. Here, for some years before the War of
+American Independence, lived Benjamin Thompson, later Count Rumford. In
+1778 and again in 1781-1782 a state constitutional convention met here;
+the first New Hampshire legislature met at Concord in 1782; the
+convention which ratified for New Hampshire the Federal Constitution met
+here in 1788; and in 1808 the state capital was definitely established
+here. The New Hampshire _Patriot_, founded here in 1808 (and for twenty
+years edited) by Isaac Hill (1788-1851), who was a member of the United
+States Senate in 1831-1836, and governor of New Hampshire in 1836-1839,
+became one of the leading exponents of Jacksonian Democracy in New
+England. In 1814 the Middlesex Canal, connecting Concord with Boston,
+was completed. A city charter granted by the legislature in 1849 was not
+accepted by the city until 1853.
+
+  See J. O. Lyford, _The History of Concord, New Hampshire_ (City
+  History Commission) (2 vols., Concord, 1903); _Concord Town Records,
+  1732-1820_ (Concord, 1894); J. B. Moore, _Annals of Concord,
+  1726-1823_ (Concord, 1824); and Nathaniel Bouton, _The History of
+  Concord_ (Concord, 1856).
+
+
+
+
+CONCORD, BOOK OF (_Liber Concordiae_), the collective documents of the
+Lutheran confession, consisting of the _Confessio Augustana_, the
+_Apologia Confessionis Augustanae_, the _Articula Smalcaldici_, the
+_Catechismi Major et Minor_ and the _Formula Concordiae_. This last was
+a formula issued on the 25th of June 1580 (the jubilee of the Augsburg
+Confession) by the Lutheran Church in an attempt to heal the breach
+which, since the death of Luther, had been widening between the extreme
+Lutherans and the Crypto-Calvinists. Previous attempts at concord had
+been made at the request of different rulers, especially by Jacob Andrea
+with his Swabian Concordia in 1573, and Abel Scherdinger with the
+Maulbronn Formula in 1575. In 1576 the elector of Saxony called a
+conference of theologians at Torgau to discuss these two efforts and
+from them produce a third. The _Book of Torgau_ was evolved, circulated
+and criticized; a new committee, prominent on which was Martin Chemnitz,
+sitting at Bergen near Magdeburg, considered the criticisms and finally
+drew up the _Formula Concordiae_. It consists of (a) the "Epitome," (b)
+the "Solid Repetition and Declaration," each part comprising twelve
+articles; and was accepted by Saxony, Wurttemberg, Baden among other
+states, but rejected by Hesse, Nassau and Holstein. Even the free cities
+were divided, Hamburg and Lubeck for, Bremen and Frankfort against.
+Hungary and Sweden accepted it, and so finally did Denmark, where at
+first it was rejected, and its publication made a crime punishable by
+death. In spite of this very limited reception the _Formula Concordiae_
+has always been reckoned with the five other documents as of
+confessional authority.
+
+  See P. Schaff, _Creeds of Christendom_, i. 258-340, iii. 92-180.
+
+
+
+
+CONCORDANCE (Late Lat. _concordantia_, harmony, from _cum_, with, and
+_cor_, heart), literally agreement, harmony; hence derivatively a
+citation of parallel passages, and specifically an alphabetical
+arrangement of the words contained in a book with citations of the
+passages in which they occur. Concordances in this last sense were first
+made for the Bible. Originally the word was only used in this connexion
+in the plural _concordantiae_, each group of parallel passages being
+properly a _concordantia_. The Germans distinguish between concordances
+of things and concordances of words, the former indexing the subject
+matter of a book ("real" concordance), the latter the words ("verbal"
+concordance).
+
+The original impetus to the making of concordances was due to the
+conviction that the several parts of the Bible are consistent with each
+other, as parts of a divine revelation, and may be combined as
+harmonious elements in one system of spiritual truth. To Anthony of
+Padua (1195-1231) ancient tradition ascribes the first concordance, the
+anonymous _Concordantiae Morales_, of which the basis was the Vulgate.
+The first authentic work of the kind was due to Cardinal Hugh of St
+Cher, a Dominican monk (d. 1263), who, in preparing for a commentary on
+the Scriptures, found the need of a concordance, and is reported to have
+used for the purpose the services of five hundred of his brother monks.
+This concordance was the basis of two which succeeded in time and
+importance, one by Conrad of Halberstadt (fl. c. 1290) and the other by
+John of Segovia in the next century. This book was published in a
+greatly improved and amplified form in the middle of the 19th century by
+David Nutt, of London, edited by T. P. Dutripon. The first Hebrew
+concordance was compiled in 1437-1445 by Rabbi Isaac Nathan b. Kalonymus
+of Arles. It was printed at Venice in 1523 by Daniel Bomberg, in Basel
+in 1556, 1569 and 1581. It was published under the title _Meir Natib_,
+"The Light of the Way." In 1556 it was translated into Latin by Johann
+Reuchlin, but many errors appeared in both the Hebrew and the Latin
+edition. These were corrected by Marius de Calasio, a Franciscan friar,
+who published a four volume folio _Concordantiae Sacr. Bibl. Hebr. et
+Latin._ at Rome, 1621, much enlarged, with proper names included.
+Another concordance based on Nathan's was Johann Buxtorf the elder's
+_Concordantiae Bibl. Ebraicae nova et artificiosa methodo dispositae_,
+Basel, 1632. It marks a stage in both the arrangement and the knowledge
+of the roots of words, but can only be used by those who know the
+massoretic system, as the references are made by Hebrew letters and
+relate to rabbinical divisions of the Old Testament. Calasio's
+concordance was republished in London under the direction of William
+Romaine in 1747-1749, in four volumes folio, under the patronage of all
+the monarchs of Europe and also of the pope. In 1754 John Taylor, D.D.,
+a Presbyterian divine in Norwich, published in two volumes the _Hebrew
+Concordance adapted to the English Bible_, disposed after the manner of
+Buxtorf. This was the most complete and convenient concordance up to the
+date of its publication. In the middle of the 19th century Dr Julius
+Furst issued a thoroughly revised edition of Buxtorf's concordance. The
+_Hebraischen und chaldaischen Concordanz zu den Heiligen Schriften Alten
+Testaments_ (Leipzig, 1840) carried forward the development of the
+concordance in several directions. It gave (1) a corrected text founded
+on Hahn's Vanderhoogt's Bible; (2) the Rabbinical meanings; (3)
+explanations in Latin, and illustrations from the three Greek versions,
+the Aramaic paraphrase, and the Vulgate; (4) the Greek words employed by
+the Septuagint as renderings of the Hebrew; (5) notes on philology and
+archaeology, so that the concordance contained a Hebrew lexicon. An
+English translation by Dr Samuel Davidson was published in 1867. A
+revised edition of Buxtorf's work with additions from Furst's was
+published by B. Bar (Stettin, 1862). A new concordance embodying the
+matter of all previous works with lists of proper names and particles
+was published by Solomon Mandelkern in Leipzig (1896); a smaller edition
+of the same, without quotations, appeared in 1900. There are also
+concordances of Biblical proper names by G. Brecher (Frankfort-on-Main,
+1876) and Schusslovicz (Wilna, 1878).
+
+A _Concordance to the Septuagint_ was published at Frankfort in 1602 by
+Conrad Kircher of Augsburg; in this the Hebrew words are placed in
+alphabetical order and the Greek words by which they are translated are
+placed under them. A Septuagint concordance, giving the Greek words in
+alphabetical order, was published in 1718 in two volumes by Abraham
+Tromm, a learned minister at Groningen, then in the eighty-fourth year
+of his age. It gives the Greek words in alphabetical order; a Latin
+translation; the Hebrew word or words for which the Greek term is used
+by the Septuagint; then the places where the words occur in the order of
+the books and chapters; at the end of the quotations from the Septuagint
+places are given where the word occurs in Aquila, Symmachus and
+Theodotion, the other Greek translations of the O. T.; and the words of
+the Apocrypha follow in each case. Besides an index to the Hebrew and
+Chaldaic words there is another index which contains a lexicon to the
+_Hexapla_ of Origen. In 1887 (London) appeared the _Handy Concordance of
+the Septuagint giving various readings from Codices Vaticanus,
+Alexandrinus, Sinaiticus and Ephraemi, with an appendix of words from
+Origen's Hexapla, not found in the above manuscripts_, by G. M., without
+quotations. A work of the best modern scholarship was brought out in
+1897 by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, entitled _A Concordance to the
+Septuagint and the other Greek versions of the Old Testament including
+the Apocryphal Books_, by Edwin Hatch and H. A. Redpath, assisted by
+other scholars; this was completed in 1900 by a list of proper names.
+
+_The first Greek concordance_ to the New Testament was published at
+Basel in 1546 by Sixt Birck or Xystus Betuleius (1500-1554), a
+philologist and minister of the Lutheran Church. This was followed by
+Stephen's concordance (1594) planned by Robert Stephens and published by
+Henry, his son. Then in 1638 came Schmied's [Greek: tamieion], which has
+been the basis of subsequent concordances to the New Testament. Erasmus
+Schmied or Schmid was a Lutheran divine who was professor of Greek in
+Wittenberg, where he died in 1637. Revised editions of the [Greek:
+tamieion] were published at Gotha in 1717, and at Glasgow in 1819 by the
+University Press. In the middle of the 19th century Charles Hermann
+Bruder brought out a beautiful edition (Tauchnitz) with many
+improvements. The _apparatus criticus_ was a triumph of New Testament
+scholarship. It collates the readings of Erasmus, R. Stephens' third
+edition, the Elzevirs, Mill, Bengel, Webster, Knapp, Tittman, Scholz,
+Lachmann. It also gives a selection from the most ancient patristic
+MSS. and from various interpreters. No various reading of critical value
+is omitted. An edition of Bruder with readings of Samuel Prideaux
+Tregelles was published in 1888 under the editorship of Westcott and
+Hort. The _Englishman's Greek Concordance of the New Testament_, and the
+_Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance_, are books intended to put
+the results of the above-mentioned works at the service of those who
+know little Hebrew or Greek. Every word in the Bible is given in Hebrew
+or Greek, the word is transliterated, and then every passage in which it
+occurs is given--the word, however it may be translated, being
+italicized. They are the work of George V. Wigram assisted by W. Burgh
+and superintended by S. P. Tregelles, B. Davidson and W. Chalk (1843;
+2nd ed. 1860). Another book which deserves mention is, _A Concordance to
+the Greek Testament with the English version to each word; the principal
+Hebrew roots corresponding to the Greek words of the Septuagint, with
+short critical notes and an index_, by John Williams, LL.D., Lond. 1767.
+
+In 1884 Robert Young, author of an analytical concordance mentioned
+below, brought out a _Concordance to the Greek New Testament with a
+dictionary of Bible Words and Synonyms_: this contains a concise
+concordance to eight thousand changes made in the Revised Testament.
+Another important work of modern scholarship is the _Concordance to the
+Greek Testament_, edited by the Rev. W. F. Moulton and A. E. Geden,
+according to the texts adopted by Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, and
+the English revisers.
+
+The first concordance to the English version of the New Testament was
+published in London, 1535, by Thomas Gybson. It is a black-letter volume
+entitled _The Concordance of the New Testament most necessary to be had
+in the hands of all soche as delyte in the communicacion of any place
+contayned in ye New Testament_.
+
+The first English concordance of the entire Bible was John Marbeck's, _A
+Concordance, that is to saie, a worke wherein by the order of the
+letters of the A.B.C. ye maie redely find any worde conteigned in the
+whole Bible, so often as it is there expressed or mentioned_, Lond.
+1550. Although Robert Stephens had divided the Bible into verses in
+1545, Marbeck does not seem to have known this and refers to the
+chapters only. In 1550 also appeared Walter Lynne's translation of the
+concordance issued by Bullinger, Jude, Pellican and others of the
+Reformers. Other English concordances were published by Cotton, Newman,
+and in abbreviated forms by John Downham or Downame (cd. 1652), Vavasor
+Powell (1617-1670), Jackson and Samuel Clarke (1626-1701). In 1737
+Alexander Cruden (q.v.), a London bookseller, born and educated in
+Aberdeen, published his _Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of
+the Old and New Testament, to which is added a concordance to the books
+called Apocrypha_. This book embodied, was based upon and superseded all
+its predecessors. Though the first edition was not remunerative, three
+editions were published during Cruden's life, and many since his death.
+Cruden's work is accurate and full, and later concordances only
+supersede his by combining an English with a Greek and Hebrew
+concordance. This is done by the _Critical Greek and English
+Concordance_ prepared by C. F. Hudson, H. A. Hastings and Ezra Abbot,
+LL.D., published in Boston, Mass., and by the _Critical Lexicon and
+Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament_, by E. L. Bullinger,
+1892. The _Interpreting Concordance to the New Testament_, edited by
+James Gall, shows the Greek original of every word, with a glossary
+explaining the Greek words of the New Testament, and showing their
+varied renderings in the Authorized Version. The most convenient of
+these is _Young's Analytical Concordance_, published in Edinburgh in
+1879, and since revised and reissued. It shows (1) the original Hebrew
+or Greek of any word in the English Bible; (2) the literal and primitive
+meaning of every such original word; (3) thoroughly reliable parallel
+passages. There is a _Students' Concordance to the Revised Version of
+the New Testament_ showing the changes embodied in the revision,
+published under licence of the universities; and a concordance to the
+Revised Version by J. A. Thoms for the Christian Knowledge Society.
+
+Biblical concordances having familiarized students with the value and
+use of such books for the systematic study of an author, the practice of
+making concordances has now become common. There are concordances to the
+works of Shakespeare, Browning and many other writers.     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCORDAT (Lat. _concordatum_, agreed upon, from _con-_, together, and
+_cor_, heart), a term originally denoting an agreement between
+ecclesiastical persons or secular persons, but later applied to a pact
+concluded between the ecclesiastical authority and the secular authority
+on ecclesiastical matters which concern both, and, more specially, to a
+pact concluded between the pope, as head of the Catholic Church, and a
+temporal sovereign for the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in the
+territory of such sovereign. It is to concordats in this later sense
+that this article refers.
+
+No one now questions the profound distinction that exists between the
+two powers, spiritual and temporal, between the church and the state.
+Yet these two societies are none the less in inevitable relation. The
+same men go to compose both; and the church, albeit pursuing a spiritual
+end, cannot dispense with the aid of temporal property, which in its
+nature depends on the organization of secular society. It follows of
+necessity that there are some matters which may be called "mixed," and
+which are the legitimate concern of the two powers, such as church
+property, places of worship, the appointment and the emoluments of
+ecclesiastical dignitaries, the temporal rights and privileges of the
+secular and regular clergy, the regulation of public worship, and the
+like. The existence of such mixed matters gives rise to inevitable
+conflicts of jurisdiction, which may lead, and sometimes have led, to
+civil war. It is, therefore, to the general interest that all these
+matters should be settled pacifically, by a common accord; and hence
+originated those conventions between the two powers which are known by
+the significant name of concordat, the official name being _pactum
+concordatum_ or _solemnis conventio_. In theory these agreements may
+result from the spontaneous and pacific initiative of the contracting
+parties, but in reality their object has almost always been to terminate
+more or less acute conflicts and remedy more or less disturbed
+situations. It is for this reason that concordats always present a
+clearly marked character of mutual concession, each of the two powers
+renouncing certain of its claims in the interests of peace.
+
+For the purposes of a concordat the state recognizes the official
+_status_ of the church and of its ministers and tribunals; guarantees it
+certain privileges; and sometimes binds itself to secure for it
+subsidies representing compensation for past spoliations. The pope on
+his side grants the temporal sovereign certain rights, such as that of
+making or controlling the appointment of dignitaries; engages to proceed
+in harmony with the government in the creation of dioceses or parishes;
+and regularizes the situation produced by the usurpation of church
+property &c. The great advantage of concordats--indeed their principal
+utility--consists in transforming necessarily unequal unilateral claims
+into contractual obligations analogous to those which result from an
+international convention. Whatever the obligations of the state towards
+the ecclesiastical society may be in pure theory, in practice they
+become more precise and stable when they assume the nature of a
+bilateral convention by which the state engages itself with regard to a
+third party. And reciprocally, whatever may be the absolute rights of
+the ecclesiastical society over the appointment of its dignitaries, the
+administration of its property, and the government of its adherents, the
+exercise of these rights is limited and restricted by the stable
+engagements and concessions of the concordatory pact, which bind the
+head of the church with regard to the nations.
+
+A concordat may assume divers forms,--historically, three. The most
+common in modern times is that of a diplomatic convention debated
+between the authorized mandatories of the high contracting parties and
+subsequently ratified by the latter; as, for example, the French
+concordat of 1801. Or, secondly, the concordat may result from two
+identical separate acts, one emanating from the pope and the other from
+the sovereign; this was the form of the first true concordat, that of
+Worms, in 1122. A third form was employed in the case of the concordat
+of 1516 between Leo X. and Francis I. of France; a papal bull published
+the concordat in the form of a concession by the pope, and it was
+afterwards accepted and published by the king as law of the country. The
+shades which distinguish these three forms are not without significance,
+but they in no way detract from the contractual character of concordats.
+
+Since concordats are contracts they give rise to that special mutual
+obligation which results from every agreement freely entered into; for a
+contract is binding on both parties to it. Concordats are undoubtedly
+conventions of a particular nature. They may make certain concessions or
+privileges once given without any corresponding obligation; they
+constitute for a given country a special ecclesiastical law; and it is
+thus that writers have sometimes spoken of concordats as privileges.
+Again, it is quite certain that the spiritual matters upon which
+concordats bear do not concern the two powers in the same manner and in
+the same degree; and in this sense concordats are not perfectly equal
+agreements. Finally, they do not assume the contracting parties to be
+totally independent, i.e. regard is had to the existence of anterior
+rights or duties. But with these reservations it must unhesitatingly be
+said that concordats are bilateral or synallagmatic contracts, from
+which results an equal mutual obligation for the two parties, who enter
+into a juridical engagement towards each other. Latterly certain
+Catholics have questioned this equality of the concordatory obligation,
+and have aroused keen discussion. According to Maurice de Bonald (_Deux
+questions sur le concordat de 1801_, Geneva, 1871), who exaggerates the
+view of Cardinal Tarquini (_Instit. juris publ. eccl._, 1862 and 1868),
+concordats would be pure privileges granted by the pope; the pope would
+not be able to enter into agreements on spiritual matters or impose
+restraints upon the power of his successors; and consequently he would
+not bind himself in any juridical sense and would be able freely to
+revoke concordats, just as the author of a privilege can withdraw it at
+his pleasure. This exaggerated argument found a certain number of
+supporters, several of whom nevertheless sensibly weakened it. But the
+best canonists, from the Roman professor De Angelis (_Prael. juris
+canon._ i. 106) onwards, and all jurists, have victoriously refuted this
+theory, either by insisting on the principles common to all agreements
+or by citing the formal text of several concordats and papal acts, which
+are as explicit as possible. They have thus upheld the true contractual
+nature of concordats and the mutual juridical obligation which results
+from them.
+
+The foregoing statements must not be taken to mean that concordats are
+in their nature perpetual, and that they cannot be broken or denounced.
+They have the perpetuity of conventions which contain no time
+limitation; but, like every human convention, they can be denounced, in
+the form in use for international treaties, and for good reasons, which
+are summed up in the exigencies of the general good of the country.
+Nevertheless, there is no example of a concordat having been denounced
+or broken by the popes, whereas several have been denounced or broken by
+the civil powers, sometimes in the least diplomatic manner, as in the
+case of the French concordat in 1905. The rupture of the concordat at
+once terminates the obligations which resulted from it on both sides;
+but it does not break off all relation between the church and the state,
+since the two societies continue to coexist on the same territory. To
+the situation defined by concordat, however, succeeds another situation,
+more or less uncertain and more or less strained, in which the two
+powers legislate separately on mixed matters, sometimes not without
+provoking conflicts.
+
+We cannot describe in detail the objects of concordatory conventions.
+They bear upon very varied matters,[1] and we must confine ourselves
+here to a brief _resume_. In the first place is the official recognition
+by the state of the Catholic religion and its ministers. Sometimes the
+Catholic religion is declared to be the state religion, and at least the
+free and public exercise of its worship is guaranteed. Several
+conventions guarantee the free communication of the bishops, clergy and
+laity with the Holy See; and this admits of the publication and
+execution of apostolic letters in matters spiritual. Others define those
+affairs of major importance which may be or must be referred to the Holy
+See by appeal, or the decision of which is reserved to the Holy See. On
+several occasions concordats have established a new division of
+dioceses, and provided that future erections or divisions should be made
+by a common accord. Analogous provisions have been made with regard to
+the territorial divisions within the dioceses; parishes have been
+recast, and the consent of the two authorities has been required for the
+establishment of new parishes. As regards candidates for ecclesiastical
+offices, the concordats concluded with Catholic nations regularly give
+the sovereign the right to nominate or present to bishoprics, often also
+to other inferior benefices, such as canonries, important parishes and
+abbeys; or at least the choice of the ecclesiastical authority is
+submitted to the approval of the civil power. In all cases canonical
+institution (which confers ecclesiastical jurisdiction) is reserved to
+the pope or the bishops. In countries where the head of the state is not
+a Catholic, the bishops are regularly elected by the chapters, but the
+civil power has the right to strike out objectionable names from the
+list of candidates which is previously submitted to it. Other
+conventions secure the exercise of the jurisdiction of the bishops in
+their diocese, and determine precisely their authority over seminaries
+and other ecclesiastical establishments of instruction and education, as
+well as over public schools, so far as concerns the teaching of
+religion. Certain concordats deal with the orders and congregations of
+monks and nuns with a view to subjecting them to a certain control while
+securing to them the legal exercise of their activities. Ecclesiastical
+immunities, such as reservation of the criminal cases of the clergy,
+exemption from military service and other privileges, are expressly
+maintained in a certain number of pacts. One of the most important
+subjects is that of church property. An agreement is come to as to the
+conditions on which pious foundations are able to be made; the measure
+in which church property shall contribute to the public expenses is
+indicated; and, in the 19th century, the position of those who have
+acquired confiscated church property is regularized. In exchange for
+this surrender by the church of its ancient property the state engages
+to contribute to the subsistence of the ministers of public worship, or
+at least of certain of them.
+
+Scholars agree in associating the earliest concordats with the
+celebrated contest about investitures (q.v.), which so profoundly
+agitated Christian Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. The first in
+date is that which was concluded for England with Henry I. in 1107 by
+the efforts of St Anselm. The convention of Sutri of 1111 between Pope
+Paschal II. and the emperor Henry V. having been rejected, negotiations
+were resumed by Pope Calixtus II. and ended in the concordat of Worms
+(1122), which was confirmed in 1177 by the convention between Alexander
+III. and the emperor Frederick I. In this concordat a distinction was
+made between spiritual investiture, by the ring and pastoral staff, and
+lay or feudal investiture, by the sceptre. The emperor renounced
+investiture by ring and staff, and permitted canonical elections; the
+pope on his part recognized the king's right to perform lay investiture
+and to assist at elections. Analogous to this convention was the
+concordat concluded between Nicholas IV. and the king of Portugal in
+1289.
+
+The lengthy discussions on ecclesiastical benefices in Germany ended
+finally in the concordat of Vienna, promulgated by Nicholas V. in 1448.
+Already at the council of Constance attempts had been made to reduce the
+excessive papal reservations and taxes in the matter of benefices,
+privileges which had been established under the Avignon popes and during
+the Great Schism; for example, Martin V. had had to make with the
+different nations special arrangements which were valid for five years
+only, and by which he renounced the revenues of vacant benefices. The
+council of Basel went further: it suppressed annates and all the
+benefice reservations which did not appear in the _Corpus Juris_.
+Eugenius IV. repudiated the Basel decrees, and the negotiations
+terminated in what was called the "concordat of the princes," which was
+accepted by Eugenius IV. on his death-bed (bulls of February 5 and 7,
+1447). In February 1448 Nicholas V. concluded the arrangement, which
+took the name of the concordat of Vienna. This concordat, however, was
+not received as law of the Empire. In Germany the concessions made to
+the pope and the reservations maintained by him in the matter of taxes
+and benefices were deemed excessive, and the prolonged discontent which
+resulted was one of the causes of the success of the Lutheran
+Reformation.
+
+In France the opposition to the papal exactions had been still more
+marked. In 1438 the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges adopted and put into
+practice the Basel decrees, and in spite of the incessant protests of
+the Holy See the Pragmatic was observed throughout the 15th century,
+even after its nominal abolition by Louis XI. in 1461. The situation was
+modified by the concordat of Bologna, which was personally negotiated by
+Leo X. and Francis I. of France at Bologna in December 1515, inserted in
+the bull _Primitiva_ (August 18, 1516), and promulgated as law of the
+realm in 1517, but not without rousing keen opposition. All bishoprics,
+abbeys and priories were in the royal nomination, the canonical
+institution belonging to the pope. The pope preserved the right to
+nominate to vacant benefices _in curia_ and to certain benefices of the
+chapters, but all the others were in the nomination of the bishops or
+other inferior collators. However, the exercise of the pope's right of
+provision still left considerable scope for papal intervention, and the
+pope retained the annates.
+
+In the 17th century we have only to mention the concordat between Urban
+VIII. and the emperor Ferdinand II. for Bohemia in 1640. In the 18th
+century concordats are numerous: there are two for Spain, in 1737 and
+1753; two for the duchy of Milan, in 1757 and 1784; one for Poland, in
+1736; five for Sardinia and Piedmont, in 1727, 1741, 1742, 1750 and
+1770; and one for the kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1741.
+
+After the political and territorial upheavals which marked the end of
+the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, all these concordats
+either fell to the ground or had to be recast. In the 19th century we
+find a long series of concordats, of which a good number are still in
+force. The first in date and importance is that of 1801, concluded for
+France between Napoleon, First Consul, and Pius VII. after laborious
+negotiations. Save in the provisions relating to ecclesiastical
+benefices, all the property of which had been confiscated, it reproduced
+the concordat of 1516. The pope condoned those who had acquired church
+property; and by way of compensation the government engaged to give the
+bishops and cures suitable salaries. The concordat was solemnly
+promulgated on Easter Day 1802, but the government had added to it
+unilateral provisions of Gallican tendencies, which were known as the
+Organic Articles. After having been the law of the Church of France for
+a century, it was denounced by the French government in 1905. It
+remains, however, partly in force for Belgium and Alsace-Lorraine, which
+formed part of French territory in 1801.
+
+We conclude with a brief chronological survey of the concordats during
+the 19th century, some now abrogated or replaced, others maintained. It
+must be observed that the denunciation of a concordat by a nation does
+not necessarily entail the separation of the church and the state in
+that country or the rupture of diplomatic relations with Rome.
+
+1803. For the Italian republic, between Napoleon and Pius VII.,
+analogous to the French concordat; abrogated.
+
+1813. It is impossible to designate as a concordat the concessions which
+were wrested by violence from Pius VII. when ill and in seclusion at
+Fontainebleau, and which he at once retracted.
+
+1817. For Bavaria; still in force.
+
+1817. New French concordat, in which Louis XVIII. endeavoured to revive
+the concordat of 1516; but it was not put to the vote in the chambers,
+and never came into force.
+
+1817. For Piedmont, completed in 1836 and 1841; was suppressed, like
+all other Italian concordats, by the formation of the kingdom of Italy.
+
+1818. For the Two Sicilies, completed in 1834; lasted until the invasion
+of the kingdom of Naples by Piedmont.
+
+1821. For Prussia; still in force.
+
+1821. For the Rhine provinces not incorporated in Prussia, with the
+special object of regulating episcopal elections; concerned Wurttemberg,
+Baden, Hesse, Saxony, Nassau, Frankfort, the Hanseatic towns, Oldenburg
+and Waldeck. This first concordat was immediately suspended, and was not
+ratified until 1827; it is partially maintained. It had to be replaced
+by new concordats concluded with Wurttemberg in 1857 and the grand-duchy
+of Baden in 1859; but these conventions, not having been ratified by
+those countries, never came into force.
+
+1824. For the kingdom of Hanover; maintained.
+
+1827. For Belgium and Holland; abandoned by a common accord.
+
+1828 and 1845. For Switzerland, for the reorganization of the bishoprics
+of Basel and Soleure; in force.
+
+1847. For Russia, never applied by Russia. It was followed by several
+partial conventions.
+
+1851. For Tuscany; lasted until the formation of the kingdom of Italy.
+
+1851. For Spain, completed in 1859 and 1888; in force.
+
+A convention on the religious orders was concluded in 1904, but had not
+received the assent of the Senate in 1908.
+
+1855. For Austria; denounced in 1870. Several of its provisions are
+maintained by unilateral Austrian laws. The emperor of Austria continues
+to nominate to bishoprics by virtue of rights anterior to this
+concordat.
+
+1857. For Portugal, completed in 1886 for the Portuguese possessions in
+the Indies; in force.
+
+1886. For Montenegro; in force.
+
+The numerous concordats concluded towards the middle of the 19th century
+with several of the South American republics either have not come into
+force or have been denounced and replaced by a more or less pacific
+modus vivendi.
+
+  For texts see Vincenzio Nussi, _Quinquaginta conventiones de rebus
+  ecclesiasticis_ (Rome, 1869; Mainz, 1870); Branden, _Concordata inter
+  S. Sedem et inclytam nationem Germaniae_, &c. (undated). On the nature
+  and obligation of concordats see Mgr. Giobbio, _I Concordati_ (Monza,
+  1900); _idem, Lezioni di diplomazia ecclesiastica_ (Rome, 1899-1903);
+  Cardinal Cavagnis, _Institutiones juris publici ecclesiastici_ (Rome,
+  1906). For the French concordats see A. Baudrillard, _Quatre cents ans
+  de concordat_ (Paris, 1905); Boulay de la Meurthe, _Documents sur la
+  negociation du concordat et sur les autres rapports de la France avec
+  le Saint-Siege_ (Paris, 1891-1905); Cardinal Mathieu, _Le Concordat de
+  1801_ (Paris, 1903); E. Sevestre, _Le Concordat de 1801, l'histoire,
+  le texte, la destinee_ (Paris, 1905). On the relations between the
+  church and the state in various countries see Vering, _Kirchenrecht_,
+  SS 30-53.     (A. Bo.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] These are arranged under thirty-five distinct heads in Nussi's
+    _Quinquaginta conventiones de rebus ecclesiasticis_ (Rome, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+CONCORDIA, a Roman goddess, the personification of peace and goodwill.
+Several temples in her honour were erected at Rome, the most ancient
+being one on the Capitol, dedicated to her by Camillus (367 B.C.),
+subsequently restored by Livia, the wife of Augustus, and consecrated by
+Tiberius (A.D. 10). Other temples were frequently built to commemorate
+the restoration of civil harmony. Offerings were made to Concordia on
+the birthdays of emperors, and Concordia Augusta was worshipped as the
+promoter of harmony in the imperial household. Concordia was represented
+as a matron holding in her right hand a _patera_ or an olive branch, and
+in her left a _cornu copiae_ or a sceptre. Her symbols were two hands
+joined together, and two serpents entwined about a herald's staff.
+
+
+
+
+CONCORDIA (mod. _Concordia Sagittaria_), an ancient town of Venetia, in
+Italy, 16 ft. above sea-level, 31 m. W. of Aquileia, at the junction of
+roads to Altinum and Patavium, to Opitergium (and thence either to
+Vicetia and Verona, or Feltria and Tridentum), to Noricum by the valley
+of the Tilaventus (Tagliamento), and to Aquileia. It was a mere village
+until the time of Augustus, who made it a colony. Under the later empire
+it was one of the most important towns of Italy; it had a strong
+garrison and a factory of missiles for the army. The cemetery of the
+garrison has been excavated since 1873, and a large number of important
+inscriptions, the majority belonging to the end of the 4th and the
+beginning of the 5th centuries, have been discovered. It was taken and
+destroyed by Attila in A.D. 452. Considerable remains of the ancient
+town have been found--parts of the city walls, the sites of the forum
+and the theatre, and probably that of the arms factory. The objects
+found are preserved at Portogruaro, 1-1/4 m. to the N. The see of Concordia
+was founded at an early period, and transferred in 1339 to Portogruaro,
+where it still remains. The baptistery of Concordia was probably erected
+in 1100.
+
+  See Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, iv. (Stuttgart,
+  1901) 830.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCRETE (Lat. _concretus_, participle of _concrescere_, to grow
+together), a term used in various technical senses with the general
+significance of combination, conjunction, solidity. Thus the building
+material made up of separate substances combined into one is known as
+concrete (see below). In mathematics and music, the adjective has been
+used as synonymous with "continuous" as opposed to "discrete," i.e.
+"separate," "discontinuous." This antithesis is no doubt influenced by
+the idea that the two words derive from a common origin, whereas
+"discrete" is derived from the Latin _discernere_. In logic and also in
+common language concrete terms are those which signify persons or things
+as opposed to abstract terms which signify qualities, relations,
+attributes (so J. S. Mill). Thus the term "man" is concrete, while
+"manhood" and "humanity" are abstract, the names of the qualities
+implied. Confusions between abstract and concrete terms are frequent;
+thus the word "relation," which is strictly an abstract term implying
+connexion between two things or persons, is often used instead of the
+correct term "relative" for people related to one another. Concrete
+terms are further subdivided as Singular, the names of things regarded
+as individuals, and General or Common, the names which a number of
+things bear in common in virtue of their possession of common
+characteristics. These latter terms, though concrete in so far as they
+denote the persons or things which are known by them (see DENOTATION),
+have also an abstract sense when viewed connotatively, i.e. as implying
+the quality or qualities in isolation from the individuals. The
+ascription of adjectives to the class of concrete terms, upheld by J. S.
+Mill, has been disputed on the ground that adjectives are applied both
+to concrete and to abstract terms. Hence some logicians make a separate
+class for adjectives, as being the names neither of things nor of
+qualities, and describe them as Attributive terms.
+
+
+
+
+CONCRETE, the name given to a building material consisting generally of
+a mixture of broken stone, sand and some kind of cement. To these is
+added water, which combining chemically with the cement conglomerates
+the whole mixture into a solid mass, and forms a rough but strong
+artificial stone. It has thus the immense advantage over natural stone
+that it can be easily moulded while wet to any desired shape or size.
+Moreover, its constituents can be obtained in almost any part of the
+world, and its manufacture is extremely simple. On account of these
+properties, builders have come to give it a distinct preference over
+stone, brick, timber and other building materials. So popular has it
+become that besides being used for massive constructions like
+breakwaters, dock walls, culverts, and for foundations of buildings,
+lighthouses and bridges, it is also proving its usefulness to the
+architect and engineer in many other ways. A remarkable extension of the
+use of concrete has been made possible by the introduction of scientific
+methods of combining it with steel or iron. The floors and even the
+walls of important buildings are made of this combination, and long span
+bridges, tall factory chimneys, and large water-tanks are among the many
+novel uses to which it has been put. Piles made of steel concrete are
+driven into the ground with blows that would shatter the best of timber.
+A fuller description of the combination of steel and concrete will be
+given later.
+
+
+  Constituents.
+
+The constituents of concrete are sometimes spoken of as the _matrix_ and
+the _aggregate_, and these terms, though somewhat old-fashioned, are
+convenient. The matrix is the lime or cement, whose chemical action
+with the added water causes the concrete to solidify; and the aggregate
+is the broken stone or hard material which is embedded in the matrix.
+The matrix most commonly used is Portland cement, by far the best and
+strongest of them all. The subject of its manufacture and examination is
+a most important and interesting one, and the special article dealing
+with it should be studied (see CEMENT), Here it will only be said that
+before using Portland cement very careful tests should be made to
+ascertain its quality and condition. Moreover, it should be kept in a
+damp-proof store for a few weeks; and when taken out for use it should
+be mixed and placed in position as quickly as possible, because rain, or
+even moist air, spoils it by causing it to set prematurely. The oldest
+of all the matrices is lime, and many splendid examples of its use by
+the Romans still exist. It has been to a great extent superseded by
+Portland cement, on account of the much greater strength of the latter,
+though lime concrete is still used in many places for dry foundations
+and small structures. To be of service the lime should be what is known
+as "hydraulic," that is, not pure or "fat," but containing some
+argillaceous matter, and should be carefully slaked with water before
+being mixed with the aggregate. To ensure this being properly done, the
+lumps of lime should be broken up small, and enough water to slake them
+should be added, the lime then being allowed to rest for about
+forty-eight hours, when the water changes the particles of quicklime to
+hydrate of lime, and breaks up the hard lumps into a powder. The
+hydrated lime, after being passed through a fine screen to sort out any
+lumps unaffected by the water, is ready for concrete making, and if not
+required at once should be stored in a dry place. Other matrices are
+slag cement, a comparatively recent invention, and some other natural
+and artificial cements which find occasional advocates. Materials like
+tar and pitch are sometimes employed as a matrix; they are used hot and
+without water, the solidifying action being due to cooling and to
+evaporation of the mineral oils contained in them. Whatever matrix is
+used, it is almost invariably "diluted" with sand, the grains of which
+become coated with the finer particles of the matrix. The sand should be
+coarse-grained and hard. It should be free from dirt--that is to say,
+free from clay or soft mud, for instance, which prevents the cement
+adhering to its particles, or again from sewage matter or any substance
+which will chemically destroy the matrix. The grains should show no
+signs of decay, and by preference should be of an angular shape. The
+sand obtained by crushing granite and hard stones is excellent. When
+lime is used as a matrix, certain natural earths such as pozzuolana or
+trass, or, failing these, powdered bricks or tiles, may be used instead
+of sand with great advantage. They have the property of entering into
+chemical combination with the lime, forming a hard setting compound, and
+increasing the hardness of the resulting concrete.
+
+The commonest aggregates are broken stone and natural flint gravel.
+Broken bricks or tiles and broken furnace slag are sometimes used, the
+essential points being that the aggregate should be hard, clean and
+sound. Generally speaking, broken stones will be rough and angular,
+whereas the stones in flint gravel will be comparatively smooth and
+round. It might be supposed, therefore, that the broken stone will
+necessarily be the better aggregate, but this does not always follow.
+Experience shows that, although spherical pebbles are to be avoided,
+Portland cement adheres tightly to smooth flint surfaces, and that rough
+stones often give a less compact concrete than smooth ones on account of
+the difficulty of bedding them into the matrix when laying the concrete.
+In mixing concrete there is always a tendency for the stones to separate
+themselves from the sand and cement, and to form "pockets" of
+honeycombed concrete which are neither water-tight nor strong. These are
+much more liable to occur when the stones are flat and angular than when
+they are round. Modern engineers favour the practice of having the
+stones of various sizes instead of being uniform, because if these sizes
+are wisely proportioned the whole mixture can be made more solid, and
+the rough "pockets" avoided. For first-class work, however, and
+especially in steel concrete, it is customary to reject very large
+stones, and to insist that all shall pass through a ring 7/8 of an inch
+in diameter.
+
+The water, like all the other constituents of concrete, should be clean
+and free from vegetable matter. At one time sea-water was thought to be
+injurious, but modern investigation finds no objection to it except on
+the score of appearance, efflorescence being more likely to occur when
+it is used.
+
+Sometimes in massive concrete structures large and heavy stones as big
+as a man can lift are buried in the concrete after it is laid in
+position but while it is still wet. The stones should be hard and clean,
+and care must be taken that they are completely surrounded. Such
+concrete is known as _rubble concrete_.
+
+
+  Proportions.
+
+In proportioning the quantities of matrix to aggregate the ideal to be
+aimed at is to get a concrete in which the voids or air-spaces shall be
+as small as possible; and as the lime or cement is usually by far the
+most expensive item, it is desirable to use as little of it as is
+consistent with strength. When natural flint gravel containing both
+stones and sand is used, it is usual to mix so much gravel with so much
+lime or cement. The proportions in practice generally run from 3 to 1
+for very strong work, down to 12 to 1 for unimportant work. Some
+engineers have the sand separated from the stones by screens or sieves
+and then remixed in definite proportions. When stones and sand are
+obtained from different sources, their relative proportions have to be
+decided upon. A common way of doing this is first to choose a proportion
+of sand to cement, which will probably vary from 1 to 1 up to 4 to 1. It
+then remains to determine what proportion of stones should be added. For
+this purpose a large can, whose volume is known, is filled loosely with
+stones, and the volume of the voids between them is determined by
+measuring how much water the can will hold in addition to the stones. It
+is then assumed that the quantity of sand and cement should be equal to
+the voids. Moreover, the volume of sand and cement together is generally
+assumed to be equal to that of the sand alone, as the cement to a large
+extent fills up voids in the sand. For example, suppose it is resolved
+to use 2 parts of sand to 1 of cement, and suppose that experiment shows
+that in a pailful of stones two-fifths of the volume consists of voids,
+then 2 parts of sand (or sand with cement) will fill voids in 5 parts of
+stones, and the proportion of cement, sand, stones becomes 1:2:5. There
+are several weak points in this reasoning, and a more accurate way of
+determining the best proportions is to try different mixtures of cement,
+stones and sand, filling them into different pails of the same size, and
+then ascertaining, by weighing the pails, which mixture is the densest.
+
+In determining the amount of water to be added, several things must be
+considered. The amount required to combine chemically with the cement is
+about 16% by weight, but in practice much more than this is used,
+because of loss by evaporation, and the difficulty of ensuring that the
+water shall be uniformly distributed. If the situation is cool, the
+stone hard, and the concrete carefully rammed directly it is laid down
+and kept moist with damp cloths, only just sufficient to moisten the
+whole mass is required. On the other hand, water should be given
+generously in hot weather, also when absorbent stone is used or when the
+concrete is not rammed. In these cases the concrete should be allowed to
+take all it can, but an excess of water which would flow away, carrying
+the cement with it, should be avoided.
+
+
+  Mixing.
+
+The thorough mixing of the constituents is a most important item in the
+production of good concrete. Its object is to distribute all the
+materials evenly throughout the mass, and it is performed in many
+different ways, both by hand and by machine. The relative values of hand
+and machine work are often discussed. Roughly it may be said that where
+a large mass of concrete is to be mixed at one or two places a good
+machine will be of great advantage. On the other hand, where the mixing
+platform has to be constantly shifted, hand mixing is the more
+convenient way. In hand mixing it is usual to measure out from gauge
+boxes the sand, stones and cement or lime in a heap on a wooden
+platform. Then they are turned once or twice in their dry state by men
+with shovels. Next water is carefully added, and the mixture again
+turned, when it is ready for depositing. For important work and
+especially for thin structures the number of turnings should be
+increased. Many types of mixing machines are obtainable; the favourite
+type is one in which the materials are placed in a large iron box which
+is made to rotate, thus tumbling the matrix and aggregate over each
+other again and again. Another simple apparatus is a large vertical pipe
+or shoot in which sloping baffle plates or shelves are placed at
+intervals. The materials are fed in at the top of the shoot and fall
+from shelf to shelf, the mixing being effected by the various shocks
+thus given. When mixed the concrete is carried at once to the position
+required, and if the matrix is quick-setting Portland cement this
+operation must not be delayed.
+
+
+  Moulds.
+
+One of the few drawbacks of concrete is that, unlike brickwork or
+masonry, it has nearly always to be deposited within moulds or framing
+which give it the required shape, and which are removed after it is set.
+Indeed, the trouble and expense of these moulds sometimes prohibit its
+use. It is essential that they shall be strong and stiff, so as not to
+yield at all from the pressure of the wet concrete. The moulds for the
+face of a wall consist generally of wooden shutters, leaning against
+upright timbers which are secured by horizontal or raking struts to firm
+ground, or to anything that will bear the weight. If a smooth and neat
+face is wanted other precautions must be taken. The shutters must be
+planed, and coated with a mixture of soap and oil, so as to come away
+easily after the concrete is set. Moreover, when depositing the
+concrete, a shovel or other tool must be worked between the wet concrete
+and the shutter. This draws sand and water to the face and prevents the
+rough stones from showing themselves. Sometimes rough concrete is
+rendered over with a plaster of cement and sand after the shutters have
+been removed, but this is liable to peel off and should be avoided.
+
+
+  Depositing.
+
+The method of depositing depends on the situation. If for important
+walls, or for small scantlings such as steel concrete generally
+involves, the concrete should be deposited in quite small quantities and
+very carefully rammed into position. If for massive walls, it is usual
+to tip it out in large quantities from a barrow or wagon, and simply
+spread it in layers about a foot thick. Depositing concrete under water
+for breakwaters and bridge foundations requires special skill and
+special appliances. It is usually done in one of three ways:--(a) By
+moulding the concrete ashore into large blocks, which, when sufficiently
+hard, are lowered through the water into position by a crane or similar
+machine with the aid of divers. The most notable instance of this type
+of construction was at the port of Dublin, where Mr B. B. Stoney made
+blocks no less than 350 tons in weight. Each block formed a piece of the
+quay wall 12 ft. long and 27 ft. high, being made on shore and then
+deposited in position by floating sheers of special design. (b) By
+moulding the concrete into what are called "bag-blocks." In this system
+the concrete is filled into bags, which are at once lowered through the
+water like the blocks. But in this case the concrete being still wet can
+adapt itself more or less to the shape of the adjoining bags, and strong
+rough walls can be built in this way. Sometimes the bags are made of
+enormous size, as at Aberdeen breakwater, where the contents of each bag
+weighed 50 tons. The canvas was laid in a hopper barge and there filled
+with the concrete and sewn up. The enormous bag was then dropped through
+a door in the bottom of the barge upon the breakwater foundation. (c) By
+depositing the wet concrete through the water between temporary upright
+timber frames which form the two faces of the wall. In this case very
+great care has to be taken to prevent the cement from being washed away
+from the other constituents when passing through the water. Indeed, this
+is bound to happen more or less, but it is guarded against by lowering
+the concrete slowly in a special box, the bottom of which is opened as
+it reaches the ground on which the concrete is to be laid. This method
+can only be carried out in still water, and where strong and tight
+framing can be built which will prevent the concrete from escaping. For
+small work the box can be replaced by a canvas bag secured by a special
+tripping noose which can be loosened when the bag has reached the
+ground. The concrete escapes from the bag, which is then drawn up and
+refilled.
+
+
+  Strength.
+
+Concrete may be compared with other building materials like masonry or
+timber from various points of view, such as strength, durability,
+convenience of building, fire-resistance, appearance and cost. Its
+strength varies within very wide limits according to the quality and
+proportions of the constituents, and the skill shown in mixing and
+placing them. To give a rough idea, however, it may be said that its
+safe crushing load would be about 1/2 cwt. per sq. in. for lime concrete,
+and 1 to 5 cwt. for Portland cement concrete. The safe tensile strength
+of Portland cement concrete would be something like one-tenth of its
+compressive strength, and might be far less. On this account it is usual
+to neglect the tensile strength of concrete in designing structures, and
+to arrange the material in such a way that tensile stresses are avoided.
+Hence slabs or beams of long span should not be built of plain concrete,
+though when reinforced with steel it is admirably adapted for these
+purposes.
+
+
+  Durability.
+
+In regard to durability good Portland cement concrete is one of the most
+durable materials known. Neither hot, cold, nor wet weather has
+practically any effect whatever upon it. Frost will not injure it after
+it has once set, though it is essential to guard it from frost during
+the operations of mixing and depositing. The same praise cannot,
+however, be given to lime concrete. Even though the best hydraulic lime
+be used it is wise to confine it to places where it is not exposed to
+the air, or to running water, and indeed for important structures the
+use of lime should be avoided. Good Portland cement is so much stronger
+than any lime that there are few situations where it is not cheaper as
+well as better to use the former, because, although cement is the more
+expensive matrix, a smaller proportion of it will suffice for use. Lime
+should never be used in work exposed to sea-water, or to water
+containing chemicals of any kind. Portland cement concrete, on the other
+hand, may be used without fear in sea-water, provided that certain
+reasonable precautions are taken. Considerable alarm was created about
+the year 1887 by the failure of two or three large structures of
+Portland cement concrete exposed to sea-water, both in England and other
+countries. The matter was carefully investigated, and it was found that
+the sulphate of magnesia in the sea-water has a decomposing action on
+Portland cements, especially those which contain a large proportion of
+lime or even of alumina. Indeed, no Portland cement is free from the
+liability to be decomposed by sea-water, and on a moderate scale this
+action is always going on more or less. But to ensure the permanence of
+structures in sea-water the great object is to choose a cement
+containing as little lime and alumina as possible, and free from
+sulphates such as gypsum; and more important still to proportion the
+sand and stones in the concrete in such a way that the structure is
+practically non-porous. If this is done there is really nothing to fear.
+On the other hand, if the concrete is rough and porous the sea-water
+will gradually eat into the heart of the structure, especially in a case
+like a dam, where the water, being higher on one side than the other,
+constantly forces its way through the rough material, and decomposes the
+Portland cement it contains.
+
+
+  Convenience and appearance.
+
+As regards its convenience for building purposes it may be said roughly
+that in "mass" work concrete is vastly more convenient than any other
+material. But concrete is hampered by the fact that the surface always
+has to be formed by means of wooden or other framing, and in the case of
+thin walls or floors this framing becomes a serious item, involving
+expense and delay. In appearance concrete can rarely if ever rival stone
+or brickwork. It is true that it can be moulded to any desired shape,
+but mouldings in concrete generally give the appearance of being
+unsatisfactory imitations of stone. Moreover, its colour is not
+pleasing. These defects will no doubt be overcome as concrete grows in
+popularity as a building material and its aesthetic treatment is better
+understood. Concrete pavings are being used in buildings of first
+importance, the aggregate being very carefully selected, and in many
+cases the whole mixture coloured by the use of pigments. Care must be
+taken in their selection, however, as certain colouring matters such as
+red lead are destructive to the cement. One of the great objections to
+the appearance of concrete is the fact that soon after its erection
+irregular cracks invariably appear on its surface. These cracks are
+probably due to shrinkage while setting, aggravated by changes in
+temperature. They occur no less in structures of masonry and brickwork,
+but in these cases they generally follow the joints, and are almost
+imperceptible. In the case of a smooth concrete face there are no joints
+to follow, and the cracks become an ugly feature. They are sometimes
+regulated by forming artificial "joints" in the structure by embedding
+strips of wood or sheet iron at regular intervals, thus forming "lines
+of weakness," at which the cracks therefore take place. A pleasing
+"rough" appearance can be given to concrete by brushing it over soon
+after it has set with a stiff brush dipped in water or dilute acid. Or,
+if hard, its surface can be picked all over with a bush hammer.
+
+
+  Resistance to fire.
+
+At one time Portland cement concrete was considered to be lacking in
+fireproof qualities, but now it is regarded as one of the best
+fire-resisting materials known. Although experiments on this matter are
+badly needed, there is little doubt that good steel concrete is very
+nearly indestructible by fire. The matrix should be Portland cement, and
+the nature of the aggregate is important. Cinders have been and are
+still much favoured for this purpose. The reason for this preference
+lies in the fact that being porous and full of air, they are a good
+non-conductor. But they are weak, and modern experience goes to show
+that a strong concrete is the best, and that probably materials like
+broken clamp bricks or burnt clay, which are porous and yet strong, are
+far better than cinders as a fireproof aggregate. Limestone should be
+avoided, as it soon splits under heat. The steel reinforcement is of
+immense importance in fireproof work, because, if properly designed, it
+enables the concrete to hold together and do its work even when it has
+been cracked by fire and water. On the other hand, the concrete, being a
+non-conductor, preserves the steel from being softened and twisted by
+excessive temperature.
+
+
+  Cost.
+
+Only very general remarks can be made on the subject of cost, as this
+item varies greatly in different situations and with the market price of
+the materials used. But in England it may be said that for massive work
+such as big walls and foundations concrete is nearly always cheaper than
+brickwork or masonry. On the other hand, for reasons already given, thin
+walls, such as house walls, will cost more in concrete. Steel concrete
+is even more difficult to generalize about, as its use is comparatively
+new, but even in the matter of first cost it is proving a serious rival
+to timber and to plate steel work, in floors, bridges and tanks, and to
+brickwork and plain concrete in structures such as culverts and
+retaining walls, towers and domes.
+
+_Artificial Stones._--There are many varieties of concrete known as
+"artificial stones" which can now be bought ready moulded into the form
+of paving slabs, wall blocks and pipes: they are both pleasing in
+appearance and very durable, being carefully made by skilled workmen.
+Granolithic, globe granite and synthetic stone are examples of these.
+Some, such as victoria stone, imperial stone and others, are hardened
+and rendered non-porous after manufacture by immersion in a solution of
+silicate of soda. Others, like Ford's silicate of limestone, are
+practically lime mortars of excellent quality, which can be carved and
+cut like a sandstone of fine quality.
+
+_Steel Concrete._--The introduction of steel concrete (also known as
+ferroconcrete, armoured concrete, or reinforced concrete) is generally
+attributed to Joseph Monier, a French gardener, who about the year 1868
+was anxious to build some concrete water basins. In order to reduce the
+thickness of the walls and floor he conceived the idea of strengthening
+them by building in a network of iron rods. As a matter of fact other
+inventors were at work before Monier, but he deserves much credit for
+having pushed his invention with vigour, and for having popularized the
+use of this invaluable combination. The important point of his idea was
+that it combined steel and concrete in such a way that the best
+qualities of each material were brought into play. Concrete is readily
+procured and easily moulded into shape. It has considerable compressive
+or crushing strength, but is somewhat deficient in shearing strength,
+and distinctly weak in tensile or pulling strength. Steel, on the other
+hand, is easily procurable in simple forms such as long bars, and is
+exceedingly strong. But it is difficult and expensive to work up into
+various forms. Concrete has been avoided for making beams, slabs and
+thin walls, just because its deficiency in tensile strength doomed it to
+failure in such structures. But if a concrete slab be "reinforced" with
+a network of small steel rods on its under surface where the tensile
+stresses occur (see fig. 1) its strength will be enormously increased.
+Thus the one point of weakness in the concrete slab is overcome by the
+addition of steel in its simplest form, and both materials are used to
+their best advantage. The scientific and practical value of this idea
+was soon seized upon by various inventors and others, and the number of
+patented systems of combining steel with concrete is constantly
+increasing. Many of them are but slight modifications of the older
+systems, and no attempt will be made here to describe them in full. In
+England it is customary to allow the patentee of one or other system to
+furnish his own designs, but this is as much because he has gained the
+experience needed for success as because of any special virtue in this
+or that system. The majority of these systems have emanated from France,
+where steel concrete is largely used. America and Germany adopted them
+readily, and in England some very large structures have been erected
+with this material.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Expanded Steel Concrete Slab.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Expanded Metal.
+                 Section through Intersection.]
+
+The concrete itself should always be the very best quality, and Portland
+cement should be used on account of its superiority to all others. The
+aggregate should be the best obtainable and of different sizes, the
+stones being freshly crushed and screened to pass through a 7/8 in.
+ring. Very special care should be taken so to proportion the sand as to
+make a perfectly impervious mixture. The proportions generally used are
+4 to 1 and 5 to 1 in the case of gravel concrete, or 1:2:4 or 1:2-1/2:6 in
+the case of broken stone concrete. But, generally speaking, in steel
+concrete the cost of the cement is but a small item of the whole
+expense, and it is worth while to be generous with it. If It is used in
+piles or structures where it is likely to be bruised the proportion of
+cement should be increased. The mixing and laying should all be done
+very thoroughly; the concrete should be rammed in position, and any old
+surface of concrete which has to be covered should be cleaned and coated
+with fresh cement.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Hennebique System.]
+
+The reinforcement mostly consists of mild steel and sometimes of wrought
+iron: steel, however, is stronger and generally cheaper, so that in
+English practice it holds the field. It should be mild and is usually
+specified to have a breaking (tensile) strength of 28 to 32 tons per sq.
+in., with an elongation of at least 20% in 8 in. Any bar should be
+capable of being bent cold to the shape of the letter U without breaking
+it. The steel is generally used in the form of long bars of circular
+section. At first it was feared that such bars would have a tendency to
+slip through the concrete in which they were embedded, but experiments
+have shown that if the bar is not painted but has a natural rusty
+surface a very considerable adhesion between the concrete and steel--as
+much as 2 cwt. per sq. in. of contact surface--may be relied upon. Many
+devices are used, however, to ensure the adhesion between concrete and
+bar being perfect. (1) In the Hennebique system of construction the bars
+are flattened at the end and split to form a "fish tail." (2) In the
+Ransome system round bars are rejected in favour of square bars, which
+have been twisted in a lathe in "barley sugar" fashion. (3) In the
+Habrick system a flat bar similarly twisted is used. (4) In the Thacher
+system a flat bar with projections like rivet heads is specially rolled
+for this purpose. (5) In the Kahn system a square bar with "branches" is
+used. (6) In the "expanded metal" system no bars are used, but instead a
+strong steel netting is manufactured in large sheets by special
+machinery. It is made by cutting a series of long slots at regular
+intervals in a plain steel plate, which is then forcibly stretched out
+sideways until the slots become diamond-shaped openings, and a trellis
+work of steel without any joints is the result (fig. 2).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. Hennebique System.]
+
+The structures in which steel concrete is used may be analysed as
+consisting essentially of (1) walls, (2) columns, (3) piles, (4) beams,
+(5) slabs, (6) arches. The designs differ considerably according to
+which of these purposes the structure is to fulfil.
+
+The effect of reinforcing _walls_ with steel is that they can be made
+much thinner. The steel reinforcement is generally applied in the form
+of vertical rods built in the wall at intervals, with lighter horizontal
+rods which cross the vertical ones, and thus form a network of steel
+which is buried in the concrete. These rods assist in taking the weight,
+and the whole network binds the concrete together and prevents it from
+cracking under a heavy load. The vertical rods should not be quite in
+the middle of the wall but near the inner and outer faces alternately.
+Care must be taken, however, that all the rods are covered by at least
+an inch of concrete to preserve them from damage by rust or fire. In
+the Cottancin system the concrete is replaced by bricks pierced with
+holes through which the vertical rods are threaded; the horizontal
+tie-rods are also used, but these do not merely cross the vertical ones,
+but are woven in and out of them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Steel and Concrete Pile (Williams System).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+_Columns_ have generally to bear a heavier weight than walls, and have
+to be correspondingly stronger. They have usually been made square with
+a vertical steel rod at each corner. To prevent these rods from
+spreading apart they must be tied together at frequent intervals. In
+some systems this is done by loops of stout wire connecting each rod to
+its neighbour, and placed one above the other about every 10 in. up the
+column (figs. 3 and 4). In other systems a stout wire is wound
+continuously in a spiral form round the four rods. Modern investigation
+goes to prove that the latter is theoretically the more economical way
+of using the steel, as the spiral binding wire acts like the binding of
+a wire gun, and prevents the concrete which it encloses from bursting
+even under very great loads.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+That steel concrete can be used for _piles_ is perhaps the most
+astonishing feature in this invention. The fact that a comparatively
+brittle material like concrete can be subjected not only to heavy loads
+but also to the jar and vibration from the blows of a heavy pile ram
+makes it appear as if its nature and properties had been changed by the
+steel reinforcement. In a sense this is undoubtedly the case. A. G.
+Considere's experiments have shown that concrete when reinforced is
+capable of being stretched, without fracture, about twenty times as much
+as plain concrete. Most of the piles driven in Great Britain have been
+made on the Hennebique system with four or six longitudinal steel rods
+tied together by stirrups or loops at frequent intervals. Piles made on
+the Williams system have a steel rolled joist of I section buried in the
+heart of the pile, and round it a series of steel wire hoops at regular
+intervals (fig. 5). Whatever system is used, care must be taken not to
+batter the head of the pile to pieces with the heavy ram. To prevent
+this an iron "helmet" containing a lining of sawdust is fitted over the
+head of the pile. The sawdust adapts itself to the rough shape of the
+concrete, and deadens the blow to some extent.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Stirrup (Hennebique System).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+But it is in the design of steel concrete _beams_ that the greatest
+ingenuity has been shown, and almost every patentee of a "system" has
+some new device for arranging the steel reinforcement to the best
+advantage. Concrete by itself, though strong in compression, can offer
+but little resistance to tensile and shearing stresses, and as these
+stresses always occur in beams the problem arises how best to arrange
+the steel so as to assist the concrete in bearing them. To meet tensile
+stresses the steel is nearly always inserted in the form of bars running
+along the beam. Figs. 6 to 9 show how they are arranged for different
+loading. In each case the object is to place the bars as nearly as
+possible where the tensile stresses occur. In cases where all the
+stresses are heavy, that portion of the beam which is under compression
+is similarly reinforced, though with smaller bars (figs. 10 and 11). But
+as these tension and compression bars are generally placed near the
+under and upper surface of the beam they are of little use in helping to
+resist the shearing stresses which are greatest at its neutral axis.
+(See BRIDGES.) These shearing stresses in a heavily loaded beam would
+cause it to split horizontally at or near the centre. To prevent this
+many ingenious devices have been introduced. (1) Perhaps one of the most
+efficient is a diagonal bracing of steel wire passing to and fro between
+the upper and lower bars and firmly secured to each by lapping or
+otherwise (fig. 12); this device is used in the Coignet and other French
+systems. (2) In the Hennebique system (which has found great favour in
+England) vertical bands or "stirrups," as they are generally called, of
+hoop steel are used (fig. 13). They are of U shape, and passing round
+the tension bars extend to the top of the beam (figs. 14 and 3). They
+are exceedingly thin, but being buried in concrete no danger of their
+perishing from rust is to be feared. (3) In the Boussiron system a
+similar stirrup is used, but instead of being vertical the two parts are
+spread so that each is slightly inclined. (4) In the Coularon system,
+the stirrups are inclined as in fig. 15, and consist of rods, the ends
+of which are hooked over the tension and compression bars. (5) In the
+Kahn system the stirrups are similarly arranged, but instead of being
+merely secured to the tension bar, they form an integral part of it like
+branches on a stem, the bar being rolled to a special section to admit
+of this. (6) In many systems such as the "expanded metal" system, the
+tension and compression rods together with the stirrups are all
+abandoned in favour of a single rolled steel joist of I section, buried
+in concrete (see fig. 16). Probably the weight of steel used in this way
+is excessive, but the joists are cheap, readily procurable and easy to
+handle.
+
+Floor _slabs_ may be regarded as wide and shallow beams, and the remarks
+made about the stresses in the one apply to the other also; accordingly,
+the various devices which are used for strengthening beams recur in the
+slabs. But in a thin slab, with its comparatively small span and light
+load, the concrete is generally strong enough to bear the shearing
+stresses unaided, and the reinforcement is devoted to assisting it where
+the tensile stresses occur. For this purpose many designers simply use
+the modification of the Monier system, consisting of a horizontal
+network of crossed steel rods buried in the concrete. "Expanded metal"
+too is admirably adapted for the purpose (fig. 1). In the Matrai system
+thin wires are used instead of rods, and are securely fastened to rolled
+steel joists, which form the beams on which the slabs rest; moreover,
+the wires instead of being stretched tight from side to side of the slab
+are allowed to sag as much as the thickness of the concrete will allow.
+In the Williams system small flat bars are used, which are not quite
+horizontal, but pass alternately over and under the rolled joists which
+support the slabs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+A concrete _arch_ is reinforced in much the same way as a wall, the
+stresses being somewhat similar. The reinforcing rods are generally laid
+both longitudinally and circumferentially. In the case of a culvert the
+circumferential rods are sometimes laid continuously in the form of a
+spiral as in the Bordenave system.
+
+  To those wishing to pursue the subject further, the following books
+  among others may be suggested:--Sabin, _Cement and Concrete_ (New
+  York); Taylor and Thompson, _Concrete, Plain and Reinforced_ (London);
+  Sutcliffe, _Concrete, Nature and Uses_ (London); Marsh and Dunn,
+  _Reinforced Concrete_ (London); Twelvetrees, _Concrete Steel_
+  (London); Paul Christophe, _Le Beton arme_ (Paris); Buel and Hill,
+  _Reinforced Concrete Construction_ (London).     (F. E. W.-S.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCRETION, in petrology, a name applied to nodular or irregularly
+shaped masses of various size occurring in a great variety of
+sedimentary rocks, differing in composition from the main mass of the
+rock, and in most cases obviously formed by some chemical process which
+ensued after the rock was deposited. As these bodies present so many
+variations in composition and in structure, it will conduce to clearness
+if some of the commonest be briefly adverted to. In sandstones there are
+often hard rounded lumps, which separate out when the rock is broken or
+weathered. They are mostly siliceous, but sometimes calcareous, and may
+differ very little in general appearance from the bulk of the sandstone.
+Through them the bedding passes uninterrupted, thus showing that they
+are not pebbles; often in their centres shells or fragments of plants
+are found. Argillaceous sandstones and flagstones very frequently
+contain "clay galls" or concretionary lumps richer in clay than the
+remainder of the rock. Nodules of pyrites and of marcasite are common in
+many clays, sandstones and marls. Their outer surfaces are tuberculate;
+internally they commonly have a radiate fibrous structure. Usually they
+are covered with a dark brown crust of limonite produced by weathering;
+occasionally imperfect crystalline faces may bound them. Not
+infrequently (e.g. in the Gault) these pyritous nodules contain altered
+fossils. In clays also siliceous and calcareous concretions are often
+found. They present an extraordinary variety of shapes, often
+grotesquely resembling figures of men or animals, fruits, &c, and have
+in many countries excited popular wonder, being regarded as of
+supernatural origin ("fairy-stones," &c.), and used as charms.
+
+Another type of concretion, very abundant in many clays and shales, is
+the "septarian nodule." These are usually flattened disk-shaped or
+ovoid, often lobulate externally like the surface of a kidney. When
+split open they prove to be traversed by a network of cracks, which are
+usually filled with calcite and other minerals. These white infillings
+of the fissures resemble partitions; hence the name from the Latin
+_septum_, a partition. Sometimes the cracks are partly empty. They vary
+up to half an inch in breadth, and are best seen when the nodule is cut
+through with a saw. These concretions may be calcareous or may consist
+of carbonate of iron. The former are common in some beds of the London
+Clay, and were formerly used for making cement. The clay-ironstone
+nodules or sphaerosiderites are very abundant in some Carboniferous
+shales, and have served in some places as iron ores. Some of the largest
+specimens are 3 ft. in diameter. In the centre of these nodules fossils
+are often found, e.g. coprolites, pieces of plants, fish teeth and
+scales. Phosphatic concretions are often present in certain limestones,
+clays, shelly sands and marls. They occur, for example, in the Cambridge
+Greensand, and at the base of certain of the Pliocene beds in the east
+of England. In many places they have been worked, under the name of
+"coprolite-beds," as sources of artificial manures. Bones of animals
+more or less completely mineralized are frequent in these phosphatic
+concretions, the commonest being fragments of extinct reptilia. Their
+presence points to a source for the phosphate of lime.
+
+Another very important series of concretionary structures are the flint
+nodules which occur in chalk, and the patches and bands of chert which
+are found in limestones. Flints consist of dark-coloured
+cryptocrystalline silica. They weather grey or white by the removal of
+their more soluble portions by percolating water. Their shapes are
+exceedingly varied, and often they are studded with tubercules and
+nodosities. Sometimes they have internal cavities, and very frequently
+they contain shells of echinoderms, molluscs, &c., partly or entirely
+replaced by silica, but preserving their original forms. Chert occurs in
+bands and tabular masses rather than in nodules; it often replaces
+considerable portions of a bed of limestone (as in the Carboniferous
+Limestones of Ireland). Corals and other fossils frequently occur in
+chert, and when sliced and microscopically examined both flint and chert
+often show silicified foraminifera, polyzoa &c., and sponge spicules.
+Flints in chalk frequently lie along joints which may be vertical or may
+be nearly horizontal and parallel to the bedding. Hence they increase
+the stratified appearance of natural exposures of chalk.
+
+It will be seen from the details given above that concretions may be
+calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous and phosphatic, and they may consist
+of carbonate or sulphide of iron. In the red clay of the deep sea bottom
+concretionary masses rich in manganese dioxide are being formed, and are
+sometimes brought up by the dredge. In clays large crystals of gypsum,
+having the shape of an arrow-head, are occasionally found in some
+numbers. They bear a considerable resemblance to some concretions, e.g.
+crystalline marcasite and pyrite nodules. These examples will indicate
+the great variety of substances which may give rise to concretionary
+structures.
+
+Some concretions are amorphous, e.g. phosphatic nodules; others are
+cryptocrystalline, e.g. flint and chert; others finely crystalline, e.g.
+pyrites, sphaerosiderite; others consist of large crystals, e.g. gypsum,
+barytes, pyrites and marcasite. From this it is clear that the formation
+of concretions is not closely dependent on any single inorganic
+substance, or on any type of crystalline structure. Concretions seem to
+arise from the tendency of chemical compounds to be slowly dissolved by
+interstitial water, either while the deposit is unconsolidated or at a
+later period. Certain nuclei, present in the rock, then determine
+reprecipitation of these solutions, and the deposit once begun goes on
+till either the supply of material for growth is exhausted, or the
+physical character of the bed is changed by pressure and consolidation
+till it is no longer favourable to further accretion. The process
+resembles the growth of a crystal in a solution by slowly attracting to
+itself molecules of suitable nature from the surrounding medium. But in
+the majority of cases it is not the crystalline forces, or not these
+alone, which attract the particles. The structure of a flint, for
+example, shows that the material had so little tendency to crystallize
+that it remained permanently in cryptocrystalline or sub-crystalline
+state. That the concretions grew in the solid sediment is proved by the
+manner in which lines of bedding pass through them and not round them.
+This is beautifully shown by many siliceous and calcareous nodules out
+of recent clays. That the sediment was in a soft condition may be
+inferred from the purity and perfect crystalline form of some of these
+bodies, e.g. gypsum, pyrites, marcasite. The crystals must have pushed
+aside the yielding matrix as they gradually enlarged. In deep-sea
+dredgings concretions of phosphate of lime and manganese dioxide are
+frequently brought up; this shows that concretionary action operates on
+the sea floor in muddy sediments, which have only recently been laid
+down. The phosphatic nodules seem to originate around the dead bodies of
+fishes, and manganese incrustations frequently enclose teeth of sharks,
+ear-bones of whales, &c. This recalls the occurrence of fossils in
+septarian nodules, flints, phosphatic concretions, &c., in the older
+strata. Probably the decomposing organic matter partly supplied
+substances for the growth of the nodules (phosphates, carbonates, &c.),
+partly acted as reducing agents, or otherwise determined mineral
+precipitation in those places where organic remains were mingled with
+the sediment.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+CONCUBINAGE (Lat. _concubina_, a concubine; from _con-_, with, and
+_cubare_, to lie), the state of a man and woman cohabiting as married
+persons without the full sanctions of legal marriage. In early
+historical times, when marriage laws had scarcely advanced beyond the
+purely customary stage, the concubine was definitely recognized as a
+sort of inferior wife, differing from those of the first rank mainly by
+the absence of permanent guarantees. The history of Abraham's family
+shows us clearly that the concubine might be dismissed at any time, and
+her children were liable to be cast off equally summarily with gifts, in
+order to leave the inheritance free for the wife's sons (Genesis xxi. 9
+ff., xxv. 5 ff.).
+
+The Roman law recognized two classes of legal marriage: (1) with the
+definite public ceremonies of _confarreatio_ or _coemptio_, and (2)
+without any public form whatever and resting merely on the _affectio
+maritalis_, i.e. the fixed intention of taking a particular woman as a
+permanent spouse.[1] Next to these strictly lawful marriages came
+concubinage as a recognized legal status, so long as the two parties
+were not married and had no other concubines. It differed from the
+formless marriage in the absence (1) of _affectio maritalis_, and
+therefore (2) of full conjugal rights. For instance, the concubine was
+not raised, like the wife, to her husband's rank, nor were her children
+legitimate, though they enjoyed legal rights forbidden to mere bastards,
+e.g. the father was bound to maintain them and to leave them (in the
+absence of legitimate children) one-sixth of his property; moreover,
+they might be fully legitimated by the subsequent marriage of their
+parents.
+
+In the East, the emperor Leo the Philosopher (d. 911) insisted on formal
+marriage as the only legal status; but in the Western Empire concubinage
+was still recognized even by the Christian emperors. The early
+Christians had naturally preferred the formless marriage of the Roman
+law as being free from all taint of pagan idolatry; and the
+ecclesiastical authorities recognized concubinage also. The first
+council of Toledo (398) bids the faithful restrict himself "to a single
+wife or concubine, as it shall please him";[2] and there is a similar
+canon of the Roman synod held by Pope Eugenius II. in 826. Even as late
+as the Roman councils of 1052 and 1063, the suspension from communion of
+laymen who had a wife and a concubine _at the same time_ implies that
+mere concubinage was tolerated. It was also recognized by many early
+civil codes. In Germany "left-handed" or "morganatic" marriages were
+allowed by the Salic law between nobles and women of lower rank. In
+different states of Spain the laws of the later middle ages recognized
+concubinage under the name of _barragania_, the contract being
+lifelong, the woman obtaining by it a right to maintenance during life,
+and sometimes also to part of the succession, and the sons ranking as
+nobles if their father was a noble. In Iceland, the concubine was
+recognized in addition to the lawful wife, though it was forbidden that
+they should dwell in the same house. The Norwegian law of the later
+middle ages provided definitely that in default of legitimate sons, the
+kingdom should descend to illegitimates. In the Danish code of Valdemar
+II., which was in force from 1280 to 1683, it was provided that a
+concubine kept openly for three years shall thereby become a legal wife;
+this was the custom of _hand vesten_, the "handfasting" of the English
+and Scottish borders, which appears in Scott's _Monastery_. In Scotland,
+the laws of William the Lion (d. 1214) speak of concubinage as a
+recognized institution; and, in the same century, the great English
+legist Bracton treats the "concubina _legitima_" as entitled to certain
+rights.[3] There seems to have been at times a pardonable confusion
+between some quasi-legitimate unions and those marriages by mere word of
+mouth, without ecclesiastical or other ceremonies, which the church,
+after some natural hesitation, pronounced to be valid.[4] Another and
+more serious confusion between concubinage and marriage was caused by
+the gradual enforcement of clerical celibacy (see CELIBACY). During the
+bitter conflict between laws which forbade sacerdotal marriages and long
+custom which had permitted them, it was natural that the legislators and
+the ascetic party generally should studiously speak of the priests'
+wives as concubines, and do all in their power to reduce them to this
+position. This very naturally resulted in a too frequent substitution of
+clerical concubinage for marriage; and the resultant evils form one of
+the commonest themes of complaint in church councils of the later middle
+ages.[5] Concubinage in general was struck at by the concordat between
+the Pope Leo X. and Francis I. of France in 1516; and the council of
+Trent, while insisting on far more stringent conditions for lawful
+marriage than those which had prevailed in the middle ages, imposed at
+last heavy ecclesiastical penalties on concubinage and appealed to the
+secular arm for help against contumacious offenders (Sessio xxiv. cap.
+8).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Besides those quoted in the notes, the reader may
+  consult with advantage Du Cange's _Glossarium, s.v. Concubina_, the
+  article "Concubinat" in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.,
+  Freiburg i/B., 1884), and Dr H. C. Lea's _History of Sacerdotal
+  Celibacy_ (3rd ed., London, 1907).     (G. G. Co.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The difference between English and Scottish law, which once made
+    "Gretna Green marriages" so frequent, is due to the fact that Scotland
+    adopted the Roman law (which on this particular point was followed by
+    the whole medieval church).
+
+  [2] Gratian, in the 12th century, tried to explain this away by
+    assuming that concubinage here referred to meant a formless marriage;
+    but in 398 a church council can scarcely so have misused the technical
+    terms of the then current civil law (Gratian, _Decretum_, pars i.
+    dist. xxiv. c. 4).
+
+  [3] Bracton, _De Legibus_, lib. iii. tract. ii. c. 28, S I, and lib.
+    iv. tract. vi. c. 8, S 4.
+
+  [4] F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, _Hist. of English Law_, 2nd ed.
+    vol. ii. p. 370. In the case of Richard de Anesty, decided by papal
+    rescript in 1143, "a marriage solemnly celebrated in church, a
+    marriage of which a child had been born, was set aside as null in
+    favour of an earlier marriage constituted by a mere exchange of
+    consenting words" (ibid. p. 367; cf. the similar decretal of Alexander
+    III. on p. 371). The great medieval canon lawyer Lyndwood illustrates
+    the difficulty of distinguishing, even as late as the middle of the
+    15th century, between concubinage and a clandestine, though legal,
+    marriage. He falls back on the definition of an earlier canonist that
+    if the woman eats out of the same dish with the man, and if he takes
+    her to church, she may be presumed to be his wife; if, however, he
+    sends her to draw water and dresses her in vile clothing, she is
+    probably a concubine (_Provinciale_, ed. Oxon. 1679, p. 10, _s.v.
+    concubinarios_).
+
+  [5] It may be gathered from the Dominican C. L. Richard's _Analysis
+    Conciliorum_ (vol. ii., 1778) that there were more than 110 such
+    complaints in councils and synods between the years 1009 and 1528. Dr
+    Rashdall (_Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, vol. ii. p.
+    691, note) points out that a master of the university of Prague, in
+    1499, complained openly to the authorities against a bachelor for
+    assaulting his concubine.
+
+
+
+
+CONDE, PRINCES OF. The French title of prince of Conde, assumed from the
+ancient town of Conde-sur-l'Escaut, was borne by a branch of the house
+of Bourbon. The first who assumed it was the famous Huguenot leader,
+Louis de Bourbon (see below), the fifth son of Charles de Bourbon, duke
+of Vendome. His son, Henry, prince of Conde (1552-1588), also belonged
+to the Huguenot party. Fleeing to Germany he raised a small army with
+which in 1575 he joined Alencon. He became leader of the Huguenots, but
+after several years' fighting was taken prisoner of war. Not long after
+he died of poison, administered, according to the belief of his
+contemporaries, by his wife, Catherine de la Tremouille. This event,
+among others, awoke strong suspicions as to the legitimacy of his heir
+and namesake, Henry, prince of Conde (1588-1646). King Henry IV.,
+however, did not take advantage of the scandal. In 1609 he caused the
+prince of Conde to marry Charlotte de Montmorency, whom shortly after
+Conde was obliged to save from the king's persistent gallantry by a
+hasty flight, first to Spain and then to Italy. On the death of Henry,
+Conde returned to France, and intrigued against the regent, Marie de'
+Medici; but he was seized, and imprisoned for three years (1616-1619).
+There was at that time before the court a plea for his divorce from his
+wife, but she now devoted herself to enliven his captivity at the cost
+of her own liberty. During the rest of his life Conde was a faithful
+servant of the king. He strove to blot out the memory of the Huguenot
+connexions of his house by affecting the greatest zeal against
+Protestants. His old ambition changed into a desire for the safe
+aggrandizement of his family, which he magnificently achieved, and with
+that end he bowed before Richelieu, whose niece he forced his son to
+marry. His son Louis, the great Conde, is separately noticed below.
+
+The next in succession was Henry Jules, prince of Conde (1643-1709), the
+son of the great Conde and of Clemence de Maille, niece of Richelieu. He
+fought with distinction under his father in Franche-Comte and the Low
+Countries; but he was heartless, avaricious and undoubtedly insane. The
+end of his life was marked by singular hypochondriacal fancies. He
+believed at one time that he was dead, and refused to eat till some of
+his attendants dressed in sheets set him the example. His grandson,
+Louis Henry, duke of Bourbon (1692-1740), Louis XV.'s minister, did not
+assume the title of prince of Conde which properly belonged to him.
+
+The son of the duke of Bourbon, Louis Joseph, prince of Conde
+(1736-1818), after receiving a good education, distinguished himself in
+the Seven Years' War, and most of all by his victory at Johannisberg. As
+governor of Burgundy he did much to improve the industries and means of
+communication of that province. At the Revolution he took up arms in
+behalf of the king, became commander of the "army of Conde," and fought
+in conjunction with the Austrians till the peace of Campo Formio in
+1797, being during the last year in the pay of England. He then served
+the emperor of Russia in Poland, and after that (1800) returned into the
+pay of England, and fought in Bavaria. In 1800 Conde arrived in England,
+where he resided for several years. On the restoration of Louis XVIII.
+he returned to France. He died in Paris in 1818. He wrote _Essai sur la
+vie du grand Conde_ (1798).
+
+LOUIS HENRY JOSEPH, duke of Bourbon (1756-1830), son of the last named,
+was the last prince of Conde. Several of the earlier events of his life,
+especially his marriage with the princess Louise of Orleans, and the
+duel that the comte d'Artois provoked by raising the veil of the
+princess at a masked ball, caused much scandal. At the Revolution he
+fought with the army of the _emigres_ in Liege. Between the return of
+Napoleon from Elba and the battle of Waterloo, he headed with no success
+a royalist rising in La Vendee. In 1829 he made a will by which he
+appointed as his heir the due d'Aumale, and made some considerable
+bequests to his mistress, the baronne de Feucheres (q.v.). On the 27th
+of August 1830 he was found hanged on the fastening of his window. A
+crime was generally suspected, and the princes de Rohan, who were
+relatives of the deceased, disputed the will. Their petition, however,
+was dismissed by the courts.
+
+Two cadet branches of the house of Conde played an important part: those
+of Soissons and Conti. The first, sprung from Charles of Bourbon (b.
+1566), son of Louis I., prince of Conde, became extinct in the
+legitimate male line in 1641. The second took its origin from Armand of
+Bourbon, born in 1629, son of Henry II., prince of Conde, and survived
+up to 1814.
+
+  See Muret, _L'Histoire de l'armee de Conde_; Chamballand, _Vie de
+  Louis Joseph, prince de Conde_; Cretineau-Joly, _Histoire des trois
+  derniers princes de la maison de Conde_; and _Histoire des princes de
+  Conde_, by the due d'Aumale (translated by R. B. Borthwick, 1872).
+
+
+
+
+CONDE, LOUIS DE BOURBON, PRINCE OF (1530-1569), fifth son of Charles de
+Bourbon, duke of Vendome, younger brother of Antoine, king of Navarre
+(1518-1562), was the first of the famous house of Conde (see above).
+After his father's death in 1537 Louis was educated in the principles of
+the reformed religion. Brave though deformed, gay but extremely poor for
+his rank, Conde was led by his ambition to a military career. He fought
+with distinction in Piedmont under Marshal de Brissac; in 1552 he forced
+his way with reinforcements into Metz, then besieged by Charles V.; he
+led several brilliant sorties from that town; and in 1554 commanded the
+light cavalry on the Meuse against Charles. In 1557 he was present at
+the battle of St Quentin, and did further good service at the head of
+the light horse. But the descendants of the constable de Bourbon were
+still looked upon with suspicion in the French court, and Conde's
+services were ignored. The court designed to reduce his narrow means
+still further by despatching him upon a costly mission to Philip II. of
+Spain. His personal griefs thus combined with his religious views to
+force upon him a role of political opposition. He was concerned in the
+conspiracy of Amboise, which aimed at forcing from the king the
+recognition of the reformed religion. He was consequently condemned to
+death, and was only saved by the decease of Francis II. At the accession
+of the boy-king Charles IX., the policy of the court was changed, and
+Conde received from Catherine de' Medici the government of Picardy. But
+the struggle between the Catholics and the Huguenots soon began once
+more, and henceforward the career of Conde is the story of the wars of
+religion (see FRANCE: _HISTORY_). He was the military as well as the
+political chief of the Huguenot party, and displayed the highest
+generalship on many occasions, and notably at the battle of St Denis. At
+the battle of Jarnac, with only 400 horsemen, Conde rashly charged the
+whole Catholic army. Worn out with fighting, he at last gave up his
+sword, and a Catholic officer named Montesquiou treacherously shot him
+through the head on the 13th of March 1569.
+
+
+
+
+CONDE, LOUIS II. DE BOURBON, PRINCE OF (1621-1686), called the Great
+Conde, was the son of Henry, prince of Conde, and Charlotte Marguerite
+de Montmorency, and was born at Paris on the 8th of September 1621. As a
+boy, under his father's careful supervision, he studied diligently at
+the Jesuits' College at Bourges, and at seventeen, in the absence of his
+father, he governed Burgundy. The duc d'Enghien, as he was styled during
+his father's lifetime, took part with distinction in the campaigns of
+1640 and 1641 in northern France while yet under twenty years of age.
+
+During the youth of Enghien all power in France was in the hands of
+Richelieu; to him even the princes of the blood had to yield; and Henry
+of Conde sought with the rest to win the cardinal's favour. Enghien was
+forced to conform. He was already deeply in love with Mlle. Marthe du
+Vigean, who in return was passionately devoted to him, yet, to flatter
+the cardinal, he was compelled by his father, at the age of twenty, to
+give his hand to Richelieu's niece, Claire Clemence de Maille-Breze, a
+child of thirteen. He was present with Richelieu during the dangerous
+plot of Cinq Mars, and afterwards fought in the siege of Perpignan
+(1642).
+
+In 1643 Enghien was appointed to command against the Spaniards in
+northern France. He was opposed by experienced generals, and the
+veterans of the Spanish army were accounted the finest soldiers in
+Europe; on the other hand, the strength of the French army was placed at
+his command, and under him were the best generals of the service. The
+great battle of Rocroy (May 18) put an end to the supremacy of the
+Spanish army and inaugurated the long period of French military
+predominance. Enghien himself conceived and directed the decisive
+attack, and at the age of twenty-two won his place amongst the great
+captains of modern times. After a campaign of uninterrupted success,
+Enghien returned to Paris in triumph, and in gallantry and intrigues
+strove to forget his enforced and hateful marriage. In 1644 he was sent
+with reinforcements into Germany to the assistance of Turenne, who was
+hard pressed, and took command of the whole army. The battle of Freiburg
+(Aug.) was desperately contested, but in the end the French army won a
+great victory over the Bavarians and Imperialists commanded by Count
+Mercy. As after Rocroy, numerous fortresses opened their gates to the
+duke. The next winter Enghien spent, like every other winter during the
+war, amid the gaieties of Paris. The summer campaign of 1645 opened with
+the defeat of Turenne by Mercy, but this was retrieved in the brilliant
+victory of Nordlingen, in which Mercy was killed, and Enghien himself
+received several serious wounds. The capture of Philipsburg was the most
+important of his other achievements during this campaign. In 1646
+Enghien served under the duke of Orleans in Flanders, and when, after
+the capture of Mardyck, Orleans returned to Paris, Enghien, left in
+command, captured Dunkirk (October 11th).
+
+It was in this year that the old prince of Conde died. The enormous
+power that fell into the hands of his successor was naturally looked
+upon with serious alarm by the regent and her minister. Conde's birth
+and military renown placed him at the head of the French nobility; but,
+added to that, the family of which he was chief was both enormously rich
+and master of no small portion of France. Conde himself held Burgundy,
+Berry and the marches of Lorraine, as well as other less important
+territory; his brother Conti held Champagne, his brother-in-law,
+Longueville, Normandy. The government, therefore, determined to permit
+no increase of his already overgrown authority, and Mazarin made an
+attempt, which for the moment proved successful, at once to find him
+employment and to tarnish his fame as a general. He was sent to lead the
+revolted Catalans. Ill-supported, he was unable to achieve anything,
+and, being forced to raise the siege of Lerida, he returned home in
+bitter indignation. In 1648, however, he received the command in the
+important field of the Low Countries; and at Lens (Aug. 19th) a battle
+took place, which, beginning with a panic in his own regiment, was
+retrieved by Conde's coolness and bravery, and ended in a victory that
+fully restored his prestige.
+
+In September of the same year Conde was recalled to court, for the
+regent Anne of Austria required his support. Influenced by the fact of
+his royal birth and by his arrogant scorn for the bourgeois, Conde lent
+himself to the court party, and finally, after much hesitation, he
+consented to lead the army which was to reduce Paris (Jan. 1649).
+
+On his side, insufficient as were his forces, the war was carried on
+with vigour, and after several minor combats their substantial losses
+and a threatening of scarcity of food made the Parisians weary of the
+war. The political situation inclined both parties to peace, which was
+made at Rueil on the 20th of March (see Fronde, The). It was not long,
+however, before Conde became estranged from the court. His pride and
+ambition earned for him universal distrust and dislike, and the personal
+resentment of Anne in addition to motives of policy caused the sudden
+arrest of Conde, Conti and Longueville on the 18th of January 1650. But
+others, including Turenne and his brother the duke of Bouillon, made
+their escape. Vigorous attempts for the release of the princes began to
+be made. The women of the family were now its heroes. The dowager
+princess claimed from the parlement of Paris the fulfilment of the
+reformed law of arrest, which forbade imprisonment without trial. The
+duchess of Longueville entered into negotiations with Spain; and the
+young princess of Conde, having gathered an army around her, obtained
+entrance into Bordeaux and the support of the parlement of that town.
+She alone, among the nobles who took part in the folly of the Fronde,
+gains our respect and sympathy. Faithful to a faithless husband, she
+came forth from the retirement to which he had condemned her, and
+gathered an army to fight for him. But the delivery of the princes was
+brought about in the end by the junction of the old Fronde (the party of
+the parlement and of Cardinal de Retz) and the new Fronde (the party of
+the Condes); and Anne was at last, in February 1651, forced to liberate
+them from their prison at Havre. Soon afterwards, however, another
+shifting of parties left Conde and the new Fronde isolated. With the
+court and the old Fronde in alliance against him, Conde found no
+resource but that of making common cause with the Spaniards, who were at
+war with France. The confused civil war which followed this step (Sept.
+1651) was memorable chiefly for the battle of the Faubourg St Antoine,
+in which Conde and Turenne, two of the foremost captains of the age,
+measured their strength (July 2, 1652), and the army of the prince was
+only saved by being admitted within the gates of Paris. La Grande
+Mademoiselle, daughter of the duke of Orleans, persuaded the Parisians
+to act thus, and turned the cannon of the Bastille on Turenne's army.
+Thus Conde, who as usual had fought with the most desperate bravery, was
+saved, and Paris underwent a new investment. This ended in the flight of
+Conde to the Spanish army (Sept. 1652), and thenceforward, up to the
+peace, he was in open arms against France, and held high command in the
+army of Spain. But his now fully developed genius as a commander found
+little scope in the cumbrous and antiquated system of war practised by
+the Spaniards, and though he gained a few successes, and man[oe]uvred
+with the highest possible skill against Turenne, his disastrous defeat
+at the Dunes near Dunkirk (14th of June 1658), in which an English
+contingent of Cromwell's veterans took part on the side of Turenne, led
+Spain to open negotiations for peace. After the peace of the Pyrenees in
+1659, Conde obtained his pardon (January 1660) from Louis, who thought
+him less dangerous as a subject than as possessor of the independent
+sovereignty of Luxemburg, which had been offered him by Spain as a
+reward for his services.
+
+Conde now realized that the period of agitation and party warfare was at
+an end, and he accepted, and loyally maintained henceforward, the
+position of a chief subordinate to a masterful sovereign. Even so, some
+years passed before he was recalled to active employment, and these
+years he spent on his estate at Chantilly. Here he gathered round him a
+brilliant company, which included many men of genius--Moliere, Racine,
+Boileau, La Fontaine, Nicole, Bourdaloue and Bossuet. About this time
+negotiations between the Poles, Conde and Louis were carried on with a
+view to the election, at first of Conde's son Enghien, and afterwards of
+Conde himself, to the throne of Poland. These, after a long series of
+curious intrigues, were finally closed in 1674 by the veto of Louis XIV.
+and the election of John Sobieski. The prince's retirement, which was
+only broken by the Polish question and by his personal intercession on
+behalf of Fouquet in 1664, ended in 1668. In that year he proposed to
+Louvois, the minister of war, a plan for seizing Franche-Comte, the
+execution of which was entrusted to him and successfully carried out. He
+was now completely re-established in the favour of Louis, and with
+Turenne was the principal French commander in the celebrated campaign of
+1672 against the Dutch. At the forcing of the Rhine passage at Tollhuis
+(June 12) he received a severe wound, after which he commanded in Alsace
+against the Imperialists. In 1673 he was again engaged in the Low
+Countries, and in 1674 he fought his last great battle at Seneff against
+the prince of Orange (afterwards William III. of England). This battle,
+fought on the 11th of August, was one of the hardest of the century, and
+Conde, who displayed the reckless bravery of his youth, had three horses
+killed under him. His last campaign was that of 1675 on the Rhine, where
+the army had been deprived of its general by the death of Turenne; and
+where by his careful and methodical strategy he repelled the invasion of
+the Imperial army of Montecucculi. After this campaign, prematurely worn
+out by the toils and excesses of his life, and tortured by the gout, he
+returned to Chantilly, where he spent the eleven years that remained to
+him in quiet retirement. In the end of his life he specially sought the
+companionship of Bourdaloue, Nicole and Bossuet, and devoted himself to
+religious exercises. He died on the 11th of November 1686 at the age of
+sixty-five. Bourdaloue attended him at his death-bed, and Bossuet
+pronounced his _eloge_.
+
+The earlier political career of Conde was typical of the great French
+noble of his day. Success in love and war, predominant influence over
+his sovereign and universal homage to his own exaggerated pride, were
+the objects of his ambition. Even as an exile he asserted the precedence
+of the royal house of France over the princes of Spain and Austria, with
+whom he was allied for the moment. But the Conde of 1668 was no longer a
+politician and a marplot; to be first in war and in gallantry was still
+his aim, but for the rest he was a submissive, even a subservient,
+minister of the royal will. It is on his military character, however,
+that his fame rests. This changed but little. Unlike his great rival
+Turenne, Conde was equally brilliant in his first battle and in his
+last. The one failure of his generalship was in the Spanish Fronde, and
+in this everything united to thwart his genius; only on the battlefield
+itself was his personal leadership as conspicuous as ever. That he was
+capable of waging a methodical war of positions may be assumed from his
+campaigns against Turenne and Montecucculi, the greatest generals of the
+predominant school. But it was in his eagerness for battle, his quick
+decision in action, and the stern will which sent his regiments to face
+the heaviest loss, that Conde is distinguished above all the generals of
+his time. In private life he was harsh and unamiable, seeking only the
+gratification of his own pleasures and desires. His enforced and
+loveless marriage embittered his life, and it was only in his last
+years, when he had done with ambition, that the more humane side of his
+character appeared in his devotion to literature.
+
+Conde's unhappy wife had some years before been banished to Chateauroux.
+An accident brought about her ruin. Her contemporaries, greedy as they
+were of scandal, refused to believe any evil of her, but the prince
+declared himself convinced of her unfaithfulness, placed her in
+confinement, and carried his resentment so far that his last letter to
+the king was to request him never to allow her to be released.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See, besides the numerous _Memoires_ of the time, Puget
+  de la Serre, _Les Sieges, les batailles, &c., de Mr. le prince de
+  Conde_ (Paris, 1651); J. de la Brune, _Histoire de la vie, &c., de
+  Louis de Bourbon, prince de Conde_ (Cologne, 1694); P. Coste,
+  _Histoire de Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Hague, 1748); Desormeaux,
+  _Histoire de Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Paris, 1768); Turpin, _Vie de
+  Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Paris and Amsterdam, 1767); _Eloge militaire
+  de Louis de Bourbon_ (Dijon, 1772); _Histoire du grand Conde_, by A.
+  Lemercier (Tours, 1862); J. J. E. Roy (Lille, 1859); L. de Voivreuil
+  (Tours, 1846); Fitzpatrick, _The Great Conde_, and Lord Mahon, _Life
+  of Louis, prince of Conde_ (London, 1845). Works on the Conde family
+  by the prince de Conde and de Sevilinges (Paris, 1820), the due
+  d'Aumale, and Guibout (Rouen, 1856), should also be consulted.
+
+
+
+
+CONDE, the name of some twenty villages in France and of two towns of
+some importance. Of the villages, Conde-en-Brie (Lat. _Condetum_) is a
+place of great antiquity and was in the middle ages the seat of a
+principality, a sub-fief of that of Montmirail; Conde-sur-Aisne
+(_Condatus_) was given in 870 by Charles the Bald to the abbey of St
+Ouen at Rouen, gave its name to a seigniory during the middle ages, and
+possessed a priory of which the church and a 12th-century chapel remain;
+Conde-sur-Marne (_Condate_), once a place of some importance, preserves
+one of its parish churches, with a fine Romanesque tower. The two towns
+are:--
+
+1. CONDE-SUR-L'ESCAUT, in the department of Nord, at the junction of the
+canals of the Scheldt and of Conde-Mons. Pop. (1906) town, 2701;
+commune, 5310. It lies 7 m. N. by E. of Valenciennes and 2 m. from the
+Belgian frontier. It has a church dating from the middle of the 18th
+century. Trade is in coal and cattle. The industries include brewing,
+rope-making and boat-building, and there is a communal college. Conde
+(_Condate_) is of considerable antiquity, dating at least from the later
+Roman period. Taken in 1676 by Louis XIV., it definitely passed into the
+possession of France by the treaty of Nijmwegen two years later, and was
+afterwards fortified by Vauban. During the revolutionary war it was
+besieged and taken by the Austrians (1793); and in 1815 it again fell to
+the allies. It was from this place that the princes of Conde (q.v.) took
+their title. See Perron-Gelineau, _Conde ancien et moderne_ (Nantes,
+1887).
+
+2. CONDE-SUR-NOIREAU, in the department of Calvados, at the confluence
+of the Noireau and the Drouance, 33 m. S.S.W. of Caen on the Ouest-Etat
+railway. Pop. (1906) 5709. The town is the seat of a tribunal of
+commerce, a board of trade-arbitration and a chamber of arts and
+manufactures, and has a communal college. It is important for its
+cotton-spinning and weaving, and carries on dyeing, printing and
+machine-construction; there are numerous nursery-gardens in the
+vicinity. Important fairs are held in the town. The church of St Martin
+has a choir of the 12th and 15th centuries, and a stained-glass window
+(15th century) representing the Crucifixion. There is a statue to Dumont
+d'Urville, the navigator (b. 1790), a native of the town. Throughout the
+middle ages Conde (_Condatum_, _Condetum_) was the seat of an important
+castellany, which was held by a long succession of powerful nobles and
+kings, including Robert, count of Mortain, Henry II. and John of
+England, Philip Augustus of France, Charles II. (the Bad) and Charles
+III. of Navarre. The place was held by the English from 1417 to 1449. Of
+the castle some ruins of the keep survive. See L. Huet, _Hist. de
+Conde-sur-Noireau, ses seigneurs, son industrie, &c._ (Caen, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+CONDE, JOSE ANTONIO (1766-1820), Spanish Orientalist, was born at
+Peraleja (Cuenca) on the 28th of October 1766, and was educated at the
+university of Alcala. His translation of Anacreon (1791) obtained him a
+post in the royal library in 1795, and in 1796-1797 he published
+paraphrases from Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, Sappho and Meleager. These
+were followed by a mediocre edition of the Arabic text of Edrisi's
+_Description of Spain_ (1799), with notes and a translation. Conde
+became a member of the Spanish Academy in 1802 and of the Academy of
+History in 1804, but his appointment as interpreter to Joseph Bonaparte
+led to his expulsion from both bodies in 1814. He escaped to France in
+February 1813, and returned to Spain in 1814, but was not allowed to
+reside at Madrid till 1816. Two years later he was re-elected by both
+academies; he died in poverty on the 12th of June 1820. His _Historia de
+la Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana_ was published in 1820-1821. Only
+the first volume was corrected by the author, the other two being
+compiled from his manuscript by Juan Tineo. This work was translated
+into German (1824-1825), French (1825) and English (1854). Conde's
+pretensions to scholarship have been severely criticized by Dozy, and
+his history is now discredited. It had, however, the merit of
+stimulating abler workers in the same field.
+
+
+
+
+CONDENSATION OF GASES.
+
+
+  Critical temperature.
+
+If the volume of a gas continually decreases at a constant temperature,
+for which an increasing pressure is required, two cases may occur:--(1)
+The volume may continue to be homogeneously filled. (2) If the substance
+is contained in a certain volume, and if the pressure has a certain
+value, the substance may divide into two different phases, each of which
+is again homogeneous. The value of the temperature T decides which case
+will occur. The temperature which is the limit above which the space
+will always be homogeneously filled, and below which the substance
+divides into two phases, is called the _critical temperature_ of the
+substance. It differs greatly for different substances, and if we
+represent it by Tc, the condition for the condensation of a gas is that
+T must be below Tc. If the substance is divided into two phases, two
+different cases may occur. The denser phase may be either a liquid or a
+solid. The limiting temperature for these two cases, at which the
+division into three phases may occur, is called the _triple point_. Let
+us represent it by T3; if the term "condensation of gases" is taken in
+the sense of "liquefaction of gases"--which is usually done--the
+condition for condensation is Tc > T > T3. The opinion sometimes held
+that for all substances T3 is the same fraction of Tc (the value being
+about 1/2) has decidedly not been rigorously confirmed. Nor is this to
+be expected on account of the very different form of crystallization
+which the solid state presents. Thus for carbon dioxide, CO2, for which
+Tc = 304 deg. on the absolute scale, and for which we may put T3 = 216
+deg., this fraction is about 0.7; for water it descends down to 0.42,
+and for other substances it may be still lower.
+
+If we confine ourselves to temperatures between Tc and T3, the gas will
+pass into a liquid if the pressure is sufficiently increased. When the
+formation of liquid sets in we call the gas a _saturated vapour_. If the
+decrease of volume is continued, the gas pressure remains constant till
+all the vapour has passed into liquid. The invariability of the
+properties of the phases is in close connexion with the invariability of
+the pressure (called _maximum tension_). Throughout the course of the
+process of condensation these properties remain unchanged, provided the
+temperature remain constant; only the relative quantity of the two
+phases changes. Until all the gas has passed into liquid a further
+decrease of volume will not require increase of pressure. But as soon as
+the liquefaction is complete a slight decrease of volume will require a
+great increase of pressure, liquids being but slightly compressible.
+
+
+  Critical pressure.
+
+The pressure required to condense a gas varies with the temperature,
+becoming higher as the temperature rises. The highest pressure will
+therefore be found at Tc and the lowest at T3. We shall represent the
+pressure at Tc by pc. It is called the _critical pressure_. The pressure
+at T3 we shall represent by p3. It is called the _pressure of the triple
+point_. The values of Tc and pc for different substances will be found
+at the end of this article. The values of T3 and p3 are accurately known
+only for a few substances. As a rule p3 is small, though occasionally it
+is greater than 1 atmosphere. This is the case with CO2, and we may in
+general expect it if the value of T3/Tc is large. In this case there can
+only be a question of a real boiling-point (under the normal pressure)
+if the liquid can be supercooled.
+
+We may find the value of the pressure of the saturated vapour for each T
+in a geometrical way by drawing in the theoretical isothermal a straight
+line parallel to the v-axis in such a way that [int] v1 to v2 pdv will
+have the same value whether the straight line or the theoretical
+isothermal is followed. This construction, given by James Clerk Maxwell,
+may be considered as a result of the application of the general rules
+for coexisting equilibrium, which we owe to J. Willard Gibbs. The
+construction derived from the rules of Gibbs is as follows:--Construe
+the free energy at a constant temperature, i.e. the quantity - [int]pdv
+as ordinate, if the abscissa represents v, and determine the inclination
+of the double tangent. Another construction derived from the rules of
+Gibbs might be expressed as follows:--Construe the value of pv -
+[int]pdv as ordinate, the abscissa representing p, and determine the
+point of intersection of two of the three branches of this curve.
+
+As an approximate half-empirical formula for the calculation of the
+pressure,
+
+          p      /Tc-T\
+  -log10 --- = f( ---- )
+         pc      \ T  /
+
+may be used. It would follow from the law of corresponding states that
+in this formula the value of [int] is the same for all substances, the
+molecules of which do not associate to form larger molecule-complexes.
+In fact, for a great many substances, we find a value for f, which
+differs but little from 3, e.g. ether, carbon dioxide, benzene, benzene
+derivatives, ethyl chloride, ethane, &c. As the chemical structure of
+these substances differs greatly, and association, if it takes place,
+must largely depend upon the structure of the molecule, we conclude from
+this approximate equality that the fact of this value of [int] being
+equal to about 3 is characteristic for normal substances in which,
+consequently, association is excluded. Substances known to associate,
+such as organic acids and alcohols, have a sensibly higher value of f.
+Thus T. Estreicher (Cracow, 1896) calculates that for fluor-benzene f
+varies between 3.07 and 2.94; for ether between 3.0 and 3.1; but for
+water between 3.2 and 3.33, and for methyl alcohol between 3.65 and
+3.84, &c. For isobutyl alcohol [int] even rises above 4. It is, however,
+remarkable that for oxygen [int] has been found almost invariably equal
+to 2.47 from K. Olszewski's observations, a value which is appreciably
+smaller than 3. This fact makes us again seriously doubt the correctness
+of the supposition that [int] = 3 is a characteristic for
+non-association.
+
+
+  Critical volume.
+
+It is a general rule that the volume of saturated vapour decreases when
+the temperature is raised, while that of the coexisting liquid
+increases. We know only one exception to this rule, and that is the
+volume of water below 4 deg. C. If we call the liquid volume v_l, and the
+vapour v_v, v_v - v_l decreases if the temperature rises, and becomes
+zero at Tc. The limiting value, to which vl and vv converge at Tc, is
+called the _critical volume_, and we shall represent it by v_c.
+According to the law of corresponding states the values both of v_l/v_c
+and vv/vc must be the same for all substances, if T/Tc has been taken
+equal for them all. According to the investigations of Sydney Young,
+this holds good with a high degree of approximation for a long series of
+substances. Important deviations from this rule for the values of vv/vl
+are only found for those substances in which the existence of
+association has already been discovered by other methods. Since the
+lowest value of T, for which investigations on v_l and v_v may be made,
+is the value of T3; and since T3/Tc, as has been observed above, is not
+the same for all substances, we cannot expect the smallest value of
+v_l/v_c to be the same for all substances. But for low values of T, viz.
+such as are near T3, the influence of the temperature on the volume is
+but slight, and therefore we are not far from the truth if we assume the
+minimum value of the ratio v_l/v_c as being identical for all normal
+substances, and put it at about 1/3. Moreover, the influence of the
+polymerization (association) on the liquid volume appears to be small,
+so that we may even attribute the value 1/3 to substances which are not
+normal. The value of v_v/v_c at T = T3 differs widely for different
+substances. If we take p3 so low that the law of Boyle-Gay Lussac may be
+applied, we can calculate v3/v_c by means of the formula p3.v3/T3 =
+k.p_c.v_c/Tc provided k be known. According to the observations of
+Sydney Young, this factor has proved to be 3.77 for normal substances.
+In consequence
+
+   v3         p_c T3
+   --- = 3.77 --- --.
+   v_c        p3  Tc
+
+A similar formula, but with another value of k, may be given for
+associating substances, provided the saturated vapour does not contain
+any complex molecules. But if it does, as is the case with acetic acid,
+we must also know the degree of association. It can, however, only be
+found by measuring the volume itself.
+
+
+  Rule of the rectilinear diameter.
+
+E. Mathias has remarked that the following relation exists between the
+densities of the saturated vapour and of the coexisting liquid:--
+
+                                   /    T \
+  [rho]l + [rho]v = 2[rho]c {1 + a(1 - --  ) },
+                                   \    Tc/
+
+and that, accordingly, the curve which represents the densities at
+different temperatures possesses a rectilinear diameter. According to
+the law of corresponding states, a would be the same for all substances.
+Many substances, indeed, actually appear to have a rectilinear diameter,
+and the value of a appears approximatively to be the same. In a _Memoire
+presente a la societe royale a Liege_, 15th June 1899, E. Mathias gives
+a list of some twenty substances for which a has a value lying between
+0.95 and 1.05. It had been already observed by Sydney Young that a is
+not perfectly constant even for normal substances. For associating
+substances the diameter is not rectilinear. Whether the value of a, near
+1, may serve as a characteristic for normal substances is rendered
+doubtful by the fact that for nitrogen a is found equal to 0.6813 and
+for oxygen to 0.8. At T = Tc/2, the formula of E. Mathias, if [rho]v be
+neglected with respect to [rho]l, gives the value 2 + a for
+[rho]l/[rho]c.
+
+
+  Latent heat.
+
+The heat required to convert a molecular quantity of liquid coexisting
+with vapour into saturated vapour at the same temperature is called
+_molecular latent heat_. It decreases with the rise of the temperature,
+because at a higher temperature the liquid has already expanded, and
+because the vapour into which it has to be converted is denser. At the
+critical temperature it is equal to zero on account of the identity of
+the liquid and the gaseous states. If we call the molecular weight m and
+the latent heat per unit of weight r, then, according to the law of
+corresponding states, mr/T is the same for all normal substances,
+provided the temperatures are corresponding. According to F. T. Trouton,
+the value of mr/T is the same for all substances if we take for T the
+boiling-point. As the boiling-points under the pressure of one
+atmosphere are generally not equal fractions of Tc, the two theorems are
+not identical; but as the values of p_c for many substances do not differ
+so much as to make the ratios of the boiling-points under the pressure
+of one atmosphere differ greatly from the ratios of Tc, an approximate
+confirmation of the law of Trouton may be compatible with an approximate
+confirmation of the consequence of the law of corresponding states. If
+we take the term boiling-point in a more general sense, and put T in the
+law of Trouton to represent the boiling-point under an arbitrary equal
+pressure, we may take the pressure equal to pc for a certain substance.
+For this substance mr/T would be equal to zero, and the values of mr/T
+would no longer show a trace of equality. At present direct trustworthy
+investigations about the value of r for different substances are
+wanting; hence the question whether as to the quantity mr/T the
+substances are to be divided into normal and associating ones cannot be
+answered. Let us divide the latent heat into heat necessary for internal
+work and heat necessary for external work. Let r' represent the former
+of these two quantities, then:--
+
+  r = r' + p(v_v - v_l).
+
+Then the same remark holds good for mr'/T as has been made for mr/T. The
+ratio between r and that part that is necessary for external work is
+given in the formula,
+
+        r        T dp
+  ------------ = ----.
+  p(v_v - v_l)   p dT
+
+By making use of the approximate formula for the vapour tension:--
+
+                 p            /Tc - T\
+  log_[epsilon] --- = [int]' (--------), we find--
+                p_c           \  T   /
+
+        r               Tc
+  ------------ = [int]' --.
+  p(v_v - v_l)          T
+
+At T = Tc we find for this ratio [int]', a value which, for normal
+substances is equal to 3/0.4343 = 7. At the critical temperature the
+quantities r and vv-vl are both equal to 0, but they have a finite
+ratio. As we may equate p(v_v - v_l) with pv_v = RT at very low
+temperatures, we get, if we take into consideration that R expressed in
+calories is nearly equal to 2/m, the value 2[int]'Tc = 14Tc as limiting
+value for mr for normal substances. This value for mr has, however,
+merely the character of a rough approximation--especially since the
+factor f' is not perfectly constant.
+
+
+  Nature of a liquid.
+
+All the phenomena which accompany the condensation of gases into liquids
+may be explained by the supposition, that the condition of aggregation
+which we call liquid differs only in quantity, and not in quality, from
+that which we call gas. We imagine a gas to consist of separate
+molecules of a certain mass [mu], having a certain velocity depending on
+the temperature. This velocity is distributed according to the law of
+probabilities, and furnishes a quantity of _vis viva_ proportional to
+the temperatures. We must attribute extension to the molecules, and they
+will attract one another with a force which quickly decreases with the
+distance. Even those suppositions which reduce molecules to centra of
+forces, like that of Maxwell, lead us to the result that the molecules
+behave in mutual collisions as if they had extension--an extension which
+in this case is not constant, but determined by the law of repulsion in
+the collision, the law of the distribution, and the value of the
+velocities. In order to explain capillary phenomena it was assumed so
+early as Laplace, that between the molecules of the same substance an
+attraction exists which quickly decreases with the distance. That this
+attraction is found in gases too is proved by the fall which occurs in
+the temperature of a gas that is expanded without performing external
+work. We are still perfectly in the dark as to the cause of this
+attraction, and opinion differs greatly as to its dependence on the
+distance. Nor is this knowledge necessary in order to find the influence
+of the attraction, for a homogeneous state, on the value of the external
+pressure which is required to keep the moving molecules at a certain
+volume (T being given). We may, viz., assume either in the strict sense,
+or as a first approximation, that the influence of the attraction is
+quite equal to a pressure which is proportional to the square of the
+density. Though this molecular pressure is small for gases, yet it will
+be considerable for the great densities of liquids, and calculation
+shows that we may estimate it at more than 1000 atmos., possibly
+increasing up to 10,000. We may now make the same supposition for a
+liquid as for a gas, and imagine it to consist of molecules, which for
+non-associating substances are the same as those of the rarefied vapour;
+these, if T is the same, have the same mean _vis viva_ as the vapour
+molecules, but are more closely massed together. Starting from this
+supposition and all its consequences, van der Waals derived the
+following formula which would hold both for the liquid state and for the
+gaseous state:--
+
+   /    a \
+  (p + --- )(v - b) = RT.
+   \   v^2/
+
+It follows from this deduction that for the rarefied gaseous state b
+would be four times the volume of the molecules, but that for greater
+densities the factor 4 would decrease. If we represent the volume of the
+molecules by [beta], the quantity b will be found to have the following
+form:--
+
+             {              /4[beta]\             /4[beta]\^2   }
+  b = 4[beta]{ 1 - [gamma]1( ------- ) + [gamma]2( ------- ) &c.}
+             {              \   v   /             \   v   /     }
+
+Only two of the successive coefficients [gamma]1, [gamma]2, &c., have
+been worked out, for the determination requires very lengthy
+calculations, and has not even led to definitive results (L. Boltzmann,
+_Proc. Royal Acad. Amsterdam_, March 1899). The latter formula supposes
+the molecules to be rigid spheres of invariable size. If the molecules
+are things which are compressible, another formula for b is found, which
+is different according to the number of atoms in the molecule (_Proc.
+Royal Acad. Amsterdam_, 1900-1901). If we keep the value of a and b
+constant, the given equation will not completely represent the net of
+isothermals of a substance. Yet even in this form it is sufficient as to
+the principal features. From it we may argue to the existence of a
+critical temperature, to a minimum value of the product pv, to the law
+of corresponding states, &c. Some of the numerical results to which it
+leads, however, have not been confirmed by experience. Thus it would
+follow from the given equation that p_c.v_c/Tc = 3/8.pv/T, if the value
+of v is taken so great that the gaseous laws may be applied, whereas
+Sydney Young has found 1/3.77 for a number of substances instead of the
+factor 3/8. Again it follows from the given equation, that if a is
+thought to be independent of the temperature, Tc/p_c.(dp/dT)_c = 4
+whereas for a number of substances a value is found for it which is near
+7. If we assume with Clausius that a depends on the temperature, and has
+a value a'.273/T, we find Tc/p_c.(dp/dT)_c = 7 That the accurate
+knowledge of the equation of state is of the highest importance is
+universally acknowledged, because, in connexion with the results of
+thermodynamics, it will enable us to explain all phenomena relating to
+ponderable matter. This general conviction is shown by the numerous
+efforts made to complete or modify the given equation, or to replace it
+by another, for instance, by R. Clausius, P. G. Tait, E. H. Amagat, L.
+Boltzmann, T. G. Jager, C. Dieterici, B. Galitzine, T. Rose Innes and M.
+Reinganum.
+
+If we hold to the supposition that the molecules in the gaseous and the
+liquid state are the same--which we may call the supposition of the
+identity of the two conditions of aggregation--then the heat which is
+given out by the condensation at constant T is due to the potential
+energy lost in consequence of the coming closer of the molecules which
+attract each other, and then it is equal to a(1/v_l - 1/v_v). If a should
+be a function of the temperature, it follows from thermodynamics that it
+would be equal to (a - T.da/dT)(1/v_l - 1/v_v). Not only in the case of
+liquid and gas, but always when the volume is diminished, a quantity of
+heat is given out equal to a(1/v1 - 1/v2) or (a -T.da/dT)(1/v1 - 1/v2).
+
+
+  Associating substances.
+
+If, however, when the volume is diminished at a given temperature, and
+also during the transition from the gaseous to the liquid state,
+combination into larger molecule-complexes takes place, the total
+internal heat may be considered as the sum of that which is caused by
+the combination of the molecules into greater molecule-complexes and by
+their approach towards each other. We have the simplest case of possible
+greater complexity when two molecules combine to one. From the course of
+the changes in the density of the vapour we assume that this occurs,
+e.g. with nitrogen peroxide, NO2, and acetic acid, and the somewhat
+close agreement of the observed density of the vapour with that which is
+calculated from the hypothesis of such an association to
+double-molecules, makes this supposition almost a certainty. In such
+cases the molecules in the much denser liquid state must therefore be
+considered as double-molecules, either completely so or in a variable
+degree depending on the temperature. The given equation of state cannot
+hold for such substances. Even though we assume that a and b are not
+modified by the formation of double-molecules, yet RT is modified, and,
+since it is proportional to the number of the molecules, is diminished
+by the combination. The laws found for normal substances will,
+therefore, not hold for such associating substances. Accordingly for
+substances for which we have already found an anormal density of the
+vapour, we cannot expect the general laws for the liquid state, which
+have been treated above, to hold good without modification, and in many
+respects such substances will therefore not follow the law of
+corresponding states. There are, however, also substances of which the
+anormal density of vapour has not been stated, and which yet cannot be
+ranged under this law, e.g. water and alcohols. The most natural thing,
+of course, is to ascribe the deviation of these substances, as of the
+others, to the fact that the molecules of the liquid are polymerized. In
+this case we have to account for the following circumstance, that
+whereas for NO2 and acetic acid in the state of saturated vapour the
+degree of association increases if the temperature falls, the reverse
+must take place for water and alcohols. Such a difference may be
+accounted for by the difference in the quantity of heat released by the
+polymerization to double-molecules or larger molecule-complexes. The
+quantity of heat given out when two molecules fall together may be
+calculated for NO2 and acetic acid from the formula of Gibbs for the
+density of vapour, and it proves to be very considerable. With this the
+following fact is closely connected. If in the pv diagram, starting from
+a point indicating the state of saturated vapour, a geometrical locus is
+drawn of the points which have the same degree of association, this
+curve, which passes towards isothermals of higher T if the volume
+diminishes, requires for the same change in T a greater diminution of
+volume than is indicated by the border-curve. For water and alcohols
+this geometrical locus will be found on the other side of the
+border-curve, and the polymerization heat will be small, i.e. smaller
+than the latent heat. For substances with a small polymerization heat
+the degree of association will continually decrease if we move along the
+border-curve on the side of the saturated vapour in the direction
+towards lower T. With this, it is perfectly compatible that for such
+substances the saturated vapour, e.g. under the pressure of one
+atmosphere, should show an almost normal density. Saturated vapour of
+water at 100 deg. has a density which seems nearly 4% greater than the
+theoretical one, an amount which is greater than can be ascribed to the
+deviation from the gas-laws. For the relation between v, T, and x, if x
+represents the fraction of the number of double-molecules, the following
+formula has been found ("Moleculartheorie," _Zeits. Phys. Chem._, 1890,
+vol. v):
+
+       x(v - b)   2(E1 - E2)
+  log --------- = ---------- + C,
+      (1 - x)^2       R1T
+
+from which
+
+     T    /dv\      E1 - E2
+   ------( -- ) = -2-------,
+  (v - b) \dT/_x      R1T
+
+which may elucidate what precedes.
+
+
+  Condensation of substances with low Tc.
+
+By far the majority of substances have a value of Tc above the ordinary
+temperature, and diminution of volume (increase of pressure) is
+sufficient to condense such gaseous substances into liquids. If Tc is
+but little above the ordinary temperature, a great increase of pressure
+is in general required to effect condensation. Substances for which Tc
+is much higher than the ordinary temperature T0, e.g. Tc > 5/3 T0, occur
+as liquids, even without increase of pressure; that is, at the pressure
+of one atmosphere. The value 5/3 is to be considered as only a mean
+value, because of the inequality of p_c. The substances for which Tc is
+smaller than the ordinary temperature are but few in number. Taking the
+temperature of melting ice as a limit, these gases are in successive
+order: CH4, NO, O2, CO, N2 and H2 (the recently discovered gases argon,
+helium, &c., are left out of account). If these gases are compressed at
+0 deg. centigrade they do not show a trace of liquefaction, and therefore
+they were long known under the name of "permanent gases." The discovery,
+however, of the critical temperature carried the conviction that these
+substances would not be "permanent gases" if they were compressed at
+much lower T. Hence the problem arose how "low temperatures" were to be
+brought about. Considered from a general point of view the means to
+attain this end may be described as follows: we must make use of the
+above-mentioned circumstance that heat disappears when a substance
+expands, either with or without performing external work. According as
+this heat is derived from the substance itself which is to be condensed,
+or from the substance which is used as a means of cooling, we may divide
+the methods for condensing the so-called permanent gases into two
+principal groups.
+
+
+  Liquids as means of cooling.
+
+In order to use a liquid as a cooling bath it must be placed in a
+vacuum, and it must be possible to keep the pressure of the vapour in
+that space at a small value. According to the boiling-law, the
+temperature of the liquid must descend to that at which the maximum
+tension of the vapour is equal to the pressure which reigns on the
+surface of the liquid. If the vapour, either by means of absorption or
+by an air-pump, is exhausted from the space, the temperature of the
+liquid and that of the space itself depend upon the value of the
+pressure which finally prevails in the space. From a practical point of
+view the value of T3 may be regarded as the limit to which the
+temperature falls. It is true that if the air is exhausted to the utmost
+possible extent, the temperature may fall still lower, but when the
+substance has become solid, a further diminution of the pressure in the
+space is of little advantage. At any rate, as a solid body evaporates
+only on the surface, and solid gases are bad conductors of heat, further
+cooling will only take place very slowly, and will scarcely neutralize
+the influx of heat. If the pressure p3 is very small, it is perhaps
+practically impossible to reach T3; if so, T3 in the following lines
+will represent the temperature practically attainable. There is thus for
+every gas a limit below which it is not to be cooled further, at least
+not in this way. If, however, we can find another gas for which the
+critical temperature is sufficiently above T3 of the first chosen gas,
+and if it is converted into a liquid by cooling with the first gas, and
+then treated in the same way as the first gas, it may in its turn be
+cooled down to (T3)2. Going on in this way, continually lower
+temperatures may be attained, and it would be possible to condense all
+gases, provided the difference of the successive critical temperatures
+of two gases fulfils certain conditions. If the ratio of the absolute
+critical temperatures for two gases, which succeed one another in the
+series, should be sensibly greater than 2, the value of T3 for the first
+gas is not, or not sufficiently, below the Tc of the second gas. This is
+the case when one of the gases is nitrogen, on which hydrogen would
+follow as second gas. Generally, however, we shall take atmospheric air
+instead of nitrogen. Though this mixture of N2 and O2 will show other
+critical phenomena than a simple substance, yet we shall continue to
+speak of a Tc for air, which is given at -140 deg. C., and for which,
+therefore, Tc amounts to 133 deg. absolute. The lowest T which may be
+expected for air in a highly rarefied space may be evaluated at 60 deg.
+absolute--a value which is higher than the Tc for hydrogen. Without new
+contrivances it would, accordingly, not be possible to reach the
+critical temperature of H2. The method by which we try to obtain
+successively lower temperatures by making use of successive gases is
+called the "cascade method." It is not self-evident that by sufficiently
+diminishing the pressure on a liquid it may be cooled to such a degree
+that the temperature will be lowered to T3, if the initial temperature
+was equal to Tc, or but little below it, and we can even predict with
+certainty that this will not be the case for all substances. It is
+possible, too, that long before the triple point is reached the whole
+liquid will have evaporated. The most favourable conditions will, of
+course, be attained when the influx of heat is reduced to a minimum. As
+a limiting case we imagine the process to be isentropic. Now the
+question has become, Will an isentropic line, which starts from a point
+of the border-curve on the side of the liquid not far from the
+critical-point, remain throughout its descending course in the
+heterogeneous region, or will it leave the region on the side of the
+vapour? As early as 1878 van der Waals (_Verslagen Kon. Akad.
+Amsterdam_) pointed out that the former may be expected to be the case
+only for substances for which c_p/c_v is large, and the latter for those
+for which it is small; in other words, the former will take place for
+substances the molecules of which contain few atoms, and the latter for
+substances the molecules of which contain many atoms. Ether is an
+example of the latter class, and if we say that the quantity h (specific
+heat of the saturated vapour) for ether is found to be positive, we
+state the same thing in other words. It is not necessary to prove this
+theorem further here, as the molecules of the gases under consideration
+contain only two atoms and the total evaporation of the liquid is not to
+be feared.
+
+In the practical application of this cascade-method some variation is
+found in the gases chosen for the successive stages. Thus methyl
+chloride, ethylene and oxygen are used in the cryogenic laboratory of
+Leiden, while Sir James Dewar has used air as the last term. Carbonic
+acid is not to be recommended on account of the comparatively high value
+of T3. In order to prevent loss of gas a system of "circulation" is
+employed. This method of obtaining low temperatures is decidedly
+laborious, and requires very intricate apparatus, but it has the great
+advantage that very _constant_ low temperatures may be obtained, and can
+be regulated arbitrarily within pretty wide limits.
+
+
+  Cooling by expansion.
+
+In order to lower the temperature of a substance down to T3, it is not
+always necessary to convert it first into the liquid state by means of
+another substance, as was assumed in the last method for obtaining low
+temperatures. Its own expansion is sufficient, provided the initial
+condition be properly chosen, and provided we take care, even more than
+in the former method, that there is no influx of heat. Those conditions
+being fulfilled, we may, simply by adiabatic expansion, not only lower
+the temperature of some substances down to T3, but also convert them
+into the liquid state. This is especially the case with substances the
+molecules of which contain few atoms.
+
+Let us imagine the whole net of isothermals for homogeneous phases drawn
+in a pv diagram, and in it the border-curve. Within this border-curve,
+as in the heterogeneous region, the theoretical part of every isothermal
+must be replaced by a straight line. The isothermals may therefore be
+divided into two groups, viz. those which keep outside the heterogeneous
+region, and those which cross this region. Hence an isothermal,
+belonging to the latter group, enters the heterogeneous region on the
+liquid side, and leaves it at the same level on the vapour side. Let us
+imagine in the same way all the isentropic curves drawn for homogeneous
+states. Their form resembles that of isothermals in so far as they show
+a maximum and a minimum, if the entropy-constant is below a certain
+value, while if it is above this value, both the maximum and the minimum
+disappear, the isentropic line in a certain point having at the same
+time dp/dv and d^2p/dv^2 = 0 for this particular value of the constant.
+This point, which we might call the critical point of the isentropic
+lines, lies in the heterogeneous region, and therefore cannot be
+realized, since as soon as an isentropic curve enters this region its
+theoretical part will be replaced by an empiric part. If an isentropic
+curve crosses the heterogeneous region, the point where it enters this
+region must, just as for the isothermals, be connected with the point
+where it leaves the region by another curve. When c_p/c_v = k (the
+limiting value of c_p/c_v for infinite rarefaction is meant) approaches
+unity, the isentropic curves approach the isothermals and vice versa. In
+the same way the critical point of the isentropic curves comes nearer to
+that of the isothermals. And if k is not much greater than 1, e.g. k <
+1.08, the following property of the isothermals is also preserved, viz.
+that an isentropic curve, which enters the heterogeneous region on the
+side of the liquid, leaves it again on the side of the vapour, not of
+course at the same level, but at a lower point. If, however, k is
+greater, and particularly if it is so great as it is with molecules of
+one or two atoms, an isentropic curve, which enters on the side of the
+liquid, however far prolonged, always remains within the heterogeneous
+region. But in this case all isentropic curves, if sufficiently
+prolonged, will enter the heterogeneous region. Every isentropic curve
+has one point of intersection with the border-curve, but only a small
+group intersect the border-curve in three points, two of which are to be
+found not far from the top of the border-curve and on the side of the
+vapour. Whether the sign of h (specific heat of the saturated vapour) is
+negative or positive, is closely connected with the preceding facts. For
+substances having k great, h will be negative if T is low, positive if T
+rises, while it will change its sign again before Tc is reached. The
+values of T, at which change of sign takes place, depend on k. The law
+of corresponding states holds good for this value of T for all
+substances which have the same value of k.
+
+Now the gases which were considered as permanent are exactly those for
+which k has a high value. From this it would follow that every adiabatic
+expansion, provided it be sufficiently continued, will bring such
+substances into the heterogeneous region, i.e. they can be condensed by
+adiabatic expansion. But since the final pressure must not fall below a
+certain limit, determined by experimental convenience, and since the
+quantity which passes into the liquid state must remain a fraction as
+large as possible, and since the expansion never can take place in such
+a manner that no heat is given out by the walls or the surroundings, it
+is best to choose the initial condition in such a way that the
+isentropic curve of this point cuts the border-curve in a point on the
+side of the liquid, lying as low as possible. The border-curve being
+rather broad at the top, there are many isentropic curves which
+penetrate the heterogeneous region under a pressure which differs but
+little from p_c. Availing himself of this property, K. Olszewski has
+determined p_c for hydrogen at 15 atmospheres. Isentropic curves, which
+lie on the right and on the left of this group, will show a point of
+condensation at a lower pressure. Olszewski has investigated this for
+those lying on the right, but not for those on the left.
+
+From the equation of state (p + a/v^2)(v-b) = RT, the equation of the
+isentropic curve follows as (p + a/v^2)(v-b)^k = C, and from this we may
+deduce T(v - b)^(k-1) = C'. This latter relation shows in how high a
+degree the cooling depends on the amount by which k surpasses unity, the
+change in v - b being the same.
+
+What has been said concerning the relative position of the border-curve
+and the isentropic curve may be easily tested for points of the
+border-curve which represent rarefied gaseous states, in the following
+way. Following the border-curve we found before [int]' Tc/T for the
+value of T/p.dp/dT. Following the isentropic curve the value of T/p
+dp/dT is equal to k/(k - 1). If k/(k - 1) < [int]'Tc/T, the isentropic
+curve rises more steeply than the border-curve. If we take f' = 7 and
+choose the value of Tc/2 for T--a temperature at which the saturated
+vapour may be considered to follow the gas-laws--then k/(k - 1) = 14, or
+k = 1.07 would be the limiting value for the two cases. At any rate k =
+1.41 is great enough to fulfil the condition, even for other values of
+T. Cailletet and Pictet have availed themselves of this adiabatic
+expansion for condensing some permanent gases, and it must also be used
+when, in the cascade method, T3 of one of the gases lies above Tc of the
+next.
+
+
+  Linde's apparatus.
+
+A third method of condensing the permanent gases is applied in C. P. G.
+Linde's apparatus for liquefying air. Under a high pressure p1 a current
+of gas is conducted through a narrow spiral, returning through another
+spiral which surrounds the first. Between the end of the first spiral
+and the beginning of the second the current of gas is reduced to a much
+lower pressure p2 by passing through a tap with a fine orifice. On
+account of the expansion resulting from this sudden decrease of
+pressure, the temperature of the gas, and consequently of the two
+spirals, falls sensibly. If this process is repeated with another
+current of gas, this current, having been cooled in the inner spiral,
+will be cooled still further, and the temperature of the two spirals
+will become still lower. If the pressures p1 and p2 remain constant the
+cooling will increase with the lowering of the temperature. In Linde's
+apparatus this cycle is repeated over and over again, and after some
+time (about two or three hours) it becomes possible to draw off liquid
+air.
+
+The cooling which is the consequence of such a decrease of pressure was
+experimentally determined in 1854 by Lord Kelvin (then Professor W.
+Thomson) and Joule, who represent the result of their experiments in the
+formula
+
+                   p1 - p2
+  T1 - T2 = [gamma]-------.
+                     T^2
+
+In their experiments p2 was always 1 atmosphere, and the amount of p1
+was not large. It would, therefore, be certainly wrong, even though for
+a small difference in pressure the empiric formula might be
+approximately correct, without closer investigation to make use of it
+for the differences of pressure used in Linde's apparatus, where p1 =
+200 and p2 = 18 atmospheres. For the existence of a most favourable
+value of p1 is in contradiction with the formula, since it would follow
+from it that T1 - T2 would always increase with the increase of p1. Nor
+would it be right to regard as the cause for the existence of this most
+favourable value of p1 the fact that the heat produced in the
+compression of the expanded gas, and therefore p1/p2, must be kept as
+small as possible, for the simple reason that the heat is produced in
+quite another part of the apparatus, and might be neutralized in
+different ways.
+
+Closer examination of the process shows that if p2 is given, a most
+favourable value of p1 must exist for the cooling itself. If p1 is taken
+still higher, the cooling decreases again; and we might take a value for
+p1 for which the cooling would be zero, or even negative.
+
+  If we call the energy per unit of weight [epsilon] and the specific
+  volume v, the following equation holds:--
+
+       [epsilon]1 + p1v1 - p2v2 = [epsilon]2,
+
+  or   [epsilon]1 + p1v1 = [epsilon]2 + p2v2.
+
+  According to the symbols chosen by Gibbs, [chi]1 = [chi]2.
+
+  As [chi]1 is determined by T1 and p1, and [chi]2 by T2 and p2, we
+  obtain, if we take T1 and p2 as being constant,
+
+     /[delta][chi]1\           /[delta][chi]2\
+    (---------------)   dp1 = ( ------------- )  dT2.
+     \  [delta]p1  /_T1        \  [delta]T2  /_p2
+
+  If T_2 is to have a minimum value, we have
+
+     /[delta][chi]1\           /[delta][chi]1)\
+    (---------------) = 0, or ( -------------- ) = 0.
+     \  [delta]p1  /_T1        \  [delta]v1   /_T1
+
+  From this follows
+
+     /[delta][epsilon]1\      /[delta](p1v1)\
+    ( ----------------- )  + ( ------------- ) = 0.
+     \    [delta]v1    /_T1   \  [delta]v1  /_T1
+
+  As ([delta][epsilon]1/[delta]v1)T is positive, we shall have to take
+  for the maximum cooling such a pressure that the product p_v decreases
+  with v, viz. a pressure larger than that at which p_v has the minimum
+  value. By means of the equation of state mentioned already, we find
+  for the value of the specific volume that gives the greatest cooling
+  the formula
+
+       RT1b       2a
+    ---------- = ----,
+    (v1 - b)^2   v1^2
+
+  and for the value of the pressure
+                _       _____ _   _     _____    _
+               |       / 4 T1  | |     / 4 T1     |
+    p1 = 27p_c | 1 -  / -- --  | | 3  / -- -- - 1 |.
+               |_   \/  27 Tc _| |_ \/  27 Tc    _|
+
+  If we take the value 2Tc for T1, as we may approximately for air when
+  we begin to work with the apparatus, we find for p1 about 8p_c, or
+  more than 300 atmospheres. If we take T1 = Tc, as we may at the end of
+  the process, we find p1 = 2.5p_c, or 100 atmospheres. The constant
+  pressure which has been found the most favourable in Linde's apparatus
+  is a mean of the two calculated pressures. In a theoretically perfect
+  apparatus we ought, therefore, to be able to regulate p1 according to
+  the temperature in the inner spiral.
+
+The critical temperatures and pressures of the permanent gases are given
+in the following table, the former being expressed on the absolute scale
+and the latter in atmospheres:--
+
+           Tc          p_c                    Tc          p_c
+
+  CH4    191.2 deg.    55             CO    133.5 deg.    35.5
+  NO     179.5 deg.    71.2           N2    127 deg.      35
+  O2     155 deg.      50             Air   133 deg.      39
+  Argon  152 deg.      50.6           H2    32 deg.       15
+
+The values of Tc and p_c for hydrogen are those of Dewar. They are in
+approximate accordance with those given by K. Olszewski. Liquid hydrogen
+was first collected by J. Dewar in 1898. Apparatus for obtaining
+moderate and small quantities have been described by M. W. Travers and
+K. Olszewski. H. Kamerlingh Onnes at Leiden has brought about a
+circulation yielding more than 3 litres per hour, and has made use of it
+to keep baths of 1.5 litre capacity at all temperatures between 20.2
+deg. and 13.7 deg. absolute, the temperatures remaining constant within
+0.01 deg. (See also LIQUID GASES.)     (J. D. v. d. W.)
+
+
+
+
+CONDENSER, the name given to many forms of apparatus which have for
+their object the concentration of matter, or bringing it into a smaller
+volume, or the intensification of energy. In chemistry the word is
+applied to an apparatus which cools down, or condenses, a vapour to a
+liquid; reference should be made to the article DISTILLATION for the
+various types in use, and also to GAS (_Gas Manufacture_) and COAL TAR;
+the device for the condensation of the exhaust steam of a steam-engine
+is treated in the article STEAM-ENGINE. In woollen manufactures,
+"condensation" of the wool is an important operation and is accomplished
+by means of a "condenser." The term is also given--generally as a
+qualification, e.g. condensing-syringe, condensing-pump,--to apparatus
+by which air or a vapour may be compressed. In optics a "condenser" is a
+lens, or system of lenses, which serves to concentrate or bring the
+luminous rays to a focus; it is specially an adjunct to the optical
+lantern and microscope. In electrostatics a condenser is a device for
+concentrating an electrostatic charge (see ELECTROSTATICS; LEYDEN JAR;
+ELECTROPHORUS).
+
+
+
+
+CONDER, CHARLES (1868-1909), English artist, son of a civil engineer,
+was born in London, and spent his early years in India. After an English
+education he went into the government service in Australia, but in 1890
+determined to devote himself to art, and studied for several years in
+Paris, where in 1893 he became an associate of the Societe Nationale des
+Beaux-Arts. About 1895 his reputation as an original painter,
+particularly of Watteau-like designs for fans, spread among a limited
+circle of artists in London, mainly connected first with the New English
+Art Club, and later the International Society; and his unique and
+charming decorative style, in dainty pastoral scenes, gradually gave him
+a peculiar vogue among connoisseurs. Examples of his work were bought
+for the Luxembourg and other art galleries. Conder suffered much in
+later years from ill-health, and died on the 9th of February 1909.
+
+
+
+
+CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT DE (1715-1780), French philosopher, was born
+at Grenoble of a legal family on the 30th of September 1715, and, like
+his elder brother, the well-known political writer, abbe de Mably, took
+holy orders and became abbe de Mureau.[1] In both cases the profession
+was hardly more than nominal, and Condillac's whole life, with the
+exception of an interval as tutor at the court of Parma, was devoted to
+speculation. His works are _Essai sur l'origine des connaissances
+humaines_ (1746), _Traite des systemes_ (1749), _Traite des sensations_
+(1754), _Traite des animaux_ (1755), a comprehensive _Cours d'etudes_
+(1767-1773) in 13 vols., written for the young Duke Ferdinand of Parma,
+a grandson of Louis XV., _Le Commerce et le gouvernement, consideres
+relativement l'un a l'autre_ (1776), and two posthumous works, _Logique_
+(1781) and the unfinished _Langue des calculs_ (1798). In his earlier
+days in Paris he came much into contact with the circle of Diderot. A
+friendship with Rousseau, which lasted in some measure to the end, may
+have been due in the first instance to the fact that Rousseau had been
+domestic tutor in the family of Condillac's uncle, M. de Mably, at
+Lyons. Thanks to his natural caution and reserve, Condillac's relations
+with unorthodox philosophers did not injure his career; and he justified
+abundantly the choice of the French court in sending him to Parma to
+educate the orphan duke, then a child of seven years. In 1768, on his
+return from Italy, he was elected to the French Academy, but attended no
+meeting after his reception. He spent his later years in retirement at
+Flux, a small property which he had purchased near Beaugency, and died
+there on the 3rd of August 1780.
+
+Though Condillac's genius was not of the highest order, he is important
+both as a psychologist and as having established systematically in
+France the principles of Locke, whom Voltaire had lately made
+fashionable. In setting forth his empirical sensationism, Condillac
+shows many of the best qualities of his age and nation, lucidity,
+brevity, moderation and an earnest striving after logical method.
+Unfortunately it must be said of him as of so many of his
+contemporaries, "er hat die Theile in seiner Hand, fehlt leider nur der
+geistiger Band"; in the analysis of the human mind on which his fame
+chiefly rests, he has missed out the active and spiritual side of human
+experience. His first book, the _Essai sur l'origine des connaissances
+humaines_, keeps close to his English master. He accepts with some
+indecision Locke's deduction of our knowledge from two sources,
+sensation and reflection, and uses as his main principle of explanation
+the association of ideas. His next book, the _Traite des systemes_, is a
+vigorous criticism of those modern systems which are based upon abstract
+principles or upon unsound hypotheses. His polemic, which is inspired
+throughout with the spirit of Locke, is directed against the innate
+ideas of the Cartesians, Malebranche's faculty--psychology, Leibnitz's
+monadism and preestablished harmony, and, above all, against the
+conception of substance set forth in the first part of the _Ethics_ of
+Spinoza. By far the most important of his works is the _Traite des
+sensations_, in which he emancipates himself from the tutelage of Locke
+and treats psychology in his own characteristic way. He had been led, he
+tells us, partly by the criticism of a talented lady, Mademoiselle
+Ferrand, to question Locke's doctrine that the senses give us intuitive
+knowledge of objects, that the eye, for example, judges naturally of
+shapes, sizes, positions and distances. His discussions with the lady
+had convinced him that to clear up such questions it was necessary to
+study our senses separately, to distinguish precisely what ideas we owe
+to each sense, to observe how the senses are trained, and how one sense
+aids another. The result, he was confident, would show that all human
+faculty and knowledge are transformed sensation only, to the exclusion
+of any other principle, such as reflection. The plan of the book is that
+the author imagines a statue organized inwardly like a man, animated by
+a soul which has never received an idea, into which no sense-impression
+has ever penetrated. He then unlocks its senses one by one, beginning
+with smell, as the sense that contributes least to human knowledge. At
+its first experience of smell, the consciousness of the statue is
+entirely occupied by it; and this occupancy of consciousness is
+attention. The statue's smell-experience will produce pleasure or pain;
+and pleasure and pain will thenceforward be the master-principle which,
+determining all the operations of its mind, will raise it by degrees to
+all the knowledge of which it is capable. The next stage is memory,
+which is the lingering impression of the smell-experience upon the
+attention: "memory is nothing more than a mode of feeling." From memory
+springs comparison: the statue experiences the smell, say, of a rose,
+while remembering that of a carnation; and "comparison is nothing more
+than giving one's attention to two things simultaneously." And "as soon
+as the statue has comparison it has judgment." Comparisons and judgments
+become habitual, are stored in the mind and formed into series, and thus
+arises the powerful principle of the association of ideas. From
+comparison of past and present experiences in respect of their
+pleasure-giving quality arises desire; it is desire that determines the
+operation of our faculties, stimulates the memory and imagination, and
+gives rise to the passions. The passions, also, are nothing but
+sensation transformed. These indications will suffice to show the
+general course of the argument in the first section of the _Traite des
+sensations_. To show the thoroughness of the treatment it will be enough
+to quote the headings of the chief remaining chapters: "Of the Ideas of
+a Man limited to the Sense of Smell," "Of a Man limited to the Sense of
+Hearing," "Of Smell and Hearing combined," "Of Taste by itself, and of
+Taste combined with Smell and Hearing," "Of a Man limited to the Sense
+of Sight." In the second section of the treatise Condillac invests his
+statue with the sense of touch, which first informs it of the existence
+of external objects. In a very careful and elaborate analysis, he
+distinguishes the various elements in our tactile experiences--the
+touching of one's own body, the touching of objects other than one's own
+body, the experience of movement, the exploration of surfaces by the
+hands: he traces the growth of the statue's perceptions of extension,
+distance and shape. The third section deals with the combination of
+touch with the other senses. The fourth section deals with the desires,
+activities and ideas of an isolated man who enjoys possession of all the
+senses; and ends with observations on a "wild boy" who was found living
+among bears in the forests of Lithuania. The conclusion of the whole
+work is that in the natural order of things everything has its source in
+sensation, and yet that this source is not equally abundant in all men;
+men differ greatly in the degree of vividness with which they feel; and,
+finally, that man is nothing but what he has acquired; all innate
+faculties and ideas are to be swept away. The last dictum suggests the
+difference that has been made to this manner of psychologizing by modern
+theories of evolution and heredity.
+
+Condillac's work on politics and history, contained, for the most part,
+in his _Cours d'etudes_, offers few features of interest, except so far
+as it illustrates his close affinity to English thought: he had not the
+warmth and imagination to make a good historian. In logic, on which he
+wrote extensively, he is far less successful than in psychology. He
+enlarges with much iteration, but with few concrete examples, upon the
+supremacy of the analytic method; argues that reasoning consists in the
+substitution of one proposition for another which is identical with it;
+and lays it down that science is the same thing as a well-constructed
+language, a proposition which in his _Langue des calculs_ he tries to
+prove by the example of arithmetic. His logic has in fact the good and
+bad points that we might expect to find in a sensationist who knows no
+science but mathematics. He rejects the medieval apparatus of the
+syllogism; but is precluded by his standpoint from understanding the
+active, spiritual character of thought; nor had he that interest in
+natural science and appreciation of inductive reasoning which form the
+chief merit of J. S. Mill. It is obvious enough that Condillac's
+anti-spiritual psychology, with its explanation of personality as an
+aggregate of sensations, leads straight to atheism and determinism.
+There is, however, no reason to question the sincerity with which he
+repudiates both these consequences. What he says upon religion is always
+in harmony with his profession; and he vindicated the freedom of the
+will in a dissertation that has very little in common with the _Traite
+des sensations_ to which it is appended. The common reproach of
+materialism should certainly not be made against him. He always asserts
+the substantive reality of the soul; and in the opening words of his
+_Essai_, "Whether we rise to heaven, or descend to the abyss, we never
+get outside ourselves--it is always our own thoughts that we perceive,"
+we have the subjectivist principle that forms the starting-point of
+Berkeley.
+
+As was fitting to a disciple of Locke, Condillac's ideas have had most
+importance in their effect upon English thought. In matters connected
+with the association of ideas, the supremacy of pleasure and pain, and
+the general explanation of all mental contents as sensations or
+transformed sensations, his influence can be traced upon the Mills and
+upon Bain and Herbert Spencer. And, apart from any definite
+propositions, Condillac did a notable work in the direction of making
+psychology a science; it is a great step from the desultory, genial
+observation of Locke to the rigorous analysis of Condillac,
+short-sighted and defective as that analysis may seem to us in the light
+of fuller knowledge. His method, however, of imaginative reconstruction
+was by no means suited to English ways of thinking. In spite of his
+protests against abstraction, hypothesis and synthesis, his allegory of
+the statue is in the highest degree abstract, hypothetical and
+synthetic. James Mill, who stood more by the study of concrete
+realities, put Condillac into the hands of his youthful son with the
+warning that here was an example of what to avoid in the method of
+psychology. In France Condillac's doctrine, so congenial to the tone of
+18th century philosophism, reigned in the schools for over fifty years,
+challenged only by a few who, like Maine de Biran, saw that it gave no
+sufficient account of volitional experience. Early in the 19th century,
+the romantic awakening of Germany had spread to France, and sensationism
+was displaced by the eclectic spiritualism of Victor Cousin.
+
+  Condillac's collected works were published in 1798 (23 vols.) and two
+  or three times subsequently; the last edition (1822) has an
+  introductory dissertation by A. F. Thery. The _Encyclopedie
+  methodique_ has a very long article on Condillac (Naigeon).
+  Biographical details and criticism of the _Traite des systemes_ in J.
+  P. Damiron's _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de la philosophie au
+  dixhuitieme siecle_, tome iii.; a full criticism in V. Cousin's _Cours
+  de l'histoire de la philosophie moderne_, ser. i. tome iii. Consult
+  also F. Rethore, _Condillac ou l'empirisme et le rationalisme_ (1864);
+  L. Dewaule, _Condillac et la psychologie anglaise contemporaine_
+  (1891); histories of philosophy. (H. St.)
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[1] i.e. abbot _in commendam_ of the Premonstratensian abbey of Mureau
+in the Vosges. (Ed.)
+
+
+
+
+CONDITION (Lat. _condicio_, from _condicere_, to agree upon, arrange;
+not connected with _conditio_, from _condere, conditum_, to put
+together), a stipulation, agreement. The term is applied technically to
+any circumstance, action or event which is regarded as the indispensable
+prerequisite of some other circumstance, action or event. It is also
+applied generally to the sum of the circumstances in which a person is
+situated, and more specifically to favourable or prosperous
+circumstances; thus a person of wealth or birth is described as a person
+"of condition," or an athlete as being "in condition," i.e. physically
+fit, having gone through the necessary course of preliminary training.
+In all these senses there is implicit the idea of limitation or
+restraint imposed with a view to the attainment of a particular end.
+
+(1) _In Logic_, the term "condition" is closely related to "cause" in so
+far as it is applied to prior events, &c., in the absence of which
+another event would not take place. It is, however, different from
+"cause" inasmuch as it has a predominantly negative or passive
+significance. Hence the adjective "conditional" is applied to
+propositions in which the truth of the main statement is made to depend
+on the truth of another; these propositions are distinguished from
+categorical propositions, which simply state a fact, as being "composed
+of two categorical propositions united by a conjunction," e.g. if A is
+B, C is D. The second statement (the "consequent") is restricted or
+qualified by the first (the "antecedent"). By some logicians these
+propositions are classified as (1) Hypothetical, and (2) Disjunctive,
+and their function in syllogistic reasoning gives rise to the following
+classification of conditional arguments:--(a) Constructive hypothetical
+syllogism (_modus ponens_, "affirmative mood"): If A is B, C is D; but A
+is B; therefore C is D. (b) Destructive hypothetical syllogism (_modus
+tollens_, mood which "removes," i.e. the consequent): if A is B, C is D;
+but C is not D; therefore A is not B. In (a) the antecedent must be
+affirmed, in (b) the consequent must be denied; otherwise the arguments
+become fallacious. A second class of conditional arguments are
+disjunctive syllogisms consisting of (c) the _modus ponendo tollens_: A
+is either B or C; but A is B; therefore C is not D; and (d) _modus
+tollendo ponens_: A is either B or C; A is not B; therefore A is C. A
+more complicated conditional argument is the dilemma (q.v.).[1]
+
+The limiting or restrictive significance of "condition" has led to its
+use in metaphysical theory in contradistinction to the conception of
+absolute being, the _aseitas_ of the Schoolmen. Thus all finite things
+exist in certain relations not only to all other things but also to
+thought; in other words, all finite existence is "conditioned." Hence
+Sir Wm. Hamilton speaks of the "philosophy of the unconditioned," i.e.
+of thought in distinction to things which are determined by thought in
+relation to other things. An analogous distinction is made (cf. H. W. B.
+Joseph, _Introduction to Logic_, pp. 380 foll.) between the so-called
+universal laws of nature and conditional principles, which, though they
+are regarded as having the force of law, are yet dependent or
+derivative, i.e. cannot be treated as universal truths. Such principles
+hold good under present conditions, but other conditions might be
+imagined under which they would be invalid; they hold good only as
+corollaries from the laws of nature under existing conditions.
+
+(2) _In Law_, condition in its general sense is a restraint annexed to a
+thing, so that by the non-performance the party to it shall receive
+prejudice and loss, and by the performance commodity or advantage.
+Conditions may be either: (1) condition in a deed or _express_
+condition, i.e. the condition being expressed in actual words; or (2)
+condition in law or _implied_ condition, i.e. where, although no
+condition is actually expressed, the law implies a condition. The word
+is also used indifferently to mean either the event upon the happening
+of which some estate or obligation is to begin or end, or the provision
+or stipulation that the estate or obligation will depend upon the
+happening of the event. A condition may be of several kinds: (1) a
+condition _precedent_, where, for example, an estate is granted to one
+for life upon condition that, if the grantee pay the grantor a certain
+sum on such a day, he shall have the fee simple; (2) a condition
+_subsequent_, where, for example, an estate is granted in fee upon
+condition that the grantee shall pay a certain sum on a certain day, or
+that his estate shall cease. Thus a condition precedent gets or gains,
+while a condition subsequent keeps and continues. A condition may also
+be _affirmative_, that is, the doing of an act; _negative_, the not
+doing of an act; _restrictive, compulsory_, &c. The word is also used
+adjectivally in the sense set out above, as in the phrases "conditional
+legacy," "conditional limitation," "conditional promise," &c.; that is,
+the legacy, the limitation, the promise is to take effect only upon the
+happening of a certain event.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The terminology used above has not been adopted by all logicians.
+    "Conditional" has been used as equivalent to "hypothetical" in the
+    widest sense (including "disjunctive"); or narrowed down to be
+    synonymous with "conjunctive" (the condition being there more
+    explicit), as a subdivision of "hypothetical."
+
+
+
+
+CONDITIONAL FEE, at English common law, a fee or estate restrained in
+its form of donation to some particular heirs, as, to the heirs of a
+man's body, or to the heirs male of his body. It was called a
+conditional fee by reason of the condition expressed or implied in the
+donation of it, that if the donee died without such particular heirs,
+the land should revert to the donor. In other words, it was a fee simple
+on condition that the donee had issue, and as soon as such issue was
+born, the estate was supposed to become absolute by the performance of
+the condition. A conditional fee was converted by the statute _De Donis
+Conditionalibus_ into an estate tail (see REAL PROPERTY).
+
+
+
+
+CONDITIONAL LIMITATION, in law, a phrase used in two senses. (1) The
+qualification annexed to the grant of an estate or interest in land,
+providing for the determination of that grant or interest upon a
+particular contingency happening. An estate with such a limitation can
+endure only until the particular contingency happens; it is a present
+interest, to be divested on a future contingency. The grant of an estate
+to a man so long as he is parson of Dale, or while he continues
+unmarried, are instances of conditional limitations of estates for life.
+(2) A future use or interest in land limited to take effect upon a given
+contingency. For instance, a grant to N. and his heirs to the use of A.,
+provided that when C. returns from Rome the land shall go to the use of
+B. in fee simple. B. is said to take under a conditional limitation,
+operating by executory devise or springing or shifting use (see
+REMAINDER, REVERSION).
+
+
+
+
+CONDOM, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Gers, on the right bank of the Baise, at its junction
+with the Gele, 27 m. by road N.N.W. of Auch. Pop. (1906) town, 4046;
+commune, 6435. Two stone bridges unite Condom with its suburb on the
+left bank of the river. The streets are small and narrow and several old
+houses still remain, but to the east the town is bordered by pleasant
+promenades. The Gothic church of St Pierre, its chief building, was
+erected from 1506 to 1521, and was till 1790 a cathedral. The interior,
+which is without aisles or transept, is surrounded by lateral chapels.
+On the south is a beautifully sculptured portal. An adjoining cloister
+of the 16th century is occupied by the hotel de ville. The former
+episcopal palace with its graceful Gothic chapel is used as a law-court.
+The sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal
+college, are among the public institutions. Brandy-distilling,
+wood-sawing, iron-founding and the manufacture of stills are among the
+industries. The town is a centre for the sale of Armagnac brandy and has
+commerce in grain and flour, much of which is river-borne.
+
+Condom (_Condomus_) was founded in the 8th century, but in 840 was
+sacked and burnt by the Normans. A monastery built here c. 900 by the
+wife of Sancho of Gascony was soon destroyed by fire, but in 1011 was
+rebuilt, by Hugh, bishop of Agen. Round this abbey the town grew up, and
+in 1317 was made into an episcopal see by Pope John XXII. The line of
+bishops, which included Bossuet (1668-1671), came to an end in 1790 when
+the see was suppressed. Condom was, during the middle ages, a fortress
+of considerable strength. During the Hundred Years' War, after several
+unsuccessful attempts, it was finally captured and held by the English.
+In 1569 it was sacked by the Huguenots under Gabriel, count of
+Montgomery.
+
+  A list of monographs, &c., on the abbey, see and town of Condom is
+  given s.v. in U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources. Topobibliogr_.
+  (Montbeliard, 1894-1899).
+
+
+
+
+CONDOR (_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_), an American vulture, and almost the
+largest of existing birds of flight, although by no means attaining the
+dimensions attributed to it by early writers. It usually measures about
+4 ft. from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail, and 9 ft.
+between the tips of its wings, while it is probable that the expanse of
+wing never exceeds 12 ft. The head and neck are destitute of feathers,
+and the former, which is much flattened above, is in the male crowned
+with a caruncle or comb, while the skin of the latter in the same sex
+lies in folds, forming a wattle. The adult plumage is of a uniform
+black, with the exception of a frill of white feathers nearly
+surrounding the base of the neck, and certain wing feathers which,
+especially in the male, have large patches of white. The middle toe is
+greatly elongated, and the hinder one but slightly developed, while the
+talons of all the toes are comparatively straight and blunt, and are
+thus of little use as organs of prehension. The female, contrary to the
+usual rule among birds of prey, is smaller than the male.
+
+The condor is a native of South America, where it is confined to the
+region of the Andes, from the Straits of Magellan to 4 deg. north
+latitude,--the largest examples, it is said, being found about the
+volcano of Cayambi, situated on the equator. It is often seen on the
+shores of the Pacific, especially during the rainy season, but its
+favourite haunts for roosting and breeding are at elevations of 10,000
+to 16,000 ft. There, during the months of February and March, on
+inaccessible ledges of rock, it deposits two white eggs, from 3 to 4 in.
+in length, its nest consisting merely of a few sticks placed around the
+eggs. The period of incubation lasts for seven weeks, and the young are
+covered with a whitish down until almost as large as their parents. They
+are unable to fly till nearly two years old, and continue for a
+considerable time after taking wing to roost and hunt with their
+parents. The white ruff on the neck, and the similarly coloured feathers
+of the wing, do not appear until the completion of the first moulting.
+By preference the condor feeds on carrion, but it does not hesitate to
+attack sheep, goats and deer, and for this reason it is hunted down by
+the shepherds, who, it is said, train their dogs to look up and bark at
+the condors as they fly overhead. They are exceedingly voracious, a
+single condor of moderate size having been known, according to Orton, to
+devour a calf, a sheep and a dog in a single week. When thus gorged with
+food, they are exceedingly stupid, and may then be readily caught. For
+this purpose a horse or mule is killed, and the carcase surrounded with
+palisades to which the condors are soon attracted by the prospect of
+food, for the weight of evidence seems to favour the opinion that those
+vultures owe their knowledge of the presence of carrion more to sight
+than to scent. Having feasted themselves to excess, they are set upon by
+the hunters with sticks, and being unable, owing to the want of space
+within the pen, to take the run without which they are unable to rise on
+wing, they are readily killed or captured. They sleep during the greater
+part of the day, searching for food in the clearer light of morning and
+evening. They are remarkably heavy sleepers, and are readily captured by
+the inhabitants ascending the trees on which they roost, and noosing
+them before they awaken. Great numbers of condors are thus taken alive,
+and these, in certain districts, are employed in a variety of
+bull-fighting. They are exceedingly tenacious of life, and can exist, it
+is said, without food for over forty days. Although the favourite haunts
+of the condor are at the level of perpetual snow, yet it rises to a much
+greater height, Humboldt having observed it flying over Chimborazo at a
+height of over 23,000 ft. On wing the movements of the condor, as it
+wheels in majestic circles, are remarkably graceful. The birds flap
+their wings on rising from the ground, but after attaining a moderate
+elevation they seem to sail on the air, Charles Darwin having watched
+them for half an hour without once observing a flap of their wings.
+
+
+
+
+CONDORCET, MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS CARITAT, MARQUIS DE (1743-1794),
+French mathematician, philosopher and Revolutionist, was born at
+Ribemont, in Picardy, on the 17th of September 1743. He descended from
+the ancient family of Caritat, who took their title from Condorcet, near
+Nyons in Dauphine, where they were long settled. His father dying while
+he was very young, his mother, a very devout woman, had him educated at
+the Jesuit College in Reims and at the College of Navarre in Paris,
+where he displayed the most varied mental activity. His first public
+distinctions were gained in mathematics. At the age of sixteen his
+performances in analysis gained the praise of D'Alembert and A. C.
+Clairaut, and at the age of twenty-two he wrote a treatise on the
+integral calculus which obtained warm approbation from competent judges.
+With his many-sided intellect and richly-endowed emotional nature,
+however, it was impossible for him to be a specialist, and least of all
+a specialist in mathematics. Philosophy and literature attracted him,
+and social work was dearer to him than any form of intellectual
+exercise. In 1769 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. His
+contributions to its memoirs are numerous, and many of them are on the
+most abstruse and difficult mathematical problems.
+
+Being of a very genial, susceptible and enthusiastic disposition, he was
+the friend of almost all the distinguished men of his time, and a
+zealous propagator of the religious and political views then current
+among the literati of France. D'Alembert, Turgot and Voltaire, for whom
+he had great affection and veneration, and by whom he was highly
+respected and esteemed, contributed largely to the formation of his
+opinions. His _Lettre d'un laboureur de Picardie a M. N..._ (Necker) was
+written under the inspiration of Turgot, in defence of free internal
+trade in corn. Condorcet also wrote on the same subject the _Reflexions
+sur le commerce des bles_ (1776). His _Lettre d'un theologien_, &c., was
+attributed to Voltaire, being inspired throughout by the Voltairian
+anti-clerical spirit. He was induced by D'Alembert to take an active
+part in the preparation of the _Encyclopedie_. His _Eloges des
+Academiciens de l'Academie Royale des Sciences morts depuis 1666
+jusqu'en 1699_ (1773) gained him the reputation of being an eloquent and
+graceful writer. He was elected to the perpetual secretaryship of the
+Academy of Sciences in 1777, and to the French Academy in 1782. He was
+also member of the academies of Turin, St Petersburg, Bologna and
+Philadelphia. In 1785 he published his _Essai sur l'application de
+l'analyse aux probabilites des decisions prises a la pluralite des
+voix_,--a remarkable work which has a distinguished place in the history
+of the doctrine of probability; a second edition, greatly enlarged and
+completely recast, appeared in 1804 under the title of _Elements du
+calcul des probabilites et son application aux jeux de hazard, a la
+loterie, et aux jugements des hommes, &c._ In 1786 he married Sophie de
+Grouchy, a sister of Marshal Grouchy, said to have been one of the most
+beautiful women of her time. Her _salon_ at the Hotel des Monnaies,
+where Condorcet lived in his capacity as inspector-general of the mint,
+was one of the most famous of the time. In 1786 Condorcet published his
+_Vie de Turgot_, and in 1787 his _Vie de Voltaire_. Both works were
+widely and eagerly read, and are perhaps, from a merely literary point
+of view, the best of Condorcet's writings.
+
+The political tempest which had been long gathering over France now
+began to break and to carry everything before it. Condorcet was, of
+course, at once hurried along by it into the midst of the conflicts and
+confusion of the Revolution. He greeted with enthusiasm the advent of
+democracy, and laboured hard to secure and hasten its triumph. He was
+indefatigable in writing pamphlets, suggesting reforms, and planning
+constitutions. He was not a member of the States-General of 1789, but he
+had expressed his ideas in the electoral assembly of the noblesse of
+Mantes. The first political functions which he exercised were those of a
+member of the municipality of Paris (1790). He was next chosen by the
+Parisians to represent them in the Legislative Assembly, and then
+appointed by that body one of its secretaries. In this capacity he drew
+up most of its addresses, but seldom spoke, his pen being more effective
+than his tongue. He was the chief author of the address to the European
+powers when they threatened France with war. He was keenly interested in
+education, and, as a member of the committee of public instruction,
+presented to the Assembly (April 21 and 22, 1792) a bold and
+comprehensive scheme for the organization of a system of state education
+which, though more urgent questions compelled its postponement, became
+the basis of that adopted by the Convention, and thus laid the
+foundations on which the modern system of national education in France
+is built up. After the attempted flight of the king, in June 1791,
+Condorcet was one of the first to declare in favour of a republic, and
+it was he who drew up the memorandum which led the Assembly, on the 4th
+of September 1792, to decree the suspension of the king and the
+summoning of the National Convention. He had, meanwhile, resigned his
+offices and left the Hotel des Monnaies; his declaration in favour of
+republicanism had alienated him from his former friends of the
+constitutional party, and he did not join the Jacobin Club, which had
+not yet declared against the monarchy. Though attached to no powerful
+political group, however, his reputation gave him great influence. At
+the elections for the Convention he was chosen for five departments, and
+took his seat for that of Aisne. He now became the most influential
+member of the committee on the constitution, and as "reporter" he
+drafted and presented to the Convention (February 15, 1793) a
+constitution, which was, however, after stormy debates, rejected in
+favour of that presented by Herault de Sechelles. The work of
+constitution-making had been interrupted by the trial of Louis XVI.
+Condorcet objected to the assumption of judicial functions by the
+Convention, objected also on principle to the infliction of the death
+penalty; but he voted the king guilty of conspiring against liberty and
+worthy of any penalty short of death, and against the appeal to the
+people advocated by the Girondists. In the atmosphere of universal
+suspicion that inspired the Terror his independent attitude could not,
+however, be maintained with impunity. His severe and public criticism of
+the constitution adopted by the Convention, his denunciation of the
+arrest of the Girondists, and his opposition to the violent conduct of
+the Mountain, led to his being accused of conspiring against the
+Republic. He was condemned and declared to be _hors la loi_. Friends,
+sought for him an asylum in the house of Madame Vernet, widow of the
+sculptor and a near connexion of the painters of the same name. Without
+even asking his name, this heroic woman, as soon as she was assured that
+he was an honest man, said, "Let him come, and lose not a moment, for
+while we talk he may be seized." When the execution of the Girondists
+showed him that his presence exposed his protectress to a terrible
+danger, he resolved to seek a refuge elsewhere. "I am outlawed," he
+said, "and if I am discovered you will meet the same sad end as myself.
+I must not stay." Madame Vernet's reply deserves to be immortal, and
+should be given in her own words: "La Convention, Monsieur, a le droit
+de mettre hors la loi: elle n'a pas le pouvoir de mettre hors de
+l'humanite; vous resterez." From that time she had his movements
+strictly watched lest he should attempt to quit her house. It was partly
+to turn his mind from the idea of attempting this, by occupying it
+otherwise, that his wife and some of his friends, with the co-operation
+of Madame Vernet, prevailed on him to engage in the composition of the
+work by which he is best known--the _Esquisse d'un tableau historique
+des progres de l'esprit humain_. In his retirement Condorcet wrote also
+his justification, and several small works, such as the _Moyen
+d'apprendre a compter surement et avec facilite_, which he intended for
+the schools of the republic. Several of these works were published at
+the time, thanks to his friends; the rest appeared after his death.
+Among the latter was the admirable _Avis d'un proscrit a sa fille_.
+While in hiding he also continued to take an active interest in public
+affairs. Thus, he wrote several important memoranda on the conduct of
+the war against the Coalition, which were laid before the Committee of
+Public Safety anonymously by a member of the Mountain named Marcoz, who
+lived in the same house as Condorcet without thinking it his duty to
+denounce him. In the same way he forwarded to Arbogast, president of the
+committee for public instruction, the solutions of several problems in
+higher mathematics.
+
+Certain circumstances having led him to believe that the house of Madame
+Vernet, 21 rue Servandoni, was suspected and watched by his enemies,
+Condorcet, by a fatally successful artifice, at last baffled the
+vigilance of his generous friend and escaped. Disappointed in finding
+even a night's shelter at the chateau of one whom he had befriended, he
+had to hide for three days and nights in the thickets and stone-quarries
+of Clamart. Oh the evening of the 7th of April 1794--not, as Carlyle
+says, on a "bleared May morning,"--with garments torn, with wounded leg,
+with famished looks, he entered a tavern in the village named, and
+called for an omelette. "How many eggs in your omelette?" "A dozen."
+"What is your trade?" "A carpenter." "Carpenters have not hands like
+these, and do not ask for a dozen eggs in an omelette." When his papers
+were demanded he had none to show; when his person was searched a Horace
+was found on him. The villagers seized him, bound him, haled him
+forthwith on bleeding feet towards Bourg-la-Reine; he fainted by the
+way, was set on a horse offered in pity by a passing peasant, and, at
+the journey's end, was cast into a cold damp cell. Next morning he was
+found dead on the floor. Whether he had died from suffering and
+exhaustion, from apoplexy or from poison, is an undetermined question.
+
+Condorcet was undoubtedly a most sincere, generous and noble-minded man.
+He was eager in the pursuit of truth, ardent in his love of human good,
+and ever ready to undertake labour or encounter danger on behalf of the
+philanthropic plans which his fertile mind contrived and his benevolent
+heart inspired. It was thus that he worked for the suppression of
+slavery, for the rehabilitation of the chevalier de La Barre, and in
+defence of Lally-Tollendal. He lived at a time when calumny was rife,
+and various slanders were circulated regarding him, but fortunately the
+slightest examination proves them to have been inexcusable fabrications.
+That while openly opposing royalty he was secretly soliciting the office
+of tutor to the Dauphin; that he was accessory to the murder of the duc
+de la Rochefoucauld; or that he sanctioned the burning of the literary
+treasures of the learned congregations, are stories which can be shown
+to be utterly untrue.
+
+His philosophical fame is chiefly associated with the _Esquisse ...
+des'progres_ mentioned above. With the vision of the guillotine before
+him, with confusion and violence around him, he comforted himself by
+trying to demonstrate that the evils of life had arisen from a
+conspiracy of priests and rulers against their fellows, and from the bad
+laws and institutions which they had succeeded in creating, but that the
+human race would finally conquer its enemies and free itself of its
+evils. His fundamental idea is that of a human perfectibility which has
+manifested itself in continuous progress in the past, and must lead to
+indefinite progress in the future. He represents man as starting from
+the lowest stage of barbarism, with no superiority over the other
+animals save that of bodily organization, and as advancing
+uninterruptedly, at a more or less rapid rate, in the path of
+enlightenment, virtue and happiness. The stages which the human race has
+already gone through, or, in other words, the great epochs of history,
+are regarded as nine in number. The first three can confessedly be
+described only conjecturally from general observations as to the
+development of the human faculties, and the analogies of savage life. In
+the first epoch, men are united into hordes of hunters and fishers, who
+acknowledge in some degree public authority and the claims of family
+relationship, and who make use of an articulate language. In the second
+epoch--the pastoral state--property is introduced, and along with it
+inequality of conditions, and even slavery, but also leisure to
+cultivate intelligence, to invent some of the simpler arts, and to
+acquire some of the more elementary truths of science. In the third
+epoch--the agricultural state--as leisure and wealth are greater, labour
+better distributed and applied, and the means of communication increased
+and extended, progress is still more rapid. With the invention of
+alphabetic writing the conjectural part of history closes, and the more
+or less authenticated part commences. The fourth and fifth epochs are
+represented as corresponding to Greece and Rome. The middle ages are
+divided into two epochs, the former of which terminates with the
+Crusades, and the latter with the invention of printing. The eighth
+epoch extends from the invention of printing to the revolution in the
+method of philosophic thinking accomplished by Descartes. And the ninth
+epoch begins with that great intellectual revolution, and ends with the
+great political and moral revolution of 1789, and is illustrious,
+according to Condorcet, through the discovery of the true system of the
+physical universe by Newton, of human nature by Locke and Condillac, and
+of society by Turgot, Richard Price and Rousseau. There is an epoch of
+the future--a tenth epoch,--and the most original part of Condorcet's
+treatise is that which is devoted to it. After insisting that general
+laws regulative of the past warrant general inferences as to the future,
+he argues that the three tendencies which the entire history of the past
+shows will be characteristic features of the future are:--(1) the
+destruction of inequality between nations; (2) the destruction of
+inequality between classes; and (3) the improvement of individuals, the
+indefinite perfectibility of human nature itself--intellectually,
+morally and physically. These propositions have been much misunderstood.
+The equality to which he represents nations and individuals as tending
+is not absolute equality, but equality of freedom and of rights. It is
+that equality which would make the inequality of the natural advantages
+and faculties of each community and person beneficial to all. Nations
+and men, he thinks, are equal, if equally free, and are all tending to
+equality because all tending to freedom. As to indefinite
+perfectibility, he nowhere denies that progress is conditioned both by
+the constitution of humanity and the character of its surroundings. But
+he affirms that these conditions are compatible with endless progress,
+and that the human mind can assign no fixed limits to its own
+advancement in knowledge and virtue, or even to the prolongation of
+bodily life. This theory explains the importance he attached to popular
+education, to which he looked for all sure progress.
+
+The book is pervaded by a spirit of excessive hopefulness, and contains
+numerous errors of detail, which are fully accounted for by the
+circumstances in which it was written. Its value lies entirely in its
+general ideas. Its chief defects spring from its author's narrow and
+fanatical aversion to all philosophy which did not attempt to explain
+the world exclusively on mechanical and sensational principles, to all
+religion whatever, and especially to Christianity and Christian
+institutions, and to monarchy. His ethical position, however, gives
+emphasis to the sympathetic impulses and social feelings, and had
+considerable influence upon Auguste Comte.
+
+Madame de Condorcet (b. 1764), who was some twenty years younger than
+her husband, was rendered penniless by his proscription, and compelled
+to support not only herself and her four years old daughter but her
+younger sister, Charlotte de Grouchy. After the end of the Jacobin
+Terror she published an excellent translation of Adam Smith's _Theory of
+Moral Sentiments_; in 1798 a work of her own, _Lettres sur la
+sympathie_; and in 1799 her husband's _Eloges des academiciens_. Later
+she co-operated with Cabanis, who had married her sister, and with Garat
+in publishing the complete works of Condorcet (1801-1804). She adhered
+to the last to the political views of her husband, and under the
+Consulate and Empire her _salon_ became a meeting-place of those opposed
+to the autocratic regime. She died at Paris on the 8th of September
+1822. Her daughter was married, in 1807, to General O'Connor.
+
+  A _Biographie de Condorcet_, by M. F. Arago, is prefixed to A.
+  Condorcet-O'Connor's edition of Condorcet's works, in 12 volumes
+  (1847-1849). There is an able essay on Condorcet in Lord Morley of
+  Blackburn's _Critical Miscellanies_. On Condorcet as an historical
+  philosopher see Comte's _Cours de philosophie positive_, iv. 252-253,
+  and _Systeme de politique positive_, iv. Appendice General, 109-111;
+  F. Laurent, _Etudes_, xii. 121-126, 89-110; and R. Flint, _Philosophy
+  of History in France and Germany_, i. 125-138. The _Memoires de
+  Condorcet sur la Revolution francaise, extraits de sa correspondance
+  et de celles de ses amis_ (2 vols., Paris, Ponthieu, 1824), which were
+  in fact edited by F. G. de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, are spurious.
+  See also Dr J. F. E. Robinet, _Condorcet, sa vie et son [oe]uvre_, and
+  more especially L. Cahen, _Condorcet et la Revolution francaise_
+  (Paris, 1904). On Madame de Condorcet see Antoine Guillois, _La
+  Marquise de Condorcet, sa famille, son salon et ses [oe]uvres_ (Paris,
+  1897).
+
+
+
+
+CONDOTTIERE (plural, _condottieri_), an Italian term, derived ultimately
+from Latin _conducere_, meaning either "to conduct" or "to hire," for
+the leader of the mercenary military companies, often several thousand
+strong, which used to be hired out to carry on the wars of the Italian
+states. The word is often extended so as to include the soldiers as well
+as the leader of a company. The condottieri played a very important part
+in Italian history from the middle of the 13th to the middle of the 15th
+century. The special political and military circumstances of medieval
+Italy, and in particular the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines,
+brought it about that the condottieri and their leaders played a more
+conspicuous and important part in history than the "Free Companies"
+elsewhere. Amongst these circumstances the absence of a numerous feudal
+cavalry, the relative luxury of city life, and the incapacity of city
+militia for wars of aggression were the most prominent. From this it
+resulted that war was not merely the trade of the condottiere, but also
+his monopoly, and he was thus able to obtain whatever terms he asked,
+whether money payments or political concessions. These companies were
+recruited from wandering mercenary bands and individuals of all nations,
+and from the ranks of the many armies of middle Europe which from time
+to time overran Italy.
+
+Montreal d'Albarno, a gentleman of Provence, was the first to give them
+a definite form. A severe discipline and an elaborate organization were
+introduced within the company itself, while in their relations to the
+people the most barbaric licence was permitted. Montreal himself was put
+to death at Rome by Rienzi, and Conrad Lando succeeded to the command.
+The Grand Company, as it was called, soon numbered about 7000 cavalry
+and 1500 select infantry, and was for some years the terror of Italy.
+They seem to have been Germans chiefly. On the conclusion (1360) of the
+peace of Bretigny between England and France, Sir John Hawkwood (q.v.)
+led an army of English mercenaries, called the White Company, into
+Italy, which took a prominent part in the confused wars of the next
+thirty years. Towards the end of the century the Italians began to
+organize armies of the same description. This ended the reign of the
+purely mercenary company, and began that of the semi-national mercenary
+army which endured in Europe till replaced by the national standing army
+system. The first company of importance raised on the new basis was that
+of St George, originated by Alberigo, count of Barbiano, many of whose
+subordinates and pupils conquered principalities for themselves. Shortly
+after, the organization of these mercenary armies was carried to the
+highest perfection by Sforza Attendolo, condottiere in the service of
+Naples, who had been a peasant of the Romagna, and by his rival
+Brancaccio di Montone in the service of Florence. The army and the
+renown of Sforza were inherited by his son Francesco Sforza, who
+eventually became duke of Milan (1450). Less fortunate was another great
+condottiere, Carmagnola, who first served one of the Visconti, and then
+conducted the wars of Venice against his former masters, but at last
+awoke the suspicion of the Venetian oligarchy, and was put to death
+before the palace of St Mark (1432). Towards the end of the 15th
+century, when the large cities had gradually swallowed up the small
+states, and Italy itself was drawn into the general current of European
+politics, and became the battlefield of powerful armies--French, Spanish
+and German--the condottieri, who in the end proved quite unequal to the
+gendarmerie of France and the improved troops of the Italian states,
+disappeared.
+
+The soldiers of the condottieri were almost entirely heavy armoured
+cavalry (men-at-arms). They had, at any rate before 1400, nothing in
+common with the people among whom they fought, and their disorderly
+conduct and rapacity seem often to have exceeded that of other medieval
+armies. They were always ready to change sides at the prospect of higher
+pay. They were connected with each other by the interest of a common
+profession, and by the possibility that the enemy of to-day might be the
+friend and fellow-soldier of to-morrow. Further, a prisoner was always
+more valuable than a dead enemy. In consequence of all this their
+battles were often as bloodless as they were theatrical. Splendidly
+equipped armies were known to fight for hours with hardly the loss of a
+man (Zagonara, 1423; Molinella, 1467).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 6, Slice 7, by Various
+
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