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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Christian View of the Old Testament, by 
+Frederick Carl Eiselen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Christian View of the Old Testament
+
+Author: Frederick Carl Eiselen
+
+Release Date: April 3, 2010 [EBook #31876]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRISTIAN VIEW--OLD TESTAMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CHRISTIAN VIEW
+
+OF THE
+
+OLD TESTAMENT
+
+
+
+BY
+
+FREDERICK CARL EISELEN
+
+Professor in Garrett Biblical Institute
+
+
+
+
+THE METHODIST BOOK CONCERN
+
+NEW YORK ---- CINCINNATI ---- CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1912
+  FREDERICK CARL EISELEN
+
+
+  Printed in the United States of America
+
+  First Edition Printed September, 1912
+  Second Printing, June, 1913
+  Third Printing, May, 1916
+  Fourth Printing, November, 1917
+  Fifth Printing, September, 1921
+  Sixth Printing, September, 1923
+  Seventh Printing, October, 1925
+  Eighth Printing, July, 1928
+
+
+
+
+{5}
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                    PAGE
+
+       PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    7
+   I.  THE NEW TESTAMENT VIEW OF THE OLD TESTAMENT . . . .    9
+  II.  THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN SCIENCE  . . . . . . .   38
+ III.  THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN CRITICISM  . . . . . .   66
+  IV.  THE OLD TESTAMENT AND ARCHAEOLOGY . . . . . . . . .  110
+   V.  THE OLD TESTAMENT AND COMPARATIVE RELIGION  . . . .  160
+  VI.  THE PERMANENT SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT . .  227
+       INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  264
+
+
+
+
+OTHER WORKS BY PROFESSOR EISELEN
+
+  PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS
+  THE MINOR PROPHETS
+  THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE
+  THE BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH
+  THE PSALMS AND OTHER SACRED WRITINGS
+  THE PROPHETIC BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT (Two Volumes)
+
+
+
+
+{7}
+
+PREFACE
+
+During the past half century the attitude of many men toward the Bible
+has undergone a decided change.  The old confidence seems to be gone; a
+feeling of uncertainty and of unrest has taken its place.  This small
+volume is intended to set forth the Christian view of the Old
+Testament, and to furnish answers to some of the questions men are
+asking concerning the Sacred Scriptures of the Hebrews, which the early
+Christians included in the canon of Christian sacred writings.  The old
+foundations are not shaken.  The Old Testament has stood the tests of
+the past, which have been severe and often merciless; and there is
+to-day stronger ground than ever for believing that in its pages "men
+spake from God, being moved by the Holy Spirit."
+
+FREDERICK CARL EISELEN.
+
+Evanston, Illinois.
+
+
+
+
+{9}
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE NEW TESTAMENT VIEW OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
+
+The Christian Church has always assigned to the Bible a unique place in
+theology and life.  What is true of the Bible as a whole is equally
+true of that part of the Bible which is known as the Old Testament.
+Indeed, until the middle of the second century of the Christian era,
+the only Scriptures accepted as authoritative were those of the Old
+Testament.  Even then, only gradually and under the pressure of real
+need, different groups of Christian writings were added and received an
+authority equal to that of the older Scriptures.  And though in the
+course of the centuries there have been some who denied to the Old
+Testament a rightful place in Christian thought and life, the Church as
+a whole has always upheld the judgment of the early Christians in
+making the Old Testament a part of the canon of Christian sacred
+writings.
+
+It is worthy of note that the Old Testament played an important part in
+the religious life of Jesus.  No one can study the records of his life
+without seeing that he gathered much of his {10} spiritual nourishment
+from its pages.  Even in the moments of severest temptation, greatest
+distress, and bitterest agony the words of these ancient writings were
+on his lips, and their consoling and inspiring messages in his heart
+and mind.  This attitude of Jesus toward the ancient Hebrew Scriptures
+in itself explains the high estimate placed upon them by his followers.
+For, in the words of G. A. Smith, "That which was used by the Redeemer
+himself for the sustenance of his own soul can never pass out of the
+use of his redeemed.  That from which he proved the divinity of his
+mission and the age-long preparation for his coming must always have a
+principal place in his Church's argument for him."[1]
+
+The attitude of Jesus is reflected in his disciples and those who have
+given to us the New Testament books.  Nearly three hundred quotations
+from the Old Testament are scattered throughout the Gospels and
+Epistles, and in a number of passages is the value of Old Testament
+study specifically emphasized.  Perhaps nowhere is this done more
+clearly than in 2 Tim. 3. 15-17, in words written primarily of the Old
+Testament: "The sacred writings which are able to make thee wise unto
+salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus.  Every scripture
+inspired of God is also profitable for teaching, for reproof, for {11}
+correction, for instruction which is in righteousness: that the man of
+God may be complete, furnished completely unto every good work."
+Evidently the writer of these words considers the sacred writings of
+the Hebrews able to inspire a personal saving faith in Jesus, the
+Christ; to furnish a knowledge of the things of God; and to prepare for
+efficient service.  And these are the elements which enter into the
+life advocated and illustrated by the Founder of Christianity.
+
+An attempt will be made in this chapter to determine the New Testament
+view of the Old Testament for the purpose of discovering what is the
+proper Christian view of that part of the Bible.  For, if the teaching,
+spirit, and example of Jesus have a vital relation to Christian belief,
+and if his immediate followers have preserved an essentially accurate
+portrayal of him, then the modern Christian view of the Old Testament
+should be a reflection of the view of Jesus and of those who, as a
+result of their intimate fellowship with him, were in a position to
+give a correct interpretation of him and his teaching.
+
+We may inquire, in the first place, what is the New Testament view of
+the purpose of the Old Testament Scriptures?  The answer to this
+inquiry is furnished by the passage in the Second Epistle to Timothy
+quoted above.  Neither this nor any other passage in the whole Bible
+warrants {12} the belief that the Old Testament ever was meant to teach
+physical science, or history, or philosophy, or psychology.  Everywhere
+it is stated or clearly implied that the purpose of all biblical
+teaching is to make man morally and spiritually perfect, and to furnish
+him "unto every good work."  Therefore we may expect that where the Old
+Testament writers touch upon questions of science and history they
+develop them only in so far as they serve this higher religious and
+ethical purpose.  This being the biblical view of the purpose of the
+Scriptures, any theory of the Old Testament which makes no distinction
+between scientific and historical statements on the one hand, and
+religious and ethical statements on the other, is inadequate and
+erroneous, because it is not in accord with the New Testament teaching
+on that point.
+
+The purpose of the Bible is intimately connected with its nature and
+character.  The New Testament view of the nature and character of the
+Old Testament is suggested in Heb. 1. 1, 2: "God, having of old time
+spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by divers portions and in
+divers manners, hath at the end of these days spoken unto us in a Son."
+Four great truths concerning the Old Testament dispensation are
+definitely indicated in these words, with a fifth one implied: (1)
+_God_ spoke; (2) God spoke in the prophets, {13} that is, in or through
+_human agents_; (3) God spoke _in divers portions_; (4) God spoke _in
+divers manners_; (5) the words imply that _the Old Testament
+dispensation was incomplete_; it had to be supplemented and perfected
+by a revelation in and through a Son.  The truths expressed here
+constitute the essential elements which enter into the New Testament
+view of the Old Testament.
+
+The two expressions, "in divers portions" and "in divers manners,"
+concern largely the external form of divine revelation.  The former
+means that the revelations recorded in the Old Testament were not given
+at one time, through one channel or by one man, but at many times,
+through many channels, by many men, scattered over a period of many
+centuries, in places hundreds of miles apart.  One result of this is
+seen in the fact that the Old Testament contains many books written by
+different authors in successive periods of Hebrew history.
+
+The latter expression has to do with the different kinds of literature
+in the Old Testament, but it goes deeper than mere literary form.  It
+means that in giving revelations of himself during the Old Testament
+period God used various methods and means, the different kinds of
+literature being simply the outgrowth of the various modes of
+revelation.
+
+It is a universal Christian belief that God {14} reveals himself to-day
+in divers manners and modes.  Every Christian believes, for example,
+that God reveals himself in the events of history, be it the history of
+individuals or of nations.  Again, to many devout persons, God speaks
+very distinctly through the outward acts and ceremonies of worship.  To
+thousands of earnest and sincere Christians connected with churches
+using an elaborate ritual, this ritual is no mere form; it is a means
+of blessing and grace through which God reveals himself to their souls.
+Moreover, God selects certain persons, especially well qualified to
+hear his voice; these he commissions as ambassadors to declare him and
+his will to the people.  The belief in this method of revelation is the
+philosophical basis for the offices of the Christian preacher and the
+Christian religious teacher.  Once more, in his attempt to reach the
+human heart God may dispense with all external means; he may and does
+reveal himself by working directly upon and in the mind and spirit of
+the individual.  These are some of the "manners" in which God reveals
+himself to his children to-day, and these are some of the means and
+manners in which God made himself known during the Old Testament
+dispensation.  Then, as he does now, he revealed himself in nature, in
+the events of history, in the ritual, and by direct impressions; and at
+times he selected certain individuals to whom he might {15} make
+himself known in all these various ways and who could transmit the
+various revelations to others.  The Old Testament contains records and
+interpretations of these manifold revelations.  It is self-evident that
+when attempts were made to record these various manifestations of God
+different kinds of literature must be used in order to express most
+vividly the truth or truths gathered from the divine revelations.  The
+several kinds of literature, therefore, are the natural outgrowth of
+the manifold modes of divine revelation.  In the Old Testament five
+kinds of literature may be distinguished: the prophetic, the wisdom,
+the devotional, the legal or priestly, and the historical.  In their
+production four classes of religious workers who observed, interpreted,
+and mediated the divine revelations, were active: the prophets, the
+wise men, the priests (compare Jer. 18. 18), and the psalmists.
+
+The prophetic literature owes its origin to prophetic activity.  The
+prophets towered above their contemporaries in purity of character,
+strength of intellect, sincerity of purpose, intimacy of communion with
+God, and illumination by the divine Spirit.  As a result of these
+qualifications they were able to understand truth hidden from the eyes
+and minds of those who did not live in the same intimate fellowship
+with Jehovah.  Their high conceptions of the character of God enabled
+{16} them to appreciate the divine ideals of righteousness, and they
+sought with flaming enthusiasm to impress the truths burning in their
+hearts upon their less enlightened contemporaries.  In carrying out
+this purpose they became statesmen, social reformers, and religious and
+ethical teachers.  No records have been preserved of the utterances of
+the earliest prophets.  But when, with the general advance in culture,
+reading and writing became more common, the prophets, anxious to reach
+a wider circle, and to preserve their messages for more willing ears,
+put their utterances into writing, and to this new departure we owe the
+sublime specimens of prophetic literature in the Old Testament.
+
+In his direct appeal to heart and conscience the ancient prophet
+resembles the modern preacher.  The wise man, like the prophet, sought
+to make the divine will known to others, but in his method he
+resembles, rather, the modern religious teacher.  His ultimate aim was
+to influence conduct and life, but instead of appealing directly to the
+conscience he addressed himself primarily to the mind through counsel
+and argument, hoping that his appeal to the common sense of the
+listener would make an impression, the effects of which might be seen
+in transformed conduct.  The prophet would have said to the lazy man,
+"Thus saith Jehovah, Go to work, thou indolent man." {17} Prov. 24.
+30-34 may serve as an illustration of the method of the wise man:
+
+  I went by the field of the sluggard,
+  And by the vineyard of the man void of understanding;
+  And, lo, it was all grown over with thorns,
+  The face thereof was covered with nettles,
+  And the stone wall thereof was broken down
+  Then I beheld, and considered well;
+  I saw, and received instruction:
+  Yet a little sleep, a little slumber,
+  A little folding of the hands to sleep;
+  So shall thy poverty come as a robber,
+  And thy want as an armed man.
+
+Nothing escaped the observation of these men, and from beginning to end
+they emphasized the important truth that religion and the daily life
+are inseparable.  From giving simple practical precepts, the wise men
+rose to speculation, and the books of Job and Ecclesiastes bear witness
+that they busied themselves with no mean problems.
+
+Of profound significance is also the devotional literature of the Old
+Testament.  In a real sense the entire Old Testament is a book of
+devotion.  It is the outgrowth of a spirit of intense devotion to
+Jehovah, and it has helped in all ages to nurture the devotional spirit
+of its readers.  Here, however, the term "devotional" is used in the
+narrower sense of those poetic compositions which are primarily the
+expressions of the religious experience or emotions of the authors,
+generated {18} and fostered by their intimate fellowship with Jehovah.
+The chief representative of this literature is the book of Psalms,
+which is aptly described by Johannes Arnd in these words: "What the
+heart is in man, that is the Psalter in the Bible."  The Psalms contain
+in the form of sacred lyrics the outpourings of devout souls--prophets,
+priests, kings, wise men, and peasants--who came into the very presence
+of God, held communion with him, and were privileged to hear the sweet
+sound of his voice.  No other literary compositions lift us into such
+atmosphere of religious thought and emotion.  Because these lyrics
+reflect personal experiences they may still be used to express emotions
+of joy, sorrow, hope, fear, anticipation, etc., even by persons who
+live on a higher spiritual plane than did the original authors.
+
+The legal literature differs from the other kinds in that it does not
+form separate books, but is embodied in other writings, principally in
+the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.  All the
+representatives of Jehovah--prophets, priests, wise men, and even
+psalmists--were thought competent to make known the law of Jehovah, but
+the Old Testament makes it clear that at a comparatively early period
+the giving of law came to be looked upon as the special duty of the
+priests.  These priests constituted a {19} very important class of
+religious workers among the ancient Hebrews.  During the greater part
+of the national life their chief functions were the care of the
+sanctuary and the performance of ceremonial rites.  But in addition to
+these duties they continued to administer the law of Jehovah,
+consisting not only of ceremonial regulations but also of moral and
+judicial precepts and directions.  For centuries these laws may have
+been transmitted by word of mouth, or were only partially committed to
+writing, but when circumstances made it desirable to codify them and
+put them in writing the priests would be called upon to take this
+advance step.  Thus, while it is quite probable that other
+representatives of Jehovah helped to formulate laws, the legal
+literature embodied in the Old Testament reached its final form under
+priestly influence.
+
+The historical literature furnishes an interpretation of the movements
+of God in the events of history.  It owes its origin in part to
+prophetic, in part to priestly, activity.  The prophet was an
+ambassador of Jehovah appointed to make known the divine will
+concerning the past, the present, and the future.  Of the present he
+spoke as a preacher; when his message concerned the future it took the
+form of prediction; but the case might arise that the people failed to
+understand the significance of events in their own history, and {20}
+thus failed to appreciate the lessons which the events were intended to
+teach.  If these lessons were not to be lost, some one must serve as an
+interpreter, and who would be better qualified to furnish the right
+interpretation than the prophet?  This demand made of him, in a sense,
+an historian, not for the purpose of merely recording events but of
+interpreting them at the same time, and these prophetic interpretations
+are embodied in the historical literature originating with the prophets.
+
+But not all Old Testament history comes from the prophets.  As already
+indicated, the legal and ceremonial literature is due to priestly
+activity.  Now, in connection with the recording of the laws, customs,
+institutions, and ceremonial requirements, the origin of these laws and
+customs became a matter of interest and importance.  This interest, and
+the demand for information arising from it, led the priests also to
+become historians.  And to these priestly writers we are indebted for
+not a small part of sacred history.
+
+The third truth taught by the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews is
+that God spoke unto the fathers in or by the prophets, which means,
+that he used _human agents_ to mediate his revelations.  The Old
+Testament may be more than a human production; nevertheless, it will be
+{21} impossible to appreciate it adequately unless it is borne in mind
+that it contains a human element.  In the first place may be noted the
+differences in style between various writers.  These are frequently the
+outgrowth of differences in temperament and early training.  Even the
+English reader can notice such differences between Amos and Hosea, or
+between Isaiah and Jeremiah.  Evidently, whatever divine coöperation
+the biblical writers enjoyed, they retained enough of their human
+faculties and powers to make use of their own peculiar styles.
+
+Again, the hand of man may be seen in the manner of literary
+composition.  Most Bible students are familiar with the opening words
+of the Gospel of Luke: "Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to draw up
+a narrative concerning those matters which have been fulfilled among
+us, even as they delivered them unto us, who from the beginning were
+eyewitnesses and ministers of the word, it seemed good to me also,
+having traced the course of all things accurately from the first, to
+write unto thee in order, most excellent Theophilus; that thou mightest
+know the certainty concerning the things wherein thou wast instructed."
+Evidently, the evangelist carefully sifted the material at hand before
+he wrote the Gospel, just as a modern writer would do.  In the Old
+Testament even clearer evidence is found {22} that the authors of the
+several books were guided in the process of composition by the same
+principles as writers of extra-biblical productions.  The most
+suggestive illustrations of this fact are found in the books of
+Chronicles, in which reference is made again and again to the sources
+from which the compiler gathered his material.  In 1 Chron. 29. 29, for
+example, mention is made of the "words of Samuel the seer, ... the
+words of Nathan the prophet, and ... the words of Gad the seer"; 2
+Chron. 9. 29 refers to "words of Nathan the prophet, ... the prophecy
+of Ahijah, ... the visions of Iddo the seer."  These are only a few of
+the references scattered throughout Chronicles, but they are sufficient
+to show that in their composition methods employed by secular writers
+were used.  The same characteristic appears in the book of Proverbs.
+According to its own testimony, it contains several separate
+collections.  After the general title, "Proverbs of Solomon," in 1. 1,
+the following additional headings are found: 10. 1, "Proverbs of
+Solomon"; 22. 17, "The words of the wise"; 24. 23, "These also are the
+sayings of the wise"; 25. 1, "These also are the proverbs of Solomon,
+which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah, copied out"; 30. 1, "The
+words of Agur"; 31. 1, "The words of King Lemuel"; 31. 10-31 is an
+anonymous alphabetic acrostic.  Similar more or less clearly marked
+phenomena may {23} be noted in other Old Testament books, all of them
+bearing witness to the presence of a human element in these writings.
+
+More significant are the historical inaccuracies found here and there
+in the books.  They may not be serious; the substantial accuracy of the
+writings may be established, but even the slightest inaccuracy
+constitutes a blemish which one would not expect in a work coming
+directly from an all-wise God.  For example, 2 Kings 18. 10 states that
+Samaria was taken in the sixth year of Hezekiah, king of Judah; verse
+13 contains the statement that in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah,
+Sennacherib, king of Assyria, came against Jerusalem.  Now, the date of
+the capture of Samaria is definitely fixed by the Assyrian
+inscriptions.  The city fell either in the closing days of B.C. 722, or
+the beginning of B.C. 721.  Assuming that it was in 722, the fourteenth
+year of Hezekiah would be B.C. 714.  But Sennacherib did not become
+king of Assyria until B.C. 705, while his attack upon Judah and
+Jerusalem was not undertaken until B.C. 701, hence there would seem to
+be an inaccuracy somewhere.  Certainly, since the primary purpose of
+the writings is not historical, but religious, these inaccuracies do
+not affect the real value of the book.  Nevertheless, their presence
+shows that the writings cannot be looked upon as coming in all their
+parts directly from {24} God.  At some point man must have stepped in
+and left marks of his limitations.
+
+More serious perhaps may appear the incompleteness and imperfection of
+the religious and ethical conceptions, especially in the older
+portions.  Read, for example, the twenty-fourth chapter of Second
+Samuel.  Jehovah is there represented as causing David to number the
+people, and when he carried out the command Jehovah was angry and sent
+a pestilence which destroyed, not David, but seventy thousand innocent
+men.  Can any Christian believe that the God of love revealed by Jesus
+ever acted in such arbitrary manner?  No!  The trouble lies with the
+author of the passage, who, on account of his relatively low conception
+of the character of Jehovah, gave an erroneous interpretation of the
+events recorded.  A later writer, who had a truer conception of the God
+of Israel, saw that a mistake had been made; therefore he introduced
+Satan as the one who caused the numbering (1 Chron. 21. 1).  Or take
+the twenty-second chapter of First Kings, especially verses 19 to 23.
+Four hundred prophets of Jehovah urge Ahab to go up against
+Ramoth-gilead.  On the advice of the king of Judah, Micaiah is called,
+who announces, after some hesitation, that the expedition will end
+disastrously.  He then explains how it happened that the other prophets
+told a falsehood: {25} "Therefore hear thou the word of Jehovah: I saw
+Jehovah sitting on his throne, and all the host of heaven standing by
+him on his right hand and on his left.  And Jehovah said, Who shall
+entice Ahab, that he may go up and fall at Ramoth-gilead?  And one said
+on this manner; and another said on that manner.  And there came forth
+a spirit, and stood before Jehovah, and said, I will entice him.  And
+Jehovah said unto him, Wherewith?  And he said, I will go forth, and
+will be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets.  And he said,
+Thou shalt entice him, and shalt prevail also; go forth, and do so.
+_Now therefore, behold, Jehovah hath put a lying spirit in the mouth of
+all these thy prophets_; and Jehovah hath spoken evil concerning thee."
+Can any Christian believe that our God who is infinitely pure and holy
+ever did persuade anyone to tell a lie?  God never changes; he has
+always been pure and holy; but man was not able in the beginning to
+comprehend him in his fullness.  The human conceptions of the divine
+were imperfect and incomplete, and these imperfect conceptions are
+embodied in some of the Old Testament writings.  True, as Bowne
+suggests, "God might conceivably have made man over all at once by
+fiat, but in that case it would have been a magical rather than a moral
+revelation."[2]
+
+Throughout the entire book these and other {26} indications of the
+presence of a human element may be seen, which the reader cannot afford
+to overlook if he would estimate rightly the Old Testament Scriptures.
+But while they are there, they must not blind the eyes of the student
+to the fourth great truth expressed by the writer of the Epistle to the
+Hebrews, namely, that God spoke through these men; in other words, that
+there is also a divine element in the Old Testament.  In the words of
+S. I. Curtis: "While it seems to me that we find abundant evidences of
+development in the Old Testament from very simple concrete
+representations of God to those which are profoundly spiritual, I am
+not able to account for this development on naturalistic principles.
+In it I see God at all times and everywhere coworking with human
+instruments until the fullness of time should come"[3].  The presence
+of this divine element was recognized by Jesus and by all the New
+Testament writers, and surely it is a significant fact that in the
+first outburst of Christian enthusiasm, and under the living impression
+of the unique personality of the Master, no doubt arose concerning the
+inspiration and permanent value of the Old Testament.  With the
+Christian the testimony of Jesus and his disciples carries great
+weight.  But without appealing to his authority every unbiased reader
+may convince himself of the nature and character {27} of the Book; it
+is not necessary to depend upon the testimony of men who lived
+centuries ago, though they were inspired men.  The Book is an open
+book, ready for examination, and inviting the closest scrutiny on the
+part of every reader.
+
+Former generations found the principal arguments in favor of the belief
+in a divine element in the Old Testament in the presence of miracles in
+its records and in the fulfillment of prophecy.  The present generation
+cannot depend upon these arguments exclusively.  The whole question of
+miracles in the Old Testament has assumed a different aspect within
+recent years.  In the first place, it is seen that in some places where
+formerly a miracle was thought to have been wrought natural causes may
+have played a prominent part, as, for example, in the crossing of the
+Red Sea and the Jordan.  In other cases language which used to be
+interpreted literally is now seen to be poetic and imaginative.  In
+still other cases the absolute historical accuracy of certain
+narratives has come to be questioned.  All this has resulted in a
+weakening of the evidence relied upon by former generations.
+Approaching the subject of miracles from another side, a better
+acquaintance with the uniformity of nature and the laws of nature has
+led some to question even the possibility of miracles, while the
+greater emphasis upon the immanence of God has resulted {28} in altered
+conceptions of the natural and supernatural, if not in an almost
+complete obliteration of any distinction between the two.  Since
+miracles are involved in so much uncertainty, they do not at present
+constitute a very strong argument to prove the presence of a divine
+element in the Old Testament to one who is at all skeptically inclined;
+indeed, there are many sincere Christians who find miracles useless as
+an aid to faith.
+
+In a similar manner, one cannot appeal with the same assurance as
+formerly to the fulfillment of prophecy.  It is undoubtedly true that
+many prophetic utterances were fulfilled; it is equally true that some
+were not fulfilled.  If, however, the apologist depends upon the
+fulfillment of prophecy as a proof, the nonfulfillment of even a single
+one weakens his position.  Moreover, it is recognized at present that
+prophecy in the sense of prediction occupies a relatively insignificant
+place in the Old Testament.  Besides, scientific methods of study have
+shown that some passages interpreted formerly as predictions can no
+longer be so interpreted, while in the case of others the
+interpretation is more or less doubtful.  Here, again, the difficulties
+connected with the use of the argument have become so perplexing that
+many consider it wise not to use it at all.  If used with caution,
+prophecy, especially Messianic {29} prophecy, possesses great
+evidential value; but the argument from the fulfillment of prophecy as
+used formerly has lost much of its worth as a proof of inspiration.
+The arguments relied upon at the present time are simpler than those of
+the past, and are of such a nature that any fair-minded student can
+test them.
+
+In the first place, attention may be called to the essential unity of
+the book.  There are in the Old World great and magnificent cathedrals,
+some of which have been centuries in building, yet in all of them may
+be found unity and harmony.  How is this to be explained?  Although
+generation after generation of workmen have labored on the enterprise,
+back of all the efforts was a single plan, evolved in the mind of one
+man, which mind controlled all the succeeding generations of workmen.
+The result is unity and harmony.  The Bible has been likened to a
+magnificent cathedral.  The phenomenon to which reference has been made
+in connection with ancient cathedrals may be seen in the Bible as a
+whole, as also in the Old Testament considered separately.  The latter
+contains thirty-nine books, by how many authors no one knows, scattered
+over a period of more than a thousand years, written, at least some of
+them, independently of one another, in places hundreds of miles apart.
+And yet there is one thought running through them all--the {30} gradual
+unfolding of God's plan of redemption for the human race.  There must
+be an explanation of this unity.  Is it not natural to find it in the
+fact that one and the same divine spirit overshadowed the many men who
+made contributions to the Book?
+
+The proof of the presence of a divine element in the Old Testament
+which is derived from the essential unity of the book, is confirmed by
+the response of the soul to its message, and the effect which it
+produces in the lives of those who yield themselves to its teachings.
+Jesus and his disciples observed that its message rightly applied would
+awaken a response in the human heart; sometimes, indeed, it produced a
+sense of indignation, because it carried with it a sentence of
+condemnation; at other times it led to loving obedience.  And they
+themselves experienced the effects of its teaching upon life and
+character: it was with truths proclaimed in the Old Testament that
+Jesus overcame temptation, and the quotations used in the darkest hours
+of his earthly life are an indication that at all times he found the
+most refreshing soul food in its pages.  The same is true of the early
+disciples of Jesus.  Undoubtedly, the statement in 2 Tim. 3. 15-17 is
+the expression of a living experience; and ever since these words were
+written millions of Christians have experienced the uplifting influence
+of many portions of the {31} Old Testament Scriptures.  They may not
+enjoin the finer graces of Christianity, but they insist most strongly
+and persistently upon the fundamental virtues which go to make up a
+sturdy, noble, righteous, uncompromising character.  A message which
+produces such divine results bears witness to itself that it embodies
+truth which in some sense proceeded from God.  This is aptly stated by
+Coleridge in these words: "Need I say that I have met everywhere more
+or less copious sources of truth and power and purifying impulses, that
+I have found words for my inmost thoughts, songs for my joy, utterances
+for my hidden griefs, and pleadings for my shame and feebleness?  In
+short, whatever finds me, bears witness for itself that it has
+proceeded from a Holy Spirit, even from the same Spirit which remaining
+in itself, yet regenerateth all other powers, and in all ages entering
+into holy souls, maketh them friends of God and prophets."[4]
+
+As long as the Old Testament is able to awaken this response and
+produce these effects men will believe that it contains a divine
+element; and it will accomplish these things whenever men are willing
+to study it intelligently and devoutly.  What the Old Testament calls
+for is not a defense but earnest and devout study.  The words of
+Richard Rothe concerning the Bible as a whole are applicable also to
+the Old Testament Scriptures: {32} "Let the Bible go forth into
+Christendom as it is in itself, as a book like other books, without
+allowing any dogmatic theory to assign it to a reserved position in the
+ranks of books, let it accomplish of itself entirely through its own
+character and through that which each man can find in it for himself,
+and it will accomplish great things."[5]  The words of Professor
+Westphal are also worthy to be remembered: "The only thing for our more
+enlightened religion to bear in mind is that the proof of revelation is
+not necessarily to be found in the formula which claims to herald it,
+but, above all, in the specific value of the thing revealed, in the
+divine character of the inspired Word which forces our conscience to
+recognize in it the expression of God's will itself."[6]
+
+The value and significance of the above argument cannot be
+overestimated.  But during the past century other proofs have become
+available as a result of the careful, painstaking study of the Bible by
+scholars in many lands and from various points of view.  These
+investigations have shown the Old Testament to be a peculiarly unique
+book when compared with other sacred literatures of antiquity.  This
+uniqueness consists principally in the pure and lofty atmosphere which
+permeates the whole from beginning to end.  One may read its stories of
+prehistoric times, its records {33} of history, its law, its poetry,
+its prophecy, and everywhere he will find a religious tone and spirit
+which, if present at all, is much less marked in the similar
+literatures of other nations.  The modern scientific student has
+approached the Old Testament chiefly from four directions, and in the
+pursuit of his work four distinct tests have been applied to the Old
+Testament: the tests of science, of criticism, of archæology, and of
+comparative religion.  These four tests and their bearing upon the New
+Testament, or Christian, view of the Old Testament are considered in
+the succeeding pages.
+
+Before closing this chapter one important question remains to be
+considered.  It may be formulated in this wise: If there are
+limitations and imperfections in the Old Testament, or anywhere else in
+the Bible, how may they be distinguished from the truth?  In the case
+of historical or scientific errors the method of procedure may appear
+clear to those who hold the New Testament view as to the purpose of the
+Old Testament writers; but the situation seems more troublesome in the
+case of religious and ethical imperfections, because religion and
+ethics are the rightful sphere of the biblical writings.  If the Bible
+is not the final authority, where can be found a criterion by which the
+biblical, or Old Testament, statements may be judged?  Startling as the
+suggestion {34} to judge scriptures may seem in theory, a moment's
+thought will show that it is being done every day by practically every
+Christian who seeks spiritual nourishment in the Sacred Book.  Who has
+not passed through experiences such as are suggested in these words of
+Marcus Dods?--"Who is at the reader's elbow as he peruses Exodus and
+Leviticus to tell him what is of permanent authority and what is for
+the Mosaic economy only?  Who whispers as we read Genesis and Kings,
+'This is exemplary; this is not'?  Who sifts for us the speeches of
+Job, and enables us to treasure up as divine truth what he utters in
+one verse, while we reject the next as Satanic ravings?  Who gives the
+preacher authority and accuracy of aim to pounce on a sound text in
+Ecclesiastes, while wisdom and folly toss and roll over one another in
+confusingly rapid and inextricable contortions?  What enables the
+humblest Christian to come safely through the cursing Psalms and go
+straight to forgive his enemy?  What tells us that we may eat things
+strangled, though the whole college of apostles deliberately and
+expressly prohibited such eating?  Who assures us that we need not
+anoint the sick with oil, although in the New Testament we are
+explicitly commanded to do so?  In a word, how is it that the simplest
+reader can be trusted with the Bible and can be left to find his own
+{35} spiritual nourishment in it, rejecting almost as much as he
+receives?"[7]  These questions call attention to a common Christian
+practice.  But, if the practice can be justified as Christian, the
+principle underlying the practice may be Christian also; and so it is,
+for it is recognized as legitimate in the New Testament.
+
+A single sentence from a New Testament book suggests the answer to the
+above questions: "He that is spiritual judgeth all things."[8]  The
+Scriptures are included among the "all things."  But notice, Paul does
+not say that anyone may set himself up as judge, but "he that is
+spiritual"; that is, the man who is controlled by the spirit of the
+Christ.  If Jesus has given to the world the highest revelation of God
+and truth, then the expressions of all other revelations must be
+measured by his revelation, either as an external standard, or as an
+inner criterion by him who, in his own experience, has appropriated the
+character, spirit, and life of Jesus.  He who has thus appropriated the
+Christ in his fullness will be able to judge all things.  But until he
+has reached that standard man's judgment will remain imperfect and more
+or less unreliable, and though for his own guidance he is still
+dependent upon it, he must guard against the error of setting up his
+own imperfect Christian consciousness as the ultimate criterion for all.
+
+{36}
+
+Up to the present time no individual has reached the stage of
+experience where he may be appealed to as final authority for all.
+Perhaps the sum total of the general Christian consciousness would
+prove a more reliable guide, or the Church in so far as it embodies
+this consciousness.  But it also still falls short of its final glory.
+It is in the process of development toward perfection, but it has not
+yet reached that stage, and will not reach it until the consciousness
+of every individual contributing to it reflects the consciousness of
+Jesus himself.  Then, and then only, can it be appealed to as an
+ultimate criterion in matters religious or Christian, including the
+specific question under consideration: What in the Old Testament is
+from God, and so, permanent, and what is due to the human limitations
+of the authors, and so, temporary and local?
+
+It seems, therefore, necessary to appeal at the present time to what
+may be called, in a sense, an external standard: the spirit, the
+teaching, and the life of Jesus as it may be determined objectively
+from the gospel records.  The supreme position occupied by Jesus the
+Christ in Christian thinking is well described by W. N. Clarke: "He
+[Jesus Christ] has shown God as he is in his character and relations
+with men.  He has represented life in its true meaning, and opened to
+us the real way to genuine welfare and success in existence.  {37} What
+he has made known commends and proves itself as true by the manner in
+which it fits into the human scheme, meets human needs, and renders
+thought rational and life successful.  God eternally is such a being as
+Jesus represents him to be--this is the heart of Christianity, to be
+apprehended, not first in thought but first in life and love, and this
+is forever true.  And it is a revelation never to be superseded, but
+forever to be better and better known."[9]  By this standard, called by
+Clarke the Christian element in the Bible, the Old Testament teaching
+must be measured; and by the application of this standard alone is it
+possible to separate the human from the divine and to estimate rightly
+the permanent value of Old or New Testament teaching.  Whatever in the
+Scriptures endures this test may be received as of permanent religious
+value, because it is divine in the deepest sense.
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER I
+
+[1] Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old Testament, p. 19.
+
+[2] Studies in Christianity, p. 73.
+
+[3] Primitive Semitic Religions To-day, p. 14.
+
+[4] Letters on the Inspiration of the Scriptures, Letter I.
+
+[5] Quoted in the Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, p. 84.
+
+[6] The Law and the Prophets, p. 16.
+
+[7] The Bible, Its Origin and Nature, pp. 160, 161.
+
+[8] 1 Cor. 2. 15.
+
+[9] The Use of the Scriptures in Theology, pp. 51, 52.
+
+
+
+
+{38}
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN SCIENCE
+
+For many centuries during the Christian era science was almost
+completely dominated by theology.  Whenever, therefore, a scientific
+investigator proposed views not in accord with the theological notions
+of the age he was considered a heretic and condemned as such.  During
+these same centuries theology was dominated by a view of the Bible
+which valued the latter as an infallible authority in every realm of
+human thought.  The view of the Bible held then was expressed as late
+as 1861 in these words: "The Bible is none other than the voice of Him
+that sitteth upon the throne.  Every book of it, every chapter of it,
+every verse of it, every word of it, every syllable of it (where are we
+to stop?), every letter of it, is the direct utterance of the Most
+High.  The Bible is none other than the word of God; not some part of
+it more, some part of it less, but all alike, the utterance of Him who
+sitteth upon the throne, faultless, unerring, supreme."[1]  A book
+which came thus directly from the mind of God must be inerrant and
+infallible; hence closely associated with this mechanical view of {39}
+the divine origin of the Bible was the belief in its absolute inerrancy
+and infallibility.  This is clearly recognized in the words of two
+eminent American theologians: "The historical faith of the Church has
+always been that the affirmations of the scriptures of all kinds,
+whether of spiritual doctrine or duty, or of physical or historical
+fact, or of psychological or philosophical principle, are without any
+error, when the _ipsissima verba_ of the autographs are ascertained and
+interpreted in their natural and intended sense."[2]
+
+With such an estimate of the Bible it is only natural that theology
+should bitterly resent any and all scientific conclusions which seemed
+to be contrary to the statements of the Bible.  However, a study of the
+history of Bible interpretation creates a serious perplexity.  The
+principles upon which the interpretations rested were not the same in
+all ages.  As a result, the "natural and intended sense" of biblical
+statements was variously apprehended.  What was considered the clear
+teaching of Scripture in one age might be condemned as unscriptural in
+another.  Moreover, some of the methods of interpretation are not
+calculated to inspire confidence in the results.  When, for example,
+the poetic passage,
+
+  Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon,
+  And thou, moon, in the valley of Aijalon.
+  And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed,[3]
+
+{40} is considered sufficient to discredit the scientific claim that
+the earth moves around the sun, rather than the sun around the earth,
+one's confidence in the truth of the theological view is somewhat
+shaken.  It may be insisted, then, that much of the so-called conflict
+between science and the Bible was in reality a conflict between science
+and a misinterpreted Bible.
+
+This, even theology seems to have recognized, for again and again it
+changed its interpretation of the Bible so as to bring it into accord
+with the persistent claims of science.  "The history of most modern
+sciences," says Farrar, "has been as follows: their discoverers have
+been proscribed, anathematized, and, in every possible instance,
+silenced or persecuted; yet before a generation has passed the
+champions of a spurious orthodoxy have had to confess that their
+interpretations were erroneous; and--for the most part without an
+apology and without a blush--have complacently invented some new line
+of exposition by which the phrases of Scripture can be squared into
+semblable accordance with the now acknowledged fact."[4]
+
+The so-called historical method of Bible study, which has gradually won
+its way, at least in Protestant Christianity, has established Bible
+interpretation upon a firmer foundation, so that at present much less
+uncertainty exists as to the {41} meaning of the Bible than at any
+preceding age.  In the same way scientific investigation has made
+remarkable strides during the nineteenth century; Twentieth century
+science is far different from that of the early years of the preceding
+century.  And as scientists have had to surrender many of their
+positions in the past it is very probable that, as the result of
+further investigation, some views held at present will be superseded by
+others.  Nevertheless, though science cannot as yet dispense with
+working hypotheses which may or may not prove true, and though
+modifications in certain widely accepted views may be expected, there
+are many conclusions which may be considered firmly established.  This
+being the case, if at the present time the conflict between science and
+the Bible is discussed, it is a conflict between scientific conclusions
+reached after prolonged, careful study and investigation and the
+teaching of the Bible as determined by the scientific use of all
+legitimate means of interpretation.
+
+Does such conflict exist?  Many geologists, astronomers, biologists,
+and other scientists have claimed for some time that they have reached
+conclusions not in accord with certain statements of the Bible.  Take
+as an illustration the biblical and scientific statements concerning
+the age of the earth, or creation in general.[5]  The general
+conclusion reached by an overwhelming majority {42} of the most
+competent students of the Bible has been that according to the
+information furnished by the Scriptures, the date of creation was, in
+round numbers, four thousand years before the opening of the Christian
+era.[6]  At that time, in the words of the Westminster Confession,[7]
+"It pleased God ... to create or make of nothing the world and all
+things therein whether visible or invisible in the space of six days
+and all very good."  This was accepted as the plain teaching of the
+first chapter of Genesis even after scientific methods had been
+introduced in the study of the Bible.  Then came geology, pushing back
+the "beginnings," adding millions of years to the age of the globe, and
+insisting that there is abundant evidence to prove the existence of
+life upon earth many millenniums before B.C. 4,000.  Other sciences
+reached conclusions pointing in the same direction, until it became
+perfectly evident that Bible students must reckon with what seemed a
+real conflict between the conclusions of science and the teaching of
+the Bible.
+
+No wonder Bible lovers were troubled when scientists in ever-increasing
+numbers advanced claims that appeared to involve a charge of scientific
+inaccuracy against the Sacred Scriptures.  Many were convinced that
+this could not be, for they feared that if the Bible contained
+inaccuracies of any sort, its value would be {43} completely destroyed,
+and with the Bible Christianity must fall into ruins.  In Brother
+Anthony, intended to picture the perplexed soul of a monk in the days
+of Galileo, Mark Guy Pearse gives a vivid portrayal of the doubts and
+perplexities of many devout Bible students in the nineteenth century:
+
+  But on my fevered heart there falls no balm;
+  The garden of my soul, where happy birds
+  Sang in the fullness of their joy, and bloomed
+  The flowers bright, finds only winter now;
+  And bleak winds moan about the leafless trees,
+  And chill rains beat to earth the rotting stalks.
+  Hope, Faith, and God, alike are gone, all gone--
+  If it be so, as this Galileo saith.
+  "_The earth is round and moves about the sun;
+  The sun,_" he saith, "_is still, the axle fixed
+  Of nature's wheel, center of all the worlds_."
+  Galileo is an honest soul, God knows--
+  No end has he to serve but only truth,
+  By that which he declares, daring to risk
+  Position, liberty, and even life itself.  He knows.
+  And yet the ages have believed it not.
+  Have they not meditated, watched, and prayed--
+  Great souls with vision purged and purified?
+  Had God no messenger until arose
+  Galileo!  Long years the Church has prayed,
+  Seeking His grace who guided into truth,
+  And weary eyes have watched the sun and stars,
+  And heard the many voices that proclaim
+  God's hidden ways--did they believe a lie?
+  The Church's holy fathers, were they wrong?
+  Yet speaks Galileo as one who knows.
+
+  Shrinks all my soul from breathing any word
+  That dares to question God's most holy Book,
+
+{44}
+
+  As men beneath an avalanche pass dumb
+  For fear a sound should bring destruction down.
+  If but a jot or tittle of the Word
+  Do pass away, then is all lost.  And yet
+  If what Galileo maintains be true!--
+  "_The sun itself moves not_."  The Scripture tells
+  At Joshua's command the sun stood still.
+  Doth scripture lie?  The blessed Lord himself,
+  Spake he not of the sun that rose and set!
+  So cracks and cleaves the ground beneath my feet.
+
+  The sun that fills and floods the world with light
+  My darkness and confusion hath become!
+  O God, as here about the old gray walls
+  The ivy clings and twines its arms, and finds
+  A strength by which it rises from the earth
+  And mounts toward heaven, then gladly flings
+  Its grateful crown of greenery round the height,
+  So by thy Word my all uncertain soul
+  Hath mounted toward thy heaven, and brought
+  Its love, its all, wherewith to crown my Lord.
+  Alas, the wall is fallen.  Beneath it crushed
+  The clinging ivy lies; its stronghold once
+  Is now the prison house, the cruel grave.[8]
+
+
+Since the scientific position seemed to many devout believers to
+undermine the Christian faith, it is not altogether strange that they
+should set themselves against these claims with all their might, though
+it may be difficult to justify the bitterness displayed by many
+Christian ministers in the denunciation of even devout Christian
+scientists, as "infidels," "impugners of the sacred records,"
+"assailants of the Word of God," etc.  It is hardly credible that
+during the enlightened {45} nineteenth century geology should be
+denounced as "not a subject of lawful inquiry," "a dark art,"
+"dangerous and disreputable," "a forbidden province," "infernal
+artillery," "an awful evasion of the testimony of revelation."
+
+But the progress of science could not be blocked by denunciation, and
+gradually the claims of geology, astronomy, and other sciences
+respecting the great age of the earth came to be accepted as well
+established.  Is, then, the scientific teaching of the Bible false?  By
+no means, said many defenders of the faith; on the contrary, there is
+perfect agreement between science and the Bible, provided the latter is
+rightly interpreted.  The first problem was to extend what was commonly
+taken to be the biblical teaching respecting the age of the earth so as
+to meet the demands of geology.  This was readily done by interpreting
+"day" figuratively as meaning an indefinite period.  It could easily be
+shown that in some passages "day" did not mean a day of twenty-four
+hours.  Hence, why not interpret the word metaphorically in Gen. 1?  It
+is safe to say that, had it not been for a desire to harmonize the
+biblical account with the conclusions of science, no Bible student
+would ever have thought of this interpretation in connection with the
+acts of creation, for a natural interpretation of the writer's language
+makes it evident that when the author of Gen. 1 speaks {46} of the
+successive events of creation he is thinking of days of twenty-four
+hours, each consisting of day and night.[9]  Marcus Dods is right when
+he says, "If the word 'day' in these chapters does not mean a period of
+twenty-four hours, the interpretation of scripture is hopeless."[10]
+No permanent good can come from doing violence to plain statements of
+the Bible by the use of methods of interpretation that would be
+considered illegitimate in the study of other literary productions.  In
+all the harmonizing efforts this caution has been overlooked.  The
+believer in revelation, thinking that the agreement between science and
+the Bible must be minute, has yielded to the temptation to twist the
+biblical record into a new meaning with every fresh discovery of
+science.  Many scientists were repelled by this arbitrary method, and
+when they saw that agreement could not be had by legitimate methods,
+and knew of no other way out of the difficulty, they too frequently
+assumed a hostile attitude toward revelation.  A method leading to such
+disastrous results cannot be considered altogether satisfactory.
+
+Granting, however, for the sake of argument, the possibility of
+interpreting "day" metaphorically, the troubles are by no means ended,
+for it is impossible to discover clearly defined periods in the
+geological records such as are presupposed in the biblical record.  But
+there is a more serious {47} difficulty.  The order in which the
+different living beings and the heavenly bodies are said in Genesis to
+have been created does not seem to be the same as that suggested by
+geology and astronomy.  For example, according to Genesis, fishes and
+birds appeared together on the fifth day, preceding all land animals,
+which are said to have been created on the sixth day.  According to
+geology, fish and numerous species of land animals, especially reptiles
+living on land, preceded birds.[11]  Moreover, according to Genesis,
+the sun, moon, and stars were created after the earth, a view which is
+altogether inconsistent with the modern scientific view of the
+universe, and of the part the sun plays in plant and animal life upon
+earth.  True, this last difficulty is avoided by some by giving to
+certain Hebrew words a meaning which they do not ordinarily have.  For
+example, it is said, "Let there be" (verse 14) means "Let there
+appear"; "God made" (verse 16) means "God made to appear," or "God
+appointed," to a specific office.  With this interpretation, it is
+stated, Genesis says nothing about the formation or creation of the
+luminaries.  They may have existed for a long time, only on the fourth
+day they were made to appear--the vapor around the earth having
+previously hidden them--and were appointed to the offices mentioned in
+verses 14 to 18.  No one will claim that this is a natural {48}
+interpretation of the biblical language.  If the writer meant "Let
+there appear," he could have found a suitable word in Hebrew, as also
+to express the idea "appoint."  The language of Driver is not too
+strong: "Verses fourteen to eighteen cannot be legitimately interpreted
+except as implying that in the conception of the writer luminaries had
+not previously existed, and that they were made and set in their places
+in the heavens after the separation of sea and land and the appearance
+of vegetation upon the earth."[12]
+
+Various attempts have been made to escape the difficulty caused by the
+conclusions of geology as to the order in which different forms of life
+have appeared upon earth.  These conclusions are based chiefly upon the
+presence of fossil remains imbedded in the different strata of the
+earth's surface.  Passing by the earlier explanations--for example,
+that these fossil remains were placed there by a direct act of God on
+one of the creative days for some mysterious purpose, perhaps for the
+trial of human faith, or that they were due to the ravages of the
+Deluge--reference may be made to two or three of the more recent
+"scientific" attempts to harmonize the facts of science with the
+statements of Genesis.  There is, first of all, the _restitution_
+theory advocated by J. H. Kurtz and Thomas Chalmers.[13]  Admitting
+that the fossil remains are important for the determination {49} of the
+age of the earth and the order in which different forms of life
+appeared upon the globe, Kurtz writes: "The animal and vegetable world
+which lies buried in the stratified formations was not that which,
+according to the Bible, was created respectively on the third, fifth,
+and sixth days.  Its origin must belong to an earlier period."[14]  In
+other words, his view is that "the main description in Genesis does not
+relate to the geological periods at all; that room is left for these
+periods between verse one and verse two; that the life which then
+flourished upon the earth was brought to an end by a catastrophe, the
+results of which are alluded to in verse two; and that what follows
+(verses 3ff.) is the description of a second creation immediately
+preceding the appearance of man."  That this view is due to a desire to
+harmonize the biblical account with science is clearly implied in the
+words of Kurtz intended to meet the charge of Delitzsch that his view
+is "pure delusion."  "It is," says Kurtz, "merely a delusion to attempt
+identifying the creation of the primeval fossil flora and fauna with
+those of the third, fifth, and sixth days, _and at the same time to
+endeavor harmonizing geology and the Bible_."  Not to speak of the
+astronomical difficulty referred to above, which remains, science has
+nothing whatever to offer in support of this theory, while, on the
+other {50} hand, the tenor of the Genesis narrative implies such close
+connection between verse one and verse two that there is no room for
+the alleged catastrophe.  It is not strange, therefore, that modern
+apologists have discarded the restitution hypothesis.
+
+The _vision_ theory has been presented most forcefully by Hugh
+Miller.[15]  According to this view "the narrative was not meant to
+describe the actual succession of events, but was the description of a
+series of visions presented prophetically to the narrator's mental eye,
+and representing, not the first appearance of each species of life upon
+the globe, but its maximum development.  The 'drama of creation,' it is
+said, is not described as it was enacted historically, but _optically_,
+as it would present itself to a spectator in a series of pictures or
+tableaux embodying the most characteristic and conspicuous feature of
+each period, and, as it were, summarizing in miniature its results."
+
+Though this view was presented with much eloquence and skill, it has
+been unable to maintain its position, simply because it is based upon
+an unnatural interpretation of the biblical record.  No one approaching
+Genesis without a theory to defend would think for a moment that he is
+reading the description of a vision.  The only natural interpretation
+is that the author means to record what he considers actual fact.
+Moreover, {51} where in Scripture could there be found an analogy to
+this mode of procedure?  The revelation of an unknown past to a
+historian or prophet seems not in accord with the ordinary method of
+God's revelations to men.  But, admitting the possibility of this
+method of divine communication, why should the picture thus presented
+to the mind of the author differ so widely from the facts uncovered by
+geologists?
+
+Similar attempts to harmonize Genesis with geology have been made by
+other geologists, among them Professor Alexander Winchell,[16] Sir J.
+W. Dawson,[17] and Professor J. D. Dana.[18]  The results are perfectly
+satisfactory to these writers, but they fail to see that in order to
+accomplish their purpose they must have recourse to unnatural
+interpretations of the Genesis account, which in itself is sufficient
+evidence to show the hopelessness of the task.  A similar judgment must
+be passed on the more recent attempt by F. H. Capron[19] to bring the
+biblical account into harmony with the modern theory of evolution.
+Capron is fully convinced that "the most rudimentary knowledge of
+geology is sufficient to satisfy any candid critic that the Genesis
+narrative as interpreted by any one of them[20] cannot be brought into
+harmony with the admitted facts of science."  He, therefore, attempts a
+new harmony by trying to show that the first chapter of Genesis {52}
+gives only the order in which the creative words were uttered, not the
+order in which the resulting effects were produced.  Unfortunately, in
+accomplishing this purpose, he, like his predecessors, reveals an
+almost complete disregard for the obvious meaning of the Genesis
+narrative.
+
+After a close study of the Genesis narrative and the numerous attempts
+of harmonizing it with science, the present writer has become
+thoroughly convinced that it is impossible to establish a complete,
+detailed harmony between the Genesis account of creation and the
+established facts of science without doing violence to the Bible or to
+science or to both.  The only harmony possible is what has been called
+an "ideal harmony," that is, a harmony not extending to details, but
+limited to salient features.  But this gives away the very position for
+which the "harmonists" have contended.  As Driver says, "If the
+relative priority of plants and animals, or the period at which the sun
+and moon were formed, are amongst the details on which harmony cannot
+be established, what other statement (in the account of creation) can
+claim acceptance on the ground that it forms part of the narrative of
+Genesis?"[21]
+
+Admitting now the presence of discrepancies between science and the Old
+Testament, what becomes of the Old Testament?[22]  Must it be {53}
+discarded as no longer "profitable for teaching, for reproof, for
+correction, for instruction which is in righteousness"?  Some there are
+who seem to fear such fate for the book they dearly love.  On the other
+hand, there are multitudes who calmly admit the claims of science, and
+at the same time continue to read and study the pages of the Old
+Testament, assured that it can still furnish nourishment to their
+spiritual natures.  This attitude of confidence has been made possible,
+on the one hand, by a broader and truer conception of divine
+revelation, and, on the other, by a more adequate interpretation of the
+purpose of the Bible and of the biblical writers.
+
+Believers in God have come to realize as never before that God has
+spoken and still speaks in a variety of ways.  Manifestations of God
+may be seen on every hand:
+
+  The heavens declare the glory of God;
+  And the firmament showeth his handiwork.
+  Day unto day uttereth speech,
+  And night unto night showeth knowledge.[23]
+
+What is the universe but a manifestation of God?  The whole realm of
+nature is in a real sense a record of divine revelations, which science
+seeks to interpret.  "Now," says A. H. McNeile,[24] "If God created all
+things and carries the universe along by the utterance of his power, it
+is clear that every fresh item of knowledge gained by {54} scientific
+investigation is a fresh glimpse into the will of God.  Strictly
+speaking, there is no such thing as secular knowledge.  A man only
+makes his studies secular for himself as he divorces them from the
+thought of God, so that all the scientific experiments in the world
+form part of the study of one aspect of God's Word."
+
+On the other hand the purpose of scripture has come to be more
+adequately apprehended.  The New Testament makes it perfectly clear
+that the aim of the Old Testament Scriptures is to bring man into
+harmony with God, to make him morally and spiritually perfect, and to
+point to the consummation of the redemptive purpose of God in and
+through the Christ.[25]  There is no warrant anywhere for the belief
+that the Old Testament writers meant to teach science of any kind.
+This is admitted even by some who insist upon the accuracy of the
+scientific teaching of the Bible.  "It is true that the Scriptures were
+not designed to teach philosophy, science, or ethnology, or human
+history as such, and therefore they are not to be studied primarily as
+sources of information on these subjects."[26]  Evidently, then,
+wherever the Old Testament touches upon questions of science it treats
+them only in so far as they serve a higher ethical or spiritual
+purpose.  Is it necessary to have absolute scientific accuracy in every
+detail in order to do this {55} effectively?  A moment's thought will
+show that it is not.  The writer heard not long ago a powerful appeal
+on behalf of the boys in a certain community, in which the speaker
+referred to the "Gracchi, the most renowned citizens of Athens."  The
+historical inaccuracy in no wise affected the moral force of the
+appeal.  No one would be foolish enough to assume that the spiritual
+and ethical value of sermons preached by the early Church fathers is
+invalidated by the fanciful science mixed with their gospel message.
+Who has not heard sermons that created a profound spiritual impression,
+though their science and history were not altogether faultless?  It
+would seem, then, that in estimating extra-biblical utterances the
+principle is recognized that "ignorance of some departments of truth
+does not disqualify a man for knowing and imparting truth about God;
+that in order to be a medium of revelation a man does not need to be in
+advance of his age in secular learning; that intimate communion with
+God, a spirit trained to discern spiritual things, a perfect
+understanding of and zeal for God's purpose are qualities quite
+independent of a knowledge of the discoveries of science."[27]
+
+Is it right to raise a different standard for the Scriptures?
+"Certainly," say many, "because the Bible is inspired; it is the Word
+of God, and God cannot inspire an untruth of any kind." {56} Now, it
+may be readily admitted that God cannot inspire an untruth; but have we
+any right to argue as if we knew exactly how God ought to convey a
+revelation to man?  Without entering upon a discussion of the entire
+subject of inspiration, the question may be raised whether or not
+inspiration covers purely scientific information.  The claim has been
+put forth by some who believe that the Bible and science are in perfect
+agreement that this agreement "proves that the scientific element of
+scripture as well as the doctrinal was within the scope of
+inspiration."[28]  Consistency might seem to require the admission that
+disagreement would prove that the scientific element does not fall
+within the scope of inspiration.  At any rate, it is of enormous
+importance to remember, what should be a perfectly obvious principle,
+that the facts presented in the Bible must determine the answer to the
+inquiry.  In other words, "We can learn what the Bible is only from
+what the Bible itself says."[29]
+
+One thing is quite certain, namely, that the Bible makes not the
+slightest claim of being a scientific treatise complete and
+up-to-date.[30]  It is equally true that it does not deny being such a
+treatise, hence the inquirer is thrown back upon a study of the facts
+presented in the Bible; and upon the basis of these he must determine
+whether or not there is reason for believing that scientific {57}
+knowledge comes within the scope of inspiration.  Now, the abstract
+possibility of God communicating to man a knowledge of exact scientific
+facts in a prescientific age need not be denied.  It is, however, a
+question whether God could have communicated such facts to man three
+thousand years ago without robbing him of his personality and changing
+him into a mechanism.  So far as the ways of God are known from
+experience, observation, history, and other sources, he has always
+treated with respect and consideration the powers and faculties of his
+chief creature.  "Had inspired men," says Dods,[31] "introduced into
+their writings information which anticipated the discoveries of
+science, their state of mind would be inconceivable, and revelation
+would be a source of confusion.  God's methods are harmonious with one
+another, and as he has given men natural faculties to acquire
+scientific knowledge and historical information, he did not stultify
+this gift by imparting such knowledge in a miraculous and
+unintelligible manner."  The same truth is expressed by H. E. Ryle in
+these words: "We do not expect instruction upon matters of physical
+inquiry from revelation in the written Word.  God's other gifts to men,
+of learning, perseverance, calculation, and the like, have been and are
+a true source of revelation.  But scripture supplies no short cut for
+the intellect.  Where {58} man's intellectual powers may hope to attain
+to the truth, be it in the region of historical, scientific, and
+critical study, we have no warrant to expect an anticipation of results
+through the interposition of supernatural instruction in the letter of
+scripture....  Scripture is divinely inspired, not to release men from
+the toil of mental inquiry, but to lead and instruct their souls in
+things of eternal salvation."[32]  This is not an arbitrary limitation
+of the scope of inspiration; it is a conclusion based upon a careful
+consideration of the facts of science and of the Bible, which seem to
+furnish sufficient evidence that the biblical writers were not in any
+marked degree in advance of their age in the knowledge of physical
+facts or laws.  In other words, the Bible is primarily a book of
+religion, hence religion, and not science, is to be looked for in its
+pages.  Altogether too much time has been spent in an effort to find in
+it scientific truth in a scientific form.  Such attempts clearly
+disregard the purpose of the biblical writers as interpreted in the New
+Testament.
+
+And could a Divine Providence have chosen a different method?  Even now
+discoveries follow one another so fast in the realm of science that no
+book remains a standard work for more than a few years.  It seems
+obvious, therefore, that a book written thousands of years ago could
+not remain a standard scientific work for all times.  {59} But assuming
+for the sake of argument that God had communicated the knowledge of
+scientific facts to these writers--evidence for which is entirely
+lacking--what would have been the result?  Later occurrences suggest
+what might have happened.  The great mass of people would have looked
+upon teachers of strange science as heretics and madmen, and would have
+rejected not only their scientific teaching but their religious
+teaching as well.  What a loss that would have been to mankind!  No
+serious loss would come to men if they were left a while longer in
+ignorance concerning scientific matters, but very serious loss would
+come to them by continuing in their lower religious and ethical beliefs
+and practices.  The only way to make the higher religious truth
+understood was to present it in a form easily apprehended by the
+people.  To do this is the chief purpose of the primitive,
+_prescientific science_ of the Old Testament Scriptures.
+
+The peculiar element in scripture is the spirit and religious
+atmosphere which permeate all its parts and give to the Bible a unique
+place among the literatures of the world.  This is the divine element
+due to inspiration.  It is this element which establishes a gulf
+between the Hebrew account of creation and the cosmologies of other
+nations.  Though the biblical writers had very much the same idea about
+the form and general {60} arrangement of the visible world as we find
+among other peoples--ideas that have satisfied at all times the
+majority of men even among nations with a pretense to culture, namely,
+the cosmology of appearances--these ideas were all connected with their
+sublime faith in Jehovah: to his omnipotence they referred the
+existence of the world, and they made all its changes depend entirely
+on his will.  In their monotheistic religion they secured the
+foundation of a clear and simple cosmology different from the grotesque
+cosmologies of other nations and yet not beyond the demands of men of a
+primitive type and of simple mind, who were full of a lively
+imagination, but not much accustomed to analyze phenomena or their
+causes.
+
+In this connection it may prove helpful to remember what, according to
+the biblical viewpoint and in the light of history, was the
+contribution of Israel to the development of the human race.  "Israel,"
+says G. W. Jordan,[33] "is comparatively young, politically it is
+provincial, socially it is not brilliant, in the realm of science it is
+narrow and dependent; yet when we lay stress on these limitations we
+only cause the peculiar glory of this nation's life to stand out more
+clearly; it has its own individuality; its real leaders are men of
+genius, their ambition is to speak in the name of the eternal king;
+they {61} hear the divine message and claim for it the supreme
+significance."  This is the judgment of a Bible student.  The same
+truth is expressed in the words of one who approaches the Bible from
+the viewpoint of the scientist, namely, the eminent Italian astronomer,
+Schiaparelli[34]: "Their [the Hebrews] natural gifts, as well as the
+course of events, carried them to a different mission [from that of
+Greece and Rome] of no smaller importance--that of purifying the
+religious sentiment and of preparing the way for monotheism.  Of this
+way they mark the first clear traces.  In the laborious accomplishment
+of this great task Israel lived, suffered, and completely exhausted
+itself.  Israel's history, legislation, and literature were essentially
+coördinated toward this end; science and art were for Israel of
+secondary importance.  No wonder, therefore, that the steps of the
+Jews' advance in the field of scientific conceptions and speculations
+were small and feeble; no wonder that in such respects they were easily
+vanquished by their neighbors on the Nile and the Euphrates."
+
+In conclusion: Permanent harmony between science and the Bible will be
+secured when each is assigned to its legitimate sphere.  Science has a
+right to ask that, if men are seeking purely scientific information,
+they should turn to recent text-books in geology, astronomy, or the
+other {62} sciences.  But in the sphere to which Jesus and the New
+Testament writers assigned the Old Testament science cannot deny or
+seriously question its inspiration or permanent value.  Unprejudiced
+science has never done this.  It is perfectly ready to recognize the
+inestimable religious and ethical value of even those Old Testament
+narratives which refer to scientific facts, not because of their
+scientific teaching, but because of the presence of eternal truth in
+the crude form of primitive science.  Fair-minded scientists readily
+admit that if anyone wishes to know what connection the world has with
+God, if he seeks to trace back all that now is to the very fountain
+head of life, if he desires to discover some unifying principle, some
+illuminating purpose in the history of the world, he may still turn to
+the early chapters of Genesis as a safe guide.
+
+What, then, is the bearing of the conclusions of modern science upon
+the permanent value of the Old Testament?  Science has compelled the
+Bible student to withdraw the attention from the nonessential and
+secondary, and to concentrate it upon the heart and substance.  In
+doing this it has established upon a much firmer basis the conviction
+that, whatever the scientific value of scripture may be or may not be,
+the apostle was right when he wrote that "the sacred writings ... are
+able to make wise unto salvation through {63} faith which is in Christ
+Jesus.  Every scripture inspired of God is also profitable for
+teaching, for reproof, for correction, for instruction which is in
+righteousness: that the man of God may be complete, furnished
+completely unto every good work."[35]
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER II
+
+[1] Burgon, Inspiration and Interpretation, p. 89.
+
+[2] Presbyterian Review, 1881, p. 238.
+
+[3] Josh. 10. 12.
+
+[4] The Bible--Its Meaning and Supremacy, p. 160.
+
+[5] In a brief treatment it seems preferable to confine the discussion
+to a specific concrete case; therefore this chapter deals almost
+exclusively with questions centering around the subject of cosmogony.
+
+[6] The margin of the Authorized Version still gives the chronology of
+Archbishop Ussher to that effect.
+
+[7] Chapter IV, 1.
+
+[8] The Expositor, 1902, pp. 159, 160.
+
+[9] It requires but a reading of the "proofs" of the opposite view to
+understand their weakness.  Compare Expositor, 1886, pp. 287-289.
+
+[10] The book of Genesis, p. 4.
+
+[11] Another difficulty has been found in the statement of Genesis that
+"vegetation" was complete two days before animal life appeared, but the
+disagreement is more apparent than real.  The geological record, it is
+true, shows many more animal than plant remains in the very ancient
+rocks.  It was not until Devonian and Carboniferous times that the
+plants became very abundant, as far as the geological records go.
+Indeed, in the oldest rocks in which animal remains occur, no plant
+remains have been discovered.  However, this is not to be {64} taken as
+proving that animals existed before plants, because low forms of the
+latter, having no hard parts, would be preserved with difficulty.
+Moreover, in some of the primitive forms, it is not easy to distinguish
+plants from animals.  But, apart from the records in the rocks, both
+biologists and geologists believe that plants existed as early as
+animals, if not earlier, for the latter needed the former to live upon.
+An eminent geologist, Professor U. S. Grant, of Northwestern
+University, has expressed his opinion to the writer in these words: "It
+seems to me that, viewed in an abstract way, the Genesis statement of
+vegetation appearing before animal life is not far from correct."
+
+[12] The Book of Genesis, p. 25.
+
+[13] Natural Theology, Vol. I, pp. 229, 230.
+
+[14] History of the Old Covenant, Vol. I, p. cxxix.
+
+[15] The Testimony of the Rocks, Lecture IV.
+
+[16] Reconciliation of Science and Religion, pp. 356ff.; compare also
+Pre-Adamites, _passim_.
+
+[17] Origin of the World According to Revelation and Science, _passim_.
+
+[18] Bibliotheca Sacra, 1885, pp. 201ff.
+
+[19] The Conflict of Truth, pp. 162ff.
+
+[20] Kurtz, Miller, Dawson, Dana, and the rest.
+
+[21] Expositor, 1886, p. 38.
+
+[22] The writer wants it clearly understood that an "ideal," harmony,
+as described above, can be established.  He is equally certain,
+however, that the harmony cannot be carried into details.
+
+[23] Psa. 19. 1, 2.
+
+[24] Expository Times, October, 1907, p. 20.
+
+[25] See above, Chapter I, p. 12.
+
+[26] Presbyterian Review, 1881, p. 239.
+
+[27] Marcus Dods, The Book of Genesis, pp. 4, 5.
+
+[28] Presbyterian Review, 1881, p. 239.
+
+[29] Expository Times, October, 1907, p. 20.
+
+{65}
+
+[30] Surely, there is not the slightest claim in Scripture that Moses
+or any other biblical writer received divine information concerning the
+beginnings of the universe; nor is there anything to support the
+assumption that the account of creation was supernaturally revealed to
+Adam, and that from him it was transmitted word for word through the
+families of the pious antediluvians, of Noah, Shem, Abraham, Isaac,
+Jacob, etc., until it was finally received and committed to writing by
+Moses.
+
+[31] The Book of Genesis, p. 5.
+
+[32] H. E. Ryle, The Early Narratives of Genesis, pp. 5, 6.
+
+[33] Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, p. 90.
+
+[34] Astronomy in the Old Testament, p. 1.
+
+[35] 2 Tim. 3. 15-17; on the permanent value and significance of the
+Genesis narratives; see also below, pp. 234ff.
+
+
+
+
+{66}
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN CRITICISM
+
+No careful observer can doubt that modern criticism has exerted a
+marked influence upon the attitude of many Christian people toward the
+Bible.  Both those in sympathy with new ideas and those opposed to them
+frequently speak of the crisis which this criticism has brought about.
+"It does seem," says John E. McFadyen, a believer in the methods and
+results of modern criticism, "that the Church to-day in all her
+branches is face to face with a crisis of the most serious kind."[1]
+On the other hand, John Smith, a determined opponent of criticism,
+writes concerning the conclusions of the latter: "They conflict with
+the profoundest certitudes of the faith, must inevitably alter the
+foundation on which from the beginning our holy religion has stood
+before the world, and, consequently, so far as a theory can, must
+obstruct her mission and abridge her influence."[2]  Whether the crisis
+is as acute as is here implied or not, there seems to be much concern
+among devout believers in the Bible about the bearing of modern
+criticism upon the value of the book they dearly love.  In the nature
+{67} of the case, limitation of space forbids an exhaustive discussion
+of this interesting subject here.  There are, however, three questions
+which are worthy of serious consideration: (1) What is modern
+criticism?  (2) What are the more important conclusions of criticism
+that have secured wide recognition?  (3) What is the bearing of these
+conclusions, if true, upon the Christian view of the Old Testament?
+
+What, then, is biblical criticism?  It is defined by Nash as "the free
+study of all the facts,"[3] which definition McFadyen expands so as to
+read, "the free and reverent study of all the biblical facts."[4]
+Criticism is _study_, which means careful investigation rather than
+superficial reading followed by hasty or unfounded conclusions.  The
+investigation is _free_ in the sense that though it is not
+disrespectful to traditional beliefs, it is not prevented by them from
+marking out new paths if the facts so demand.  It is _reverent_ because
+it deals with a book that has played a unique part in the religious
+life and thought of many centuries, and has been received as a book in
+which the voice of God may be heard.  It is primarily a study of the
+_facts_ presented by the book, not of theories or speculations, though
+in the study of these facts much may be learned from the theories of
+the past, and the study may give rise to new theories.  In order to be
+{68} thoroughly scientific, it must have due regard for all the facts
+in the case.  For convenience sake it has become customary to
+distinguish four phases of Old Testament, or biblical, criticism: (1)
+Textual Criticism; (2) Linguistic Criticism; (3) Literary Criticism;
+and (4) Historical Criticism.
+
+Close students of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament have been
+compelled to admit that even the oldest Hebrew manuscripts now known
+are not free from errors and blemishes, and it is the office of textual
+criticism to remove such errors by the use of all legitimate methods
+and means and to restore the _ipsissima verba_ of the author.  The
+presence of corruptions in the text is established by facts like these:
+(1) There are passages in which the text as it stands cannot be
+translated without violence to the laws of grammar, or, which are
+irreconcilable with the context or with other passages.  For example,
+in 1 Sam. 3. 1 the Authorized Version reads, "Saul reigned one year,
+and when he had reigned two years over Israel."  This translation does
+violence to the laws of Hebrew grammar.  The Hebrew reads, literally,
+"The son of a year was Saul in his reigning," which may be rendered,
+"Saul was a year old when he began to reign."  The narratives
+concerning events in the life of Saul before he became king make it
+clear that this statement is not correct.  Perhaps the scribe, in
+writing the {69} formula, which is the usual formula for stating a
+king's age at his accession, left a space for the numeral to be filled
+in later, and forgot the omission; or the numeral has accidentally
+dropped out.  In this case, it is the duty of textual criticism to
+supply, if possible, the age of Saul when he was made king.  In the
+absence of all external evidence the textual critic must fall back upon
+conjecture.  This the translators of the Revised Version did, for in
+the English Revised Version we find in brackets the word "thirty," in
+the American Revised Version "forty."  In this special case the assured
+results of textual criticism are purely negative, in that they have
+established the fact that the present text cannot be correct.  The
+attempt to restore the original text rests upon conjecture.  (2)
+Parallel passages differ in such a manner as to make it certain that
+the variations are largely due to textual corruption.  A good
+illustration is seen in Psa. 18, when compared with 2 Sam. 22.  These
+two passages were undoubtedly identical in the beginning; but even the
+oldest existing manuscripts show more than seventy variants between the
+two chapters.  (3) Some of the ancient versions contain readings which
+often bear a strong stamp of probability and remove or lessen the
+difficulties of the Hebrew text.  For example, in Josh. 9. 4, where the
+Hebrew reads, "And they {70} went and made as if they had been
+ambassadors," the Septuagint reads, "And they went and provisioned
+themselves."  The latter reading is supported by nearly all the ancient
+versions, and seems more probable than that of the Hebrew text.
+Another illustration of a similar character is found in Psa. 22. 16c,
+which is translated by both the Authorized and the Revised Version,
+"They pierced my hands and my feet."  This, however, is not a
+translation of the Hebrew at all, for it reads, "Like a lion, my hands
+and my feet."  In this case the New Testament, as well as the Latin and
+Syriac translations, supports the reading of the Septuagint.  Passages
+like these, in which the text has evidently suffered in the course of
+transmission, might be multiplied a hundredfold, and it is generally
+considered a legitimate ambition to attempt the restoration of the
+Hebrew text to its original form.
+
+Linguistic criticism deals with difficult and obscure passages.
+Sometimes the meaning of single words or phrases is uncertain, as, for
+example, in Isa. 53. 1, which reads, in the Authorized Version, "Who
+hath believed our report?"  The margin gives as alternatives for
+"report" the words "doctrine" and "hearing."  The Revised Version
+reads, "Who hath believed our message?" with a marginal note, "Or,
+_that which we have heard_."  In form the word translated "message"
+{71} is a passive participle, meaning, literally, "that which has been
+heard."  Surely, no one would consider "report," "doctrine," "hearing,"
+"message," etc., synonymous.  It is the duty of linguistic criticism to
+determine the exact meaning of the word.  Sometimes grammatical
+constructions are ambiguous.  Very familiar are the words in Isa. 6. 3,
+"Holy, holy, holy, is Jehovah of hosts: the whole earth is full of his
+glory."  The margin suggests as an alternative for the last clause,
+"the fullness of the whole earth is his glory," which might mean
+something entirely different from the ordinary rendering.  There are
+other passages, some among the sublimest prophetic utterances, in which
+it is by no means clear whether the reference is to the past or to the
+present or to the future.  There is, indeed, plenty of room for the
+most painstaking work of the linguistic critic.
+
+The literary criticism concerns itself with the literary history of Old
+Testament books.  The Bible may be more than a human production, but in
+outward form it has the appearance of an ordinary work of literature;
+and, so far as its history as a collection of literary productions is
+concerned, it has not escaped the fortunes or misfortunes of other
+ancient literary works.  It is a well-known fact that extra-biblical
+books, religious and secular, have come down from the {72} distant past
+bearing the names of men who cannot have been their authors; for
+example, the Gospel of Peter, or the Ascension of Isaiah.  Some ancient
+books have been interpolated and added to from time to time; for
+example, the Sibylline Oracles, the religious books of the Hindus.
+Some ancient books are compilations rather than original productions;
+for example, the Diatessaron of Tatian, or the religious books of the
+Babylonians, which give abundant evidence of compilation.  The
+discoveries of these phenomena in extra-biblical books naturally raised
+the question whether similar phenomena might not be found in the books
+of the Old Testament.  It is the duty of literary criticism to throw
+light on these questions; to decide whether all the Old Testament books
+are rightly ascribed to the men whose names they bear, whether they are
+original productions or compilations from earlier material, and whether
+any of the books have received additions or interpolations in the
+course of their literary history.
+
+Hand in hand with literary criticism goes historical criticism.  The
+student of Old Testament history seeks to trace the development of the
+history of Israel by combining in a scientific manner the historical
+material scattered throughout the Old Testament.  In doing this he is
+compelled to determine the value of the sources {73} from which he
+gathers information.  To do this is the duty of historical criticism.
+It inquires, for example, whether the records are approximately
+contemporaneous with the events they record; if so, whether the writers
+were qualified to observe the events accurately, or to record and
+interpret them correctly; and, if the accounts were written a
+considerable time subsequent to the events recorded, whether they were
+colored in any way by the beliefs and practices of the time in which
+they were written or compiled.  This line of investigation is almost
+thrust upon the Bible student by a comparison of the books of Kings
+with the books of Chronicles, which in many portions cover the same
+ground; and yet, there are marked differences between the descriptions
+of the two.
+
+These are the different phases of criticism.  Ordinarily, however, only
+two kinds are distinguished: the lower, or textual criticism, and the
+higher criticism.  The aims of textual criticism are described above.
+The higher criticism combines the functions of literary and historical
+criticism, while linguistic criticism is considered a part of exegesis
+or interpretation, not a separate branch of Bible study.  The
+legitimacy of textual criticism is universally recognized.  Its
+importance in a comprehensive study of the Bible is clearly implied in
+these words of W. H. Green, a {74} generation ago the best known
+defender of the traditional view of the Old Testament: "Its function is
+to determine, by a careful examination of all the evidence bearing upon
+the case, the condition of the sacred text, the measure of its
+correspondence with, or divergence from, the exact language of the
+inspired penman, and by means of all available helps to remove the
+errors which may have gained admission to it from whatever cause, and
+to restore the text to its pristine purity as it came from the hands of
+the original writers....  It is not an arbitrary but a judicial
+process, based on fixed and intelligible principles and conducted in a
+determinate manner, in which all the evidence is diligently collected,
+thoroughly sifted, and accurately weighed, and the decision given in
+accordance with the ascertained facts."[5]
+
+No exception is taken to linguistic criticism as a legitimate part of
+exegesis, but at the mention of higher criticism many good men and
+women become greatly disturbed, for they seem to look upon it as a
+handmaid of Satan.  A few expressions will illustrate the feeling with
+which some regard this kind of study: One writer says, "Neither hard
+times nor higher criticism nor infidelity ... has any effect upon the
+sale of the Divine Scriptures."  He evidently places higher criticism
+on a par with infidelity.  Again: "The so-called higher critics, it is
+well known, are constantly {75} trying to shake the faith of the
+Christian by telling him that the books of the Bible were not written
+by the men whose names are usually given as the human authors."
+Another writer declares that the higher critics allege that the Bible
+is "the off-spring of incompetence and fraud."  One more quotation may
+suffice: "Higher criticism tends invariably ... to absolute rationalism
+and the discrediting of inspiration."  Now, if higher criticism is on a
+par with infidelity, if it declares the Bible to be the "offspring of
+incompetence and fraud," if it constantly tries to shake the faith of
+Christians, if it tends invariably to absolute rationalism and
+discredits inspiration--if it does these things, then the Christian
+Church may well look upon it with dread and alarm.  Whether or not
+higher criticism is guilty of the things charged against it will
+probably appear in the further discussion, for from now on chief
+emphasis will be placed upon the bearing of the higher criticism on the
+Christian view of the Old Testament.
+
+First of all, it may be well to define, if possible, the term "higher
+criticism."  It is too often assumed by those who should know better,
+that the adjective "higher" exhibits the arrogance of those using it,
+who claim thereby an unwarranted precedence for their methods.  This
+assumption is erroneous, for the adjective is used {76} simply to
+distinguish this kind of criticism from the lower or textual criticism,
+which, since its purpose is to fix the exact text of a book,
+necessarily precedes the application of the processes of the higher
+criticism.  The designation may be unfortunate, but thus far no clearer
+or less objectionable substitute has been found.  But what is higher
+criticism?  Higher criticism may be defined as a process of scientific
+investigation for the purpose of determining the origin, original form,
+and intended value of literary productions.  It cannot be emphasized
+too strongly that higher criticism is nothing more than a process of
+study or investigation.  It is not a set of conclusions respecting the
+books of the Bible; it is not a philosophical principle underlying the
+investigation; it is not a certain attitude of mind toward the Bible;
+it is not a theory of inspiration nor a denial of inspiration.  Higher
+criticism is none of these things.  It is simply a process of study to
+determine certain truths concerning literary productions.
+
+Again, higher criticism, as a process of study, is not confined to the
+study of the Bible.  It was applied to extra-biblical books long before
+there was any thought of applying it to the Old or New Testament.
+Eichhorn, who first applied the term to Old Testament study, has this
+to say: "I have been obliged to bestow the greatest {77} amount of
+labor on a hitherto entirely unworked field: the investigation of the
+inner constitution of the separate books of the Old Testament by the
+aid of the higher criticism, _a new name to no humanist_."[6]
+
+Once more: the higher criticism as such is not opposed to traditional
+views.  In the words of Professor Zenos: "Its relation to the old and
+the new views respectively is one of indifference.  It may result in
+the confirmation of the old, or in the substitution of the new for the
+old....  It is no respecter of antiquity or novelty; its aim is to
+discover and verify the truth, to bring facts to light whether these
+validate or invalidate previously held opinions."[7]  It is a grave
+mistake, therefore, to attribute to higher criticism an essentially
+destructive purpose.  In reality, it has confirmed traditional views at
+least as often as it has shown them to be untenable.  It does not
+approach its investigations even with a suspicion of the correctness of
+tradition; it starts out with the tradition, it accepts it as correct
+until the process of investigation has brought to light facts and
+indications which cannot be harmonized with tradition.  In such a case
+criticism believes itself bound to supply a satisfactory explanation of
+the facts, though such explanation may be contrary to the claims of
+tradition.  Any student Who approaches the inquiry in a spirit {78}
+different from that here indicated introduces into his investigation
+elements that are not a part of higher criticism as such, and the
+latter cannot and should not be held accountable for them.
+
+That it is desirable to answer questions concerning the origin, form,
+and value of biblical books no one will dispute.  C. M. Mead,
+exceedingly cautious and conservative, says: "I regard the higher
+criticism as not only legitimate but as useful, and indiscriminate
+condemnation of it as foolish.  Genuine criticism is nothing but the
+search after truth, and of this there cannot be too much."[8]  No
+literary production in the Bible or outside of the Bible can be fully
+understood unless the interpreter has a full knowledge of its origin,
+its author, and its first readers.  When, where, by whom, to whom,
+under what circumstances, for what purpose?--an answer to these and
+similar questions will wonderfully illuminate the message of a book.  A
+knowledge of the form of the writing is also essential to a proper
+understanding of the same.  Is it history or poetry? is it narrative or
+prediction? or any one of the various kinds of literature?  In a
+similar manner it is important, though not always easy, to know the
+value a given literary work was intended to have.  Is it to be
+understood as literal history?  Is its essential purpose didactic,
+without special regard for historic accuracy in {79} every detail?  Are
+the religious and ethical truths taught intended to be final, or do
+they mark a stage in the development toward perfection and finality?
+These and other important questions of a similar nature the higher
+criticism seeks to answer.
+
+Some one may say, "Scholars in all ages have sought to answer these
+questions; why is it, then, that modern higher criticism reaches
+conclusions concerning the origin, form, and value of Old Testament
+writings not dreamed of a few centuries ago?"  This is a legitimate
+question, but the answer is not far to seek.  It may best be answered
+by asking another question: Men in all ages have studied the earth, the
+sun, the stars, and other phenomena of nature; how is it that modern
+scientists have reached conclusions unknown and undreamed of a few
+centuries ago?  The modern higher criticism, like all modern science,
+is the outgrowth of the awakening during the Middle Ages which
+revolutionized the whole world of science, literature, and religion.
+The Renaissance aroused men's interest in literature and science, the
+Reformation aroused men's interest in religion as a personal
+experience.  In the Renaissance men began to think for themselves in
+matters of science and literature; in the Reformation they began to
+think for themselves in matters of religion.  It was inevitable that
+{80} the awakening of thought and the substitution of reason for
+authority in science, secular literature, and secular history should
+ultimately affect sacred history and sacred literature as well.[9]
+
+Chronologically, it is true, the work of higher criticism began even
+before the time of the Renaissance among Spanish Jews.  But this Jewish
+criticism did not at the time exert any influence in the Christian
+Church.  Only after criticism had secured a foothold among Christian
+scholars were the results of Jewish investigation made use of.  In the
+same way the purely negative conclusions of some of the early Christian
+heretics, based upon dogmatic considerations rather than historical
+investigations, have no organic connection with the investigations and
+results of modern criticism.  It is perfectly correct, therefore, to
+state that the modern higher criticism had its birth in the great
+awakening of the Renaissance and the Reformation.  They gave to it a
+life and an impetus which from that day to this have not abated in the
+least.  Some of the reformers themselves and their coworkers advanced
+views which later investigation has confirmed and expanded.  Carlstadt,
+for example, the friend and coworker of Luther, published in 1520 an
+essay in which he argued, on the ground that the style of narration in
+the account of Moses's death which, he believed, was not written by
+Moses, was {81} the same as in the preceding chapters, that it might be
+held that Moses did not write the entire Pentateuch.  The freedom with
+which Luther criticized both the Old and the New Testament books is
+well known.  Concerning the Old Testament, he admitted that the books
+of Kings were more credible than Chronicles.  "What would it matter,"
+he asks, "if Moses did not write the Pentateuch?"  He thinks it
+probable that Isaiah, Jeremiah, Hosea, and Ecclesiastes received their
+final form at the hands of redactors.  The testimony of the psalm
+titles he does not regard as conclusive.  He admits chronological
+difficulties and contradictions in the statements of historical facts.
+He concedes that we do not always hear God himself speaking in the Old
+Testament.  Esther might well have been left out of the canon, and
+First Maccabees might have been included.  If this is not criticism,
+what is?
+
+The case of Luther has been mentioned simply to show the absurdity of
+the claim that modern higher criticism is the outgrowth of German
+rationalism or English deism or infidelity; or that a man who pursues
+Old Testament study on the line of the higher criticism is necessarily
+an infidel, a rationalist, or a fool.  True, there have been and are
+those out of sympathy with Christianity or the Bible who have employed
+critical methods in carrying on their anti-Christian warfare; but {82}
+such misuse of critical methods no more proves the illegitimacy of this
+process of investigation than the employment of a surgical instrument,
+which, in the hands of a skillful surgeon, may be the means of saving a
+diseased organism, by a murderer to carry out his destructive aim,
+would prove that the use of all surgical instruments is unscientific or
+criminal.  The vast majority of the so-called higher critics do not
+deserve the denunciations heaped upon them by some who consider
+themselves sole defenders of the faith.  Most of them are Christian men
+whose loyalty to Christ, whose devotion to the truth, and whose
+sincerity of motive no one has reason or right to question or doubt.
+It is exceedingly unfortunate that many writers have failed to
+recognize this fact.  No one acquainted with the history of biblical
+criticism can accept the following as a true characterization of
+serious critics: "I mean by professional critic, one who spends his
+time and strength in trying to find some error or discrepancy in the
+Bible; and, if he thinks he does, rejoiceth as 'one who findeth great
+spoil'; who hopes, while he works, that he may succeed, thinking
+thereby to obtain a name and notoriety for himself."[10]  In a similar
+spirit Sir Robert Anderson speaks of "the foreign infidel type of
+scholar ... as ignorant of man and his needs as a monk, and as ignorant
+of God and his ways as a monkey."[11] {83} Such abuse is unchristian,
+and no good can be accomplished by it.  The truth of the matter is more
+adequately expressed by James Orr when he says: "There are, one must
+own, few outstanding scholars at the present day on the Continent or in
+Britain--in America it is somewhat different--who do not in greater or
+less degree accept conclusions regarding the Old Testament of the kind
+ordinarily denominated critical.  Yet among the foremost are many whom
+no one who understands their work would dream as classing as other than
+believing, and defenders of revealed religion."[12]  Then, after
+mentioning a number of scholars, he describes them as "all more or less
+critics, but all convinced upholders of supernatural revelation."  But
+even among these Christian, evangelical, higher critics a distinction
+must be made between two classes.  The one may be called, for want of a
+better name, traditional, because its adherents insist that their
+investigations on the line of the higher criticism have confirmed in
+all essentials the positions held during many centuries.  It should be
+noted, however, that many scholars who are sometimes quoted as
+upholders of the traditional view are ready to make many concessions to
+those who believe that the traditional views are no longer tenable.[13]
+On the other hand is a class of critics which may be called
+nontraditional, critics who claim that {84} their investigations, while
+confirming the truth of many traditional positions, compel them in
+other cases to set aside the traditional views in favor of some more in
+accord with the facts in the case.  It may be difficult to state all
+the causes responsible for the differences in the conclusions of these
+two classes of critics.  However, the writings of some scholars in the
+former class seem to show that the authors are influenced, to some
+extent at least, by the fear that further concessions would affect the
+Christian theory of inspiration.  Another cause may be found in the
+fact that the present generation of Old Testament scholars received its
+training largely at the hands of those accustomed to the traditional
+viewpoint; the influence of this early training manifests itself to
+some extent in the present attitude.  A more important cause, however,
+is supplied by the nature of the evidence upon the basis of which these
+critical questions must be settled.  Mathematical demonstration is
+impossible in very many cases.  The critic must be qualified to
+estimate probabilities, and various degrees of probability, depending
+upon the nature of the grounds on which it rests.  In the nature of the
+case, the personal element enters into the estimate of the degree of
+probability.  What to some may appear a high degree of probability, or
+amount to practical certainty, may to another investigator, perhaps
+less familiar with {85} the facts in the case, appear of less value and
+lead him to reject the conclusion entirely.  As long as this condition
+of affairs continues--and there is no reason to suppose that it ever
+will be otherwise--perfect agreement among critical investigators need
+not be expected; but a fair and thorough examination of the facts by
+all must be insisted upon.
+
+It is not necessary to enlarge upon the views of the traditional class
+of critics, for theirs are the views with which most Christians now
+living have been familiar since their childhood.  In order to
+understand, however, the bearing of the nontraditional criticism upon
+the Christian view of the Old Testament it is necessary to consider the
+most important conclusions of the nontraditional class of evangelical
+criticism; and to these conclusions we may now turn our attention.
+
+1.  Modern criticism has placed into clearer light the progressive
+character of Old Testament revelation.  God is the same yesterday,
+to-day, and forever, but man has taken many advance steps; and as he
+advanced his spiritual capacities and powers of apprehension increased.
+This growth enabled him to secure, from generation to generation and
+from century to century, during the Old Testament dispensation, an
+ever-broadening and deepening conception of the nature and character of
+God and of his will.  The Old {86} Testament books, says Kent, are "the
+harmonious and many-sided record of ten centuries of strenuous human
+endeavor to know and to do the will of God, and of his full and
+gracious response to that effort."[14]
+
+2.  Formerly the beginning of the Old Testament canon was traced to
+Moses.  He was thought not only to have written the books of the
+Pentateuch but to have given to them official sanction as canonical
+books.  To these books were gradually added the other sacred writings
+of the Old Testament on the authority of the divinely chosen successors
+of Moses, like Joshua, Samuel, and the prophets.  The close of the
+canon was ascribed to Ezra, who, according to later views, had to share
+the honor with the men of the Great Synagogue.  Modern criticism
+assigns new dates to some of the Old Testament books; it believes that
+the exile was a period of great spiritual and intellectual activity,
+and a number of books are placed subsequent to Ezra and Nehemiah, which
+in itself would imply a denial of the view that the canon was finally
+closed in the days of Ezra.  The modern critical view is that the Old
+Testament books were canonized--whatever the dates of their
+writing--gradually and at a comparatively late period.  The
+canonization of the Law is placed at about B.C. 400, that of the
+Prophets between B.C. 250 and B.C. 180, while the third {87} division
+of the Jewish canon, the Writings, is believed to have acquired
+canonical authority during the second and first centuries B.C.
+
+3.  Formerly the order of the Old Testament books determined largely
+the view of the development of Hebrew religion.  Just as in the New
+Testament the Gospels occupy first place, the Epistles being
+expositions of the principles laid down in the Gospels, so it was
+thought that the Law of the Pentateuch, coming from the hands of Moses,
+served as the basis of the religious development of the Hebrews during
+subsequent centuries.  The prophets were looked upon chiefly as
+expounders and interpreters of this Law.  Modern criticism has
+introduced a change of viewpoint.  It does not deny the pre-exilic
+existence of all law, or of sacrifice, or of a ceremonial, or of other
+priestly elements, but it believes that in the religious development of
+Israel, the pre-exilic period was preëminently the period of the
+prophets, while the religious life during the post-exilic period was
+dominated by the priests, the priestly type of religion finding
+literary expression in the ceremonial system embodied in the Pentateuch.
+
+4.  According to modern criticism, compilation had a prominent place in
+the production of Old Testament books.  The composite character of the
+Pentateuch is touched upon in the next paragraph, but, in addition, it
+is believed that {88} there is sufficient evidence to establish the
+composite character of practically all the other historical books.
+McFadyen accurately represents the modern viewpoint when he says, "In
+the light of all these facts the general possibility, if not the
+practical certainty, of the compositeness of the historical books may
+be conceded."[15]  Evidences of compilation are seen also in several of
+the prophetic books.  The assignment of Isaiah and Zechariah to more
+than one author each furnishes perhaps the best known examples, but
+other prophetic books are similarly divided.
+
+5.  The Pentateuch is no longer assigned in its entirety to Moses; it
+is thought, rather, to contain material selected from four different
+sources, which the compiler had before him in writing.[16]  These
+documents did not reach their final form until some time subsequent to
+Moses, but all of them contained ancient material, much of it going
+back to the time of Moses, some of it even to pre-Mosaic days.  Among
+the contents of the Pentateuch special attention is called to three
+legal codes--the Book of the Covenant, the Deuteronomic Code, and the
+Priestly Code--belonging to different periods in Hebrew history, and
+reflecting different stages in the religious and social development of
+the nation.  The Deuteronomic Code, in some form, is believed to have
+been the basis of the reforms instituted by Josiah {89} and to have
+been written most probably during the early part of the seventh
+century.  On these general questions respecting the Pentateuch there
+seems to be general agreement among critical scholars; on the other
+hand, there is wide divergence of opinion concerning points of detail,
+such as the chronological order in which the several documents reached
+their final form, their exact dates, the manner and time of their
+compilation, the detailed distribution of the material among the
+several sources, etc.  The differences of opinion on these points are
+due to the fact that the data upon the basis of which the problems must
+be solved are not sufficiently numerous or decisive.
+
+6.  Doubt is thrown upon the authorship of a number of Old Testament
+books, or parts of books, which have been assigned to certain authors
+by both Jewish and Christian tradition.  As already stated, the Mosaic
+authorship of the Pentateuch is denied; the book of Lamentation is
+taken away from Jeremiah; parts of Isaiah and Zechariah and the whole
+of Daniel are assigned to persons other than the prophets bearing these
+names.  The accuracy of the psalm titles is questioned; few of the
+psalms, if any, are assigned to David or his age; and most of the
+psalms--by some scholars all--are placed in the post-exilic period.  A
+conservative scholar, like W. T. Davison, is not willing to say more
+than "that {90} from ten to twenty psalms--including 3, 4, 7, 8, 15,
+18, 23, 24, 32, and perhaps 101 and 110--may have come down to us from
+David's pen, but that the number can hardly be greater, and may be
+still less."[17]  The same uncertainty is believed to exist respecting
+the authorship of Proverbs and of Ecclesiastes, which is considered one
+of the latest books in the Old Testament canon.  Other books, like Job,
+which in the absence of external testimony were formerly assigned to an
+early date, are now placed in the later period of Hebrew history.
+
+In addition to these results touching upon matters practically
+unrecognized before, the higher criticism has emphasized some truths
+which, though known, exerted little, if any, influence upon the
+conception or study of the Old Testament.  Of these perhaps the most
+important are, first, that the Old Testament is not so much a single
+book as a library consisting of many books of different dates and
+authorship, though all these books may be held together by one common
+spirit and purpose;[18] and, second, that in these books are
+represented practically all the various forms and kinds of literary
+composition that can be found in the literatures of other nations.
+
+These are perhaps the most important conclusions reached by the
+nontraditional higher critics.  Some may not be willing to admit that
+{91} these conclusions are well founded, and, indeed, the cautious
+among the critics very candidly state that in most cases scientific
+demonstration is impossible, that probability of varying degrees is an
+important element in the conclusions; but unless one has followed those
+who have reached the conclusions into every detail of their
+investigation, he is hardly competent to pass a valid judgment.  And it
+is well to remember what seems to be an indisputable fact, that with
+very few exceptions Old Testament experts everywhere agree essentially
+on these results, and that an ever-increasing number of serious Old
+Testament students whose competency and sincerity cannot be doubted
+feel compelled to accept these conclusions, convinced that the
+traditional views cannot be maintained without numerous modifications.
+This fact may not establish the truth of these conclusions;
+nevertheless, it may serve as a sufficient reason for the consideration
+of another question: Should the truth of the conclusions enumerated be
+established beyond a possibility of doubt, what would be the effect
+upon the Christian conception of the Old Testament?  What would become
+of its inspiration or authority, of the supernatural in its history, of
+the work and character of Moses, Isaiah, or David; and, perhaps most
+important of all, what effect would this have upon the authority of
+Jesus Christ himself?
+
+{92}
+
+The most important and vital of these questions may be considered
+first.  How do the conclusions of the nontraditional higher criticism
+affect the authority of Jesus Christ?  This question arises chiefly in
+connection with investigations into the authorship of Old Testament
+books, especially of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and Isaiah.  It is
+asserted that since Christ quotes and refers to passages from the books
+bearing the names of Moses, David, and Isaiah, apparently as if they
+had been written by these men, any claim that these passages were not
+written by the authors mentioned is an indication of unbelief, an
+insult to Christ, and a denial of his authority.  "If Moses did not
+write the Pentateuch," says L. W. Munhall, "or any portion of it, and
+the highest critics (Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit) declare he did,
+it would be a lie.  It would be none the less a lie, even though the
+Jews held traditionally that Moses was the author of these books.  The
+testimony of the _Highest Critics_ is absolutely unerringly and
+eternally true, and he who hesitates to receive it as against all other
+testimonies is disloyal to the truth."[19]  Clearly, this statement is
+based upon the assumption that Jesus gave deliberate decisions on
+questions of authorship, which assumption cannot be substantiated.  In
+the first place, it is well to note that in less than one fifth of the
+New Testament {93} quotations from the Old Testament is a personal name
+connected with the quotation; Jesus himself, in quoting from the
+Pentateuch and other Old Testament books, frequently omits all
+reference to the alleged author, which shows that he considered the
+question of authorship of no special significance in comparison with
+the truth taught.  Moreover, in some cases at least, the exact form of
+quotation is doubtful.  Compare, for example, Matt. 15. 4, "God said,"
+with Mark 7. 10, "Moses said"; and Luke 20. 37, "Moses showed, in the
+place concerning the Bush," with Mark 12. 26, "Have ye not read in the
+book of Moses, in the place concerning the Bush how God spake unto
+him," with Matt. 22. 31, which, referring to the same statement,
+introduces it by, "Have ye not read that which was spoken unto you by
+God?"  Which one of the evangelists has preserved the actual words of
+Jesus?
+
+But even admitting that Jesus used in these and other passages a
+personal name, does this imply a decision respecting authorship?  In
+extra-biblical literature no one would raise serious objection to the
+use of the name of a man to designate a book without implying that the
+man named was the author of the entire book.  This is done also in the
+New Testament.  In the sermon of Peter, "Samuel" evidently is used in
+the sense of "book of Samuel," for the reference {94} is not to an
+utterance of Samuel but of Nathan,[20] and it cannot imply authorship,
+for some of the events recorded in First Samuel and those in Second
+Samuel occurred after Samuel's death.  In the Epistle to the
+Hebrews,[21] a psalm is referred to as "David," which is not even by
+the title assigned to the great king of Israel.[22]  Might it not be,
+therefore, that "Moses" was used as a designation of a book, without a
+thought of authorship.  This seems to be the case in 2 Cor. 3. 15:
+"Whensoever Moses is read, a veil lieth upon their heart."[23]  All
+these facts suggest that while Jesus frequently quotes the Pentateuch,
+and in some cases connects the name of Moses with it, _he never does so
+to prove that Moses wrote it_.  W. T. Davison describes the situation
+correctly when he writes, "A study of the whole use of the Old
+Testament made by Christ in his teaching shows that the questions of
+date and authorship with which criticism is chiefly concerned were not
+before the mind of our Lord as he spoke, nor was it his object to
+pronounce upon them."[24]
+
+But even admitting that the references of Jesus imply in some cases a
+recognition of authorship, the question still remains whether the few
+passages quoted carry with them the authorship of the entire book from
+which the quotations are made.  There are even some conservative
+scholars who {95} answer this question in the negative.  After
+enumerating some of the passages referred to by Jesus as coming from
+Moses, C. H. H. Wright continues: "All, however, that can be fairly
+deduced from such statements is, the Pentateuch contains portions
+written by Moses.  It does not follow that the five books as a whole
+were written by that lawgiver."[25]  Though this explanation seems
+satisfactory to some, others consider it somewhat forced and unnatural,
+and they are inclined to give different interpretations of the words of
+Jesus.
+
+Many hold that in his references to Old Testament books Jesus
+accommodated himself to the usage of the Jews without indorsing their
+views or giving expression to his own, even though he knew that the
+commonly held opinions as to the authorship of certain Old Testament
+books were erroneous.  Those who advocate this view believe that their
+attitude in no wise dishonors the Master.  Indeed, they say, one cannot
+easily see what other course he could have taken.  Jesus had come to
+reveal the Father, to bring a fallen race into harmony with a holy God.
+Surely, the task was great, and there was but little time in which to
+accomplish it.  If he had turned aside from his chief purpose to settle
+scientific and literary questions which were not under discussion among
+the people, he would have aroused popular {96} opposition and thus have
+hindered his chief work.  In no case do his references imply that he
+desired to pronounce an authoritative critical judgment, and in no case
+does the value of the quotation depend upon its authorship.  Looking at
+the matter, therefore, from a pedagogical standpoint, it would seem
+that, in view of his important mission in the world, he was compelled
+to accommodate himself to the views of the people in all matters not
+essential to his work.
+
+This view seems entirely satisfactory to many sincere Christian
+believers.  There are, however, those who maintain that it would not
+have been legitimate for Jesus thus to accommodate himself to the usage
+of the people if he had known that their views were not in accord with
+the facts; nevertheless, they insist that his utterances do not settle
+purely literary questions.  They believe that Jesus shared the views of
+the people, that he actually thought that Moses wrote the entire
+Pentateuch, and Isaiah, the whole of the book bearing his name; but
+that this was a limitation of knowledge on his part.  And they further
+insist that this attitude toward Jesus in no wise affects the supreme
+and final authority of the Christ over the lives of men.  The entire
+life of the Master, they say, shows that he regarded his mission as
+spiritual; he did not come to correct all errors, but merely those
+touching religion and {97} ethics; and even here he did not give
+detailed specific rules.  In many cases he simply laid down great
+principles, which in time might be worked out and applied to the
+details of human activity.  He did not abolish slavery, he made no
+efforts to correct errors in science; why should he correct erroneous
+views respecting literary and critical questions?  These were outside
+of his immediate sphere of interest.  His knowledge or ignorance in
+these secondary matters does not necessarily involve his knowledge or
+authority in essentials.[26]  Again, while Christ was God, he was also
+truly man.  This union of the divine with the human, if real, must have
+brought some limitations.  And the New Testament clearly teaches that
+in some respects the powers of Christ were limited.  His omnipotence
+was limited, else he could not have felt hunger, weariness, pain, etc.
+As strength was needed, it was supplied.  It may have been there
+potentially, but not actually.  Might it not have been the same with
+omniscience?  In one case, at least, Jesus admits that his knowledge
+was limited: "But of that day or hour knoweth no one, not even the
+angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father."[27]  And, surely,
+that which, according to this admission, was hidden from Jesus was, as
+compared with a question of the authorship of a biblical book, of
+infinitely greater importance.  It would seem, therefore, {98} that B.
+P. Raymond is right when he says: "To affirm that he had knowledge of
+the critical questions which agitate Christian scholars to-day is to
+deny that he was made like unto his brethren.  It is to compromise the
+reality of his humanity and to start on the road that leads to
+docetism.  Fairbairn's conclusions are just; 'The humanity of the
+Saviour must be absolutely real.'"[28]
+
+There are, then, three explanations of the references of Christ to the
+authorship of Old Testament books, each one of which seems perfectly
+fair, natural, and, above all, scriptural; and each one shows that his
+utterances do not finally settle purely literary questions.  This
+conclusion, since it is in perfect accord with the New Testament, can
+in no wise be construed as an insult to the Christ, nor does it affect
+in the least the authority of Jesus in matters religious and ethical.
+What is said here of the words of Jesus is equally true, with some
+slight modifications, of similar New Testament references coming, not
+from Jesus directly, but from the authors of the New Testament books.
+
+From the consideration of this question of vital interest we may turn
+to another, also of great importance, namely, what is the effect of
+critical conclusions upon the belief in the inspiration of the Old
+Testament, in the supernatural in its history, and in its authority?
+All these questions {99} center in one, for inspiration implies the
+presence of a supernatural element, and the authority of the Old
+Testament depends upon the reality of its inspiration.  Hence the real
+question is, Have the conclusions of the higher criticism disproved, or
+in any serious way affected, the reality of the inspiration of the Old
+Testament writers?  This inquiry must be answered with an emphatic
+"No."  Inspiration does not depend upon the fact that a certain
+definite individual is responsible for a writing.  A book is inspired
+because God is back of it and in it, and not because a certain man
+wrote it.  Nor does belief in inspiration depend upon the knowledge of
+the human author, else how could Christians believe in the inspiration
+of the men who wrote books like the Epistle to the Hebrews, the book of
+Job, the books of Samuel, and other biblical books whose authors are
+not named?  Moreover, an inspired book does not lose its inspiration
+because it is discovered that the human agent inspired is one different
+from the man to whom tradition has been accustomed to assign the book.
+Would the laws of the Pentateuch be any less divine if it should be
+proved that they were the product of the experience of the chosen
+people from the time of Moses to the exile?  Would the Psalms cease to
+lift us into the presence of God, if it should be demonstrated that
+most of them came {100} from a period later than David?  Is the book of
+Job less majestic and sublime because we know not the time or place of
+its birth?  Are the Proverbs less instructive because criticism claims
+that they do not all come from the son of David?[29]
+
+Once more: inspiration is not confined to any form of literature; a
+parable may be as truly inspired as history; and the inspiration of a
+book does not vanish when it is assigned to one form of literature
+rather than to another.  The conclusions of the legitimate higher
+criticism in no wise tend toward a denial of the inspiration of the Old
+Testament.  Inspiration, the special divine providence over Israel,
+God's interference in the history of the chosen people, would stand out
+as prominently as ever if every claim of the higher criticism should be
+proved true.  Most critical scholars are ready to indorse the words of
+Professor Sanday: "My experience is that criticism leads straight up to
+the supernatural, and not away from it."[30]  But if this be true, how
+can any authority which rightly belongs to the Old Testament be
+affected by criticism?  This authority belongs to it by virtue of its
+inspiration, and the voice of God is not silenced by the conclusions of
+modern criticism.
+
+"But," some one will say, "if this is true how is it that criticism has
+been and still is condemned unsparingly by many men whose sincerity
+{101} and love for the truth cannot be called into question?"  There
+are several reasons for this.  In the first place even some very
+intelligent men seem to misunderstand both the purpose and the claims
+of the higher criticism.  Another reason is that there are even among
+the evangelical critics those who lack judgment, and who permit
+themselves to draw inferences unwarranted by the facts in the case.  As
+a consequence, ill-informed persons have concluded that all the results
+of criticism are unwarranted by the facts.  A third reason is that some
+critics are arrogant and obnoxious in the presentation of their views,
+and, therefore, bring the entire process into disrepute.  A fourth, and
+perhaps the most important, reason is that in addition to the
+legitimate higher criticism discussed in the preceding pages there is
+an illegitimate criticism which very frequently, though erroneously, is
+thought to be the only kind of criticism practiced.  This criticism
+also studies the facts, but--and this is its distinguishing
+feature--its investigations are colored by certain presuppositions,
+such as the belief in a materialistic or deistic evolution, in the
+presence of which there is no room for inspiration, or for the
+supernatural, or for miracles, in the Christian sense of these terms.
+This kind of criticism is not legitimate, because it is not scientific,
+proceeding as it does on the basis of an unestablished, {102}
+unchristian, and impossible view of the universe.  But higher critics
+belonging to this class are few in number, and fairness and Christian
+courtesy demand that in any discussion of the subject clear
+distinctions should be made between this criticism and that process of
+investigation which is not only legitimate, but indispensable.  It is
+also well to bear in mind that the conclusions of the illegitimate
+criticism will never be disproved by denunciation, but, rather, by the
+careful and painstaking labors of those critics who approach their
+studies without these unwarranted assumptions.
+
+One more question remains to be considered, namely, What becomes of the
+men from whom criticism takes away at least part of the writings
+traditionally connected with their names?  Preëminent among these are
+Moses, Isaiah, and David.  Moses is not, as is sometimes erroneously
+asserted, removed to the realm of myths.[31]  To prove this assertion
+it is only necessary to quote the words of one who accepts the results
+of the higher criticism as set forth above: "Moses was the man who
+under divine direction 'hewed Israel from the rock.'  Subsequent
+prophets and circumstances chiseled the rough bowlder into symmetrical
+form, but the glory of the creative act is rightly attributed to the
+first great Hebrew prophet.  As a leader he not only created a nation
+but guided them through infinite {103} vicissitudes to a land where
+they might have a settled abode and develop into a stable power; in so
+doing he left upon his race the imprint of his own mighty personality.
+As a judge he set in motion forces which ultimately led to the
+incorporation of the principles of right in objective laws.  As a
+priest he first gave definite form to the worship of Jehovah.  As a
+prophet he gathered together all that was best in the faith of his age
+and race, and, fusing them, gave to his people a living religion.
+Under his enlightened guidance Israel became truly and forever the
+people of Jehovah.  Through him the Divine revealed himself to Israel
+as their Deliverer, Leader, and Counselor--not afar off, but present; a
+God powerful and willing to succor his people, and, therefore, one to
+be trusted and loved as well as feared.  As the acorn contains the
+sturdy oak in embryo, so the revelation through Moses was the germ
+which developed into the message of Israel to humanity."[32]
+
+Isaiah, though losing some of the sublimest passages in the book, is
+still the king among the prophets.  In the words of Ewald, a pronounced
+advocate of the conclusions of modern criticism: "Of the other prophets
+all the more celebrated ones were distinguished by some special
+excellence and peculiar power, whether of speech or of deed; in Isaiah
+all the powers and all the beauties {104} of prophetic speech and deed
+combine to form a symmetrical whole; he is distinguished less by any
+special excellence than by the symmetry and perfection of all his
+parts.  There are rarely combined in one individual the profoundest
+prophetic emotion and purest feeling, the most unwearied, successful,
+and consistent activity amid all the confusions and changes of life;
+and, lastly, true poetic genius and beauty of style, combined with
+force and irresistible power; yet this triad of powers we find realized
+in Isaiah as in no other prophet."[33]
+
+David, indeed, loses some of his halo, if many of the most beautiful
+psalms are taken from him, yet he remains the man after God's own
+heart.  "According to his light, he served the Jehovah whom he knew
+with marvelous fidelity and constancy....  He ruled over the united
+Hebrew tribes as Jehovah's representative.  In his name he fought the
+battles against Israel's foes, whom he regarded as Jehovah's also....
+From the spoils which he won in his wars he provided the means
+wherewith to build a fitting dwelling place for the God of his nation.
+The priests found in him a generous patron, and prophets like Nathan
+were among his most trusted counselors.  To do the will of Jehovah as
+it was revealed to him was the dominating principle of his life.  More
+cannot be said of any one."[34]
+
+{105}
+
+A splendid summary of the bearing of modern evangelical criticism upon
+the Christian view of the Old Testament is given by Canon Driver: "It
+is not the case that critical conclusions are in conflict either with
+the Christian creeds or with the articles of the Christian faith.
+Those conclusions affect not the _fact_ of revelation but only its
+_form_.  They help to determine the stages through which it passed, the
+different phases which it assumed, and the process by which the record
+of it was built up.  They do not touch either the authority or the
+inspiration of the Scriptures of the Old Testament.  They imply no
+change in respect to the divine attributes revealed in the Old
+Testament, no change in the lessons of human duty to be derived from
+it, no change as to the general position (apart from the interpretation
+of particular passages) that the Old Testament points forward
+prophetically to Christ.  That both the religion of Israel itself and
+the record of its history embodied in the Old Testament are the work of
+men whose hearts have been touched and minds illuminated, in different
+degrees, by the Spirit of God is manifest."[35]
+
+But not only has criticism not taken away anything essential from the
+Bible; on the contrary, it has resulted in some distinct gains.  The
+textual criticism has furnished the modern {106} student with a much
+more accurate text of the biblical books, while the linguistic
+criticism has established the interpretation of this text upon a firmer
+basis.  The higher criticism also has made invaluable contributions
+toward a more adequate understanding of the Old Testament Scriptures.
+It has made impossible the arbitrary and, sometimes, unreasonable
+interpretations of scripture which in former ages have proved a serious
+detriment to religion and theology.  It has restored to religious use
+some of the biblical books almost forgotten before, and endowed them
+with flesh and blood by throwing bright light upon the circumstances
+connected with their origin.  It has made it possible to secure a
+"reasonable, probable, and even thrilling" view of the history and
+religion of Israel and of the steps by which the records of these grew
+up.  Many of the moral, religious, and historical difficulties which
+served as effective weapons to skeptics in all ages have disappeared,
+and the weapons have been snatched from the enemies of the Bible.  Many
+of the confusions and apparent discrepancies, which according to former
+theories presented insurmountable difficulties, have found a
+satisfactory explanation.  "Higher criticism," says R. F. Horton, "so
+much dreaded by pious souls, is furnishing a conclusive answer to the
+untiring opponents of revelation."[36]  Everyone knows {107} that the
+Bible has been bitterly attacked in the past, and that such attacks
+have not altogether ceased even now; but it is sometimes overlooked
+that in the majority of cases these attacks are made by men who are, or
+seem to be, lamentably ignorant of the attitude and results of modern
+critical study.  Their arguments become "absolutely powerless against
+the modern historical interpretation of the Bible; and the more that
+interpretation underlies the teaching of the young, the more certain
+are those attacks to die a natural death."[37]
+
+There are, indeed, few Old Testament scholars who would not indorse the
+testimony of Professor A. S. Peake, given in a paper on "Permanent
+Results of Biblical Criticism," read before the Fourth Methodist
+Ecumenical Conference: "Speaking for myself, I may truthfully say that
+my sense of the value of Scripture, my interest in it, my attachment to
+it, have been almost indefinitely enhanced by the new attitude and new
+mode of study which criticism has brought to us."
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER III
+
+[1] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 1.
+
+[2] The Integrity of Scripture, p. 1.
+
+[3] The History of the Higher Criticism of the New Testament, p. 85.
+
+[4] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 47.
+
+{108}
+
+[5] General Introduction to the Old Testament: The Text, pp. 162, 163.
+
+[6] J. G. Eichhorn, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Preface to Second
+Edition.
+
+[7] The Elements of the Higher Criticism, pp. 12, 13.
+
+[8] Christ and Criticism, Preface.
+
+[9] J. P. Peters, The Old Testament and the New Scholarship, p. 87.
+
+[10] L. W. Munhall, Anti-Higher Criticism, p. 9.  For a discriminating
+study of the theological and philosophical bias of the more
+representative Old Testament critics, see Bibliotheca Sacra, January,
+1912, pp. 1ff.
+
+[11] The Bible and Modern Criticism, p. 19.
+
+[12] The Problem of the Old Testament, pp. 7, 8.
+
+[13] Some of these concessions are enumerated in J. E. McFadyen, Old
+Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, pp. 15ff.  The Problem of
+the Old Testament, by James Orr, is often quoted as overthrowing
+entirely the positions of modern criticism regarding the authorship of
+the Pentateuch.  If, however, one reads Orr's summary of the chief
+results of his own critical investigation (pp. 371ff.), the question
+may well be asked, Why should he be considered less of a higher critic
+than, for example, Wellhausen?
+
+[14] The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testament, p. 30.
+
+[15] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 143.
+
+[16] Even those who question the existence of four independent
+documents assume the activity of at least four different hands.
+
+[17] James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, p. 151.
+
+[18] See above, pp. 30ff.
+
+[19] The Highest Critics vs. The Higher Critics, pp. 7, 8.
+
+{109}
+
+[20] Acts 3. 24.  The passage in the mind of the apostle seems to be 2
+Sam. 7. 11-16.
+
+[21] Heb. 4. 7.
+
+[22] Psa. 95.
+
+[23] The origin of the designations Moses = Pentateuch, Samuel = books
+of Samuel, David = book of Psalms, must be explained, and can be
+explained; but as the mention of Samuel and David shows, it cannot
+always rest upon the fact of authorship, whatever the popular idea may
+have been.
+
+[24] James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, p. 151.
+
+[25] Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 76.
+
+[26] See above, p. 55.
+
+[27] Mark 13. 32.
+
+[28] M. S. Terry, Moses and the Prophets, p. 194.
+
+[29] C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture,
+p. 26.
+
+[30] Quoted in J. E. McFadyen, Old Testament Criticism and the
+Christian Church, p. 253.
+
+[31] Moses has, indeed, been removed by some investigators to the realm
+of myth, but not upon the basis of conclusions reached by the
+legitimate modern criticism.
+
+[32] C. F. Kent, A History of the Hebrew People, Vol. I, pp. 44, 45.
+
+[33] Prophets, English translation, Vol. II, p. 1.
+
+[34] C. F. Kent, A History of the Hebrew People, Vol. I, p. 167.
+
+[35] Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, pp. viii, ix.
+
+[36] Revelation and the Bible, p. 61.
+
+[37] J. E. McFadyen, Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church,
+p. 136.
+
+
+
+
+{110}
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND ARCHEOLOGY
+
+A century ago the student of the world's history found it exceedingly
+difficult, if not impossible, to paint for himself a clear picture of
+events antedating B.C. 400.  Concerning earlier periods, he was, aside
+from the Old Testament, practically without records that could claim
+contemporaneousness with the events recorded.  But, one hundred years
+ago, men had commenced to test every statement, be it historical, or
+scientific, or theological, by severe canons of criticism, and if it
+could not stand the test, it was speedily rejected.  One result of this
+tendency was to reject historical statements of the Bible when they
+could not be corroborated by reliable extra-biblical records.  The
+nineteenth century has wrought a marvelous change.  The Old Testament
+is no longer the "lone Old Testament," at the mercy of the scientific
+investigator.  The historian and the Bible student now have at their
+command literary treasures almost without number, partly
+contemporaneous with the Old Testament, partly older by many centuries.
+These rich treasures have been brought to light by the {111}
+perseverance and painstaking toil of archæologists, whose discoveries
+have shed light on human history during a period of more than four
+thousand years before the opening of the Christian era.
+
+The historical movements recorded in the Old Testament, in which the
+Hebrews had a vital interest, were confined chiefly to the territory
+between the four seas of western Asia: the Mediterranean Sea, the Black
+Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Persian Gulf.  In the East the territory
+might be extended to include Persia; in the West, to include Asia
+Minor; and in the South or Southwest, to include Egypt, in North
+Africa.  All these districts, which may be designated Bible lands, have
+been more or less thoroughly explored, and in most of them excavations
+have been carried on.  The countries in which the most valuable finds,
+so far as Bible study is concerned, have been made are Palestine,
+Babylonia-Assyria, Egypt, Northern Syria, Phoenicia, Moab, and Asia
+Minor.
+
+Even before excavations were undertaken travelers had visited these
+different countries and had reported their observations, but the
+information thus gained was more or less vague, and in many cases of no
+practical scientific value.[1]  They saw many strange mounds and ruins,
+and noticed and occasionally picked up fragments of inscriptions and
+monuments; but no one could {112} decipher the inscriptions; hence the
+finds were preserved simply as mementoes and relics of an unknown age,
+from which nothing could be learned concerning the history and
+civilization of the people that once occupied these lands.  The mounds
+and heaps of ruins which contained the real treasures were left
+undisturbed until the nineteenth century.
+
+The pioneer in the work of excavation in the territory of Babylonia and
+Assyria was Claudius James Rich, who, while resident of the British
+East India Company in Bagdad, in 1811, visited and studied the ruins of
+Babylon, and a little later made similar investigations in the mounds
+marking the site of the ancient city of Nineveh.  In the gullies cut by
+centuries of rain he gathered numerous little clay tablets, covered on
+every side with the same wedge-shaped characters as those seen on the
+fragments found by earlier travelers.  These he saved carefully, and in
+time presented them to the British Museum.
+
+No systematic excavations were carried on until 1842, when P. C. Botta
+was sent by the French government as vice-consul to Mosul on the upper
+Tigris.  He noticed across the river from Mosul extensive artificial
+mounds which were supposed to mark the site of the city of Nineveh.
+These so aroused his curiosity that he began digging in the two most
+prominent mounds.  Failing to make {113} any discoveries, he
+transferred, the following year, at the suggestion of a peasant, his
+activities to Korsabad, a few miles to the northeast, where the digging
+produced, almost immediately, startling results.  In the course of his
+excavations he laid bare a complex of buildings which proved to be the
+palace of Sargon, king of Assyria from B.C. 722 to B.C. 705, a palace
+covering an area of about twenty-five acres.  The walls of the various
+buildings were all wainscotted with alabaster slabs, upon which were
+representations of battles, sieges, triumphal processions, and similar
+events in the life of ancient Assyria.  He also found, in the course of
+the excavations, scores of strange figures and colossi, and numerous
+other remains of a long lost civilization.  Botta's discoveries filled
+the whole archæological world with enthusiasm.
+
+Even before Botta reached Mosul, a young Englishman, Austin Henry
+Layard, visited the territory of ancient Assyria, and was so impressed
+by its mounds and ruins that he resolved to examine them thoroughly
+whenever it might be in his power to do so.  This resolution was taken
+in April, 1840, but more than five years elapsed before he began
+operations.  It would be interesting to follow Layard's work as
+described by him in a most fascinating manner in Nineveh and Its
+Remains, and other writings, which give {114} complete records of the
+wonderful successes he achieved wherever he went.
+
+Never again did the labors entirely cease, though there were periods of
+decline.  Layard's operations were continued under the direction of
+Rassam, Taylor, Loftus, and Henry C. Rawlinson; the French operations
+were in charge of such men as Place, Thomas, Fresnell, and Oppert.
+However, it was not until 1873 that other startling discoveries were
+made, chiefly under the direction of George Smith, who was sent by the
+Daily Telegraph, of London, to visit the site of Nineveh for the
+purpose of finding, if possible, fragments of the Babylonian account of
+the Deluge, parts of which he had previously discovered on tablets that
+had been shipped to the British Museum.  In 1877 France sent Ernest de
+Sarzec as consul to Bosra in Lower Babylonia.  His interest in
+archæology led him to investigate some of the mounds in the
+neighborhood, and he soon began work at one called Telloh.  In the
+course of several campaigns, which continued until 1894, he unearthed a
+great variety of material illustrative of primitive ages, among his
+treasures being palaces, statues, vases, thousands of tablets, and
+various other articles of interest.
+
+The first steps toward sending out an American expedition for
+excavation were taken at a meeting of the American Oriental Society in
+the spring of {115} 1884.  In the fall of the same year a preliminary
+expedition of exploration was sent out, which completed its labors
+during the winter and spring, returning in June, 1885.  But the means
+for excavation were not forthcoming until 1888, when a well-equipped
+expedition was sent out under the auspices of the University of
+Pennsylvania.  Four successive campaigns were carried on upon the great
+mounds of Nuffar, the site of Nippur, a center of early Babylonian
+life.  Each expedition brought to light architectural and artistic
+remains and many thousands of tablets, throwing light upon all sides of
+the ancient life and civilization, over which hitherto there had lain
+almost complete darkness.  In 1899 Germany sent its first expedition to
+Babylon and, during successive seasons, extensive excavations have been
+carried on, which have resulted in the discovery of many interesting
+finds.  At a later date excavations were begun and, like those of
+Babylon, are still continued, on the mound covering the site of the
+ancient capital city of Assyria, Asshur, where inscriptions of great
+value have been uncovered.  At the present time the Germans are perhaps
+the most active excavators in Assyria-Babylonia, and by their
+painstaking care to record every new discovery they are bound to
+increase the knowledge of the early history and civilization of these
+ancient empires.[2]
+
+{116}
+
+Reference may be made also to the later excavations of the French at
+Susa, the scene of the book of Esther, where they have uncovered much
+valuable material.  The most important find, made in the winter of
+1901-1902, is the monument upon which is inscribed the legal code of
+Hammurabi, king of Babylon, generally identified with the Amraphel of
+Gen. 14. 1.  For a short time the University of Chicago carried on
+excavations at Bismiyah, in southern Babylonia, which have brought to
+light many objects of interest, if not of great historical importance.
+The Turkish government, under whose rule the territory of Babylonia and
+Assyria now is, stimulated by the example of other nations, is taking
+an active interest in these excavations, granting the privilege of
+excavating to an ever-increasing number of scholars, and giving them
+protection while engaged in their work.  The Sultan has erected in
+Constantinople a magnificent museum, where the valuable antiquities are
+accessible to the scholarship of the world.
+
+The credit of having first turned the attention of the West toward the
+monuments of Egypt, and of having brought them within the reach of
+science, belongs to the military expedition of Napoleon Bonaparte,
+undertaken in the summer of 1798.[3]  In August, 1799, a French
+artillery officer, Boussard, unearthed at the Fort Saint Julien, near
+{117} Rosetta, in the Nile Delta, a stone of black granite, three feet
+five inches in height, two feet four and one half inches in width, and
+eleven inches in thickness.  It is thought to have been at least twelve
+inches higher and to have had a rounded top.  On the upper portion of
+this block could be seen parts of fourteen lines of characters,
+resembling those seen everywhere on the obelisks and ruined temples of
+the land; adjoining these below are thirty-two lines of another species
+of script, while at the bottom are fifty-four lines, twenty-eight of
+them complete, in Greek uncial letters.  The Greek was easily read, and
+told the story of the stone: It was set up in B.C. 195, by the priests
+of Egypt, in honor of Ptolemy Epiphanes, because he had canceled
+arrearages of certain taxes due from the sacerdotal body.  The grateful
+priests ordered the memorial decree to be inscribed in the sacred
+characters of Egypt, in the vernacular, and in Greek.  The Greek
+portion having been read, it was conjectured that the two inscriptions
+above the Greek told the same story.  Such being the case, the value of
+the document for the decipherment of the Egyptian inscriptions was at
+once perceived, and scholars immediately set to work on the task of
+deciphering the unknown script.  The honor of having solved the mystery
+belongs to François Champollion, who by 1822 had succeeded in fixing
+the value of a considerable {118} portion of the ancient Egyptian
+signs, and at the time of his death, ten years later, left behind in
+manuscript a complete Egyptian grammar and vocabulary.
+
+Through the discovery of Champollion the interest in ancient Egypt grew
+in all learned circles, and from his day until now efforts at bringing
+to light the remains of the Egyptian civilization have never ceased.
+The French have been especially active; but other nations also have
+been in the field and have greatly added to our knowledge of ancient
+Egypt.  Since 1883 the Egyptian Exploration Fund has been at work in
+various parts of the Nile valley; private subscriptions have enabled
+the investigation of certain places of special interest; and now every
+year new finds are made, which constantly enrich our knowledge of the
+history, art, and civilization of the land of the Pharaohs.
+
+"Palestine," says Dr. Benzinger, "became the object of most general
+interest earlier than any other Oriental country....  Nevertheless,
+Palestine research is but a child of the century just closed, the
+systematic exploration of the land, in all its aspects, beginning
+properly speaking with the foundation of the English Palestine
+Exploration Fund in 1865."[4]  The reason for this delay is not far to
+seek.  From the time that Christians first began to visit Palestine to
+a comparatively {119} recent date all pilgrimages were prompted by
+religious, not by scientific motives.  The interest of the pilgrims was
+excited only by those places which were pointed out to them as the
+scenes of sacred events, and the knowledge they brought home consisted
+chiefly of descriptions of the places held in special veneration.  In
+1841 there appeared in three volumes a work entitled Biblical
+Researches, in which Professor Edward Robinson recorded the results of
+his travels in Palestine during the year 1838.  In 1852 Robinson made a
+second journey.  During these two trips he and his companions worked
+with ceaseless industry, always accurately measuring the distances, and
+describing the route, even to the smallest detail.  This painstaking
+care made the accounts so valuable that his books marked a turning
+point in the whole matter of Palestinian research, and could serve as a
+foundation upon which all future researches might rest.
+
+Among other travelers who have made valuable contributions to our
+knowledge of Palestine, the most important are Titus Tobler, H. V.
+Guerin, E. Renan, and G. A. Smith.  But the better the land came to be
+known, the more fully was it realized that the complete systematic
+exploration of the land was beyond the power of individual travelers.
+Hence in 1865 a number of men interested in Palestinian research met in
+London {120} and organized a society known as the Palestine Exploration
+Fund.  Its object was the complete, systematic, and scientific
+exploration of the Holy Land, especially for the purpose of elucidating
+the Scriptures.  The idea was taken up with great enthusiasm, and from
+the beginning until now the society has been actively engaged in
+illuminating Palestine past and present.  During the early history of
+the Fund few excavations were carried on, and these were confined to
+the city of Jerusalem; but since 1890 several mounds in southern
+Palestine have been excavated, the most important being Tel-el-Hesy,
+the probable site of ancient Lachish, and the site of the important
+city of Gezer.  At present (1912) the site of ancient Beth-Shemesh is
+being excavated.
+
+The German Palestine Society was organized in 1877 for a similar
+purpose.  When the English surveyors were prevented by the Turkish
+government from completing the survey of eastern Palestine the German
+society took up the work, and its results are embodied in a map now in
+process of publication.  The principal excavations of the German
+society were carried on between 1903 and 1907 at Tel-el Mutasellim, the
+ancient Megiddo, under the direction of Dr. Benzinger and Dr.
+Schumacher.  Dr. Sellin carried on excavations at the neighboring
+Taanach for the Austrian government between 1902 and 1904.  {121} Two
+other sites have been excavated--Jericho by the Germans and Samaria by
+Harvard University, and though no epoch-making finds have come to light
+in these two places, the results illuminate the early history of
+Palestine.
+
+Phoenicia has yielded some of its treasures.  The first of importance,
+found in 1855 in the Necropolis of Sidon, was the sarcophagus of
+Eshmunazar, king of Sidon.  Since then various other sites have been
+examined, and much material has been unearthed, throwing light on the
+history, religion, art, and civilization of these ancient neighbors of
+Israel.  In the year 1868 a German missionary, the Rev. F. Klein,
+discovered at Diban, the site of an ancient royal city of Moab, a large
+stone, with an inscription of Mesha, a king of Moab in the ninth
+century B.C. Between 1888 and 1891 investigations were conducted, for
+the Royal Museum in Berlin, at the mound of Zenjirli, once a city in
+the land Shamal, near the northern limits of Syria, south of the Issus,
+about forty miles inland.  The old citadel was uncovered, and various
+sculptures, showing Hittite influence, a magnificent statue of
+Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, a huge statue of the god Hadad, and
+several Aramaic inscriptions of great value, as illustrating early
+Syrian civilization, were found.  More recently, in 1906 and 1907,
+Professor Winckler visited Boghaz-koei, in Asia Minor, a center of
+{122} early Hittite civilization, where he uncovered thousands of
+tablets which throw new light upon the history of western Asia in
+ancient times.  Thus, generation after generation, amid dangers and
+hardships, a body of enthusiastic, self-sacrificing men have toiled
+almost day and night in order to restore to life a civilization buried
+for many centuries beneath the sands of the desert and the ruins of
+ancient cities, and we are only at the beginning.  What revelations the
+next fifty years may have in store!
+
+The results of these expeditions have been enthusiastically welcomed by
+all who are interested in antiquity: the students of history, art,
+science, anthropology, early civilization, and many others.  They are,
+however, of special interest to the Bible student; and it is well to
+remember that, whatever additional motives may be responsible for
+excavations at the present time, from the beginning until now the
+desire to find illustrations, or confirmations of scriptural
+statements, has played a prominent part.  "To what end," says Professor
+Delitzsch,[5] "this toil and trouble in distant, inhospitable and
+danger-ridden lands?  Why all this expense in ransacking to their
+utmost depths the rubbish heaps of forgotten centuries, where we know
+neither treasures of gold nor of silver exist?  Why this zealous
+emulation on the part of the nations to secure the greatest possible
+{123} number of mounds for excavation?  And whence, too, that
+constantly increasing interest, that burning enthusiasm, born of
+generous sacrifice, now being bestowed on both sides of the Atlantic
+upon the excavations in Babylonia and Assyria?  One answer echoes to
+all these questions, one answer which, if not absolutely adequate, is
+yet largely the reason and consummation of it all--the _Bible_."
+
+Our purpose is to discuss the bearing of recent researches in Bible
+lands upon the Christian view of the Old Testament, that is, the view
+which looks upon the Old Testament as containing records of divine
+revelations granted in divers portions and in divers manners to the
+people of Israel.  Concerning this bearing, two distinct and opposing
+claims are made: on the one hand, it is said that archæological
+research only confirms the familiar view of the Bible as a trustworthy
+and unique record of religion and history; on the other hand, it is
+claimed that archæological research has shown the Old Testament to be
+untrustworthy as to history, and as to religion, what has hitherto been
+regarded as original with the Hebrews is claimed to have been borrowed
+almost bodily from the surrounding nations.
+
+What is the true situation?  The archæological material which has more
+or less direct bearing upon our inquiry may be roughly arranged under
+{124} two heads: (1) The Historico-Geographical; (2) The
+Religio-Ethical.  The present chapter deals with the bearing of the
+historico-geographical material upon the Old Testament historical
+records, the other class being reserved for the succeeding chapter.
+The next step in the discussion will be to enumerate at least the more
+important finds having a more or less direct relation to the Old
+Testament.  Many archæological objects have been brought to light,
+which, though they have but indirect bearing upon the Old Testament,
+have wonderfully illuminated the life of the ancient East, and thus
+have made more distinct the general historical background upon which
+the scenes recorded in the Old Testament were enacted.  But a more
+important source of information are the inscriptions which have been
+discovered by the thousands and tens of thousands.  These inscriptions
+were written on all kinds of material--granite, alabaster, wood, clay,
+papyrus, etc.; shaped in a variety of forms--tablets, cylinders, rolls,
+statues, walls, etc.; and they have been dug out of mounds, tombs,
+pyramids, and many other places.  What, then, are the most important
+finds?  The first thing to bear in mind is that the inscriptions have
+very little to say about the earlier period of Hebrew history.  Says
+Driver,[6] "With the exception of the statement on the stele of
+Merneptah, that 'Israel is desolated,' the first {125} event connected
+with Israel and its ancestors which the inscriptions mention or attest,
+is Shishak's invasion of Judah in the reign of Rehoboam; and the first
+Israelites whom they specify by name are Omri and his son Ahab."
+Before considering the statement on the stele of Merneptah, attention
+may be given to certain inscriptions which throw considerable light on
+conditions in Palestine before the Hebrew conquest, namely, the
+so-called Tel-el-Amarna tablets.[7]  These tablets were discovered by
+accident in the winter of 1887-1888 at Tel-el-Amarna, the site of the
+ancient capital of Amenophis IV of Egypt, about midway between Memphis
+and Thebes.  On examination they proved to be a part of the official
+archives of Amenophis III (1411-1375) and Amenophis IV (1375-1358),
+consisting almost entirely of letters and reports addressed to these
+two Pharaohs by their officials in western Asia, and by rulers who
+sustained close relations to the Egyptian court.  The royal letters,
+about forty in number, are chiefly from kings of the Hittites, of the
+Mitanni, of Assyria, and of Babylonia.  The rest of the correspondence,
+about two hundred and fifty letters, is of much greater historical
+interest; it consists of letters from Egyptian governors in various
+cities of Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria.
+
+These inscriptions show that about B.C. 1400, {126} about two hundred
+years before the Hebrew conquest, Palestine and the neighboring
+countries formed an Egyptian province under the rule of Egyptian
+governors stationed in all principal towns.  At the time the Egyptians
+had considerable difficulty in maintaining their authority.  Their
+power was threatened by the Hittites and other powerful neighbors, by
+the dissatisfied native population, by the Habiri, who seem to have
+been invaders from the desert, and by the intrigues and rivalries of
+the Egyptian governors themselves.  Practically all the principal
+cities of the land are mentioned in these letters.  From the standpoint
+of Old Testament study, six letters written by Abdi-hiba, Governor of
+Jerusalem, are of special interest.  He, like many of the other
+governors, is in difficulty.  The Habiri are pressing him hard; the
+neighboring cities of Gezer, Lachish, and Askelon are aiding the enemy;
+he has been slandered before the king and accused of disloyalty.  In
+the letters he emphatically protests his innocence.  One of them reads:
+"To the king my lord, say also thus: It is Abdi-hiba, thy servant; at
+the feet of my lord the king twice seven times, and twice seven times I
+fall.  What have I done against the king my lord?  They backbite, they
+slander me before the king my lord, saying: Abdi-hiba has fallen away
+from the king his lord.  Behold, as for me, neither my father nor my
+{127} mother set me in this place; the arm of the mighty king caused me
+to enter into the house of my father.  Why should I commit a sin
+against the king my lord?"
+
+Perhaps the most surprising fact about these letters is that the
+Palestinian governors used, in the correspondence with their superiors
+in Egypt, not the Egyptian or native Canaanite, but the Babylonian
+language, which seems conclusive evidence that for some time previously
+Western Asia had been under Babylonian influence.  Without doubt this
+influence was primarily political, but naturally it would bring with it
+elements of civilization, art, science, and religion.  Now and then
+words in the Canaanite language occur, either independently, or for the
+purpose of explaining a Babylonian expression in the more familiar
+dialect of the scribe.  These Canaanite words are hardly
+distinguishable from the Hebrew of the Old Testament.  It is evident,
+therefore, that the pre-Israelite inhabitants of Palestine were closely
+akin to the Hebrews, and spoke substantially the same language.  The
+inscriptions of later Egyptian kings, during the thirteenth and the
+early part of the twelfth century, throw little additional light on
+conditions in Palestine, except that it becomes increasingly clear that
+Egypt cannot maintain its hold on the land.  Subsequent to Rameses III
+(1198-1167) Palestine was entirely {128} lost to Egypt for several
+centuries, which explains why the Hebrews were not disturbed by the
+empire on the Nile in their attempts to establish themselves in
+Palestine.
+
+The first direct reference to Israel in the inscriptions apparently
+takes us near the time of the exodus.  Archaeology has nothing to say
+directly about the exodus; but in the enumeration of his victories,
+Merneptah II, thought to be the Pharaoh during whose reign the exodus
+took place, uses these words: "Israel is lost, his seed is not."  The
+discovery of this inscription in 1896 was hailed with great rejoicing,
+for at last the name "Israel" was found in an Egyptian inscription
+coming, approximately at least, from the time of the exodus; but,
+unfortunately, the reference is so indefinite that its exact
+significance and bearing upon the date of the exodus is still under
+discussion.  It is to be noted that, whereas the other places or
+peoples named in the inscription have the determinative for "country,"
+"Israel" has the determinative for "men"; perhaps an evidence that the
+reference is not to the land of Israel, or to Israel permanently
+settled, but to a tribe or people at the time without a settled abode.
+But where was Israel at the time?  To this a variety of answers have
+been given.  D. R. Fotheringham suggests that the reference is to the
+destruction of the crops of Israel in Goshen.  {129} Israel, he thinks,
+had just left, with the crops unharvested.  These Merneptah claims to
+have destroyed.[8]  Others believe that the Israelites had already
+entered Canaan when they suffered the defeat mentioned by Merneptah.
+Petrie thinks that the Israelites defeated were in Palestine, but that
+they had no connection with the tribes that had a part in the biblical
+exodus; he believes that the latter were still in Goshen at the time of
+this defeat.[9]  Still others believe that the Israelites were, at the
+time of the defeat, in the wilderness south of Palestine, and that the
+claim of Merneptah is simply an attempt to account for their
+disappearance from Egypt.  And now comes Eerdmans, of Leiden, with the
+suggestion that the Israelites defeated by Merneptah were the
+Israelites before they went down to Egypt.[10]  It is seen, therefore,
+that the reference on the stele of Merneptah, while of much interest,
+because it is the first mention of Israel in an Egyptian inscription,
+after all throws little light upon the date and the events of the
+exodus.
+
+The next monument of importance contains an account of the invasion of
+Palestine by Shishak, five years after the death of Solomon.  On the
+southern wall of the court of the great temple of Amen at Karnak the
+king has left a pictorial representation of his campaign.  A giant
+figure is represented as holding in his left hand the ends of ropes
+which {130} bind long rows of captives neck to neck.  Their hands are
+tied behind them, and the victor's right hand holds a rod with which he
+threatens them.  The names of the conquered cities are inscribed on
+shields that cover the lower part of the body of each prisoner.  Some
+of the most familiar names in this list are Gaza, Abel, Adullam,
+Bethhoron, Aijalon, Gibeon, and Shunem.[11]
+
+From about the middle of the ninth century on inscriptions containing
+references to kings of Israel, or to events in which the Hebrews played
+important parts, become more numerous.  To the reign of Omri (889-875)
+and his immediate successors refers the inscription of Mesha on the
+so-called Moabite Stone.[12]  This notable specimen of antiquity is a
+stone of a bluish-black color, about two feet wide, nearly four feet
+high, and fourteen and one-half inches thick; rounded at the top, and,
+according to the testimony of the discoverer, the Rev. F. Klein, also
+at the bottom, which, however, is doubtful.  The value of the stone
+lies not only in the fact that it preserves one of the most ancient
+styles of Hebrew writing, but more especially in the historical,
+topographical, and religious information it furnishes.  In 2 Kings 3 we
+read of the relations between Moab and Omri and his successors.  Omri
+had subdued Moab and had collected from her a yearly tribute.  Ahab had
+enjoyed the same revenue, amounting during {131} Mesha's reign to the
+wool of a hundred thousand lambs and a hundred thousand rams.  At the
+close of Ahab's reign Mesha refused to continue the payment of the
+tribute.  The allied kings of Israel, Judah, and Edom marched with
+their armies against the Moabites, who fled for refuge within the
+strong fortress of Kir-hareseth, where Mesha offered up his own son as
+a burnt-offering to Chemosh, his god; whereupon "there was great wrath
+against Israel, and they departed from them and returned to their own
+land."
+
+The Moabite Stone was set up by King Mesha to his god Chemosh in
+commemoration of this deliverance.  The opening lines read: "I am
+Mesha, son of Chemosh-ken, king of Moab, the Daibonite.  My father
+reigned over Moab for thirty years, and I reigned after my father.  And
+I made this high place for Chemosh in Korhah, a high place of
+salvation, because he had saved me from all the assailants, and because
+he had let me see my desire upon all them that hated me.  Omri, king of
+Israel, afflicted Moab for many days, because Chemosh was angry with
+his land; and his son succeeded him; and he also said, I will afflict
+Moab.  In my days said he thus.  But I saw my desire upon him and his
+house, and Israel perished with an everlasting destruction."  As a
+supplement to the Old Testament narrative, this account is very
+instructive.  The mention of {132} Yahweh, the God of Israel, is of
+interest, as also the fact that in Moab, as in Israel, national
+disaster was attributed to the anger of the national deity.  The idiom
+in which the inscription is written differs only dialectically from the
+Hebrew of the Old Testament.  Small idiomatic differences are
+observable, but, on the other hand, it shares with it several
+distinctive features, so that, on the whole, it resembles Hebrew far
+more closely than any other Semitic language now known.  In point of
+style the inscription reads almost like a page from one of the earlier
+historical books of the Old Testament.
+
+From the time of Omri on Israel came into frequent contact with
+Assyria; indeed, the fortunes of Israel were closely bound up with the
+fortunes of this great Eastern world-power.[13]  In 885, at about the
+time when Omri had finally succeeded in overcoming his rivals,
+Ashurnasirpal ascended the throne of Assyria.  He determined to restore
+the former glory of his nation, which had become eclipsed under his
+incompetent predecessors; and with him began a period of conquest which
+ultimately brought the whole eastern shore of the Mediterranean under
+Assyrian sway.  In 860 Shalmaneser III[14] succeeded his father upon
+the throne of Assyria, and in the following year he renewed the attack
+upon the West.  In 854 he felt prepared for a supreme effort, and it is
+in the {133} account of this campaign that we read for the first time
+the name of an Israelite king in the Assyrian inscription.  Shalmaneser
+advanced with great speed and success until he reached Karkar, near the
+Orontes, a little north of Hamath.  In the account of the campaign he
+mentions, among the allies who fought against him, Ahab of Israel, who,
+he says, furnished two thousand chariots and ten thousand men.  The
+campaign is recorded in several inscriptions, in all of which
+Shalmaneser claims a complete victory.
+
+The most famous inscription of this king is the one on the so-called
+Black Obelisk, an alabaster monolith found at Nimrud in 1846.  This
+monument is inscribed on all four sides with an account, in one hundred
+and ninety lines, of the expeditions undertaken during thirty-one years
+of the king's reign.  In the text of the inscription reference is made
+to campaigns against the west land (Syria and Palestine) in 859, 854,
+850, 849, 846, 842, and 839.  In addition to the inscription the
+monument contains, on the upper portion, five series of four reliefs
+each, each series representing the tribute brought to the Assyrian king
+by kings whom he had conquered or who sought his favor.  In the
+inscription itself, no mention is made of Israel or the king of Israel,
+but the second tier of reliefs is of much interest.  It depicts a
+prince or deputy prostrating himself before Shalmaneser, {134} and
+behind the prostrated figure are attendants bearing gifts of various
+kinds.  The superscription reads: "The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri,
+silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden ladle, golden goblets, golden
+pitchers, lead, a staff for the hand of the king, shafts of spears, I
+received of him."  In 842 Shalmaneser undertook an expedition against
+Hazael of Damascus, and in the account of this expedition he says, "At
+that time I received the tribute of the Tyrians and Sidonians, and of
+Jehu, the son of Omri."
+
+About half a century after the occurrence of Jehu's name in the
+inscription of Shalmaneser III Israel is mentioned again as tributary
+to Assyria.  Adad-nirari IV (812-783), after enumerating other
+countries subjugated by him, writes: "From the Euphrates to the land of
+the Hatti, the west country in its entire compass, Tyre, Sidon, the
+land of Omri, Edom, Philistia, as far as the great sea of the setting
+of the sun (Mediterranean Sea), I subjected to my yoke; payment of
+tribute I imposed upon them."
+
+Adad-nirari was succeeded by a series of weak kings, during whose reign
+the power of Assyria declined, but in 745 the great Tiglath-pileser IV,
+mentioned in the Old Testament also under the name Pul, ascended the
+throne.  He succeeded in reorganizing the resources of the empire and
+in rekindling its ambitions for conquest.  This {135} energetic king
+has left several inscriptions of much interest to the student of Old
+Testament history.  In one of these, narrating an expedition against
+northern Syria about B.C. 738, he mentions a king, "Azriau of the land
+of Yaudi."  It has been customary to identify this king with Azariah
+(Uzziah) of Judah.  The contents speak against this identification, and
+since the inscriptions found in Zenjirli have established the existence
+in northern Syria of a state called Yaudi, perhaps the king mentioned
+in Tiglath-pileser's inscription was a ruler of this northern kingdom.
+In the annals which tell of his victory over Azriau of Yaudi he
+mentions Menahem of Samaria as one of the kings whose tribute he
+received.  The same inscription, referring to events in 734 or 733,
+speaks of a victory over the House of Omri, and the assassination of
+the king Pekah, but the inscription is so fragmentary that the details
+are obscure.  Fortunately, the same events are recorded in another
+inscription, which is in a better state of preservation, though it also
+has several gaps.  After enumerating several cities which he captured
+in Palestine, among them Gaza, he continues: "The land of the dynasty
+of Omri ... the whole of its inhabitants, their possessions to Assyria
+I deported.  Pekah, their king, they slew, Hoshea to rule over them
+appointed.  Ten talents of gold, a thousand talents of silver, I
+received {136} as tribute."  Ahaz of Judah is also mentioned in an
+inscription of Tiglath-pileser, as paying tribute, but it is not clear
+to what year this refers.
+
+Tiglath-pileser died in 727, and was succeeded by Shalmaneser V, who in
+turn gave place in 722 to Sargon II.  Shalmaneser is mentioned as the
+king who attacked the northern kingdom, and the Old Testament narrative
+leaves the impression that he was the king who finally captured the
+city of Samaria.  The inscriptions show that it was Sargon who overcame
+the city soon after the beginning of his reign.  In one of his
+inscriptions he calls himself, "the brave hero ... who overthrew the
+House of Omri."  In another he says: "Samaria I besieged, I took.
+27,290 of its inhabitants I carried away; 50 chariots I gathered from
+them; the rest of them I permitted to retain their possessions.  Over
+them I appointed my governor, and upon them I imposed the tribute of
+the former king."  The annals of Sargon, which give an account of the
+events during his reign in chronological order, give the date of the
+capture of Samaria.  After the introduction, he continues: "In the
+beginning of my reign and in the first year of my reign, ... Samaria I
+besieged and took....  27,290 inhabitants I carried away; 50 chariots
+as my royal portion I collected there....  I restored and made as it
+was before....  People from all countries, my captives, I settled
+there.  My {137} official I appointed as governor over them.  Tribute
+and taxes like the Assyrian I imposed upon them."  After the
+destruction of the northern kingdom the life of the Hebrews became
+centered in Judah and Jerusalem.  The fall of Samaria made an
+impression on the South that was remembered for some time.
+Nevertheless, the states along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean
+Sea bore impatiently the Assyrian yoke, and in most cities there arose
+a party which, relying on the promised help of Egypt, was eager to free
+itself from Assyria.  That this party gained a foothold also in
+Jerusalem is seen from the prophecy in Isa. 20, in which the prophet
+warns the people against trusting in Egypt and rebelling against
+Assyria.  In the same direction points an inscription of Sargon
+describing an expedition against Ashdod: "The people of Philistia,
+_Judah_, Edom, and Moab, dwelling beside the sea, bringing tribute and
+presents to Ashur my lord, were speaking treason.  The people and their
+evil chiefs, to fight against me, to Pharaoh, king of Egypt, a prince
+who could not save them, their presents carried and besought his
+alliance."  In all probability, Judah did not become involved seriously
+at this time.  But the death of Sargon in 705 seems to have been a
+signal for revolt in many parts of the Assyrian empire.  His son and
+successor, Sennacherib, gave these rebellions his immediate attention;
+until 702 {138} he was kept busy in the East, but in that year he
+turned westward, and by 701 was ready to attack Judah.  The campaign
+and the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem on that occasion are
+recorded at length in 2 Kings 18, 19, and Isa. 36, 37.  The account of
+the same campaign by the Assyrian king is, from the standpoint of Old
+Testament history, perhaps the most interesting historical inscription
+left by an Assyrian ruler.  It is found in the so-called Taylor
+Cylinder,[15] column 2, line 34, to column 3, line 41.  The most
+interesting portion reads:
+
+
+  To the city of Ekron I went; the governors
+  [and] princes, who had committed a transgression, I killed and
+  bound their corpses on poles around the city.
+  The inhabitants of the city, who had committed sin and evil,
+  I counted as spoil; to the rest of them
+  who had committed no sin and wrong, who had
+  no guilt, I spoke peace.  Padi
+  their king, I brought forth from the
+  city of Jerusalem; upon the throne of lordship over them
+  I placed him.  The tribute of my lordship
+  I laid upon him.  But Hezekiah
+  of Judah, who had not submitted to my yoke,
+  I besieged 46 of his strong cities, fortresses, and small cities
+  of their environs, without number, [and]
+  by the battering of rams and the assault of engines,
+  by the attack of foot soldiers, mines, breaches, and axes,
+  I besieged, I took them; 200,150 men, young [and] old, male
+      and female, horses, mules, asses, camels, oxen
+  and sheep without number I brought out from them,
+  I counted them as spoil.  [Hezekiah] himself I shut up like
+      a caged bird in Jerusalem
+
+{139}
+
+  his royal city; the walls I fortified
+  against him [and] whosoever came out of the gates of the
+      city, I turned
+  back.  His cities, which I had plundered, I separated from
+      his land
+  and gave them to Mitinti, king of Ashdod,
+  to Padi, king of Ekron, and to Sil-Bel,
+  king of Gaza, and [thus] diminished his territory.
+  To the former tribute, paid yearly,
+  I added the tribute and presents of my lordship and
+  laid that upon him.  Hezekiah himself
+  was overwhelmed by the fear of the brightness of my lordship;
+  the Arabians and his other faithful warriors
+  whom, as a defense for Jerusalem his royal city
+  he had brought in, fell into fear.
+  With 30 talents of gold [and] 800 talents of silver, precious
+      stones,
+  _gukhli daggassi_ (?), large lapis lazuli,
+  couches of ivory, thrones of ivory,
+  ivory, _usu_ wood, box wood (?), of every kind, a heavy
+      treasure,
+  and his daughters, his women of the palace,
+  the young men and young women, to Nineveh, the city of
+      my lordship,
+  I caused to be brought after me, and he sent his ambassadors,
+  to give tribute and to pay homage.
+
+
+These are, perhaps, the most important historical inscriptions
+illustrating specific events in the history of Israel and Judah.  There
+are, however, many more that make important, though more or less
+indirect, contributions toward a better understanding of Old Testament
+history.  Just to mention a few: Tirhaka of Egypt, who, temporarily at
+least, interfered with the plans of the Assyrians, {140} appears
+several times in the inscriptions; the real significance of the events
+recorded in 2 Kings 20. 12ff., and Isa. 39, can be understood only in
+the light of the inscriptions; an interesting sidelight is thrown by
+the inscriptions on the biblical account of Sennacherib's death.  In
+one of the inscriptions of Esarhaddon, the son and successor of
+Sennacherib, we are told that among the twenty-two kings of the land of
+the Hittites who assisted him in his building enterprises was Manasseh,
+king of Judah.  Ashurbanipal, the successor of Esarhaddon, includes
+Manasseh in a similar list.  Though this king is not mentioned in the
+Old Testament under his Assyrian name, it is very probable that he is
+the king referred to in Ezra 4. 10, where it is said that the "great
+and noble Osnappar" brought Babylonians, Susanians, Elamites, and men
+of other nationalities to Samaria.  The inscriptions do not throw much
+light upon the closing years of Judah's history, but we can understand
+the events in which Judah played a part better because the inscriptions
+set into clearer light the general history of Western Asia.  The
+advance of the Scythians, the revival of Egypt in the seventh century,
+the fall of Nineveh, the rise of the Chaldean empire, which reached its
+highest glory under Nebuchadrezzar, the conqueror of Judah--all these
+are described in the inscriptions, or, at least, illuminated by them.
+{141} In a similar way the inscriptions, though not mentioning the
+Jewish exiles in Babylonia, illuminate the biblical records in many
+respects.  Fortunately, also, the inscriptions furnish a good idea of
+the events leading to the downfall of Babylon, which resulted in the
+restoration of many exiles to Judah; and the restoration itself assumes
+a new significance in the light of the inscriptions; for the permission
+to return granted by Cyrus to the Jews is seen to be in accord with the
+general policy of the conqueror to secure the good-will of the peoples
+deported by the Babylonians by restoring them to their own homes.  The
+historical situation of the age may suggest another reason for the
+kindly treatment of the Jews.  It was inevitable that sooner or later
+Cyrus, or his successors, should come into conflict with Egypt.  At
+such time it would be of immense value to him to have near the border
+of Egypt a nation upon whose fidelity and gratitude he could rely.
+Archaeology has not thrown any direct light on the condition of the
+Jews in Palestine under the Persian rule.  On the other hand, we know a
+great deal about conditions in Babylonia during that period, and within
+the past decade several important documents written on papyrus have
+been found in Egypt which furnish indisputable evidence that the island
+of Elephantine, opposite Assuan, a short distance north of the first
+cataract {142} of the Nile, was the seat of a Jewish colony at least as
+early as the reign of Cambyses, king of Persia (B.C. 529-521).[16]
+
+This concludes the survey of the archæological material of a historical
+nature.  It is seen that during the period from the division of the
+kingdom subsequent to the death of Solomon to the reëstablishment of
+the Jews in Palestine after the exile the inscriptions furnish most
+interesting and instructive illustrations of events mentioned or
+alluded to in the Old Testament.  As a result the history and also the
+prophecy of the Old Testament have been removed from the isolated
+position in which they previously seemed to stand.  They are now seen
+to be connected by many links with the great movements taking place in
+the world without.
+
+The question as to the bearing of the archæological historical records
+on the historical records of the Old Testament remains to be
+considered.  This question was asked as soon as the contents of the
+inscriptions became known.  The answers have varied greatly.  On the
+one hand, it has been claimed that the Old Testament records are
+confirmed in every detail; on the other, those have not been wanting
+who claimed that the inscriptions discredit the Old Testament.  Here,
+as in other investigations, the true conclusion can be reached only
+after a careful examination of all {143} the facts in the case.  In the
+study of the question there are several considerations and cautions
+which must not be lost sight of if we would reach a true estimate.
+Some of these cautions are suggested by the nature of the inscriptions.
+
+In the first place, it must be remembered that most of the
+archæological material has come from lands outside of Palestine, and
+that the testimony is that of people not friendly to the Hebrews.  We
+may expect, therefore, that at times personal bias may have colored the
+portrayal and caused the Hebrews to appear in a less favorable light
+than the facts would warrant, or that the events in which the Hebrews
+took part were described in a manner to make them favor the interests
+of the writers.
+
+Again, not every period of Hebrew history is illuminated by the
+inscriptions.  True, the earliest monuments found in Egypt and
+Babylonia antedate the birth of Jesus perhaps more than four thousand
+years; but it is not until the time of Ahab, king of Israel, that the
+important historical material begins.  The references to Israel
+preceding the time of the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser III, c. B.C. 850,
+are few and more or less obscure.  There is the monument of Shishak in
+the tenth century; but some are inclined to believe that the list of
+the cities alleged to have been conquered by Shishak was simply taken
+over by him from {144} an earlier document, and that, therefore, it is
+of little or no historical value.  Israel is mentioned in the
+inscription of Merneptah, but, as has been seen, the significance of
+the brief reference is obscure; there is nothing concerning the stay in
+Egypt, nothing concerning the patriarchs, and nothing concerning the
+earlier period that can in any way be connected with the historical
+records of the Old Testament.
+
+Furthermore, to get at the true value of the evidence from the
+monuments we must distinguish between facts and inferences from the
+facts.  This distinction, obvious as it seems, has not always been
+maintained even by eminent archæologists.  For example, Professor
+Sayce, who is in just repute among Assyriologists, made a few years ago
+the statement: "The vindication of the reality of Menes [one of the
+early kings of Egypt] means the vindication also of the historical
+character of the Hebrew patriarchs."  Surely, common sense says that
+facts proving the historicity of an early king of Egypt do not
+necessarily prove the historicity of men living many centuries later.
+Many similar illustrations might be given.  Because bricks made without
+straw were found it has been claimed that every detail of the Old
+Testament narrative concerning the stay of Israel in Egypt was
+corroborated by archæology.  The finding of the walls of royal palaces
+in Babylon furnished {145} the claim that the story of the handwriting
+on the wall was established beyond doubt.  The finding of images of
+deities has been interpreted as showing beyond a possibility of
+question the historicity of the narrative in Daniel concerning the
+image erected by Nebuchadrezzar, etc.  There can easily be too much
+blind dependence on authority; an assumption of fact, upon the mere
+dictum of some presumably honest and competent scholar.  About a
+generation ago a well-known investigator said, "Assyriology has its
+guesses and it has its accurate knowledge."[17]  These words might be
+expanded to include the whole field of archæology.  Archaeology has its
+facts, and it has its inferences.  The two must not be confused.
+
+Moreover, the possibility of inscribing lies upon clay tablets must not
+be overlooked.  Sometimes it has been claimed, and that most absurdly,
+that because an inscription has been engraved upon imperishable stone
+or clay it has a superior value.  But the mere fact of a record being
+inscribed on a tablet of clay, perishable or imperishable, gives it no
+superiority over one written on papyrus or parchment or paper.  Clay
+tablets were to the civilization of the Euphrates valley what print
+paper is to us.  We all know that paper is patient, else the daily
+papers would be of smaller size and many books would remain unwritten.
+The same is true of clay tablets.  Clay tablets are {146} patient.  It
+was recognized long ago by Assyriologists that the so-called historical
+inscriptions are not all unbiased statements of objective facts.  In
+many cases the chief purpose seems to have been the glorification of
+the king; victories are recorded with the greatest care, but no mention
+is made of defeats.  For example: in one of the earliest inscriptions
+mentioning a king of Israel, Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria, claims a
+great victory over the Western allies in the battle of Karkar in 854;
+but, strange to say, the victory resulted in a rather hasty retreat of
+the Assyrian army.  Another evidence of the "absolute reliability" of
+the historical tablets is offered by the inscriptions of the same king.
+In connection with the battle of Karkar, one inscription declares that
+the allies killed numbered 14,000; another, 20,500; while a third
+claims 25,000.  We have, indeed, reason to say that "the evident
+uncertainty in the figures makes us doubt somewhat the clearness of the
+entire result.  The claim of a great victory is almost certainly
+false."[18]
+
+Once more: the translation of the inscriptions is not in every case
+beyond question.  For example, in lines 7-9 of the Moabite Stone we
+read, according to the common translation, "Now Omri annexed all the
+land of Medeba, and Israel occupied it his days and half the days of
+his son, forty years."  This rendering would imply that the {147}
+period from the conquest under Omri to the end of the first half of
+Ahab's reign was forty years.  The chronology of Kings gives as the
+total of the full reigns of the two kings only thirty-four years, while
+the above translation of the inscription would require about sixty--a
+serious discrepancy.  Now, it is generally conceded that the chronology
+of the Bible cannot be accepted as final in all its details, and that
+it must be checked by the chronology of the inscriptions wherever that
+is possible.  Yet before we can make use of the monumental testimony we
+should be sure of its exact meaning.  In cases such as the one
+mentioned this certainty is absent, and we should move very slowly.
+Another translation of the passage has been proposed: "Omri conquered
+the whole land of Medeba and held it in possession as long as he
+reigned and during half of my reign his son, in all forty years; but
+yet in my reign Chemosh recovered it."[19]  This translation would
+bring the total of the two reigns to about forty years, and thus the
+chronological difficulty apparently offered by 2 Kings 3 would be
+removed.
+
+The five considerations to which attention has been called must be
+observed if we would understand rightly the bearing of the monuments on
+the Old Testament, when viewed from the standpoint of the inscriptions.
+Attention must now be called to certain considerations touching {148}
+primarily the Old Testament that must be regarded in forming an
+estimate of the value of its historical records.
+
+We must remember, for example, that the purpose of the Old Testament is
+essentially and predominatingly religious.  This is recognized by the
+Jews, for they do not call any of the so-called historical books by
+that name.  The five books of the Pentateuch they designate as Law,
+because in these books practically all Hebrew legislation is embodied.
+Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, they include in the list of prophetic
+books, because they recognize the essentially prophetic purpose of the
+authors.  The other books belong to the third division of the Jewish
+canon, called the Writings.  Concerning the books of Kings, which are
+the principal historical books of the Old Testament, it has been truly
+said: "Kings, by virtue of its contents, belongs as much to the
+prophetical books as to the historical.  It is not a continuous
+chronicle; it is a book of prophetic teaching in which sometimes
+history, sometimes story, is employed as the vehicle of teaching.  It
+enforces the principle that God is the controlling power and sin the
+disturbing force in the entire history of men and nations.[20]  In a
+similar manner the religious purpose predominates in the other Old
+Testament historical books.  They do not pretend to give a complete
+history even of {149} the Hebrew people.  The writers embodied only
+such historical material as was thought to illustrate the
+self-revelation of God in the history of individuals and of the nation,
+or to bear in some marked way upon the coming of the kingdom of God.  A
+modern secular historian is disappointed at many omissions which would
+be unpardonable in a strictly historical production.  Now, it is
+readily seen that the religious purpose may be served, and the didactic
+value of the narrative may remain, even though historical inaccuracies
+in details should be discovered.
+
+Another fact to be remembered is the possible difference in the
+viewpoint of several narrators of one and the same event.  In sacred,
+as in secular history, the viewpoint of the author determines to a
+considerable extent the character of the narrative.  For example: the
+delineation of the events of the Civil War will not be the same in
+official documents, in a secular history, in a church history, or in a
+work containing personal memoirs.  Still other differences might be
+seen in narratives confined to special incidents.  Such differences in
+viewpoint may be noticed also among the writers of the Old Testament
+historical books.  Broadly speaking, part of the historical literature
+of the Old Testament is due to prophetic activity, part to priestly
+activity.  In writing history the prophets, with their broad interest
+in all the {150} affairs of the nation, resemble the modern secular
+historian.  They portray events more objectively than the priests,
+hence they are more reliable.  The priestly writers resemble the modern
+ecclesiastical historian, who judges everyone and everything according
+to their attitude toward the peculiar religious conceptions he
+represents.  The Old Testament contains also some personal memoirs (in
+Ezra and Nehemiah) and some narratives of special incidents (Ruth,
+Esther), while the historical books in their present form embody also
+what may have been official documents.
+
+Moreover, in estimating the reliability of the Old Testament historical
+books we must not overlook certain unconscious references and
+indications which show that the authors exercised considerable care in
+producing the books.  In the first place, historical statements appear
+to have been preserved with considerable care, at least so far as the
+substance is concerned.  This may be seen from the retention of
+parallel narratives of the same events, without attempts at harmonizing
+minor disagreements.  In the second place, history was written with
+some discrimination.  This is evident especially in Kings, where the
+several degrees in which certain of the kings departed from the
+legitimate religion of Israel are carefully indicated.  A clear
+distinction is made between the relatively pious kings, who simply did
+not {151} remove the high places (1 Kings 15. 14; 2 Kings 12. 3) and
+those who, in defiance of a fundamental principle (Exod. 20. 4, 5),
+desired to represent the spiritual God of Israel in images that would
+appeal to the senses (1 Kings 12. 28, 29; 14. 16, etc.), and those who,
+in defiance of the first requirement of the Decalogue (Exod. 20. 3),
+served other gods (1 Kings 16. 31-33; 18. 22, etc.).  Once more: in the
+Old Testament records we find evidence of the historical consciousness
+of ancient Israel resting upon a very sure foundation.  The Mosaic age
+was regarded as the supreme crisis in the national history.  Moses was
+the great hero; yet his grandeur was not able to extinguish the
+consciousness of the glory of the pre-Mosaic period.  Throughout the
+entire literature Abraham and Jacob and Joseph are also connected with
+the beginnings of the Hebrew nation and with the beginning of the
+religious mission of the people.  The memory of the pre-Mosaic period
+seems indeed to have been securely founded.
+
+What, then, are the results of this comparative study?  The Old
+Testament world has become a new world.  Dark regions were Egypt,
+Assyria, Elam, and other countries mentioned in the Old Testament
+before the explorers and excavators entered these lands.  Now it is
+comparatively easy to trace with considerable accuracy the boundaries
+of empires that existed in the first {152} and second millenniums B.C.
+In addition, we can fix with certainty the sites of some Old Testament
+cities whose location was previously unknown and, in some cases, whose
+very existence had been doubted.  The topography of cities like
+Nineveh, Nippur, and Babylon has become quite definitely fixed.
+
+The historical gains are even more remarkable.  Whole nations have been
+resurrected.  What did we know a century ago of Elam?  Nothing but the
+name.  What of Assyria?  Only a few traditions, sometimes
+untrustworthy, preserved by classical writers, and the statements of
+the Bible, some of which were unintelligible because of their
+fragmentary character.  Now these and other nations pass one after the
+other in review, great and powerful in all their ancient glory.  And,
+almost every day, new light is thrown on these early centuries.  Only a
+few years ago it was thought that Assyrian history, as distinct from
+that of Babylon, began about B.C. 1800; now we know the names of many
+rulers who lived generations and centuries before that date.
+
+The chronological gains are especially important.  It is generally
+admitted that Hebrew chronology is not always reliable, and various
+expedients have been resorted to to remove the difficulties.  It was
+very gratifying, therefore, to discover that the chronological system
+of the Assyrians was {153} more precise.  Among the inscriptions are
+especially three classes of public records in which the occurrences are
+carefully dated: (1) Records of the reigns of certain kings in which
+their activities are carefully arranged in chronological order; (2)
+business tablets in which transactions are definitely dated; and (3)
+the so-called eponym lists.  According to Assyrian custom, each year
+was named after a prominent official.  Lists of these were carefully
+made and kept, and, fortunately, large fragments of them have been
+preserved.  Two recensions of these eponym lists have come down.  In
+one only the names of the years are given; in the other references to
+important events are added to the names.  If, now, any one of these
+events can be dated, it becomes possible to trace the dates designated
+by the names on either side of the one whose date is first determined.
+By means of these lists and the other records the Assyrian chronology
+can be definitely fixed from about B.C. 900 on.  This, in turn, enables
+us to bring order into the chaos of Hebrew chronology during the most
+important period of the nation's existence.
+
+When we think of these and other gains, not the least of which is the
+discovery of the contemporaneous documents, the absence of which was at
+one time made the basis for the rejection of many statements found
+exclusively in the Old {154} Testament, we may gratefully receive this
+new light and rejoice in the advance in Bible knowledge made possible
+through the excavations.  What, now, is the general bearing of these
+discoveries on the trustworthiness of the Old Testament?
+
+In the first place, it is well to remember that for many periods of
+Hebrew history we are still entirely dependent on the Old Testament for
+direct information.  For example, Professor Clay's claim concerning the
+patriarchal age, that "the increase of knowledge gained through the
+inscriptions of this period has in every instance dissolved conclusions
+arrived at by those critics who maintain that the patriarchs are not to
+be regarded as historical,"[21] is not justified by the facts.  In
+reality, no incident in the patriarchal story is referred to in any of
+the inscriptions read thus far.  On the other hand, the age of the
+patriarchs has been wonderfully illuminated.  "Formerly the world in
+which the patriarchs moved seemed to be almost empty; now we see it
+filled with embassies, armies, busy cities, and long lines of traders
+passing to and fro between one center of civilization and another; but
+amid all that crowded life we peer in vain for any trace of the fathers
+of the Hebrews; we listen in vain for any mention of their names; this
+is the whole change archæology has wrought: it has given us an
+atmosphere and a background for the stories of Genesis; it is {155}
+unable to recall or certify their heroes."[22]  All that can be said in
+this, as in other cases, is, that archæology, by furnishing a broad
+historical background, has established the possibility of the principal
+events recorded in the biblical narratives being correct.  It is silent
+concerning the events themselves, and, therefore, neither confirms nor
+discredits them.
+
+A few cases there are, especially in connection with questions of
+chronology, where archæology has modified and corrected biblical
+statements.  According to the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser, for
+example, Menahem of Israel paid tribute to the Assyrian king in B.C.
+738, and there is reason for believing that this tribute was paid near
+the beginning of Menahem's reign for the purpose of securing the good
+will of Assyria.  In 734 or 733 Pekah is said to have been slain and to
+have been succeeded by Hoshea.  Now, according to the Old Testament,
+Menahem reigned ten years; his son, Pekahiah, two years, and Pekah
+twenty years, a total of thirty-two years.  Even if we assume that the
+tribute was paid by Menahem during his last year--which is not at all
+likely--there would remain twenty-two years to be provided for between
+738 and 734 or 733.  Evidently, the Old Testament figures are too high.
+A similar case is found in connection with events that took place only
+a few years later.  In 2 Kings {156} 18. 10 the statement is found that
+Samaria was taken in the sixth year of Hezekiah, king of Judah.  Then,
+verse 13 states that in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, Sennacherib,
+king of Assyria, came against Jerusalem.  The date of the capture of
+Samaria is definitely fixed by the Assyrian inscriptions.  The city
+fell either in the closing days of B.C. 722 or the opening days of B.C.
+721.  Assuming that it was 722, the fourteenth year of Hezekiah would
+be 714.  But Sennacherib did not become king until 705, and the attack
+upon Jerusalem was not made until 701.  Here, again, the biblical
+account seems to be inaccurate.
+
+In many other cases, however, remarkable confirmations are seen.  There
+are many persons and events mentioned in the Old Testament which are
+referred to also in the inscriptions.  Think of the long list of
+Babylonian and Assyrian kings named in the Old Testament; Amraphel,
+king of Shinar, at one time considered a mythical figure, is shown to
+have been one of the greatest generals, wisest administrators, and
+fairest lawgivers among the early kings of Babylon.  Sargon, whose very
+existence was once doubted, has in defiance risen from the dust.  In
+these and numerous other cases, especially from the ninth century
+onward--as may be seen from a comparison of the inscriptions quoted
+above with the corresponding portions of {157} the Old Testament--the
+archæological records furnish striking confirmations of the Old
+Testament narratives.  To sum up this entire inquiry: It must be
+apparent to every unbiased student that the monuments, when read
+intelligently, neither set aside nor discredit the Old Testament
+documents.  On the contrary, they prove their substantial accuracy.
+They may at times modify them, especially in questions of chronology;
+but they more frequently corroborate than impugn; thus they offer their
+services not as a substitute but as a supplement, by the aid of which
+we may study from without the history of the Hebrew people.
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER IV
+
+[1] An excellent account of the explorations and excavations in
+Babylonia and Assyria, and of the decipherment of the inscriptions is
+found in R. W. Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria, Vol. I,
+Chapters I-VIII; compare also H. V. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible
+Lands during the Nineteenth Century, Part I.
+
+[2] Preliminary reports of the results of the German excavations are
+given from time to time in the Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient
+Gesellschaft.
+
+[3] G. Steindorff, Excavations in Egypt, in H. V. Hilprecht,
+Explorations in Bible Lands, pp. 623-690.
+
+[4] Opening words of I. Benzinger, Researches in Palestine, in
+Hilprecht, Explorations, pp. 579-622.  A very complete discussion of
+explorations and excavations in Palestine may be found in F. Jones
+Bliss, Development of Palestine Exploration.  The {158} progress of the
+excavations is reported in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine
+Exploration Fund.
+
+[5] Opening words of the first lecture on "Babel and Bible."
+
+[6] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. xlviii.
+
+[7] A. T. Clay, Light on the Old Testament from Babel, Chapter XI.
+
+[8] The Chronology of the Old Testament, p. 97.
+
+[9] Egypt and Israel, p. 35.  Breasted also seems to think that the
+Israelites defeated by Merneptah had no direct connection with those
+who suffered in Egypt, A History of Egypt, p. 466; compare p. 410.
+
+[10] The Expositor, 1908, p. 199.
+
+[11] J. C. Ball, Light from the East, pp. 131, 132.
+
+[12] W. H. Bennett, The Moabite Stone; Hastings, Dictionary of the
+Bible, art., "Moab, Moabites."
+
+[13] Most of the inscriptions from this period on are found in D. G.
+Hogarth, Authority and Archaeology, Part I--Hebrew Authority, by S. R.
+Driver.  See also T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of the
+Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia; A. T. Clay,
+Light on the Old Testament from Babel; A. Jeremias, The Old Testament
+in the Light of the Ancient Orient; R. F. Harper, Assyrian and
+Babylonian Literature; S. R. Driver, Modern Research as Illustrating
+the Bible.  The most recent and most complete collection of cuneiform
+inscriptions throwing light on Old Testament religion and history is
+contained in R. W. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament,
+which appeared after this book had gone to press.
+
+[14] Formerly called Shalmaneser II; see Expository Times, February,
+1912, p. 238.
+
+[15] A translation of the entire inscription by R. W. Rogers is found
+in Records of the Past, New Series, Vol. VI, pp. 80ff.  These Records
+of the Past contain translations of the more important ancient
+inscriptions.
+
+{159}
+
+[16] The most important of these papyri is translated in the Biblical
+World, June, 1908, pp. 448ff.
+
+[17] Francis Brown, Assyriology--Its Use and Abuse in Old Testament
+Study, p. 3.
+
+[18] R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, Vol. II, p. 80.
+
+[19] Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I, col. 792, Note.
+
+[20] E. W. Barnes, The First Book of Kings, p. xxxiii.
+
+[21] A. T. Clay, Light on the Old Testament from Babel, p. 143.
+
+[22] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. liii, quoted in part from G.
+A. Smith, Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old Testament, p.
+101.
+
+
+
+
+{160}
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND COMPARATIVE RELIGION
+
+The present is an era of comparative study.  We no longer study
+subjects by themselves, but compare them with correlated experiences
+and phenomena.  "In the sphere of language study we have the science of
+comparative philology.  Language is compared with language.  By means
+of this comparison we have found that there are groups of languages
+closely related to one another; and, comparing these groups with one
+another, we have discovered certain universal laws of language.
+Comparing further the languages within each group, we ascertain the
+laws common to that group.  By such comparison a flood of light has
+been thrown on language.  We know Greek and Latin and Hebrew to-day as
+our predecessors did not know them."[1]  The same principle of
+comparison is now applied to the study of history, of literature, of
+philosophy, of ethics, and of religion, including the literature and
+religion of the Hebrews.  Men are laying to-day the entire Hebrew
+literature, history, and religion alongside of the literatures,
+histories, and religions of other {161} nations, testing them by the
+same methods and applying to them the same rules.
+
+What should be the attitude of the Christian toward this method of
+study?  When the science of comparative philology first asserted itself
+many good Christians set themselves against it, because one of its
+claims was that Hebrew is not the original language given by God to
+men.  Comparative philology has won its way, and Bible students are
+truly grateful for the light it has shed upon sacred scripture.  When
+the comparative study of the Scriptures was first advocated there were
+many timid souls who felt that this method of study was an attack upon
+the Bible, which could only issue in such an overturning of belief that
+the Church would remain helpless with a worthless Bible.  Hence they
+set themselves with all their might against the new study as an enemy
+of Christianity.  Is this the proper attitude?  In the first place, it
+is well to remember that the Bible has withstood all attacks for
+thousands of years.  Its great river of truth has flowed serenely on,
+watering the whole earth with its life-giving streams, and refusing to
+be dammed up by any foe.  Surely, history teaches that there need be no
+fear that any new method of study will bring about an end of the
+Bible's reign.  On the other hand, history teaches the folly of
+resisting the progress of science along any line of investigation.
+{162} True science will win its way just as surely as the teaching of
+the Bible will win its way into the hearts of men.  Hence it would seem
+the part of wisdom to encourage rather than to discourage the efforts
+of the comparative student of the Old Testament.
+
+As a matter of fact, we cannot do anything else unless we would
+stultify ourselves.  We have said to the adherents of every other
+religion: "You say your sacred books are divine, prove it; lay your
+books open before the jury of the world, let the critics scrutinize
+them, analyze them, criticize them, according to the canons of modern
+criticism by which they criticize all books."  And can we refuse to
+open our Bible before the jury of the world and bid it scrutinize,
+analyze, and criticize it according to the same canons which it applies
+to the Veda, the Koran, and other so-called holy books?  Would such an
+attitude be fair?  If we believe that the Bible is different from the
+sacred books of other nations, that it stands on a far higher plane,
+unique, needing no concealment and no bolstering up with traditions and
+doctrines--if that is our faith, then let us lay it down open before
+the world and challenge men to read it, study it, and compare it with
+all the sacred literatures of the world.  The man who really believes
+in the inspiration of the Bible ought not to be afraid of such a test.
+He may rest assured {163} that the comparative study of biblical
+literature and biblical religion will prove one of the things that work
+together for good to all those who have a living faith in God.
+
+An exhaustive discussion of the subject of this chapter would involve a
+study of all the great historical religions, known better to-day than
+ever before, and a comparison of them with the religion of the Old
+Testament.  This, however, could not be done satisfactorily within the
+limits of a single chapter.  It seems, therefore, advisable to confine
+the investigation to the religious beliefs, practices, and institutions
+of the nations with whom the Hebrews came into more or less close
+contact, such as the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians.  Political
+contact, which was common between these nations and the Hebrews, might
+furnish occasions for exerting influence in the realms of religion,
+law, and other elements of civilization.  "When alien races and diverse
+faiths confronted each other it might not always be the cause of war,
+but it was always the occasion of psychical conflict."[2]  Since the
+knowledge of the religions of the nations named has been supplied very
+largely through archæological labors, this inquiry is simply one phase
+of the broader question as to the bearing of archæology upon the Old
+Testament; more especially, the bearing of the archæological material
+of a religious and ethical nature {164} upon the uniqueness and
+permanent significance of the Old Testament religion.
+
+The importance of this study is suggested in the following quotation
+from a prominent Assyriologist, Hugo Winckler: "We come in the end to
+this, that we can distinguish only two views of the world which the
+human race has known in its historical development: the old Babylonian,
+and the modern empirical naturalistic, which is still in process of
+development and is yet struggling with the old one in many departments
+of life."[3]  To avoid misunderstanding respecting the extent of the
+Babylonian influence, he adds, "The view of the world and religion are
+one for the ancient Oriental."[3]  In this statement Winckler robs the
+Old Testament religion of all originality; he considers it simply a
+natural development of the Babylonian religion.  Friedrich Delitzsch,
+in his lectures on "Babel and Bible,"[4] expresses the same idea in a
+slightly modified form and attempts to show the predominance of
+Babylonian thought in the Hebrew conception of the origin of the world,
+the Fall, the Flood, life after death, angels, demons, the devil, the
+Sabbath, a large part of the sacrificial cult, the directions
+concerning the priesthood, the name and worship of Jehovah, and even in
+the monotheistic conception of Deity.  How much truth is there in these
+claims?  Or, to put the question in another form, If the religious
+{165} ideas expressed in the Old Testament have parallels among nations
+commonly called heathen, and if these extra-biblical ideas cannot be
+explained as dependent on the Bible, does it follow that the ideas of
+the Bible are appropriated from these nations, and if so, what becomes
+of the uniqueness, the sacredness, the inspiration of the Old
+Testament?  In order to answer the question adequately it is necessary
+to consider in detail the most important phases of the religious ideas
+of the Hebrews on the one hand, and of the nations with whom the
+Hebrews came in contact on the other.
+
+Fundamental to all religious thinking is the conception of Deity.  The
+origin of the Babylonian conception of Deity, which shows more striking
+similarities to the ideas of the Old Testament than do the conceptions
+of the other nations above mentioned, belongs to a period of which
+little or nothing is known.  But there are indications that a
+fundamental aspect of the earliest religion of the country was animism,
+that is, the belief that every object was possessed and animated by a
+spirit.  "Life was the only force known to man which explained motion,
+and, conversely, motion was the sign and manifestation of life.  The
+arrow which sped through the air, or the rock which fell from the
+cliff, did so in virtue of their possessing life, or because the motive
+force of {166} life lay in some way or other behind them.  The stars,
+which slowly moved through the sky, and the sun, which rose and set day
+by day, were living beings.  It was life which gave them the power of
+movement as it gave the power of movement to man himself, and the
+animals by whom he was surrounded."[5]  Besides this belief in animism,
+the Babylonian religion shows evidences of a belief in ghosts that were
+related to the world of the dead.  These ghosts were thought to
+exercise an evil influence upon men and could be cast out only by the
+use of incantations.
+
+But, while these elements belonged to the early religion, Babylonian
+religion as it actually meets us even in the earliest inscriptions has
+reached a higher stage of development.  There appear many local
+deities; every center of human habitation had its special patron deity;
+for example, Babylon was the city of Marduk; Nippur, of Enlil; Ur, of
+Sin; Sippara, of Shamash; Cuthah, of Nergal; Asshur, of Ashur; etc.
+These deities are usually associated with natural phenomena; foremost
+among them stand the sun and the moon; but by the side of these many
+other natural objects or forces were personified and deified.
+
+It is probable that in the beginning, as the result of limited
+observation and speculation, the number of gods in the Babylonian
+pantheon was relatively small.  However, in the course of time, {167}
+they became greatly multiplied as the result of a wider observation of
+the phenomena of nature, political changes, and theological
+speculation.  Over against this tendency to multiply deities there
+shows itself, in the course of the centuries, a tendency to diminish
+the number of gods, and in the end comparatively few remain, until in
+the late Babylonian period the worship seems to have been confined
+chiefly to Marduk, Nabu, Sin, Shamash, and Ishtar.  Some of the great
+thinkers of Babylonia seem to have gone even so far as to consider the
+various deities manifestation of the one god Marduk.  There is in
+existence a tablet of the Neo-Babylonian period which states that
+Marduk is called Ninib as the possessor of power, Nergal as lord of
+battle, Bel as possessor of dominion, Nabu as lord of business, Sin as
+the illuminator of the night, Shamash as the lord of right, Addu as the
+lord of rain, etc.[6]  It is seen, then, that monotheistic tendencies
+are not absent from the Babylonian religion.  But they never go beyond
+the realm of speculation.  "The Babylonians, with all their wonderful
+gifts, were never able to conceive of one god, of one god alone, of one
+god whose very existence makes logically impossible the existence of
+any other deity.  Monotheism transcends the spiritual grasp of the
+Babylonian mind."[7]  In the words of Delitzsch, "Notwithstanding all
+this, however, and despite {168} the fact that many liberal and
+enlightened minds openly advocated the doctrine that Nergal and Nebo,
+that the moon-god and the sun-god, the god of thunder, Ramman, and all
+the rest of the Babylonian pantheon, were one in Marduk, the god of
+light, still polytheism, gross polytheism, remained for three thousand
+years the Babylonian state religion--a sad and significant warning
+against the indolence of men and races in matters of religion, and
+against the colossal power which may be acquired by a strongly
+organized priesthood based upon it."[8]
+
+Even the most spiritual expressions of the Babylonian religion, the
+so-called penitential psalms, bear witness to the fact that the writers
+continued to worship many deities.  In one of the most spiritual of
+these psalms, the psalmist prays:
+
+  That the heart anger of my lord be appeased,
+  A god unknown to me be appeased,
+  A goddess unknown to me be appeased,
+  A known and unknown god be appeased,
+  A known and unknown goddess be appeased,
+  That the heart of my god be appeased,
+  The heart of my goddess be appeased,
+  God and goddess, known and unknown, be appeased.[9]
+
+Some of the hymns and prayers addressed to certain deities read almost
+as if the authors were monotheists.  But this is due simply to the fact
+that just at the time they are interested in the power or {169}
+splendor or favor of a specific deity.  Again and again the fact that
+they believe in the existence of other deities, and in their duty to
+pay homage to different deities, crops out.  At no period of the
+religious history of Babylonia is there any indication of a clear and
+well-defined monotheism.
+
+In Egypt also a tendency toward monotheism manifested itself,
+especially during the reign of Amenophis IV, soon after B.C. 1400,[10]
+that is, during the period when the Hebrews were in Egypt.  He tried to
+do away with the worship of many deities and to establish as the one
+supreme deity the orb of the sun; but after the death of Amenophis, who
+was considered a heretic, the new cult disappeared without exerting any
+noticeable influence on Egyptian religion.  There certainly is no
+evidence that either the Babylonian or the Egyptian monotheistic
+tendencies influenced in any direct way the development of Israel's
+religion.
+
+Turning now to the religion of the Old Testament, we soon discover that
+Hebrew religion, including the conception of Deity, passed through
+various stages of development, the earliest of these belonging to the
+period before Moses.  The first thing to be noted about this period is
+that, in spite of the close relation of the ancient Hebrews with
+Babylon, the early Hebrew conception of Deity does not seem to have
+been influenced in any marked manner by that of Babylonia; nor {170} is
+there any indication of Egyptian influence.  On the other hand, the
+oldest Hebrew conceptions show marked similarities with the religion of
+their nomadic neighbors, as reflected, for example, in the oldest
+traditions of the Arab tribes.  This does not mean that an indirect
+influence may not have been exerted by Babylon; indeed, the absence of
+such influence would be very strange in view of the fact that,
+according to Hebrew tradition, the truth of which cannot be doubted,
+the ancestors of the Hebrews came from Babylonia, from the city of Ur,
+the principal center of the worship of the Babylonian moon-god, Sin.
+
+The results of modern investigations into the nature of early Hebrew
+religion may be briefly stated as follows: Like the early Babylonian
+religion, the religion of Israel passed through a stage of animism.  In
+one form this is the belief in the activity of the spirits of recently
+deceased relatives.  But this becomes a religion only when it leads to
+the worship of the departed, that is, ancestor worship, of which there
+is no definite indication in the biblical material at our command.  But
+there is a form of animism of which there are traces in Israel as in
+Babylonia, namely, the worship of spirits that were believed to be the
+inhabitants and possessors of certain objects and places, like trees,
+stones, springs, which thereby assumed a sacred character.  To this
+form of {171} religion the name "polydemonism," which means the worship
+of many demons, is ordinarily given.  Demon, however, is to be
+understood here, not in the sense of evil spirit, but simply a divine
+being of an inferior order.  As illustrations of this belief, attention
+may be called to the sacred stone, Bethel, which gave the locality its
+name, "House of God" (Gen. 28. 19), or to the sacred oracular tree at
+Shechem (Gen. 12. 6; Deut. 11. 30), or to the sacred wells at Kadesh
+(Gen. 14. 7) and Beersheba (Gen. 21. 28-33).  In general, it may be
+said that during the pre-Mosaic period the religion of Israel, whatever
+may have been true of isolated individuals, was not essentially
+different from the religious conceptions of the people with which we
+have become better acquainted through modern exploration and
+excavation.[11]
+
+Another and very different conception appears from the time of the
+exodus on.  The most striking feature of this new conception is that
+the Israelites now worship one God, whom they consider their own
+peculiar Deity, while they look upon themselves as his own peculiar
+people.  True, the earlier conceptions did not disappear entirely or
+immediately; but for the religious leaders there was but one God who
+had a right to demand Israel's loyalty.  Jehovah, or Yahweh, was the
+name of this God, and the religious watchword was, "Jehovah, the God of
+Israel; Israel the people {172} of Jehovah."  Now archeology has shown
+the name "Yahweh" to have been used as a divine name long before the
+time of the exodus; but archæology has also shown that the conception
+of the nature and character of Yahweh held by the religious leaders of
+the Hebrews from the time of Moses on is peculiar to them.  Says R. W.
+Rogers, "There can, therefore, be no escape from the conclusion that
+the divine name 'Yahweh' is not a peculiar possession of the
+Hebrews."[12]  Then he continues: "At first sight this may seem like a
+startling robbery of Israel, this taking away from her the divine name
+'Yahweh' as an exclusive possession, but it is not so.  Yahweh himself
+is not taken away: he remains the priceless possession, the chief glory
+of Israel.  It is only the name that is shown to be widespread.  And
+the name matters little.  The great question is, What does this name
+convey?  What is its theological content?  The name came to Israel from
+the outside; but into that vessel a long line of prophets from Moses
+onward poured such a flood of attributes as never a priest in all
+western Asia from Babylonia to the sea ever dreamed of in his highest
+moments of spiritual insight.  In this name and through Israel's
+history God chose to reveal himself to Israel, and by Israel to the
+world.  Therein lies the supreme and lonesome superiority of Israel
+over Babylonia."[13]
+
+{173}
+
+Archaeology has revealed the pantheon of Babylonia and Assyria; the
+inscriptions have also set in a clear light the nature and character of
+the gods as conceived by their worshipers.  For example, the gods are
+looked upon as a part of the process of creation, as may be seen from
+the opening lines of the story of Creation:[14]
+
+  When no one of the gods had been called into being,
+  And none bore a name, and no destinies were fixed.
+  Then were created the gods in the midst of heaven.
+
+An idea of the character of these deities may be gathered from the
+description of a heavenly banquet scene in the same poem:
+
+  They made ready the feast, at the banquet [they sat],
+  They ate bread, they mingled the wine.
+  The sweet drink made them drunken ...
+  By drinking they were drunken, their bodies were filled.
+  They shouted aloud, their heart was exalted,
+  Then for Marduk, their avenger, did they decree destiny.
+
+Certainly, not all the religious thinkers of Babylonia held these low
+conceptions.  In some of their prayers and hymns they rise to lofty
+spiritual and ethical conceptions which compare quite favorably with
+expressions found in the Old Testament.  In a hymn addressed to
+Shamash, the sun-god, are found these lines:
+
+  Who plans evil--his horn thou dost destroy,
+  Whoever in fixing boundaries annuls rights.
+  The unjust judge thou restrainest with force.
+
+{174}
+
+  Whoever accepts a bribe, who does not judge justly--on him
+      thou imposest sin.
+  But he who does not accept a bribe, who has a care for the
+      oppressed,
+  To him Shamash is gracious, his life he prolongs.
+  The judge who renders a just decision
+  Shall end in a palace, the place of princes shall be his dwelling.
+      *      *      *      *      *
+  The seed of those who act unjustly shall not flourish.
+  What their mouth declares in thy presence
+  Thou shalt burn it up, what they purpose wilt thou annul.
+  Thou knowest their transgressions; the declaration of the
+      wicked thou dost cast aside.
+  Every one wherever he may be is in thy care.
+  Thou directest their judgments, the imprisoned dost thou
+      liberate.
+  Thou hearest, O Shamash, petition, prayer, and appeal,
+  Humility, prostration, petitioning, and reverence.
+  With loud voice the unfortunate one cries to thee.
+  The weak, the exhausted, the oppressed, the lowly,
+  Mother, wife, maid appeal to thee,
+  He who is removed from his family, he that dwelleth far from
+      his city.[15]
+
+Far be it from the writer to rob the religion of Babylonia of any of
+its glory.  Nevertheless, he ventures to assert without any fear of
+contradiction that we may search the pantheon of Babylon, from one end
+to the other, and we shall not find one god who in nature and character
+can compare with the Jehovah of Israel as proclaimed by the great
+prophets and glorified by the sweet singers of the nation, a God
+"merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abundant in loving-kindness
+and truth."  We may well speak of a "great gulf, {175} which is fixed
+between primitive Semitic conceptions of God and the noble spiritual
+views of him set forth under divine illumination by Isaiah."[16]  It is
+due to this fundamental difference in the conception of the nature and
+character of Deity that the religion of Israel became "a living and
+ethical power, growing and increasing until Jesus, greatest of the
+prophets, completed the message of his predecessors," and Christianity
+was born.
+
+From the conception of Deity we may pass to a brief consideration of
+religious institutions and beliefs.  One of the most important results
+of recent archæological discoveries has been to show that many of the
+religious rites, customs, and institutions of Babylonia and Assyria, as
+also of Egypt, resemble closely those assigned in the Old Testament to
+the Hebrews.  This cannot appear strange when we remember that Israel
+was a branch of the great Semitic race, which was, at the time of its
+separation from the common stock, in possession of many of the common
+Semitic notions and practices.  It would have been impossible to rid
+the Israelite consciousness of all of these; therefore the religious
+leaders of the Hebrews took the better way of retaining the familiar
+forms and pouring into them a new, higher, and more spiritual
+significance.
+
+One of the earliest religious institutions recognized in the Old
+Testament is the Sabbath.  The {176} very fact that it is mentioned in
+the story of creation shows that, whatever the reason for its
+observance among the Hebrews, it was recognized as a very ancient
+institution.  Has archæology thrown any light on the origin of the
+Sabbath day?[17]  In his first lecture on "Babel and Bible," Delitzsch
+answers the question in these words: "There can therefore be scarcely
+the shadow of a doubt that in the last resort we are indebted to this
+ancient nation on the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris for the
+plenitude of blessings that flows from our day of Sabbath, or Sunday,
+rest."[18]  This statement was soon criticized, because it seemed to
+give too much credit to the Babylonians, and Delitzsch later modified
+the statement and claimed, simply, that the Hebrew Sabbath ultimately
+is rooted in a Babylonian institution.[19]  No exception can be taken
+to this putting of the claim.
+
+What are the facts in the case?  (1) The Babylonians observed in a
+peculiar way the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth
+days of the month, that is, the days on which the moon entered a new
+phase.  They also observed the nineteenth day of the month, which was
+the forty-ninth day from the beginning of the preceding month.  These
+days were considered unlucky days, on which certain actions had to be
+avoided, at least by important personages, like the king, {177} priest,
+and physician.  The prohibition reads: "The shepherd (king) of the
+great nations shall not eat roasted nor smoked meat, not change his
+garment, not put on white raiment, not offer sacrifice; the king shall
+not mount his chariot, as ruler not pronounce judgment; the priest
+shall not give oracles in the secret place; the physician shall not lay
+his hand on the sick, the day being inauspicious for any affair
+whatever."  The Babylonians evidently observed these days by at least
+partial cessation of work, because nothing would prosper anyway on
+those days.  In contrast, it may be well to notice that in the Sabbath
+observance among the early Hebrews the humanitarian element played a
+prominent part.  (2) The name _Sha-bat-tu_ has been found in the
+inscriptions as an interpretation of the phrase, _um nuh libbi_, which
+means, a day for appeasing the heart (of the deity).  It would seem,
+therefore, that the Babylonian Sabbath was intended to be a day of
+atonement or supplication, which might imply cessation of ordinary
+labor, especially since the word _Sha-bat-tu_ may be identical in
+meaning with _gamaru_, to complete or finish, which leads naturally to
+the idea of rest, because the work is completed.  (3) There is no
+definite evidence that the five days mentioned were called
+_Sha-bat-tu_; the name is given rather to the fifteenth day of the
+month, which is the day of the full moon.
+
+{178}
+
+In the light of these facts it is not improbable that there is some
+connection between the Hebrew Sabbath and certain special days among
+the Babylonians; but, as in other cases, the Hebrews have given to the
+adopted institution a new significance.  Some of the changes introduced
+by the Hebrews are: (a) The Hebrews observed every seventh day without
+regard for the month or the year.  The Babylonians observed the
+seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days of each
+month, (b) The motive underlying the observance among the two people
+differs.  The earliest Hebrew legislation (Exod. 23. 12) would seem to
+indicate that humanitarian considerations are responsible for Sabbath
+observance, not religious superstition, (c) The Sabbath law of the
+Hebrews was binding on all.  According to our present knowledge, among
+the Babylonians only the leaders appear to have been affected.
+
+The Babylonians, Egyptians, and other ancient peoples had in addition
+to the Sabbath numerous other festivals, and it is not improbable that
+some of the Hebrew festivals are connected with these, though the exact
+relation is not yet determined.
+
+Archaeology has thrown much light on the complicated ceremonial system
+of the Old Testament, though it is an exaggeration to say that, "if we
+want to trace the origin of the late Jewish ceremonial of the Priest
+Code, we must look for {179} it in the cuneiform ritual texts of the
+Babylonians."[20]  Attention may be called here to a few of the more
+marked similarities between the Hebrew and Babylonian systems.[21]  (1)
+The Babylonian temple closely resembled the temple of Solomon.  Both
+had two courts, chambers for the priests, the sanctuary, and the Holy
+of holies.  Externally, both were mere rectangular boxes, without much
+architectural beauty or variety of design.  It was only in the
+possession of a tower that the Babylonian temple differed from the
+Hebrew, a difference due to a difference in the conception of Deity.
+The temples agreed even in the details of their furniture: the two
+altars of the Babylonian sanctuary are found again in the temple of
+Jerusalem; so also the mercy seat and the table of showbread.  The
+bronze sea of Solomon was modeled after a Babylonian original.  The
+twin pillars, which Solomon erected in the porch of the temple, have
+their counterparts in Babylonian sanctuaries.  Even the sacred ark
+seems to have had a Babylonian origin, though some would trace it to
+Egypt.  (2) Every great sanctuary had its chief priest.  Under him was
+a large number of subordinate priests and temple ministers, such as
+sacrificers, pourers of libations, anointers with oil, bakers,
+chanters, wailers, etc.  Connected with the sanctuaries were also the
+prophets, augurs, soothsayers, necromancers, etc.  {180} Though not all
+these classes of religious workers are found in connection with the
+Jewish sanctuaries, the chief priest and his subordinates are found
+there as well as in Babylon.  (3) Similarities in the details of the
+sacrificial system may be noted.  Libations were poured out before the
+deities, consisting originally, probably, of pure water, to which was
+subsequently added wine, made either from the palm or the vine.  All
+the first-fruits of the cultivated land were offered to the god; milk
+and butter and oil, dates and vegetables were given in abundance.  So
+too were spices and incense, brought from the southern coast of Arabia,
+the corn that was grown in the fields, garlic and other herbs from the
+garden, and honey from the hive.  Annual sacrifices were not forgotten.
+Oxen and calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, fish and certain
+kinds of birds, were slain upon the altar.  There are traces of human
+sacrifice, but, as among the Hebrews, the practice disappeared at an
+early date.  "Babylonia," says Sayce, "was the inventor of the
+tithe,"[22] which was paid by all classes, even the king.  One of the
+last acts recorded of the crown prince, Belshazzar, is the payment of a
+tithe, forty-seven shekels in amount, due from his sister to the temple
+of the sun-god at Sippara.  The daily sacrifice was a fixed custom.
+Several of the technical terms of the Old Testament are {181} found
+also in Assyrian.  For example: _torah_, law, has its counterpart in
+the Assyrian _tertu_; the biblical _kipper_, atonement, is the Assyrian
+_kuppuru_; _korban_, gift or offering, is the Assyrian _kurbannu_.  The
+names for animal sacrifice, _zibu_, for meal offering, _manitu_, and
+for freewill offering, _nidbu_, all are found in their Hebrew forms in
+the Old Testament.  As in the Hebrew legislation, a distinction is made
+between the offerings of the rich and the poor, and the sacrificial
+animal was to be without blemish.  The Babylonian priest retained
+certain parts for himself, which was also the custom among the Hebrews
+(Deut. 18. 3), though the parts retained are not the same in the two
+cases.  A ritual tablet shows that Babylonians sprinkled the blood of
+the lamb that was killed at the gate of the palace on the lintels, on
+the figures flanking the entrances, and on the doorposts to the right
+and the left, which has its parallel in the Hebrew passover ceremony.
+
+These illustrations, which by no means exhaust the list, reveal close
+similarities between the Hebrew ceremonial and that of the inhabitants
+of the Euphrates-Tigris valley, and the more we know of the Babylonian
+ritual, the more extensive and striking these resemblances become.
+They both start from the same principles and agree in many of their
+details.  Between them, however, lies that deep gulf which separates
+the religion of {182} Israel from that of Babylonia as a whole.  The
+one is monotheistic, the other polytheistic.  Upon the basis of this
+fundamental difference the religious leaders of Israel gave to the
+similar forms adopted from other nations a new and deeper meaning and
+significance.
+
+Like the Hebrew religion, the religion of Babylonia has its guardian
+angels.[23]  The Babylonian rulers stood in need of hosts of messengers
+to bear their behests into all quarters of their dominions.  In a
+similar manner, it was thought, the gods needed their heavenly hosts to
+carry out their commissions.  These angels are represented under
+various forms, but all of them are equipped with wings, so as to be
+able to carry upon the winds of heaven the commands of the gods to the
+children of men.  Sometimes they are represented with eagles' heads,
+perhaps to indicate that they possess the keenness of vision and the
+rapidity of flight of an eagle; sometimes they have human countenances
+to denote their human intelligence.  Frequently they appear as hybrid
+figures, with the body of a lion or bull, the wings of an eagle, and
+the head of a man, symbolizing strength, swiftness, and intelligence.
+
+The duties of these angels are manifold.  Those placed at the entrances
+of palaces or temples are to guard those entrances.  The peculiar
+relations of angels to men are suggested, for example, by {183} a
+letter of a Babylonian officer to the queen mother.  He writes: "Mother
+of the king, my lady, be comforted.  Bel's and Nabu's angel of mercy
+attends on the king of the land, my lord."  A letter addressed to
+Esarhaddon contains these words: "May the great gods send a guardian of
+salvation and life to stand by the king my lord."  And Nabopolassar,
+the founder of the Chaldean empire, and father of Nebuchadrezzar,
+writes: "To lordship over land and people, Marduk called me.  He sent a
+cherub of mercy to attend on me, and everything I undertook he aided."
+
+Alongside of these guardian angels there appear evil spirits and
+demons.  "These demons were everywhere: they lurked in every corner,
+watching for their prey.  The city streets knew their malevolent
+presence, the rivers, the seas, the tops of the mountains.  They
+appeared sometimes as serpents gliding noiselessly upon their victims;
+as birds, horrid of mien, flying resistlessly to destroy or afflict; as
+beings in human form, grotesque, malformed, awe-inspiring through their
+hideousness.  To these demons all sorts of misfortunes were ascribed:
+toothache, headache, broken bones, raging fever, outbursts of anger, of
+jealousy.  Did a man lie wasting of disease and torn of pain, a demon
+was thought to be within him, the disease being but a manifestation of
+his malevolence.  There could be no return of the precious boon of
+{184} good health until the demon was exorcised, and it was to the
+exorcising of demons that so large, so disproportionate a part of the
+religious literature of Babylon and Nineveh was devoted."[24]
+Sometimes demons are referred to in a manner which shows that the
+conception in Job 1. 6ff., Zech. 3. 1ff., of the Adversary, or the
+Satan, is closely related to the Babylonian conception of a demon as
+accuser, persecutor, or oppressor.
+
+The vision of the Old Testament is largely confined to this world.
+There is little hope for a man after he passes away from this earth.
+Indeed, there are some passages which would seem to imply the thought
+that with death existence came entirely to an end.  Compare, for
+example, Psa. 39.13:
+
+  Oh, spare me, that I may recover strength
+  Before I go hence, and be no more;
+
+or Job 14. 7-12:
+
+  For there is hope of a tree,
+  If it be cut down, that it will sprout again,
+  And that the tender branch thereof will not cease.
+  Though the root thereof wax old in the earth,
+  And the stock thereof die in the ground;
+  Yet through the scent of water it will bud,
+  And put forth boughs like a plant.
+  But man dieth, and is laid low;
+  Yea, man giveth up the ghost, and where is he?
+  As the waters fail from the sea,
+  And the river wasteth and drieth up;
+  So man lieth down and riseth not:
+  Till the heavens be no more, they shall not awake,
+  Nor be roused out of their sleep.
+
+{185} These are expressions of deepest despondency and despair over a
+life soon ended, never to be lived again here upon earth.
+
+However, by far the greatest number of Old Testament passages dealing
+with the subject express a belief in a continuous existence after death
+in Sheol.  Sheol is the place of departed personalities; the
+generations of one's forefathers are there: he who dies is gathered
+unto his fathers; the tribal divisions of one's race are there: the
+dead is gathered unto his people; and if his descendants have died
+before him, they are there, and he goes down to them, as Jacob to his
+son (Gen. 37. 35: "For I will go down to Sheol to my son mourning"),
+and David to his child (2 Sam. 12. 23: "I shall go to him, and he shall
+not return to me").
+
+There are only a few passages which go beyond this, expressing a hope
+of immortality or a resurrection.  There is, for example, the hope
+expressed in Psa. 16. 8-11:
+
+  I have set Jehovah always before me:
+  Because he is at my right hand, I shall not be moved.
+  Therefore my heart is glad, and my glory rejoiceth:
+  My flesh also shall dwell in safety.
+  For thou will not leave my soul to Sheol;
+  Neither wilt thou suffer thy holy one to see corruption.
+  Thou wilt show me the path of life:
+  In thy presence is fullness of joy;
+  In thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore.
+
+The hope expressed here is not a hope of a resurrection, but, rather, a
+hope that the psalmist will {186} be delivered from death and live in
+fellowship with God forevermore.  There are other passages which
+recognize the impossibility of escaping death, but express a hope that
+there will be a resurrection from death.  The most definite Old
+Testament teaching of a resurrection is in Dan. 12. 2, "And many of
+them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to
+everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt."
+
+These lofty hopes are peculiar to Israel.  But Israel's conception of
+Sheol shows very striking resemblances with the Babylonian conception.
+The descriptions found in Job, in the Psalms, in Isaiah, in Ezekiel and
+elsewhere, are hardly to be distinguished from those found in
+Babylonian literature.  The opening lines of Ishtar's descent into
+Sheol read:
+
+  To the land from which there is no return, the home of darkness,
+  Ishtar, the daughter of Sin, turned her mind,
+  Yea, the daughter of Sin set her mind to go;
+  To the house of gloom, the dwelling of Irkalla,
+  To the house from which those who enter depart not,
+  The road from whose path there is no return;
+  To the house where they who enter are deprived of light;
+  A place where dust is their nourishment, clay their food;
+  The light they behold not, in thick darkness they dwell;
+  They are clad like bats in a garb of wings;
+  On door and bolt the dust is laid.
+
+Compare with this Job 10. 21, 22:
+
+  Before I go, whence I shall not return,
+  To the land of darkness, yea deepest darkness,
+
+{187}
+
+  The land dark as midnight,
+  Of deepest darkness without any order,
+  And where the light is as midnight;
+
+or Job 7. 9, 10:
+
+  He that goeth down to Sheol shall come up no more,
+  He shall return no more to his house,
+  Neither shall his place know him any more.
+
+Other similarities may be noted: the Hebrew Sheol, like the Babylonian,
+was deep down in the earth; it is pictured as a cavern; silence reigns
+supreme, etc.  There is but one explanation for these similarities:
+When the ancestors of the Hebrews left their homes in the Euphrates
+valley they carried with them the traditions, beliefs, and customs
+current in that district.  Under new surroundings, and especially under
+the influence of their higher religion, new features were added and old
+conceptions were transformed.  But these changes were not able to
+obscure entirely the character impressed upon the older beliefs by
+contact with Babylon.
+
+Striking similarities are found also between the legal systems of
+Babylonia and Israel.  In the light of recent discoveries the study of
+ancient law begins to-day, not with the legal systems of Rome, or of
+Greece, or of Israel, but with the laws of early Babylonia.  Of the
+beginning of the Babylonian legal system we know nothing except a few
+popular traditions, which trace it back to some deity.  It is clear,
+however, that long {188} centuries before the time of Moses or Minos or
+Romulus the people living in the lower Euphrates-Tigris valley
+developed legal codes of a high and complex order.  In the legal phrase
+books of the later scribes there have been preserved seven so-called
+Sumerian family laws, written in the language of the people occupying
+the southern part of the Euphrates-Tigris valley before it came under
+the sway of the Semites.  These laws, in theme and literary form
+resembling later Babylonian and early Hebrew laws, were probably in
+existence in the fourth millennium B.C.; some of them may go even
+farther back.
+
+By far the most important Babylonian legal code now known is the
+so-called Code of Hammurabi.[25]  Hammurabi was known to Assyriologists
+long before the finding of his legal code.  He reigned in Babylon about
+B.C. 2000, was the sixth king of the first Babylonian dynasty, and the
+first permanently to unite the numerous small city states under one
+ruler.  He may, therefore, be called the founder of the Babylonian
+empire.  From his numerous letters and inscriptions, as also from other
+documents coming from the same period, he was known as a great
+conqueror and statesman, interested in the highest welfare of his
+people, and persistently laboring for the improvement of their
+conditions.  The Bible student has a special interest in Hammurabi,
+however, because in all {189} probability he is no other than the
+Amraphel of Gen. 14. 1.
+
+The monument on which the code is engraved was found during the winter
+1901-1902 by a French excavator in the acropolis of Susa, the scene of
+the book of Esther.  It is a block of black diorite, about eight feet
+in height.  When found it was in three pieces, which, however, were
+easily joined.  On the obverse is a bas relief representing the king as
+receiving the ruler's staff and ring from the sun-god Shamash, "the
+judge of heaven and earth."  Then follow on the obverse sixteen columns
+of writing, containing 1,114 lines.  There were five more columns on
+this side, but they were erased and the stone repolished, probably by
+the Elamite conqueror who carried the monument to Susa.  On the reverse
+are twenty-eight columns with more than 2,500 lines of inscription.
+The English Assyriologist, C. H. W. Johns, estimates that originally
+the inscription contained forty-nine columns, 4,000 lines, and about
+8,000 words.  About 800 lines are taken up by the prologue and
+epilogue, setting forth the king's titles, his glory, the extent of his
+rule, his care for his subjects, and devotion to his gods.  The
+inscription opens with a statement of his call by the gods to be the
+ruler of Babylon: "When the lofty Anu, king of the Anunaki, and Bel,
+lord of heaven and earth, he who determines the destiny {190} of the
+land, committed the rule of all mankind to Marduk, the chief son of Ea;
+when they made him great among the Igigi; when they pronounced the
+lofty name of Babylon, when they made it famous among the quarters of
+the world, and in its midst established an everlasting kingdom, whose
+foundations were firm as heaven and earth--at that time, Ami and Bel
+called me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, the worshiper of the gods, to
+cause justice to prevail in the land, to destroy the wicked and the
+evil, to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak, to go forth like
+the sun over the blackhead race, to enlighten the land and to further
+the welfare of the people."
+
+According to the closing statement of the prologue he faithfully
+executed this commission: "When Marduk sent me to rule the people and
+to bring help to the country, I established law and justice in the land
+and promoted the welfare of the people" (V. 14-21).  To better care for
+the welfare of the people he set up the code of laws.  In column XLI, a
+part of the epilogue, he says: "Let any oppressed man, who has a cause,
+come before my image as king of righteousness!  Let him read the
+inscription on my monument!  Let him give heed to my weighty words!
+And may my monument enlighten him as to his cause and may he understand
+his case!  May he set his heart at ease!" (1-19.)  He recognizes the
+value {191} of his law code and advises his successors on the throne to
+make good use of it: "In the days that are yet to come, for all future
+time, may the king who is in the land observe the words of
+righteousness which I have written upon my monument!  May he not alter
+the judgments of the land which I have pronounced, or the decisions of
+the country which I have rendered!  May he not efface my statues!  If
+that man have wisdom, if he wish to give his land good government, let
+him give attention to the words which I have written upon my monument!
+And may this monument enlighten him as to procedure and administration,
+the judgments which I have pronounced, and the judgments which I have
+rendered for the land!  And let him rightly rule his blackhead people;
+let him pronounce judgments for them and render for them decisions!
+Let him root out the wicked and evildoer from the land!  Let him
+promote the welfare of his people!" (59-94.)
+
+The epilogue closes with a blessing upon the king who will observe the
+laws, and curses upon him who will disregard or alter them (XLII-XLIV).
+The pronouncement of blessings is very brief; the curses are reiterated
+in various forms, and numerous gods and goddesses are appealed to by
+name to destroy the evildoer and his reign.  The section begins (XLII,
+2-49): "If that man pay attention to my words which I have written
+{192} upon my monument, do not efface my judgments, do not overrule my
+words, and do not alter my statues, then will Shamash prolong that
+man's reign, as he has mine, who am king of righteousness, that he may
+rule his people in righteousness."  It continues: "If that man do not
+pay attention to my words which I have written upon my monument; if he
+forget my curses and do not fear the curse of god; if he abolish the
+judgments which I have formulated, overrule my words, alter my statues,
+efface my name written thereon and write his own name; on account of
+these curses commission another to do so--as for that man, be he king
+or lord, or priestking or commoner, whoever he may be, may the great
+god, the father of the gods, who has ordained my reign, take from him
+the glory of his sovereignty, may he break his scepter and curse his
+fate!"
+
+Between the prologue and the epilogue is the law code proper.
+Originally there appear to have been 282 separate enactments (this is
+the estimate of the French Assyriologist, Father Scheil, who first
+edited the code, and is commonly accepted as correct); of these 66-99
+are now missing as a result of the erasure to which reference has been
+made.  The code covers a variety of topics.  Laws dealing with the same
+subject are ordinarily grouped together; sometimes the principle of
+arrangement is the class or profession concerned.  {193} A brief
+outline will give at least a general notion of its contents: 1, 2,
+False accusation of a crime; 3, 4, False witness and bribery; 5,
+Alteration of judgment by a judge; 6-8, Theft; 9-13, Concealing of
+stolen property; 14, Kidnapping; 15-20, Assisting in the escape of
+slaves; 21-25, Burglary and brigandage; 26-41, Rights and duties of
+officers, constables, and taxgatherers; 42-52, Renting of fields for
+cultivation; 53-56, Care of dykes and canals; 57, 58, Shepherds
+allowing their sheep to pasture on the fields of another; 59, Unlawful
+cutting down of trees; 60-65, Duties of gardeners; 66-99, (lost);
+100-107, Relation of merchants to their agents; 108-111, Regulations
+concerning wine-sellers, always women.  It may be interesting to note
+that with them the law was very severe.  Of the three crimes
+condemned--minor crimes at that--one is to be punished by throwing the
+wine-seller into the water, the second by putting her to death, the
+third by burning her.  112, Loss of goods intrusted for transportation;
+113-119, Securing settlement for debts; 120-126, Liability for
+deposits; 127, Slander; 128, Marriage contract; 129-132, Adultery,
+rape, and suspected unchastity; 133-143, Separation and divorce;
+144-149, Concubines; 150-152, Marriage dowry; 153, Murder of husband
+for the sake of another; 154-158, Illegitimate sexual intercourse;
+159-161, Breach of promise; 162-164, Disposition of dowry after the
+{194} death of the wife; 165-177, Inheritance of sons in polygamous
+relations; 178-182, Inheritance of priestesses; 183, 184, Inheritance
+of daughters of concubines; 185-194, Treatment of adopted children;
+195-214, Offenses against limb and life; 215-225, Operations by doctors
+and veterinary surgeons.  For example, "If a physician cause a man a
+severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause the man's death, or, in
+opening an abscess of a man with a bronze lancet, destroy the man's
+eye, they shall cut off his fingers" (218).  226, 227, Unlawful
+branding of slaves; 228-233, Liability of negligent builders.  For
+example, "If a builder build a house for a man, and do not make its
+construction firm, and the house which he has built collapse and cause
+the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to
+death" (229).  234-252, Hired animals--the injuries they cause or
+suffer; 253-277, Rights and duties of workmen; 278-282, Selling and
+treatment of slaves.  In addition to this very complete code there is a
+vast amount of information from both early and late periods concerning
+legal practices, to be gathered from the thousands of tablets recording
+business and legal transactions of various sorts: Marriage and dowry
+contracts, partnership agreements, records of debts and promissory
+notes, leases of land, houses, or slaves; records of sales of all kinds
+of property, mortgages, documents {195} granting the power of attorney;
+concerning adoption, divorce, bankruptcy, inheritance--in short, almost
+every imaginable kind of contract.
+
+Over against this complex legal system of Babylonia we may place the
+legal literature of the Hebrews.[26]  Anyone who approaches the study
+of Hebrew laws is met by two difficulties.  In the first place, the
+legal portions do not form separate books, but are embodied in writings
+belonging to other kinds of literature; in the second place, there is a
+lack of system in the arrangement of the laws.  The abrupt transitions
+from one subject to another are almost as marked as they are in the
+book of Proverbs.  "Civil and ceremonial, criminal and humane, secular
+and religious, ancient and late laws and precedents are all mingled
+together, with little trace of systematic arrangement."
+
+The legal literature is found mainly in the books of Exodus, Leviticus,
+Numbers, and Deuteronomy; outside the Pentateuch the most important
+piece of legislation is Ezek. 40-48.  This legal material may be
+separated from its surroundings and arranged by itself.  Indeed, this
+has been done, and modern scholars are quite generally agreed that the
+Pentateuch contains several distinct legal codes belonging to different
+periods in the history of Israel and reflecting different stages of
+political, social, and religious development: (1) The Decalogue; (2)
+the Book of the Covenant; (3) the {196} Deuteronomic Code; (4) the Code
+of Holiness; (5) the Priestly Code.  Of these five codes the last two
+are almost entirely religious and ceremonial, and as the similarities
+between the Babylonian and Hebrew ceremonial have already been pointed
+out, they need not be considered in this connection.  The other three
+contain much legislation concerning social, civil, and criminal
+relations, just like the Babylonian legal provisions, and therefore may
+be considered somewhat more in detail.  In connection with the
+Deuteronomic Code, however, it may be noted that three fourths of the
+laws in the earlier codes are reproduced in some form in Deuteronomy;
+so that for purposes of comparison, the Deuteronomic Code does not
+furnish many new elements.  It is seen, therefore, that for a
+comparative study, the Code of Hammurabi on the one hand, and the
+Decalogue and the Book of the Covenant on the other, furnish the most
+important material; and since the Code of Hammurabi contains no
+religious and ceremonial provisions, the material of that nature in the
+Hebrew codes may be omitted in this connection.
+
+That there exist similarities between the legislations of the two
+nations even a superficial reading will show.  One is immediately
+struck, for example, by the similarity in the application of the _lex
+talionis_: Ham. 196, "If a man destroy the eye of another man, they
+shall destroy his eye"; 197, "If one {197} break a man's bone, they
+shall break his bone"; 200, "If a man knock out the tooth of a man of
+his own rank, they shall knock out his tooth." With this compare Exod.
+21. 23-25, "Thou shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for
+tooth, burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe"; or
+Deut. 19. 21, "Thine eyes shall not pity; life shall go for life, eye
+for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot."  Compare also
+Lev. 24. 19, 20, "If a man cause a blemish in his neighbor; as he hath
+done, so shall it be done to him: breach for breach; eye for eye, tooth
+for tooth; as he hath caused a blemish in a man, so shall it be
+rendered to him."  This principle is applied very extensively in both
+codes in providing restitution for damage done.
+
+The use of "the oath of innocence" is also enjoined in both codes: Ham.
+249, "If a man hire an ox and a god strike it and it die, the man who
+hired the ox shall swear before god and shall go free."  With this may
+be compared Exod. 22. 10, 11, "If a man deliver unto his neighbor an
+ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or any beast to keep, and it die, or be
+hurt, or driven away, no man seeing it, the oath of Jehovah shall be
+between them both, whether he hath not put his hand unto his neighbor's
+goods, and the owner thereof shall accept it, and he shall not make
+restitution."  The illustrations might be multiplied manifold.  {198}
+Jeremias points out twenty-four similarities between the Code of
+Hammurabi and the Book of the Covenant alone;[27] which number is
+greatly increased if the comparison is extended so as to include the
+entire Pentateuch.
+
+The spirit permeating the two systems is one of humaneness and
+kindness.  Hammurabi describes himself as a shepherd chosen by the gods
+to care for his people, to lead them into safe pastures and to make
+them dwell in peace and security.  He compiled the code, "that the
+great should not oppress the weak; to counsel the widow and orphan, to
+render judgment and to decide the decisions of the land, and to succor
+the injured."  This is the same spirit that permeates the Pentateuchal
+legislation.
+
+The picture at the head of the code, representing Hammurabi standing
+before the sun-god Shamash, "the supreme judge of heaven and earth," is
+very suggestive, for it reminds one of the narrative in Exodus which
+represents Moses as receiving the Hebrew laws directly from Jehovah.
+
+Certainly, there are also differences between the two systems; and this
+is only what we should expect, since the civilization of Babylon was
+far in advance of and much more complex than that of the Israelites,
+even during the period of the latter's highest development.  Besides,
+the lower religious conceptions would inevitably influence the
+legislation.
+
+{199}
+
+Attention may be called also to some similarities between the Decalogue
+and certain requirements in Babylonia, the existence of which is
+implied in an incantation[28] in which these questions are asked: Has
+he broken into the house of his neighbor?  Has he approached the wife
+of his neighbor?  Has he spilled the blood of his neighbor?  Has he
+grasped the garment of his neighbor?  These questions would seem to
+imply the existence of laws like these: Thou shalt not break into the
+house of thy neighbor; Thou shalt not approach the wife of thy
+neighbor; Thou shalt not spill the blood of thy neighbor; Thou shalt
+not grasp the garment of thy neighbor.
+
+In view of all these similarities, the question naturally arises
+whether the Babylonian legal system exerted any influence upon the
+lawmakers of the Hebrews, for the resemblances are too close to be
+explained entirely on the basis of coincidence.  Those who admit some
+relation between the two legislations are not in agreement as to the
+nature of the connection.  Some hold that there is direct dependence;
+that the author or authors of the laws of the Pentateuch was or were
+acquainted with the laws of Hammurabi, and made these laws the basis of
+the Hebrew legislative system.  The possibility of such dependence
+cannot be denied.  Surely, an acquaintance with the Code of Hammurabi
+in the Arabian {200} desert or in Palestine at the time of the exodus
+or later cannot appear strange in view of the evidence of the
+Tel-el-Amarna tablets, showing that some time before the exodus
+intercourse between Babylon and the West was frequent; that religious,
+political, and literary influence was widespread, and that the language
+of Babylon was the _lingua franca_ throughout Canaan.  On the other
+hand, there are those who believe that the parallels and analogies
+between the two codes are due to the common Semitic origin of the two
+systems.  The Babylonians and the Hebrews were Semites, originally
+dwelling in a common home.  When they left this home they carried with
+them their common traditions, laws, customs, and practices.  In their
+new homes they developed them and impressed upon them their own
+individuality.  The result among the Hebrews, determined in a large
+measure by their peculiar religion, is seen in the legislation of the
+Pentateuch, while the outcome in Babylon is best represented by the
+Code of Hammurabi.
+
+Which of these two explanations is correct it may be impossible to say
+with absolute certainty.  To me it seems that both contain elements of
+truth.  Sometimes the one, sometimes the other may be correct, while in
+other cases the similarities may be due to coincidence.  In any case,
+the value of the Pentateuchal legislation remains {201} unaffected, for
+it depends, not upon its origin or process of growth, but, rather, upon
+its inherent spirit and character.
+
+Attention may further be called to the existence in Babylonia of
+stories showing almost startling resemblances to the accounts of the
+creation of the world, of the origin of man and of sin, of a Deluge,
+and other narratives contained in the first eleven chapters of the book
+of Genesis.  Several distinct creation stories, originating in
+different religious centers, have been handed down.  The most
+remarkable of these, called _Enuma elish_ (when above), from its
+opening words, has been deciphered from tablets found in the library of
+Ashurbanipal in the ruins of Nineveh.  These tablets represent a copy
+made in the seventh century B.C.  The time of the composition, or
+compilation of the story, is not known.  However, pictorial
+representations of some of the scenes in the epic, and allusions in
+other literary productions whose dates can be fixed, make it certain
+that the story, or at least the most important component elements of
+the story, existed before B.C. 2000.  In its present form it belongs to
+a period later than the elevation of Babylon to be the national center,
+which took place under Hammurabi, about B.C. 2000, for the chief place
+is assigned to Marduk, the god of Babylon.[29]
+
+Echoes of this story are found in several Old {202} Testament passages,
+especially in the poetic and prophetic writings.  In these Jehovah is
+represented as having contended with a great primeval monster, called
+in some passages Rahab, in others Leviathan, or Dragon.  This being
+seems to symbolize chaos, or to personify the primeval ocean, which
+existed when the process of creation began.  In the conflict between
+Jehovah and this monster the hostile creature and its helpers were
+overthrown, after which the heavens and the earth were created.  A few
+of these passages may be quoted:
+
+  O Jehovah God of hosts,
+  Who is a mighty one, like unto thee, O Jehovah?
+  And thy faithfulness is round about thee.
+  Thou rulest the pride of the sea:
+  When the waves thereof arise, thou stillest them.
+  _Thou hast broken Rahab in pieces, as one that is slain;_
+  _Thou hast scattered thine enemies with the arm of thy strength._
+  The heavens are thine, the earth also is thine:
+  The world and the fullness thereof, thou hast founded them,
+  The north and the south, thou hast created them (Psa. 89. 8-12).
+
+Rahab is a reflection of the Babylonian Tiamat; Jehovah takes the place
+of the Babylonian god, Marduk, the conqueror of Tiamat; the _enemies_
+are the _helpers_ of Tiamat mentioned in the Babylonian poem.  The
+order of events is the same in the two accounts: first the conflict,
+then creation.
+
+  He stirreth up the sea with his power,
+  And by his understanding _he smiteth through Rahab._
+
+{203}
+
+  By his Spirit the heavens are garnished;
+  _His hand hath pierced the swift serpent_ (Job 26. 12, 13).
+
+  God will not withdraw his anger;
+  _The helpers of Rahab do stoop under him_ (Job 9. 13).
+
+  Yet God is my King of old,
+  Working salvation in the midst of the earth.
+  Thou didst divide the sea by thy strength:
+  _Thou brakest the heads of the sea-monsters in the waters._
+  _Thou brakest the heads of leviathan in pieces;_
+  Thou gavest him to be food to the people inhabiting the wilderness.
+  Thou didst cleave fountain and flood:
+  Thou driedst up mighty rivers.
+  The day is thine, the night also is thine:
+  Thou hast prepared the light and the sun.
+  Thou hast set all the borders of the earth:
+  Thou hast made summer and winter (Psa. 74. 12-17).
+
+
+The similarities between the Babylonian story called _Enuma elish_ and
+the narrative of creation in Gen. 1 are especially pronounced: (1) Both
+accounts recognize a time when all was chaos.  In the Babylonian
+conception this chaos is personified in Tiamat; in Gen. 1. 2 occurs the
+word _tehom_, translated "deep," which is the same as Tiamat, changed
+but slightly in passing from one language to the other.  (2) In Genesis
+light dispels darkness and order follows; in the Babylonian account,
+Marduk, the god of light, overcomes the demon of chaos and darkness.
+(3) The second act of creation is the making of the firmament, which
+"divided the waters which were under the {204} firmament from the
+waters which were above the firmament" (Gen. 1. 6-8); in the Babylonian
+poem the body of Tiamat is divided and one half becomes the firmament
+to keep the heavenly waters in place.  (4) The third and fourth acts of
+creation in the Hebrew story are the creation of earth and the
+beginning of vegetation (Gen. 1. 9-13); the corresponding Babylonian
+story has been lost, but it seems quite probable that these acts were
+described in the same order on the fifth tablet.  Berosus, in his
+summary of the Babylonian account, says that Bel formed the earth out
+of one half of Omorka's body--Omorka is probably a corruption of
+_Ummu-Khubur_, a title of Tiamat--and as in every instance where the
+narrative of Berosus has been tested it has proved to be correct, we
+may assume that in this also he gives a correct reproduction of the
+Babylonian tradition.  Moreover, at the beginning of the seventh tablet
+Marduk is hailed as "bestower of fruitfulness," "founder of
+agriculture," "creator of grain and plants," he "who caused the green
+herb to spring up."  (5) The fifth act of creation is the making of the
+heavenly bodies (Gen. 1. 14-19).  With this the Babylonian parallel
+shows close similarities, for it states that Marduk
+
+  Made the stations for the great gods,
+  The stars, their images, as the constellations he fixed,
+  He ordained the year, marked off its divisions.[30]
+
+{205}
+
+(6) The sixth and seventh acts of creation were the creation of fishes
+and birds and of land animals (Gen. 1. 20-25): the Babylonian parallels
+in _Enuma elish_ are wanting at present; but Berosus hints that they
+were created at the same time as man, so that it is probable that the
+account of these acts of creation appeared somewhere in the lost
+portions of the fifth or sixth tablet.  From allusions in other
+writings we learn that Marduk was looked upon as the creator of the
+animals and other living creatures of the field.  (7) The eighth act of
+creation, that of man (Gen. 1. 26-31), finds its parallel upon the
+sixth tablet:
+
+  When Marduk heard the word of the gods
+  His heart moved him and he devised a cunning plan.
+  He opened his mouth and unto Ea he spoke,
+  That which he had conceived in his heart he made known unto him.
+  "My blood will I take and bone will I fashion,
+  I shall make man that man may ...
+  I shall create man, who shall inhabit the earth,
+  That the service of the gods may be established and that
+      their shrines may be built."[31]
+
+
+In order to estimate rightly the relations between the Babylonian and
+Hebrew accounts the differences between the two must also be noted.  To
+begin with, the order of the separate acts of creation is not quite the
+same.  For example, in the Babylonian account, the creation of the
+heavenly bodies follows immediately upon the {206} making of the
+firmament, while in the Hebrew story it follows the making of the earth
+and the springing up of vegetation.  Certainly, this difference is of
+no special significance, and the change may easily be explained as due
+to the desire of the Hebrew writer to crowd the creative acts into the
+six working days of the week.  The real difference is more fundamental
+and appears especially in the conception of the nature and character of
+Deity.  The Babylonian story opens with these words:
+
+  When above the heaven was not named
+  And beneath the earth bore no name,
+  And the primeval Apsu, who begat them,
+  And Mummu-Tiamat, the mother of them all--
+  Their waters were mingled together,
+  And no reed was formed, no marsh seen,
+  _When no one of the gods had been called into being,_
+  [And] none bore a name, and no destinies [were fixed],
+  _Then were created the gods in the midst of_ [_heaven_].
+
+Compare with this the simple, yet majestic, conception, "In the
+beginning God created the heavens and the earth."  In one case many
+gods, in the other one God almighty; in one case the gods are a part of
+the process of creation, in the other the uncreated God is in the
+beginning.  Genesis presents God as almighty, but also as kind,
+beneficent, loving; Marduk, the Babylonian creator, is represented as a
+great hero, but exceedingly selfish.  He undertakes the mighty task of
+{207} overcoming Tiamat only after making arrangements for a suitable
+reward.  The description of the heavenly banquet scene, to which
+reference has been made earlier in the chapter, implies a conception of
+the character of the gods which is separated by an impassable gulf from
+the Old Testament ideal.
+
+No one can read with an unbiased mind the two accounts without
+realizing the great differences between the mythological, polytheistic
+account of the Babylonians and the simple, solemn, sublime,
+monotheistic picture in Genesis.  The soberness, the dignity, the
+simplicity of the Hebrew account lift it far above its Babylonian
+counterpart.  From it the crude nature myths have all been stripped
+away.  No drunken gods hold revels in its solemn lines.  Above and
+behind and in all is one righteous and beneficent God.  In this sublime
+ethical monotheism the Hebrew story rises infinitely above the story
+that originated in the Euphrates-Tigris valley.
+
+Another Babylonian tradition, the close relation of which to the
+biblical account has long been recognized, is the story of the Deluge.
+In its cuneiform text it was first discovered on fragments of tablets
+brought from the library of Ashurbanipal.  But that the Babylonians
+possessed a story of the Flood was known before from an outline
+preserved by Berosus.  The tradition brought to {208} light by
+archæology forms an episode in an epic which narrates the exploits of
+Gilgamesh and occupies the eleventh of the twelve parts into which the
+epic is divided.  Gilgamesh sprang from a city, Shurippak, which
+afterward completely disappeared.  He became king of Erech, where he
+ruled as a tyrant until the gods created Ea-bani to destroy him.  The
+two, however, became bosom friends.  Together they delivered Erech from
+the Elamite oppressor, Khumbaba.  Ishtar, the goddess of love, then
+offered her hand to Gilgamesh in marriage, which he spurned with scorn.
+Out of revenge, she sent a scorpion, whose sting proved fatal to
+Ea-bani.  Gilgamesh himself she smote with an incurable disease.  To
+find relief, the latter set out for the dwelling place of his
+great-grandfather, Ut-napishtim, far away on the isles of the blessed.
+When he finally reaches him the latter tells him all about the great
+Flood from which he escaped to enjoy eternal life.[32]
+
+The most striking resemblances between the Babylonian and Hebrew
+stories of the Flood may now be noted: (1) Compare the instruction
+given by God to Noah (Gen. 6. 13-22) with the words addressed by the
+god Ea to Ut-napishtim:
+
+  O man of Shurippak, son of Ubaratutu,
+  Pull down thy house, build a ship,
+  Leave thy possessions, take thought for thy life,
+
+{209}
+
+  Thy property abandon, save thy life,
+  Bring living seed of every kind into the ship.
+  The ship that thou shalt build,
+  So shall be the measure of its dimensions,
+  Thus shall correspond its breadth and height,
+  Into the ocean let it fare.[33]
+
+(2) In both accounts the destruction is due to sin.  This is definitely
+stated in Gen. 6. 5-7.  For the Babylonian story it is implied in the
+rebuke given to Bel by Ea:
+
+  On the sinner lay his sin,
+  On the transgressor lay his transgression.
+  Forbear, let not all be destroyed.[34]
+
+(3) In both accounts, only a seed of life sufficient to replenish the
+earth is saved.  Compare Gen. 6. 19, 20 with the command, "Bring living
+seed of every kind into the ship," or with the statement:
+
+  I brought into the ship my family and household;
+  The cattle of the field, the beasts of the field, craftsmen, all
+      of them I brought in.[35]
+
+(4) Both stories tell of a great storm and deluge of water.  Gen. 7. 11
+reads, "The fountains of the great deep were broken up, and the windows
+of heaven were opened.  And the rain was upon the earth forty days and
+forty nights."  Compare with this:
+
+  The dawning of that day I feared,
+  I feared to behold that day.
+  I entered the ship and closed the door.
+  When the first flush of dawn appeared
+  There came up from the horizon a black cloud.
+
+{210}
+
+  Adad thundered within it,
+  While Nabu and Marduk went before.
+  They go as messengers over mountain and valley.
+  Nergal bore away the anchor.
+  Ninib advances, the storm he makes to descend.
+  The Anunaki lifted up their torches,
+  With their brightness they light up the land.
+  Adad's storm reached unto heaven,
+  All light was turned into darkness,
+  It [flooded] the land like ...
+  ........ the storm
+  Raged high, [the water climbed over] the mountains,
+  Like a besom of destruction they brought it upon men.[36]
+
+(5) In both instances the structure rests upon a mountain in the north.
+Gen. 8. 4 reads, "And the ark rested ... upon the mountains of Ararat,"
+that is, Armenia.  The Babylonian story reads:
+
+  To the land of Nisir the ship made its way,
+  The mount of Nisir held it fast that it moved not.[37]
+
+Mount Nisir is east of the upper Tigris. (6) In both cases birds are
+sent out to ascertain the condition of the land.  Compare Gen. 8. 6-12
+with these lines:
+
+  When the seventh day approached
+  I sent forth a dove and let her go.
+  The dove flew to and fro,
+  But there was no resting place and she returned.
+  I sent forth a swallow and let her go;
+  The swallow flew to and fro,
+  But there was no resting place, and she returned.
+  I sent forth a raven and let her go;
+  The raven flew away, she saw the abatement of the waters,
+
+{211}
+
+  She drew near, she waded (?), she croaked, and came not back.
+  Then I sent everything forth to the four quarters of heaven.[38]
+
+(7) Sacrifice is offered by Noah and Ut-napishtim, acceptable to the
+God of Noah and to the gods of the Babylonian hero, in both cases
+resulting in a promise not to repeat the Flood.  Compare Gen. 8. 20-22
+with:
+
+        I offered sacrifice,
+  I made a libation upon the mountain's peak.
+  By sevens I set out the sacrificial vessels,
+  Beneath them I heaped up reed and cedar wood and myrtle.
+  The gods smelt the savor,
+  The gods smelt the sweet savor,
+  The gods gathered like flies over the sacrificer.[39]
+
+Other similarities might be noted, such as the use of bitumen, the
+arrangement of the ship in stories, and, what seems more striking, the
+fact that the hero of the Babylonian story is the tenth antediluvian
+king, while Noah is the tenth antediluvian patriarch.
+
+As in the stories of creation, marked differences may also be noted
+between the two representations of the Flood; and these differences
+appear where they are most significant, namely, in the spirit and
+purity of conception permeating the entire Hebrew account.  For
+example, the book of Genesis introduces the divine displeasure with
+sin, the ethical element, as a fundamental note; then, {212} when the
+divine mercy is aroused, the Flood ceases; according to the Babylonian
+story, the Flood is caused by the capricious anger of Bel, the idea of
+punishment for sin cropping out only as an incident in the conversation
+between Ea and Bel at the end of the story.  The Flood ceases because
+the other gods are terrified, and Ishtar intercedes for her own
+creation.  Moreover, the whole Hebrew conception of the Divine differs
+from the Babylonian.  In the Hebrew account we find ourselves in an
+atmosphere of ethical monotheism that is unknown apart from the chosen
+people.  Disappeared have all the gods who war with one another, who
+rejoice in successful intrigues, who do not hesitate to tell untruths
+or instruct their favorites to do so; the gods unstable in all their
+ways, now seeking to destroy, now flattering their creatures; the gods
+who, terrified by the storm, "cower like dogs" at the edge of heaven,
+and who "gathered like flies" around the sacrifice of the saved hero.
+All these characteristic features of the Babylonian account are absent
+from the Bible.  Surely, there is no connection between these deities
+and the one sublime and gracious God of Genesis.
+
+Lack of space will not permit us to institute detailed comparisons
+between other narratives in the early chapters of Genesis and
+Babylonian literature.  It may be sufficient to say that the {213}
+resemblances are not confined to the stories of creation and of the
+Flood.  True, no complete Babylonian story of paradise and of the fall
+is at present known; nevertheless, there are certain features in the
+biblical narrative which strongly point to Babylonia, and in the light
+of the known fact that elements in the two important narratives of
+creation and of the Flood are derived from Babylonia, it may be safe to
+infer that in this case also echoes of Babylonian beliefs supplied, at
+least in part, the framework of the Hebrew representation.  The
+antediluvian patriarchs also seem to have their counterparts in
+Babylonian tradition, and the story of the Tower of Babel, though it
+does not seem to be of Babylonian origin, presupposes a knowledge of
+Babylonia, and it is not impossible that some Babylonian legend served
+as the basis of it.
+
+In closing this discussion, attention may be called to a few general
+considerations that must be borne in mind in any attempt to answer the
+question whether the religious and ethical ideas of the Hebrews which
+show similarities with the ideas of other nations were borrowed bodily
+from these nations, or, after all, contain elements that were original
+with the Hebrews.
+
+In the first place, it must be remembered that similarities between the
+customs or beliefs of two peoples do not necessarily imply the
+dependence {214} of one upon the other; much less do they indicate
+which is the original.  Where similarities are found at least four
+possibilities should be recognized: A may depend upon B; B may depend
+upon A; both A and B may have been derived from a common original; or A
+and B may have developed independently, the similarities being merely
+coincidence.  Which interpretation is the right one in a given case
+does not lie on the surface; it is only by careful, patient, unbiased
+study that one may arrive at a proper understanding.  Take as an
+illustration the Decalogue.  The Buddhists have "ten prohibitory laws,"
+sometimes called the "Buddhist Decalogue."  The first five read, "Thou
+shalt not kill; Thou shalt not steal; Thou shalt not lie; Thou shalt
+not commit adultery; Thou shalt not get drunk."  Three of these
+correspond exactly to three of the demands in the Jewish Decalogue.
+Does it necessarily follow that the Decalogue was borrowed from Buddha?
+The Egyptians also had a sacred law.  The law itself has not yet come
+to light, but the Book of the Dead indicates its existence.  In the one
+hundred and twenty-fifth chapter of this book we read the
+justifications offered by the dead: "I have not acted with deceit or
+done evil to men; I have not oppressed the poor; I have not judged
+unjustly," etc.  These negations seem to imply the existence of a law,
+either oral or written, {215} forbidding these things.  From the
+negations, "I have not acted with deceit; I have not committed murder;
+I have not been unchaste," etc., one may infer that the Egyptians had
+precepts corresponding substantially to some of the requirements in the
+Decalogue.  Does logic demand, therefore, the conclusion that the
+Decalogue owes its existence to the sacred law of the Egyptians?  Among
+the Babylonians also we find evidence of the existence of, at least,
+some of the requirements of the Hebrew Decalogue: "Thou shalt not break
+into the house of thy neighbor; Thou shalt not approach the wife of thy
+neighbor; Thou shalt not spill the blood of thy neighbor; Thou shalt
+not grasp the garment of thy neighbor."  Do these similarities prove
+beyond question the dependence of the one upon the other?
+
+There are, then, marked resemblances between the Hebrew Decalogue,
+certain requirements among the Babylonians, among the Egyptians, and
+among the Buddhists.  I know of no one who claims that the Decalogue
+was borrowed from Buddha; some, however, seem to think, that in part at
+least, it was dependent upon Babylon; others, that Moses is indebted
+for it to Egypt.  True, in the minds of most scholars the dependence is
+not direct; there would be room, according to their theory, for the
+work of the Spirit in the selection of these fundamental, ethical
+conceptions {216} from the great mass of requirements, the majority of
+which are far inferior to the Decalogue.  Such dependence, even if it
+could be proved, would not rob the Decalogue of inspiration or
+permanent value; but it seems to me that the similarities do not
+warrant the claim of even such dependence.  Is it not more likely that
+these similarities are due to the instinct implanted in man by the
+Creator, which recognizes the sanctity of life, of family relations,
+and of property rights?  But this instinct does not account for the
+obvious differences between the Hebrew Decalogue as a whole and the
+legislations of other peoples.  These must be traced to the special
+activity of a Spirit who produced among the Hebrews a collection of
+commandments such as natural instinct, if left to itself, could not
+have produced.
+
+It is different, perhaps, when we consider the relation of the more
+comprehensive civil legislation of the Pentateuch to the Code of
+Hammurabi.  There the resemblances are numerous and striking enough to
+justify the inference that there exists some relation of dependence,
+and yet by no means that the legislation of the Pentateuch is borrowed
+directly from the other, or even that there is a literary dependence.
+How extensive this dependence is only careful examination can show;
+but, however complete, it will not destroy the fact that the laws of
+Israel are permeated by a Divine {217} Spirit.  The important question
+is not, Where do we find the natural basis upon which the system is
+built up by men under divine guidance? but, Does the spirit and
+character of the system indicate such guidance?
+
+In the second place, in seeking the truth about this relationship
+assumption must not be confused with knowledge.  Modern archæologists
+seem to be in peculiar danger of taking things for granted.  It is not
+without reason that a prominent Old Testament scholar proposes to
+change the title of the third edition of a book entitled The Cuneiform
+Inscriptions and the Old Testament into The Cuneiform Scholar and the
+Old Testament.  It is stated, for example, without qualification by
+Delitzsch that the name "Yahweh" has been discovered on inscriptions
+belonging to the period of Hammurabi.  No hint is given that the
+reading is questioned by many Assyriologists.  There is, at least, a
+possibility, no matter how small, of a different rendering, with, of
+course, a vastly different conclusion.  But admitting, as I believe we
+must do, that the name does occur, the inference drawn from this
+occurrence by Delitzsch, and expressed in the following words, is an
+assumption and misleading, unless it is materially modified: "Yahweh,
+the abiding one, the permanent one, who, unlike man, is not to-morrow a
+thing of the past, but one that endures forever, that {218} lives and
+labors for all eternity above the broad, resplendent, law-bound canopy
+of the stars--it was this Yahweh that constituted the primordial
+patrimony of those Canaanite tribes from which centuries afterward the
+twelve tribes of Israel sprang."[40]  The fact is that you may search
+the Babylonian pantheon from one end to the other and you will not find
+one god who in nature and character can compare with the Jehovah of
+Israel, "merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abundant in
+loving-kindness and truth."
+
+Another instance of the same character is the story of the fall.  One
+thing we know, namely, that a story of the fall of man, similar to that
+in Genesis, has not as yet been found among the fragments of Babylonian
+libraries.  Certainly, such story may have existed, and probably did
+exist; it may even be, as has been asserted, that some connection
+exists between the scriptural story of the fall and the picture on an
+old Babylonian seal cylinder having in the center a tree with fruits
+hanging down, on each side a figure, and behind the figure at the left
+a mark which may represent a serpent.  But the interpretation is by no
+means certain.  The fact that an assertion is made by an expert favors
+the presumption, but does not prove, that the statement is true.
+
+Some archæologists claim that the monotheism of Israel was derived from
+outside of Israel, {219} either from Arabia[41] or from Babylonia[42].
+Among the arguments in favor of this claim is the occurrence of proper
+names which are alleged to imply the existence of monotheism; for
+example, _Yasma-ilu_, which may be translated "God hears," implying the
+existence of but one God.  However, it might mean also "_a_ god hears,"
+or "god"--referring to one of many--"hears," the giver of the name
+singling out the one for special consideration.  And as there are clear
+indications of polytheism in southern Arabia, where the name is found,
+the name, in all probability, means the latter, thus implying
+polytheism.  The same may be said of the names found in Babylonia.
+Whatever the primary meaning of _ilu_, these names do not in themselves
+prove the existence of monotheism.  They may be translated in perfect
+accord with logic and grammar as admitting the existence of more than
+one god.  Indeed, the historical facts demand such interpretation.  If
+we find, for example, "Sin-muballit" ("the moon-god brings to life") as
+the name of the father of Hammurabi, and "Shamshu-iluna" (in all
+probability, "the sun-god is our god") as that of his son, the facts
+surely indicate that the monotheism of the period was not very
+distinct.  The testimony of the Code of Hammurabi points in the same
+direction, as also the most spiritual utterances of religion in the
+Euphrates valley, the penitential psalms.
+
+{220}
+
+It is seen, then, that facts do not warrant the claim, made by some,
+that that upon which rests the significance of the Bible in the world's
+history, namely, monotheism, was taken over by the Hebrews from the
+Babylonians.  Josh. 24. 2 remains uncontradicted: "Your fathers dwelt
+of old time beyond the River, even Terah, the father of Abraham, and
+the father of Nahor; and _they served other gods_."  It is only in
+Israel that we find a clearly developed monotheism.  Assumption and
+facts are not quite the same.
+
+Another important point, to which attention has already been called, is
+the marked difference which obtains between the literature of the Old
+Testament and that uncovered by archæology.  True, there are points of
+contact; indeed, strange it would be if there were none; for, like the
+Babylonians, the Hebrews were Semites.  Surely, it is not strange that
+nations of the same race, originally in the same home, should possess
+similar traditions, customs, beliefs, and practices.  When they left
+their common home they carried with them their common traditions,
+customs, and beliefs; in their new homes they developed them and
+impressed upon them their own individualities.  We are nowhere informed
+in the Old Testament, and it would seem contrary to reason to suppose,
+that at the time of Abraham, Moses, or at any other period, God emptied
+the Hebrew mind and {221} consciousness of all the things which had
+been the possession of the Semitic race from the beginning.  Is it not
+more likely that the inspired teachers and writers employed for their
+loftier purposes the ancient traditions and beliefs familiar to their
+contemporaries?  In doing so they took that which was, in some cases,
+common and unclean, and, purifying it under the guidance of the Divine
+Spirit, made it the medium by which to impart the sublimest truths ever
+presented to man.  Obviously, the special religious value of the Old
+Testament literature does not lie in what is common to it and Babylon,
+but in the elements in which they differ.
+
+The points of contact must not blind the eye to the points of contrast.
+These points of contrast are in the spirit and atmosphere pervading the
+Hebrew Scriptures, which are quite distinct, not simply from
+Babylonian, but from all other literatures.  These essential
+differences occur, as we have seen, throughout the entire religious and
+ethical literature.  In many cases is agreement in form, but how far
+superior the spirit and substance of the Hebrew!  Think of the
+different conceptions of the nature and character of God, of God's
+relation to man, of the divine government of the world, and many other
+truths precious to Christians in all ages.  There is, indeed, in the
+Hebrew record "an intensity of spiritual {222} conception, a sublimity
+of spiritual tone, an insight into the unseen, a reliance upon an
+invisible yet all-controlling Power, that create the gap between the
+Hebrew and his brother Semite beyond the River."
+
+How are we to account for these differences?  Professor Sayce has
+suggested an answer in these words: "I can find only one explanation,
+unfashionable and antiquated though it be.  In the language of a former
+generation, it marks the dividing line between revelation and
+unrevealed religion.  It is like that something hard to define which
+separates man from the ape, even though on the physiological side the
+ape may be the ancestor of man."[43]  Though the language of this
+statement may be unfortunate, especially where it implies that there is
+no revelation in the ancient religions outside of the Old Testament, it
+does call attention to the secret of the fundamental difference between
+the Old Testament sacred literature and that of the surrounding
+nations.  There is in the former abundant evidence of the activity of a
+Spirit whose presence is less manifest in the sacred literatures of
+other ancient nations.
+
+True, the monuments have not spoken their last word; but if we have the
+right to draw inferences from the known, we may safely affirm that
+though the monuments may swell into infinity, they will offer nothing
+to equal, much less to supersede, in substance and spirit, our {223}
+Old Testament.  We may receive gratefully every ray of light, but the
+time has not yet come, nor ever will come, when we may lay aside the
+Old Testament and accept as a substitute the legends and myths of
+heathen lands to give to us the bread of life which the Saviour found
+in the pages of the Old Book.  Let us welcome the light and knowledge
+God has bestowed upon us; let us rejoice in them with perfect assurance
+that they are for good and not for evil; let us learn to use them
+wisely and honestly, and let us still be ever alert listening for other
+words, uttered ages ago, but not yet audible to modern ears.  "It is
+for us to catch these messages, and to understand them, that we may fit
+them into the great fabric of apprehended truth to the enrichment of
+ourselves, and to the glory of our common Lord."
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER V
+
+[1] J. P. Peters, The Old Testament and the New Scholarship, p. 92.
+
+[2] S. G. Smith, Religion in the Making, p. 20.
+
+[3] Hugo Winckler, Himmels- und Weltenbild der Babylonier, p. 9.
+
+[4] Professor Friedrich Delitzsch, of the University of Berlin,
+delivered three lectures on the relation of Babylonian religion to the
+religion of the Old Testament, under the title, "Babel und Bibel."
+
+[5] A. H. Sayce, The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 276,
+277.
+
+[6] A. Jeremias, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, I,
+p. 86.
+
+{224}
+
+[7] R. W. Rogers, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 88.
+Practically all the cuneiform inscriptions quoted or referred to in
+this chapter are translated in R. W. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the
+Old Testament.
+
+[8] Friedrich Delitzsch, Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, published by
+Open Court Co., p. 65.
+
+[9] A translation of the entire psalm is found in Sayce, The Religions
+of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 419-421; also in Rogers, Religion
+of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 182-184; R. F. Harper, Assyrian and
+Babylonian Literature, pp. 436-439.
+
+[10] Sayce, Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 35, 93, 195.
+A translation of a hymn composed by this king to his supreme god is
+found in J. H. Breasted, A History of Egypt, pp. 371ff.
+
+[11] An excellent brief survey of the religious conceptions of the
+pre-Mosaic period is given in the article on "Religion of Israel," by
+E. Kautzsch, in James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Extra Vol.,
+pp. 613ff.
+
+[12] The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 95.
+
+[13] Ibid., p. 97.
+
+[14] The most recent and most satisfactory edition and translation of
+the entire Babylonian story of creation is by L. W. King, The Seven
+Tablets of Creation.  The two quotations given are Tablet I, lines 7-9,
+and Tablet III, lines 133-138.
+
+[15] Additional portions of this hymn are found in R. W. Rogers,
+Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 170ff.
+
+[16] S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religions To-day, p. 14.
+
+[17] A. T. Clay, Light on the Old Testament from Babel, p. 15; A. H.
+Sayce, Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 476ff.; M.
+Jastrow, in American Journal of Theology, 1898, pp. 315-352; A.
+Jeremias, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, I, pp.
+198ff.
+
+{225}
+
+[18] Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, p. 38.
+
+[19] Ibid., p. 101.
+
+[20] Paul Haupt, Babylonian Elements in the Levitical Ritual, Journal
+of Biblical Literature, 1900, p. 61.
+
+[21] The details of this question have been discussed very extensively.
+Admirable discussions of the entire subject are found in Sayce,
+Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 448-478; Jeremias, Old
+Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, II, pp. 112ff.
+
+[22] Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, p. 469.
+
+[23] Delitzsch, Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, pp. 53ff.
+
+[24] R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 145.
+
+[25] R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi; art. on the same subject in
+Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Extra Vol., pp. 584ff.; W. W.
+Davies, The Codes of Hammurabi and Moses.
+
+[26] The best and most complete recent treatment of the legal
+literature of the Old Testament is found in C. F. Kent, Israel's Laws
+and Legal Precedents, which is Vol. IV in The Student's Old Testament.
+
+[27] Johannes Jeremias, Moses and Hammurabi, pp. 31ff.
+
+[28] R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 158.
+
+[29] L. W. King, The Seven Tablets of Creation, Two Vols.; a
+translation is also found in R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian
+Literature, pp. 282ff.  R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and
+Assyria, pp. 107ff.
+
+[30] Tablet V, lines 1-3.
+
+[31] Lines 1-8.
+
+[32] An English translation of the entire epic is found in R. F.
+Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, pp. 324ff.; the Deluge
+story is given by R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp.
+199ff.
+
+{226}
+
+[33] Lines 23-31.
+
+[34] Lines 184-186.
+
+[35] Lines 27, 85, 86.
+
+[36] Lines 92-111.
+
+[37] Lines 141, 142.
+
+[38] Lines 146-156.
+
+[39] Lines 156-162.
+
+[40] Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, p. 62.
+
+[41] F. Hommel, The Ancient Hebrew Tradition, pp. 75ff.
+
+[42] P. Delitzsch, Babel and Bible, pp. 58ff.
+
+[43] Preface to Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia.
+
+
+
+
+{227}
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE PERMANENT SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
+
+In the opening paragraphs of Chapter I, attention is called to the
+unique place occupied by the Old Testament in the thought, life, and
+theology of the early Church.  Throughout the Middle Ages, and in the
+eyes of the Protestant reformers, the two great divisions of the Bible,
+the Old and New Testaments, continued to command equal respect and
+attention.  The legal principles of the Pentateuch have determined the
+legal systems of all civilized nations; the bold and fiery sermons of
+the prophets have been the chief inspiration on the fierce battles for
+righteousness in all ages; and the sublime religious lyrics of the
+Psalter have ushered millions into the very presence of God.  Indeed,
+the Old Testament has exerted an incalculable influence on the
+development of religion and civilization.
+
+However, it must be admitted that during the latter part of the
+nineteenth century a change of attitude toward the Old Testament seems
+to have taken place.  True, from nearly the beginning of the Christian
+era again and again voices have {228} been heard denying to the Old
+Testament a place in Christian thought and life, but not until
+comparatively recent times has this sentiment become widespread.  Says
+a writer in a book published a few years ago: "The Bible was never more
+studied nor less read than at the present day.  This paradox is true,
+at least, of the Old Testament.  For two generations scores of patient
+scholars have toiled on the text, scanning each letter with microscopic
+care, and one result of their labors has been that to the majority of
+educated men and women of whatever belief, or no belief, the Bible has
+become a closed, yea, a sealed, book.  It is not what it used to be;
+what it has become they do not know, and in scorn or sorrow or apathy
+they have laid it aside."[1]  There may be some exaggeration in this
+statement, but it cannot be doubted that there is considerable
+justification for the complaint.  C. F. Kent makes the admission that
+"with the exception of a very few books, like the Psalter, the Old
+Testament, which was the arsenal of the old militant theology, has been
+unconsciously, if not deliberately, shunned by the present
+generation."[2]  And the words of Professor Cheyne are almost as
+applicable to-day as they were when they were first written, more than
+twenty years ago: "A theory is already propounded, both in private and
+in a naïve simple way in sermons, that the {229} Old Testament is of no
+particular moment, all that we need being the New Testament, which has
+been defended by our valiant apologists and expounded by our admirable
+interpreters."[3]
+
+If this represents in any sense the true state of affairs; if, on the
+other hand, the words of the apostle are true, that "every scripture
+inspired of God is also profitable for teaching, for reproof, for
+correction, for instruction which is in righteousness, that the man of
+God may be complete, furnished completely unto every good work"; and if
+these words are applicable to the Old Testament, as the writer intended
+them to be--if, I say, these things are true, then Christians appear to
+be in great peril of losing sight of one of the important means of
+grace, on which were nourished Jesus and his disciples, and millions in
+former generations, and for the restoration of which the reformers
+risked their very lives.
+
+The change of attitude toward the Old Testament may be traced to a
+variety of causes, all of which affect very vitally modern religious
+thought and life.  There are, for example, many who feel, and that with
+some justice, that the New Testament is in a peculiar sense the sacred
+book of Christianity.  Why, they ask, go to the Old Testament when we
+have the New with its more complete and perfect revelation?  But this
+attitude reflects only a half truth, which is often {230} more
+deceptive than an out and out falsehood.  Certainly, Christians find
+their loftiest inspiration in the study of the life, character, and
+teaching of the Master and of his disciples; but the New Testament has
+by no means displaced the Old.  The early Christians were right in
+placing it beside the New, because the former is still of inestimable
+value.  Indeed, it is impossible to understand the New Testament
+properly unless one has an adequate knowledge of the Old.  Moreover,
+there are many truths taken for granted in the New Testament for a
+biblical statement of which we must turn to the Old.  Will the
+revelation of the nature and character of God contained in the Old
+Testament ever lose its doctrinal value?  And even in cases where both
+Testaments cover the same field the Old retains a peculiar value.
+True, the New Testament presents a more complete and perfect
+revelation, but there are few New Testament truths which have not their
+roots in the Old.  The former presents the full-grown revelation;
+nevertheless, a vast number of people, who have not yet reached a state
+of perfection, will understand even New Testament truths more readily
+as they are presented in the Old Testament; for here they can see the
+truths in more concrete form; they have flesh and blood; they are
+struggling for victory over darkness and superstition.  Nearly all the
+great and vital doctrines of the Church, {231} though founded
+principally on the New Testament, are illustrated, are made more real
+and human, become more impressive and forceful as we study their
+development and growth under the Old Testament dispensation.
+
+The neglect of the Old Testament is due, in the second place, to a
+reaction against its misuse by former generations.[4]  Puritanism and
+the theology of the past three centuries were largely rooted in the Old
+Testament.  From it the stern Puritans drew their spirit of justice,
+their zeal for righteousness, and their uncompromising condemnation of
+everything that appeared wrong.  Their preachers nobly echoed the
+thunders of Sinai and the denunciations of Elijah and Amos; but in
+doing this they failed to recognize the divine love back of the
+prophetic message, and by their narrow interpretation of the letter,
+and their emphasis upon the more primitive and imperfect teaching of
+the Old Testament, they were often led to extremes that were neither
+biblical nor Christian.  Against intolerance and persecution the human
+heart rebels, and with it comes a feeling of resentment against the
+cause.  Thus it happened that the reaction against Puritanism brought
+with it a disregard of the Old Testament, which was followed either by
+the exaltation of the New Testament, whose spirit is more merciful and
+tender, or by hostility against the entire {232} Bible and Christianity
+as a whole.  This abuse of the Old Testament was due in large part to
+the use of faulty, or erroneous, methods of interpretation.  And since
+there seems to be even now a tendency in some places to defend these
+methods, which are out of keeping with the spirit of scientific
+investigation in this age, many intelligent men have come to look with
+suspicion upon a book in the study of which unscientific methods
+continue to be used.
+
+Another important cause of the change of attitude toward the Old
+Testament is to be found in the labors expended upon the Old Testament
+by able scholars in the pursuit of a careful, critical study of the
+ancient records.  As has been stated in another connection, these
+studies are not the outgrowth, as is often erroneously assumed, of a
+desire to discredit the Bible, to displace it from the heart and
+confidence of the people, or to attack its teaching or inspiration.
+"It would be a most hopeless thing," says W. G. Jordan, "to regard all
+this toil as the outcome of skepticism and vanity, a huge specimen of
+perverse ingenuity and misdirected effort."[5]  They are simply the
+results of Protestantism and the Renaissance.[6]  But whatever the
+spirit back of the study, and whatever the gains of this investigation,
+one result is that many Christians feel perplexed with regard to the
+true position of the Old Testament.  {233} What of its claims?  What of
+its inspiration?  How far is it human in origin?  How far divine?
+These and similar questions are asked by men everywhere.  Never was
+there more interest, more inquiry, and, perhaps, more unrest and
+disquietude among thoughtful people.
+
+Surely, it is high time to realize that all this investigation has had
+no harmful effect upon the substance of the divine revelations conveyed
+in the Old Testament records.  In the words of Jordan, "To me, with my
+faith that the whole universe is filled with the presence of the
+living, self-revealing God, I cannot conceive ... that the most severe
+criticism can ever banish the divine power from that great literature
+which is one of the choicest organs of its manifestations."[7]  As has
+been pointed out in the preceding chapters, some long-cherished notions
+and interpretations have been overthrown; to some extent our ideas
+concerning its literary forms have had to be modified, but its
+substance has not been disturbed.  On the contrary, it has come to be
+seen with a clearness unrecognized before that it bears the indelible
+stamp of God.
+
+This being the case, students of the Bible should return to a more just
+appreciation of that part of Sacred Scripture which is so intimately
+connected with the training of Jesus and his disciples.  If the Old
+Testament contains records {234} and interpretations of divine
+revelations, those who claim to be children of God should be willing,
+yea, anxious, to put forth some efforts to familiarize themselves
+adequately with these records.  But the sense of gratitude and
+appreciation for these self-revelations of God is not the only reason
+which should prompt the Christian to turn more frequently to the pages
+of the Old Book.  A much more important consideration is the fact that
+the lessons taught in the Old Testament are of profound significance
+to-day, and that they cannot be neglected without serious consequences.
+Again, attention may be called to the fact that the Founder of
+Christianity and his disciples found nourishment in its pages, and that
+they constantly exhorted their followers to do the same.  Now, Jesus is
+recognized by all Christians as a model worthy of imitation in every
+relation of life.  Would it not be well to imitate him in the use of
+the Old Testament Scriptures?  If he found in the pages of the Old
+Testament weapons with which to put to flight the Evil One, might not
+we?  Aside from these general considerations, it is easily shown that
+every part of the Old Testament is full of teaching which is of the
+highest value even in the twentieth century of the Christian era.
+Consider, for example, the first eleven chapters of Genesis, around
+which much controversy has raged.  In former days these chapters were
+{235} thought to give an absolutely accurate account of creation and
+the early history of mankind.  However, various lines of investigation
+have shown this view to be untenable.  "We are forced, therefore," says
+a recent writer, "to the conclusion that, though the writers to whom we
+owe the first eleven chapters of Genesis report faithfully what was
+currently believed among the Hebrews respecting the early history of
+mankind, yet there was much they did not know, and could not take
+cognizance of.  These chapters, consequently, contain no account of the
+real beginnings, either of the earth itself, or of man and human
+civilization upon it."[8]  All this need create not the slightest
+difficulty for one who holds the scriptural conception of the nature
+and purpose of the biblical writings.  It is true of these chapters, as
+of other parts of the record, that "the only care of the prophetic
+tradition is to bring out clearly the religious origin of humanity.[9]
+If anyone is in search of accurate information regarding the age of
+this earth, or its relation to the sun, moon, or stars, or regarding
+the exact order in which plants and animals have appeared upon it, he
+should go to recent textbooks in astronomy, geology, and paleontology.
+It is not the purpose of the writers of Scripture to impart physical
+instruction, or to enlarge the bounds of scientific knowledge.  So far
+as the {236} scientific or historical information imparted in these
+chapters is concerned, it is of little more value than the similar
+stories of other nations.  And yet the student of these chapters can
+see a striking contrast between them and extra-biblical stories
+describing the same unknown ages handed down from pre-scientific
+centuries.  Here comes to view the uniqueness of the Bible.  The other
+traditions are of interest only as relics of a by-gone past.  Not so
+the biblical statements; they are and ever will be of inestimable
+value, not because of their scientific teaching, but because of the
+presence of sublime religious truth in the crude forms of primitive
+science.  If anyone wishes to know what connection the world has with
+God, if he seeks to trace back all that now is to the very
+fountain-head of life, if he desires to discover some unifying
+principle, some illuminating purpose in the history of the earth, he
+may turn to these chapters as his safest and, indeed, only guide to the
+information he seeks.
+
+The purpose of the narratives being primarily religious, it is only
+natural that their lessons should be religious lessons.  The one
+supreme lesson taught throughout the entire section is "In the
+beginning, God."  But each separate narrative teaches its own peculiar
+lessons.  The more important of these are briefly summarized by Driver
+as follows: "The narrative of creation {237} sets forth, in a series of
+dignified and impressive pictures, the sovereignty of God; his priority
+to and separation from all finite, material nature; his purpose to
+constitute an ordered cosmos, and gradually to adapt the earth to
+become the habitation of living beings; and his endowment of man with
+the peculiar, unique possession of self-conscious reason, in virtue of
+which he became capable of intellectual and moral life, and is even
+able to know and hold communion with his Maker.  In chapters two and
+three we read, though, again, not in a historical but in a pictorial
+and symbolic form, how man was once innocent, how he became conscious
+of a moral law, and how temptation fell upon him and he broke that law.
+The fall of man, the great and terrible truth, which history not less
+than individual experience only too vividly teaches each one of us, is
+thus impressively set before us.  Man, however, though punished by God,
+is not forsaken by him, nor left in his long conflict with evil without
+hope of victory.  In chapter four the increasing power of sin, and the
+fatal consequence to which, if unchecked, it may lead, is vividly
+portrayed in the tragic figure of Cain.  The spirit of vindictiveness
+and the brutal triumph in the power of the sword is personified in
+Lamech.  In the narrative of the Flood God's wrath against sin and the
+divine prerogative of mercy are alike exemplified: {238} Noah is a
+standing illustration of the truth that 'righteousness delivereth from
+death,' and God's dealings with him after the Flood form a striking
+declaration of the purposes of grace and good will with which God
+regards mankind.  The narrative of the Tower of Babel emphasizes
+Jehovah's supremacy in the world, and teaches how the self-exaltation
+of man is checked by God."[10]
+
+These chapters are followed by the stories of the patriarchs.
+Missionaries say--and experience at home has confirmed the claim--that
+the patriarchal narratives are of inestimable value to impress lessons
+of the reality and providence of God, and to encourage the exercise of
+faith and confidence in him.  There is nothing that can be substituted
+for them in religious instruction.  Lack of space will not permit to
+point out in detail the educational value of these documents; however,
+in passing, mention may be made of the fact that Professor W. W. White
+enumerates twenty-one Christian virtues that are illustrated and
+enforced in the life of Abraham.[11]  He was (1) steadfast, (2)
+resolute, (3) prudent, (4) tactful, (5) candid, (6) kind, (7)
+self-controlled, (8) obliging, (9) self-denying, (10) condescending,
+(11) unselfish, (12) peaceable, (13) hospitable, (14) courteous, (15)
+humble, (16) thankful, (17) reverent, (18) prayerful, (19) worshipful,
+(20) faithful, {239} (21) obedient.  Not one iota of their value for
+purposes of instruction in righteousness have these records lost
+because doubt has been cast upon their absolute historical accuracy.
+"Abraham is still the hero of righteousness and faith; Lot and Laban,
+Sarah and Rebekah, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, in their characters and
+experiences, are still in different ways types of our own selves, and
+still in one way or another exemplify the ways in which God deals with
+the individual soul, and the manner in which the individual soul ought,
+or ought not, to respond to his leadings."[12]  What if some of these
+figures pass before us on the stage rather than in real life, do they
+on that account lose their vividness, their truthfulness, their force?
+"If," says J. E. McFadyen,[13] "it should be made highly probable that
+the stories were not strictly historical, what should we then have to
+say?  We should then have to say that their religious value was still
+extremely high.  The religious truth to which they give vivid and
+immortal expression would remain the same.  The story of Abraham would
+still illustrate the trials and the rewards of faith.  The story of
+Jacob would still illustrate the power of sin to haunt and determine a
+man's career, and the power of God to humble, discipline, and purify a
+self-confident nature.  The story of Joseph would still illustrate how
+fidelity amid {240} temptation, wrong, and sorrow is crowned at last
+with glory and honor.  The spiritual value of these and similar tales
+is not lost, even when their historical value is reduced to a minimum,
+for the truths which they illustrate are truths of universal
+experience."  The present writer is convinced that even as historical
+documents these narratives are of immense value.  Nevertheless, it may
+be well to remind ourselves again that the apostle does not point his
+readers to the Old Testament Scriptures for instruction in ancient
+history, but he claims that they are profitable "for teaching, for
+reproof, for correction, for instruction which is in righteousness";
+and these records, whatever their historical shortcomings may be, are
+most assuredly profitable for all these purposes.
+
+The historical books of the Old Testament are a continuous illustration
+of the reality of a Divine Providence, by revealing on almost every
+page the hand of God in human history.  Only as we trace the history of
+the Hebrews can we understand the unfolding in the mind of man under
+the influence of the Divine Spirit of the great religious ideas and
+conceptions which have become the mainspring of human progress; the
+ideas which may be seen in crystallized form in modern Judaism, in
+perverted form in Mohammedanism, and in expanded and spiritualized form
+in Christianity.  {241} Preëminent among these conceptions is the idea
+of one personal holy and righteous God.  The Hebrews were also the
+first to teach man that the supreme goal of life is righteousness, and
+thus they became the ethical teachers of the human race.  They first
+gave objective expression to pure and lofty ethics in law.  To-day the
+principles of Hebrew legislation are still the bone and marrow of the
+world's greatest legal systems.  Though the Romans may be, to a large
+extent, responsible for the form which modern legal systems have
+adopted, the substance must be traced back to Hebrew legislation.
+
+Moreover, the Hebrews prepared the way for Christianity.  Jesus himself
+recognized that the faith he proclaimed was not a new creation.  "Think
+not," said he, "that I came to destroy the law or the prophets: I came
+not to destroy, but to fulfill."[14]  He came to fill up, to
+spiritualize and intensify the religious and ethical teaching of the
+great leaders of the Hebrews.  Men needed the preliminary training of
+the Old Testament dispensation before they were ready to appreciate the
+fuller revelation in and through Jesus the Christ, and Christianity
+could never have triumphed had it not been for the preparatory work of
+the religious and ethical teachers of the Hebrews, whose activity was
+very largely determined by the course of the nation's history.  Again,
+{242} Jesus, according to the flesh, was a descendant of Abraham,
+reared in a Jewish home, and under Jewish influences.  He studied
+Jewish literature and Jewish ideals were held up before him.  All this
+must have made some impression upon the mind and life of the Master.
+He and his teaching can be understood only if he is studied in the
+light of Jewish thought and Jewish religion reaching back to the very
+beginning of Hebrew history.  All this shows how important is the study
+of the historical books of the Old Testament to one who desires to
+appreciate fully the Christian religion.
+
+It is impossible to estimate too highly the eternal value of the
+devotional literature of the Old Testament as illustrated, for example,
+in the book of Psalms.  Well has it been said, "What the heart is in
+man, that is the Psalter in the Bible."[15]  The Psalms touch the
+heart, because they are the expressions of the deepest feelings of the
+writers; and because these lyrics express personal experiences they may
+be, and are, used even to-day to express the various emotions of joy,
+sorrow, hope, fear, anticipation, etc., of persons who live even on a
+higher plane than did their authors.  "What is there," says Richard
+Hooker,[16] "necessary for man to know which the Psalms are not able to
+teach?  Heroical magnanimity, exquisite justice, grave moderation,
+{243} exact wisdom, repentance unfeigned, unwearied patience, the
+mysteries of God, the sufferings of Christ, the terrors of wrath, the
+comforts of grace, the works of Providence over this world, and the
+promised joys of that world which is to come; all good, necessarily to
+be either known or done, or had, this one celestial fountain yieldeth;
+let there be any grief or disaster incident to the soul of man, any
+wound or sickness named for which there is not in this treasure-house a
+present comfortable remedy at all times ready to be found."
+
+Manifold indeed are the contents of the Psalter; manifold the moods of
+the authors; and manifold the experiences they express.  But there is
+one bond which unites them all into one living unity, namely, a sublime
+faith in Jehovah, the God of Israel.  This variety on the one hand, and
+essential unity on the other, are the qualities which have given to the
+book in all ages a unique place in the religious life of the individual
+and of the Church of God.  With full justice says Perowne:[17] "No
+single book of Scripture, not even the New Testament, has, perhaps,
+ever taken such hold on the heart of Christendom.  None, if we dare
+judge, unless it be the Gospels, has had so large an influence in
+molding the affections, sustaining the hopes, purifying the faith of
+believers.  With its words, rather than with their own, they have come
+before God.  In these they have uttered {244} their desires, their
+fears, their confessions, their aspirations, their sorrows, their joys,
+their thanksgivings.  By these their devotion has been kindled and
+their hearts comforted.  The Psalter has been in the truest sense the
+prayer book of both Jews and Christians."
+
+Equally profitable is the study of the Wisdom literature.  The wise men
+accepted the great religious truths proclaimed by the prophets; it was
+their business to apply them to the details of everyday life, and
+instruct their contemporaries in that application.  They did an
+important and necessary work; they pointed out constantly and
+persistently that religion cannot be separated from the daily life.
+But the wise men were dealing with persons who had hardly gone beyond
+the childhood stage in things religious and ethical, hence they must
+put the most profound truths in the simplest possible form.  They must
+abstain, as far as possible, from all speculation, and confine
+themselves to simple, practical precepts which would appeal to the
+ordinary practical common sense of the hearer.  "The great desire of
+the sages," says Marshall, "was to reduce the lofty theistic morality
+which underlies Mosaism to brief, pithy sayings, easily remembered and
+readily applicable to the everyday life of man."[18]  Certainly, in
+time they would be compelled to rise above simple precepts and try to
+solve some of {245} the more perplexing problems of life; on the other
+hand, there would always be a demand for the more simple sayings of
+these moral guides.  The Old Testament contains specimens of these
+different productions of wisdom activity.  The book of Proverbs is a
+collection of the more simple, practical precepts, while the books of
+Job and Ecclesiastes illustrate speculative wisdom.
+
+The charge has sometimes been made against the book of Proverbs that it
+is not truly religious, that it moves on a lower plane, and
+contemplates lower aims than the other books of the Old Testament; but
+this is only a half truth.  That the book differs from other books is
+undoubtedly true, but that is due to the purpose of its author.  He did
+not mean to collect prophetic discourses or sublime religious lyrics,
+but those simple precepts of life which, though simple, are ever needed
+for the proper conduct of man.  There are two phases of religion: the
+one internal, the religious experience; the other external, the
+religious life.  The two go together, though at times the one, at times
+the other, may be emphasized.  The authors of the Proverbs emphasized
+chiefly the latter.  They teach the most difficult of all lessons: how
+to practice religion; how to fulfill the duties and overcome the
+temptations of everyday life.  But these wise men rested their
+practical teaching upon a religious basis.  Their {246} religion may
+not be on a New Testament level, but in this they resemble other Old
+Testament writings; their conceptions of reward and punishment may be
+crude, and at times materialistic, but this peculiarity they share with
+all those saints of Israel whose vision is limited to this world.
+
+Underneath all their teaching there is a firm belief in the existence
+of a righteous God and the reality of his rule over the world, as also
+in the other great religious verities taught by the prophets.  Far from
+disregarding religion, the writers of the Proverbs sought to make it
+the controlling motive of life and conduct.  A profound religious
+spirit pervades the whole book; but in addition there are many passages
+which give definite expression to the lofty religious conceptions of
+the wise men.[19]  Nevertheless, as is natural in view of the purpose
+of the wise men, greater stress is laid upon ethics, the practice of
+religion.  Nothing and no relation of life seems to have escaped the
+attention of the writers.  Precepts are given concerning ordinary
+everyday conduct, the relations of men to their fellows, domestic
+relations and happiness, national life and the proper attitude toward
+the government, and other relations and interests of life.  The
+permanent value of the book is suggested in these words of Davison:[20]
+"For the writers of Proverbs religion {247} means good sense, religion
+means mastery of affairs, religion means strength and manliness and
+success, religion means a well-furnished intellect employing the best
+means to accomplish the highest ends.  There is a healthy, vigorous
+tone about this kind of teaching which is never out of date, but which,
+human nature being what it is, is only too apt to disappear in the
+actual presentation of religion in the Church on earth."
+
+From simple practical precepts the wise men rose to speculation.  Their
+speculative philosophy is theistic, for it starts from the conviction
+that there is a personal God.  The best specimen of this type of Wisdom
+literature is the book of Job, which deals with the perplexing problem
+of evil and suffering.  The book recounts how Job, a man of exemplary
+piety, was overtaken by an unprecedented series of calamities, and it
+reports the debate between Job and other speakers to which the occasion
+is supposed to have given rise.  The experiences of the perfect Job
+raised the perplexing question, How can the suffering of a righteous
+man be harmonized with the belief in a holy and just God?  The popular
+view, reflected in the greater portion of the Old Testament, was that
+suffering was always punishment for sin, prosperity reward for piety.
+Such belief seemed in accord with the righteousness of Jehovah.
+Undoubtedly, exceptions to the rule might be {248} noted, but as long
+as the individual was looked upon simply as an atom in the national
+unit, the apparent inequalities in the fortunes of individuals would
+not constitute a pressing problem.  When, however, especially through
+the teaching of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the individual received proper
+recognition, an experience like that of Job was bound to create
+difficulties, for the suffering of a righteous man would seem to point
+to unfairness on the part of God.  That this perplexity was felt is
+seen from allusions in the prophetic books.  At last the time came when
+a wise man in Israel sought to solve the problem in the light of the
+religious knowledge he possessed.  The problem, then, discussed by the
+author of the book of Job is, How can the sufferings of a righteous man
+be harmonized with belief in a holy and righteous God?  Various
+solutions of this problem are suggested in different parts of the book:
+(1) The solution of the prologue--Suffering is a test of character.
+(2) The solution of the friends--Suffering is always punishment for
+sin.  (3) The solution of Job--Job struggles long and persistently with
+the problem; a few times he seems to have a glimpse of a possible
+straightening-out of the present inequalities after death, but it is
+only a glimpse; he always sinks back to a feeling of uncertainty and
+perplexity.  His general attitude is that there must be {249} something
+out of gear in the world, for the righteousness of God cannot be
+discerned as things are going now.  (4) The solution of Elihu--Elihu
+agrees with the friends that suffering is closely connected with sin;
+but he emphasizes more than they the disciplinary purpose of suffering,
+which, he points out, is the voice of God warning men to return to Him.
+(5) The solution of Jehovah--The whole universe is an unfathomable
+mystery, in which the evil is no more perplexing than the good.  In the
+presence of all mysteries the proper attitude is one of humble
+submission.  (6) The solution of the epilogue--Returns to the opinion
+of the friends, for it teaches that righteousness will sooner or later
+be rewarded with prosperity even in this world.
+
+It is chiefly in the solution of this age-long problem suggested by the
+author of the book of Job that the real value of the discussion lies.
+The author nowhere states which of the above-mentioned conclusions he
+accepts as true.  As a result, he has been charged with raising a
+profound problem, discussing it with relentless logic, and then leaving
+it unsolved.  This, however, is not quite fair to this ancient wise
+man.  "With a touch too artistic to permit him to descend to a
+homiletic attitude, the poet has shown that his solution of life's
+problem is a religious one.  He had portrayed with great power the
+inability of {250} man's mind to comprehend the universe or to
+understand why man must suffer; but he makes Job, his hero, find in a
+vision of God the secret of life.  Job's questions remain unanswered,
+but now that he knows God, he is content to let them remain unanswered.
+He cannot solve life's riddle, but is content to trust God, of whose
+goodness he is convinced, and who, Job is sure, knows the answer.  The
+poet has thus taught that it is in the realm of religion, and not in
+that of the intellect, that the solution of life's mysteries is to be
+found."[21]  Even Christianity has no other solution of the problem to
+offer; it must still insist upon a solution of faith, with a lofty
+conception of God, and a vision of life broad enough to include
+eternity, when the apparent inequalities of this life may be adjusted
+by a loving and righteous God.
+
+The book of Ecclesiastes, dealing with the perplexities of life in
+general, full of pessimism and skepticism, is not without its permanent
+value.  The author of the book has passed through many disappointments,
+and his spirit has grown somewhat skeptical and pessimistic.
+Everything has proved vanity: riches, pleasure, honor, even the search
+for wisdom; and he is not sure concerning his destiny after death.  But
+over against his experiences in life there is a faith in God who
+governs the world.  The book, which portrays {251} the struggle between
+experience and faith, has aptly been called "a cry for light."  The
+author does not see the light clearly, though here and there he may
+have a glimpse of it.  The real perplexity is due to the fact that the
+author's horizon is bounded by the grave.  In this life he sees no
+hope, therefore he looks with longing for a possible reckoning in an
+after life; but it remains a hope and cry, it never grows into a
+conviction.  The more significant is the retention of his faith in God.
+He is conscious of a moral order in the world, though its operation is
+often frustrated; he is aware of cases in which the God-fearing man had
+an advantage over others.  Hence, with all his uncertainty and doubt,
+he holds that it is his duty, and the duty of everyone else, to fear
+God and keep his commandments; God, somehow, will care for the
+mysteries and perplexities of life.  Even the Song of Songs, or Song of
+Solomon, often an object of ridicule, when rightly interpreted, is seen
+to bring suggestive lessons to the present age.  The book owes its
+place in the canon of Sacred Scripture to the allegorical
+interpretation given to it from the earliest times.  The Jews
+interpreted it as picturing the close relation existing between Jehovah
+and Israel; the Christians, as picturing the intimate fellowship
+between Christ and his bride, the Church.  At present it is quite
+generally held that this interpretation {252} does not do justice to
+the primary purpose of the book; but as to its original purpose two
+different views are held.  According to both interpretations, the
+subject of the book is love--human love; the differences of opinion are
+with reference to the manner in which the subject is treated.  Some
+think that the book is simply a collection of love or wedding songs,
+all independent of one another.  Others feel that there are too many
+evidences of real unity in it to permit this interpretation; they see
+in the book a didactic drama or melodrama, the aim of the author being
+the glorification of true human love.
+
+The drama centers around three principal characters--Solomon, the
+Shunammite maiden, and her shepherd lover.  The book relates how the
+maiden, surprised by the king and his train, was brought to the palace
+in Jerusalem, where the king hoped to win her affections and to induce
+her to exchange her rustic home for the enjoyment and honor the court
+life affords.  She has, however, already pledged her heart to a young
+shepherd; and the admiration and blandishments which the king lavishes
+upon her are powerless to make her forget him.  In the end she is
+permitted to return to her mountain home, where at the close of the
+poem the lovers appear hand in hand and express, in warm, glowing
+words, the superiority of genuine spontaneous {253} affection.  The
+real aim of the book, therefore, seems to be to glorify true love, and
+more specifically, true betrothed love, which remains steadfast even in
+the most dangerous and most seductive situations.
+
+In this age, when the responsibility of the individual Christian and of
+the Christian Church toward the practical, social, religious, and moral
+problems and evils is recognized more than at any other previous time,
+the prophetic literature is worthy of the most careful study on the
+part of all Christians who recognize and who are willing to meet their
+obligations to their day and generation.  The prophets of old met in
+the strength of God, and at the divine impulse, the problems and evils
+of their own age.  They had to face the problems of materialism and
+commercialism; the evils resulting from the accumulation of wealth,
+power, and resources in the hands of a few; very serious economic
+problems; cruelty, oppression, arrogance on the part of the rich
+proprietors; corruption in government and in the administration of
+justice; they had to grapple with a cold, heartless formalism that
+threatened to destroy pure, spiritual religion.  Against these evils
+and wrongs the prophets of old raised their hands and voices.  "When
+the old tribal customs and bonds were weakened by the growth of cities
+and the cultivation of commerce they saw that {254} society must be set
+upon a moral basis or suffer destruction.  When the nation itself was
+about to be broken to pieces they saw in this a call for a deeper
+spiritual life....  They were interested in politics, but not as a
+profession in which to show their skill, or out of which they might
+gain wealth or glory.  Politics for them meant simply the life of the
+nation in its relation to God and to the great outside world.  They
+were social reformers.  To the earlier prophets man was regarded always
+as a member of society rather than as an independent individual....  In
+opposition to a showy ritual, they set up their demands for justice
+between man and man."[22]  Surely, it is a part of the Christian's duty
+to do his share toward a Christian solution of the social and religious
+problems of our day.  We can hardly claim to have reached the full
+stature of Christian manhood or womanhood until we have acquired the
+knowledge and power to cope with these difficulties in the spirit of
+the Master and with the methods best adapted to the Christianizing of
+modern society.  In these our efforts to lift humanity nearer to God,
+or to bring God nearer to humanity, we may learn much from the prophets
+of old.
+
+To sum up the results of our study: As Christians we may find our
+loftiest inspiration in the study of the life, the character, and the
+teachings {255} of the Master, and of the words of his disciples.  But
+the New Testament is little more than a quarter of the Bible.  In the
+preceding pages the attempt has been made to emphasize the permanent
+value of the larger division of the Sacred Book.  It has been carefully
+scrutinized, tested in furnaces heated seven times, but out of the fire
+it has come bearing the stamp of God, testifying more confidently than
+ever before that God in olden times spake unto the fathers, and that in
+its pages may be found records and interpretations of these
+revelations.  The features of the Old Testament which assure to it a
+permanent place in religious thought and life may be briefly indicated
+as follows:
+
+The Old Testament will always prove attractive as literature.  The more
+we know of other literatures of antiquity, the more evident it becomes
+that even from the literary viewpoint the Old Testament is far superior
+to any other literary remains of ancient civilization.  "If the
+inimitable freshness of life is preserved in Homer, it is not less
+preserved in the epic stories of the Old Testament; while the still
+more intangible simplicity of the idyl is found perfect in Ruth and
+Tobit, the orations of Deuteronomy are as noble models as the orations
+of Cicero.  Read by the side of the poetry of the Psalms, the lyrics of
+Pindar seem almost provincial.  The imaginative poetry of {256} the
+Greeks is perfect in its own sphere, but by the Hebrew prophets as bold
+an imagination is carried into the mysteries of the spiritual world.
+If the philosophy of Plato and his successors has a special interest as
+the starting point for a progression of thought still going on as
+modern science, yet the field of biblical wisdom offers an attraction
+of a different kind, in a progression of thought which has run its full
+round and has reached a position of rest....  And in the inner circle
+of the world's masterpieces, in which all kinds of literary influences
+meet, the Bible has placed Job, the Isaiahan Rhapsody, ... unsurpassed
+and unsurpassable."[23]
+
+From the standpoint of history the Old Testament still occupies, and
+ever will occupy, a unique position.  Important as are the
+contributions of archæology, the student of ancient history can by no
+means spare the testimony of the Bible.  The Old Testament is still the
+main source of information for the national history of the Hebrew
+people, and it is and will remain a very important secondary source for
+the history of the surrounding nations.  It also retains a unique place
+in the history of religion, for without it the religious development of
+the Jews could not be traced; and since the Jewish religion is the
+foundation upon which Christianity was developed, ignorance of that
+earlier religion [257] would prove a serious handicap to the student of
+Christianity.
+
+The Old Testament will always be of value because of its intimate
+connection with the New.  From the purely linguistic standpoint a
+knowledge of the former is essential for an understanding of the
+latter.  New Testament modes of thought and expression are inexplicable
+without a study of the Old.  There are many passages in the New
+Testament taken from the Old and referring back to it which cannot be
+properly understood unless we examine them in their original context.
+But the connection is even more vital, for in a very real sense the new
+dispensation has its roots in the old.  It is one kingdom of God that
+is the subject of the history in both, and the Bible as a whole can
+never be rightly understood until the two Testaments are comprehended
+in their unity and harmony, for they are joined in inseparable unity in
+Christ himself.
+
+Most important of all, the Old Testament retains, and ever will retain,
+a unique religious value.  It will ever be important in the field of
+doctrine.  True, the New Testament is the primary source for the
+doctrines of Christianity, but there are some things which the New
+Testament takes for granted, and for which we must turn to the Old.
+Will the revelation of the nature and character of God contained in the
+Old Testament {258} ever lose its doctrinal value?--God, a spirit,
+personal, with a clearly defined moral character, in his mercy
+condescending to enter into covenant relations with his creatures,
+loving man and desiring to be loved by him, his anger aroused by sin,
+but gracious toward the repenting sinner?  Again, have those early
+chapters of Genesis lost their doctrinal value?  Has anyone supplied a
+substitute for the simple "In the beginning God created heaven and
+earth"?
+
+The Old Testament is of permanent religious value because of its keen
+insight into human nature.  The Bible has been called "the family album
+of the Holy God"; we might compare it, rather, to a picture gallery.
+What a variety!  Everywhere we see them flesh and blood!  Why is it
+they impress us so?  Is it not because the pictures are so true to
+human nature that in spite of the difference in time, place, and
+circumstances they may serve even us as mirrors?
+
+The Old Testament will always deserve study from the religious
+standpoint, because of the ideal of character it sets before us.  "It
+presents to our souls characters that are supremely worthy of our
+reverence because consciously centered in God and full of his power.
+It permits us to share the enthusiasm of the men who discovered the
+fundamentals of our religion and the character of our God.  It is
+indispensable to complete the {259} discipleship of Christ, because it
+is the creator of the mold which his soul expanded."[24]  Its types of
+character may lack the finer graces, yet they are types we may do well
+to imitate.  Will the lives of Abraham, Joseph, Samuel, Elijah, David,
+and many others ever lose their lessons?  What sublime ideals even the
+Christian minister may find in the lives of the prophets!
+
+Will we ever get beyond the moral duties which are, according to the
+Old Testament, obligatory upon man?  Purity of thought, sincerity of
+motive, singleness of purpose, truthfulness, honesty, justice,
+generosity, love--these are some of the virtues which again and again
+are in the strongest language insisted upon in the pages of the Old
+Book.  Indeed, the Old Testament emphasizes the loftiest ideals of
+human life and society, anticipating the time when in all the world the
+universal Fatherhood of God and the common brotherhood of man would be
+realized.  In an editorial in the Expository Times, commenting upon a
+paper read before the First International Moral Education Congress, are
+found these suggestive words: "It is when the teaching of the Old
+Testament is simple, frank, and historical that it becomes the best
+text-book of ethics in the world, for it possesses these two
+incomparable advantages--it is full of humanity, and it is full of
+variety.  The epics of Joseph and David, the {260} tragedies of Elijah
+and Isaiah have an undying charm.  And the examples are varied as they
+are interesting.  It offers examples of almost every stage of moral
+development.  Whatever the pupil's moral attitude, there is some Jewish
+hero that appeals to him.  That hero's actions can be traced to their
+motives and followed to their consequences.  He can be treated with
+sympathy in so far as he attains the standard of his times, and yet
+criticized in so far as his motives are not those which we recognize as
+absolute.  So the pupil may learn at once to appropriate those _media
+axiamata_ which fit him, and yet realize that there is something beyond
+and above them."[25]
+
+The Old Testament is of permanent significance because of its
+insistence on pure and spiritual religion, and its condemnation of all
+cold and external formalism.  These words of the prophet Isaiah imply a
+lofty conception of true religion: "What unto me is the multitude of
+your sacrifices? saith Jehovah: I have had enough of the
+burnt-offerings of rams, and the fat of fed beasts; and I delight not
+in the blood of bullocks, or of lambs, or of he-goats.  When ye come to
+appear before me, who hath required this at your hand, to trample my
+courts?  Bring no more vain oblations; incense is an abomination unto
+me; new moon and sabbath, the calling of {261} assemblies--I cannot
+away with iniquity and the solemn meeting.  Your new moons and your
+appointed feasts my soul hateth; they are a trouble unto me; I am weary
+of bearing them.  And when ye spread forth your hands, I will hide mine
+eyes from you; yea, when ye make many prayers, I will not hear: your
+hands are full of blood.  Wash you, make you clean; put away the evil
+of your doings from before mine eyes; cease to do evil; learn to do
+well; seek justice, relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead
+for the widow."[26]  And the prophetic definition of religion, "He hath
+showed thee, O man, what is good; and what doth Jehovah require of
+thee, but to do justly, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with
+thy God?"[27] is in no wise inferior to that given in the New
+Testament: "Pure religion and undefiled before our God and Father is
+this, to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to
+keep oneself unspotted from the world."[28]
+
+Finally, how can we estimate highly enough the devotional value of the
+Old Testament as illustrated, for example, in the book of Psalms?  Here
+we have the outpourings of human souls in the closest fellowship with
+their God, giving without restraint expression to the most various
+emotions, hopes, desires, and aspirations.  What other literary
+compositions lift us into such atmosphere of religious thought and
+emotion?  {262} Surely, the sweet singers enjoy a preëminence from
+which they can never be dethroned.
+
+It is quite safe, therefore, to assert, that as long as human nature is
+what it is now the Old Testament must remain an ever-flowing fountain
+of living truth, able to invigorate and to restore, to purify and to
+refine; to ennoble and to enrich the moral and spiritual being of man.
+"No man," says A. W. Vernon,[29] "save Jesus, ever had the right to lay
+the Book ... aside, and he made it immortal."
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER VI
+
+[1] J. C. Todd, Politics and Religion in "Ancient Israel, p. vii.
+
+[2] The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testament, p. 7.
+
+[3] Contemporary Review, August, 1889, p. 232.
+
+[4] C. F. Kent, The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testament,
+pp. 5ff.
+
+[5] Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, p. 6.
+
+[6] See above, p. 79.
+
+[7] Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, p. 230.
+
+[8] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. xlii.
+
+[9] A. Westphal, The Law and the Prophets, p. 43.
+
+[10] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. lxx.
+
+[11] W. W. White, Studies in Old Testament Characters, p. 14.
+
+[12] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. lxviii.
+
+[13] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 335.
+
+[14] Matt. 5. 17.
+
+{263}
+
+[15] These words of Johannes Arnd are used by Franz Delitzsch as the
+motto for his Commentary on the Psalms.
+
+[16] Ecclesiastical Polity, Book V, Chapter XXXVII, 2.
+
+[17] The Book of Psalms, Vol. I, p. 18.
+
+[18] J. T. Marshall, Job and His Comforters, p. 4.
+
+[19] For example, 3. 5-7; 16. 3, 6, 9; 23. 17.
+
+[20] W. T. Davison, The Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament, pp.
+134, 135.
+
+[21] G. A. Barton, The Book of Job, p. 12.
+
+[22] W. G. Jordan, Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, pp. 284, 285.
+
+[23] Richard G. Moulton, The Modern Reader's Bible, One Vol. ed., p. x.
+
+[24] A. W. Vernon, The Religious Value of the Old Testament, p. 80.
+
+[25] Expository Times, November, 1908, pp. 54, 55.
+
+[26] Isa. 1. 11-17.
+
+[27] Mic. 6. 8.
+
+[28] James 1. 27.
+
+[29] The Religious Value of the Old Testament, p. 81.
+
+
+
+
+{264}
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abraham, 238.
+
+Adad-nirari IV, 134.
+
+Ahab, 131 ff.
+
+Angels, 182 f.
+
+Animism, 165 f., 169 f.
+
+Appeal to the soul, 30 ff.
+
+Archaeological material, 123 f.
+
+Archaeology, 110 ff.
+
+Ashurbanipal, 140.
+
+Assumption versus knowledge, 217 ff.
+
+Authorship, of Pentateuch, 88 f.; other books, 89 f.
+
+
+Babylon, fall of, 141.
+
+Benefits of criticism, 105 ff.
+
+Bible and Reason, 33 f.
+
+Bible lands, 111.
+
+Black Obelisk, 133 f.
+
+
+Canon, 86 f.
+
+Ceremonial system, 178 ff.
+
+Character study, 238, 258 f.
+
+Christian consciousness, 36.
+
+Comparative religion, 160 ff.
+
+Comparative study, 160 ff.; aim, 160; attitude toward, 161 f.;
+importance, 164
+
+Compilation, 87 f.
+
+Composition, 21-23.
+
+Confirmations, 156.
+
+Conflict between science and Genesis, 41 ff.
+
+Contrasts, 221 f.
+
+Cosmology of appearances, 59 f.
+
+Creation, 41 ff.; story of, 201 ff.; permanent value, 235 f.
+
+Criticism, 66 ff.; benefits, 105 ff.; definition, 67 f.; Jesus and c.,
+92 ff.; inspiration and c., 98 ff., 105.
+
+Cyrus, 141.
+
+
+David, 104.
+
+Day of Creation, 45 f.
+
+Decalogue, 199, 214 ff.
+
+Deity, conception of, 165 ff., 206 f., 212; Babylonian, 165-169,
+Egyptian, 169, Hebrew, 169-172; Character of D., 173 ff.
+
+Demons, 183 f.
+
+Devotional literature, 17 f., 242 f.
+
+Divine element, 26 ff.
+
+Doctrinal value, 257 f.
+
+
+Ecclesiastes, 250 f.
+
+Elephantine, 141.
+
+Eponym lists, 153.
+
+Esarhaddon, 140.
+
+Excavations, 112 ff.; Assyrio-Babylonia, 112-116; Egypt, 116-118;
+Palestine, 118-121; Phoenicia, 121; Moab, 121; Syria, 121; Asia Minor,
+121 f.
+
+Exile, 141.
+
+Exodus, 128 f.
+
+
+Facts versus inferences, 144 f.
+
+Fall, 213.
+
+Festivals, 178.
+
+Flood, 207 ff.
+
+Fulfillment of prophecy, 28 f.
+
+
+Gains from excavations, 151 ff.; chronology, 152 f., 155; geography,
+151 f.; history, 152.
+
+Gilgamesh, 208.
+
+
+Hammurabi, code of, 188 ff.
+
+Harmonizing science with scripture, 45 ff.
+
+Harmony between science and Genesis, 61 f.
+
+Hezekiah, 138 f.
+
+Higher criticism, 73 ff.; definition, 76; extra-biblical, 76 f.;
+tradition and h. c., 77; importance, 78 f.; origin, 79 ff.; reformers
+and h. c., 80 f.; loyalty to Christ and h. c., 82 f.; traditional, 83;
+non-traditional, 83 ff.; conclusions, 85 ff.; illegitimate, 101 f.;
+Jesus and h. c., 92 ff.; inspiration and h. c., 98 ff.; Moses and h.
+c., 102 f.; Isaiah and h. c., 103 f.; David and h. c., 104.
+
+Historical criticism, 72 f.
+
+Historical literature, 19 f., 240 ff., 256 f.
+
+Human element, 20 ff.
+
+
+Ideal harmony, 52.
+
+Illegitimate criticism, 101 f.
+
+Imperfections, 24 f.
+
+Inaccuracies, 23 f., 55 ff.
+
+Infallibility, 38 f.
+
+Inferences versus facts, 144 f.
+
+Inspiration and criticism 98 ff., 105.
+
+Interpretation, 39 f., 45 ff.
+
+Isaiah, 103 f.
+
+
+Jehu, 134.
+
+Jesus, the supreme revealer, 35 ff.; limitation of knowledge, 97 f.;
+criticism and J., 92 ff.; the Old Testament and Jesus, 9 f., 26, 36 f.,
+234.
+
+Job, 247-250.
+
+
+Knowledge versus assumption, 217 ff.
+
+
+Legal literature, 18 f.
+
+Legal system, Babylonian, 187 ff.; Hebrew, 195 f.; relation between the
+two, 199 f.
+
+Linguistic criticism, 70 f.
+
+Literary criticism, 71 f.
+
+Literature, kinds of, 15 ff., 90.
+
+
+Merneptah, 128 f.
+
+Miracles, 27 f.
+
+Mission of Israel, 60 f.
+
+Misuse, 231 f.
+
+Moabite Stone, 130 ff.
+
+Monotheism, 167 f., 218 f.
+
+Monotheistic tendencies, 167-169.
+
+Moral teaching, 259.
+
+Moses, 102 f.
+
+
+Nature of Old Testament, 12 f.
+
+Nebuchadrezzar, 140 f.
+
+Neglect, 227 f.; causes of, 229-233.
+
+New Testament, superiority, 229 f., 254 f.; estimate of O. T., 10 f.
+
+
+Old Testament, nature, 12 f.; reliability, 150 f.; as literature, 255
+f.; in Christian church, 9; New Testament estimate of, 10 f.; Old
+Testament and interpretation of New Testament, 257; Jesus and Old
+Testament, 9 f., 26, 36 f., 234.
+
+Omri, 130 f.
+
+Opposition to criticism, 74 f., 82, 101.
+
+Order of creation, 47 ff.
+
+
+Patriarchal age, 154; narratives, 238 f.
+
+Pekah, 135.
+
+Penitential Psalms, 168.
+
+Pentateuch, authorship of, 88 f.
+
+Permanent value, 59 ff., 227 ff.
+
+Polydemonism, 171.
+
+Polytheism, 166 ff.
+
+Priesthood, 179 f.
+
+Prophecy, fulfilment of, 28 f.
+
+Prophetic literature, 15 f., 253 f.
+
+Proverbs, 245-247.
+
+Psalms, 242-244, 261.
+
+Purpose of Old Testament, 11 f., 53 ff., 148.
+
+
+Reliability, of O. T. history, 150 f.
+
+Religion, development of, 87.
+
+Religious imperfections, 24 f.; r. institutions, 175 ff.
+
+Restitution theory, 48 f.
+
+Revelation, 53 ff.; methods of, 13 f.; progressive, 85 f.
+
+
+Sabbath, 175 ff.
+
+Sacrifice, 180 f.
+
+Samaria, capture of, 136 f.
+
+Sargon II, 136.
+
+Science, 38 ff.
+
+Sennacherib, 137 ff.
+
+Shalmaneser III, 132 f.
+
+Shalmaneser V, 136.
+
+Sheol, 184 ff.
+
+Shishak, 129 f.
+
+Similarities, 220.
+
+Song of Songs, 251-253.
+
+Spiritual appeal, 29 ff.; judgment, 35 f.; unity, 29 f.
+
+Style, 21.
+
+
+Taylor Cylinder, 138 f.
+
+Tel-el-Amarna tablets, 125 ff.
+
+Temple, 179.
+
+Textual criticism, 68 ff., 74.
+
+Tiglath-pileser IV, 134 ff.
+
+Tirhaka, 139 f.
+
+Tithe, 180.
+
+True religion, 260 f.
+
+
+Uniqueness, 32 f.
+
+Unity, 29 f.
+
+Unrest, 42 ff., 232.
+
+Use of archæological material, 143 ff.
+
+
+Veracity of inscriptions, 145 f.
+
+View point, 149 f.
+
+Vision theory, 50 f.
+
+
+Wisdom literature, 16 f., 244 ff.
+
+
+Yahweh, 171 ff., 217.
+
+Yaudi, 135.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Christian View of the Old Testament, by 
+Frederick Carl Eiselen
+
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+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Christian View of the Old Testament, by
+Frederick Carl Eiselen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Christian View of the Old Testament
+
+Author: Frederick Carl Eiselen
+
+Release Date: April 3, 2010 [EBook #31876]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRISTIAN VIEW--OLD TESTAMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H1 ALIGN="center">
+THE CHRISTIAN VIEW
+</H1>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+OF THE
+</H3>
+
+<H1 ALIGN="center">
+OLD TESTAMENT
+</H1>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+BY
+</H3>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+FREDERICK CARL EISELEN
+</H2>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+Professor in Garrett Biblical Institute
+</H4>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE METHODIST BOOK CONCERN
+<BR>
+NEW YORK &mdash;&mdash; CINCINNATI &mdash;&mdash; CHICAGO
+</H3>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H5 ALIGN="center">
+Copyright, 1912<BR>
+FREDERICK CARL EISELEN<BR>
+<BR><BR>
+Printed in the United States of America<BR>
+<BR>
+First Edition Printed September, 1912<BR>
+Second Printing, June, 1913<BR>
+Third Printing, May, 1916<BR>
+Fourth Printing, November, 1917<BR>
+Fifth Printing, September, 1921<BR>
+Sixth Printing, September, 1923<BR>
+Seventh Printing, October, 1925<BR>
+Eighth Printing, July, 1928<BR>
+</H5>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P5"></A>5}</SPAN>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+CONTENTS
+</H2>
+<TABLE ALIGN="center" WIDTH="90%">
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top" WIDTH="10%">CHAPTER</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top" WIDTH="80%">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top" WIDTH="10%">PAGE</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#preface">PREFACE </A></TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">   7</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">I.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap01">THE NEW TESTAMENT VIEW OF THE OLD TESTAMENT </A></TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">  9</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">II.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap02">THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN SCIENCE </A></TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">  38</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">III.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap03">THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN CRITICISM </A></TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">  66</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">IV.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap04">THE OLD TESTAMENT AND ARCHAEOLOGY </A></TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top"> 110</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">V.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap05">THE OLD TESTAMENT AND COMPARATIVE RELIGION  </A></TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top"> 160</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">VI.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap06">THE PERMANENT SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT </A></TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">  227</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#index">INDEX </A></TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">  264</TD>
+</TR>
+
+</TABLE>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+OTHER WORKS BY PROFESSOR EISELEN
+</H4>
+
+<H5 ALIGN="center">
+PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS<BR>
+THE MINOR PROPHETS<BR>
+THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE<BR>
+THE BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH<BR>
+THE PSALMS AND OTHER SACRED WRITINGS<BR>
+THE PROPHETIC BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT (Two Volumes)<BR>
+</H5>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P7"></A>7}</SPAN>
+
+<A NAME="preface"></A>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+PREFACE
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+During the past half century the attitude of many men toward the Bible
+has undergone a decided change.  The old confidence seems to be gone; a
+feeling of uncertainty and of unrest has taken its place.  This small
+volume is intended to set forth the Christian view of the Old
+Testament, and to furnish answers to some of the questions men are
+asking concerning the Sacred Scriptures of the Hebrews, which the early
+Christians included in the canon of Christian sacred writings.  The old
+foundations are not shaken.  The Old Testament has stood the tests of
+the past, which have been severe and often merciless; and there is
+to-day stronger ground than ever for believing that in its pages "men
+spake from God, being moved by the Holy Spirit."
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+FREDERICK CARL EISELEN.
+<BR>
+Evanston, Illinois.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap01"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P9"></A>9}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER I
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE NEW TESTAMENT VIEW OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+The Christian Church has always assigned to the Bible a unique place in
+theology and life.  What is true of the Bible as a whole is equally
+true of that part of the Bible which is known as the Old Testament.
+Indeed, until the middle of the second century of the Christian era,
+the only Scriptures accepted as authoritative were those of the Old
+Testament.  Even then, only gradually and under the pressure of real
+need, different groups of Christian writings were added and received an
+authority equal to that of the older Scriptures.  And though in the
+course of the centuries there have been some who denied to the Old
+Testament a rightful place in Christian thought and life, the Church as
+a whole has always upheld the judgment of the early Christians in
+making the Old Testament a part of the canon of Christian sacred
+writings.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is worthy of note that the Old Testament played an important part in
+the religious life of Jesus.  No one can study the records of his life
+without seeing that he gathered much of his
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P10"></A>10}</SPAN>
+spiritual nourishment
+from its pages.  Even in the moments of severest temptation, greatest
+distress, and bitterest agony the words of these ancient writings were
+on his lips, and their consoling and inspiring messages in his heart
+and mind.  This attitude of Jesus toward the ancient Hebrew Scriptures
+in itself explains the high estimate placed upon them by his followers.
+For, in the words of G. A. Smith, "That which was used by the Redeemer
+himself for the sustenance of his own soul can never pass out of the
+use of his redeemed.  That from which he proved the divinity of his
+mission and the age-long preparation for his coming must always have a
+principal place in his Church's argument for him."[<A NAME="chap01fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap01fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The attitude of Jesus is reflected in his disciples and those who have
+given to us the New Testament books.  Nearly three hundred quotations
+from the Old Testament are scattered throughout the Gospels and
+Epistles, and in a number of passages is the value of Old Testament
+study specifically emphasized.  Perhaps nowhere is this done more
+clearly than in 2 Tim. 3. 15-17, in words written primarily of the Old
+Testament: "The sacred writings which are able to make thee wise unto
+salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus.  Every scripture
+inspired of God is also profitable for teaching, for reproof, for
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P11"></A>11}</SPAN>
+correction, for instruction which is in righteousness: that the man of
+God may be complete, furnished completely unto every good work."
+Evidently the writer of these words considers the sacred writings of
+the Hebrews able to inspire a personal saving faith in Jesus, the
+Christ; to furnish a knowledge of the things of God; and to prepare for
+efficient service.  And these are the elements which enter into the
+life advocated and illustrated by the Founder of Christianity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+An attempt will be made in this chapter to determine the New Testament
+view of the Old Testament for the purpose of discovering what is the
+proper Christian view of that part of the Bible.  For, if the teaching,
+spirit, and example of Jesus have a vital relation to Christian belief,
+and if his immediate followers have preserved an essentially accurate
+portrayal of him, then the modern Christian view of the Old Testament
+should be a reflection of the view of Jesus and of those who, as a
+result of their intimate fellowship with him, were in a position to
+give a correct interpretation of him and his teaching.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We may inquire, in the first place, what is the New Testament view of
+the purpose of the Old Testament Scriptures?  The answer to this
+inquiry is furnished by the passage in the Second Epistle to Timothy
+quoted above.  Neither this nor any other passage in the whole Bible
+warrants
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P12"></A>12}</SPAN>
+the belief that the Old Testament ever was meant to teach
+physical science, or history, or philosophy, or psychology.  Everywhere
+it is stated or clearly implied that the purpose of all biblical
+teaching is to make man morally and spiritually perfect, and to furnish
+him "unto every good work."  Therefore we may expect that where the Old
+Testament writers touch upon questions of science and history they
+develop them only in so far as they serve this higher religious and
+ethical purpose.  This being the biblical view of the purpose of the
+Scriptures, any theory of the Old Testament which makes no distinction
+between scientific and historical statements on the one hand, and
+religious and ethical statements on the other, is inadequate and
+erroneous, because it is not in accord with the New Testament teaching
+on that point.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The purpose of the Bible is intimately connected with its nature and
+character.  The New Testament view of the nature and character of the
+Old Testament is suggested in Heb. 1. 1, 2: "God, having of old time
+spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by divers portions and in
+divers manners, hath at the end of these days spoken unto us in a Son."
+Four great truths concerning the Old Testament dispensation are
+definitely indicated in these words, with a fifth one implied: (1)
+<I>God</I> spoke; (2) God spoke in the prophets,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P13"></A>13}</SPAN>
+that is, in or through
+<I>human agents</I>; (3) God spoke <I>in divers portions</I>; (4) God spoke <I>in
+divers manners</I>; (5) the words imply that <I>the Old Testament
+dispensation was incomplete</I>; it had to be supplemented and perfected
+by a revelation in and through a Son.  The truths expressed here
+constitute the essential elements which enter into the New Testament
+view of the Old Testament.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The two expressions, "in divers portions" and "in divers manners,"
+concern largely the external form of divine revelation.  The former
+means that the revelations recorded in the Old Testament were not given
+at one time, through one channel or by one man, but at many times,
+through many channels, by many men, scattered over a period of many
+centuries, in places hundreds of miles apart.  One result of this is
+seen in the fact that the Old Testament contains many books written by
+different authors in successive periods of Hebrew history.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The latter expression has to do with the different kinds of literature
+in the Old Testament, but it goes deeper than mere literary form.  It
+means that in giving revelations of himself during the Old Testament
+period God used various methods and means, the different kinds of
+literature being simply the outgrowth of the various modes of
+revelation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is a universal Christian belief that God
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P14"></A>14}</SPAN>
+reveals himself to-day
+in divers manners and modes.  Every Christian believes, for example,
+that God reveals himself in the events of history, be it the history of
+individuals or of nations.  Again, to many devout persons, God speaks
+very distinctly through the outward acts and ceremonies of worship.  To
+thousands of earnest and sincere Christians connected with churches
+using an elaborate ritual, this ritual is no mere form; it is a means
+of blessing and grace through which God reveals himself to their souls.
+Moreover, God selects certain persons, especially well qualified to
+hear his voice; these he commissions as ambassadors to declare him and
+his will to the people.  The belief in this method of revelation is the
+philosophical basis for the offices of the Christian preacher and the
+Christian religious teacher.  Once more, in his attempt to reach the
+human heart God may dispense with all external means; he may and does
+reveal himself by working directly upon and in the mind and spirit of
+the individual.  These are some of the "manners" in which God reveals
+himself to his children to-day, and these are some of the means and
+manners in which God made himself known during the Old Testament
+dispensation.  Then, as he does now, he revealed himself in nature, in
+the events of history, in the ritual, and by direct impressions; and at
+times he selected certain individuals to whom he might
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P15"></A>15}</SPAN>
+make
+himself known in all these various ways and who could transmit the
+various revelations to others.  The Old Testament contains records and
+interpretations of these manifold revelations.  It is self-evident that
+when attempts were made to record these various manifestations of God
+different kinds of literature must be used in order to express most
+vividly the truth or truths gathered from the divine revelations.  The
+several kinds of literature, therefore, are the natural outgrowth of
+the manifold modes of divine revelation.  In the Old Testament five
+kinds of literature may be distinguished: the prophetic, the wisdom,
+the devotional, the legal or priestly, and the historical.  In their
+production four classes of religious workers who observed, interpreted,
+and mediated the divine revelations, were active: the prophets, the
+wise men, the priests (compare Jer. 18. 18), and the psalmists.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The prophetic literature owes its origin to prophetic activity.  The
+prophets towered above their contemporaries in purity of character,
+strength of intellect, sincerity of purpose, intimacy of communion with
+God, and illumination by the divine Spirit.  As a result of these
+qualifications they were able to understand truth hidden from the eyes
+and minds of those who did not live in the same intimate fellowship
+with Jehovah.  Their high conceptions of the character of God enabled
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P16"></A>16}</SPAN>
+them to appreciate the divine ideals of righteousness, and they
+sought with flaming enthusiasm to impress the truths burning in their
+hearts upon their less enlightened contemporaries.  In carrying out
+this purpose they became statesmen, social reformers, and religious and
+ethical teachers.  No records have been preserved of the utterances of
+the earliest prophets.  But when, with the general advance in culture,
+reading and writing became more common, the prophets, anxious to reach
+a wider circle, and to preserve their messages for more willing ears,
+put their utterances into writing, and to this new departure we owe the
+sublime specimens of prophetic literature in the Old Testament.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In his direct appeal to heart and conscience the ancient prophet
+resembles the modern preacher.  The wise man, like the prophet, sought
+to make the divine will known to others, but in his method he
+resembles, rather, the modern religious teacher.  His ultimate aim was
+to influence conduct and life, but instead of appealing directly to the
+conscience he addressed himself primarily to the mind through counsel
+and argument, hoping that his appeal to the common sense of the
+listener would make an impression, the effects of which might be seen
+in transformed conduct.  The prophet would have said to the lazy man,
+"Thus saith Jehovah, Go to work, thou indolent man."
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P17"></A>17}</SPAN>
+Prov. 24.
+30-34 may serve as an illustration of the method of the wise man:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+I went by the field of the sluggard,<BR>
+And by the vineyard of the man void of understanding;<BR>
+And, lo, it was all grown over with thorns,<BR>
+The face thereof was covered with nettles,<BR>
+And the stone wall thereof was broken down<BR>
+Then I beheld, and considered well;<BR>
+I saw, and received instruction:<BR>
+Yet a little sleep, a little slumber,<BR>
+A little folding of the hands to sleep;<BR>
+So shall thy poverty come as a robber,<BR>
+And thy want as an armed man.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Nothing escaped the observation of these men, and from beginning to end
+they emphasized the important truth that religion and the daily life
+are inseparable.  From giving simple practical precepts, the wise men
+rose to speculation, and the books of Job and Ecclesiastes bear witness
+that they busied themselves with no mean problems.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Of profound significance is also the devotional literature of the Old
+Testament.  In a real sense the entire Old Testament is a book of
+devotion.  It is the outgrowth of a spirit of intense devotion to
+Jehovah, and it has helped in all ages to nurture the devotional spirit
+of its readers.  Here, however, the term "devotional" is used in the
+narrower sense of those poetic compositions which are primarily the
+expressions of the religious experience or emotions of the authors,
+generated
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P18"></A>18}</SPAN>
+and fostered by their intimate fellowship with Jehovah.
+The chief representative of this literature is the book of Psalms,
+which is aptly described by Johannes Arnd in these words: "What the
+heart is in man, that is the Psalter in the Bible."  The Psalms contain
+in the form of sacred lyrics the outpourings of devout souls&mdash;prophets,
+priests, kings, wise men, and peasants&mdash;who came into the very presence
+of God, held communion with him, and were privileged to hear the sweet
+sound of his voice.  No other literary compositions lift us into such
+atmosphere of religious thought and emotion.  Because these lyrics
+reflect personal experiences they may still be used to express emotions
+of joy, sorrow, hope, fear, anticipation, etc., even by persons who
+live on a higher spiritual plane than did the original authors.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The legal literature differs from the other kinds in that it does not
+form separate books, but is embodied in other writings, principally in
+the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.  All the
+representatives of Jehovah&mdash;prophets, priests, wise men, and even
+psalmists&mdash;were thought competent to make known the law of Jehovah, but
+the Old Testament makes it clear that at a comparatively early period
+the giving of law came to be looked upon as the special duty of the
+priests.  These priests constituted a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P19"></A>19}</SPAN>
+very important class of
+religious workers among the ancient Hebrews.  During the greater part
+of the national life their chief functions were the care of the
+sanctuary and the performance of ceremonial rites.  But in addition to
+these duties they continued to administer the law of Jehovah,
+consisting not only of ceremonial regulations but also of moral and
+judicial precepts and directions.  For centuries these laws may have
+been transmitted by word of mouth, or were only partially committed to
+writing, but when circumstances made it desirable to codify them and
+put them in writing the priests would be called upon to take this
+advance step.  Thus, while it is quite probable that other
+representatives of Jehovah helped to formulate laws, the legal
+literature embodied in the Old Testament reached its final form under
+priestly influence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The historical literature furnishes an interpretation of the movements
+of God in the events of history.  It owes its origin in part to
+prophetic, in part to priestly, activity.  The prophet was an
+ambassador of Jehovah appointed to make known the divine will
+concerning the past, the present, and the future.  Of the present he
+spoke as a preacher; when his message concerned the future it took the
+form of prediction; but the case might arise that the people failed to
+understand the significance of events in their own history, and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P20"></A>20}</SPAN>
+thus failed to appreciate the lessons which the events were intended to
+teach.  If these lessons were not to be lost, some one must serve as an
+interpreter, and who would be better qualified to furnish the right
+interpretation than the prophet?  This demand made of him, in a sense,
+an historian, not for the purpose of merely recording events but of
+interpreting them at the same time, and these prophetic interpretations
+are embodied in the historical literature originating with the prophets.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But not all Old Testament history comes from the prophets.  As already
+indicated, the legal and ceremonial literature is due to priestly
+activity.  Now, in connection with the recording of the laws, customs,
+institutions, and ceremonial requirements, the origin of these laws and
+customs became a matter of interest and importance.  This interest, and
+the demand for information arising from it, led the priests also to
+become historians.  And to these priestly writers we are indebted for
+not a small part of sacred history.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The third truth taught by the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews is
+that God spoke unto the fathers in or by the prophets, which means,
+that he used <I>human agents</I> to mediate his revelations.  The Old
+Testament may be more than a human production; nevertheless, it will be
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P21"></A>21}</SPAN>
+impossible to appreciate it adequately unless it is borne in mind
+that it contains a human element.  In the first place may be noted the
+differences in style between various writers.  These are frequently the
+outgrowth of differences in temperament and early training.  Even the
+English reader can notice such differences between Amos and Hosea, or
+between Isaiah and Jeremiah.  Evidently, whatever divine coöperation
+the biblical writers enjoyed, they retained enough of their human
+faculties and powers to make use of their own peculiar styles.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Again, the hand of man may be seen in the manner of literary
+composition.  Most Bible students are familiar with the opening words
+of the Gospel of Luke: "Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to draw up
+a narrative concerning those matters which have been fulfilled among
+us, even as they delivered them unto us, who from the beginning were
+eyewitnesses and ministers of the word, it seemed good to me also,
+having traced the course of all things accurately from the first, to
+write unto thee in order, most excellent Theophilus; that thou mightest
+know the certainty concerning the things wherein thou wast instructed."
+Evidently, the evangelist carefully sifted the material at hand before
+he wrote the Gospel, just as a modern writer would do.  In the Old
+Testament even clearer evidence is found
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P22"></A>22}</SPAN>
+that the authors of the
+several books were guided in the process of composition by the same
+principles as writers of extra-biblical productions.  The most
+suggestive illustrations of this fact are found in the books of
+Chronicles, in which reference is made again and again to the sources
+from which the compiler gathered his material.  In 1 Chron. 29. 29, for
+example, mention is made of the "words of Samuel the seer, ... the
+words of Nathan the prophet, and ... the words of Gad the seer"; 2
+Chron. 9. 29 refers to "words of Nathan the prophet, ... the prophecy
+of Ahijah, ... the visions of Iddo the seer."  These are only a few of
+the references scattered throughout Chronicles, but they are sufficient
+to show that in their composition methods employed by secular writers
+were used.  The same characteristic appears in the book of Proverbs.
+According to its own testimony, it contains several separate
+collections.  After the general title, "Proverbs of Solomon," in 1. 1,
+the following additional headings are found: 10. 1, "Proverbs of
+Solomon"; 22. 17, "The words of the wise"; 24. 23, "These also are the
+sayings of the wise"; 25. 1, "These also are the proverbs of Solomon,
+which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah, copied out"; 30. 1, "The
+words of Agur"; 31. 1, "The words of King Lemuel"; 31. 10-31 is an
+anonymous alphabetic acrostic.  Similar more or less clearly marked
+phenomena may
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P23"></A>23}</SPAN>
+be noted in other Old Testament books, all of them
+bearing witness to the presence of a human element in these writings.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+More significant are the historical inaccuracies found here and there
+in the books.  They may not be serious; the substantial accuracy of the
+writings may be established, but even the slightest inaccuracy
+constitutes a blemish which one would not expect in a work coming
+directly from an all-wise God.  For example, 2 Kings 18. 10 states that
+Samaria was taken in the sixth year of Hezekiah, king of Judah; verse
+13 contains the statement that in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah,
+Sennacherib, king of Assyria, came against Jerusalem.  Now, the date of
+the capture of Samaria is definitely fixed by the Assyrian
+inscriptions.  The city fell either in the closing days of B.C. 722, or
+the beginning of B.C. 721.  Assuming that it was in 722, the fourteenth
+year of Hezekiah would be B.C. 714.  But Sennacherib did not become
+king of Assyria until B.C. 705, while his attack upon Judah and
+Jerusalem was not undertaken until B.C. 701, hence there would seem to
+be an inaccuracy somewhere.  Certainly, since the primary purpose of
+the writings is not historical, but religious, these inaccuracies do
+not affect the real value of the book.  Nevertheless, their presence
+shows that the writings cannot be looked upon as coming in all their
+parts directly from
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P24"></A>24}</SPAN>
+God.  At some point man must have stepped in
+and left marks of his limitations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+More serious perhaps may appear the incompleteness and imperfection of
+the religious and ethical conceptions, especially in the older
+portions.  Read, for example, the twenty-fourth chapter of Second
+Samuel.  Jehovah is there represented as causing David to number the
+people, and when he carried out the command Jehovah was angry and sent
+a pestilence which destroyed, not David, but seventy thousand innocent
+men.  Can any Christian believe that the God of love revealed by Jesus
+ever acted in such arbitrary manner?  No!  The trouble lies with the
+author of the passage, who, on account of his relatively low conception
+of the character of Jehovah, gave an erroneous interpretation of the
+events recorded.  A later writer, who had a truer conception of the God
+of Israel, saw that a mistake had been made; therefore he introduced
+Satan as the one who caused the numbering (1 Chron. 21. 1).  Or take
+the twenty-second chapter of First Kings, especially verses 19 to 23.
+Four hundred prophets of Jehovah urge Ahab to go up against
+Ramoth-gilead.  On the advice of the king of Judah, Micaiah is called,
+who announces, after some hesitation, that the expedition will end
+disastrously.  He then explains how it happened that the other prophets
+told a falsehood:
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P25"></A>25}</SPAN>
+"Therefore hear thou the word of Jehovah: I saw
+Jehovah sitting on his throne, and all the host of heaven standing by
+him on his right hand and on his left.  And Jehovah said, Who shall
+entice Ahab, that he may go up and fall at Ramoth-gilead?  And one said
+on this manner; and another said on that manner.  And there came forth
+a spirit, and stood before Jehovah, and said, I will entice him.  And
+Jehovah said unto him, Wherewith?  And he said, I will go forth, and
+will be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets.  And he said,
+Thou shalt entice him, and shalt prevail also; go forth, and do so.
+<I>Now therefore, behold, Jehovah hath put a lying spirit in the mouth of
+all these thy prophets</I>; and Jehovah hath spoken evil concerning thee."
+Can any Christian believe that our God who is infinitely pure and holy
+ever did persuade anyone to tell a lie?  God never changes; he has
+always been pure and holy; but man was not able in the beginning to
+comprehend him in his fullness.  The human conceptions of the divine
+were imperfect and incomplete, and these imperfect conceptions are
+embodied in some of the Old Testament writings.  True, as Bowne
+suggests, "God might conceivably have made man over all at once by
+fiat, but in that case it would have been a magical rather than a moral
+revelation."[<A NAME="chap01fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap01fn2">2</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Throughout the entire book these and other
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P26"></A>26}</SPAN>
+indications of the
+presence of a human element may be seen, which the reader cannot afford
+to overlook if he would estimate rightly the Old Testament Scriptures.
+But while they are there, they must not blind the eyes of the student
+to the fourth great truth expressed by the writer of the Epistle to the
+Hebrews, namely, that God spoke through these men; in other words, that
+there is also a divine element in the Old Testament.  In the words of
+S. I. Curtis: "While it seems to me that we find abundant evidences of
+development in the Old Testament from very simple concrete
+representations of God to those which are profoundly spiritual, I am
+not able to account for this development on naturalistic principles.
+In it I see God at all times and everywhere coworking with human
+instruments until the fullness of time should come"[<A NAME="chap01fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap01fn3">3</A>].  The presence
+of this divine element was recognized by Jesus and by all the New
+Testament writers, and surely it is a significant fact that in the
+first outburst of Christian enthusiasm, and under the living impression
+of the unique personality of the Master, no doubt arose concerning the
+inspiration and permanent value of the Old Testament.  With the
+Christian the testimony of Jesus and his disciples carries great
+weight.  But without appealing to his authority every unbiased reader
+may convince himself of the nature and character
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P27"></A>27}</SPAN>
+of the Book; it
+is not necessary to depend upon the testimony of men who lived
+centuries ago, though they were inspired men.  The Book is an open
+book, ready for examination, and inviting the closest scrutiny on the
+part of every reader.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Former generations found the principal arguments in favor of the belief
+in a divine element in the Old Testament in the presence of miracles in
+its records and in the fulfillment of prophecy.  The present generation
+cannot depend upon these arguments exclusively.  The whole question of
+miracles in the Old Testament has assumed a different aspect within
+recent years.  In the first place, it is seen that in some places where
+formerly a miracle was thought to have been wrought natural causes may
+have played a prominent part, as, for example, in the crossing of the
+Red Sea and the Jordan.  In other cases language which used to be
+interpreted literally is now seen to be poetic and imaginative.  In
+still other cases the absolute historical accuracy of certain
+narratives has come to be questioned.  All this has resulted in a
+weakening of the evidence relied upon by former generations.
+Approaching the subject of miracles from another side, a better
+acquaintance with the uniformity of nature and the laws of nature has
+led some to question even the possibility of miracles, while the
+greater emphasis upon the immanence of God has resulted
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P28"></A>28}</SPAN>
+in altered
+conceptions of the natural and supernatural, if not in an almost
+complete obliteration of any distinction between the two.  Since
+miracles are involved in so much uncertainty, they do not at present
+constitute a very strong argument to prove the presence of a divine
+element in the Old Testament to one who is at all skeptically inclined;
+indeed, there are many sincere Christians who find miracles useless as
+an aid to faith.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In a similar manner, one cannot appeal with the same assurance as
+formerly to the fulfillment of prophecy.  It is undoubtedly true that
+many prophetic utterances were fulfilled; it is equally true that some
+were not fulfilled.  If, however, the apologist depends upon the
+fulfillment of prophecy as a proof, the nonfulfillment of even a single
+one weakens his position.  Moreover, it is recognized at present that
+prophecy in the sense of prediction occupies a relatively insignificant
+place in the Old Testament.  Besides, scientific methods of study have
+shown that some passages interpreted formerly as predictions can no
+longer be so interpreted, while in the case of others the
+interpretation is more or less doubtful.  Here, again, the difficulties
+connected with the use of the argument have become so perplexing that
+many consider it wise not to use it at all.  If used with caution,
+prophecy, especially Messianic
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P29"></A>29}</SPAN>
+prophecy, possesses great
+evidential value; but the argument from the fulfillment of prophecy as
+used formerly has lost much of its worth as a proof of inspiration.
+The arguments relied upon at the present time are simpler than those of
+the past, and are of such a nature that any fair-minded student can
+test them.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the first place, attention may be called to the essential unity of
+the book.  There are in the Old World great and magnificent cathedrals,
+some of which have been centuries in building, yet in all of them may
+be found unity and harmony.  How is this to be explained?  Although
+generation after generation of workmen have labored on the enterprise,
+back of all the efforts was a single plan, evolved in the mind of one
+man, which mind controlled all the succeeding generations of workmen.
+The result is unity and harmony.  The Bible has been likened to a
+magnificent cathedral.  The phenomenon to which reference has been made
+in connection with ancient cathedrals may be seen in the Bible as a
+whole, as also in the Old Testament considered separately.  The latter
+contains thirty-nine books, by how many authors no one knows, scattered
+over a period of more than a thousand years, written, at least some of
+them, independently of one another, in places hundreds of miles apart.
+And yet there is one thought running through them all&mdash;the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P30"></A>30}</SPAN>
+gradual
+unfolding of God's plan of redemption for the human race.  There must
+be an explanation of this unity.  Is it not natural to find it in the
+fact that one and the same divine spirit overshadowed the many men who
+made contributions to the Book?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The proof of the presence of a divine element in the Old Testament
+which is derived from the essential unity of the book, is confirmed by
+the response of the soul to its message, and the effect which it
+produces in the lives of those who yield themselves to its teachings.
+Jesus and his disciples observed that its message rightly applied would
+awaken a response in the human heart; sometimes, indeed, it produced a
+sense of indignation, because it carried with it a sentence of
+condemnation; at other times it led to loving obedience.  And they
+themselves experienced the effects of its teaching upon life and
+character: it was with truths proclaimed in the Old Testament that
+Jesus overcame temptation, and the quotations used in the darkest hours
+of his earthly life are an indication that at all times he found the
+most refreshing soul food in its pages.  The same is true of the early
+disciples of Jesus.  Undoubtedly, the statement in 2 Tim. 3. 15-17 is
+the expression of a living experience; and ever since these words were
+written millions of Christians have experienced the uplifting influence
+of many portions of the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P31"></A>31}</SPAN>
+Old Testament Scriptures.  They may not
+enjoin the finer graces of Christianity, but they insist most strongly
+and persistently upon the fundamental virtues which go to make up a
+sturdy, noble, righteous, uncompromising character.  A message which
+produces such divine results bears witness to itself that it embodies
+truth which in some sense proceeded from God.  This is aptly stated by
+Coleridge in these words: "Need I say that I have met everywhere more
+or less copious sources of truth and power and purifying impulses, that
+I have found words for my inmost thoughts, songs for my joy, utterances
+for my hidden griefs, and pleadings for my shame and feebleness?  In
+short, whatever finds me, bears witness for itself that it has
+proceeded from a Holy Spirit, even from the same Spirit which remaining
+in itself, yet regenerateth all other powers, and in all ages entering
+into holy souls, maketh them friends of God and prophets."[<A NAME="chap01fn4text"></A><A HREF="#chap01fn4">4</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As long as the Old Testament is able to awaken this response and
+produce these effects men will believe that it contains a divine
+element; and it will accomplish these things whenever men are willing
+to study it intelligently and devoutly.  What the Old Testament calls
+for is not a defense but earnest and devout study.  The words of
+Richard Rothe concerning the Bible as a whole are applicable also to
+the Old Testament Scriptures:
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P32"></A>32}</SPAN>
+"Let the Bible go forth into
+Christendom as it is in itself, as a book like other books, without
+allowing any dogmatic theory to assign it to a reserved position in the
+ranks of books, let it accomplish of itself entirely through its own
+character and through that which each man can find in it for himself,
+and it will accomplish great things."[<A NAME="chap01fn5text"></A><A HREF="#chap01fn5">5</A>]  The words of Professor
+Westphal are also worthy to be remembered: "The only thing for our more
+enlightened religion to bear in mind is that the proof of revelation is
+not necessarily to be found in the formula which claims to herald it,
+but, above all, in the specific value of the thing revealed, in the
+divine character of the inspired Word which forces our conscience to
+recognize in it the expression of God's will itself."[<A NAME="chap01fn6text"></A><A HREF="#chap01fn6">6</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The value and significance of the above argument cannot be
+overestimated.  But during the past century other proofs have become
+available as a result of the careful, painstaking study of the Bible by
+scholars in many lands and from various points of view.  These
+investigations have shown the Old Testament to be a peculiarly unique
+book when compared with other sacred literatures of antiquity.  This
+uniqueness consists principally in the pure and lofty atmosphere which
+permeates the whole from beginning to end.  One may read its stories of
+prehistoric times, its records
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P33"></A>33}</SPAN>
+of history, its law, its poetry,
+its prophecy, and everywhere he will find a religious tone and spirit
+which, if present at all, is much less marked in the similar
+literatures of other nations.  The modern scientific student has
+approached the Old Testament chiefly from four directions, and in the
+pursuit of his work four distinct tests have been applied to the Old
+Testament: the tests of science, of criticism, of archæology, and of
+comparative religion.  These four tests and their bearing upon the New
+Testament, or Christian, view of the Old Testament are considered in
+the succeeding pages.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Before closing this chapter one important question remains to be
+considered.  It may be formulated in this wise: If there are
+limitations and imperfections in the Old Testament, or anywhere else in
+the Bible, how may they be distinguished from the truth?  In the case
+of historical or scientific errors the method of procedure may appear
+clear to those who hold the New Testament view as to the purpose of the
+Old Testament writers; but the situation seems more troublesome in the
+case of religious and ethical imperfections, because religion and
+ethics are the rightful sphere of the biblical writings.  If the Bible
+is not the final authority, where can be found a criterion by which the
+biblical, or Old Testament, statements may be judged?  Startling as the
+suggestion
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P34"></A>34}</SPAN>
+to judge scriptures may seem in theory, a moment's
+thought will show that it is being done every day by practically every
+Christian who seeks spiritual nourishment in the Sacred Book.  Who has
+not passed through experiences such as are suggested in these words of
+Marcus Dods?&mdash;"Who is at the reader's elbow as he peruses Exodus and
+Leviticus to tell him what is of permanent authority and what is for
+the Mosaic economy only?  Who whispers as we read Genesis and Kings,
+'This is exemplary; this is not'?  Who sifts for us the speeches of
+Job, and enables us to treasure up as divine truth what he utters in
+one verse, while we reject the next as Satanic ravings?  Who gives the
+preacher authority and accuracy of aim to pounce on a sound text in
+Ecclesiastes, while wisdom and folly toss and roll over one another in
+confusingly rapid and inextricable contortions?  What enables the
+humblest Christian to come safely through the cursing Psalms and go
+straight to forgive his enemy?  What tells us that we may eat things
+strangled, though the whole college of apostles deliberately and
+expressly prohibited such eating?  Who assures us that we need not
+anoint the sick with oil, although in the New Testament we are
+explicitly commanded to do so?  In a word, how is it that the simplest
+reader can be trusted with the Bible and can be left to find his own
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P35"></A>35}</SPAN>
+spiritual nourishment in it, rejecting almost as much as he
+receives?"[<A NAME="chap01fn7text"></A><A HREF="#chap01fn7">7</A>]  These questions call attention to a common Christian
+practice.  But, if the practice can be justified as Christian, the
+principle underlying the practice may be Christian also; and so it is,
+for it is recognized as legitimate in the New Testament.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A single sentence from a New Testament book suggests the answer to the
+above questions: "He that is spiritual judgeth all things."[<A NAME="chap01fn8text"></A><A HREF="#chap01fn8">8</A>]  The
+Scriptures are included among the "all things."  But notice, Paul does
+not say that anyone may set himself up as judge, but "he that is
+spiritual"; that is, the man who is controlled by the spirit of the
+Christ.  If Jesus has given to the world the highest revelation of God
+and truth, then the expressions of all other revelations must be
+measured by his revelation, either as an external standard, or as an
+inner criterion by him who, in his own experience, has appropriated the
+character, spirit, and life of Jesus.  He who has thus appropriated the
+Christ in his fullness will be able to judge all things.  But until he
+has reached that standard man's judgment will remain imperfect and more
+or less unreliable, and though for his own guidance he is still
+dependent upon it, he must guard against the error of setting up his
+own imperfect Christian consciousness as the ultimate criterion for all.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P36"></A>36}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Up to the present time no individual has reached the stage of
+experience where he may be appealed to as final authority for all.
+Perhaps the sum total of the general Christian consciousness would
+prove a more reliable guide, or the Church in so far as it embodies
+this consciousness.  But it also still falls short of its final glory.
+It is in the process of development toward perfection, but it has not
+yet reached that stage, and will not reach it until the consciousness
+of every individual contributing to it reflects the consciousness of
+Jesus himself.  Then, and then only, can it be appealed to as an
+ultimate criterion in matters religious or Christian, including the
+specific question under consideration: What in the Old Testament is
+from God, and so, permanent, and what is due to the human limitations
+of the authors, and so, temporary and local?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It seems, therefore, necessary to appeal at the present time to what
+may be called, in a sense, an external standard: the spirit, the
+teaching, and the life of Jesus as it may be determined objectively
+from the gospel records.  The supreme position occupied by Jesus the
+Christ in Christian thinking is well described by W. N. Clarke: "He
+[Jesus Christ] has shown God as he is in his character and relations
+with men.  He has represented life in its true meaning, and opened to
+us the real way to genuine welfare and success in existence.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P37"></A>37}</SPAN>
+What
+he has made known commends and proves itself as true by the manner in
+which it fits into the human scheme, meets human needs, and renders
+thought rational and life successful.  God eternally is such a being as
+Jesus represents him to be&mdash;this is the heart of Christianity, to be
+apprehended, not first in thought but first in life and love, and this
+is forever true.  And it is a revelation never to be superseded, but
+forever to be better and better known."[<A NAME="chap01fn9text"></A><A HREF="#chap01fn9">9</A>]  By this standard, called by
+Clarke the Christian element in the Bible, the Old Testament teaching
+must be measured; and by the application of this standard alone is it
+possible to separate the human from the divine and to estimate rightly
+the permanent value of Old or New Testament teaching.  Whatever in the
+Scriptures endures this test may be received as of permanent religious
+value, because it is divine in the deepest sense.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap01fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap01fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap01fn3"></A>
+<A NAME="chap01fn4"></A>
+<A NAME="chap01fn5"></A>
+<A NAME="chap01fn6"></A>
+<A NAME="chap01fn7"></A>
+<A NAME="chap01fn8"></A>
+<A NAME="chap01fn9"></A>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+NOTES ON CHAPTER I
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap01fn1text">1</A>] Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old Testament, p. 19.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap01fn2text">2</A>] Studies in Christianity, p. 73.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap01fn3text">3</A>] Primitive Semitic Religions To-day, p. 14.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap01fn4text">4</A>] Letters on the Inspiration of the Scriptures, Letter I.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap01fn5text">5</A>] Quoted in the Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, p. 84.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap01fn6text">6</A>] The Law and the Prophets, p. 16.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap01fn7text">7</A>] The Bible, Its Origin and Nature, pp. 160, 161.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap01fn8text">8</A>] 1 Cor. 2. 15.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap01fn9text">9</A>] The Use of the Scriptures in Theology, pp. 51, 52.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap02"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P38"></A>38}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER II
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN SCIENCE
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+For many centuries during the Christian era science was almost
+completely dominated by theology.  Whenever, therefore, a scientific
+investigator proposed views not in accord with the theological notions
+of the age he was considered a heretic and condemned as such.  During
+these same centuries theology was dominated by a view of the Bible
+which valued the latter as an infallible authority in every realm of
+human thought.  The view of the Bible held then was expressed as late
+as 1861 in these words: "The Bible is none other than the voice of Him
+that sitteth upon the throne.  Every book of it, every chapter of it,
+every verse of it, every word of it, every syllable of it (where are we
+to stop?), every letter of it, is the direct utterance of the Most
+High.  The Bible is none other than the word of God; not some part of
+it more, some part of it less, but all alike, the utterance of Him who
+sitteth upon the throne, faultless, unerring, supreme."[<A NAME="chap02fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn1">1</A>]  A book
+which came thus directly from the mind of God must be inerrant and
+infallible; hence closely associated with this mechanical view of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P39"></A>39}</SPAN>
+the divine origin of the Bible was the belief in its absolute inerrancy
+and infallibility.  This is clearly recognized in the words of two
+eminent American theologians: "The historical faith of the Church has
+always been that the affirmations of the scriptures of all kinds,
+whether of spiritual doctrine or duty, or of physical or historical
+fact, or of psychological or philosophical principle, are without any
+error, when the <I>ipsissima verba</I> of the autographs are ascertained and
+interpreted in their natural and intended sense."[<A NAME="chap02fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn2">2</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+With such an estimate of the Bible it is only natural that theology
+should bitterly resent any and all scientific conclusions which seemed
+to be contrary to the statements of the Bible.  However, a study of the
+history of Bible interpretation creates a serious perplexity.  The
+principles upon which the interpretations rested were not the same in
+all ages.  As a result, the "natural and intended sense" of biblical
+statements was variously apprehended.  What was considered the clear
+teaching of Scripture in one age might be condemned as unscriptural in
+another.  Moreover, some of the methods of interpretation are not
+calculated to inspire confidence in the results.  When, for example,
+the poetic passage,
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon,<BR>
+And thou, moon, in the valley of Aijalon.<BR>
+And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed,[<A NAME="chap02fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn3">3</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P40"></A>40}</SPAN>
+is considered sufficient to discredit the scientific claim that
+the earth moves around the sun, rather than the sun around the earth,
+one's confidence in the truth of the theological view is somewhat
+shaken.  It may be insisted, then, that much of the so-called conflict
+between science and the Bible was in reality a conflict between science
+and a misinterpreted Bible.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This, even theology seems to have recognized, for again and again it
+changed its interpretation of the Bible so as to bring it into accord
+with the persistent claims of science.  "The history of most modern
+sciences," says Farrar, "has been as follows: their discoverers have
+been proscribed, anathematized, and, in every possible instance,
+silenced or persecuted; yet before a generation has passed the
+champions of a spurious orthodoxy have had to confess that their
+interpretations were erroneous; and&mdash;for the most part without an
+apology and without a blush&mdash;have complacently invented some new line
+of exposition by which the phrases of Scripture can be squared into
+semblable accordance with the now acknowledged fact."[<A NAME="chap02fn4text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn4">4</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The so-called historical method of Bible study, which has gradually won
+its way, at least in Protestant Christianity, has established Bible
+interpretation upon a firmer foundation, so that at present much less
+uncertainty exists as to the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P41"></A>41}</SPAN>
+meaning of the Bible than at any
+preceding age.  In the same way scientific investigation has made
+remarkable strides during the nineteenth century; Twentieth century
+science is far different from that of the early years of the preceding
+century.  And as scientists have had to surrender many of their
+positions in the past it is very probable that, as the result of
+further investigation, some views held at present will be superseded by
+others.  Nevertheless, though science cannot as yet dispense with
+working hypotheses which may or may not prove true, and though
+modifications in certain widely accepted views may be expected, there
+are many conclusions which may be considered firmly established.  This
+being the case, if at the present time the conflict between science and
+the Bible is discussed, it is a conflict between scientific conclusions
+reached after prolonged, careful study and investigation and the
+teaching of the Bible as determined by the scientific use of all
+legitimate means of interpretation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Does such conflict exist?  Many geologists, astronomers, biologists,
+and other scientists have claimed for some time that they have reached
+conclusions not in accord with certain statements of the Bible.  Take
+as an illustration the biblical and scientific statements concerning
+the age of the earth, or creation in general.[<A NAME="chap02fn5text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn5">5</A>]  The general
+conclusion reached by an overwhelming majority
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P42"></A>42}</SPAN>
+of the most
+competent students of the Bible has been that according to the
+information furnished by the Scriptures, the date of creation was, in
+round numbers, four thousand years before the opening of the Christian
+era.[<A NAME="chap02fn6text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn6">6</A>]
+At that time, in the words of the Westminster Confession,[<A NAME="chap02fn7text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn7">7</A>]
+"It pleased God ... to create or make of nothing the world and all
+things therein whether visible or invisible in the space of six days
+and all very good."  This was accepted as the plain teaching of the
+first chapter of Genesis even after scientific methods had been
+introduced in the study of the Bible.  Then came geology, pushing back
+the "beginnings," adding millions of years to the age of the globe, and
+insisting that there is abundant evidence to prove the existence of
+life upon earth many millenniums before B.C. 4,000.  Other sciences
+reached conclusions pointing in the same direction, until it became
+perfectly evident that Bible students must reckon with what seemed a
+real conflict between the conclusions of science and the teaching of
+the Bible.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No wonder Bible lovers were troubled when scientists in ever-increasing
+numbers advanced claims that appeared to involve a charge of scientific
+inaccuracy against the Sacred Scriptures.  Many were convinced that
+this could not be, for they feared that if the Bible contained
+inaccuracies of any sort, its value would be
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P43"></A>43}</SPAN>
+completely destroyed,
+and with the Bible Christianity must fall into ruins.  In Brother
+Anthony, intended to picture the perplexed soul of a monk in the days
+of Galileo, Mark Guy Pearse gives a vivid portrayal of the doubts and
+perplexities of many devout Bible students in the nineteenth century:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+But on my fevered heart there falls no balm;<BR>
+The garden of my soul, where happy birds<BR>
+Sang in the fullness of their joy, and bloomed<BR>
+The flowers bright, finds only winter now;<BR>
+And bleak winds moan about the leafless trees,<BR>
+And chill rains beat to earth the rotting stalks.<BR>
+Hope, Faith, and God, alike are gone, all gone&mdash;<BR>
+If it be so, as this Galileo saith.<BR>
+"<I>The earth is round and moves about the sun;<BR>
+The sun,</I>" he saith, "<I>is still, the axle fixed<BR>
+Of nature's wheel, center of all the worlds</I>."<BR>
+Galileo is an honest soul, God knows&mdash;<BR>
+No end has he to serve but only truth,<BR>
+By that which he declares, daring to risk<BR>
+Position, liberty, and even life itself.  He knows.<BR>
+And yet the ages have believed it not.<BR>
+Have they not meditated, watched, and prayed&mdash;<BR>
+Great souls with vision purged and purified?<BR>
+Had God no messenger until arose<BR>
+Galileo!  Long years the Church has prayed,<BR>
+Seeking His grace who guided into truth,<BR>
+And weary eyes have watched the sun and stars,<BR>
+And heard the many voices that proclaim<BR>
+God's hidden ways&mdash;did they believe a lie?<BR>
+The Church's holy fathers, were they wrong?<BR>
+Yet speaks Galileo as one who knows.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+Shrinks all my soul from breathing any word<BR>
+That dares to question God's most holy Book,<BR>
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P44"></A>44}</SPAN>
+As men beneath an avalanche pass dumb<BR>
+For fear a sound should bring destruction down.<BR>
+If but a jot or tittle of the Word<BR>
+Do pass away, then is all lost.  And yet<BR>
+If what Galileo maintains be true!&mdash;<BR>
+"<I>The sun itself moves not</I>."  The Scripture tells<BR>
+At Joshua's command the sun stood still.<BR>
+Doth scripture lie?  The blessed Lord himself,<BR>
+Spake he not of the sun that rose and set!<BR>
+So cracks and cleaves the ground beneath my feet.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+The sun that fills and floods the world with light<BR>
+My darkness and confusion hath become!<BR>
+O God, as here about the old gray walls<BR>
+The ivy clings and twines its arms, and finds<BR>
+A strength by which it rises from the earth<BR>
+And mounts toward heaven, then gladly flings<BR>
+Its grateful crown of greenery round the height,<BR>
+So by thy Word my all uncertain soul<BR>
+Hath mounted toward thy heaven, and brought<BR>
+Its love, its all, wherewith to crown my Lord.<BR>
+Alas, the wall is fallen.  Beneath it crushed<BR>
+The clinging ivy lies; its stronghold once<BR>
+Is now the prison house, the cruel grave.[<A NAME="chap02fn8text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn8">8</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+Since the scientific position seemed to many devout believers to
+undermine the Christian faith, it is not altogether strange that they
+should set themselves against these claims with all their might, though
+it may be difficult to justify the bitterness displayed by many
+Christian ministers in the denunciation of even devout Christian
+scientists, as "infidels," "impugners of the sacred records,"
+"assailants of the Word of God," etc.  It is hardly credible that
+during the enlightened
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P45"></A>45}</SPAN>
+nineteenth century geology should be
+denounced as "not a subject of lawful inquiry," "a dark art,"
+"dangerous and disreputable," "a forbidden province," "infernal
+artillery," "an awful evasion of the testimony of revelation."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the progress of science could not be blocked by denunciation, and
+gradually the claims of geology, astronomy, and other sciences
+respecting the great age of the earth came to be accepted as well
+established.  Is, then, the scientific teaching of the Bible false?  By
+no means, said many defenders of the faith; on the contrary, there is
+perfect agreement between science and the Bible, provided the latter is
+rightly interpreted.  The first problem was to extend what was commonly
+taken to be the biblical teaching respecting the age of the earth so as
+to meet the demands of geology.  This was readily done by interpreting
+"day" figuratively as meaning an indefinite period.  It could easily be
+shown that in some passages "day" did not mean a day of twenty-four
+hours.  Hence, why not interpret the word metaphorically in Gen. 1?  It
+is safe to say that, had it not been for a desire to harmonize the
+biblical account with the conclusions of science, no Bible student
+would ever have thought of this interpretation in connection with the
+acts of creation, for a natural interpretation of the writer's language
+makes it evident that when the author of Gen. 1 speaks
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P46"></A>46}</SPAN>
+of the
+successive events of creation he is thinking of days of twenty-four
+hours, each consisting of day and night.[<A NAME="chap02fn9text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn9">9</A>]  Marcus Dods is right when
+he says, "If the word 'day' in these chapters does not mean a period of
+twenty-four hours, the interpretation of scripture is hopeless."[<A NAME="chap02fn10text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn10">10</A>]
+No permanent good can come from doing violence to plain statements of
+the Bible by the use of methods of interpretation that would be
+considered illegitimate in the study of other literary productions.  In
+all the harmonizing efforts this caution has been overlooked.  The
+believer in revelation, thinking that the agreement between science and
+the Bible must be minute, has yielded to the temptation to twist the
+biblical record into a new meaning with every fresh discovery of
+science.  Many scientists were repelled by this arbitrary method, and
+when they saw that agreement could not be had by legitimate methods,
+and knew of no other way out of the difficulty, they too frequently
+assumed a hostile attitude toward revelation.  A method leading to such
+disastrous results cannot be considered altogether satisfactory.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Granting, however, for the sake of argument, the possibility of
+interpreting "day" metaphorically, the troubles are by no means ended,
+for it is impossible to discover clearly defined periods in the
+geological records such as are presupposed in the biblical record.  But
+there is a more serious
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P47"></A>47}</SPAN>
+difficulty.  The order in which the
+different living beings and the heavenly bodies are said in Genesis to
+have been created does not seem to be the same as that suggested by
+geology and astronomy.  For example, according to Genesis, fishes and
+birds appeared together on the fifth day, preceding all land animals,
+which are said to have been created on the sixth day.  According to
+geology, fish and numerous species of land animals, especially reptiles
+living on land, preceded birds.[<A NAME="chap02fn11text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn11">11</A>]  Moreover, according to Genesis,
+the sun, moon, and stars were created after the earth, a view which is
+altogether inconsistent with the modern scientific view of the
+universe, and of the part the sun plays in plant and animal life upon
+earth.  True, this last difficulty is avoided by some by giving to
+certain Hebrew words a meaning which they do not ordinarily have.  For
+example, it is said, "Let there be" (verse 14) means "Let there
+appear"; "God made" (verse 16) means "God made to appear," or "God
+appointed," to a specific office.  With this interpretation, it is
+stated, Genesis says nothing about the formation or creation of the
+luminaries.  They may have existed for a long time, only on the fourth
+day they were made to appear&mdash;the vapor around the earth having
+previously hidden them&mdash;and were appointed to the offices mentioned in
+verses 14 to 18.  No one will claim that this is a natural
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P48"></A>48}</SPAN>
+interpretation of the biblical language.  If the writer meant "Let
+there appear," he could have found a suitable word in Hebrew, as also
+to express the idea "appoint."  The language of Driver is not too
+strong: "Verses fourteen to eighteen cannot be legitimately interpreted
+except as implying that in the conception of the writer luminaries had
+not previously existed, and that they were made and set in their places
+in the heavens after the separation of sea and land and the appearance
+of vegetation upon the earth."[<A NAME="chap02fn12text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn12">12</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Various attempts have been made to escape the difficulty caused by the
+conclusions of geology as to the order in which different forms of life
+have appeared upon earth.  These conclusions are based chiefly upon the
+presence of fossil remains imbedded in the different strata of the
+earth's surface.  Passing by the earlier explanations&mdash;for example,
+that these fossil remains were placed there by a direct act of God on
+one of the creative days for some mysterious purpose, perhaps for the
+trial of human faith, or that they were due to the ravages of the
+Deluge&mdash;reference may be made to two or three of the more recent
+"scientific" attempts to harmonize the facts of science with the
+statements of Genesis.  There is, first of all, the <I>restitution</I>
+theory advocated by J. H. Kurtz and Thomas Chalmers.[<A NAME="chap02fn13text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn13">13</A>]  Admitting
+that the fossil remains are important for the determination
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P49"></A>49}</SPAN>
+of the
+age of the earth and the order in which different forms of life
+appeared upon the globe, Kurtz writes: "The animal and vegetable world
+which lies buried in the stratified formations was not that which,
+according to the Bible, was created respectively on the third, fifth,
+and sixth days.  Its origin must belong to an earlier period."[<A NAME="chap02fn14text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn14">14</A>]  In
+other words, his view is that "the main description in Genesis does not
+relate to the geological periods at all; that room is left for these
+periods between verse one and verse two; that the life which then
+flourished upon the earth was brought to an end by a catastrophe, the
+results of which are alluded to in verse two; and that what follows
+(verses 3ff.) is the description of a second creation immediately
+preceding the appearance of man."  That this view is due to a desire to
+harmonize the biblical account with science is clearly implied in the
+words of Kurtz intended to meet the charge of Delitzsch that his view
+is "pure delusion."  "It is," says Kurtz, "merely a delusion to attempt
+identifying the creation of the primeval fossil flora and fauna with
+those of the third, fifth, and sixth days, <I>and at the same time to
+endeavor harmonizing geology and the Bible</I>."  Not to speak of the
+astronomical difficulty referred to above, which remains, science has
+nothing whatever to offer in support of this theory, while, on the
+other
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P50"></A>50}</SPAN>
+hand, the tenor of the Genesis narrative implies such close
+connection between verse one and verse two that there is no room for
+the alleged catastrophe.  It is not strange, therefore, that modern
+apologists have discarded the restitution hypothesis.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The <I>vision</I> theory has been presented most forcefully by Hugh
+Miller.[<A NAME="chap02fn15text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn15">15</A>]  According to this view "the narrative was not meant to
+describe the actual succession of events, but was the description of a
+series of visions presented prophetically to the narrator's mental eye,
+and representing, not the first appearance of each species of life upon
+the globe, but its maximum development.  The 'drama of creation,' it is
+said, is not described as it was enacted historically, but <I>optically</I>,
+as it would present itself to a spectator in a series of pictures or
+tableaux embodying the most characteristic and conspicuous feature of
+each period, and, as it were, summarizing in miniature its results."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Though this view was presented with much eloquence and skill, it has
+been unable to maintain its position, simply because it is based upon
+an unnatural interpretation of the biblical record.  No one approaching
+Genesis without a theory to defend would think for a moment that he is
+reading the description of a vision.  The only natural interpretation
+is that the author means to record what he considers actual fact.
+Moreover,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P51"></A>51}</SPAN>
+where in Scripture could there be found an analogy to
+this mode of procedure?  The revelation of an unknown past to a
+historian or prophet seems not in accord with the ordinary method of
+God's revelations to men.  But, admitting the possibility of this
+method of divine communication, why should the picture thus presented
+to the mind of the author differ so widely from the facts uncovered by
+geologists?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Similar attempts to harmonize Genesis with geology have been made by
+other geologists, among them Professor Alexander Winchell,[<A NAME="chap02fn16text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn16">16</A>] Sir J.
+W. Dawson,[<A NAME="chap02fn17text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn17">17</A>]
+and Professor J. D. Dana.[<A NAME="chap02fn18text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn18">19</A>]  The results are perfectly
+satisfactory to these writers, but they fail to see that in order to
+accomplish their purpose they must have recourse to unnatural
+interpretations of the Genesis account, which in itself is sufficient
+evidence to show the hopelessness of the task.  A similar judgment must
+be passed on the more recent attempt by F. H. Capron[<A NAME="chap02fn19text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn19">19</A>] to bring the
+biblical account into harmony with the modern theory of evolution.
+Capron is fully convinced that "the most rudimentary knowledge of
+geology is sufficient to satisfy any candid critic that the Genesis
+narrative as interpreted by any one of them[<A NAME="chap02fn20text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn20">20</A>] cannot be brought into
+harmony with the admitted facts of science."  He, therefore, attempts a
+new harmony by trying to show that the first chapter of Genesis
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P52"></A>52}</SPAN>
+gives only the order in which the creative words were uttered, not the
+order in which the resulting effects were produced.  Unfortunately, in
+accomplishing this purpose, he, like his predecessors, reveals an
+almost complete disregard for the obvious meaning of the Genesis
+narrative.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After a close study of the Genesis narrative and the numerous attempts
+of harmonizing it with science, the present writer has become
+thoroughly convinced that it is impossible to establish a complete,
+detailed harmony between the Genesis account of creation and the
+established facts of science without doing violence to the Bible or to
+science or to both.  The only harmony possible is what has been called
+an "ideal harmony," that is, a harmony not extending to details, but
+limited to salient features.  But this gives away the very position for
+which the "harmonists" have contended.  As Driver says, "If the
+relative priority of plants and animals, or the period at which the sun
+and moon were formed, are amongst the details on which harmony cannot
+be established, what other statement (in the account of creation) can
+claim acceptance on the ground that it forms part of the narrative of
+Genesis?"[<A NAME="chap02fn21text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn21">21</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Admitting now the presence of discrepancies between science and the Old
+Testament, what becomes of the Old Testament?[<A NAME="chap02fn22text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn22">22</A>]  Must it be
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P53"></A>53}</SPAN>
+discarded as no longer "profitable for teaching, for reproof, for
+correction, for instruction which is in righteousness"?  Some there are
+who seem to fear such fate for the book they dearly love.  On the other
+hand, there are multitudes who calmly admit the claims of science, and
+at the same time continue to read and study the pages of the Old
+Testament, assured that it can still furnish nourishment to their
+spiritual natures.  This attitude of confidence has been made possible,
+on the one hand, by a broader and truer conception of divine
+revelation, and, on the other, by a more adequate interpretation of the
+purpose of the Bible and of the biblical writers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Believers in God have come to realize as never before that God has
+spoken and still speaks in a variety of ways.  Manifestations of God
+may be seen on every hand:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+The heavens declare the glory of God;<BR>
+And the firmament showeth his handiwork.<BR>
+Day unto day uttereth speech,<BR>
+And night unto night showeth knowledge.[<A NAME="chap02fn23text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn23">23</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+What is the universe but a manifestation of God?  The whole realm of
+nature is in a real sense a record of divine revelations, which science
+seeks to interpret.  "Now," says A. H. McNeile,[<A NAME="chap02fn24text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn24">24</A>] "If God created all
+things and carries the universe along by the utterance of his power, it
+is clear that every fresh item of knowledge gained by
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P54"></A>54}</SPAN>
+scientific
+investigation is a fresh glimpse into the will of God.  Strictly
+speaking, there is no such thing as secular knowledge.  A man only
+makes his studies secular for himself as he divorces them from the
+thought of God, so that all the scientific experiments in the world
+form part of the study of one aspect of God's Word."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the other hand the purpose of scripture has come to be more
+adequately apprehended.  The New Testament makes it perfectly clear
+that the aim of the Old Testament Scriptures is to bring man into
+harmony with God, to make him morally and spiritually perfect, and to
+point to the consummation of the redemptive purpose of God in and
+through the Christ.[<A NAME="chap02fn25text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn25">25</A>]  There is no warrant anywhere for the belief
+that the Old Testament writers meant to teach science of any kind.
+This is admitted even by some who insist upon the accuracy of the
+scientific teaching of the Bible.  "It is true that the Scriptures were
+not designed to teach philosophy, science, or ethnology, or human
+history as such, and therefore they are not to be studied primarily as
+sources of information on these subjects."[<A NAME="chap02fn26text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn26">26</A>]  Evidently, then,
+wherever the Old Testament touches upon questions of science it treats
+them only in so far as they serve a higher ethical or spiritual
+purpose.  Is it necessary to have absolute scientific accuracy in every
+detail in order to do this
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P55"></A>55}</SPAN>
+effectively?  A moment's thought will
+show that it is not.  The writer heard not long ago a powerful appeal
+on behalf of the boys in a certain community, in which the speaker
+referred to the "Gracchi, the most renowned citizens of Athens."  The
+historical inaccuracy in no wise affected the moral force of the
+appeal.  No one would be foolish enough to assume that the spiritual
+and ethical value of sermons preached by the early Church fathers is
+invalidated by the fanciful science mixed with their gospel message.
+Who has not heard sermons that created a profound spiritual impression,
+though their science and history were not altogether faultless?  It
+would seem, then, that in estimating extra-biblical utterances the
+principle is recognized that "ignorance of some departments of truth
+does not disqualify a man for knowing and imparting truth about God;
+that in order to be a medium of revelation a man does not need to be in
+advance of his age in secular learning; that intimate communion with
+God, a spirit trained to discern spiritual things, a perfect
+understanding of and zeal for God's purpose are qualities quite
+independent of a knowledge of the discoveries of science."[<A NAME="chap02fn27text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn27">27</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Is it right to raise a different standard for the Scriptures?
+"Certainly," say many, "because the Bible is inspired; it is the Word
+of God, and God cannot inspire an untruth of any kind."
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P56"></A>56}</SPAN>
+Now, it
+may be readily admitted that God cannot inspire an untruth; but have we
+any right to argue as if we knew exactly how God ought to convey a
+revelation to man?  Without entering upon a discussion of the entire
+subject of inspiration, the question may be raised whether or not
+inspiration covers purely scientific information.  The claim has been
+put forth by some who believe that the Bible and science are in perfect
+agreement that this agreement "proves that the scientific element of
+scripture as well as the doctrinal was within the scope of
+inspiration."[<A NAME="chap02fn28text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn28">28</A>]  Consistency might seem to require the admission that
+disagreement would prove that the scientific element does not fall
+within the scope of inspiration.  At any rate, it is of enormous
+importance to remember, what should be a perfectly obvious principle,
+that the facts presented in the Bible must determine the answer to the
+inquiry.  In other words, "We can learn what the Bible is only from
+what the Bible itself says."[<A NAME="chap02fn29text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn29">29</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One thing is quite certain, namely, that the Bible makes not the
+slightest claim of being a scientific treatise complete and
+up-to-date.[<A NAME="chap02fn30text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn30">30</A>]  It is equally true that it does not deny being such a
+treatise, hence the inquirer is thrown back upon a study of the facts
+presented in the Bible; and upon the basis of these he must determine
+whether or not there is reason for believing that scientific
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P57"></A>57}</SPAN>
+knowledge comes within the scope of inspiration.  Now, the abstract
+possibility of God communicating to man a knowledge of exact scientific
+facts in a prescientific age need not be denied.  It is, however, a
+question whether God could have communicated such facts to man three
+thousand years ago without robbing him of his personality and changing
+him into a mechanism.  So far as the ways of God are known from
+experience, observation, history, and other sources, he has always
+treated with respect and consideration the powers and faculties of his
+chief creature.  "Had inspired men," says Dods,[<A NAME="chap02fn31text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn31">31</A>] "introduced into
+their writings information which anticipated the discoveries of
+science, their state of mind would be inconceivable, and revelation
+would be a source of confusion.  God's methods are harmonious with one
+another, and as he has given men natural faculties to acquire
+scientific knowledge and historical information, he did not stultify
+this gift by imparting such knowledge in a miraculous and
+unintelligible manner."  The same truth is expressed by H. E. Ryle in
+these words: "We do not expect instruction upon matters of physical
+inquiry from revelation in the written Word.  God's other gifts to men,
+of learning, perseverance, calculation, and the like, have been and are
+a true source of revelation.  But scripture supplies no short cut for
+the intellect.  Where
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P58"></A>58}</SPAN>
+man's intellectual powers may hope to attain
+to the truth, be it in the region of historical, scientific, and
+critical study, we have no warrant to expect an anticipation of results
+through the interposition of supernatural instruction in the letter of
+scripture....  Scripture is divinely inspired, not to release men from
+the toil of mental inquiry, but to lead and instruct their souls in
+things of eternal salvation."[<A NAME="chap02fn32text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn32">32</A>]  This is not an arbitrary limitation
+of the scope of inspiration; it is a conclusion based upon a careful
+consideration of the facts of science and of the Bible, which seem to
+furnish sufficient evidence that the biblical writers were not in any
+marked degree in advance of their age in the knowledge of physical
+facts or laws.  In other words, the Bible is primarily a book of
+religion, hence religion, and not science, is to be looked for in its
+pages.  Altogether too much time has been spent in an effort to find in
+it scientific truth in a scientific form.  Such attempts clearly
+disregard the purpose of the biblical writers as interpreted in the New
+Testament.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+And could a Divine Providence have chosen a different method?  Even now
+discoveries follow one another so fast in the realm of science that no
+book remains a standard work for more than a few years.  It seems
+obvious, therefore, that a book written thousands of years ago could
+not remain a standard scientific work for all times.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P59"></A>59}</SPAN>
+But assuming
+for the sake of argument that God had communicated the knowledge of
+scientific facts to these writers&mdash;evidence for which is entirely
+lacking&mdash;what would have been the result?  Later occurrences suggest
+what might have happened.  The great mass of people would have looked
+upon teachers of strange science as heretics and madmen, and would have
+rejected not only their scientific teaching but their religious
+teaching as well.  What a loss that would have been to mankind!  No
+serious loss would come to men if they were left a while longer in
+ignorance concerning scientific matters, but very serious loss would
+come to them by continuing in their lower religious and ethical beliefs
+and practices.  The only way to make the higher religious truth
+understood was to present it in a form easily apprehended by the
+people.  To do this is the chief purpose of the primitive,
+<I>prescientific science</I> of the Old Testament Scriptures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The peculiar element in scripture is the spirit and religious
+atmosphere which permeate all its parts and give to the Bible a unique
+place among the literatures of the world.  This is the divine element
+due to inspiration.  It is this element which establishes a gulf
+between the Hebrew account of creation and the cosmologies of other
+nations.  Though the biblical writers had very much the same idea about
+the form and general
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P60"></A>60}</SPAN>
+arrangement of the visible world as we find
+among other peoples&mdash;ideas that have satisfied at all times the
+majority of men even among nations with a pretense to culture, namely,
+the cosmology of appearances&mdash;these ideas were all connected with their
+sublime faith in Jehovah: to his omnipotence they referred the
+existence of the world, and they made all its changes depend entirely
+on his will.  In their monotheistic religion they secured the
+foundation of a clear and simple cosmology different from the grotesque
+cosmologies of other nations and yet not beyond the demands of men of a
+primitive type and of simple mind, who were full of a lively
+imagination, but not much accustomed to analyze phenomena or their
+causes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In this connection it may prove helpful to remember what, according to
+the biblical viewpoint and in the light of history, was the
+contribution of Israel to the development of the human race.  "Israel,"
+says G. W. Jordan,[<A NAME="chap02fn33text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn33">33</A>] "is comparatively young, politically it is
+provincial, socially it is not brilliant, in the realm of science it is
+narrow and dependent; yet when we lay stress on these limitations we
+only cause the peculiar glory of this nation's life to stand out more
+clearly; it has its own individuality; its real leaders are men of
+genius, their ambition is to speak in the name of the eternal king;
+they
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P61"></A>61}</SPAN>
+hear the divine message and claim for it the supreme
+significance."  This is the judgment of a Bible student.  The same
+truth is expressed in the words of one who approaches the Bible from
+the viewpoint of the scientist, namely, the eminent Italian astronomer,
+Schiaparelli[<A NAME="chap02fn34text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn34">34</A>]: "Their [the Hebrews] natural gifts, as well as the
+course of events, carried them to a different mission [from that of
+Greece and Rome] of no smaller importance&mdash;that of purifying the
+religious sentiment and of preparing the way for monotheism.  Of this
+way they mark the first clear traces.  In the laborious accomplishment
+of this great task Israel lived, suffered, and completely exhausted
+itself.  Israel's history, legislation, and literature were essentially
+coördinated toward this end; science and art were for Israel of
+secondary importance.  No wonder, therefore, that the steps of the
+Jews' advance in the field of scientific conceptions and speculations
+were small and feeble; no wonder that in such respects they were easily
+vanquished by their neighbors on the Nile and the Euphrates."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In conclusion: Permanent harmony between science and the Bible will be
+secured when each is assigned to its legitimate sphere.  Science has a
+right to ask that, if men are seeking purely scientific information,
+they should turn to recent text-books in geology, astronomy, or the
+other
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P62"></A>62}</SPAN>
+sciences.  But in the sphere to which Jesus and the New
+Testament writers assigned the Old Testament science cannot deny or
+seriously question its inspiration or permanent value.  Unprejudiced
+science has never done this.  It is perfectly ready to recognize the
+inestimable religious and ethical value of even those Old Testament
+narratives which refer to scientific facts, not because of their
+scientific teaching, but because of the presence of eternal truth in
+the crude form of primitive science.  Fair-minded scientists readily
+admit that if anyone wishes to know what connection the world has with
+God, if he seeks to trace back all that now is to the very fountain
+head of life, if he desires to discover some unifying principle, some
+illuminating purpose in the history of the world, he may still turn to
+the early chapters of Genesis as a safe guide.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+What, then, is the bearing of the conclusions of modern science upon
+the permanent value of the Old Testament?  Science has compelled the
+Bible student to withdraw the attention from the nonessential and
+secondary, and to concentrate it upon the heart and substance.  In
+doing this it has established upon a much firmer basis the conviction
+that, whatever the scientific value of scripture may be or may not be,
+the apostle was right when he wrote that "the sacred writings ... are
+able to make wise unto salvation through
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P63"></A>63}</SPAN>
+faith which is in Christ
+Jesus.  Every scripture inspired of God is also profitable for
+teaching, for reproof, for correction, for instruction which is in
+righteousness: that the man of God may be complete, furnished
+completely unto every good work."[<A NAME="chap02fn35text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn35">35</A>]
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap02fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn3"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn4"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn5"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn6"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn7"></A>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+NOTES ON CHAPTER II
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn1text">1</A>] Burgon, Inspiration and Interpretation, p. 89.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn2text">2</A>] Presbyterian Review, 1881, p. 238.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn3text">3</A>] Josh. 10. 12.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn4text">4</A>] The Bible&mdash;Its Meaning and Supremacy, p. 160.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn5text">5</A>] In a brief treatment it seems preferable to confine the discussion
+to a specific concrete case; therefore this chapter deals almost
+exclusively with questions centering around the subject of cosmogony.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn6text">6</A>] The margin of the Authorized Version still gives the chronology of
+Archbishop Ussher to that effect.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn7text">7</A>] Chapter IV, 1.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap02fn8"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn9"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn10"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn11"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn8text">8</A>] The Expositor, 1902, pp. 159, 160.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn9text">9</A>] It requires but a reading of the "proofs" of the opposite view to
+understand their weakness.  Compare Expositor, 1886, pp. 287-289.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn10text">10</A>] The book of Genesis, p. 4.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn11text">11</A>] Another difficulty has been found in the statement of Genesis that
+"vegetation" was complete two days before animal life appeared, but the
+disagreement is more apparent than real.  The geological record, it is
+true, shows many more animal than plant remains in the very ancient
+rocks.  It was not until Devonian and Carboniferous times that the
+plants became very abundant, as far as the geological records go.
+Indeed, in the oldest rocks in which animal remains occur, no plant
+remains have been discovered.  However, this is not to be
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P64"></A>64}</SPAN>
+taken as
+proving that animals existed before plants, because low forms of the
+latter, having no hard parts, would be preserved with difficulty.
+Moreover, in some of the primitive forms, it is not easy to distinguish
+plants from animals.  But, apart from the records in the rocks, both
+biologists and geologists believe that plants existed as early as
+animals, if not earlier, for the latter needed the former to live upon.
+An eminent geologist, Professor U. S. Grant, of Northwestern
+University, has expressed his opinion to the writer in these words: "It
+seems to me that, viewed in an abstract way, the Genesis statement of
+vegetation appearing before animal life is not far from correct."
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap02fn12"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn13"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn14"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn15"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn16"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn17"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn18"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn19"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn12text">12</A>] The Book of Genesis, p. 25.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn13text">13</A>] Natural Theology, Vol. I, pp. 229, 230.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn14text">14</A>] History of the Old Covenant, Vol. I, p. cxxix.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn15text">15</A>] The Testimony of the Rocks, Lecture IV.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn16text">16</A>] Reconciliation of Science and Religion, pp. 356ff.; compare also
+Pre-Adamites, <I>passim</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn17text">17</A>] Origin of the World According to Revelation and Science, <I>passim</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn18text">18</A>] Bibliotheca Sacra, 1885, pp. 201ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn19text">19</A>] The Conflict of Truth, pp. 162ff.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap02fn20"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn21"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn22"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn23"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn24"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn25"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn20text">20</A>] Kurtz, Miller, Dawson, Dana, and the rest.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn21text">21</A>] Expositor, 1886, p. 38.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn22text">22</A>] The writer wants it clearly understood that an "ideal," harmony,
+as described above, can be established.  He is equally certain,
+however, that the harmony cannot be carried into details.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn23text">23</A>] Psa. 19. 1, 2.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn24text">24</A>] Expository Times, October, 1907, p. 20.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn25text">25</A>] See above, Chapter I, p. 12.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap02fn26"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn27"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn28"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn29"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn30"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn26text">26</A>] Presbyterian Review, 1881, p. 239.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn27text">27</A>] Marcus Dods, The Book of Genesis, pp. 4, 5.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn28text">28</A>] Presbyterian Review, 1881, p. 239.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn29text">29</A>] Expository Times, October, 1907, p. 20.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P65"></A>65}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn30text">30</A>] Surely, there is not the slightest claim in Scripture that Moses
+or any other biblical writer received divine information concerning the
+beginnings of the universe; nor is there anything to support the
+assumption that the account of creation was supernaturally revealed to
+Adam, and that from him it was transmitted word for word through the
+families of the pious antediluvians, of Noah, Shem, Abraham, Isaac,
+Jacob, etc., until it was finally received and committed to writing by
+Moses.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap02fn31"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn32"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn33"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn34"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn35"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn31text">31</A>] The Book of Genesis, p. 5.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn32text">32</A>] H. E. Ryle, The Early Narratives of Genesis, pp. 5, 6.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn33text">33</A>] Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, p. 90.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn34text">34</A>] Astronomy in the Old Testament, p. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn35text">35</A>] 2 Tim. 3. 15-17; on the permanent value and significance of the
+Genesis narratives; see also below, pp. 234ff.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap03"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P66"></A>66}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER III
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN CRITICISM
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+No careful observer can doubt that modern criticism has exerted a
+marked influence upon the attitude of many Christian people toward the
+Bible.  Both those in sympathy with new ideas and those opposed to them
+frequently speak of the crisis which this criticism has brought about.
+"It does seem," says John E. McFadyen, a believer in the methods and
+results of modern criticism, "that the Church to-day in all her
+branches is face to face with a crisis of the most serious kind."[<A NAME="chap03fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn1">1</A>]
+On the other hand, John Smith, a determined opponent of criticism,
+writes concerning the conclusions of the latter: "They conflict with
+the profoundest certitudes of the faith, must inevitably alter the
+foundation on which from the beginning our holy religion has stood
+before the world, and, consequently, so far as a theory can, must
+obstruct her mission and abridge her influence."[<A NAME="chap03fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn2">2</A>]  Whether the crisis
+is as acute as is here implied or not, there seems to be much concern
+among devout believers in the Bible about the bearing of modern
+criticism upon the value of the book they dearly love.  In the nature
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P67"></A>67}</SPAN>
+of the case, limitation of space forbids an exhaustive discussion
+of this interesting subject here.  There are, however, three questions
+which are worthy of serious consideration: (1) What is modern
+criticism?  (2) What are the more important conclusions of criticism
+that have secured wide recognition?  (3) What is the bearing of these
+conclusions, if true, upon the Christian view of the Old Testament?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+What, then, is biblical criticism?  It is defined by Nash as "the free
+study of all the facts,"[<A NAME="chap03fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn3">3</A>] which definition McFadyen expands so as to
+read, "the free and reverent study of all the biblical facts."[<A NAME="chap03fn4text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn4">4</A>]
+Criticism is <I>study</I>, which means careful investigation rather than
+superficial reading followed by hasty or unfounded conclusions.  The
+investigation is <I>free</I> in the sense that though it is not
+disrespectful to traditional beliefs, it is not prevented by them from
+marking out new paths if the facts so demand.  It is <I>reverent</I> because
+it deals with a book that has played a unique part in the religious
+life and thought of many centuries, and has been received as a book in
+which the voice of God may be heard.  It is primarily a study of the
+<I>facts</I> presented by the book, not of theories or speculations, though
+in the study of these facts much may be learned from the theories of
+the past, and the study may give rise to new theories.  In order to be
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P68"></A>68}</SPAN>
+thoroughly scientific, it must have due regard for all the facts
+in the case.  For convenience sake it has become customary to
+distinguish four phases of Old Testament, or biblical, criticism: (1)
+Textual Criticism; (2) Linguistic Criticism; (3) Literary Criticism;
+and (4) Historical Criticism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Close students of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament have been
+compelled to admit that even the oldest Hebrew manuscripts now known
+are not free from errors and blemishes, and it is the office of textual
+criticism to remove such errors by the use of all legitimate methods
+and means and to restore the <I>ipsissima verba</I> of the author.  The
+presence of corruptions in the text is established by facts like these:
+(1) There are passages in which the text as it stands cannot be
+translated without violence to the laws of grammar, or, which are
+irreconcilable with the context or with other passages.  For example,
+in 1 Sam. 3. 1 the Authorized Version reads, "Saul reigned one year,
+and when he had reigned two years over Israel."  This translation does
+violence to the laws of Hebrew grammar.  The Hebrew reads, literally,
+"The son of a year was Saul in his reigning," which may be rendered,
+"Saul was a year old when he began to reign."  The narratives
+concerning events in the life of Saul before he became king make it
+clear that this statement is not correct.  Perhaps the scribe, in
+writing the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P69"></A>69}</SPAN>
+formula, which is the usual formula for stating a
+king's age at his accession, left a space for the numeral to be filled
+in later, and forgot the omission; or the numeral has accidentally
+dropped out.  In this case, it is the duty of textual criticism to
+supply, if possible, the age of Saul when he was made king.  In the
+absence of all external evidence the textual critic must fall back upon
+conjecture.  This the translators of the Revised Version did, for in
+the English Revised Version we find in brackets the word "thirty," in
+the American Revised Version "forty."  In this special case the assured
+results of textual criticism are purely negative, in that they have
+established the fact that the present text cannot be correct.  The
+attempt to restore the original text rests upon conjecture.  (2)
+Parallel passages differ in such a manner as to make it certain that
+the variations are largely due to textual corruption.  A good
+illustration is seen in Psa. 18, when compared with 2 Sam. 22.  These
+two passages were undoubtedly identical in the beginning; but even the
+oldest existing manuscripts show more than seventy variants between the
+two chapters.  (3) Some of the ancient versions contain readings which
+often bear a strong stamp of probability and remove or lessen the
+difficulties of the Hebrew text.  For example, in Josh. 9. 4, where the
+Hebrew reads, "And they
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P70"></A>70}</SPAN>
+went and made as if they had been
+ambassadors," the Septuagint reads, "And they went and provisioned
+themselves."  The latter reading is supported by nearly all the ancient
+versions, and seems more probable than that of the Hebrew text.
+Another illustration of a similar character is found in Psa. 22. 16c,
+which is translated by both the Authorized and the Revised Version,
+"They pierced my hands and my feet."  This, however, is not a
+translation of the Hebrew at all, for it reads, "Like a lion, my hands
+and my feet."  In this case the New Testament, as well as the Latin and
+Syriac translations, supports the reading of the Septuagint.  Passages
+like these, in which the text has evidently suffered in the course of
+transmission, might be multiplied a hundredfold, and it is generally
+considered a legitimate ambition to attempt the restoration of the
+Hebrew text to its original form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Linguistic criticism deals with difficult and obscure passages.
+Sometimes the meaning of single words or phrases is uncertain, as, for
+example, in Isa. 53. 1, which reads, in the Authorized Version, "Who
+hath believed our report?"  The margin gives as alternatives for
+"report" the words "doctrine" and "hearing."  The Revised Version
+reads, "Who hath believed our message?" with a marginal note, "Or,
+<I>that which we have heard</I>."  In form the word translated "message"
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P71"></A>71}</SPAN>
+is a passive participle, meaning, literally, "that which has been
+heard."  Surely, no one would consider "report," "doctrine," "hearing,"
+"message," etc., synonymous.  It is the duty of linguistic criticism to
+determine the exact meaning of the word.  Sometimes grammatical
+constructions are ambiguous.  Very familiar are the words in Isa. 6. 3,
+"Holy, holy, holy, is Jehovah of hosts: the whole earth is full of his
+glory."  The margin suggests as an alternative for the last clause,
+"the fullness of the whole earth is his glory," which might mean
+something entirely different from the ordinary rendering.  There are
+other passages, some among the sublimest prophetic utterances, in which
+it is by no means clear whether the reference is to the past or to the
+present or to the future.  There is, indeed, plenty of room for the
+most painstaking work of the linguistic critic.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The literary criticism concerns itself with the literary history of Old
+Testament books.  The Bible may be more than a human production, but in
+outward form it has the appearance of an ordinary work of literature;
+and, so far as its history as a collection of literary productions is
+concerned, it has not escaped the fortunes or misfortunes of other
+ancient literary works.  It is a well-known fact that extra-biblical
+books, religious and secular, have come down from the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P72"></A>72}</SPAN>
+distant past
+bearing the names of men who cannot have been their authors; for
+example, the Gospel of Peter, or the Ascension of Isaiah.  Some ancient
+books have been interpolated and added to from time to time; for
+example, the Sibylline Oracles, the religious books of the Hindus.
+Some ancient books are compilations rather than original productions;
+for example, the Diatessaron of Tatian, or the religious books of the
+Babylonians, which give abundant evidence of compilation.  The
+discoveries of these phenomena in extra-biblical books naturally raised
+the question whether similar phenomena might not be found in the books
+of the Old Testament.  It is the duty of literary criticism to throw
+light on these questions; to decide whether all the Old Testament books
+are rightly ascribed to the men whose names they bear, whether they are
+original productions or compilations from earlier material, and whether
+any of the books have received additions or interpolations in the
+course of their literary history.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Hand in hand with literary criticism goes historical criticism.  The
+student of Old Testament history seeks to trace the development of the
+history of Israel by combining in a scientific manner the historical
+material scattered throughout the Old Testament.  In doing this he is
+compelled to determine the value of the sources
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P73"></A>73}</SPAN>
+from which he
+gathers information.  To do this is the duty of historical criticism.
+It inquires, for example, whether the records are approximately
+contemporaneous with the events they record; if so, whether the writers
+were qualified to observe the events accurately, or to record and
+interpret them correctly; and, if the accounts were written a
+considerable time subsequent to the events recorded, whether they were
+colored in any way by the beliefs and practices of the time in which
+they were written or compiled.  This line of investigation is almost
+thrust upon the Bible student by a comparison of the books of Kings
+with the books of Chronicles, which in many portions cover the same
+ground; and yet, there are marked differences between the descriptions
+of the two.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These are the different phases of criticism.  Ordinarily, however, only
+two kinds are distinguished: the lower, or textual criticism, and the
+higher criticism.  The aims of textual criticism are described above.
+The higher criticism combines the functions of literary and historical
+criticism, while linguistic criticism is considered a part of exegesis
+or interpretation, not a separate branch of Bible study.  The
+legitimacy of textual criticism is universally recognized.  Its
+importance in a comprehensive study of the Bible is clearly implied in
+these words of W. H. Green, a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P74"></A>74}</SPAN>
+generation ago the best known
+defender of the traditional view of the Old Testament: "Its function is
+to determine, by a careful examination of all the evidence bearing upon
+the case, the condition of the sacred text, the measure of its
+correspondence with, or divergence from, the exact language of the
+inspired penman, and by means of all available helps to remove the
+errors which may have gained admission to it from whatever cause, and
+to restore the text to its pristine purity as it came from the hands of
+the original writers....  It is not an arbitrary but a judicial
+process, based on fixed and intelligible principles and conducted in a
+determinate manner, in which all the evidence is diligently collected,
+thoroughly sifted, and accurately weighed, and the decision given in
+accordance with the ascertained facts."[<A NAME="chap03fn5text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn5">5</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No exception is taken to linguistic criticism as a legitimate part of
+exegesis, but at the mention of higher criticism many good men and
+women become greatly disturbed, for they seem to look upon it as a
+handmaid of Satan.  A few expressions will illustrate the feeling with
+which some regard this kind of study: One writer says, "Neither hard
+times nor higher criticism nor infidelity ... has any effect upon the
+sale of the Divine Scriptures."  He evidently places higher criticism
+on a par with infidelity.  Again: "The so-called higher critics, it is
+well known, are constantly
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P75"></A>75}</SPAN>
+trying to shake the faith of the
+Christian by telling him that the books of the Bible were not written
+by the men whose names are usually given as the human authors."
+Another writer declares that the higher critics allege that the Bible
+is "the off-spring of incompetence and fraud."  One more quotation may
+suffice: "Higher criticism tends invariably ... to absolute rationalism
+and the discrediting of inspiration."  Now, if higher criticism is on a
+par with infidelity, if it declares the Bible to be the "offspring of
+incompetence and fraud," if it constantly tries to shake the faith of
+Christians, if it tends invariably to absolute rationalism and
+discredits inspiration&mdash;if it does these things, then the Christian
+Church may well look upon it with dread and alarm.  Whether or not
+higher criticism is guilty of the things charged against it will
+probably appear in the further discussion, for from now on chief
+emphasis will be placed upon the bearing of the higher criticism on the
+Christian view of the Old Testament.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+First of all, it may be well to define, if possible, the term "higher
+criticism."  It is too often assumed by those who should know better,
+that the adjective "higher" exhibits the arrogance of those using it,
+who claim thereby an unwarranted precedence for their methods.  This
+assumption is erroneous, for the adjective is used
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P76"></A>76}</SPAN>
+simply to
+distinguish this kind of criticism from the lower or textual criticism,
+which, since its purpose is to fix the exact text of a book,
+necessarily precedes the application of the processes of the higher
+criticism.  The designation may be unfortunate, but thus far no clearer
+or less objectionable substitute has been found.  But what is higher
+criticism?  Higher criticism may be defined as a process of scientific
+investigation for the purpose of determining the origin, original form,
+and intended value of literary productions.  It cannot be emphasized
+too strongly that higher criticism is nothing more than a process of
+study or investigation.  It is not a set of conclusions respecting the
+books of the Bible; it is not a philosophical principle underlying the
+investigation; it is not a certain attitude of mind toward the Bible;
+it is not a theory of inspiration nor a denial of inspiration.  Higher
+criticism is none of these things.  It is simply a process of study to
+determine certain truths concerning literary productions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Again, higher criticism, as a process of study, is not confined to the
+study of the Bible.  It was applied to extra-biblical books long before
+there was any thought of applying it to the Old or New Testament.
+Eichhorn, who first applied the term to Old Testament study, has this
+to say: "I have been obliged to bestow the greatest
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P77"></A>77}</SPAN>
+amount of
+labor on a hitherto entirely unworked field: the investigation of the
+inner constitution of the separate books of the Old Testament by the
+aid of the higher criticism, <I>a new name to no humanist</I>."[<A NAME="chap03fn6text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn6">6</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Once more: the higher criticism as such is not opposed to traditional
+views.  In the words of Professor Zenos: "Its relation to the old and
+the new views respectively is one of indifference.  It may result in
+the confirmation of the old, or in the substitution of the new for the
+old....  It is no respecter of antiquity or novelty; its aim is to
+discover and verify the truth, to bring facts to light whether these
+validate or invalidate previously held opinions."[<A NAME="chap03fn7text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn7">7</A>]  It is a grave
+mistake, therefore, to attribute to higher criticism an essentially
+destructive purpose.  In reality, it has confirmed traditional views at
+least as often as it has shown them to be untenable.  It does not
+approach its investigations even with a suspicion of the correctness of
+tradition; it starts out with the tradition, it accepts it as correct
+until the process of investigation has brought to light facts and
+indications which cannot be harmonized with tradition.  In such a case
+criticism believes itself bound to supply a satisfactory explanation of
+the facts, though such explanation may be contrary to the claims of
+tradition.  Any student Who approaches the inquiry in a spirit
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P78"></A>78}</SPAN>
+different from that here indicated introduces into his investigation
+elements that are not a part of higher criticism as such, and the
+latter cannot and should not be held accountable for them.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+That it is desirable to answer questions concerning the origin, form,
+and value of biblical books no one will dispute.  C. M. Mead,
+exceedingly cautious and conservative, says: "I regard the higher
+criticism as not only legitimate but as useful, and indiscriminate
+condemnation of it as foolish.  Genuine criticism is nothing but the
+search after truth, and of this there cannot be too much."[<A NAME="chap03fn8text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn8">8</A>]  No
+literary production in the Bible or outside of the Bible can be fully
+understood unless the interpreter has a full knowledge of its origin,
+its author, and its first readers.  When, where, by whom, to whom,
+under what circumstances, for what purpose?&mdash;an answer to these and
+similar questions will wonderfully illuminate the message of a book.  A
+knowledge of the form of the writing is also essential to a proper
+understanding of the same.  Is it history or poetry? is it narrative or
+prediction? or any one of the various kinds of literature?  In a
+similar manner it is important, though not always easy, to know the
+value a given literary work was intended to have.  Is it to be
+understood as literal history?  Is its essential purpose didactic,
+without special regard for historic accuracy in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P79"></A>79}</SPAN>
+every detail?  Are
+the religious and ethical truths taught intended to be final, or do
+they mark a stage in the development toward perfection and finality?
+These and other important questions of a similar nature the higher
+criticism seeks to answer.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Some one may say, "Scholars in all ages have sought to answer these
+questions; why is it, then, that modern higher criticism reaches
+conclusions concerning the origin, form, and value of Old Testament
+writings not dreamed of a few centuries ago?"  This is a legitimate
+question, but the answer is not far to seek.  It may best be answered
+by asking another question: Men in all ages have studied the earth, the
+sun, the stars, and other phenomena of nature; how is it that modern
+scientists have reached conclusions unknown and undreamed of a few
+centuries ago?  The modern higher criticism, like all modern science,
+is the outgrowth of the awakening during the Middle Ages which
+revolutionized the whole world of science, literature, and religion.
+The Renaissance aroused men's interest in literature and science, the
+Reformation aroused men's interest in religion as a personal
+experience.  In the Renaissance men began to think for themselves in
+matters of science and literature; in the Reformation they began to
+think for themselves in matters of religion.  It was inevitable that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P80"></A>80}</SPAN>
+the awakening of thought and the substitution of reason for
+authority in science, secular literature, and secular history should
+ultimately affect sacred history and sacred literature as well.[<A NAME="chap03fn9text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn9">9</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Chronologically, it is true, the work of higher criticism began even
+before the time of the Renaissance among Spanish Jews.  But this Jewish
+criticism did not at the time exert any influence in the Christian
+Church.  Only after criticism had secured a foothold among Christian
+scholars were the results of Jewish investigation made use of.  In the
+same way the purely negative conclusions of some of the early Christian
+heretics, based upon dogmatic considerations rather than historical
+investigations, have no organic connection with the investigations and
+results of modern criticism.  It is perfectly correct, therefore, to
+state that the modern higher criticism had its birth in the great
+awakening of the Renaissance and the Reformation.  They gave to it a
+life and an impetus which from that day to this have not abated in the
+least.  Some of the reformers themselves and their coworkers advanced
+views which later investigation has confirmed and expanded.  Carlstadt,
+for example, the friend and coworker of Luther, published in 1520 an
+essay in which he argued, on the ground that the style of narration in
+the account of Moses's death which, he believed, was not written by
+Moses, was
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P81"></A>81}</SPAN>
+the same as in the preceding chapters, that it might be
+held that Moses did not write the entire Pentateuch.  The freedom with
+which Luther criticized both the Old and the New Testament books is
+well known.  Concerning the Old Testament, he admitted that the books
+of Kings were more credible than Chronicles.  "What would it matter,"
+he asks, "if Moses did not write the Pentateuch?"  He thinks it
+probable that Isaiah, Jeremiah, Hosea, and Ecclesiastes received their
+final form at the hands of redactors.  The testimony of the psalm
+titles he does not regard as conclusive.  He admits chronological
+difficulties and contradictions in the statements of historical facts.
+He concedes that we do not always hear God himself speaking in the Old
+Testament.  Esther might well have been left out of the canon, and
+First Maccabees might have been included.  If this is not criticism,
+what is?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The case of Luther has been mentioned simply to show the absurdity of
+the claim that modern higher criticism is the outgrowth of German
+rationalism or English deism or infidelity; or that a man who pursues
+Old Testament study on the line of the higher criticism is necessarily
+an infidel, a rationalist, or a fool.  True, there have been and are
+those out of sympathy with Christianity or the Bible who have employed
+critical methods in carrying on their anti-Christian warfare; but
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P82"></A>82}</SPAN>
+such misuse of critical methods no more proves the illegitimacy of this
+process of investigation than the employment of a surgical instrument,
+which, in the hands of a skillful surgeon, may be the means of saving a
+diseased organism, by a murderer to carry out his destructive aim,
+would prove that the use of all surgical instruments is unscientific or
+criminal.  The vast majority of the so-called higher critics do not
+deserve the denunciations heaped upon them by some who consider
+themselves sole defenders of the faith.  Most of them are Christian men
+whose loyalty to Christ, whose devotion to the truth, and whose
+sincerity of motive no one has reason or right to question or doubt.
+It is exceedingly unfortunate that many writers have failed to
+recognize this fact.  No one acquainted with the history of biblical
+criticism can accept the following as a true characterization of
+serious critics: "I mean by professional critic, one who spends his
+time and strength in trying to find some error or discrepancy in the
+Bible; and, if he thinks he does, rejoiceth as 'one who findeth great
+spoil'; who hopes, while he works, that he may succeed, thinking
+thereby to obtain a name and notoriety for himself."[<A NAME="chap03fn10text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn10">10</A>]  In a similar
+spirit Sir Robert Anderson speaks of "the foreign infidel type of
+scholar ... as ignorant of man and his needs as a monk, and as ignorant
+of God and his ways as a monkey."[<A NAME="chap03fn11text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn11">11</A>]
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P83"></A>83}</SPAN>
+Such abuse is unchristian,
+and no good can be accomplished by it.  The truth of the matter is more
+adequately expressed by James Orr when he says: "There are, one must
+own, few outstanding scholars at the present day on the Continent or in
+Britain&mdash;in America it is somewhat different&mdash;who do not in greater or
+less degree accept conclusions regarding the Old Testament of the kind
+ordinarily denominated critical.  Yet among the foremost are many whom
+no one who understands their work would dream as classing as other than
+believing, and defenders of revealed religion."[<A NAME="chap03fn12text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn12">12</A>]  Then, after
+mentioning a number of scholars, he describes them as "all more or less
+critics, but all convinced upholders of supernatural revelation."  But
+even among these Christian, evangelical, higher critics a distinction
+must be made between two classes.  The one may be called, for want of a
+better name, traditional, because its adherents insist that their
+investigations on the line of the higher criticism have confirmed in
+all essentials the positions held during many centuries.  It should be
+noted, however, that many scholars who are sometimes quoted as
+upholders of the traditional view are ready to make many concessions to
+those who believe that the traditional views are no longer tenable.[<A NAME="chap03fn13text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn13">13</A>]
+On the other hand is a class of critics which may be called
+nontraditional, critics who claim that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P84"></A>84}</SPAN>
+their investigations, while
+confirming the truth of many traditional positions, compel them in
+other cases to set aside the traditional views in favor of some more in
+accord with the facts in the case.  It may be difficult to state all
+the causes responsible for the differences in the conclusions of these
+two classes of critics.  However, the writings of some scholars in the
+former class seem to show that the authors are influenced, to some
+extent at least, by the fear that further concessions would affect the
+Christian theory of inspiration.  Another cause may be found in the
+fact that the present generation of Old Testament scholars received its
+training largely at the hands of those accustomed to the traditional
+viewpoint; the influence of this early training manifests itself to
+some extent in the present attitude.  A more important cause, however,
+is supplied by the nature of the evidence upon the basis of which these
+critical questions must be settled.  Mathematical demonstration is
+impossible in very many cases.  The critic must be qualified to
+estimate probabilities, and various degrees of probability, depending
+upon the nature of the grounds on which it rests.  In the nature of the
+case, the personal element enters into the estimate of the degree of
+probability.  What to some may appear a high degree of probability, or
+amount to practical certainty, may to another investigator, perhaps
+less familiar with
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P85"></A>85}</SPAN>
+the facts in the case, appear of less value and
+lead him to reject the conclusion entirely.  As long as this condition
+of affairs continues&mdash;and there is no reason to suppose that it ever
+will be otherwise&mdash;perfect agreement among critical investigators need
+not be expected; but a fair and thorough examination of the facts by
+all must be insisted upon.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is not necessary to enlarge upon the views of the traditional class
+of critics, for theirs are the views with which most Christians now
+living have been familiar since their childhood.  In order to
+understand, however, the bearing of the nontraditional criticism upon
+the Christian view of the Old Testament it is necessary to consider the
+most important conclusions of the nontraditional class of evangelical
+criticism; and to these conclusions we may now turn our attention.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+1.  Modern criticism has placed into clearer light the progressive
+character of Old Testament revelation.  God is the same yesterday,
+to-day, and forever, but man has taken many advance steps; and as he
+advanced his spiritual capacities and powers of apprehension increased.
+This growth enabled him to secure, from generation to generation and
+from century to century, during the Old Testament dispensation, an
+ever-broadening and deepening conception of the nature and character of
+God and of his will.  The Old
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P86"></A>86}</SPAN>
+Testament books, says Kent, are "the
+harmonious and many-sided record of ten centuries of strenuous human
+endeavor to know and to do the will of God, and of his full and
+gracious response to that effort."[<A NAME="chap03fn14text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn14">14</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+2.  Formerly the beginning of the Old Testament canon was traced to
+Moses.  He was thought not only to have written the books of the
+Pentateuch but to have given to them official sanction as canonical
+books.  To these books were gradually added the other sacred writings
+of the Old Testament on the authority of the divinely chosen successors
+of Moses, like Joshua, Samuel, and the prophets.  The close of the
+canon was ascribed to Ezra, who, according to later views, had to share
+the honor with the men of the Great Synagogue.  Modern criticism
+assigns new dates to some of the Old Testament books; it believes that
+the exile was a period of great spiritual and intellectual activity,
+and a number of books are placed subsequent to Ezra and Nehemiah, which
+in itself would imply a denial of the view that the canon was finally
+closed in the days of Ezra.  The modern critical view is that the Old
+Testament books were canonized&mdash;whatever the dates of their
+writing&mdash;gradually and at a comparatively late period.  The
+canonization of the Law is placed at about B.C. 400, that of the
+Prophets between B.C. 250 and B.C. 180, while the third
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P87"></A>87}</SPAN>
+division
+of the Jewish canon, the Writings, is believed to have acquired
+canonical authority during the second and first centuries B.C.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+3.  Formerly the order of the Old Testament books determined largely
+the view of the development of Hebrew religion.  Just as in the New
+Testament the Gospels occupy first place, the Epistles being
+expositions of the principles laid down in the Gospels, so it was
+thought that the Law of the Pentateuch, coming from the hands of Moses,
+served as the basis of the religious development of the Hebrews during
+subsequent centuries.  The prophets were looked upon chiefly as
+expounders and interpreters of this Law.  Modern criticism has
+introduced a change of viewpoint.  It does not deny the pre-exilic
+existence of all law, or of sacrifice, or of a ceremonial, or of other
+priestly elements, but it believes that in the religious development of
+Israel, the pre-exilic period was preëminently the period of the
+prophets, while the religious life during the post-exilic period was
+dominated by the priests, the priestly type of religion finding
+literary expression in the ceremonial system embodied in the Pentateuch.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+4.  According to modern criticism, compilation had a prominent place in
+the production of Old Testament books.  The composite character of the
+Pentateuch is touched upon in the next paragraph, but, in addition, it
+is believed that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P88"></A>88}</SPAN>
+there is sufficient evidence to establish the
+composite character of practically all the other historical books.
+McFadyen accurately represents the modern viewpoint when he says, "In
+the light of all these facts the general possibility, if not the
+practical certainty, of the compositeness of the historical books may
+be conceded."[<A NAME="chap03fn15text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn15">15</A>]  Evidences of compilation are seen also in several of
+the prophetic books.  The assignment of Isaiah and Zechariah to more
+than one author each furnishes perhaps the best known examples, but
+other prophetic books are similarly divided.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+5.  The Pentateuch is no longer assigned in its entirety to Moses; it
+is thought, rather, to contain material selected from four different
+sources, which the compiler had before him in writing.[<A NAME="chap03fn16text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn16">16</A>]  These
+documents did not reach their final form until some time subsequent to
+Moses, but all of them contained ancient material, much of it going
+back to the time of Moses, some of it even to pre-Mosaic days.  Among
+the contents of the Pentateuch special attention is called to three
+legal codes&mdash;the Book of the Covenant, the Deuteronomic Code, and the
+Priestly Code&mdash;belonging to different periods in Hebrew history, and
+reflecting different stages in the religious and social development of
+the nation.  The Deuteronomic Code, in some form, is believed to have
+been the basis of the reforms instituted by Josiah
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P89"></A>89}</SPAN>
+and to have
+been written most probably during the early part of the seventh
+century.  On these general questions respecting the Pentateuch there
+seems to be general agreement among critical scholars; on the other
+hand, there is wide divergence of opinion concerning points of detail,
+such as the chronological order in which the several documents reached
+their final form, their exact dates, the manner and time of their
+compilation, the detailed distribution of the material among the
+several sources, etc.  The differences of opinion on these points are
+due to the fact that the data upon the basis of which the problems must
+be solved are not sufficiently numerous or decisive.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+6.  Doubt is thrown upon the authorship of a number of Old Testament
+books, or parts of books, which have been assigned to certain authors
+by both Jewish and Christian tradition.  As already stated, the Mosaic
+authorship of the Pentateuch is denied; the book of Lamentation is
+taken away from Jeremiah; parts of Isaiah and Zechariah and the whole
+of Daniel are assigned to persons other than the prophets bearing these
+names.  The accuracy of the psalm titles is questioned; few of the
+psalms, if any, are assigned to David or his age; and most of the
+psalms&mdash;by some scholars all&mdash;are placed in the post-exilic period.  A
+conservative scholar, like W. T. Davison, is not willing to say more
+than "that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P90"></A>90}</SPAN>
+from ten to twenty psalms&mdash;including 3, 4, 7, 8, 15,
+18, 23, 24, 32, and perhaps 101 and 110&mdash;may have come down to us from
+David's pen, but that the number can hardly be greater, and may be
+still less."[<A NAME="chap03fn17text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn17">17</A>]  The same uncertainty is believed to exist respecting
+the authorship of Proverbs and of Ecclesiastes, which is considered one
+of the latest books in the Old Testament canon.  Other books, like Job,
+which in the absence of external testimony were formerly assigned to an
+early date, are now placed in the later period of Hebrew history.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In addition to these results touching upon matters practically
+unrecognized before, the higher criticism has emphasized some truths
+which, though known, exerted little, if any, influence upon the
+conception or study of the Old Testament.  Of these perhaps the most
+important are, first, that the Old Testament is not so much a single
+book as a library consisting of many books of different dates and
+authorship, though all these books may be held together by one common
+spirit and purpose;[<A NAME="chap03fn18text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn18">18</A>] and, second, that in these books are
+represented practically all the various forms and kinds of literary
+composition that can be found in the literatures of other nations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These are perhaps the most important conclusions reached by the
+nontraditional higher critics.  Some may not be willing to admit that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P91"></A>91}</SPAN>
+these conclusions are well founded, and, indeed, the cautious
+among the critics very candidly state that in most cases scientific
+demonstration is impossible, that probability of varying degrees is an
+important element in the conclusions; but unless one has followed those
+who have reached the conclusions into every detail of their
+investigation, he is hardly competent to pass a valid judgment.  And it
+is well to remember what seems to be an indisputable fact, that with
+very few exceptions Old Testament experts everywhere agree essentially
+on these results, and that an ever-increasing number of serious Old
+Testament students whose competency and sincerity cannot be doubted
+feel compelled to accept these conclusions, convinced that the
+traditional views cannot be maintained without numerous modifications.
+This fact may not establish the truth of these conclusions;
+nevertheless, it may serve as a sufficient reason for the consideration
+of another question: Should the truth of the conclusions enumerated be
+established beyond a possibility of doubt, what would be the effect
+upon the Christian conception of the Old Testament?  What would become
+of its inspiration or authority, of the supernatural in its history, of
+the work and character of Moses, Isaiah, or David; and, perhaps most
+important of all, what effect would this have upon the authority of
+Jesus Christ himself?
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P92"></A>92}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The most important and vital of these questions may be considered
+first.  How do the conclusions of the nontraditional higher criticism
+affect the authority of Jesus Christ?  This question arises chiefly in
+connection with investigations into the authorship of Old Testament
+books, especially of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and Isaiah.  It is
+asserted that since Christ quotes and refers to passages from the books
+bearing the names of Moses, David, and Isaiah, apparently as if they
+had been written by these men, any claim that these passages were not
+written by the authors mentioned is an indication of unbelief, an
+insult to Christ, and a denial of his authority.  "If Moses did not
+write the Pentateuch," says L. W. Munhall, "or any portion of it, and
+the highest critics (Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit) declare he did,
+it would be a lie.  It would be none the less a lie, even though the
+Jews held traditionally that Moses was the author of these books.  The
+testimony of the <I>Highest Critics</I> is absolutely unerringly and
+eternally true, and he who hesitates to receive it as against all other
+testimonies is disloyal to the truth."[<A NAME="chap03fn19text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn19">19</A>]  Clearly, this statement is
+based upon the assumption that Jesus gave deliberate decisions on
+questions of authorship, which assumption cannot be substantiated.  In
+the first place, it is well to note that in less than one fifth of the
+New Testament
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P93"></A>93}</SPAN>
+quotations from the Old Testament is a personal name
+connected with the quotation; Jesus himself, in quoting from the
+Pentateuch and other Old Testament books, frequently omits all
+reference to the alleged author, which shows that he considered the
+question of authorship of no special significance in comparison with
+the truth taught.  Moreover, in some cases at least, the exact form of
+quotation is doubtful.  Compare, for example, Matt. 15. 4, "God said,"
+with Mark 7. 10, "Moses said"; and Luke 20. 37, "Moses showed, in the
+place concerning the Bush," with Mark 12. 26, "Have ye not read in the
+book of Moses, in the place concerning the Bush how God spake unto
+him," with Matt. 22. 31, which, referring to the same statement,
+introduces it by, "Have ye not read that which was spoken unto you by
+God?"  Which one of the evangelists has preserved the actual words of
+Jesus?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But even admitting that Jesus used in these and other passages a
+personal name, does this imply a decision respecting authorship?  In
+extra-biblical literature no one would raise serious objection to the
+use of the name of a man to designate a book without implying that the
+man named was the author of the entire book.  This is done also in the
+New Testament.  In the sermon of Peter, "Samuel" evidently is used in
+the sense of "book of Samuel," for the reference
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P94"></A>94}</SPAN>
+is not to an
+utterance of Samuel but of Nathan,[<A NAME="chap03fn20text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn20">20</A>] and it cannot imply authorship,
+for some of the events recorded in First Samuel and those in Second
+Samuel occurred after Samuel's death.  In the Epistle to the
+Hebrews,[<A NAME="chap03fn21text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn21">21</A>] a psalm is referred to as "David," which is not even by
+the title assigned to the great king of Israel.[<A NAME="chap03fn22text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn22">22</A>]  Might it not be,
+therefore, that "Moses" was used as a designation of a book, without a
+thought of authorship.  This seems to be the case in 2 Cor. 3. 15:
+"Whensoever Moses is read, a veil lieth upon their heart."[<A NAME="chap03fn23text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn23">23</A>]  All
+these facts suggest that while Jesus frequently quotes the Pentateuch,
+and in some cases connects the name of Moses with it, <I>he never does so
+to prove that Moses wrote it</I>.  W. T. Davison describes the situation
+correctly when he writes, "A study of the whole use of the Old
+Testament made by Christ in his teaching shows that the questions of
+date and authorship with which criticism is chiefly concerned were not
+before the mind of our Lord as he spoke, nor was it his object to
+pronounce upon them."[<A NAME="chap03fn24text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn24">24</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But even admitting that the references of Jesus imply in some cases a
+recognition of authorship, the question still remains whether the few
+passages quoted carry with them the authorship of the entire book from
+which the quotations are made.  There are even some conservative
+scholars who
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P95"></A>95}</SPAN>
+answer this question in the negative.  After
+enumerating some of the passages referred to by Jesus as coming from
+Moses, C. H. H. Wright continues: "All, however, that can be fairly
+deduced from such statements is, the Pentateuch contains portions
+written by Moses.  It does not follow that the five books as a whole
+were written by that lawgiver."[<A NAME="chap03fn25text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn25">25</A>]  Though this explanation seems
+satisfactory to some, others consider it somewhat forced and unnatural,
+and they are inclined to give different interpretations of the words of
+Jesus.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Many hold that in his references to Old Testament books Jesus
+accommodated himself to the usage of the Jews without indorsing their
+views or giving expression to his own, even though he knew that the
+commonly held opinions as to the authorship of certain Old Testament
+books were erroneous.  Those who advocate this view believe that their
+attitude in no wise dishonors the Master.  Indeed, they say, one cannot
+easily see what other course he could have taken.  Jesus had come to
+reveal the Father, to bring a fallen race into harmony with a holy God.
+Surely, the task was great, and there was but little time in which to
+accomplish it.  If he had turned aside from his chief purpose to settle
+scientific and literary questions which were not under discussion among
+the people, he would have aroused popular
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P96"></A>96}</SPAN>
+opposition and thus have
+hindered his chief work.  In no case do his references imply that he
+desired to pronounce an authoritative critical judgment, and in no case
+does the value of the quotation depend upon its authorship.  Looking at
+the matter, therefore, from a pedagogical standpoint, it would seem
+that, in view of his important mission in the world, he was compelled
+to accommodate himself to the views of the people in all matters not
+essential to his work.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This view seems entirely satisfactory to many sincere Christian
+believers.  There are, however, those who maintain that it would not
+have been legitimate for Jesus thus to accommodate himself to the usage
+of the people if he had known that their views were not in accord with
+the facts; nevertheless, they insist that his utterances do not settle
+purely literary questions.  They believe that Jesus shared the views of
+the people, that he actually thought that Moses wrote the entire
+Pentateuch, and Isaiah, the whole of the book bearing his name; but
+that this was a limitation of knowledge on his part.  And they further
+insist that this attitude toward Jesus in no wise affects the supreme
+and final authority of the Christ over the lives of men.  The entire
+life of the Master, they say, shows that he regarded his mission as
+spiritual; he did not come to correct all errors, but merely those
+touching religion and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P97"></A>97}</SPAN>
+ethics; and even here he did not give
+detailed specific rules.  In many cases he simply laid down great
+principles, which in time might be worked out and applied to the
+details of human activity.  He did not abolish slavery, he made no
+efforts to correct errors in science; why should he correct erroneous
+views respecting literary and critical questions?  These were outside
+of his immediate sphere of interest.  His knowledge or ignorance in
+these secondary matters does not necessarily involve his knowledge or
+authority in essentials.[<A NAME="chap03fn26text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn26">26</A>]  Again, while Christ was God, he was also
+truly man.  This union of the divine with the human, if real, must have
+brought some limitations.  And the New Testament clearly teaches that
+in some respects the powers of Christ were limited.  His omnipotence
+was limited, else he could not have felt hunger, weariness, pain, etc.
+As strength was needed, it was supplied.  It may have been there
+potentially, but not actually.  Might it not have been the same with
+omniscience?  In one case, at least, Jesus admits that his knowledge
+was limited: "But of that day or hour knoweth no one, not even the
+angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father."[<A NAME="chap03fn27text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn27">27</A>]  And, surely,
+that which, according to this admission, was hidden from Jesus was, as
+compared with a question of the authorship of a biblical book, of
+infinitely greater importance.  It would seem, therefore,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P98"></A>98}</SPAN>
+that B.
+P. Raymond is right when he says: "To affirm that he had knowledge of
+the critical questions which agitate Christian scholars to-day is to
+deny that he was made like unto his brethren.  It is to compromise the
+reality of his humanity and to start on the road that leads to
+docetism.  Fairbairn's conclusions are just; 'The humanity of the
+Saviour must be absolutely real.'"[<A NAME="chap03fn28text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn28">28</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There are, then, three explanations of the references of Christ to the
+authorship of Old Testament books, each one of which seems perfectly
+fair, natural, and, above all, scriptural; and each one shows that his
+utterances do not finally settle purely literary questions.  This
+conclusion, since it is in perfect accord with the New Testament, can
+in no wise be construed as an insult to the Christ, nor does it affect
+in the least the authority of Jesus in matters religious and ethical.
+What is said here of the words of Jesus is equally true, with some
+slight modifications, of similar New Testament references coming, not
+from Jesus directly, but from the authors of the New Testament books.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From the consideration of this question of vital interest we may turn
+to another, also of great importance, namely, what is the effect of
+critical conclusions upon the belief in the inspiration of the Old
+Testament, in the supernatural in its history, and in its authority?
+All these questions
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P99"></A>99}</SPAN>
+center in one, for inspiration implies the
+presence of a supernatural element, and the authority of the Old
+Testament depends upon the reality of its inspiration.  Hence the real
+question is, Have the conclusions of the higher criticism disproved, or
+in any serious way affected, the reality of the inspiration of the Old
+Testament writers?  This inquiry must be answered with an emphatic
+"No."  Inspiration does not depend upon the fact that a certain
+definite individual is responsible for a writing.  A book is inspired
+because God is back of it and in it, and not because a certain man
+wrote it.  Nor does belief in inspiration depend upon the knowledge of
+the human author, else how could Christians believe in the inspiration
+of the men who wrote books like the Epistle to the Hebrews, the book of
+Job, the books of Samuel, and other biblical books whose authors are
+not named?  Moreover, an inspired book does not lose its inspiration
+because it is discovered that the human agent inspired is one different
+from the man to whom tradition has been accustomed to assign the book.
+Would the laws of the Pentateuch be any less divine if it should be
+proved that they were the product of the experience of the chosen
+people from the time of Moses to the exile?  Would the Psalms cease to
+lift us into the presence of God, if it should be demonstrated that
+most of them came
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P100"></A>100}</SPAN>
+from a period later than David?  Is the book of
+Job less majestic and sublime because we know not the time or place of
+its birth?  Are the Proverbs less instructive because criticism claims
+that they do not all come from the son of David?[<A NAME="chap03fn29text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn29">29</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Once more: inspiration is not confined to any form of literature; a
+parable may be as truly inspired as history; and the inspiration of a
+book does not vanish when it is assigned to one form of literature
+rather than to another.  The conclusions of the legitimate higher
+criticism in no wise tend toward a denial of the inspiration of the Old
+Testament.  Inspiration, the special divine providence over Israel,
+God's interference in the history of the chosen people, would stand out
+as prominently as ever if every claim of the higher criticism should be
+proved true.  Most critical scholars are ready to indorse the words of
+Professor Sanday: "My experience is that criticism leads straight up to
+the supernatural, and not away from it."[<A NAME="chap03fn30text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn30">30</A>]  But if this be true, how
+can any authority which rightly belongs to the Old Testament be
+affected by criticism?  This authority belongs to it by virtue of its
+inspiration, and the voice of God is not silenced by the conclusions of
+modern criticism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+"But," some one will say, "if this is true how is it that criticism has
+been and still is condemned unsparingly by many men whose sincerity
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P101"></A>101}</SPAN>
+and love for the truth cannot be called into question?"  There
+are several reasons for this.  In the first place even some very
+intelligent men seem to misunderstand both the purpose and the claims
+of the higher criticism.  Another reason is that there are even among
+the evangelical critics those who lack judgment, and who permit
+themselves to draw inferences unwarranted by the facts in the case.  As
+a consequence, ill-informed persons have concluded that all the results
+of criticism are unwarranted by the facts.  A third reason is that some
+critics are arrogant and obnoxious in the presentation of their views,
+and, therefore, bring the entire process into disrepute.  A fourth, and
+perhaps the most important, reason is that in addition to the
+legitimate higher criticism discussed in the preceding pages there is
+an illegitimate criticism which very frequently, though erroneously, is
+thought to be the only kind of criticism practiced.  This criticism
+also studies the facts, but&mdash;and this is its distinguishing
+feature&mdash;its investigations are colored by certain presuppositions,
+such as the belief in a materialistic or deistic evolution, in the
+presence of which there is no room for inspiration, or for the
+supernatural, or for miracles, in the Christian sense of these terms.
+This kind of criticism is not legitimate, because it is not scientific,
+proceeding as it does on the basis of an unestablished,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P102"></A>102}</SPAN>
+unchristian, and impossible view of the universe.  But higher critics
+belonging to this class are few in number, and fairness and Christian
+courtesy demand that in any discussion of the subject clear
+distinctions should be made between this criticism and that process of
+investigation which is not only legitimate, but indispensable.  It is
+also well to bear in mind that the conclusions of the illegitimate
+criticism will never be disproved by denunciation, but, rather, by the
+careful and painstaking labors of those critics who approach their
+studies without these unwarranted assumptions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One more question remains to be considered, namely, What becomes of the
+men from whom criticism takes away at least part of the writings
+traditionally connected with their names?  Preëminent among these are
+Moses, Isaiah, and David.  Moses is not, as is sometimes erroneously
+asserted, removed to the realm of myths.[<A NAME="chap03fn31text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn31">31</A>]  To prove this assertion
+it is only necessary to quote the words of one who accepts the results
+of the higher criticism as set forth above: "Moses was the man who
+under divine direction 'hewed Israel from the rock.'  Subsequent
+prophets and circumstances chiseled the rough bowlder into symmetrical
+form, but the glory of the creative act is rightly attributed to the
+first great Hebrew prophet.  As a leader he not only created a nation
+but guided them through infinite
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P103"></A>103}</SPAN>
+vicissitudes to a land where
+they might have a settled abode and develop into a stable power; in so
+doing he left upon his race the imprint of his own mighty personality.
+As a judge he set in motion forces which ultimately led to the
+incorporation of the principles of right in objective laws.  As a
+priest he first gave definite form to the worship of Jehovah.  As a
+prophet he gathered together all that was best in the faith of his age
+and race, and, fusing them, gave to his people a living religion.
+Under his enlightened guidance Israel became truly and forever the
+people of Jehovah.  Through him the Divine revealed himself to Israel
+as their Deliverer, Leader, and Counselor&mdash;not afar off, but present; a
+God powerful and willing to succor his people, and, therefore, one to
+be trusted and loved as well as feared.  As the acorn contains the
+sturdy oak in embryo, so the revelation through Moses was the germ
+which developed into the message of Israel to humanity."[<A NAME="chap03fn32text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn32">32</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Isaiah, though losing some of the sublimest passages in the book, is
+still the king among the prophets.  In the words of Ewald, a pronounced
+advocate of the conclusions of modern criticism: "Of the other prophets
+all the more celebrated ones were distinguished by some special
+excellence and peculiar power, whether of speech or of deed; in Isaiah
+all the powers and all the beauties
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P104"></A>104}</SPAN>
+of prophetic speech and deed
+combine to form a symmetrical whole; he is distinguished less by any
+special excellence than by the symmetry and perfection of all his
+parts.  There are rarely combined in one individual the profoundest
+prophetic emotion and purest feeling, the most unwearied, successful,
+and consistent activity amid all the confusions and changes of life;
+and, lastly, true poetic genius and beauty of style, combined with
+force and irresistible power; yet this triad of powers we find realized
+in Isaiah as in no other prophet."[<A NAME="chap03fn33text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn33">33</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+David, indeed, loses some of his halo, if many of the most beautiful
+psalms are taken from him, yet he remains the man after God's own
+heart.  "According to his light, he served the Jehovah whom he knew
+with marvelous fidelity and constancy....  He ruled over the united
+Hebrew tribes as Jehovah's representative.  In his name he fought the
+battles against Israel's foes, whom he regarded as Jehovah's also....
+From the spoils which he won in his wars he provided the means
+wherewith to build a fitting dwelling place for the God of his nation.
+The priests found in him a generous patron, and prophets like Nathan
+were among his most trusted counselors.  To do the will of Jehovah as
+it was revealed to him was the dominating principle of his life.  More
+cannot be said of any one."[<A NAME="chap03fn34text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn34">34</A>]
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P105"></A>105}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+A splendid summary of the bearing of modern evangelical criticism upon
+the Christian view of the Old Testament is given by Canon Driver: "It
+is not the case that critical conclusions are in conflict either with
+the Christian creeds or with the articles of the Christian faith.
+Those conclusions affect not the <I>fact</I> of revelation but only its
+<I>form</I>.  They help to determine the stages through which it passed, the
+different phases which it assumed, and the process by which the record
+of it was built up.  They do not touch either the authority or the
+inspiration of the Scriptures of the Old Testament.  They imply no
+change in respect to the divine attributes revealed in the Old
+Testament, no change in the lessons of human duty to be derived from
+it, no change as to the general position (apart from the interpretation
+of particular passages) that the Old Testament points forward
+prophetically to Christ.  That both the religion of Israel itself and
+the record of its history embodied in the Old Testament are the work of
+men whose hearts have been touched and minds illuminated, in different
+degrees, by the Spirit of God is manifest."[<A NAME="chap03fn35text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn35">35</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But not only has criticism not taken away anything essential from the
+Bible; on the contrary, it has resulted in some distinct gains.  The
+textual criticism has furnished the modern
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P106"></A>106}</SPAN>
+student with a much
+more accurate text of the biblical books, while the linguistic
+criticism has established the interpretation of this text upon a firmer
+basis.  The higher criticism also has made invaluable contributions
+toward a more adequate understanding of the Old Testament Scriptures.
+It has made impossible the arbitrary and, sometimes, unreasonable
+interpretations of scripture which in former ages have proved a serious
+detriment to religion and theology.  It has restored to religious use
+some of the biblical books almost forgotten before, and endowed them
+with flesh and blood by throwing bright light upon the circumstances
+connected with their origin.  It has made it possible to secure a
+"reasonable, probable, and even thrilling" view of the history and
+religion of Israel and of the steps by which the records of these grew
+up.  Many of the moral, religious, and historical difficulties which
+served as effective weapons to skeptics in all ages have disappeared,
+and the weapons have been snatched from the enemies of the Bible.  Many
+of the confusions and apparent discrepancies, which according to former
+theories presented insurmountable difficulties, have found a
+satisfactory explanation.  "Higher criticism," says R. F. Horton, "so
+much dreaded by pious souls, is furnishing a conclusive answer to the
+untiring opponents of revelation."[<A NAME="chap03fn36text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn36">36</A>]  Everyone knows
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P107"></A>107}</SPAN>
+that the
+Bible has been bitterly attacked in the past, and that such attacks
+have not altogether ceased even now; but it is sometimes overlooked
+that in the majority of cases these attacks are made by men who are, or
+seem to be, lamentably ignorant of the attitude and results of modern
+critical study.  Their arguments become "absolutely powerless against
+the modern historical interpretation of the Bible; and the more that
+interpretation underlies the teaching of the young, the more certain
+are those attacks to die a natural death."[<A NAME="chap03fn37text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn37">37</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There are, indeed, few Old Testament scholars who would not indorse the
+testimony of Professor A. S. Peake, given in a paper on "Permanent
+Results of Biblical Criticism," read before the Fourth Methodist
+Ecumenical Conference: "Speaking for myself, I may truthfully say that
+my sense of the value of Scripture, my interest in it, my attachment to
+it, have been almost indefinitely enhanced by the new attitude and new
+mode of study which criticism has brought to us."
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap03fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn3"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn4"></A>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+NOTES ON CHAPTER III
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn1text">1</A>] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn2text">2</A>] The Integrity of Scripture, p. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn3text">3</A>] The History of the Higher Criticism of the New Testament, p. 85.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn4text">4</A>] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 47.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P108"></A>108}</SPAN>
+
+<A NAME="chap03fn5"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn6"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn7"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn8"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn9"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn10"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn5text">5</A>] General Introduction to the Old Testament: The Text, pp. 162, 163.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn6text">6</A>] J. G. Eichhorn, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Preface to Second
+Edition.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn7text">7</A>] The Elements of the Higher Criticism, pp. 12, 13.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn8text">8</A>] Christ and Criticism, Preface.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn9text">9</A>] J. P. Peters, The Old Testament and the New Scholarship, p. 87.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn10text">10</A>] L. W. Munhall, Anti-Higher Criticism, p. 9.  For a discriminating
+study of the theological and philosophical bias of the more
+representative Old Testament critics, see Bibliotheca Sacra, January,
+1912, pp. 1ff.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap03fn11"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn12"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn13"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn11text">11</A>] The Bible and Modern Criticism, p. 19.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn12text">12</A>] The Problem of the Old Testament, pp. 7, 8.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn13text">13</A>] Some of these concessions are enumerated in J. E. McFadyen, Old
+Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, pp. 15ff.  The Problem of
+the Old Testament, by James Orr, is often quoted as overthrowing
+entirely the positions of modern criticism regarding the authorship of
+the Pentateuch.  If, however, one reads Orr's summary of the chief
+results of his own critical investigation (pp. 371ff.), the question
+may well be asked, Why should he be considered less of a higher critic
+than, for example, Wellhausen?
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap03fn14"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn15"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn16"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn17"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn18"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn19"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn14text">14</A>] The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testament, p. 30.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn15text">15</A>] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 143.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn16text">16</A>] Even those who question the existence of four independent
+documents assume the activity of at least four different hands.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn17text">17</A>] James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, p. 151.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn18text">18</A>] See above, pp. 30ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn19text">19</A>] The Highest Critics vs. The Higher Critics, pp. 7, 8.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P109"></A>109}</SPAN>
+
+<A NAME="chap03fn20"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn21"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn22"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn23"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn24"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn20text">20</A>] Acts 3. 24.  The passage in the mind of the apostle seems to be 2
+Sam. 7. 11-16.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn21text">21</A>] Heb. 4. 7.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn22text">22</A>] Psa. 95.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn23text">23</A>] The origin of the designations Moses = Pentateuch, Samuel = books
+of Samuel, David = book of Psalms, must be explained, and can be
+explained; but as the mention of Samuel and David shows, it cannot
+always rest upon the fact of authorship, whatever the popular idea may
+have been.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn24text">24</A>] James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, p. 151.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap03fn25"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn26"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn27"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn28"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn29"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn30"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn31"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn25text">25</A>] Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 76.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn26text">26</A>] See above, p. 55.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn27text">27</A>] Mark 13. 32.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn28text">28</A>] M. S. Terry, Moses and the Prophets, p. 194.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn29text">29</A>] C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture,
+p. 26.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn30text">30</A>] Quoted in J. E. McFadyen, Old Testament Criticism and the
+Christian Church, p. 253.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn31text">31</A>] Moses has, indeed, been removed by some investigators to the realm
+of myth, but not upon the basis of conclusions reached by the
+legitimate modern criticism.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap03fn32"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn33"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn34"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn35"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn36"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn37"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn32text">32</A>] C. F. Kent, A History of the Hebrew People, Vol. I, pp. 44, 45.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn33text">33</A>] Prophets, English translation, Vol. II, p. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn34text">34</A>] C. F. Kent, A History of the Hebrew People, Vol. I, p. 167.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn35text">35</A>] Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, pp. viii, ix.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn36text">36</A>] Revelation and the Bible, p. 61.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn37text">37</A>] J. E. McFadyen, Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church,
+p. 136.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap04"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P110"></A>110}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER IV
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND ARCHEOLOGY
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+A century ago the student of the world's history found it exceedingly
+difficult, if not impossible, to paint for himself a clear picture of
+events antedating B.C. 400.  Concerning earlier periods, he was, aside
+from the Old Testament, practically without records that could claim
+contemporaneousness with the events recorded.  But, one hundred years
+ago, men had commenced to test every statement, be it historical, or
+scientific, or theological, by severe canons of criticism, and if it
+could not stand the test, it was speedily rejected.  One result of this
+tendency was to reject historical statements of the Bible when they
+could not be corroborated by reliable extra-biblical records.  The
+nineteenth century has wrought a marvelous change.  The Old Testament
+is no longer the "lone Old Testament," at the mercy of the scientific
+investigator.  The historian and the Bible student now have at their
+command literary treasures almost without number, partly
+contemporaneous with the Old Testament, partly older by many centuries.
+These rich treasures have been brought to light by the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P111"></A>111}</SPAN>
+perseverance and painstaking toil of archæologists, whose discoveries
+have shed light on human history during a period of more than four
+thousand years before the opening of the Christian era.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The historical movements recorded in the Old Testament, in which the
+Hebrews had a vital interest, were confined chiefly to the territory
+between the four seas of western Asia: the Mediterranean Sea, the Black
+Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Persian Gulf.  In the East the territory
+might be extended to include Persia; in the West, to include Asia
+Minor; and in the South or Southwest, to include Egypt, in North
+Africa.  All these districts, which may be designated Bible lands, have
+been more or less thoroughly explored, and in most of them excavations
+have been carried on.  The countries in which the most valuable finds,
+so far as Bible study is concerned, have been made are Palestine,
+Babylonia-Assyria, Egypt, Northern Syria, Phoenicia, Moab, and Asia
+Minor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Even before excavations were undertaken travelers had visited these
+different countries and had reported their observations, but the
+information thus gained was more or less vague, and in many cases of no
+practical scientific value.[<A NAME="chap04fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn1">1</A>]  They saw many strange mounds and ruins,
+and noticed and occasionally picked up fragments of inscriptions and
+monuments; but no one could
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P112"></A>112}</SPAN>
+decipher the inscriptions; hence the
+finds were preserved simply as mementoes and relics of an unknown age,
+from which nothing could be learned concerning the history and
+civilization of the people that once occupied these lands.  The mounds
+and heaps of ruins which contained the real treasures were left
+undisturbed until the nineteenth century.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The pioneer in the work of excavation in the territory of Babylonia and
+Assyria was Claudius James Rich, who, while resident of the British
+East India Company in Bagdad, in 1811, visited and studied the ruins of
+Babylon, and a little later made similar investigations in the mounds
+marking the site of the ancient city of Nineveh.  In the gullies cut by
+centuries of rain he gathered numerous little clay tablets, covered on
+every side with the same wedge-shaped characters as those seen on the
+fragments found by earlier travelers.  These he saved carefully, and in
+time presented them to the British Museum.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No systematic excavations were carried on until 1842, when P. C. Botta
+was sent by the French government as vice-consul to Mosul on the upper
+Tigris.  He noticed across the river from Mosul extensive artificial
+mounds which were supposed to mark the site of the city of Nineveh.
+These so aroused his curiosity that he began digging in the two most
+prominent mounds.  Failing to make
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P113"></A>113}</SPAN>
+any discoveries, he
+transferred, the following year, at the suggestion of a peasant, his
+activities to Korsabad, a few miles to the northeast, where the digging
+produced, almost immediately, startling results.  In the course of his
+excavations he laid bare a complex of buildings which proved to be the
+palace of Sargon, king of Assyria from B.C. 722 to B.C. 705, a palace
+covering an area of about twenty-five acres.  The walls of the various
+buildings were all wainscotted with alabaster slabs, upon which were
+representations of battles, sieges, triumphal processions, and similar
+events in the life of ancient Assyria.  He also found, in the course of
+the excavations, scores of strange figures and colossi, and numerous
+other remains of a long lost civilization.  Botta's discoveries filled
+the whole archæological world with enthusiasm.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Even before Botta reached Mosul, a young Englishman, Austin Henry
+Layard, visited the territory of ancient Assyria, and was so impressed
+by its mounds and ruins that he resolved to examine them thoroughly
+whenever it might be in his power to do so.  This resolution was taken
+in April, 1840, but more than five years elapsed before he began
+operations.  It would be interesting to follow Layard's work as
+described by him in a most fascinating manner in Nineveh and Its
+Remains, and other writings, which give
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P114"></A>114}</SPAN>
+complete records of the
+wonderful successes he achieved wherever he went.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Never again did the labors entirely cease, though there were periods of
+decline.  Layard's operations were continued under the direction of
+Rassam, Taylor, Loftus, and Henry C. Rawlinson; the French operations
+were in charge of such men as Place, Thomas, Fresnell, and Oppert.
+However, it was not until 1873 that other startling discoveries were
+made, chiefly under the direction of George Smith, who was sent by the
+Daily Telegraph, of London, to visit the site of Nineveh for the
+purpose of finding, if possible, fragments of the Babylonian account of
+the Deluge, parts of which he had previously discovered on tablets that
+had been shipped to the British Museum.  In 1877 France sent Ernest de
+Sarzec as consul to Bosra in Lower Babylonia.  His interest in
+archæology led him to investigate some of the mounds in the
+neighborhood, and he soon began work at one called Telloh.  In the
+course of several campaigns, which continued until 1894, he unearthed a
+great variety of material illustrative of primitive ages, among his
+treasures being palaces, statues, vases, thousands of tablets, and
+various other articles of interest.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The first steps toward sending out an American expedition for
+excavation were taken at a meeting of the American Oriental Society in
+the spring of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P115"></A>115}</SPAN>
+1884.  In the fall of the same year a preliminary
+expedition of exploration was sent out, which completed its labors
+during the winter and spring, returning in June, 1885.  But the means
+for excavation were not forthcoming until 1888, when a well-equipped
+expedition was sent out under the auspices of the University of
+Pennsylvania.  Four successive campaigns were carried on upon the great
+mounds of Nuffar, the site of Nippur, a center of early Babylonian
+life.  Each expedition brought to light architectural and artistic
+remains and many thousands of tablets, throwing light upon all sides of
+the ancient life and civilization, over which hitherto there had lain
+almost complete darkness.  In 1899 Germany sent its first expedition to
+Babylon and, during successive seasons, extensive excavations have been
+carried on, which have resulted in the discovery of many interesting
+finds.  At a later date excavations were begun and, like those of
+Babylon, are still continued, on the mound covering the site of the
+ancient capital city of Assyria, Asshur, where inscriptions of great
+value have been uncovered.  At the present time the Germans are perhaps
+the most active excavators in Assyria-Babylonia, and by their
+painstaking care to record every new discovery they are bound to
+increase the knowledge of the early history and civilization of these
+ancient empires.[<A NAME="chap04fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn2">2</A>]
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P116"></A>116}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Reference may be made also to the later excavations of the French at
+Susa, the scene of the book of Esther, where they have uncovered much
+valuable material.  The most important find, made in the winter of
+1901-1902, is the monument upon which is inscribed the legal code of
+Hammurabi, king of Babylon, generally identified with the Amraphel of
+Gen. 14. 1.  For a short time the University of Chicago carried on
+excavations at Bismiyah, in southern Babylonia, which have brought to
+light many objects of interest, if not of great historical importance.
+The Turkish government, under whose rule the territory of Babylonia and
+Assyria now is, stimulated by the example of other nations, is taking
+an active interest in these excavations, granting the privilege of
+excavating to an ever-increasing number of scholars, and giving them
+protection while engaged in their work.  The Sultan has erected in
+Constantinople a magnificent museum, where the valuable antiquities are
+accessible to the scholarship of the world.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The credit of having first turned the attention of the West toward the
+monuments of Egypt, and of having brought them within the reach of
+science, belongs to the military expedition of Napoleon Bonaparte,
+undertaken in the summer of 1798.[<A NAME="chap04fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn3">3</A>]  In August, 1799, a French
+artillery officer, Boussard, unearthed at the Fort Saint Julien, near
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P117"></A>117}</SPAN>
+Rosetta, in the Nile Delta, a stone of black granite, three feet
+five inches in height, two feet four and one half inches in width, and
+eleven inches in thickness.  It is thought to have been at least twelve
+inches higher and to have had a rounded top.  On the upper portion of
+this block could be seen parts of fourteen lines of characters,
+resembling those seen everywhere on the obelisks and ruined temples of
+the land; adjoining these below are thirty-two lines of another species
+of script, while at the bottom are fifty-four lines, twenty-eight of
+them complete, in Greek uncial letters.  The Greek was easily read, and
+told the story of the stone: It was set up in B.C. 195, by the priests
+of Egypt, in honor of Ptolemy Epiphanes, because he had canceled
+arrearages of certain taxes due from the sacerdotal body.  The grateful
+priests ordered the memorial decree to be inscribed in the sacred
+characters of Egypt, in the vernacular, and in Greek.  The Greek
+portion having been read, it was conjectured that the two inscriptions
+above the Greek told the same story.  Such being the case, the value of
+the document for the decipherment of the Egyptian inscriptions was at
+once perceived, and scholars immediately set to work on the task of
+deciphering the unknown script.  The honor of having solved the mystery
+belongs to François Champollion, who by 1822 had succeeded in fixing
+the value of a considerable
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P118"></A>118}</SPAN>
+portion of the ancient Egyptian
+signs, and at the time of his death, ten years later, left behind in
+manuscript a complete Egyptian grammar and vocabulary.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Through the discovery of Champollion the interest in ancient Egypt grew
+in all learned circles, and from his day until now efforts at bringing
+to light the remains of the Egyptian civilization have never ceased.
+The French have been especially active; but other nations also have
+been in the field and have greatly added to our knowledge of ancient
+Egypt.  Since 1883 the Egyptian Exploration Fund has been at work in
+various parts of the Nile valley; private subscriptions have enabled
+the investigation of certain places of special interest; and now every
+year new finds are made, which constantly enrich our knowledge of the
+history, art, and civilization of the land of the Pharaohs.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+"Palestine," says Dr. Benzinger, "became the object of most general
+interest earlier than any other Oriental country....  Nevertheless,
+Palestine research is but a child of the century just closed, the
+systematic exploration of the land, in all its aspects, beginning
+properly speaking with the foundation of the English Palestine
+Exploration Fund in 1865."[<A NAME="chap04fn4text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn4">4</A>]  The reason for this delay is not far to
+seek.  From the time that Christians first began to visit Palestine to
+a comparatively
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P119"></A>119}</SPAN>
+recent date all pilgrimages were prompted by
+religious, not by scientific motives.  The interest of the pilgrims was
+excited only by those places which were pointed out to them as the
+scenes of sacred events, and the knowledge they brought home consisted
+chiefly of descriptions of the places held in special veneration.  In
+1841 there appeared in three volumes a work entitled Biblical
+Researches, in which Professor Edward Robinson recorded the results of
+his travels in Palestine during the year 1838.  In 1852 Robinson made a
+second journey.  During these two trips he and his companions worked
+with ceaseless industry, always accurately measuring the distances, and
+describing the route, even to the smallest detail.  This painstaking
+care made the accounts so valuable that his books marked a turning
+point in the whole matter of Palestinian research, and could serve as a
+foundation upon which all future researches might rest.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Among other travelers who have made valuable contributions to our
+knowledge of Palestine, the most important are Titus Tobler, H. V.
+Guerin, E. Renan, and G. A. Smith.  But the better the land came to be
+known, the more fully was it realized that the complete systematic
+exploration of the land was beyond the power of individual travelers.
+Hence in 1865 a number of men interested in Palestinian research met in
+London
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P120"></A>120}</SPAN>
+and organized a society known as the Palestine Exploration
+Fund.  Its object was the complete, systematic, and scientific
+exploration of the Holy Land, especially for the purpose of elucidating
+the Scriptures.  The idea was taken up with great enthusiasm, and from
+the beginning until now the society has been actively engaged in
+illuminating Palestine past and present.  During the early history of
+the Fund few excavations were carried on, and these were confined to
+the city of Jerusalem; but since 1890 several mounds in southern
+Palestine have been excavated, the most important being Tel-el-Hesy,
+the probable site of ancient Lachish, and the site of the important
+city of Gezer.  At present (1912) the site of ancient Beth-Shemesh is
+being excavated.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The German Palestine Society was organized in 1877 for a similar
+purpose.  When the English surveyors were prevented by the Turkish
+government from completing the survey of eastern Palestine the German
+society took up the work, and its results are embodied in a map now in
+process of publication.  The principal excavations of the German
+society were carried on between 1903 and 1907 at Tel-el Mutasellim, the
+ancient Megiddo, under the direction of Dr. Benzinger and Dr.
+Schumacher.  Dr. Sellin carried on excavations at the neighboring
+Taanach for the Austrian government between 1902 and 1904.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P121"></A>121}</SPAN>
+Two
+other sites have been excavated&mdash;Jericho by the Germans and Samaria by
+Harvard University, and though no epoch-making finds have come to light
+in these two places, the results illuminate the early history of
+Palestine.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Phoenicia has yielded some of its treasures.  The first of importance,
+found in 1855 in the Necropolis of Sidon, was the sarcophagus of
+Eshmunazar, king of Sidon.  Since then various other sites have been
+examined, and much material has been unearthed, throwing light on the
+history, religion, art, and civilization of these ancient neighbors of
+Israel.  In the year 1868 a German missionary, the Rev. F. Klein,
+discovered at Diban, the site of an ancient royal city of Moab, a large
+stone, with an inscription of Mesha, a king of Moab in the ninth
+century B.C. Between 1888 and 1891 investigations were conducted, for
+the Royal Museum in Berlin, at the mound of Zenjirli, once a city in
+the land Shamal, near the northern limits of Syria, south of the Issus,
+about forty miles inland.  The old citadel was uncovered, and various
+sculptures, showing Hittite influence, a magnificent statue of
+Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, a huge statue of the god Hadad, and
+several Aramaic inscriptions of great value, as illustrating early
+Syrian civilization, were found.  More recently, in 1906 and 1907,
+Professor Winckler visited Boghaz-koei, in Asia Minor, a center of
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P122"></A>122}</SPAN>
+early Hittite civilization, where he uncovered thousands of
+tablets which throw new light upon the history of western Asia in
+ancient times.  Thus, generation after generation, amid dangers and
+hardships, a body of enthusiastic, self-sacrificing men have toiled
+almost day and night in order to restore to life a civilization buried
+for many centuries beneath the sands of the desert and the ruins of
+ancient cities, and we are only at the beginning.  What revelations the
+next fifty years may have in store!
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The results of these expeditions have been enthusiastically welcomed by
+all who are interested in antiquity: the students of history, art,
+science, anthropology, early civilization, and many others.  They are,
+however, of special interest to the Bible student; and it is well to
+remember that, whatever additional motives may be responsible for
+excavations at the present time, from the beginning until now the
+desire to find illustrations, or confirmations of scriptural
+statements, has played a prominent part.  "To what end," says Professor
+Delitzsch,[<A NAME="chap04fn5text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn5">5</A>] "this toil and trouble in distant, inhospitable and
+danger-ridden lands?  Why all this expense in ransacking to their
+utmost depths the rubbish heaps of forgotten centuries, where we know
+neither treasures of gold nor of silver exist?  Why this zealous
+emulation on the part of the nations to secure the greatest possible
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P123"></A>123}</SPAN>
+number of mounds for excavation?  And whence, too, that
+constantly increasing interest, that burning enthusiasm, born of
+generous sacrifice, now being bestowed on both sides of the Atlantic
+upon the excavations in Babylonia and Assyria?  One answer echoes to
+all these questions, one answer which, if not absolutely adequate, is
+yet largely the reason and consummation of it all&mdash;the <I>Bible</I>."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Our purpose is to discuss the bearing of recent researches in Bible
+lands upon the Christian view of the Old Testament, that is, the view
+which looks upon the Old Testament as containing records of divine
+revelations granted in divers portions and in divers manners to the
+people of Israel.  Concerning this bearing, two distinct and opposing
+claims are made: on the one hand, it is said that archæological
+research only confirms the familiar view of the Bible as a trustworthy
+and unique record of religion and history; on the other hand, it is
+claimed that archæological research has shown the Old Testament to be
+untrustworthy as to history, and as to religion, what has hitherto been
+regarded as original with the Hebrews is claimed to have been borrowed
+almost bodily from the surrounding nations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+What is the true situation?  The archæological material which has more
+or less direct bearing upon our inquiry may be roughly arranged under
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P124"></A>124}</SPAN>
+two heads: (1) The Historico-Geographical; (2) The
+Religio-Ethical.  The present chapter deals with the bearing of the
+historico-geographical material upon the Old Testament historical
+records, the other class being reserved for the succeeding chapter.
+The next step in the discussion will be to enumerate at least the more
+important finds having a more or less direct relation to the Old
+Testament.  Many archæological objects have been brought to light,
+which, though they have but indirect bearing upon the Old Testament,
+have wonderfully illuminated the life of the ancient East, and thus
+have made more distinct the general historical background upon which
+the scenes recorded in the Old Testament were enacted.  But a more
+important source of information are the inscriptions which have been
+discovered by the thousands and tens of thousands.  These inscriptions
+were written on all kinds of material&mdash;granite, alabaster, wood, clay,
+papyrus, etc.; shaped in a variety of forms&mdash;tablets, cylinders, rolls,
+statues, walls, etc.; and they have been dug out of mounds, tombs,
+pyramids, and many other places.  What, then, are the most important
+finds?  The first thing to bear in mind is that the inscriptions have
+very little to say about the earlier period of Hebrew history.  Says
+Driver,[<A NAME="chap04fn6text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn6">6</A>] "With the exception of the statement on the stele of
+Merneptah, that 'Israel is desolated,' the first
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P125"></A>125}</SPAN>
+event connected
+with Israel and its ancestors which the inscriptions mention or attest,
+is Shishak's invasion of Judah in the reign of Rehoboam; and the first
+Israelites whom they specify by name are Omri and his son Ahab."
+Before considering the statement on the stele of Merneptah, attention
+may be given to certain inscriptions which throw considerable light on
+conditions in Palestine before the Hebrew conquest, namely, the
+so-called Tel-el-Amarna tablets.[<A NAME="chap04fn7text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn7">7</A>]  These tablets were discovered by
+accident in the winter of 1887-1888 at Tel-el-Amarna, the site of the
+ancient capital of Amenophis IV of Egypt, about midway between Memphis
+and Thebes.  On examination they proved to be a part of the official
+archives of Amenophis III (1411-1375) and Amenophis IV (1375-1358),
+consisting almost entirely of letters and reports addressed to these
+two Pharaohs by their officials in western Asia, and by rulers who
+sustained close relations to the Egyptian court.  The royal letters,
+about forty in number, are chiefly from kings of the Hittites, of the
+Mitanni, of Assyria, and of Babylonia.  The rest of the correspondence,
+about two hundred and fifty letters, is of much greater historical
+interest; it consists of letters from Egyptian governors in various
+cities of Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These inscriptions show that about B.C. 1400,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P126"></A>126}</SPAN>
+about two hundred
+years before the Hebrew conquest, Palestine and the neighboring
+countries formed an Egyptian province under the rule of Egyptian
+governors stationed in all principal towns.  At the time the Egyptians
+had considerable difficulty in maintaining their authority.  Their
+power was threatened by the Hittites and other powerful neighbors, by
+the dissatisfied native population, by the Habiri, who seem to have
+been invaders from the desert, and by the intrigues and rivalries of
+the Egyptian governors themselves.  Practically all the principal
+cities of the land are mentioned in these letters.  From the standpoint
+of Old Testament study, six letters written by Abdi-hiba, Governor of
+Jerusalem, are of special interest.  He, like many of the other
+governors, is in difficulty.  The Habiri are pressing him hard; the
+neighboring cities of Gezer, Lachish, and Askelon are aiding the enemy;
+he has been slandered before the king and accused of disloyalty.  In
+the letters he emphatically protests his innocence.  One of them reads:
+"To the king my lord, say also thus: It is Abdi-hiba, thy servant; at
+the feet of my lord the king twice seven times, and twice seven times I
+fall.  What have I done against the king my lord?  They backbite, they
+slander me before the king my lord, saying: Abdi-hiba has fallen away
+from the king his lord.  Behold, as for me, neither my father nor my
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P127"></A>127}</SPAN>
+mother set me in this place; the arm of the mighty king caused me
+to enter into the house of my father.  Why should I commit a sin
+against the king my lord?"
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Perhaps the most surprising fact about these letters is that the
+Palestinian governors used, in the correspondence with their superiors
+in Egypt, not the Egyptian or native Canaanite, but the Babylonian
+language, which seems conclusive evidence that for some time previously
+Western Asia had been under Babylonian influence.  Without doubt this
+influence was primarily political, but naturally it would bring with it
+elements of civilization, art, science, and religion.  Now and then
+words in the Canaanite language occur, either independently, or for the
+purpose of explaining a Babylonian expression in the more familiar
+dialect of the scribe.  These Canaanite words are hardly
+distinguishable from the Hebrew of the Old Testament.  It is evident,
+therefore, that the pre-Israelite inhabitants of Palestine were closely
+akin to the Hebrews, and spoke substantially the same language.  The
+inscriptions of later Egyptian kings, during the thirteenth and the
+early part of the twelfth century, throw little additional light on
+conditions in Palestine, except that it becomes increasingly clear that
+Egypt cannot maintain its hold on the land.  Subsequent to Rameses III
+(1198-1167) Palestine was entirely
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P128"></A>128}</SPAN>
+lost to Egypt for several
+centuries, which explains why the Hebrews were not disturbed by the
+empire on the Nile in their attempts to establish themselves in
+Palestine.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The first direct reference to Israel in the inscriptions apparently
+takes us near the time of the exodus.  Archaeology has nothing to say
+directly about the exodus; but in the enumeration of his victories,
+Merneptah II, thought to be the Pharaoh during whose reign the exodus
+took place, uses these words: "Israel is lost, his seed is not."  The
+discovery of this inscription in 1896 was hailed with great rejoicing,
+for at last the name "Israel" was found in an Egyptian inscription
+coming, approximately at least, from the time of the exodus; but,
+unfortunately, the reference is so indefinite that its exact
+significance and bearing upon the date of the exodus is still under
+discussion.  It is to be noted that, whereas the other places or
+peoples named in the inscription have the determinative for "country,"
+"Israel" has the determinative for "men"; perhaps an evidence that the
+reference is not to the land of Israel, or to Israel permanently
+settled, but to a tribe or people at the time without a settled abode.
+But where was Israel at the time?  To this a variety of answers have
+been given.  D. R. Fotheringham suggests that the reference is to the
+destruction of the crops of Israel in Goshen.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P129"></A>129}</SPAN>
+Israel, he thinks,
+had just left, with the crops unharvested.  These Merneptah claims to
+have destroyed.[<A NAME="chap04fn8text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn8">8</A>]  Others believe that the Israelites had already
+entered Canaan when they suffered the defeat mentioned by Merneptah.
+Petrie thinks that the Israelites defeated were in Palestine, but that
+they had no connection with the tribes that had a part in the biblical
+exodus; he believes that the latter were still in Goshen at the time of
+this defeat.[<A NAME="chap04fn9text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn9">9</A>]  Still others believe that the Israelites were, at the
+time of the defeat, in the wilderness south of Palestine, and that the
+claim of Merneptah is simply an attempt to account for their
+disappearance from Egypt.  And now comes Eerdmans, of Leiden, with the
+suggestion that the Israelites defeated by Merneptah were the
+Israelites before they went down to Egypt.[<A NAME="chap04fn10text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn10">10</A>]  It is seen, therefore,
+that the reference on the stele of Merneptah, while of much interest,
+because it is the first mention of Israel in an Egyptian inscription,
+after all throws little light upon the date and the events of the
+exodus.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The next monument of importance contains an account of the invasion of
+Palestine by Shishak, five years after the death of Solomon.  On the
+southern wall of the court of the great temple of Amen at Karnak the
+king has left a pictorial representation of his campaign.  A giant
+figure is represented as holding in his left hand the ends of ropes
+which
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P130"></A>130}</SPAN>
+bind long rows of captives neck to neck.  Their hands are
+tied behind them, and the victor's right hand holds a rod with which he
+threatens them.  The names of the conquered cities are inscribed on
+shields that cover the lower part of the body of each prisoner.  Some
+of the most familiar names in this list are Gaza, Abel, Adullam,
+Bethhoron, Aijalon, Gibeon, and Shunem.[<A NAME="chap04fn11text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn11">11</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From about the middle of the ninth century on inscriptions containing
+references to kings of Israel, or to events in which the Hebrews played
+important parts, become more numerous.  To the reign of Omri (889-875)
+and his immediate successors refers the inscription of Mesha on the
+so-called Moabite Stone.[<A NAME="chap04fn12text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn12">12</A>]  This notable specimen of antiquity is a
+stone of a bluish-black color, about two feet wide, nearly four feet
+high, and fourteen and one-half inches thick; rounded at the top, and,
+according to the testimony of the discoverer, the Rev. F. Klein, also
+at the bottom, which, however, is doubtful.  The value of the stone
+lies not only in the fact that it preserves one of the most ancient
+styles of Hebrew writing, but more especially in the historical,
+topographical, and religious information it furnishes.  In 2 Kings 3 we
+read of the relations between Moab and Omri and his successors.  Omri
+had subdued Moab and had collected from her a yearly tribute.  Ahab had
+enjoyed the same revenue, amounting during
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P131"></A>131}</SPAN>
+Mesha's reign to the
+wool of a hundred thousand lambs and a hundred thousand rams.  At the
+close of Ahab's reign Mesha refused to continue the payment of the
+tribute.  The allied kings of Israel, Judah, and Edom marched with
+their armies against the Moabites, who fled for refuge within the
+strong fortress of Kir-hareseth, where Mesha offered up his own son as
+a burnt-offering to Chemosh, his god; whereupon "there was great wrath
+against Israel, and they departed from them and returned to their own
+land."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Moabite Stone was set up by King Mesha to his god Chemosh in
+commemoration of this deliverance.  The opening lines read: "I am
+Mesha, son of Chemosh-ken, king of Moab, the Daibonite.  My father
+reigned over Moab for thirty years, and I reigned after my father.  And
+I made this high place for Chemosh in Korhah, a high place of
+salvation, because he had saved me from all the assailants, and because
+he had let me see my desire upon all them that hated me.  Omri, king of
+Israel, afflicted Moab for many days, because Chemosh was angry with
+his land; and his son succeeded him; and he also said, I will afflict
+Moab.  In my days said he thus.  But I saw my desire upon him and his
+house, and Israel perished with an everlasting destruction."  As a
+supplement to the Old Testament narrative, this account is very
+instructive.  The mention of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P132"></A>132}</SPAN>
+Yahweh, the God of Israel, is of
+interest, as also the fact that in Moab, as in Israel, national
+disaster was attributed to the anger of the national deity.  The idiom
+in which the inscription is written differs only dialectically from the
+Hebrew of the Old Testament.  Small idiomatic differences are
+observable, but, on the other hand, it shares with it several
+distinctive features, so that, on the whole, it resembles Hebrew far
+more closely than any other Semitic language now known.  In point of
+style the inscription reads almost like a page from one of the earlier
+historical books of the Old Testament.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From the time of Omri on Israel came into frequent contact with
+Assyria; indeed, the fortunes of Israel were closely bound up with the
+fortunes of this great Eastern world-power.[<A NAME="chap04fn13text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn13">13</A>]  In 885, at about the
+time when Omri had finally succeeded in overcoming his rivals,
+Ashurnasirpal ascended the throne of Assyria.  He determined to restore
+the former glory of his nation, which had become eclipsed under his
+incompetent predecessors; and with him began a period of conquest which
+ultimately brought the whole eastern shore of the Mediterranean under
+Assyrian sway.  In 860 Shalmaneser III[<A NAME="chap04fn14text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn14">14</A>] succeeded his father upon
+the throne of Assyria, and in the following year he renewed the attack
+upon the West.  In 854 he felt prepared for a supreme effort, and it is
+in the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P133"></A>133}</SPAN>
+account of this campaign that we read for the first time
+the name of an Israelite king in the Assyrian inscription.  Shalmaneser
+advanced with great speed and success until he reached Karkar, near the
+Orontes, a little north of Hamath.  In the account of the campaign he
+mentions, among the allies who fought against him, Ahab of Israel, who,
+he says, furnished two thousand chariots and ten thousand men.  The
+campaign is recorded in several inscriptions, in all of which
+Shalmaneser claims a complete victory.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The most famous inscription of this king is the one on the so-called
+Black Obelisk, an alabaster monolith found at Nimrud in 1846.  This
+monument is inscribed on all four sides with an account, in one hundred
+and ninety lines, of the expeditions undertaken during thirty-one years
+of the king's reign.  In the text of the inscription reference is made
+to campaigns against the west land (Syria and Palestine) in 859, 854,
+850, 849, 846, 842, and 839.  In addition to the inscription the
+monument contains, on the upper portion, five series of four reliefs
+each, each series representing the tribute brought to the Assyrian king
+by kings whom he had conquered or who sought his favor.  In the
+inscription itself, no mention is made of Israel or the king of Israel,
+but the second tier of reliefs is of much interest.  It depicts a
+prince or deputy prostrating himself before Shalmaneser,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P134"></A>134}</SPAN>
+and
+behind the prostrated figure are attendants bearing gifts of various
+kinds.  The superscription reads: "The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri,
+silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden ladle, golden goblets, golden
+pitchers, lead, a staff for the hand of the king, shafts of spears, I
+received of him."  In 842 Shalmaneser undertook an expedition against
+Hazael of Damascus, and in the account of this expedition he says, "At
+that time I received the tribute of the Tyrians and Sidonians, and of
+Jehu, the son of Omri."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+About half a century after the occurrence of Jehu's name in the
+inscription of Shalmaneser III Israel is mentioned again as tributary
+to Assyria.  Adad-nirari IV (812-783), after enumerating other
+countries subjugated by him, writes: "From the Euphrates to the land of
+the Hatti, the west country in its entire compass, Tyre, Sidon, the
+land of Omri, Edom, Philistia, as far as the great sea of the setting
+of the sun (Mediterranean Sea), I subjected to my yoke; payment of
+tribute I imposed upon them."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Adad-nirari was succeeded by a series of weak kings, during whose reign
+the power of Assyria declined, but in 745 the great Tiglath-pileser IV,
+mentioned in the Old Testament also under the name Pul, ascended the
+throne.  He succeeded in reorganizing the resources of the empire and
+in rekindling its ambitions for conquest.  This
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P135"></A>135}</SPAN>
+energetic king
+has left several inscriptions of much interest to the student of Old
+Testament history.  In one of these, narrating an expedition against
+northern Syria about B.C. 738, he mentions a king, "Azriau of the land
+of Yaudi."  It has been customary to identify this king with Azariah
+(Uzziah) of Judah.  The contents speak against this identification, and
+since the inscriptions found in Zenjirli have established the existence
+in northern Syria of a state called Yaudi, perhaps the king mentioned
+in Tiglath-pileser's inscription was a ruler of this northern kingdom.
+In the annals which tell of his victory over Azriau of Yaudi he
+mentions Menahem of Samaria as one of the kings whose tribute he
+received.  The same inscription, referring to events in 734 or 733,
+speaks of a victory over the House of Omri, and the assassination of
+the king Pekah, but the inscription is so fragmentary that the details
+are obscure.  Fortunately, the same events are recorded in another
+inscription, which is in a better state of preservation, though it also
+has several gaps.  After enumerating several cities which he captured
+in Palestine, among them Gaza, he continues: "The land of the dynasty
+of Omri ... the whole of its inhabitants, their possessions to Assyria
+I deported.  Pekah, their king, they slew, Hoshea to rule over them
+appointed.  Ten talents of gold, a thousand talents of silver, I
+received
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P136"></A>136}</SPAN>
+as tribute."  Ahaz of Judah is also mentioned in an
+inscription of Tiglath-pileser, as paying tribute, but it is not clear
+to what year this refers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Tiglath-pileser died in 727, and was succeeded by Shalmaneser V, who in
+turn gave place in 722 to Sargon II.  Shalmaneser is mentioned as the
+king who attacked the northern kingdom, and the Old Testament narrative
+leaves the impression that he was the king who finally captured the
+city of Samaria.  The inscriptions show that it was Sargon who overcame
+the city soon after the beginning of his reign.  In one of his
+inscriptions he calls himself, "the brave hero ... who overthrew the
+House of Omri."  In another he says: "Samaria I besieged, I took.
+27,290 of its inhabitants I carried away; 50 chariots I gathered from
+them; the rest of them I permitted to retain their possessions.  Over
+them I appointed my governor, and upon them I imposed the tribute of
+the former king."  The annals of Sargon, which give an account of the
+events during his reign in chronological order, give the date of the
+capture of Samaria.  After the introduction, he continues: "In the
+beginning of my reign and in the first year of my reign, ... Samaria I
+besieged and took....  27,290 inhabitants I carried away; 50 chariots
+as my royal portion I collected there....  I restored and made as it
+was before....  People from all countries, my captives, I settled
+there.  My
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P137"></A>137}</SPAN>
+official I appointed as governor over them.  Tribute
+and taxes like the Assyrian I imposed upon them."  After the
+destruction of the northern kingdom the life of the Hebrews became
+centered in Judah and Jerusalem.  The fall of Samaria made an
+impression on the South that was remembered for some time.
+Nevertheless, the states along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean
+Sea bore impatiently the Assyrian yoke, and in most cities there arose
+a party which, relying on the promised help of Egypt, was eager to free
+itself from Assyria.  That this party gained a foothold also in
+Jerusalem is seen from the prophecy in Isa. 20, in which the prophet
+warns the people against trusting in Egypt and rebelling against
+Assyria.  In the same direction points an inscription of Sargon
+describing an expedition against Ashdod: "The people of Philistia,
+<I>Judah</I>, Edom, and Moab, dwelling beside the sea, bringing tribute and
+presents to Ashur my lord, were speaking treason.  The people and their
+evil chiefs, to fight against me, to Pharaoh, king of Egypt, a prince
+who could not save them, their presents carried and besought his
+alliance."  In all probability, Judah did not become involved seriously
+at this time.  But the death of Sargon in 705 seems to have been a
+signal for revolt in many parts of the Assyrian empire.  His son and
+successor, Sennacherib, gave these rebellions his immediate attention;
+until 702
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P138"></A>138}</SPAN>
+he was kept busy in the East, but in that year he
+turned westward, and by 701 was ready to attack Judah.  The campaign
+and the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem on that occasion are
+recorded at length in 2 Kings 18, 19, and Isa. 36, 37.  The account of
+the same campaign by the Assyrian king is, from the standpoint of Old
+Testament history, perhaps the most interesting historical inscription
+left by an Assyrian ruler.  It is found in the so-called Taylor
+Cylinder,[<A NAME="chap04fn15text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn15">15</A>] column 2, line 34, to column 3, line 41.  The most
+interesting portion reads:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+To the city of Ekron I went; the governors<BR>
+[and] princes, who had committed a transgression, I killed and<BR>
+bound their corpses on poles around the city.<BR>
+The inhabitants of the city, who had committed sin and evil,<BR>
+I counted as spoil; to the rest of them<BR>
+who had committed no sin and wrong, who had<BR>
+no guilt, I spoke peace.  Padi<BR>
+their king, I brought forth from the<BR>
+city of Jerusalem; upon the throne of lordship over them<BR>
+I placed him.  The tribute of my lordship<BR>
+I laid upon him.  But Hezekiah<BR>
+of Judah, who had not submitted to my yoke,<BR>
+I besieged 46 of his strong cities, fortresses, and small cities<BR>
+of their environs, without number, [and]<BR>
+by the battering of rams and the assault of engines,<BR>
+by the attack of foot soldiers, mines, breaches, and axes,<BR>
+I besieged, I took them; 200,150 men, young [and] old, male<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">and female, horses, mules, asses, camels, oxen</SPAN><BR>
+and sheep without number I brought out from them,<BR>
+I counted them as spoil.  [Hezekiah] himself I shut up like<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">a caged bird in Jerusalem</SPAN><BR>
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P139"></A>139}</SPAN>
+his royal city; the walls I fortified<BR>
+against him [and] whosoever came out of the gates of the<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">city, I turned</SPAN><BR>
+back.  His cities, which I had plundered, I separated from<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">his land</SPAN><BR>
+and gave them to Mitinti, king of Ashdod,<BR>
+to Padi, king of Ekron, and to Sil-Bel,<BR>
+king of Gaza, and [thus] diminished his territory.<BR>
+To the former tribute, paid yearly,<BR>
+I added the tribute and presents of my lordship and<BR>
+laid that upon him.  Hezekiah himself<BR>
+was overwhelmed by the fear of the brightness of my lordship;<BR>
+the Arabians and his other faithful warriors<BR>
+whom, as a defense for Jerusalem his royal city<BR>
+he had brought in, fell into fear.<BR>
+With 30 talents of gold [and] 800 talents of silver, precious<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">stones,</SPAN><BR>
+<I>gukhli daggassi</I> (?), large lapis lazuli,<BR>
+couches of ivory, thrones of ivory,<BR>
+ivory, <I>usu</I> wood, box wood (?), of every kind, a heavy<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">treasure,</SPAN><BR>
+and his daughters, his women of the palace,<BR>
+the young men and young women, to Nineveh, the city of<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">my lordship,</SPAN><BR>
+I caused to be brought after me, and he sent his ambassadors,<BR>
+to give tribute and to pay homage.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+These are, perhaps, the most important historical inscriptions
+illustrating specific events in the history of Israel and Judah.  There
+are, however, many more that make important, though more or less
+indirect, contributions toward a better understanding of Old Testament
+history.  Just to mention a few: Tirhaka of Egypt, who, temporarily at
+least, interfered with the plans of the Assyrians,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P140"></A>140}</SPAN>
+appears
+several times in the inscriptions; the real significance of the events
+recorded in 2 Kings 20. 12ff., and Isa. 39, can be understood only in
+the light of the inscriptions; an interesting sidelight is thrown by
+the inscriptions on the biblical account of Sennacherib's death.  In
+one of the inscriptions of Esarhaddon, the son and successor of
+Sennacherib, we are told that among the twenty-two kings of the land of
+the Hittites who assisted him in his building enterprises was Manasseh,
+king of Judah.  Ashurbanipal, the successor of Esarhaddon, includes
+Manasseh in a similar list.  Though this king is not mentioned in the
+Old Testament under his Assyrian name, it is very probable that he is
+the king referred to in Ezra 4. 10, where it is said that the "great
+and noble Osnappar" brought Babylonians, Susanians, Elamites, and men
+of other nationalities to Samaria.  The inscriptions do not throw much
+light upon the closing years of Judah's history, but we can understand
+the events in which Judah played a part better because the inscriptions
+set into clearer light the general history of Western Asia.  The
+advance of the Scythians, the revival of Egypt in the seventh century,
+the fall of Nineveh, the rise of the Chaldean empire, which reached its
+highest glory under Nebuchadrezzar, the conqueror of Judah&mdash;all these
+are described in the inscriptions, or, at least, illuminated by them.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P141"></A>141}</SPAN>
+In a similar way the inscriptions, though not mentioning the
+Jewish exiles in Babylonia, illuminate the biblical records in many
+respects.  Fortunately, also, the inscriptions furnish a good idea of
+the events leading to the downfall of Babylon, which resulted in the
+restoration of many exiles to Judah; and the restoration itself assumes
+a new significance in the light of the inscriptions; for the permission
+to return granted by Cyrus to the Jews is seen to be in accord with the
+general policy of the conqueror to secure the good-will of the peoples
+deported by the Babylonians by restoring them to their own homes.  The
+historical situation of the age may suggest another reason for the
+kindly treatment of the Jews.  It was inevitable that sooner or later
+Cyrus, or his successors, should come into conflict with Egypt.  At
+such time it would be of immense value to him to have near the border
+of Egypt a nation upon whose fidelity and gratitude he could rely.
+Archaeology has not thrown any direct light on the condition of the
+Jews in Palestine under the Persian rule.  On the other hand, we know a
+great deal about conditions in Babylonia during that period, and within
+the past decade several important documents written on papyrus have
+been found in Egypt which furnish indisputable evidence that the island
+of Elephantine, opposite Assuan, a short distance north of the first
+cataract
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P142"></A>142}</SPAN>
+of the Nile, was the seat of a Jewish colony at least as
+early as the reign of Cambyses, king of Persia (B.C. 529-521).[<A NAME="chap04fn16text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn16">16</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This concludes the survey of the archæological material of a historical
+nature.  It is seen that during the period from the division of the
+kingdom subsequent to the death of Solomon to the reëstablishment of
+the Jews in Palestine after the exile the inscriptions furnish most
+interesting and instructive illustrations of events mentioned or
+alluded to in the Old Testament.  As a result the history and also the
+prophecy of the Old Testament have been removed from the isolated
+position in which they previously seemed to stand.  They are now seen
+to be connected by many links with the great movements taking place in
+the world without.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The question as to the bearing of the archæological historical records
+on the historical records of the Old Testament remains to be
+considered.  This question was asked as soon as the contents of the
+inscriptions became known.  The answers have varied greatly.  On the
+one hand, it has been claimed that the Old Testament records are
+confirmed in every detail; on the other, those have not been wanting
+who claimed that the inscriptions discredit the Old Testament.  Here,
+as in other investigations, the true conclusion can be reached only
+after a careful examination of all
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P143"></A>143}</SPAN>
+the facts in the case.  In the
+study of the question there are several considerations and cautions
+which must not be lost sight of if we would reach a true estimate.
+Some of these cautions are suggested by the nature of the inscriptions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the first place, it must be remembered that most of the
+archæological material has come from lands outside of Palestine, and
+that the testimony is that of people not friendly to the Hebrews.  We
+may expect, therefore, that at times personal bias may have colored the
+portrayal and caused the Hebrews to appear in a less favorable light
+than the facts would warrant, or that the events in which the Hebrews
+took part were described in a manner to make them favor the interests
+of the writers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Again, not every period of Hebrew history is illuminated by the
+inscriptions.  True, the earliest monuments found in Egypt and
+Babylonia antedate the birth of Jesus perhaps more than four thousand
+years; but it is not until the time of Ahab, king of Israel, that the
+important historical material begins.  The references to Israel
+preceding the time of the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser III, c. B.C. 850,
+are few and more or less obscure.  There is the monument of Shishak in
+the tenth century; but some are inclined to believe that the list of
+the cities alleged to have been conquered by Shishak was simply taken
+over by him from
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P144"></A>144}</SPAN>
+an earlier document, and that, therefore, it is
+of little or no historical value.  Israel is mentioned in the
+inscription of Merneptah, but, as has been seen, the significance of
+the brief reference is obscure; there is nothing concerning the stay in
+Egypt, nothing concerning the patriarchs, and nothing concerning the
+earlier period that can in any way be connected with the historical
+records of the Old Testament.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Furthermore, to get at the true value of the evidence from the
+monuments we must distinguish between facts and inferences from the
+facts.  This distinction, obvious as it seems, has not always been
+maintained even by eminent archæologists.  For example, Professor
+Sayce, who is in just repute among Assyriologists, made a few years ago
+the statement: "The vindication of the reality of Menes [one of the
+early kings of Egypt] means the vindication also of the historical
+character of the Hebrew patriarchs."  Surely, common sense says that
+facts proving the historicity of an early king of Egypt do not
+necessarily prove the historicity of men living many centuries later.
+Many similar illustrations might be given.  Because bricks made without
+straw were found it has been claimed that every detail of the Old
+Testament narrative concerning the stay of Israel in Egypt was
+corroborated by archæology.  The finding of the walls of royal palaces
+in Babylon furnished
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P145"></A>145}</SPAN>
+the claim that the story of the handwriting
+on the wall was established beyond doubt.  The finding of images of
+deities has been interpreted as showing beyond a possibility of
+question the historicity of the narrative in Daniel concerning the
+image erected by Nebuchadrezzar, etc.  There can easily be too much
+blind dependence on authority; an assumption of fact, upon the mere
+dictum of some presumably honest and competent scholar.  About a
+generation ago a well-known investigator said, "Assyriology has its
+guesses and it has its accurate knowledge."[<A NAME="chap04fn17text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn17">17</A>]  These words might be
+expanded to include the whole field of archæology.  Archaeology has its
+facts, and it has its inferences.  The two must not be confused.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Moreover, the possibility of inscribing lies upon clay tablets must not
+be overlooked.  Sometimes it has been claimed, and that most absurdly,
+that because an inscription has been engraved upon imperishable stone
+or clay it has a superior value.  But the mere fact of a record being
+inscribed on a tablet of clay, perishable or imperishable, gives it no
+superiority over one written on papyrus or parchment or paper.  Clay
+tablets were to the civilization of the Euphrates valley what print
+paper is to us.  We all know that paper is patient, else the daily
+papers would be of smaller size and many books would remain unwritten.
+The same is true of clay tablets.  Clay tablets are
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P146"></A>146}</SPAN>
+patient.  It
+was recognized long ago by Assyriologists that the so-called historical
+inscriptions are not all unbiased statements of objective facts.  In
+many cases the chief purpose seems to have been the glorification of
+the king; victories are recorded with the greatest care, but no mention
+is made of defeats.  For example: in one of the earliest inscriptions
+mentioning a king of Israel, Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria, claims a
+great victory over the Western allies in the battle of Karkar in 854;
+but, strange to say, the victory resulted in a rather hasty retreat of
+the Assyrian army.  Another evidence of the "absolute reliability" of
+the historical tablets is offered by the inscriptions of the same king.
+In connection with the battle of Karkar, one inscription declares that
+the allies killed numbered 14,000; another, 20,500; while a third
+claims 25,000.  We have, indeed, reason to say that "the evident
+uncertainty in the figures makes us doubt somewhat the clearness of the
+entire result.  The claim of a great victory is almost certainly
+false."[<A NAME="chap04fn18text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn18">18</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Once more: the translation of the inscriptions is not in every case
+beyond question.  For example, in lines 7-9 of the Moabite Stone we
+read, according to the common translation, "Now Omri annexed all the
+land of Medeba, and Israel occupied it his days and half the days of
+his son, forty years."  This rendering would imply that the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P147"></A>147}</SPAN>
+period from the conquest under Omri to the end of the first half of
+Ahab's reign was forty years.  The chronology of Kings gives as the
+total of the full reigns of the two kings only thirty-four years, while
+the above translation of the inscription would require about sixty&mdash;a
+serious discrepancy.  Now, it is generally conceded that the chronology
+of the Bible cannot be accepted as final in all its details, and that
+it must be checked by the chronology of the inscriptions wherever that
+is possible.  Yet before we can make use of the monumental testimony we
+should be sure of its exact meaning.  In cases such as the one
+mentioned this certainty is absent, and we should move very slowly.
+Another translation of the passage has been proposed: "Omri conquered
+the whole land of Medeba and held it in possession as long as he
+reigned and during half of my reign his son, in all forty years; but
+yet in my reign Chemosh recovered it."[<A NAME="chap04fn19text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn19">19</A>]  This translation would
+bring the total of the two reigns to about forty years, and thus the
+chronological difficulty apparently offered by 2 Kings 3 would be
+removed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The five considerations to which attention has been called must be
+observed if we would understand rightly the bearing of the monuments on
+the Old Testament, when viewed from the standpoint of the inscriptions.
+Attention must now be called to certain considerations touching
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P148"></A>148}</SPAN>
+primarily the Old Testament that must be regarded in forming an
+estimate of the value of its historical records.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We must remember, for example, that the purpose of the Old Testament is
+essentially and predominatingly religious.  This is recognized by the
+Jews, for they do not call any of the so-called historical books by
+that name.  The five books of the Pentateuch they designate as Law,
+because in these books practically all Hebrew legislation is embodied.
+Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, they include in the list of prophetic
+books, because they recognize the essentially prophetic purpose of the
+authors.  The other books belong to the third division of the Jewish
+canon, called the Writings.  Concerning the books of Kings, which are
+the principal historical books of the Old Testament, it has been truly
+said: "Kings, by virtue of its contents, belongs as much to the
+prophetical books as to the historical.  It is not a continuous
+chronicle; it is a book of prophetic teaching in which sometimes
+history, sometimes story, is employed as the vehicle of teaching.  It
+enforces the principle that God is the controlling power and sin the
+disturbing force in the entire history of men and nations.[<A NAME="chap04fn20text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn20">20</A>]  In a
+similar manner the religious purpose predominates in the other Old
+Testament historical books.  They do not pretend to give a complete
+history even of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P149"></A>149}</SPAN>
+the Hebrew people.  The writers embodied only
+such historical material as was thought to illustrate the
+self-revelation of God in the history of individuals and of the nation,
+or to bear in some marked way upon the coming of the kingdom of God.  A
+modern secular historian is disappointed at many omissions which would
+be unpardonable in a strictly historical production.  Now, it is
+readily seen that the religious purpose may be served, and the didactic
+value of the narrative may remain, even though historical inaccuracies
+in details should be discovered.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another fact to be remembered is the possible difference in the
+viewpoint of several narrators of one and the same event.  In sacred,
+as in secular history, the viewpoint of the author determines to a
+considerable extent the character of the narrative.  For example: the
+delineation of the events of the Civil War will not be the same in
+official documents, in a secular history, in a church history, or in a
+work containing personal memoirs.  Still other differences might be
+seen in narratives confined to special incidents.  Such differences in
+viewpoint may be noticed also among the writers of the Old Testament
+historical books.  Broadly speaking, part of the historical literature
+of the Old Testament is due to prophetic activity, part to priestly
+activity.  In writing history the prophets, with their broad interest
+in all the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P150"></A>150}</SPAN>
+affairs of the nation, resemble the modern secular
+historian.  They portray events more objectively than the priests,
+hence they are more reliable.  The priestly writers resemble the modern
+ecclesiastical historian, who judges everyone and everything according
+to their attitude toward the peculiar religious conceptions he
+represents.  The Old Testament contains also some personal memoirs (in
+Ezra and Nehemiah) and some narratives of special incidents (Ruth,
+Esther), while the historical books in their present form embody also
+what may have been official documents.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Moreover, in estimating the reliability of the Old Testament historical
+books we must not overlook certain unconscious references and
+indications which show that the authors exercised considerable care in
+producing the books.  In the first place, historical statements appear
+to have been preserved with considerable care, at least so far as the
+substance is concerned.  This may be seen from the retention of
+parallel narratives of the same events, without attempts at harmonizing
+minor disagreements.  In the second place, history was written with
+some discrimination.  This is evident especially in Kings, where the
+several degrees in which certain of the kings departed from the
+legitimate religion of Israel are carefully indicated.  A clear
+distinction is made between the relatively pious kings, who simply did
+not
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P151"></A>151}</SPAN>
+remove the high places (1 Kings 15. 14; 2 Kings 12. 3) and
+those who, in defiance of a fundamental principle (Exod. 20. 4, 5),
+desired to represent the spiritual God of Israel in images that would
+appeal to the senses (1 Kings 12. 28, 29; 14. 16, etc.), and those who,
+in defiance of the first requirement of the Decalogue (Exod. 20. 3),
+served other gods (1 Kings 16. 31-33; 18. 22, etc.).  Once more: in the
+Old Testament records we find evidence of the historical consciousness
+of ancient Israel resting upon a very sure foundation.  The Mosaic age
+was regarded as the supreme crisis in the national history.  Moses was
+the great hero; yet his grandeur was not able to extinguish the
+consciousness of the glory of the pre-Mosaic period.  Throughout the
+entire literature Abraham and Jacob and Joseph are also connected with
+the beginnings of the Hebrew nation and with the beginning of the
+religious mission of the people.  The memory of the pre-Mosaic period
+seems indeed to have been securely founded.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+What, then, are the results of this comparative study?  The Old
+Testament world has become a new world.  Dark regions were Egypt,
+Assyria, Elam, and other countries mentioned in the Old Testament
+before the explorers and excavators entered these lands.  Now it is
+comparatively easy to trace with considerable accuracy the boundaries
+of empires that existed in the first
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P152"></A>152}</SPAN>
+and second millenniums B.C.
+In addition, we can fix with certainty the sites of some Old Testament
+cities whose location was previously unknown and, in some cases, whose
+very existence had been doubted.  The topography of cities like
+Nineveh, Nippur, and Babylon has become quite definitely fixed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The historical gains are even more remarkable.  Whole nations have been
+resurrected.  What did we know a century ago of Elam?  Nothing but the
+name.  What of Assyria?  Only a few traditions, sometimes
+untrustworthy, preserved by classical writers, and the statements of
+the Bible, some of which were unintelligible because of their
+fragmentary character.  Now these and other nations pass one after the
+other in review, great and powerful in all their ancient glory.  And,
+almost every day, new light is thrown on these early centuries.  Only a
+few years ago it was thought that Assyrian history, as distinct from
+that of Babylon, began about B.C. 1800; now we know the names of many
+rulers who lived generations and centuries before that date.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The chronological gains are especially important.  It is generally
+admitted that Hebrew chronology is not always reliable, and various
+expedients have been resorted to to remove the difficulties.  It was
+very gratifying, therefore, to discover that the chronological system
+of the Assyrians was
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P153"></A>153}</SPAN>
+more precise.  Among the inscriptions are
+especially three classes of public records in which the occurrences are
+carefully dated: (1) Records of the reigns of certain kings in which
+their activities are carefully arranged in chronological order; (2)
+business tablets in which transactions are definitely dated; and (3)
+the so-called eponym lists.  According to Assyrian custom, each year
+was named after a prominent official.  Lists of these were carefully
+made and kept, and, fortunately, large fragments of them have been
+preserved.  Two recensions of these eponym lists have come down.  In
+one only the names of the years are given; in the other references to
+important events are added to the names.  If, now, any one of these
+events can be dated, it becomes possible to trace the dates designated
+by the names on either side of the one whose date is first determined.
+By means of these lists and the other records the Assyrian chronology
+can be definitely fixed from about B.C. 900 on.  This, in turn, enables
+us to bring order into the chaos of Hebrew chronology during the most
+important period of the nation's existence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When we think of these and other gains, not the least of which is the
+discovery of the contemporaneous documents, the absence of which was at
+one time made the basis for the rejection of many statements found
+exclusively in the Old
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P154"></A>154}</SPAN>
+Testament, we may gratefully receive this
+new light and rejoice in the advance in Bible knowledge made possible
+through the excavations.  What, now, is the general bearing of these
+discoveries on the trustworthiness of the Old Testament?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the first place, it is well to remember that for many periods of
+Hebrew history we are still entirely dependent on the Old Testament for
+direct information.  For example, Professor Clay's claim concerning the
+patriarchal age, that "the increase of knowledge gained through the
+inscriptions of this period has in every instance dissolved conclusions
+arrived at by those critics who maintain that the patriarchs are not to
+be regarded as historical,"[<A NAME="chap04fn21text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn21">21</A>] is not justified by the facts.  In
+reality, no incident in the patriarchal story is referred to in any of
+the inscriptions read thus far.  On the other hand, the age of the
+patriarchs has been wonderfully illuminated.  "Formerly the world in
+which the patriarchs moved seemed to be almost empty; now we see it
+filled with embassies, armies, busy cities, and long lines of traders
+passing to and fro between one center of civilization and another; but
+amid all that crowded life we peer in vain for any trace of the fathers
+of the Hebrews; we listen in vain for any mention of their names; this
+is the whole change archæology has wrought: it has given us an
+atmosphere and a background for the stories of Genesis; it is
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P155"></A>155}</SPAN>
+unable to recall or certify their heroes."[<A NAME="chap04fn22text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn22">22</A>]  All that can be said in
+this, as in other cases, is, that archæology, by furnishing a broad
+historical background, has established the possibility of the principal
+events recorded in the biblical narratives being correct.  It is silent
+concerning the events themselves, and, therefore, neither confirms nor
+discredits them.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A few cases there are, especially in connection with questions of
+chronology, where archæology has modified and corrected biblical
+statements.  According to the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser, for
+example, Menahem of Israel paid tribute to the Assyrian king in B.C.
+738, and there is reason for believing that this tribute was paid near
+the beginning of Menahem's reign for the purpose of securing the good
+will of Assyria.  In 734 or 733 Pekah is said to have been slain and to
+have been succeeded by Hoshea.  Now, according to the Old Testament,
+Menahem reigned ten years; his son, Pekahiah, two years, and Pekah
+twenty years, a total of thirty-two years.  Even if we assume that the
+tribute was paid by Menahem during his last year&mdash;which is not at all
+likely&mdash;there would remain twenty-two years to be provided for between
+738 and 734 or 733.  Evidently, the Old Testament figures are too high.
+A similar case is found in connection with events that took place only
+a few years later.  In 2 Kings
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P156"></A>156}</SPAN>
+18. 10 the statement is found that
+Samaria was taken in the sixth year of Hezekiah, king of Judah.  Then,
+verse 13 states that in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, Sennacherib,
+king of Assyria, came against Jerusalem.  The date of the capture of
+Samaria is definitely fixed by the Assyrian inscriptions.  The city
+fell either in the closing days of B.C. 722 or the opening days of B.C.
+721.  Assuming that it was 722, the fourteenth year of Hezekiah would
+be 714.  But Sennacherib did not become king until 705, and the attack
+upon Jerusalem was not made until 701.  Here, again, the biblical
+account seems to be inaccurate.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In many other cases, however, remarkable confirmations are seen.  There
+are many persons and events mentioned in the Old Testament which are
+referred to also in the inscriptions.  Think of the long list of
+Babylonian and Assyrian kings named in the Old Testament; Amraphel,
+king of Shinar, at one time considered a mythical figure, is shown to
+have been one of the greatest generals, wisest administrators, and
+fairest lawgivers among the early kings of Babylon.  Sargon, whose very
+existence was once doubted, has in defiance risen from the dust.  In
+these and numerous other cases, especially from the ninth century
+onward&mdash;as may be seen from a comparison of the inscriptions quoted
+above with the corresponding portions of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P157"></A>157}</SPAN>
+the Old Testament&mdash;the
+archæological records furnish striking confirmations of the Old
+Testament narratives.  To sum up this entire inquiry: It must be
+apparent to every unbiased student that the monuments, when read
+intelligently, neither set aside nor discredit the Old Testament
+documents.  On the contrary, they prove their substantial accuracy.
+They may at times modify them, especially in questions of chronology;
+but they more frequently corroborate than impugn; thus they offer their
+services not as a substitute but as a supplement, by the aid of which
+we may study from without the history of the Hebrew people.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap04fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn3"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn4"></A>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+NOTES ON CHAPTER IV
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn1text">1</A>] An excellent account of the explorations and excavations in
+Babylonia and Assyria, and of the decipherment of the inscriptions is
+found in R. W. Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria, Vol. I,
+Chapters I-VIII; compare also H. V. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible
+Lands during the Nineteenth Century, Part I.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn2text">2</A>] Preliminary reports of the results of the German excavations are
+given from time to time in the Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient
+Gesellschaft.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn3text">3</A>] G. Steindorff, Excavations in Egypt, in H. V. Hilprecht,
+Explorations in Bible Lands, pp. 623-690.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn4text">4</A>] Opening words of I. Benzinger, Researches in Palestine, in
+Hilprecht, Explorations, pp. 579-622.  A very complete discussion of
+explorations and excavations in Palestine may be found in F. Jones
+Bliss, Development of Palestine Exploration.  The
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P158"></A>158}</SPAN>
+progress of the
+excavations is reported in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine
+Exploration Fund.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap04fn5"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn6"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn7"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn8"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn9"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn5text">5</A>] Opening words of the first lecture on "Babel and Bible."
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn6text">6</A>] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. xlviii.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn7text">7</A>] A. T. Clay, Light on the Old Testament from Babel, Chapter XI.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn8text">8</A>] The Chronology of the Old Testament, p. 97.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn9text">9</A>] Egypt and Israel, p. 35.  Breasted also seems to think that the
+Israelites defeated by Merneptah had no direct connection with those
+who suffered in Egypt, A History of Egypt, p. 466; compare p. 410.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn10text">10</A>] The Expositor, 1908, p. 199.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap04fn10"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn11"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn12"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn13"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn11text">11</A>] J. C. Ball, Light from the East, pp. 131, 132.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn12text">12</A>] W. H. Bennett, The Moabite Stone; Hastings, Dictionary of the
+Bible, art., "Moab, Moabites."
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn13text">13</A>] Most of the inscriptions from this period on are found in D. G.
+Hogarth, Authority and Archaeology, Part I&mdash;Hebrew Authority, by S. R.
+Driver.  See also T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of the
+Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia; A. T. Clay,
+Light on the Old Testament from Babel; A. Jeremias, The Old Testament
+in the Light of the Ancient Orient; R. F. Harper, Assyrian and
+Babylonian Literature; S. R. Driver, Modern Research as Illustrating
+the Bible.  The most recent and most complete collection of cuneiform
+inscriptions throwing light on Old Testament religion and history is
+contained in R. W. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament,
+which appeared after this book had gone to press.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap04fn14"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn15"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn16"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn17"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn18"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn14text">14</A>] Formerly called Shalmaneser II; see Expository Times, February,
+1912, p. 238.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn15text">15</A>] A translation of the entire inscription by R. W. Rogers is found
+in Records of the Past, New Series, Vol. VI, pp. 80ff.  These Records
+of the Past contain translations of the more important ancient
+inscriptions.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P159"></A>159}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn16text">16</A>] The most important of these papyri is translated in the Biblical
+World, June, 1908, pp. 448ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn17text">17</A>] Francis Brown, Assyriology&mdash;Its Use and Abuse in Old Testament
+Study, p. 3.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn18text">18</A>] R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, Vol. II, p. 80.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap04fn19"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn20"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn21"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn22"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn19text">19</A>] Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I, col. 792, Note.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn20text">20</A>] E. W. Barnes, The First Book of Kings, p. xxxiii.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn21text">21</A>] A. T. Clay, Light on the Old Testament from Babel, p. 143.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn22text">22</A>] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. liii, quoted in part from G.
+A. Smith, Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old Testament, p.
+101.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap05"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P160"></A>160}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER V
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND COMPARATIVE RELIGION
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+The present is an era of comparative study.  We no longer study
+subjects by themselves, but compare them with correlated experiences
+and phenomena.  "In the sphere of language study we have the science of
+comparative philology.  Language is compared with language.  By means
+of this comparison we have found that there are groups of languages
+closely related to one another; and, comparing these groups with one
+another, we have discovered certain universal laws of language.
+Comparing further the languages within each group, we ascertain the
+laws common to that group.  By such comparison a flood of light has
+been thrown on language.  We know Greek and Latin and Hebrew to-day as
+our predecessors did not know them."[<A NAME="chap05fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn1">1</A>]  The same principle of
+comparison is now applied to the study of history, of literature, of
+philosophy, of ethics, and of religion, including the literature and
+religion of the Hebrews.  Men are laying to-day the entire Hebrew
+literature, history, and religion alongside of the literatures,
+histories, and religions of other
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P161"></A>161}</SPAN>
+nations, testing them by the
+same methods and applying to them the same rules.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+What should be the attitude of the Christian toward this method of
+study?  When the science of comparative philology first asserted itself
+many good Christians set themselves against it, because one of its
+claims was that Hebrew is not the original language given by God to
+men.  Comparative philology has won its way, and Bible students are
+truly grateful for the light it has shed upon sacred scripture.  When
+the comparative study of the Scriptures was first advocated there were
+many timid souls who felt that this method of study was an attack upon
+the Bible, which could only issue in such an overturning of belief that
+the Church would remain helpless with a worthless Bible.  Hence they
+set themselves with all their might against the new study as an enemy
+of Christianity.  Is this the proper attitude?  In the first place, it
+is well to remember that the Bible has withstood all attacks for
+thousands of years.  Its great river of truth has flowed serenely on,
+watering the whole earth with its life-giving streams, and refusing to
+be dammed up by any foe.  Surely, history teaches that there need be no
+fear that any new method of study will bring about an end of the
+Bible's reign.  On the other hand, history teaches the folly of
+resisting the progress of science along any line of investigation.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P162"></A>162}</SPAN>
+True science will win its way just as surely as the teaching of
+the Bible will win its way into the hearts of men.  Hence it would seem
+the part of wisdom to encourage rather than to discourage the efforts
+of the comparative student of the Old Testament.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As a matter of fact, we cannot do anything else unless we would
+stultify ourselves.  We have said to the adherents of every other
+religion: "You say your sacred books are divine, prove it; lay your
+books open before the jury of the world, let the critics scrutinize
+them, analyze them, criticize them, according to the canons of modern
+criticism by which they criticize all books."  And can we refuse to
+open our Bible before the jury of the world and bid it scrutinize,
+analyze, and criticize it according to the same canons which it applies
+to the Veda, the Koran, and other so-called holy books?  Would such an
+attitude be fair?  If we believe that the Bible is different from the
+sacred books of other nations, that it stands on a far higher plane,
+unique, needing no concealment and no bolstering up with traditions and
+doctrines&mdash;if that is our faith, then let us lay it down open before
+the world and challenge men to read it, study it, and compare it with
+all the sacred literatures of the world.  The man who really believes
+in the inspiration of the Bible ought not to be afraid of such a test.
+He may rest assured
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P163"></A>163}</SPAN>
+that the comparative study of biblical
+literature and biblical religion will prove one of the things that work
+together for good to all those who have a living faith in God.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+An exhaustive discussion of the subject of this chapter would involve a
+study of all the great historical religions, known better to-day than
+ever before, and a comparison of them with the religion of the Old
+Testament.  This, however, could not be done satisfactorily within the
+limits of a single chapter.  It seems, therefore, advisable to confine
+the investigation to the religious beliefs, practices, and institutions
+of the nations with whom the Hebrews came into more or less close
+contact, such as the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians.  Political
+contact, which was common between these nations and the Hebrews, might
+furnish occasions for exerting influence in the realms of religion,
+law, and other elements of civilization.  "When alien races and diverse
+faiths confronted each other it might not always be the cause of war,
+but it was always the occasion of psychical conflict."[<A NAME="chap05fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn2">2</A>]  Since the
+knowledge of the religions of the nations named has been supplied very
+largely through archæological labors, this inquiry is simply one phase
+of the broader question as to the bearing of archæology upon the Old
+Testament; more especially, the bearing of the archæological material
+of a religious and ethical nature
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P164"></A>164}</SPAN>
+upon the uniqueness and
+permanent significance of the Old Testament religion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The importance of this study is suggested in the following quotation
+from a prominent Assyriologist, Hugo Winckler: "We come in the end to
+this, that we can distinguish only two views of the world which the
+human race has known in its historical development: the old Babylonian,
+and the modern empirical naturalistic, which is still in process of
+development and is yet struggling with the old one in many departments
+of life."[<A NAME="chap05fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn3">3</A>]  To avoid misunderstanding respecting the extent of the
+Babylonian influence, he adds, "The view of the world and religion are
+one for the ancient Oriental."  In this statement Winckler robs the
+Old Testament religion of all originality; he considers it simply a
+natural development of the Babylonian religion.  Friedrich Delitzsch,
+in his lectures on "Babel and Bible,"[<A NAME="chap05fn4text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn4">4</A>] expresses the same idea in a
+slightly modified form and attempts to show the predominance of
+Babylonian thought in the Hebrew conception of the origin of the world,
+the Fall, the Flood, life after death, angels, demons, the devil, the
+Sabbath, a large part of the sacrificial cult, the directions
+concerning the priesthood, the name and worship of Jehovah, and even in
+the monotheistic conception of Deity.  How much truth is there in these
+claims?  Or, to put the question in another form, If the religious
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P165"></A>165}</SPAN>
+ideas expressed in the Old Testament have parallels among nations
+commonly called heathen, and if these extra-biblical ideas cannot be
+explained as dependent on the Bible, does it follow that the ideas of
+the Bible are appropriated from these nations, and if so, what becomes
+of the uniqueness, the sacredness, the inspiration of the Old
+Testament?  In order to answer the question adequately it is necessary
+to consider in detail the most important phases of the religious ideas
+of the Hebrews on the one hand, and of the nations with whom the
+Hebrews came in contact on the other.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Fundamental to all religious thinking is the conception of Deity.  The
+origin of the Babylonian conception of Deity, which shows more striking
+similarities to the ideas of the Old Testament than do the conceptions
+of the other nations above mentioned, belongs to a period of which
+little or nothing is known.  But there are indications that a
+fundamental aspect of the earliest religion of the country was animism,
+that is, the belief that every object was possessed and animated by a
+spirit.  "Life was the only force known to man which explained motion,
+and, conversely, motion was the sign and manifestation of life.  The
+arrow which sped through the air, or the rock which fell from the
+cliff, did so in virtue of their possessing life, or because the motive
+force of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P166"></A>166}</SPAN>
+life lay in some way or other behind them.  The stars,
+which slowly moved through the sky, and the sun, which rose and set day
+by day, were living beings.  It was life which gave them the power of
+movement as it gave the power of movement to man himself, and the
+animals by whom he was surrounded."[<A NAME="chap05fn5text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn5">5</A>]  Besides this belief in animism,
+the Babylonian religion shows evidences of a belief in ghosts that were
+related to the world of the dead.  These ghosts were thought to
+exercise an evil influence upon men and could be cast out only by the
+use of incantations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But, while these elements belonged to the early religion, Babylonian
+religion as it actually meets us even in the earliest inscriptions has
+reached a higher stage of development.  There appear many local
+deities; every center of human habitation had its special patron deity;
+for example, Babylon was the city of Marduk; Nippur, of Enlil; Ur, of
+Sin; Sippara, of Shamash; Cuthah, of Nergal; Asshur, of Ashur; etc.
+These deities are usually associated with natural phenomena; foremost
+among them stand the sun and the moon; but by the side of these many
+other natural objects or forces were personified and deified.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is probable that in the beginning, as the result of limited
+observation and speculation, the number of gods in the Babylonian
+pantheon was relatively small.  However, in the course of time,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P167"></A>167}</SPAN>
+they became greatly multiplied as the result of a wider observation of
+the phenomena of nature, political changes, and theological
+speculation.  Over against this tendency to multiply deities there
+shows itself, in the course of the centuries, a tendency to diminish
+the number of gods, and in the end comparatively few remain, until in
+the late Babylonian period the worship seems to have been confined
+chiefly to Marduk, Nabu, Sin, Shamash, and Ishtar.  Some of the great
+thinkers of Babylonia seem to have gone even so far as to consider the
+various deities manifestation of the one god Marduk.  There is in
+existence a tablet of the Neo-Babylonian period which states that
+Marduk is called Ninib as the possessor of power, Nergal as lord of
+battle, Bel as possessor of dominion, Nabu as lord of business, Sin as
+the illuminator of the night, Shamash as the lord of right, Addu as the
+lord of rain, etc.[<A NAME="chap05fn6text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn6">6</A>]  It is seen, then, that monotheistic tendencies
+are not absent from the Babylonian religion.  But they never go beyond
+the realm of speculation.  "The Babylonians, with all their wonderful
+gifts, were never able to conceive of one god, of one god alone, of one
+god whose very existence makes logically impossible the existence of
+any other deity.  Monotheism transcends the spiritual grasp of the
+Babylonian mind."[<A NAME="chap05fn7text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn7">7</A>]  In the words of Delitzsch, "Notwithstanding all
+this, however, and despite
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P168"></A>168}</SPAN>
+the fact that many liberal and
+enlightened minds openly advocated the doctrine that Nergal and Nebo,
+that the moon-god and the sun-god, the god of thunder, Ramman, and all
+the rest of the Babylonian pantheon, were one in Marduk, the god of
+light, still polytheism, gross polytheism, remained for three thousand
+years the Babylonian state religion&mdash;a sad and significant warning
+against the indolence of men and races in matters of religion, and
+against the colossal power which may be acquired by a strongly
+organized priesthood based upon it."[<A NAME="chap05fn8text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn8">8</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Even the most spiritual expressions of the Babylonian religion, the
+so-called penitential psalms, bear witness to the fact that the writers
+continued to worship many deities.  In one of the most spiritual of
+these psalms, the psalmist prays:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+That the heart anger of my lord be appeased,<BR>
+A god unknown to me be appeased,<BR>
+A goddess unknown to me be appeased,<BR>
+A known and unknown god be appeased,<BR>
+A known and unknown goddess be appeased,<BR>
+That the heart of my god be appeased,<BR>
+The heart of my goddess be appeased,<BR>
+God and goddess, known and unknown, be appeased.[<A NAME="chap05fn9text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn9">9</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Some of the hymns and prayers addressed to certain deities read almost
+as if the authors were monotheists.  But this is due simply to the fact
+that just at the time they are interested in the power or
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P169"></A>169}</SPAN>
+splendor or favor of a specific deity.  Again and again the fact that
+they believe in the existence of other deities, and in their duty to
+pay homage to different deities, crops out.  At no period of the
+religious history of Babylonia is there any indication of a clear and
+well-defined monotheism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In Egypt also a tendency toward monotheism manifested itself,
+especially during the reign of Amenophis IV, soon after B.C. 1400,[<A NAME="chap05fn10text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn10">10</A>]
+that is, during the period when the Hebrews were in Egypt.  He tried to
+do away with the worship of many deities and to establish as the one
+supreme deity the orb of the sun; but after the death of Amenophis, who
+was considered a heretic, the new cult disappeared without exerting any
+noticeable influence on Egyptian religion.  There certainly is no
+evidence that either the Babylonian or the Egyptian monotheistic
+tendencies influenced in any direct way the development of Israel's
+religion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Turning now to the religion of the Old Testament, we soon discover that
+Hebrew religion, including the conception of Deity, passed through
+various stages of development, the earliest of these belonging to the
+period before Moses.  The first thing to be noted about this period is
+that, in spite of the close relation of the ancient Hebrews with
+Babylon, the early Hebrew conception of Deity does not seem to have
+been influenced in any marked manner by that of Babylonia; nor
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P170"></A>170}</SPAN>
+is
+there any indication of Egyptian influence.  On the other hand, the
+oldest Hebrew conceptions show marked similarities with the religion of
+their nomadic neighbors, as reflected, for example, in the oldest
+traditions of the Arab tribes.  This does not mean that an indirect
+influence may not have been exerted by Babylon; indeed, the absence of
+such influence would be very strange in view of the fact that,
+according to Hebrew tradition, the truth of which cannot be doubted,
+the ancestors of the Hebrews came from Babylonia, from the city of Ur,
+the principal center of the worship of the Babylonian moon-god, Sin.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The results of modern investigations into the nature of early Hebrew
+religion may be briefly stated as follows: Like the early Babylonian
+religion, the religion of Israel passed through a stage of animism.  In
+one form this is the belief in the activity of the spirits of recently
+deceased relatives.  But this becomes a religion only when it leads to
+the worship of the departed, that is, ancestor worship, of which there
+is no definite indication in the biblical material at our command.  But
+there is a form of animism of which there are traces in Israel as in
+Babylonia, namely, the worship of spirits that were believed to be the
+inhabitants and possessors of certain objects and places, like trees,
+stones, springs, which thereby assumed a sacred character.  To this
+form of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P171"></A>171}</SPAN>
+religion the name "polydemonism," which means the worship
+of many demons, is ordinarily given.  Demon, however, is to be
+understood here, not in the sense of evil spirit, but simply a divine
+being of an inferior order.  As illustrations of this belief, attention
+may be called to the sacred stone, Bethel, which gave the locality its
+name, "House of God" (Gen. 28. 19), or to the sacred oracular tree at
+Shechem (Gen. 12. 6; Deut. 11. 30), or to the sacred wells at Kadesh
+(Gen. 14. 7) and Beersheba (Gen. 21. 28-33).  In general, it may be
+said that during the pre-Mosaic period the religion of Israel, whatever
+may have been true of isolated individuals, was not essentially
+different from the religious conceptions of the people with which we
+have become better acquainted through modern exploration and
+excavation.[<A NAME="chap05fn11text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn11">11</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another and very different conception appears from the time of the
+exodus on.  The most striking feature of this new conception is that
+the Israelites now worship one God, whom they consider their own
+peculiar Deity, while they look upon themselves as his own peculiar
+people.  True, the earlier conceptions did not disappear entirely or
+immediately; but for the religious leaders there was but one God who
+had a right to demand Israel's loyalty.  Jehovah, or Yahweh, was the
+name of this God, and the religious watchword was, "Jehovah, the God of
+Israel; Israel the people
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P172"></A>172}</SPAN>
+of Jehovah."  Now archeology has shown
+the name "Yahweh" to have been used as a divine name long before the
+time of the exodus; but archæology has also shown that the conception
+of the nature and character of Yahweh held by the religious leaders of
+the Hebrews from the time of Moses on is peculiar to them.  Says R. W.
+Rogers, "There can, therefore, be no escape from the conclusion that
+the divine name 'Yahweh' is not a peculiar possession of the
+Hebrews."[<A NAME="chap05fn12text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn12">12</A>]  Then he continues: "At first sight this may seem like a
+startling robbery of Israel, this taking away from her the divine name
+'Yahweh' as an exclusive possession, but it is not so.  Yahweh himself
+is not taken away: he remains the priceless possession, the chief glory
+of Israel.  It is only the name that is shown to be widespread.  And
+the name matters little.  The great question is, What does this name
+convey?  What is its theological content?  The name came to Israel from
+the outside; but into that vessel a long line of prophets from Moses
+onward poured such a flood of attributes as never a priest in all
+western Asia from Babylonia to the sea ever dreamed of in his highest
+moments of spiritual insight.  In this name and through Israel's
+history God chose to reveal himself to Israel, and by Israel to the
+world.  Therein lies the supreme and lonesome superiority of Israel
+over Babylonia."[<A NAME="chap05fn13text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn13">13</A>]
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P173"></A>173}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Archaeology has revealed the pantheon of Babylonia and Assyria; the
+inscriptions have also set in a clear light the nature and character of
+the gods as conceived by their worshipers.  For example, the gods are
+looked upon as a part of the process of creation, as may be seen from
+the opening lines of the story of Creation:[<A NAME="chap05fn14text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn14">14</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+When no one of the gods had been called into being,<BR>
+And none bore a name, and no destinies were fixed.<BR>
+Then were created the gods in the midst of heaven.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+An idea of the character of these deities may be gathered from the
+description of a heavenly banquet scene in the same poem:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+They made ready the feast, at the banquet [they sat],<BR>
+They ate bread, they mingled the wine.<BR>
+The sweet drink made them drunken ...<BR>
+By drinking they were drunken, their bodies were filled.<BR>
+They shouted aloud, their heart was exalted,<BR>
+Then for Marduk, their avenger, did they decree destiny.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Certainly, not all the religious thinkers of Babylonia held these low
+conceptions.  In some of their prayers and hymns they rise to lofty
+spiritual and ethical conceptions which compare quite favorably with
+expressions found in the Old Testament.  In a hymn addressed to
+Shamash, the sun-god, are found these lines:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+Who plans evil&mdash;his horn thou dost destroy,<BR>
+Whoever in fixing boundaries annuls rights.<BR>
+The unjust judge thou restrainest with force.<BR>
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P174"></A>174}</SPAN>
+Whoever accepts a bribe, who does not judge justly&mdash;on him<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">thou imposest sin.</SPAN><BR>
+But he who does not accept a bribe, who has a care for the<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">oppressed,</SPAN><BR>
+To him Shamash is gracious, his life he prolongs.<BR>
+The judge who renders a just decision<BR>
+Shall end in a palace, the place of princes shall be his dwelling.<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">*&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; *&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; *&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; *&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; *</SPAN><BR>
+The seed of those who act unjustly shall not flourish.<BR>
+What their mouth declares in thy presence<BR>
+Thou shalt burn it up, what they purpose wilt thou annul.<BR>
+Thou knowest their transgressions; the declaration of the<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">wicked thou dost cast aside.</SPAN><BR>
+Every one wherever he may be is in thy care.<BR>
+Thou directest their judgments, the imprisoned dost thou<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">liberate.</SPAN><BR>
+Thou hearest, O Shamash, petition, prayer, and appeal,<BR>
+Humility, prostration, petitioning, and reverence.<BR>
+With loud voice the unfortunate one cries to thee.<BR>
+The weak, the exhausted, the oppressed, the lowly,<BR>
+Mother, wife, maid appeal to thee,<BR>
+He who is removed from his family, he that dwelleth far from<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">his city.[<A NAME="chap05fn15text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn15">15</A>]</SPAN><BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Far be it from the writer to rob the religion of Babylonia of any of
+its glory.  Nevertheless, he ventures to assert without any fear of
+contradiction that we may search the pantheon of Babylon, from one end
+to the other, and we shall not find one god who in nature and character
+can compare with the Jehovah of Israel as proclaimed by the great
+prophets and glorified by the sweet singers of the nation, a God
+"merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abundant in loving-kindness
+and truth."  We may well speak of a "great gulf,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P175"></A>175}</SPAN>
+which is fixed
+between primitive Semitic conceptions of God and the noble spiritual
+views of him set forth under divine illumination by Isaiah."[<A NAME="chap05fn16text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn16">16</A>]  It is
+due to this fundamental difference in the conception of the nature and
+character of Deity that the religion of Israel became "a living and
+ethical power, growing and increasing until Jesus, greatest of the
+prophets, completed the message of his predecessors," and Christianity
+was born.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From the conception of Deity we may pass to a brief consideration of
+religious institutions and beliefs.  One of the most important results
+of recent archæological discoveries has been to show that many of the
+religious rites, customs, and institutions of Babylonia and Assyria, as
+also of Egypt, resemble closely those assigned in the Old Testament to
+the Hebrews.  This cannot appear strange when we remember that Israel
+was a branch of the great Semitic race, which was, at the time of its
+separation from the common stock, in possession of many of the common
+Semitic notions and practices.  It would have been impossible to rid
+the Israelite consciousness of all of these; therefore the religious
+leaders of the Hebrews took the better way of retaining the familiar
+forms and pouring into them a new, higher, and more spiritual
+significance.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One of the earliest religious institutions recognized in the Old
+Testament is the Sabbath.  The
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P176"></A>176}</SPAN>
+very fact that it is mentioned in
+the story of creation shows that, whatever the reason for its
+observance among the Hebrews, it was recognized as a very ancient
+institution.  Has archæology thrown any light on the origin of the
+Sabbath day?[<A NAME="chap05fn17text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn17">17</A>]  In his first lecture on "Babel and Bible," Delitzsch
+answers the question in these words: "There can therefore be scarcely
+the shadow of a doubt that in the last resort we are indebted to this
+ancient nation on the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris for the
+plenitude of blessings that flows from our day of Sabbath, or Sunday,
+rest."[<A NAME="chap05fn18text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn18">18</A>]  This statement was soon criticized, because it seemed to
+give too much credit to the Babylonians, and Delitzsch later modified
+the statement and claimed, simply, that the Hebrew Sabbath ultimately
+is rooted in a Babylonian institution.[<A NAME="chap05fn19text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn19">19</A>]  No exception can be taken
+to this putting of the claim.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+What are the facts in the case?  (1) The Babylonians observed in a
+peculiar way the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth
+days of the month, that is, the days on which the moon entered a new
+phase.  They also observed the nineteenth day of the month, which was
+the forty-ninth day from the beginning of the preceding month.  These
+days were considered unlucky days, on which certain actions had to be
+avoided, at least by important personages, like the king,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P177"></A>177}</SPAN>
+priest,
+and physician.  The prohibition reads: "The shepherd (king) of the
+great nations shall not eat roasted nor smoked meat, not change his
+garment, not put on white raiment, not offer sacrifice; the king shall
+not mount his chariot, as ruler not pronounce judgment; the priest
+shall not give oracles in the secret place; the physician shall not lay
+his hand on the sick, the day being inauspicious for any affair
+whatever."  The Babylonians evidently observed these days by at least
+partial cessation of work, because nothing would prosper anyway on
+those days.  In contrast, it may be well to notice that in the Sabbath
+observance among the early Hebrews the humanitarian element played a
+prominent part.  (2) The name <I>Sha-bat-tu</I> has been found in the
+inscriptions as an interpretation of the phrase, <I>um nuh libbi</I>, which
+means, a day for appeasing the heart (of the deity).  It would seem,
+therefore, that the Babylonian Sabbath was intended to be a day of
+atonement or supplication, which might imply cessation of ordinary
+labor, especially since the word <I>Sha-bat-tu</I> may be identical in
+meaning with <I>gamaru</I>, to complete or finish, which leads naturally to
+the idea of rest, because the work is completed.  (3) There is no
+definite evidence that the five days mentioned were called
+<I>Sha-bat-tu</I>; the name is given rather to the fifteenth day of the
+month, which is the day of the full moon.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P178"></A>178}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+In the light of these facts it is not improbable that there is some
+connection between the Hebrew Sabbath and certain special days among
+the Babylonians; but, as in other cases, the Hebrews have given to the
+adopted institution a new significance.  Some of the changes introduced
+by the Hebrews are: (a) The Hebrews observed every seventh day without
+regard for the month or the year.  The Babylonians observed the
+seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days of each
+month, (b) The motive underlying the observance among the two people
+differs.  The earliest Hebrew legislation (Exod. 23. 12) would seem to
+indicate that humanitarian considerations are responsible for Sabbath
+observance, not religious superstition, (c) The Sabbath law of the
+Hebrews was binding on all.  According to our present knowledge, among
+the Babylonians only the leaders appear to have been affected.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Babylonians, Egyptians, and other ancient peoples had in addition
+to the Sabbath numerous other festivals, and it is not improbable that
+some of the Hebrew festivals are connected with these, though the exact
+relation is not yet determined.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Archaeology has thrown much light on the complicated ceremonial system
+of the Old Testament, though it is an exaggeration to say that, "if we
+want to trace the origin of the late Jewish ceremonial of the Priest
+Code, we must look for
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P179"></A>179}</SPAN>
+it in the cuneiform ritual texts of the
+Babylonians."[<A NAME="chap05fn20text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn20">20</A>]  Attention may be called here to a few of the more
+marked similarities between the Hebrew and Babylonian systems.[<A NAME="chap05fn21text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn21">21</A>]  (1)
+The Babylonian temple closely resembled the temple of Solomon.  Both
+had two courts, chambers for the priests, the sanctuary, and the Holy
+of holies.  Externally, both were mere rectangular boxes, without much
+architectural beauty or variety of design.  It was only in the
+possession of a tower that the Babylonian temple differed from the
+Hebrew, a difference due to a difference in the conception of Deity.
+The temples agreed even in the details of their furniture: the two
+altars of the Babylonian sanctuary are found again in the temple of
+Jerusalem; so also the mercy seat and the table of showbread.  The
+bronze sea of Solomon was modeled after a Babylonian original.  The
+twin pillars, which Solomon erected in the porch of the temple, have
+their counterparts in Babylonian sanctuaries.  Even the sacred ark
+seems to have had a Babylonian origin, though some would trace it to
+Egypt.  (2) Every great sanctuary had its chief priest.  Under him was
+a large number of subordinate priests and temple ministers, such as
+sacrificers, pourers of libations, anointers with oil, bakers,
+chanters, wailers, etc.  Connected with the sanctuaries were also the
+prophets, augurs, soothsayers, necromancers, etc.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P180"></A>180}</SPAN>
+Though not all
+these classes of religious workers are found in connection with the
+Jewish sanctuaries, the chief priest and his subordinates are found
+there as well as in Babylon.  (3) Similarities in the details of the
+sacrificial system may be noted.  Libations were poured out before the
+deities, consisting originally, probably, of pure water, to which was
+subsequently added wine, made either from the palm or the vine.  All
+the first-fruits of the cultivated land were offered to the god; milk
+and butter and oil, dates and vegetables were given in abundance.  So
+too were spices and incense, brought from the southern coast of Arabia,
+the corn that was grown in the fields, garlic and other herbs from the
+garden, and honey from the hive.  Annual sacrifices were not forgotten.
+Oxen and calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, fish and certain
+kinds of birds, were slain upon the altar.  There are traces of human
+sacrifice, but, as among the Hebrews, the practice disappeared at an
+early date.  "Babylonia," says Sayce, "was the inventor of the
+tithe,"[<A NAME="chap05fn22text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn22">22</A>] which was paid by all classes, even the king.  One of the
+last acts recorded of the crown prince, Belshazzar, is the payment of a
+tithe, forty-seven shekels in amount, due from his sister to the temple
+of the sun-god at Sippara.  The daily sacrifice was a fixed custom.
+Several of the technical terms of the Old Testament are
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P181"></A>181}</SPAN>
+found
+also in Assyrian.  For example: <I>torah</I>, law, has its counterpart in
+the Assyrian <I>tertu</I>; the biblical <I>kipper</I>, atonement, is the Assyrian
+<I>kuppuru</I>; <I>korban</I>, gift or offering, is the Assyrian <I>kurbannu</I>.  The
+names for animal sacrifice, <I>zibu</I>, for meal offering, <I>manitu</I>, and
+for freewill offering, <I>nidbu</I>, all are found in their Hebrew forms in
+the Old Testament.  As in the Hebrew legislation, a distinction is made
+between the offerings of the rich and the poor, and the sacrificial
+animal was to be without blemish.  The Babylonian priest retained
+certain parts for himself, which was also the custom among the Hebrews
+(Deut. 18. 3), though the parts retained are not the same in the two
+cases.  A ritual tablet shows that Babylonians sprinkled the blood of
+the lamb that was killed at the gate of the palace on the lintels, on
+the figures flanking the entrances, and on the doorposts to the right
+and the left, which has its parallel in the Hebrew passover ceremony.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These illustrations, which by no means exhaust the list, reveal close
+similarities between the Hebrew ceremonial and that of the inhabitants
+of the Euphrates-Tigris valley, and the more we know of the Babylonian
+ritual, the more extensive and striking these resemblances become.
+They both start from the same principles and agree in many of their
+details.  Between them, however, lies that deep gulf which separates
+the religion of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P182"></A>182}</SPAN>
+Israel from that of Babylonia as a whole.  The
+one is monotheistic, the other polytheistic.  Upon the basis of this
+fundamental difference the religious leaders of Israel gave to the
+similar forms adopted from other nations a new and deeper meaning and
+significance.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Like the Hebrew religion, the religion of Babylonia has its guardian
+angels.[<A NAME="chap05fn23text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn23">23</A>]  The Babylonian rulers stood in need of hosts of messengers
+to bear their behests into all quarters of their dominions.  In a
+similar manner, it was thought, the gods needed their heavenly hosts to
+carry out their commissions.  These angels are represented under
+various forms, but all of them are equipped with wings, so as to be
+able to carry upon the winds of heaven the commands of the gods to the
+children of men.  Sometimes they are represented with eagles' heads,
+perhaps to indicate that they possess the keenness of vision and the
+rapidity of flight of an eagle; sometimes they have human countenances
+to denote their human intelligence.  Frequently they appear as hybrid
+figures, with the body of a lion or bull, the wings of an eagle, and
+the head of a man, symbolizing strength, swiftness, and intelligence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The duties of these angels are manifold.  Those placed at the entrances
+of palaces or temples are to guard those entrances.  The peculiar
+relations of angels to men are suggested, for example, by
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P183"></A>183}</SPAN>
+a
+letter of a Babylonian officer to the queen mother.  He writes: "Mother
+of the king, my lady, be comforted.  Bel's and Nabu's angel of mercy
+attends on the king of the land, my lord."  A letter addressed to
+Esarhaddon contains these words: "May the great gods send a guardian of
+salvation and life to stand by the king my lord."  And Nabopolassar,
+the founder of the Chaldean empire, and father of Nebuchadrezzar,
+writes: "To lordship over land and people, Marduk called me.  He sent a
+cherub of mercy to attend on me, and everything I undertook he aided."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Alongside of these guardian angels there appear evil spirits and
+demons.  "These demons were everywhere: they lurked in every corner,
+watching for their prey.  The city streets knew their malevolent
+presence, the rivers, the seas, the tops of the mountains.  They
+appeared sometimes as serpents gliding noiselessly upon their victims;
+as birds, horrid of mien, flying resistlessly to destroy or afflict; as
+beings in human form, grotesque, malformed, awe-inspiring through their
+hideousness.  To these demons all sorts of misfortunes were ascribed:
+toothache, headache, broken bones, raging fever, outbursts of anger, of
+jealousy.  Did a man lie wasting of disease and torn of pain, a demon
+was thought to be within him, the disease being but a manifestation of
+his malevolence.  There could be no return of the precious boon of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P184"></A>184}</SPAN>
+good health until the demon was exorcised, and it was to the
+exorcising of demons that so large, so disproportionate a part of the
+religious literature of Babylon and Nineveh was devoted."[<A NAME="chap05fn24text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn24">24</A>]
+Sometimes demons are referred to in a manner which shows that the
+conception in Job 1. 6ff., Zech. 3. 1ff., of the Adversary, or the
+Satan, is closely related to the Babylonian conception of a demon as
+accuser, persecutor, or oppressor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The vision of the Old Testament is largely confined to this world.
+There is little hope for a man after he passes away from this earth.
+Indeed, there are some passages which would seem to imply the thought
+that with death existence came entirely to an end.  Compare, for
+example, Psa. 39.13:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+Oh, spare me, that I may recover strength<BR>
+Before I go hence, and be no more;<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+or Job 14. 7-12:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+For there is hope of a tree,<BR>
+If it be cut down, that it will sprout again,<BR>
+And that the tender branch thereof will not cease.<BR>
+Though the root thereof wax old in the earth,<BR>
+And the stock thereof die in the ground;<BR>
+Yet through the scent of water it will bud,<BR>
+And put forth boughs like a plant.<BR>
+But man dieth, and is laid low;<BR>
+Yea, man giveth up the ghost, and where is he?<BR>
+As the waters fail from the sea,<BR>
+And the river wasteth and drieth up;<BR>
+So man lieth down and riseth not:<BR>
+Till the heavens be no more, they shall not awake,<BR>
+Nor be roused out of their sleep.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P185"></A>185}</SPAN>
+These are expressions of deepest despondency and despair over a
+life soon ended, never to be lived again here upon earth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+However, by far the greatest number of Old Testament passages dealing
+with the subject express a belief in a continuous existence after death
+in Sheol.  Sheol is the place of departed personalities; the
+generations of one's forefathers are there: he who dies is gathered
+unto his fathers; the tribal divisions of one's race are there: the
+dead is gathered unto his people; and if his descendants have died
+before him, they are there, and he goes down to them, as Jacob to his
+son (Gen. 37. 35: "For I will go down to Sheol to my son mourning"),
+and David to his child (2 Sam. 12. 23: "I shall go to him, and he shall
+not return to me").
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There are only a few passages which go beyond this, expressing a hope
+of immortality or a resurrection.  There is, for example, the hope
+expressed in Psa. 16. 8-11:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+I have set Jehovah always before me:<BR>
+Because he is at my right hand, I shall not be moved.<BR>
+Therefore my heart is glad, and my glory rejoiceth:<BR>
+My flesh also shall dwell in safety.<BR>
+For thou will not leave my soul to Sheol;<BR>
+Neither wilt thou suffer thy holy one to see corruption.<BR>
+Thou wilt show me the path of life:<BR>
+In thy presence is fullness of joy;<BR>
+In thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The hope expressed here is not a hope of a resurrection, but, rather, a
+hope that the psalmist will
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P186"></A>186}</SPAN>
+be delivered from death and live in
+fellowship with God forevermore.  There are other passages which
+recognize the impossibility of escaping death, but express a hope that
+there will be a resurrection from death.  The most definite Old
+Testament teaching of a resurrection is in Dan. 12. 2, "And many of
+them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to
+everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These lofty hopes are peculiar to Israel.  But Israel's conception of
+Sheol shows very striking resemblances with the Babylonian conception.
+The descriptions found in Job, in the Psalms, in Isaiah, in Ezekiel and
+elsewhere, are hardly to be distinguished from those found in
+Babylonian literature.  The opening lines of Ishtar's descent into
+Sheol read:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+To the land from which there is no return, the home of darkness,<BR>
+Ishtar, the daughter of Sin, turned her mind,<BR>
+Yea, the daughter of Sin set her mind to go;<BR>
+To the house of gloom, the dwelling of Irkalla,<BR>
+To the house from which those who enter depart not,<BR>
+The road from whose path there is no return;<BR>
+To the house where they who enter are deprived of light;<BR>
+A place where dust is their nourishment, clay their food;<BR>
+The light they behold not, in thick darkness they dwell;<BR>
+They are clad like bats in a garb of wings;<BR>
+On door and bolt the dust is laid.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Compare with this Job 10. 21, 22:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+Before I go, whence I shall not return,<BR>
+To the land of darkness, yea deepest darkness,<BR>
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P187"></A>187}</SPAN>
+The land dark as midnight,<BR>
+Of deepest darkness without any order,<BR>
+And where the light is as midnight;<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+or Job 7. 9, 10:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+He that goeth down to Sheol shall come up no more,<BR>
+He shall return no more to his house,<BR>
+Neither shall his place know him any more.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Other similarities may be noted: the Hebrew Sheol, like the Babylonian,
+was deep down in the earth; it is pictured as a cavern; silence reigns
+supreme, etc.  There is but one explanation for these similarities:
+When the ancestors of the Hebrews left their homes in the Euphrates
+valley they carried with them the traditions, beliefs, and customs
+current in that district.  Under new surroundings, and especially under
+the influence of their higher religion, new features were added and old
+conceptions were transformed.  But these changes were not able to
+obscure entirely the character impressed upon the older beliefs by
+contact with Babylon.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Striking similarities are found also between the legal systems of
+Babylonia and Israel.  In the light of recent discoveries the study of
+ancient law begins to-day, not with the legal systems of Rome, or of
+Greece, or of Israel, but with the laws of early Babylonia.  Of the
+beginning of the Babylonian legal system we know nothing except a few
+popular traditions, which trace it back to some deity.  It is clear,
+however, that long
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P188"></A>188}</SPAN>
+centuries before the time of Moses or Minos or
+Romulus the people living in the lower Euphrates-Tigris valley
+developed legal codes of a high and complex order.  In the legal phrase
+books of the later scribes there have been preserved seven so-called
+Sumerian family laws, written in the language of the people occupying
+the southern part of the Euphrates-Tigris valley before it came under
+the sway of the Semites.  These laws, in theme and literary form
+resembling later Babylonian and early Hebrew laws, were probably in
+existence in the fourth millennium B.C.; some of them may go even
+farther back.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+By far the most important Babylonian legal code now known is the
+so-called Code of Hammurabi.[<A NAME="chap05fn25text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn25">25</A>]  Hammurabi was known to Assyriologists
+long before the finding of his legal code.  He reigned in Babylon about
+B.C. 2000, was the sixth king of the first Babylonian dynasty, and the
+first permanently to unite the numerous small city states under one
+ruler.  He may, therefore, be called the founder of the Babylonian
+empire.  From his numerous letters and inscriptions, as also from other
+documents coming from the same period, he was known as a great
+conqueror and statesman, interested in the highest welfare of his
+people, and persistently laboring for the improvement of their
+conditions.  The Bible student has a special interest in Hammurabi,
+however, because in all
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P189"></A>189}</SPAN>
+probability he is no other than the
+Amraphel of Gen. 14. 1.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The monument on which the code is engraved was found during the winter
+1901-1902 by a French excavator in the acropolis of Susa, the scene of
+the book of Esther.  It is a block of black diorite, about eight feet
+in height.  When found it was in three pieces, which, however, were
+easily joined.  On the obverse is a bas relief representing the king as
+receiving the ruler's staff and ring from the sun-god Shamash, "the
+judge of heaven and earth."  Then follow on the obverse sixteen columns
+of writing, containing 1,114 lines.  There were five more columns on
+this side, but they were erased and the stone repolished, probably by
+the Elamite conqueror who carried the monument to Susa.  On the reverse
+are twenty-eight columns with more than 2,500 lines of inscription.
+The English Assyriologist, C. H. W. Johns, estimates that originally
+the inscription contained forty-nine columns, 4,000 lines, and about
+8,000 words.  About 800 lines are taken up by the prologue and
+epilogue, setting forth the king's titles, his glory, the extent of his
+rule, his care for his subjects, and devotion to his gods.  The
+inscription opens with a statement of his call by the gods to be the
+ruler of Babylon: "When the lofty Anu, king of the Anunaki, and Bel,
+lord of heaven and earth, he who determines the destiny
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P190"></A>190}</SPAN>
+of the
+land, committed the rule of all mankind to Marduk, the chief son of Ea;
+when they made him great among the Igigi; when they pronounced the
+lofty name of Babylon, when they made it famous among the quarters of
+the world, and in its midst established an everlasting kingdom, whose
+foundations were firm as heaven and earth&mdash;at that time, Ami and Bel
+called me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, the worshiper of the gods, to
+cause justice to prevail in the land, to destroy the wicked and the
+evil, to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak, to go forth like
+the sun over the blackhead race, to enlighten the land and to further
+the welfare of the people."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+According to the closing statement of the prologue he faithfully
+executed this commission: "When Marduk sent me to rule the people and
+to bring help to the country, I established law and justice in the land
+and promoted the welfare of the people" (V. 14-21).  To better care for
+the welfare of the people he set up the code of laws.  In column XLI, a
+part of the epilogue, he says: "Let any oppressed man, who has a cause,
+come before my image as king of righteousness!  Let him read the
+inscription on my monument!  Let him give heed to my weighty words!
+And may my monument enlighten him as to his cause and may he understand
+his case!  May he set his heart at ease!" (1-19.)  He recognizes the
+value
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P191"></A>191}</SPAN>
+of his law code and advises his successors on the throne to
+make good use of it: "In the days that are yet to come, for all future
+time, may the king who is in the land observe the words of
+righteousness which I have written upon my monument!  May he not alter
+the judgments of the land which I have pronounced, or the decisions of
+the country which I have rendered!  May he not efface my statues!  If
+that man have wisdom, if he wish to give his land good government, let
+him give attention to the words which I have written upon my monument!
+And may this monument enlighten him as to procedure and administration,
+the judgments which I have pronounced, and the judgments which I have
+rendered for the land!  And let him rightly rule his blackhead people;
+let him pronounce judgments for them and render for them decisions!
+Let him root out the wicked and evildoer from the land!  Let him
+promote the welfare of his people!" (59-94.)
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The epilogue closes with a blessing upon the king who will observe the
+laws, and curses upon him who will disregard or alter them (XLII-XLIV).
+The pronouncement of blessings is very brief; the curses are reiterated
+in various forms, and numerous gods and goddesses are appealed to by
+name to destroy the evildoer and his reign.  The section begins (XLII,
+2-49): "If that man pay attention to my words which I have written
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P192"></A>192}</SPAN>
+upon my monument, do not efface my judgments, do not overrule my
+words, and do not alter my statues, then will Shamash prolong that
+man's reign, as he has mine, who am king of righteousness, that he may
+rule his people in righteousness."  It continues: "If that man do not
+pay attention to my words which I have written upon my monument; if he
+forget my curses and do not fear the curse of god; if he abolish the
+judgments which I have formulated, overrule my words, alter my statues,
+efface my name written thereon and write his own name; on account of
+these curses commission another to do so&mdash;as for that man, be he king
+or lord, or priestking or commoner, whoever he may be, may the great
+god, the father of the gods, who has ordained my reign, take from him
+the glory of his sovereignty, may he break his scepter and curse his
+fate!"
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Between the prologue and the epilogue is the law code proper.
+Originally there appear to have been 282 separate enactments (this is
+the estimate of the French Assyriologist, Father Scheil, who first
+edited the code, and is commonly accepted as correct); of these 66-99
+are now missing as a result of the erasure to which reference has been
+made.  The code covers a variety of topics.  Laws dealing with the same
+subject are ordinarily grouped together; sometimes the principle of
+arrangement is the class or profession concerned.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P193"></A>193}</SPAN>
+A brief
+outline will give at least a general notion of its contents: 1, 2,
+False accusation of a crime; 3, 4, False witness and bribery; 5,
+Alteration of judgment by a judge; 6-8, Theft; 9-13, Concealing of
+stolen property; 14, Kidnapping; 15-20, Assisting in the escape of
+slaves; 21-25, Burglary and brigandage; 26-41, Rights and duties of
+officers, constables, and taxgatherers; 42-52, Renting of fields for
+cultivation; 53-56, Care of dykes and canals; 57, 58, Shepherds
+allowing their sheep to pasture on the fields of another; 59, Unlawful
+cutting down of trees; 60-65, Duties of gardeners; 66-99, (lost);
+100-107, Relation of merchants to their agents; 108-111, Regulations
+concerning wine-sellers, always women.  It may be interesting to note
+that with them the law was very severe.  Of the three crimes
+condemned&mdash;minor crimes at that&mdash;one is to be punished by throwing the
+wine-seller into the water, the second by putting her to death, the
+third by burning her.  112, Loss of goods intrusted for transportation;
+113-119, Securing settlement for debts; 120-126, Liability for
+deposits; 127, Slander; 128, Marriage contract; 129-132, Adultery,
+rape, and suspected unchastity; 133-143, Separation and divorce;
+144-149, Concubines; 150-152, Marriage dowry; 153, Murder of husband
+for the sake of another; 154-158, Illegitimate sexual intercourse;
+159-161, Breach of promise; 162-164, Disposition of dowry after the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P194"></A>194}</SPAN>
+death of the wife; 165-177, Inheritance of sons in polygamous
+relations; 178-182, Inheritance of priestesses; 183, 184, Inheritance
+of daughters of concubines; 185-194, Treatment of adopted children;
+195-214, Offenses against limb and life; 215-225, Operations by doctors
+and veterinary surgeons.  For example, "If a physician cause a man a
+severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause the man's death, or, in
+opening an abscess of a man with a bronze lancet, destroy the man's
+eye, they shall cut off his fingers" (218).  226, 227, Unlawful
+branding of slaves; 228-233, Liability of negligent builders.  For
+example, "If a builder build a house for a man, and do not make its
+construction firm, and the house which he has built collapse and cause
+the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to
+death" (229).  234-252, Hired animals&mdash;the injuries they cause or
+suffer; 253-277, Rights and duties of workmen; 278-282, Selling and
+treatment of slaves.  In addition to this very complete code there is a
+vast amount of information from both early and late periods concerning
+legal practices, to be gathered from the thousands of tablets recording
+business and legal transactions of various sorts: Marriage and dowry
+contracts, partnership agreements, records of debts and promissory
+notes, leases of land, houses, or slaves; records of sales of all kinds
+of property, mortgages, documents
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P195"></A>195}</SPAN>
+granting the power of attorney;
+concerning adoption, divorce, bankruptcy, inheritance&mdash;in short, almost
+every imaginable kind of contract.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Over against this complex legal system of Babylonia we may place the
+legal literature of the Hebrews.[<A NAME="chap05fn26text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn26">26</A>]  Anyone who approaches the study
+of Hebrew laws is met by two difficulties.  In the first place, the
+legal portions do not form separate books, but are embodied in writings
+belonging to other kinds of literature; in the second place, there is a
+lack of system in the arrangement of the laws.  The abrupt transitions
+from one subject to another are almost as marked as they are in the
+book of Proverbs.  "Civil and ceremonial, criminal and humane, secular
+and religious, ancient and late laws and precedents are all mingled
+together, with little trace of systematic arrangement."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The legal literature is found mainly in the books of Exodus, Leviticus,
+Numbers, and Deuteronomy; outside the Pentateuch the most important
+piece of legislation is Ezek. 40-48.  This legal material may be
+separated from its surroundings and arranged by itself.  Indeed, this
+has been done, and modern scholars are quite generally agreed that the
+Pentateuch contains several distinct legal codes belonging to different
+periods in the history of Israel and reflecting different stages of
+political, social, and religious development: (1) The Decalogue; (2)
+the Book of the Covenant; (3) the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P196"></A>196}</SPAN>
+Deuteronomic Code; (4) the Code
+of Holiness; (5) the Priestly Code.  Of these five codes the last two
+are almost entirely religious and ceremonial, and as the similarities
+between the Babylonian and Hebrew ceremonial have already been pointed
+out, they need not be considered in this connection.  The other three
+contain much legislation concerning social, civil, and criminal
+relations, just like the Babylonian legal provisions, and therefore may
+be considered somewhat more in detail.  In connection with the
+Deuteronomic Code, however, it may be noted that three fourths of the
+laws in the earlier codes are reproduced in some form in Deuteronomy;
+so that for purposes of comparison, the Deuteronomic Code does not
+furnish many new elements.  It is seen, therefore, that for a
+comparative study, the Code of Hammurabi on the one hand, and the
+Decalogue and the Book of the Covenant on the other, furnish the most
+important material; and since the Code of Hammurabi contains no
+religious and ceremonial provisions, the material of that nature in the
+Hebrew codes may be omitted in this connection.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+That there exist similarities between the legislations of the two
+nations even a superficial reading will show.  One is immediately
+struck, for example, by the similarity in the application of the <I>lex
+talionis</I>: Ham. 196, "If a man destroy the eye of another man, they
+shall destroy his eye"; 197, "If one
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P197"></A>197}</SPAN>
+break a man's bone, they
+shall break his bone"; 200, "If a man knock out the tooth of a man of
+his own rank, they shall knock out his tooth." With this compare Exod.
+21. 23-25, "Thou shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for
+tooth, burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe"; or
+Deut. 19. 21, "Thine eyes shall not pity; life shall go for life, eye
+for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot."  Compare also
+Lev. 24. 19, 20, "If a man cause a blemish in his neighbor; as he hath
+done, so shall it be done to him: breach for breach; eye for eye, tooth
+for tooth; as he hath caused a blemish in a man, so shall it be
+rendered to him."  This principle is applied very extensively in both
+codes in providing restitution for damage done.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The use of "the oath of innocence" is also enjoined in both codes: Ham.
+249, "If a man hire an ox and a god strike it and it die, the man who
+hired the ox shall swear before god and shall go free."  With this may
+be compared Exod. 22. 10, 11, "If a man deliver unto his neighbor an
+ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or any beast to keep, and it die, or be
+hurt, or driven away, no man seeing it, the oath of Jehovah shall be
+between them both, whether he hath not put his hand unto his neighbor's
+goods, and the owner thereof shall accept it, and he shall not make
+restitution."  The illustrations might be multiplied manifold.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P198"></A>198}</SPAN>
+Jeremias points out twenty-four similarities between the Code of
+Hammurabi and the Book of the Covenant alone;[<A NAME="chap05fn27text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn27">27</A>] which number is
+greatly increased if the comparison is extended so as to include the
+entire Pentateuch.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The spirit permeating the two systems is one of humaneness and
+kindness.  Hammurabi describes himself as a shepherd chosen by the gods
+to care for his people, to lead them into safe pastures and to make
+them dwell in peace and security.  He compiled the code, "that the
+great should not oppress the weak; to counsel the widow and orphan, to
+render judgment and to decide the decisions of the land, and to succor
+the injured."  This is the same spirit that permeates the Pentateuchal
+legislation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The picture at the head of the code, representing Hammurabi standing
+before the sun-god Shamash, "the supreme judge of heaven and earth," is
+very suggestive, for it reminds one of the narrative in Exodus which
+represents Moses as receiving the Hebrew laws directly from Jehovah.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Certainly, there are also differences between the two systems; and this
+is only what we should expect, since the civilization of Babylon was
+far in advance of and much more complex than that of the Israelites,
+even during the period of the latter's highest development.  Besides,
+the lower religious conceptions would inevitably influence the
+legislation.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P199"></A>199}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Attention may be called also to some similarities between the Decalogue
+and certain requirements in Babylonia, the existence of which is
+implied in an incantation[<A NAME="chap05fn28text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn28">28</A>] in which these questions are asked: Has
+he broken into the house of his neighbor?  Has he approached the wife
+of his neighbor?  Has he spilled the blood of his neighbor?  Has he
+grasped the garment of his neighbor?  These questions would seem to
+imply the existence of laws like these: Thou shalt not break into the
+house of thy neighbor; Thou shalt not approach the wife of thy
+neighbor; Thou shalt not spill the blood of thy neighbor; Thou shalt
+not grasp the garment of thy neighbor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In view of all these similarities, the question naturally arises
+whether the Babylonian legal system exerted any influence upon the
+lawmakers of the Hebrews, for the resemblances are too close to be
+explained entirely on the basis of coincidence.  Those who admit some
+relation between the two legislations are not in agreement as to the
+nature of the connection.  Some hold that there is direct dependence;
+that the author or authors of the laws of the Pentateuch was or were
+acquainted with the laws of Hammurabi, and made these laws the basis of
+the Hebrew legislative system.  The possibility of such dependence
+cannot be denied.  Surely, an acquaintance with the Code of Hammurabi
+in the Arabian
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P200"></A>200}</SPAN>
+desert or in Palestine at the time of the exodus
+or later cannot appear strange in view of the evidence of the
+Tel-el-Amarna tablets, showing that some time before the exodus
+intercourse between Babylon and the West was frequent; that religious,
+political, and literary influence was widespread, and that the language
+of Babylon was the <I>lingua franca</I> throughout Canaan.  On the other
+hand, there are those who believe that the parallels and analogies
+between the two codes are due to the common Semitic origin of the two
+systems.  The Babylonians and the Hebrews were Semites, originally
+dwelling in a common home.  When they left this home they carried with
+them their common traditions, laws, customs, and practices.  In their
+new homes they developed them and impressed upon them their own
+individuality.  The result among the Hebrews, determined in a large
+measure by their peculiar religion, is seen in the legislation of the
+Pentateuch, while the outcome in Babylon is best represented by the
+Code of Hammurabi.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Which of these two explanations is correct it may be impossible to say
+with absolute certainty.  To me it seems that both contain elements of
+truth.  Sometimes the one, sometimes the other may be correct, while in
+other cases the similarities may be due to coincidence.  In any case,
+the value of the Pentateuchal legislation remains
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P201"></A>201}</SPAN>
+unaffected, for
+it depends, not upon its origin or process of growth, but, rather, upon
+its inherent spirit and character.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Attention may further be called to the existence in Babylonia of
+stories showing almost startling resemblances to the accounts of the
+creation of the world, of the origin of man and of sin, of a Deluge,
+and other narratives contained in the first eleven chapters of the book
+of Genesis.  Several distinct creation stories, originating in
+different religious centers, have been handed down.  The most
+remarkable of these, called <I>Enuma elish</I> (when above), from its
+opening words, has been deciphered from tablets found in the library of
+Ashurbanipal in the ruins of Nineveh.  These tablets represent a copy
+made in the seventh century B.C.  The time of the composition, or
+compilation of the story, is not known.  However, pictorial
+representations of some of the scenes in the epic, and allusions in
+other literary productions whose dates can be fixed, make it certain
+that the story, or at least the most important component elements of
+the story, existed before B.C. 2000.  In its present form it belongs to
+a period later than the elevation of Babylon to be the national center,
+which took place under Hammurabi, about B.C. 2000, for the chief place
+is assigned to Marduk, the god of Babylon.[<A NAME="chap05fn29text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn29">29</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Echoes of this story are found in several Old
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P202"></A>202}</SPAN>
+Testament passages,
+especially in the poetic and prophetic writings.  In these Jehovah is
+represented as having contended with a great primeval monster, called
+in some passages Rahab, in others Leviathan, or Dragon.  This being
+seems to symbolize chaos, or to personify the primeval ocean, which
+existed when the process of creation began.  In the conflict between
+Jehovah and this monster the hostile creature and its helpers were
+overthrown, after which the heavens and the earth were created.  A few
+of these passages may be quoted:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+O Jehovah God of hosts,<BR>
+Who is a mighty one, like unto thee, O Jehovah?<BR>
+And thy faithfulness is round about thee.<BR>
+Thou rulest the pride of the sea:<BR>
+When the waves thereof arise, thou stillest them.<BR>
+<I>Thou hast broken Rahab in pieces, as one that is slain;</I><BR>
+<I>Thou hast scattered thine enemies with the arm of thy strength.</I><BR>
+The heavens are thine, the earth also is thine:<BR>
+The world and the fullness thereof, thou hast founded them,<BR>
+The north and the south, thou hast created them (Psa. 89. 8-12).<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Rahab is a reflection of the Babylonian Tiamat; Jehovah takes the place
+of the Babylonian god, Marduk, the conqueror of Tiamat; the <I>enemies</I>
+are the <I>helpers</I> of Tiamat mentioned in the Babylonian poem.  The
+order of events is the same in the two accounts: first the conflict,
+then creation.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+He stirreth up the sea with his power,<BR>
+And by his understanding <I>he smiteth through Rahab.</I><BR>
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P203"></A>203}</SPAN>
+By his Spirit the heavens are garnished;<BR>
+<I>His hand hath pierced the swift serpent</I> (Job 26. 12, 13).<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+God will not withdraw his anger;<BR>
+<I>The helpers of Rahab do stoop under him</I> (Job 9. 13).<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+Yet God is my King of old,<BR>
+Working salvation in the midst of the earth.<BR>
+Thou didst divide the sea by thy strength:<BR>
+<I>Thou brakest the heads of the sea-monsters in the waters.</I><BR>
+<I>Thou brakest the heads of leviathan in pieces;</I><BR>
+Thou gavest him to be food to the people inhabiting the wilderness.<BR>
+Thou didst cleave fountain and flood:<BR>
+Thou driedst up mighty rivers.<BR>
+The day is thine, the night also is thine:<BR>
+Thou hast prepared the light and the sun.<BR>
+Thou hast set all the borders of the earth:<BR>
+Thou hast made summer and winter (Psa. 74. 12-17).<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+The similarities between the Babylonian story called <I>Enuma elish</I> and
+the narrative of creation in Gen. 1 are especially pronounced: (1) Both
+accounts recognize a time when all was chaos.  In the Babylonian
+conception this chaos is personified in Tiamat; in Gen. 1. 2 occurs the
+word <I>tehom</I>, translated "deep," which is the same as Tiamat, changed
+but slightly in passing from one language to the other.  (2) In Genesis
+light dispels darkness and order follows; in the Babylonian account,
+Marduk, the god of light, overcomes the demon of chaos and darkness.
+(3) The second act of creation is the making of the firmament, which
+"divided the waters which were under the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P204"></A>204}</SPAN>
+firmament from the
+waters which were above the firmament" (Gen. 1. 6-8); in the Babylonian
+poem the body of Tiamat is divided and one half becomes the firmament
+to keep the heavenly waters in place.  (4) The third and fourth acts of
+creation in the Hebrew story are the creation of earth and the
+beginning of vegetation (Gen. 1. 9-13); the corresponding Babylonian
+story has been lost, but it seems quite probable that these acts were
+described in the same order on the fifth tablet.  Berosus, in his
+summary of the Babylonian account, says that Bel formed the earth out
+of one half of Omorka's body&mdash;Omorka is probably a corruption of
+<I>Ummu-Khubur</I>, a title of Tiamat&mdash;and as in every instance where the
+narrative of Berosus has been tested it has proved to be correct, we
+may assume that in this also he gives a correct reproduction of the
+Babylonian tradition.  Moreover, at the beginning of the seventh tablet
+Marduk is hailed as "bestower of fruitfulness," "founder of
+agriculture," "creator of grain and plants," he "who caused the green
+herb to spring up."  (5) The fifth act of creation is the making of the
+heavenly bodies (Gen. 1. 14-19).  With this the Babylonian parallel
+shows close similarities, for it states that Marduk
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+Made the stations for the great gods,<BR>
+The stars, their images, as the constellations he fixed,<BR>
+He ordained the year, marked off its divisions.[<A NAME="chap05fn30text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn30">30</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P205"></A>205}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+(6) The sixth and seventh acts of creation were the creation of fishes
+and birds and of land animals (Gen. 1. 20-25): the Babylonian parallels
+in <I>Enuma elish</I> are wanting at present; but Berosus hints that they
+were created at the same time as man, so that it is probable that the
+account of these acts of creation appeared somewhere in the lost
+portions of the fifth or sixth tablet.  From allusions in other
+writings we learn that Marduk was looked upon as the creator of the
+animals and other living creatures of the field.  (7) The eighth act of
+creation, that of man (Gen. 1. 26-31), finds its parallel upon the
+sixth tablet:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+When Marduk heard the word of the gods<BR>
+His heart moved him and he devised a cunning plan.<BR>
+He opened his mouth and unto Ea he spoke,<BR>
+That which he had conceived in his heart he made known unto him.<BR>
+"My blood will I take and bone will I fashion,<BR>
+I shall make man that man may ...<BR>
+I shall create man, who shall inhabit the earth,<BR>
+That the service of the gods may be established and that<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">their shrines may be built."[<A NAME="chap05fn31text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn31">31</A>]</SPAN><BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+In order to estimate rightly the relations between the Babylonian and
+Hebrew accounts the differences between the two must also be noted.  To
+begin with, the order of the separate acts of creation is not quite the
+same.  For example, in the Babylonian account, the creation of the
+heavenly bodies follows immediately upon the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P206"></A>206}</SPAN>
+making of the
+firmament, while in the Hebrew story it follows the making of the earth
+and the springing up of vegetation.  Certainly, this difference is of
+no special significance, and the change may easily be explained as due
+to the desire of the Hebrew writer to crowd the creative acts into the
+six working days of the week.  The real difference is more fundamental
+and appears especially in the conception of the nature and character of
+Deity.  The Babylonian story opens with these words:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+When above the heaven was not named<BR>
+And beneath the earth bore no name,<BR>
+And the primeval Apsu, who begat them,<BR>
+And Mummu-Tiamat, the mother of them all&mdash;<BR>
+Their waters were mingled together,<BR>
+And no reed was formed, no marsh seen,<BR>
+<I>When no one of the gods had been called into being,</I><BR>
+[And] none bore a name, and no destinies [were fixed],<BR>
+<I>Then were created the gods in the midst of</I> [<I>heaven</I>].<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Compare with this the simple, yet majestic, conception, "In the
+beginning God created the heavens and the earth."  In one case many
+gods, in the other one God almighty; in one case the gods are a part of
+the process of creation, in the other the uncreated God is in the
+beginning.  Genesis presents God as almighty, but also as kind,
+beneficent, loving; Marduk, the Babylonian creator, is represented as a
+great hero, but exceedingly selfish.  He undertakes the mighty task of
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P207"></A>207}</SPAN>
+overcoming Tiamat only after making arrangements for a suitable
+reward.  The description of the heavenly banquet scene, to which
+reference has been made earlier in the chapter, implies a conception of
+the character of the gods which is separated by an impassable gulf from
+the Old Testament ideal.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No one can read with an unbiased mind the two accounts without
+realizing the great differences between the mythological, polytheistic
+account of the Babylonians and the simple, solemn, sublime,
+monotheistic picture in Genesis.  The soberness, the dignity, the
+simplicity of the Hebrew account lift it far above its Babylonian
+counterpart.  From it the crude nature myths have all been stripped
+away.  No drunken gods hold revels in its solemn lines.  Above and
+behind and in all is one righteous and beneficent God.  In this sublime
+ethical monotheism the Hebrew story rises infinitely above the story
+that originated in the Euphrates-Tigris valley.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another Babylonian tradition, the close relation of which to the
+biblical account has long been recognized, is the story of the Deluge.
+In its cuneiform text it was first discovered on fragments of tablets
+brought from the library of Ashurbanipal.  But that the Babylonians
+possessed a story of the Flood was known before from an outline
+preserved by Berosus.  The tradition brought to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P208"></A>208}</SPAN>
+light by
+archæology forms an episode in an epic which narrates the exploits of
+Gilgamesh and occupies the eleventh of the twelve parts into which the
+epic is divided.  Gilgamesh sprang from a city, Shurippak, which
+afterward completely disappeared.  He became king of Erech, where he
+ruled as a tyrant until the gods created Ea-bani to destroy him.  The
+two, however, became bosom friends.  Together they delivered Erech from
+the Elamite oppressor, Khumbaba.  Ishtar, the goddess of love, then
+offered her hand to Gilgamesh in marriage, which he spurned with scorn.
+Out of revenge, she sent a scorpion, whose sting proved fatal to
+Ea-bani.  Gilgamesh himself she smote with an incurable disease.  To
+find relief, the latter set out for the dwelling place of his
+great-grandfather, Ut-napishtim, far away on the isles of the blessed.
+When he finally reaches him the latter tells him all about the great
+Flood from which he escaped to enjoy eternal life.[<A NAME="chap05fn32text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn32">32</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The most striking resemblances between the Babylonian and Hebrew
+stories of the Flood may now be noted: (1) Compare the instruction
+given by God to Noah (Gen. 6. 13-22) with the words addressed by the
+god Ea to Ut-napishtim:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+O man of Shurippak, son of Ubaratutu,<BR>
+Pull down thy house, build a ship,<BR>
+Leave thy possessions, take thought for thy life,<BR>
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P209"></A>209}</SPAN>
+Thy property abandon, save thy life,<BR>
+Bring living seed of every kind into the ship.<BR>
+The ship that thou shalt build,<BR>
+So shall be the measure of its dimensions,<BR>
+Thus shall correspond its breadth and height,<BR>
+Into the ocean let it fare.[<A NAME="chap05fn33text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn33">33</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+(2) In both accounts the destruction is due to sin.  This is definitely
+stated in Gen. 6. 5-7.  For the Babylonian story it is implied in the
+rebuke given to Bel by Ea:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+On the sinner lay his sin,<BR>
+On the transgressor lay his transgression.<BR>
+Forbear, let not all be destroyed.[<A NAME="chap05fn34text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn34">34</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+(3) In both accounts, only a seed of life sufficient to replenish the
+earth is saved.  Compare Gen. 6. 19, 20 with the command, "Bring living
+seed of every kind into the ship," or with the statement:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+I brought into the ship my family and household;<BR>
+The cattle of the field, the beasts of the field, craftsmen, all<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 2em">of them I brought in.[<A NAME="chap05fn35text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn35">35</A>]</SPAN><BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+(4) Both stories tell of a great storm and deluge of water.  Gen. 7. 11
+reads, "The fountains of the great deep were broken up, and the windows
+of heaven were opened.  And the rain was upon the earth forty days and
+forty nights."  Compare with this:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+The dawning of that day I feared,<BR>
+I feared to behold that day.<BR>
+I entered the ship and closed the door.<BR>
+When the first flush of dawn appeared<BR>
+There came up from the horizon a black cloud.<BR>
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P210"></A>210}</SPAN>
+Adad thundered within it,<BR>
+While Nabu and Marduk went before.<BR>
+They go as messengers over mountain and valley.<BR>
+Nergal bore away the anchor.<BR>
+Ninib advances, the storm he makes to descend.<BR>
+The Anunaki lifted up their torches,<BR>
+With their brightness they light up the land.<BR>
+Adad's storm reached unto heaven,<BR>
+All light was turned into darkness,<BR>
+It [flooded] the land like ...<BR>
+........ the storm<BR>
+Raged high, [the water climbed over] the mountains,<BR>
+Like a besom of destruction they brought it upon men.[<A NAME="chap05fn36text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn36">36</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+(5) In both instances the structure rests upon a mountain in the north.
+Gen. 8. 4 reads, "And the ark rested ... upon the mountains of Ararat,"
+that is, Armenia.  The Babylonian story reads:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+To the land of Nisir the ship made its way,<BR>
+The mount of Nisir held it fast that it moved not.[<A NAME="chap05fn37text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn37">37</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Mount Nisir is east of the upper Tigris. (6) In both cases birds are
+sent out to ascertain the condition of the land.  Compare Gen. 8. 6-12
+with these lines:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+When the seventh day approached<BR>
+I sent forth a dove and let her go.<BR>
+The dove flew to and fro,<BR>
+But there was no resting place and she returned.<BR>
+I sent forth a swallow and let her go;<BR>
+The swallow flew to and fro,<BR>
+But there was no resting place, and she returned.<BR>
+I sent forth a raven and let her go;<BR>
+The raven flew away, she saw the abatement of the waters,<BR>
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P211"></A>211}</SPAN>
+She drew near, she waded (?), she croaked, and came not back.<BR>
+Then I sent everything forth to the four quarters of heaven.[<A NAME="chap05fn38text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn38">38</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+(7) Sacrifice is offered by Noah and Ut-napishtim, acceptable to the
+God of Noah and to the gods of the Babylonian hero, in both cases
+resulting in a promise not to repeat the Flood.  Compare Gen. 8. 20-22
+with:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 3em">I offered sacrifice,</SPAN><BR>
+I made a libation upon the mountain's peak.<BR>
+By sevens I set out the sacrificial vessels,<BR>
+Beneath them I heaped up reed and cedar wood and myrtle.<BR>
+The gods smelt the savor,<BR>
+The gods smelt the sweet savor,<BR>
+The gods gathered like flies over the sacrificer.[<A NAME="chap05fn39text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn39">39</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Other similarities might be noted, such as the use of bitumen, the
+arrangement of the ship in stories, and, what seems more striking, the
+fact that the hero of the Babylonian story is the tenth antediluvian
+king, while Noah is the tenth antediluvian patriarch.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As in the stories of creation, marked differences may also be noted
+between the two representations of the Flood; and these differences
+appear where they are most significant, namely, in the spirit and
+purity of conception permeating the entire Hebrew account.  For
+example, the book of Genesis introduces the divine displeasure with
+sin, the ethical element, as a fundamental note; then,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P212"></A>212}</SPAN>
+when the
+divine mercy is aroused, the Flood ceases; according to the Babylonian
+story, the Flood is caused by the capricious anger of Bel, the idea of
+punishment for sin cropping out only as an incident in the conversation
+between Ea and Bel at the end of the story.  The Flood ceases because
+the other gods are terrified, and Ishtar intercedes for her own
+creation.  Moreover, the whole Hebrew conception of the Divine differs
+from the Babylonian.  In the Hebrew account we find ourselves in an
+atmosphere of ethical monotheism that is unknown apart from the chosen
+people.  Disappeared have all the gods who war with one another, who
+rejoice in successful intrigues, who do not hesitate to tell untruths
+or instruct their favorites to do so; the gods unstable in all their
+ways, now seeking to destroy, now flattering their creatures; the gods
+who, terrified by the storm, "cower like dogs" at the edge of heaven,
+and who "gathered like flies" around the sacrifice of the saved hero.
+All these characteristic features of the Babylonian account are absent
+from the Bible.  Surely, there is no connection between these deities
+and the one sublime and gracious God of Genesis.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Lack of space will not permit us to institute detailed comparisons
+between other narratives in the early chapters of Genesis and
+Babylonian literature.  It may be sufficient to say that the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P213"></A>213}</SPAN>
+resemblances are not confined to the stories of creation and of the
+Flood.  True, no complete Babylonian story of paradise and of the fall
+is at present known; nevertheless, there are certain features in the
+biblical narrative which strongly point to Babylonia, and in the light
+of the known fact that elements in the two important narratives of
+creation and of the Flood are derived from Babylonia, it may be safe to
+infer that in this case also echoes of Babylonian beliefs supplied, at
+least in part, the framework of the Hebrew representation.  The
+antediluvian patriarchs also seem to have their counterparts in
+Babylonian tradition, and the story of the Tower of Babel, though it
+does not seem to be of Babylonian origin, presupposes a knowledge of
+Babylonia, and it is not impossible that some Babylonian legend served
+as the basis of it.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In closing this discussion, attention may be called to a few general
+considerations that must be borne in mind in any attempt to answer the
+question whether the religious and ethical ideas of the Hebrews which
+show similarities with the ideas of other nations were borrowed bodily
+from these nations, or, after all, contain elements that were original
+with the Hebrews.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the first place, it must be remembered that similarities between the
+customs or beliefs of two peoples do not necessarily imply the
+dependence
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P214"></A>214}</SPAN>
+of one upon the other; much less do they indicate
+which is the original.  Where similarities are found at least four
+possibilities should be recognized: A may depend upon B; B may depend
+upon A; both A and B may have been derived from a common original; or A
+and B may have developed independently, the similarities being merely
+coincidence.  Which interpretation is the right one in a given case
+does not lie on the surface; it is only by careful, patient, unbiased
+study that one may arrive at a proper understanding.  Take as an
+illustration the Decalogue.  The Buddhists have "ten prohibitory laws,"
+sometimes called the "Buddhist Decalogue."  The first five read, "Thou
+shalt not kill; Thou shalt not steal; Thou shalt not lie; Thou shalt
+not commit adultery; Thou shalt not get drunk."  Three of these
+correspond exactly to three of the demands in the Jewish Decalogue.
+Does it necessarily follow that the Decalogue was borrowed from Buddha?
+The Egyptians also had a sacred law.  The law itself has not yet come
+to light, but the Book of the Dead indicates its existence.  In the one
+hundred and twenty-fifth chapter of this book we read the
+justifications offered by the dead: "I have not acted with deceit or
+done evil to men; I have not oppressed the poor; I have not judged
+unjustly," etc.  These negations seem to imply the existence of a law,
+either oral or written,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P215"></A>215}</SPAN>
+forbidding these things.  From the
+negations, "I have not acted with deceit; I have not committed murder;
+I have not been unchaste," etc., one may infer that the Egyptians had
+precepts corresponding substantially to some of the requirements in the
+Decalogue.  Does logic demand, therefore, the conclusion that the
+Decalogue owes its existence to the sacred law of the Egyptians?  Among
+the Babylonians also we find evidence of the existence of, at least,
+some of the requirements of the Hebrew Decalogue: "Thou shalt not break
+into the house of thy neighbor; Thou shalt not approach the wife of thy
+neighbor; Thou shalt not spill the blood of thy neighbor; Thou shalt
+not grasp the garment of thy neighbor."  Do these similarities prove
+beyond question the dependence of the one upon the other?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There are, then, marked resemblances between the Hebrew Decalogue,
+certain requirements among the Babylonians, among the Egyptians, and
+among the Buddhists.  I know of no one who claims that the Decalogue
+was borrowed from Buddha; some, however, seem to think, that in part at
+least, it was dependent upon Babylon; others, that Moses is indebted
+for it to Egypt.  True, in the minds of most scholars the dependence is
+not direct; there would be room, according to their theory, for the
+work of the Spirit in the selection of these fundamental, ethical
+conceptions
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P216"></A>216}</SPAN>
+from the great mass of requirements, the majority of
+which are far inferior to the Decalogue.  Such dependence, even if it
+could be proved, would not rob the Decalogue of inspiration or
+permanent value; but it seems to me that the similarities do not
+warrant the claim of even such dependence.  Is it not more likely that
+these similarities are due to the instinct implanted in man by the
+Creator, which recognizes the sanctity of life, of family relations,
+and of property rights?  But this instinct does not account for the
+obvious differences between the Hebrew Decalogue as a whole and the
+legislations of other peoples.  These must be traced to the special
+activity of a Spirit who produced among the Hebrews a collection of
+commandments such as natural instinct, if left to itself, could not
+have produced.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is different, perhaps, when we consider the relation of the more
+comprehensive civil legislation of the Pentateuch to the Code of
+Hammurabi.  There the resemblances are numerous and striking enough to
+justify the inference that there exists some relation of dependence,
+and yet by no means that the legislation of the Pentateuch is borrowed
+directly from the other, or even that there is a literary dependence.
+How extensive this dependence is only careful examination can show;
+but, however complete, it will not destroy the fact that the laws of
+Israel are permeated by a Divine
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P217"></A>217}</SPAN>
+Spirit.  The important question
+is not, Where do we find the natural basis upon which the system is
+built up by men under divine guidance? but, Does the spirit and
+character of the system indicate such guidance?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the second place, in seeking the truth about this relationship
+assumption must not be confused with knowledge.  Modern archæologists
+seem to be in peculiar danger of taking things for granted.  It is not
+without reason that a prominent Old Testament scholar proposes to
+change the title of the third edition of a book entitled The Cuneiform
+Inscriptions and the Old Testament into The Cuneiform Scholar and the
+Old Testament.  It is stated, for example, without qualification by
+Delitzsch that the name "Yahweh" has been discovered on inscriptions
+belonging to the period of Hammurabi.  No hint is given that the
+reading is questioned by many Assyriologists.  There is, at least, a
+possibility, no matter how small, of a different rendering, with, of
+course, a vastly different conclusion.  But admitting, as I believe we
+must do, that the name does occur, the inference drawn from this
+occurrence by Delitzsch, and expressed in the following words, is an
+assumption and misleading, unless it is materially modified: "Yahweh,
+the abiding one, the permanent one, who, unlike man, is not to-morrow a
+thing of the past, but one that endures forever, that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P218"></A>218}</SPAN>
+lives and
+labors for all eternity above the broad, resplendent, law-bound canopy
+of the stars&mdash;it was this Yahweh that constituted the primordial
+patrimony of those Canaanite tribes from which centuries afterward the
+twelve tribes of Israel sprang."[<A NAME="chap05fn40text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn40">40</A>]  The fact is that you may search
+the Babylonian pantheon from one end to the other and you will not find
+one god who in nature and character can compare with the Jehovah of
+Israel, "merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abundant in
+loving-kindness and truth."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another instance of the same character is the story of the fall.  One
+thing we know, namely, that a story of the fall of man, similar to that
+in Genesis, has not as yet been found among the fragments of Babylonian
+libraries.  Certainly, such story may have existed, and probably did
+exist; it may even be, as has been asserted, that some connection
+exists between the scriptural story of the fall and the picture on an
+old Babylonian seal cylinder having in the center a tree with fruits
+hanging down, on each side a figure, and behind the figure at the left
+a mark which may represent a serpent.  But the interpretation is by no
+means certain.  The fact that an assertion is made by an expert favors
+the presumption, but does not prove, that the statement is true.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Some archæologists claim that the monotheism of Israel was derived from
+outside of Israel,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P219"></A>219}</SPAN>
+either from Arabia[<A NAME="chap05fn41text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn41">41</A>]
+or from Babylonia[<A NAME="chap05fn42text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn42">42</A>].
+Among the arguments in favor of this claim is the occurrence of proper
+names which are alleged to imply the existence of monotheism; for
+example, <I>Yasma-ilu</I>, which may be translated "God hears," implying the
+existence of but one God.  However, it might mean also "<I>a</I> god hears,"
+or "god"&mdash;referring to one of many&mdash;"hears," the giver of the name
+singling out the one for special consideration.  And as there are clear
+indications of polytheism in southern Arabia, where the name is found,
+the name, in all probability, means the latter, thus implying
+polytheism.  The same may be said of the names found in Babylonia.
+Whatever the primary meaning of <I>ilu</I>, these names do not in themselves
+prove the existence of monotheism.  They may be translated in perfect
+accord with logic and grammar as admitting the existence of more than
+one god.  Indeed, the historical facts demand such interpretation.  If
+we find, for example, "Sin-muballit" ("the moon-god brings to life") as
+the name of the father of Hammurabi, and "Shamshu-iluna" (in all
+probability, "the sun-god is our god") as that of his son, the facts
+surely indicate that the monotheism of the period was not very
+distinct.  The testimony of the Code of Hammurabi points in the same
+direction, as also the most spiritual utterances of religion in the
+Euphrates valley, the penitential psalms.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P220"></A>220}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+It is seen, then, that facts do not warrant the claim, made by some,
+that that upon which rests the significance of the Bible in the world's
+history, namely, monotheism, was taken over by the Hebrews from the
+Babylonians.  Josh. 24. 2 remains uncontradicted: "Your fathers dwelt
+of old time beyond the River, even Terah, the father of Abraham, and
+the father of Nahor; and <I>they served other gods</I>."  It is only in
+Israel that we find a clearly developed monotheism.  Assumption and
+facts are not quite the same.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another important point, to which attention has already been called, is
+the marked difference which obtains between the literature of the Old
+Testament and that uncovered by archæology.  True, there are points of
+contact; indeed, strange it would be if there were none; for, like the
+Babylonians, the Hebrews were Semites.  Surely, it is not strange that
+nations of the same race, originally in the same home, should possess
+similar traditions, customs, beliefs, and practices.  When they left
+their common home they carried with them their common traditions,
+customs, and beliefs; in their new homes they developed them and
+impressed upon them their own individualities.  We are nowhere informed
+in the Old Testament, and it would seem contrary to reason to suppose,
+that at the time of Abraham, Moses, or at any other period, God emptied
+the Hebrew mind and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P221"></A>221}</SPAN>
+consciousness of all the things which had
+been the possession of the Semitic race from the beginning.  Is it not
+more likely that the inspired teachers and writers employed for their
+loftier purposes the ancient traditions and beliefs familiar to their
+contemporaries?  In doing so they took that which was, in some cases,
+common and unclean, and, purifying it under the guidance of the Divine
+Spirit, made it the medium by which to impart the sublimest truths ever
+presented to man.  Obviously, the special religious value of the Old
+Testament literature does not lie in what is common to it and Babylon,
+but in the elements in which they differ.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The points of contact must not blind the eye to the points of contrast.
+These points of contrast are in the spirit and atmosphere pervading the
+Hebrew Scriptures, which are quite distinct, not simply from
+Babylonian, but from all other literatures.  These essential
+differences occur, as we have seen, throughout the entire religious and
+ethical literature.  In many cases is agreement in form, but how far
+superior the spirit and substance of the Hebrew!  Think of the
+different conceptions of the nature and character of God, of God's
+relation to man, of the divine government of the world, and many other
+truths precious to Christians in all ages.  There is, indeed, in the
+Hebrew record "an intensity of spiritual
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P222"></A>222}</SPAN>
+conception, a sublimity
+of spiritual tone, an insight into the unseen, a reliance upon an
+invisible yet all-controlling Power, that create the gap between the
+Hebrew and his brother Semite beyond the River."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+How are we to account for these differences?  Professor Sayce has
+suggested an answer in these words: "I can find only one explanation,
+unfashionable and antiquated though it be.  In the language of a former
+generation, it marks the dividing line between revelation and
+unrevealed religion.  It is like that something hard to define which
+separates man from the ape, even though on the physiological side the
+ape may be the ancestor of man."[<A NAME="chap05fn43text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn43">43</A>]  Though the language of this
+statement may be unfortunate, especially where it implies that there is
+no revelation in the ancient religions outside of the Old Testament, it
+does call attention to the secret of the fundamental difference between
+the Old Testament sacred literature and that of the surrounding
+nations.  There is in the former abundant evidence of the activity of a
+Spirit whose presence is less manifest in the sacred literatures of
+other ancient nations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+True, the monuments have not spoken their last word; but if we have the
+right to draw inferences from the known, we may safely affirm that
+though the monuments may swell into infinity, they will offer nothing
+to equal, much less to supersede, in substance and spirit, our
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P223"></A>223}</SPAN>
+Old Testament.  We may receive gratefully every ray of light, but the
+time has not yet come, nor ever will come, when we may lay aside the
+Old Testament and accept as a substitute the legends and myths of
+heathen lands to give to us the bread of life which the Saviour found
+in the pages of the Old Book.  Let us welcome the light and knowledge
+God has bestowed upon us; let us rejoice in them with perfect assurance
+that they are for good and not for evil; let us learn to use them
+wisely and honestly, and let us still be ever alert listening for other
+words, uttered ages ago, but not yet audible to modern ears.  "It is
+for us to catch these messages, and to understand them, that we may fit
+them into the great fabric of apprehended truth to the enrichment of
+ourselves, and to the glory of our common Lord."
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap05fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn3"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn4"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn5"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn6"></A>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+NOTES ON CHAPTER V
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn1text">1</A>] J. P. Peters, The Old Testament and the New Scholarship, p. 92.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn2text">2</A>] S. G. Smith, Religion in the Making, p. 20.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn3text">3</A>] Hugo Winckler, Himmels- und Weltenbild der Babylonier, p. 9.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn4text">4</A>] Professor Friedrich Delitzsch, of the University of Berlin,
+delivered three lectures on the relation of Babylonian religion to the
+religion of the Old Testament, under the title, "Babel und Bibel."
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn5text">5</A>] A. H. Sayce, The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 276,
+277.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn6text">6</A>] A. Jeremias, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, I,
+p. 86.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P224"></A>224}</SPAN>
+
+<A NAME="chap05fn7"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn8"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn9"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn10"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn7text">7</A>] R. W. Rogers, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 88.
+Practically all the cuneiform inscriptions quoted or referred to in
+this chapter are translated in R. W. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the
+Old Testament.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn8text">8</A>] Friedrich Delitzsch, Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, published by
+Open Court Co., p. 65.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn9text">9</A>] A translation of the entire psalm is found in Sayce, The Religions
+of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 419-421; also in Rogers, Religion
+of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 182-184; R. F. Harper, Assyrian and
+Babylonian Literature, pp. 436-439.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn10text">10</A>] Sayce, Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 35, 93, 195.
+A translation of a hymn composed by this king to his supreme god is
+found in J. H. Breasted, A History of Egypt, pp. 371ff.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap05fn11"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn12"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn13"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn14"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn11text">11</A>] An excellent brief survey of the religious conceptions of the
+pre-Mosaic period is given in the article on "Religion of Israel," by
+E. Kautzsch, in James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Extra Vol.,
+pp. 613ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn12text">12</A>] The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 95.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn13text">13</A>] Ibid., p. 97.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn14text">14</A>] The most recent and most satisfactory edition and translation of
+the entire Babylonian story of creation is by L. W. King, The Seven
+Tablets of Creation.  The two quotations given are Tablet I, lines 7-9,
+and Tablet III, lines 133-138.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap05fn15"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn16"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn17"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn15text">15</A>] Additional portions of this hymn are found in R. W. Rogers,
+Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 170ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn16text">16</A>] S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religions To-day, p. 14.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn17text">17</A>] A. T. Clay, Light on the Old Testament from Babel, p. 15; A. H.
+Sayce, Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 476ff.; M.
+Jastrow, in American Journal of Theology, 1898, pp. 315-352; A.
+Jeremias, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, I, pp.
+198ff.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P225"></A>225}</SPAN>
+
+<A NAME="chap05fn18"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn19"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn20"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn21"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn18text">18</A>] Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, p. 38.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn19text">19</A>] Ibid., p. 101.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn20text">20</A>] Paul Haupt, Babylonian Elements in the Levitical Ritual, Journal
+of Biblical Literature, 1900, p. 61.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn21text">21</A>] The details of this question have been discussed very extensively.
+Admirable discussions of the entire subject are found in Sayce,
+Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 448-478; Jeremias, Old
+Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, II, pp. 112ff.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap05fn22"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn23"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn24"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn25"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn22text">22</A>] Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, p. 469.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn23text">23</A>] Delitzsch, Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, pp. 53ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn24text">24</A>] R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 145.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn25text">25</A>] R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi; art. on the same subject in
+Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Extra Vol., pp. 584ff.; W. W.
+Davies, The Codes of Hammurabi and Moses.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap05fn26"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn27"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn28"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn29"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn26text">26</A>] The best and most complete recent treatment of the legal
+literature of the Old Testament is found in C. F. Kent, Israel's Laws
+and Legal Precedents, which is Vol. IV in The Student's Old Testament.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn27text">27</A>] Johannes Jeremias, Moses and Hammurabi, pp. 31ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn28text">28</A>] R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 158.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn29text">29</A>] L. W. King, The Seven Tablets of Creation, Two Vols.; a
+translation is also found in R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian
+Literature, pp. 282ff.  R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and
+Assyria, pp. 107ff.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap05fn30"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn31"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn32"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn33"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn34"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn35"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn30text">30</A>] Tablet V, lines 1-3.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn31text">31</A>] Lines 1-8.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn32text">32</A>] An English translation of the entire epic is found in R. F.
+Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, pp. 324ff.; the Deluge
+story is given by R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp.
+199ff.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P226"></A>226}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn33text">33</A>] Lines 23-31.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn34text">34</A>] Lines 184-186.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn35text">35</A>] Lines 27, 85, 86.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap05fn36"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn37"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn38"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn39"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn40"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn41"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn42"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn43"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn36text">36</A>] Lines 92-111.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn37text">37</A>] Lines 141, 142.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn38text">38</A>] Lines 146-156.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn39text">39</A>] Lines 156-162.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn40text">40</A>] Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, p. 62.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn41text">41</A>] F. Hommel, The Ancient Hebrew Tradition, pp. 75ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn42text">42</A>] P. Delitzsch, Babel and Bible, pp. 58ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn43text">43</A>] Preface to Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap06"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P227"></A>227}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER VI
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE PERMANENT SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+In the opening paragraphs of Chapter I, attention is called to the
+unique place occupied by the Old Testament in the thought, life, and
+theology of the early Church.  Throughout the Middle Ages, and in the
+eyes of the Protestant reformers, the two great divisions of the Bible,
+the Old and New Testaments, continued to command equal respect and
+attention.  The legal principles of the Pentateuch have determined the
+legal systems of all civilized nations; the bold and fiery sermons of
+the prophets have been the chief inspiration on the fierce battles for
+righteousness in all ages; and the sublime religious lyrics of the
+Psalter have ushered millions into the very presence of God.  Indeed,
+the Old Testament has exerted an incalculable influence on the
+development of religion and civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+However, it must be admitted that during the latter part of the
+nineteenth century a change of attitude toward the Old Testament seems
+to have taken place.  True, from nearly the beginning of the Christian
+era again and again voices have
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P228"></A>228}</SPAN>
+been heard denying to the Old
+Testament a place in Christian thought and life, but not until
+comparatively recent times has this sentiment become widespread.  Says
+a writer in a book published a few years ago: "The Bible was never more
+studied nor less read than at the present day.  This paradox is true,
+at least, of the Old Testament.  For two generations scores of patient
+scholars have toiled on the text, scanning each letter with microscopic
+care, and one result of their labors has been that to the majority of
+educated men and women of whatever belief, or no belief, the Bible has
+become a closed, yea, a sealed, book.  It is not what it used to be;
+what it has become they do not know, and in scorn or sorrow or apathy
+they have laid it aside."[<A NAME="chap06fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn1">1</A>]  There may be some exaggeration in this
+statement, but it cannot be doubted that there is considerable
+justification for the complaint.  C. F. Kent makes the admission that
+"with the exception of a very few books, like the Psalter, the Old
+Testament, which was the arsenal of the old militant theology, has been
+unconsciously, if not deliberately, shunned by the present
+generation."[<A NAME="chap06fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn2">2</A>]  And the words of Professor Cheyne are almost as
+applicable to-day as they were when they were first written, more than
+twenty years ago: "A theory is already propounded, both in private and
+in a naïve simple way in sermons, that the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P229"></A>229}</SPAN>
+Old Testament is of no
+particular moment, all that we need being the New Testament, which has
+been defended by our valiant apologists and expounded by our admirable
+interpreters."[<A NAME="chap06fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn3">3</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If this represents in any sense the true state of affairs; if, on the
+other hand, the words of the apostle are true, that "every scripture
+inspired of God is also profitable for teaching, for reproof, for
+correction, for instruction which is in righteousness, that the man of
+God may be complete, furnished completely unto every good work"; and if
+these words are applicable to the Old Testament, as the writer intended
+them to be&mdash;if, I say, these things are true, then Christians appear to
+be in great peril of losing sight of one of the important means of
+grace, on which were nourished Jesus and his disciples, and millions in
+former generations, and for the restoration of which the reformers
+risked their very lives.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The change of attitude toward the Old Testament may be traced to a
+variety of causes, all of which affect very vitally modern religious
+thought and life.  There are, for example, many who feel, and that with
+some justice, that the New Testament is in a peculiar sense the sacred
+book of Christianity.  Why, they ask, go to the Old Testament when we
+have the New with its more complete and perfect revelation?  But this
+attitude reflects only a half truth, which is often
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P230"></A>230}</SPAN>
+more
+deceptive than an out and out falsehood.  Certainly, Christians find
+their loftiest inspiration in the study of the life, character, and
+teaching of the Master and of his disciples; but the New Testament has
+by no means displaced the Old.  The early Christians were right in
+placing it beside the New, because the former is still of inestimable
+value.  Indeed, it is impossible to understand the New Testament
+properly unless one has an adequate knowledge of the Old.  Moreover,
+there are many truths taken for granted in the New Testament for a
+biblical statement of which we must turn to the Old.  Will the
+revelation of the nature and character of God contained in the Old
+Testament ever lose its doctrinal value?  And even in cases where both
+Testaments cover the same field the Old retains a peculiar value.
+True, the New Testament presents a more complete and perfect
+revelation, but there are few New Testament truths which have not their
+roots in the Old.  The former presents the full-grown revelation;
+nevertheless, a vast number of people, who have not yet reached a state
+of perfection, will understand even New Testament truths more readily
+as they are presented in the Old Testament; for here they can see the
+truths in more concrete form; they have flesh and blood; they are
+struggling for victory over darkness and superstition.  Nearly all the
+great and vital doctrines of the Church,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P231"></A>231}</SPAN>
+though founded
+principally on the New Testament, are illustrated, are made more real
+and human, become more impressive and forceful as we study their
+development and growth under the Old Testament dispensation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The neglect of the Old Testament is due, in the second place, to a
+reaction against its misuse by former generations.[<A NAME="chap06fn4text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn4">4</A>]  Puritanism and
+the theology of the past three centuries were largely rooted in the Old
+Testament.  From it the stern Puritans drew their spirit of justice,
+their zeal for righteousness, and their uncompromising condemnation of
+everything that appeared wrong.  Their preachers nobly echoed the
+thunders of Sinai and the denunciations of Elijah and Amos; but in
+doing this they failed to recognize the divine love back of the
+prophetic message, and by their narrow interpretation of the letter,
+and their emphasis upon the more primitive and imperfect teaching of
+the Old Testament, they were often led to extremes that were neither
+biblical nor Christian.  Against intolerance and persecution the human
+heart rebels, and with it comes a feeling of resentment against the
+cause.  Thus it happened that the reaction against Puritanism brought
+with it a disregard of the Old Testament, which was followed either by
+the exaltation of the New Testament, whose spirit is more merciful and
+tender, or by hostility against the entire
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P232"></A>232}</SPAN>
+Bible and Christianity
+as a whole.  This abuse of the Old Testament was due in large part to
+the use of faulty, or erroneous, methods of interpretation.  And since
+there seems to be even now a tendency in some places to defend these
+methods, which are out of keeping with the spirit of scientific
+investigation in this age, many intelligent men have come to look with
+suspicion upon a book in the study of which unscientific methods
+continue to be used.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another important cause of the change of attitude toward the Old
+Testament is to be found in the labors expended upon the Old Testament
+by able scholars in the pursuit of a careful, critical study of the
+ancient records.  As has been stated in another connection, these
+studies are not the outgrowth, as is often erroneously assumed, of a
+desire to discredit the Bible, to displace it from the heart and
+confidence of the people, or to attack its teaching or inspiration.
+"It would be a most hopeless thing," says W. G. Jordan, "to regard all
+this toil as the outcome of skepticism and vanity, a huge specimen of
+perverse ingenuity and misdirected effort."[<A NAME="chap06fn5text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn5">5</A>]  They are simply the
+results of Protestantism and the Renaissance.[<A NAME="chap06fn6text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn6">6</A>]  But whatever the
+spirit back of the study, and whatever the gains of this investigation,
+one result is that many Christians feel perplexed with regard to the
+true position of the Old Testament.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P233"></A>233}</SPAN>
+What of its claims?  What of
+its inspiration?  How far is it human in origin?  How far divine?
+These and similar questions are asked by men everywhere.  Never was
+there more interest, more inquiry, and, perhaps, more unrest and
+disquietude among thoughtful people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Surely, it is high time to realize that all this investigation has had
+no harmful effect upon the substance of the divine revelations conveyed
+in the Old Testament records.  In the words of Jordan, "To me, with my
+faith that the whole universe is filled with the presence of the
+living, self-revealing God, I cannot conceive ... that the most severe
+criticism can ever banish the divine power from that great literature
+which is one of the choicest organs of its manifestations."[<A NAME="chap06fn7text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn7">7</A>]  As has
+been pointed out in the preceding chapters, some long-cherished notions
+and interpretations have been overthrown; to some extent our ideas
+concerning its literary forms have had to be modified, but its
+substance has not been disturbed.  On the contrary, it has come to be
+seen with a clearness unrecognized before that it bears the indelible
+stamp of God.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This being the case, students of the Bible should return to a more just
+appreciation of that part of Sacred Scripture which is so intimately
+connected with the training of Jesus and his disciples.  If the Old
+Testament contains records
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P234"></A>234}</SPAN>
+and interpretations of divine
+revelations, those who claim to be children of God should be willing,
+yea, anxious, to put forth some efforts to familiarize themselves
+adequately with these records.  But the sense of gratitude and
+appreciation for these self-revelations of God is not the only reason
+which should prompt the Christian to turn more frequently to the pages
+of the Old Book.  A much more important consideration is the fact that
+the lessons taught in the Old Testament are of profound significance
+to-day, and that they cannot be neglected without serious consequences.
+Again, attention may be called to the fact that the Founder of
+Christianity and his disciples found nourishment in its pages, and that
+they constantly exhorted their followers to do the same.  Now, Jesus is
+recognized by all Christians as a model worthy of imitation in every
+relation of life.  Would it not be well to imitate him in the use of
+the Old Testament Scriptures?  If he found in the pages of the Old
+Testament weapons with which to put to flight the Evil One, might not
+we?  Aside from these general considerations, it is easily shown that
+every part of the Old Testament is full of teaching which is of the
+highest value even in the twentieth century of the Christian era.
+Consider, for example, the first eleven chapters of Genesis, around
+which much controversy has raged.  In former days these chapters were
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P235"></A>235}</SPAN>
+thought to give an absolutely accurate account of creation and
+the early history of mankind.  However, various lines of investigation
+have shown this view to be untenable.  "We are forced, therefore," says
+a recent writer, "to the conclusion that, though the writers to whom we
+owe the first eleven chapters of Genesis report faithfully what was
+currently believed among the Hebrews respecting the early history of
+mankind, yet there was much they did not know, and could not take
+cognizance of.  These chapters, consequently, contain no account of the
+real beginnings, either of the earth itself, or of man and human
+civilization upon it."[<A NAME="chap06fn8text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn8">8</A>]  All this need create not the slightest
+difficulty for one who holds the scriptural conception of the nature
+and purpose of the biblical writings.  It is true of these chapters, as
+of other parts of the record, that "the only care of the prophetic
+tradition is to bring out clearly the religious origin of humanity.[<A NAME="chap06fn9text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn9">9</A>]
+If anyone is in search of accurate information regarding the age of
+this earth, or its relation to the sun, moon, or stars, or regarding
+the exact order in which plants and animals have appeared upon it, he
+should go to recent textbooks in astronomy, geology, and paleontology.
+It is not the purpose of the writers of Scripture to impart physical
+instruction, or to enlarge the bounds of scientific knowledge.  So far
+as the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P236"></A>236}</SPAN>
+scientific or historical information imparted in these
+chapters is concerned, it is of little more value than the similar
+stories of other nations.  And yet the student of these chapters can
+see a striking contrast between them and extra-biblical stories
+describing the same unknown ages handed down from pre-scientific
+centuries.  Here comes to view the uniqueness of the Bible.  The other
+traditions are of interest only as relics of a by-gone past.  Not so
+the biblical statements; they are and ever will be of inestimable
+value, not because of their scientific teaching, but because of the
+presence of sublime religious truth in the crude forms of primitive
+science.  If anyone wishes to know what connection the world has with
+God, if he seeks to trace back all that now is to the very
+fountain-head of life, if he desires to discover some unifying
+principle, some illuminating purpose in the history of the earth, he
+may turn to these chapters as his safest and, indeed, only guide to the
+information he seeks.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The purpose of the narratives being primarily religious, it is only
+natural that their lessons should be religious lessons.  The one
+supreme lesson taught throughout the entire section is "In the
+beginning, God."  But each separate narrative teaches its own peculiar
+lessons.  The more important of these are briefly summarized by Driver
+as follows: "The narrative of creation
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P237"></A>237}</SPAN>
+sets forth, in a series of
+dignified and impressive pictures, the sovereignty of God; his priority
+to and separation from all finite, material nature; his purpose to
+constitute an ordered cosmos, and gradually to adapt the earth to
+become the habitation of living beings; and his endowment of man with
+the peculiar, unique possession of self-conscious reason, in virtue of
+which he became capable of intellectual and moral life, and is even
+able to know and hold communion with his Maker.  In chapters two and
+three we read, though, again, not in a historical but in a pictorial
+and symbolic form, how man was once innocent, how he became conscious
+of a moral law, and how temptation fell upon him and he broke that law.
+The fall of man, the great and terrible truth, which history not less
+than individual experience only too vividly teaches each one of us, is
+thus impressively set before us.  Man, however, though punished by God,
+is not forsaken by him, nor left in his long conflict with evil without
+hope of victory.  In chapter four the increasing power of sin, and the
+fatal consequence to which, if unchecked, it may lead, is vividly
+portrayed in the tragic figure of Cain.  The spirit of vindictiveness
+and the brutal triumph in the power of the sword is personified in
+Lamech.  In the narrative of the Flood God's wrath against sin and the
+divine prerogative of mercy are alike exemplified:
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P238"></A>238}</SPAN>
+Noah is a
+standing illustration of the truth that 'righteousness delivereth from
+death,' and God's dealings with him after the Flood form a striking
+declaration of the purposes of grace and good will with which God
+regards mankind.  The narrative of the Tower of Babel emphasizes
+Jehovah's supremacy in the world, and teaches how the self-exaltation
+of man is checked by God."[<A NAME="chap06fn10text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn10">10</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These chapters are followed by the stories of the patriarchs.
+Missionaries say&mdash;and experience at home has confirmed the claim&mdash;that
+the patriarchal narratives are of inestimable value to impress lessons
+of the reality and providence of God, and to encourage the exercise of
+faith and confidence in him.  There is nothing that can be substituted
+for them in religious instruction.  Lack of space will not permit to
+point out in detail the educational value of these documents; however,
+in passing, mention may be made of the fact that Professor W. W. White
+enumerates twenty-one Christian virtues that are illustrated and
+enforced in the life of Abraham.[<A NAME="chap06fn11text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn11">11</A>]  He was (1) steadfast, (2)
+resolute, (3) prudent, (4) tactful, (5) candid, (6) kind, (7)
+self-controlled, (8) obliging, (9) self-denying, (10) condescending,
+(11) unselfish, (12) peaceable, (13) hospitable, (14) courteous, (15)
+humble, (16) thankful, (17) reverent, (18) prayerful, (19) worshipful,
+(20) faithful,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P239"></A>239}</SPAN>
+(21) obedient.  Not one iota of their value for
+purposes of instruction in righteousness have these records lost
+because doubt has been cast upon their absolute historical accuracy.
+"Abraham is still the hero of righteousness and faith; Lot and Laban,
+Sarah and Rebekah, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, in their characters and
+experiences, are still in different ways types of our own selves, and
+still in one way or another exemplify the ways in which God deals with
+the individual soul, and the manner in which the individual soul ought,
+or ought not, to respond to his leadings."[<A NAME="chap06fn12text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn12">12</A>]  What if some of these
+figures pass before us on the stage rather than in real life, do they
+on that account lose their vividness, their truthfulness, their force?
+"If," says J. E. McFadyen,[<A NAME="chap06fn13text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn13">13</A>] "it should be made highly probable that
+the stories were not strictly historical, what should we then have to
+say?  We should then have to say that their religious value was still
+extremely high.  The religious truth to which they give vivid and
+immortal expression would remain the same.  The story of Abraham would
+still illustrate the trials and the rewards of faith.  The story of
+Jacob would still illustrate the power of sin to haunt and determine a
+man's career, and the power of God to humble, discipline, and purify a
+self-confident nature.  The story of Joseph would still illustrate how
+fidelity amid
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P240"></A>240}</SPAN>
+temptation, wrong, and sorrow is crowned at last
+with glory and honor.  The spiritual value of these and similar tales
+is not lost, even when their historical value is reduced to a minimum,
+for the truths which they illustrate are truths of universal
+experience."  The present writer is convinced that even as historical
+documents these narratives are of immense value.  Nevertheless, it may
+be well to remind ourselves again that the apostle does not point his
+readers to the Old Testament Scriptures for instruction in ancient
+history, but he claims that they are profitable "for teaching, for
+reproof, for correction, for instruction which is in righteousness";
+and these records, whatever their historical shortcomings may be, are
+most assuredly profitable for all these purposes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The historical books of the Old Testament are a continuous illustration
+of the reality of a Divine Providence, by revealing on almost every
+page the hand of God in human history.  Only as we trace the history of
+the Hebrews can we understand the unfolding in the mind of man under
+the influence of the Divine Spirit of the great religious ideas and
+conceptions which have become the mainspring of human progress; the
+ideas which may be seen in crystallized form in modern Judaism, in
+perverted form in Mohammedanism, and in expanded and spiritualized form
+in Christianity.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P241"></A>241}</SPAN>
+Preëminent among these conceptions is the idea
+of one personal holy and righteous God.  The Hebrews were also the
+first to teach man that the supreme goal of life is righteousness, and
+thus they became the ethical teachers of the human race.  They first
+gave objective expression to pure and lofty ethics in law.  To-day the
+principles of Hebrew legislation are still the bone and marrow of the
+world's greatest legal systems.  Though the Romans may be, to a large
+extent, responsible for the form which modern legal systems have
+adopted, the substance must be traced back to Hebrew legislation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Moreover, the Hebrews prepared the way for Christianity.  Jesus himself
+recognized that the faith he proclaimed was not a new creation.  "Think
+not," said he, "that I came to destroy the law or the prophets: I came
+not to destroy, but to fulfill."[<A NAME="chap06fn14text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn14">14</A>]  He came to fill up, to
+spiritualize and intensify the religious and ethical teaching of the
+great leaders of the Hebrews.  Men needed the preliminary training of
+the Old Testament dispensation before they were ready to appreciate the
+fuller revelation in and through Jesus the Christ, and Christianity
+could never have triumphed had it not been for the preparatory work of
+the religious and ethical teachers of the Hebrews, whose activity was
+very largely determined by the course of the nation's history.  Again,
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P242"></A>242}</SPAN>
+Jesus, according to the flesh, was a descendant of Abraham,
+reared in a Jewish home, and under Jewish influences.  He studied
+Jewish literature and Jewish ideals were held up before him.  All this
+must have made some impression upon the mind and life of the Master.
+He and his teaching can be understood only if he is studied in the
+light of Jewish thought and Jewish religion reaching back to the very
+beginning of Hebrew history.  All this shows how important is the study
+of the historical books of the Old Testament to one who desires to
+appreciate fully the Christian religion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is impossible to estimate too highly the eternal value of the
+devotional literature of the Old Testament as illustrated, for example,
+in the book of Psalms.  Well has it been said, "What the heart is in
+man, that is the Psalter in the Bible."[<A NAME="chap06fn15text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn15">15</A>]  The Psalms touch the
+heart, because they are the expressions of the deepest feelings of the
+writers; and because these lyrics express personal experiences they may
+be, and are, used even to-day to express the various emotions of joy,
+sorrow, hope, fear, anticipation, etc., of persons who live even on a
+higher plane than did their authors.  "What is there," says Richard
+Hooker,[<A NAME="chap06fn16text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn16">16</A>] "necessary for man to know which the Psalms are not able to
+teach?  Heroical magnanimity, exquisite justice, grave moderation,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P243"></A>243}</SPAN>
+exact wisdom, repentance unfeigned, unwearied patience, the
+mysteries of God, the sufferings of Christ, the terrors of wrath, the
+comforts of grace, the works of Providence over this world, and the
+promised joys of that world which is to come; all good, necessarily to
+be either known or done, or had, this one celestial fountain yieldeth;
+let there be any grief or disaster incident to the soul of man, any
+wound or sickness named for which there is not in this treasure-house a
+present comfortable remedy at all times ready to be found."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Manifold indeed are the contents of the Psalter; manifold the moods of
+the authors; and manifold the experiences they express.  But there is
+one bond which unites them all into one living unity, namely, a sublime
+faith in Jehovah, the God of Israel.  This variety on the one hand, and
+essential unity on the other, are the qualities which have given to the
+book in all ages a unique place in the religious life of the individual
+and of the Church of God.  With full justice says Perowne:[<A NAME="chap06fn17text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn17">17</A>] "No
+single book of Scripture, not even the New Testament, has, perhaps,
+ever taken such hold on the heart of Christendom.  None, if we dare
+judge, unless it be the Gospels, has had so large an influence in
+molding the affections, sustaining the hopes, purifying the faith of
+believers.  With its words, rather than with their own, they have come
+before God.  In these they have uttered
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P244"></A>244}</SPAN>
+their desires, their
+fears, their confessions, their aspirations, their sorrows, their joys,
+their thanksgivings.  By these their devotion has been kindled and
+their hearts comforted.  The Psalter has been in the truest sense the
+prayer book of both Jews and Christians."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Equally profitable is the study of the Wisdom literature.  The wise men
+accepted the great religious truths proclaimed by the prophets; it was
+their business to apply them to the details of everyday life, and
+instruct their contemporaries in that application.  They did an
+important and necessary work; they pointed out constantly and
+persistently that religion cannot be separated from the daily life.
+But the wise men were dealing with persons who had hardly gone beyond
+the childhood stage in things religious and ethical, hence they must
+put the most profound truths in the simplest possible form.  They must
+abstain, as far as possible, from all speculation, and confine
+themselves to simple, practical precepts which would appeal to the
+ordinary practical common sense of the hearer.  "The great desire of
+the sages," says Marshall, "was to reduce the lofty theistic morality
+which underlies Mosaism to brief, pithy sayings, easily remembered and
+readily applicable to the everyday life of man."[<A NAME="chap06fn18text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn18">18</A>]  Certainly, in
+time they would be compelled to rise above simple precepts and try to
+solve some of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P245"></A>245}</SPAN>
+the more perplexing problems of life; on the other
+hand, there would always be a demand for the more simple sayings of
+these moral guides.  The Old Testament contains specimens of these
+different productions of wisdom activity.  The book of Proverbs is a
+collection of the more simple, practical precepts, while the books of
+Job and Ecclesiastes illustrate speculative wisdom.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The charge has sometimes been made against the book of Proverbs that it
+is not truly religious, that it moves on a lower plane, and
+contemplates lower aims than the other books of the Old Testament; but
+this is only a half truth.  That the book differs from other books is
+undoubtedly true, but that is due to the purpose of its author.  He did
+not mean to collect prophetic discourses or sublime religious lyrics,
+but those simple precepts of life which, though simple, are ever needed
+for the proper conduct of man.  There are two phases of religion: the
+one internal, the religious experience; the other external, the
+religious life.  The two go together, though at times the one, at times
+the other, may be emphasized.  The authors of the Proverbs emphasized
+chiefly the latter.  They teach the most difficult of all lessons: how
+to practice religion; how to fulfill the duties and overcome the
+temptations of everyday life.  But these wise men rested their
+practical teaching upon a religious basis.  Their
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P246"></A>246}</SPAN>
+religion may
+not be on a New Testament level, but in this they resemble other Old
+Testament writings; their conceptions of reward and punishment may be
+crude, and at times materialistic, but this peculiarity they share with
+all those saints of Israel whose vision is limited to this world.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Underneath all their teaching there is a firm belief in the existence
+of a righteous God and the reality of his rule over the world, as also
+in the other great religious verities taught by the prophets.  Far from
+disregarding religion, the writers of the Proverbs sought to make it
+the controlling motive of life and conduct.  A profound religious
+spirit pervades the whole book; but in addition there are many passages
+which give definite expression to the lofty religious conceptions of
+the wise men.[<A NAME="chap06fn19text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn19">19</A>]  Nevertheless, as is natural in view of the purpose
+of the wise men, greater stress is laid upon ethics, the practice of
+religion.  Nothing and no relation of life seems to have escaped the
+attention of the writers.  Precepts are given concerning ordinary
+everyday conduct, the relations of men to their fellows, domestic
+relations and happiness, national life and the proper attitude toward
+the government, and other relations and interests of life.  The
+permanent value of the book is suggested in these words of Davison:[<A NAME="chap06fn20text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn20">20</A>]
+"For the writers of Proverbs religion
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P247"></A>247}</SPAN>
+means good sense, religion
+means mastery of affairs, religion means strength and manliness and
+success, religion means a well-furnished intellect employing the best
+means to accomplish the highest ends.  There is a healthy, vigorous
+tone about this kind of teaching which is never out of date, but which,
+human nature being what it is, is only too apt to disappear in the
+actual presentation of religion in the Church on earth."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From simple practical precepts the wise men rose to speculation.  Their
+speculative philosophy is theistic, for it starts from the conviction
+that there is a personal God.  The best specimen of this type of Wisdom
+literature is the book of Job, which deals with the perplexing problem
+of evil and suffering.  The book recounts how Job, a man of exemplary
+piety, was overtaken by an unprecedented series of calamities, and it
+reports the debate between Job and other speakers to which the occasion
+is supposed to have given rise.  The experiences of the perfect Job
+raised the perplexing question, How can the suffering of a righteous
+man be harmonized with the belief in a holy and just God?  The popular
+view, reflected in the greater portion of the Old Testament, was that
+suffering was always punishment for sin, prosperity reward for piety.
+Such belief seemed in accord with the righteousness of Jehovah.
+Undoubtedly, exceptions to the rule might be
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P248"></A>248}</SPAN>
+noted, but as long
+as the individual was looked upon simply as an atom in the national
+unit, the apparent inequalities in the fortunes of individuals would
+not constitute a pressing problem.  When, however, especially through
+the teaching of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the individual received proper
+recognition, an experience like that of Job was bound to create
+difficulties, for the suffering of a righteous man would seem to point
+to unfairness on the part of God.  That this perplexity was felt is
+seen from allusions in the prophetic books.  At last the time came when
+a wise man in Israel sought to solve the problem in the light of the
+religious knowledge he possessed.  The problem, then, discussed by the
+author of the book of Job is, How can the sufferings of a righteous man
+be harmonized with belief in a holy and righteous God?  Various
+solutions of this problem are suggested in different parts of the book:
+(1) The solution of the prologue&mdash;Suffering is a test of character.
+(2) The solution of the friends&mdash;Suffering is always punishment for
+sin.  (3) The solution of Job&mdash;Job struggles long and persistently with
+the problem; a few times he seems to have a glimpse of a possible
+straightening-out of the present inequalities after death, but it is
+only a glimpse; he always sinks back to a feeling of uncertainty and
+perplexity.  His general attitude is that there must be
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P249"></A>249}</SPAN>
+something
+out of gear in the world, for the righteousness of God cannot be
+discerned as things are going now.  (4) The solution of Elihu&mdash;Elihu
+agrees with the friends that suffering is closely connected with sin;
+but he emphasizes more than they the disciplinary purpose of suffering,
+which, he points out, is the voice of God warning men to return to Him.
+(5) The solution of Jehovah&mdash;The whole universe is an unfathomable
+mystery, in which the evil is no more perplexing than the good.  In the
+presence of all mysteries the proper attitude is one of humble
+submission.  (6) The solution of the epilogue&mdash;Returns to the opinion
+of the friends, for it teaches that righteousness will sooner or later
+be rewarded with prosperity even in this world.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is chiefly in the solution of this age-long problem suggested by the
+author of the book of Job that the real value of the discussion lies.
+The author nowhere states which of the above-mentioned conclusions he
+accepts as true.  As a result, he has been charged with raising a
+profound problem, discussing it with relentless logic, and then leaving
+it unsolved.  This, however, is not quite fair to this ancient wise
+man.  "With a touch too artistic to permit him to descend to a
+homiletic attitude, the poet has shown that his solution of life's
+problem is a religious one.  He had portrayed with great power the
+inability of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P250"></A>250}</SPAN>
+man's mind to comprehend the universe or to
+understand why man must suffer; but he makes Job, his hero, find in a
+vision of God the secret of life.  Job's questions remain unanswered,
+but now that he knows God, he is content to let them remain unanswered.
+He cannot solve life's riddle, but is content to trust God, of whose
+goodness he is convinced, and who, Job is sure, knows the answer.  The
+poet has thus taught that it is in the realm of religion, and not in
+that of the intellect, that the solution of life's mysteries is to be
+found."[<A NAME="chap06fn21text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn21">21</A>]  Even Christianity has no other solution of the problem to
+offer; it must still insist upon a solution of faith, with a lofty
+conception of God, and a vision of life broad enough to include
+eternity, when the apparent inequalities of this life may be adjusted
+by a loving and righteous God.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The book of Ecclesiastes, dealing with the perplexities of life in
+general, full of pessimism and skepticism, is not without its permanent
+value.  The author of the book has passed through many disappointments,
+and his spirit has grown somewhat skeptical and pessimistic.
+Everything has proved vanity: riches, pleasure, honor, even the search
+for wisdom; and he is not sure concerning his destiny after death.  But
+over against his experiences in life there is a faith in God who
+governs the world.  The book, which portrays
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P251"></A>251}</SPAN>
+the struggle between
+experience and faith, has aptly been called "a cry for light."  The
+author does not see the light clearly, though here and there he may
+have a glimpse of it.  The real perplexity is due to the fact that the
+author's horizon is bounded by the grave.  In this life he sees no
+hope, therefore he looks with longing for a possible reckoning in an
+after life; but it remains a hope and cry, it never grows into a
+conviction.  The more significant is the retention of his faith in God.
+He is conscious of a moral order in the world, though its operation is
+often frustrated; he is aware of cases in which the God-fearing man had
+an advantage over others.  Hence, with all his uncertainty and doubt,
+he holds that it is his duty, and the duty of everyone else, to fear
+God and keep his commandments; God, somehow, will care for the
+mysteries and perplexities of life.  Even the Song of Songs, or Song of
+Solomon, often an object of ridicule, when rightly interpreted, is seen
+to bring suggestive lessons to the present age.  The book owes its
+place in the canon of Sacred Scripture to the allegorical
+interpretation given to it from the earliest times.  The Jews
+interpreted it as picturing the close relation existing between Jehovah
+and Israel; the Christians, as picturing the intimate fellowship
+between Christ and his bride, the Church.  At present it is quite
+generally held that this interpretation
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P252"></A>252}</SPAN>
+does not do justice to
+the primary purpose of the book; but as to its original purpose two
+different views are held.  According to both interpretations, the
+subject of the book is love&mdash;human love; the differences of opinion are
+with reference to the manner in which the subject is treated.  Some
+think that the book is simply a collection of love or wedding songs,
+all independent of one another.  Others feel that there are too many
+evidences of real unity in it to permit this interpretation; they see
+in the book a didactic drama or melodrama, the aim of the author being
+the glorification of true human love.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The drama centers around three principal characters&mdash;Solomon, the
+Shunammite maiden, and her shepherd lover.  The book relates how the
+maiden, surprised by the king and his train, was brought to the palace
+in Jerusalem, where the king hoped to win her affections and to induce
+her to exchange her rustic home for the enjoyment and honor the court
+life affords.  She has, however, already pledged her heart to a young
+shepherd; and the admiration and blandishments which the king lavishes
+upon her are powerless to make her forget him.  In the end she is
+permitted to return to her mountain home, where at the close of the
+poem the lovers appear hand in hand and express, in warm, glowing
+words, the superiority of genuine spontaneous
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P253"></A>253}</SPAN>
+affection.  The
+real aim of the book, therefore, seems to be to glorify true love, and
+more specifically, true betrothed love, which remains steadfast even in
+the most dangerous and most seductive situations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In this age, when the responsibility of the individual Christian and of
+the Christian Church toward the practical, social, religious, and moral
+problems and evils is recognized more than at any other previous time,
+the prophetic literature is worthy of the most careful study on the
+part of all Christians who recognize and who are willing to meet their
+obligations to their day and generation.  The prophets of old met in
+the strength of God, and at the divine impulse, the problems and evils
+of their own age.  They had to face the problems of materialism and
+commercialism; the evils resulting from the accumulation of wealth,
+power, and resources in the hands of a few; very serious economic
+problems; cruelty, oppression, arrogance on the part of the rich
+proprietors; corruption in government and in the administration of
+justice; they had to grapple with a cold, heartless formalism that
+threatened to destroy pure, spiritual religion.  Against these evils
+and wrongs the prophets of old raised their hands and voices.  "When
+the old tribal customs and bonds were weakened by the growth of cities
+and the cultivation of commerce they saw that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P254"></A>254}</SPAN>
+society must be set
+upon a moral basis or suffer destruction.  When the nation itself was
+about to be broken to pieces they saw in this a call for a deeper
+spiritual life....  They were interested in politics, but not as a
+profession in which to show their skill, or out of which they might
+gain wealth or glory.  Politics for them meant simply the life of the
+nation in its relation to God and to the great outside world.  They
+were social reformers.  To the earlier prophets man was regarded always
+as a member of society rather than as an independent individual....  In
+opposition to a showy ritual, they set up their demands for justice
+between man and man."[<A NAME="chap06fn22text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn22">22</A>]  Surely, it is a part of the Christian's duty
+to do his share toward a Christian solution of the social and religious
+problems of our day.  We can hardly claim to have reached the full
+stature of Christian manhood or womanhood until we have acquired the
+knowledge and power to cope with these difficulties in the spirit of
+the Master and with the methods best adapted to the Christianizing of
+modern society.  In these our efforts to lift humanity nearer to God,
+or to bring God nearer to humanity, we may learn much from the prophets
+of old.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To sum up the results of our study: As Christians we may find our
+loftiest inspiration in the study of the life, the character, and the
+teachings
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P255"></A>255}</SPAN>
+of the Master, and of the words of his disciples.  But
+the New Testament is little more than a quarter of the Bible.  In the
+preceding pages the attempt has been made to emphasize the permanent
+value of the larger division of the Sacred Book.  It has been carefully
+scrutinized, tested in furnaces heated seven times, but out of the fire
+it has come bearing the stamp of God, testifying more confidently than
+ever before that God in olden times spake unto the fathers, and that in
+its pages may be found records and interpretations of these
+revelations.  The features of the Old Testament which assure to it a
+permanent place in religious thought and life may be briefly indicated
+as follows:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Old Testament will always prove attractive as literature.  The more
+we know of other literatures of antiquity, the more evident it becomes
+that even from the literary viewpoint the Old Testament is far superior
+to any other literary remains of ancient civilization.  "If the
+inimitable freshness of life is preserved in Homer, it is not less
+preserved in the epic stories of the Old Testament; while the still
+more intangible simplicity of the idyl is found perfect in Ruth and
+Tobit, the orations of Deuteronomy are as noble models as the orations
+of Cicero.  Read by the side of the poetry of the Psalms, the lyrics of
+Pindar seem almost provincial.  The imaginative poetry of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P256"></A>256}</SPAN>
+the
+Greeks is perfect in its own sphere, but by the Hebrew prophets as bold
+an imagination is carried into the mysteries of the spiritual world.
+If the philosophy of Plato and his successors has a special interest as
+the starting point for a progression of thought still going on as
+modern science, yet the field of biblical wisdom offers an attraction
+of a different kind, in a progression of thought which has run its full
+round and has reached a position of rest....  And in the inner circle
+of the world's masterpieces, in which all kinds of literary influences
+meet, the Bible has placed Job, the Isaiahan Rhapsody, ... unsurpassed
+and unsurpassable."[<A NAME="chap06fn23text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn23">23</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From the standpoint of history the Old Testament still occupies, and
+ever will occupy, a unique position.  Important as are the
+contributions of archæology, the student of ancient history can by no
+means spare the testimony of the Bible.  The Old Testament is still the
+main source of information for the national history of the Hebrew
+people, and it is and will remain a very important secondary source for
+the history of the surrounding nations.  It also retains a unique place
+in the history of religion, for without it the religious development of
+the Jews could not be traced; and since the Jewish religion is the
+foundation upon which Christianity was developed, ignorance of that
+earlier religion
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P257"></A>257}</SPAN>
+would prove a serious handicap to the student of
+Christianity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Old Testament will always be of value because of its intimate
+connection with the New.  From the purely linguistic standpoint a
+knowledge of the former is essential for an understanding of the
+latter.  New Testament modes of thought and expression are inexplicable
+without a study of the Old.  There are many passages in the New
+Testament taken from the Old and referring back to it which cannot be
+properly understood unless we examine them in their original context.
+But the connection is even more vital, for in a very real sense the new
+dispensation has its roots in the old.  It is one kingdom of God that
+is the subject of the history in both, and the Bible as a whole can
+never be rightly understood until the two Testaments are comprehended
+in their unity and harmony, for they are joined in inseparable unity in
+Christ himself.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Most important of all, the Old Testament retains, and ever will retain,
+a unique religious value.  It will ever be important in the field of
+doctrine.  True, the New Testament is the primary source for the
+doctrines of Christianity, but there are some things which the New
+Testament takes for granted, and for which we must turn to the Old.
+Will the revelation of the nature and character of God contained in the
+Old Testament
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P258"></A>258}</SPAN>
+ever lose its doctrinal value?&mdash;God, a spirit,
+personal, with a clearly defined moral character, in his mercy
+condescending to enter into covenant relations with his creatures,
+loving man and desiring to be loved by him, his anger aroused by sin,
+but gracious toward the repenting sinner?  Again, have those early
+chapters of Genesis lost their doctrinal value?  Has anyone supplied a
+substitute for the simple "In the beginning God created heaven and
+earth"?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Old Testament is of permanent religious value because of its keen
+insight into human nature.  The Bible has been called "the family album
+of the Holy God"; we might compare it, rather, to a picture gallery.
+What a variety!  Everywhere we see them flesh and blood!  Why is it
+they impress us so?  Is it not because the pictures are so true to
+human nature that in spite of the difference in time, place, and
+circumstances they may serve even us as mirrors?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Old Testament will always deserve study from the religious
+standpoint, because of the ideal of character it sets before us.  "It
+presents to our souls characters that are supremely worthy of our
+reverence because consciously centered in God and full of his power.
+It permits us to share the enthusiasm of the men who discovered the
+fundamentals of our religion and the character of our God.  It is
+indispensable to complete the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P259"></A>259}</SPAN>
+discipleship of Christ, because it
+is the creator of the mold which his soul expanded."[<A NAME="chap06fn24text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn24">24</A>]  Its types of
+character may lack the finer graces, yet they are types we may do well
+to imitate.  Will the lives of Abraham, Joseph, Samuel, Elijah, David,
+and many others ever lose their lessons?  What sublime ideals even the
+Christian minister may find in the lives of the prophets!
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Will we ever get beyond the moral duties which are, according to the
+Old Testament, obligatory upon man?  Purity of thought, sincerity of
+motive, singleness of purpose, truthfulness, honesty, justice,
+generosity, love&mdash;these are some of the virtues which again and again
+are in the strongest language insisted upon in the pages of the Old
+Book.  Indeed, the Old Testament emphasizes the loftiest ideals of
+human life and society, anticipating the time when in all the world the
+universal Fatherhood of God and the common brotherhood of man would be
+realized.  In an editorial in the Expository Times, commenting upon a
+paper read before the First International Moral Education Congress, are
+found these suggestive words: "It is when the teaching of the Old
+Testament is simple, frank, and historical that it becomes the best
+text-book of ethics in the world, for it possesses these two
+incomparable advantages&mdash;it is full of humanity, and it is full of
+variety.  The epics of Joseph and David, the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P260"></A>260}</SPAN>
+tragedies of Elijah
+and Isaiah have an undying charm.  And the examples are varied as they
+are interesting.  It offers examples of almost every stage of moral
+development.  Whatever the pupil's moral attitude, there is some Jewish
+hero that appeals to him.  That hero's actions can be traced to their
+motives and followed to their consequences.  He can be treated with
+sympathy in so far as he attains the standard of his times, and yet
+criticized in so far as his motives are not those which we recognize as
+absolute.  So the pupil may learn at once to appropriate those <I>media
+axiamata</I> which fit him, and yet realize that there is something beyond
+and above them."[<A NAME="chap06fn25text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn25">25</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Old Testament is of permanent significance because of its
+insistence on pure and spiritual religion, and its condemnation of all
+cold and external formalism.  These words of the prophet Isaiah imply a
+lofty conception of true religion: "What unto me is the multitude of
+your sacrifices? saith Jehovah: I have had enough of the
+burnt-offerings of rams, and the fat of fed beasts; and I delight not
+in the blood of bullocks, or of lambs, or of he-goats.  When ye come to
+appear before me, who hath required this at your hand, to trample my
+courts?  Bring no more vain oblations; incense is an abomination unto
+me; new moon and sabbath, the calling of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P261"></A>261}</SPAN>
+assemblies&mdash;I cannot
+away with iniquity and the solemn meeting.  Your new moons and your
+appointed feasts my soul hateth; they are a trouble unto me; I am weary
+of bearing them.  And when ye spread forth your hands, I will hide mine
+eyes from you; yea, when ye make many prayers, I will not hear: your
+hands are full of blood.  Wash you, make you clean; put away the evil
+of your doings from before mine eyes; cease to do evil; learn to do
+well; seek justice, relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead
+for the widow."[<A NAME="chap06fn26text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn26">26</A>]  And the prophetic definition of religion, "He hath
+showed thee, O man, what is good; and what doth Jehovah require of
+thee, but to do justly, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with
+thy God?"[<A NAME="chap06fn27text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn27">27</A>] is in no wise inferior to that given in the New
+Testament: "Pure religion and undefiled before our God and Father is
+this, to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to
+keep oneself unspotted from the world."[<A NAME="chap06fn28text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn28">28</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Finally, how can we estimate highly enough the devotional value of the
+Old Testament as illustrated, for example, in the book of Psalms?  Here
+we have the outpourings of human souls in the closest fellowship with
+their God, giving without restraint expression to the most various
+emotions, hopes, desires, and aspirations.  What other literary
+compositions lift us into such atmosphere of religious thought and
+emotion?
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P262"></A>262}</SPAN>
+Surely, the sweet singers enjoy a preëminence from
+which they can never be dethroned.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is quite safe, therefore, to assert, that as long as human nature is
+what it is now the Old Testament must remain an ever-flowing fountain
+of living truth, able to invigorate and to restore, to purify and to
+refine; to ennoble and to enrich the moral and spiritual being of man.
+"No man," says A. W. Vernon,[<A NAME="chap06fn29text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn29">29</A>] "save Jesus, ever had the right to lay
+the Book ... aside, and he made it immortal."
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap06fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn3"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn4"></A>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+NOTES ON CHAPTER VI
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn1text">1</A>] J. C. Todd, Politics and Religion in "Ancient Israel, p. vii.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn2text">2</A>] The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testament, p. 7.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn3text">3</A>] Contemporary Review, August, 1889, p. 232.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn4text">4</A>] C. F. Kent, The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testament,
+pp. 5ff.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap06fn5"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn6"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn7"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn8"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn9"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn5text">5</A>] Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, p. 6.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn6text">6</A>] See above, p. 79.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn7text">7</A>] Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, p. 230.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn8text">8</A>] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. xlii.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn9text">9</A>] A. Westphal, The Law and the Prophets, p. 43.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap06fn10"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn11"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn12"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn13"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn14"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn10text">10</A>] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. lxx.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn11text">11</A>] W. W. White, Studies in Old Testament Characters, p. 14.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn12text">12</A>] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. lxviii.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn13text">13</A>] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 335.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn14text">14</A>] Matt. 5. 17.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P263"></A>263}</SPAN>
+
+<A NAME="chap06fn15"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn16"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn17"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn18"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn19"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn20"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn21"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn15text">15</A>] These words of Johannes Arnd are used by Franz Delitzsch as the
+motto for his Commentary on the Psalms.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn16text">16</A>] Ecclesiastical Polity, Book V, Chapter XXXVII, 2.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn17text">17</A>] The Book of Psalms, Vol. I, p. 18.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn18text">18</A>] J. T. Marshall, Job and His Comforters, p. 4.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn19text">19</A>] For example, 3. 5-7; 16. 3, 6, 9; 23. 17.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn20text">20</A>] W. T. Davison, The Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament, pp.
+134, 135.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn21text">21</A>] G. A. Barton, The Book of Job, p. 12.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap06fn22"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn23"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn24"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn25"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn22text">22</A>] W. G. Jordan, Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, pp. 284, 285.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn23text">23</A>] Richard G. Moulton, The Modern Reader's Bible, One Vol. ed., p. x.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn24text">24</A>] A. W. Vernon, The Religious Value of the Old Testament, p. 80.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn25text">25</A>] Expository Times, November, 1908, pp. 54, 55.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap06fn26"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn27"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn28"></A>
+<A NAME="chap06fn29"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn26text">26</A>] Isa. 1. 11-17.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn27text">27</A>] Mic. 6. 8.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn28text">28</A>] James 1. 27.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn29text">29</A>] The Religious Value of the Old Testament, p. 81.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="index"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P264"></A>264}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+INDEX
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Abraham, <A HREF="#P238">238</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Adad-nirari IV, <A HREF="#P134">134</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Ahab, <A HREF="#P131">131</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Angels, <A HREF="#P182">182</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Animism, <A HREF="#P165">165</A> f., <A HREF="#P169">169</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Appeal to the soul, <A HREF="#P30">30</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Archaeological material, <A HREF="#P123">123</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Archaeology, <A HREF="#P110">110</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Ashurbanipal, <A HREF="#P140">140</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Assumption versus knowledge, <A HREF="#P217">217</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Authorship, of Pentateuch, <A HREF="#P88">88</A> f.; other books, <A HREF="#P89">89</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Babylon, fall of, <A HREF="#P141">141</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Benefits of criticism, <A HREF="#P105">105</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bible and Reason, <A HREF="#P33">33</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bible lands, <A HREF="#P111">111</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Black Obelisk, <A HREF="#P133">133</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Canon, <A HREF="#P86">86</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Ceremonial system, <A HREF="#P178">178</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Character study, <A HREF="#P238">238</A>, <A HREF="#P258">258</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Christian consciousness, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Comparative religion, <A HREF="#P160">160</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Comparative study, <A HREF="#P160">160</A> ff.; aim, <A HREF="#P160">160</A>; attitude toward, <A HREF="#P161">161</A> f.;
+importance, <A HREF="#P164">164</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Compilation, <A HREF="#P87">87</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Composition, <A HREF="#P21">21-23</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Confirmations, <A HREF="#P156">156</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Conflict between science and Genesis, <A HREF="#P41">41</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Contrasts, <A HREF="#P221">221</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cosmology of appearances, <A HREF="#P59">59</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Creation, <A HREF="#P41">41</A> ff.; story of, <A HREF="#P201">201</A> ff.; permanent value, <A HREF="#P235">235</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Criticism, <A HREF="#P66">66</A> ff.; benefits, <A HREF="#P105">105</A> ff.; definition, <A HREF="#P67">67</A> f.; Jesus and c.,
+<A HREF="#P92">92</A> ff.; inspiration and c., <A HREF="#P98">98</A> ff., <A HREF="#P105">105</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cyrus, <A HREF="#P141">141</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+David, <A HREF="#P104">104</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Day of Creation, <A HREF="#P45">45</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Decalogue, <A HREF="#P199">199</A>, <A HREF="#P214">214</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Deity, conception of, <A HREF="#P165">165</A> ff., <A HREF="#P206">206</A> f., <A HREF="#P212">212</A>; Babylonian, <A HREF="#P165">165-169</A>,
+Egyptian, <A HREF="#P169">169</A>, Hebrew, <A HREF="#P169">169-172</A>; Character of D., <A HREF="#P173">173</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Demons, <A HREF="#P183">183</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Devotional literature, <A HREF="#P17">17</A> f., <A HREF="#P242">242</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Divine element, <A HREF="#P26">26</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Doctrinal value, <A HREF="#P257">257</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Ecclesiastes, <A HREF="#P250">250</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Elephantine, <A HREF="#P141">141</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Eponym lists, <A HREF="#P153">153</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Esarhaddon, <A HREF="#P140">140</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Excavations, <A HREF="#P112">112</A> ff.; Assyrio-Babylonia, <A HREF="#P112">112-116</A>; Egypt, <A HREF="#P116">116-118</A>;
+Palestine, <A HREF="#P118">118-121</A>; Phoenicia, <A HREF="#P121">121</A>; Moab, <A HREF="#P121">121</A>; Syria, <A HREF="#P121">121</A>; Asia Minor,
+<A HREF="#P121">121</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Exile, <A HREF="#P141">141</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Exodus, <A HREF="#P128">128</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Facts versus inferences, <A HREF="#P144">144</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Fall, <A HREF="#P213">213</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Festivals, <A HREF="#P178">178</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Flood, <A HREF="#P207">207</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Fulfillment of prophecy, <A HREF="#P28">28</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Gains from excavations, <A HREF="#P151">151</A> ff.; chronology, <A HREF="#P152">152</A> f., <A HREF="#P155">155</A>; geography,
+<A HREF="#P151">151</A> f.; history, <A HREF="#P152">152</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Gilgamesh, <A HREF="#P208">208</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hammurabi, code of, <A HREF="#P188">188</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Harmonizing science with scripture, <A HREF="#P45">45</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Harmony between science and Genesis, <A HREF="#P61">61</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hezekiah, <A HREF="#P138">138</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Higher criticism, <A HREF="#P73">73</A> ff.; definition, <A HREF="#P76">76</A>; extra-biblical, <A HREF="#P76">76</A> f.;
+tradition and h. c., <A HREF="#P77">77</A>; importance, <A HREF="#P78">78</A> f.; origin, <A HREF="#P79">79</A> ff.; reformers
+and h. c., <A HREF="#P80">80</A> f.; loyalty to Christ and h. c., <A HREF="#P82">82</A> f.; traditional, <A HREF="#P83">83</A>;
+non-traditional, <A HREF="#P83">83</A> ff.; conclusions, <A HREF="#P85">85</A> ff.; illegitimate, <A HREF="#P101">101</A> f.;
+Jesus and h. c., <A HREF="#P92">92</A> ff.; inspiration and h. c., <A HREF="#P98">98</A> ff.; Moses and h.
+c., <A HREF="#P102">102</A> f.; Isaiah and h. c., <A HREF="#P103">103</A> f.; David and h. c., <A HREF="#P104">104</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Historical criticism, <A HREF="#P72">72</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Historical literature, <A HREF="#P19">19</A> f., <A HREF="#P240">240</A> ff., <A HREF="#P256">256</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Human element, <A HREF="#P20">20</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Ideal harmony, <A HREF="#P52">52</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Illegitimate criticism, <A HREF="#P101">101</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Imperfections, <A HREF="#P24">24</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Inaccuracies, <A HREF="#P23">23</A> f., <A HREF="#P55">55</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Infallibility, <A HREF="#P38">38</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Inferences versus facts, <A HREF="#P144">144</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Inspiration and criticism <A HREF="#P98">98</A> ff., <A HREF="#P105">105</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Interpretation, <A HREF="#P39">39</A> f., <A HREF="#P45">45</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Isaiah, <A HREF="#P103">103</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Jehu, <A HREF="#P134">134</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Jesus, the supreme revealer, <A HREF="#P35">35</A> ff.; limitation of knowledge, <A HREF="#P97">97</A> f.;
+criticism and J., <A HREF="#P92">92</A> ff.; the Old Testament and Jesus, <A HREF="#P9">9</A> f., <A HREF="#P26">26</A>, <A HREF="#P36">36</A> f.,
+<A HREF="#P234">234</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Job, <A HREF="#P247">247-250</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Knowledge versus assumption, <A HREF="#P217">217</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Legal literature, <A HREF="#P18">18</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Legal system, Babylonian, <A HREF="#P187">187</A> ff.; Hebrew, <A HREF="#P195">195</A> f.; relation between the
+two, <A HREF="#P199">199</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Linguistic criticism, <A HREF="#P70">70</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Literary criticism, <A HREF="#P71">71</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Literature, kinds of, <A HREF="#P15">15</A> ff., <A HREF="#P90">90</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Merneptah, <A HREF="#P128">128</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Miracles, <A HREF="#P27">27</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Mission of Israel, <A HREF="#P60">60</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Misuse, <A HREF="#P231">231</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Moabite Stone, <A HREF="#P130">130</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Monotheism, <A HREF="#P167">167</A> f., <A HREF="#P218">218</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Monotheistic tendencies, <A HREF="#P167">167-169</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Moral teaching, <A HREF="#P259">259</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Moses, <A HREF="#P102">102</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nature of Old Testament, <A HREF="#P12">12</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nebuchadrezzar, <A HREF="#P140">140</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Neglect, <A HREF="#P227">227</A> f.; causes of, <A HREF="#P229">229-233</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New Testament, superiority, <A HREF="#P229">229</A> f., <A HREF="#P254">254</A> f.; estimate of O. T., <A HREF="#P10">10</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Old Testament, nature, <A HREF="#P12">12</A> f.; reliability, <A HREF="#P150">150</A> f.; as literature, <A HREF="#P255">255</A>
+f.; in Christian church, <A HREF="#P9">9</A>; New Testament estimate of, <A HREF="#P10">10</A> f.; Old
+Testament and interpretation of New Testament, <A HREF="#P257">257</A>; Jesus and Old
+Testament, <A HREF="#P9">9</A> f., <A HREF="#P26">26</A>, <A HREF="#P36">36</A> f., <A HREF="#P234">234</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Omri, <A HREF="#P130">130</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Opposition to criticism, <A HREF="#P74">74</A> f., <A HREF="#P82">82</A>, <A HREF="#P101">101</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Order of creation, <A HREF="#P47">47</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Patriarchal age, <A HREF="#P154">154</A>; narratives, <A HREF="#P238">238</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pekah, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Penitential Psalms, <A HREF="#P168">168</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pentateuch, authorship of, <A HREF="#P88">88</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Permanent value, <A HREF="#P59">59</A> ff., <A HREF="#P227">227</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Polydemonism, <A HREF="#P171">171</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Polytheism, <A HREF="#P166">166</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Priesthood, <A HREF="#P179">179</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Prophecy, fulfilment of, <A HREF="#P28">28</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Prophetic literature, <A HREF="#P15">15</A> f., <A HREF="#P253">253</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Proverbs, <A HREF="#P245">245-247</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Psalms, <A HREF="#P242">242-244</A>, <A HREF="#P261">261</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Purpose of Old Testament, <A HREF="#P11">11</A> f., <A HREF="#P53">53</A> ff., <A HREF="#P148">148</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Reliability, of O. T. history, <A HREF="#P150">150</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Religion, development of, <A HREF="#P87">87</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Religious imperfections, <A HREF="#P24">24</A> f.; r. institutions, <A HREF="#P175">175</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Restitution theory, <A HREF="#P48">48</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Revelation, <A HREF="#P53">53</A> ff.; methods of, <A HREF="#P13">13</A> f.; progressive, <A HREF="#P85">85</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Sabbath, <A HREF="#P175">175</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Sacrifice, <A HREF="#P180">180</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Samaria, capture of, <A HREF="#P136">136</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Sargon II, <A HREF="#P136">136</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Science, <A HREF="#P38">38</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Sennacherib, <A HREF="#P137">137</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Shalmaneser III, <A HREF="#P132">132</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Shalmaneser V, <A HREF="#P136">136</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Sheol, <A HREF="#P184">184</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Shishak, <A HREF="#P129">129</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Similarities, <A HREF="#P220">220</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Song of Songs, <A HREF="#P251">251-253</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Spiritual appeal, <A HREF="#P29">29</A> ff.; judgment, <A HREF="#P35">35</A> f.; unity, <A HREF="#P29">29</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Style, <A HREF="#P21">21</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Taylor Cylinder, <A HREF="#P138">138</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Tel-el-Amarna tablets, <A HREF="#P125">125</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Temple, <A HREF="#P179">179</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Textual criticism, <A HREF="#P68">68</A> ff., <A HREF="#P74">74</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Tiglath-pileser IV, <A HREF="#P134">134</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Tirhaka, <A HREF="#P139">139</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Tithe, <A HREF="#P180">180</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+True religion, <A HREF="#P260">260</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Uniqueness, <A HREF="#P32">32</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Unity, <A HREF="#P29">29</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Unrest, <A HREF="#P42">42</A> ff., <A HREF="#P232">232</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Use of archæological material, <A HREF="#P143">143</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Veracity of inscriptions, <A HREF="#P145">145</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+View point, <A HREF="#P149">149</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Vision theory, <A HREF="#P50">50</A> f.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Wisdom literature, <A HREF="#P16">16</A> f., <A HREF="#P244">244</A> ff.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Yahweh, <A HREF="#P171">171</A> ff., <A HREF="#P217">217</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Yaudi, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR><BR>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Christian View of the Old Testament, by
+Frederick Carl Eiselen
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRISTIAN VIEW--OLD TESTAMENT ***
+
+***** This file should be named 31876-h.htm or 31876-h.zip *****
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diff --git a/31876.txt b/31876.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0d7392a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/31876.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,6798 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Christian View of the Old Testament, by
+Frederick Carl Eiselen
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Christian View of the Old Testament
+
+Author: Frederick Carl Eiselen
+
+Release Date: April 3, 2010 [EBook #31876]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRISTIAN VIEW--OLD TESTAMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE CHRISTIAN VIEW
+
+OF THE
+
+OLD TESTAMENT
+
+
+
+BY
+
+FREDERICK CARL EISELEN
+
+Professor in Garrett Biblical Institute
+
+
+
+
+THE METHODIST BOOK CONCERN
+
+NEW YORK ---- CINCINNATI ---- CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1912
+  FREDERICK CARL EISELEN
+
+
+  Printed in the United States of America
+
+  First Edition Printed September, 1912
+  Second Printing, June, 1913
+  Third Printing, May, 1916
+  Fourth Printing, November, 1917
+  Fifth Printing, September, 1921
+  Sixth Printing, September, 1923
+  Seventh Printing, October, 1925
+  Eighth Printing, July, 1928
+
+
+
+
+{5}
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER                                                    PAGE
+
+       PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    7
+   I.  THE NEW TESTAMENT VIEW OF THE OLD TESTAMENT . . . .    9
+  II.  THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN SCIENCE  . . . . . . .   38
+ III.  THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN CRITICISM  . . . . . .   66
+  IV.  THE OLD TESTAMENT AND ARCHAEOLOGY . . . . . . . . .  110
+   V.  THE OLD TESTAMENT AND COMPARATIVE RELIGION  . . . .  160
+  VI.  THE PERMANENT SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT . .  227
+       INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  264
+
+
+
+
+OTHER WORKS BY PROFESSOR EISELEN
+
+  PROPHECY AND THE PROPHETS
+  THE MINOR PROPHETS
+  THE WORKER AND HIS BIBLE
+  THE BOOKS OF THE PENTATEUCH
+  THE PSALMS AND OTHER SACRED WRITINGS
+  THE PROPHETIC BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT (Two Volumes)
+
+
+
+
+{7}
+
+PREFACE
+
+During the past half century the attitude of many men toward the Bible
+has undergone a decided change.  The old confidence seems to be gone; a
+feeling of uncertainty and of unrest has taken its place.  This small
+volume is intended to set forth the Christian view of the Old
+Testament, and to furnish answers to some of the questions men are
+asking concerning the Sacred Scriptures of the Hebrews, which the early
+Christians included in the canon of Christian sacred writings.  The old
+foundations are not shaken.  The Old Testament has stood the tests of
+the past, which have been severe and often merciless; and there is
+to-day stronger ground than ever for believing that in its pages "men
+spake from God, being moved by the Holy Spirit."
+
+FREDERICK CARL EISELEN.
+
+Evanston, Illinois.
+
+
+
+
+{9}
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE NEW TESTAMENT VIEW OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
+
+The Christian Church has always assigned to the Bible a unique place in
+theology and life.  What is true of the Bible as a whole is equally
+true of that part of the Bible which is known as the Old Testament.
+Indeed, until the middle of the second century of the Christian era,
+the only Scriptures accepted as authoritative were those of the Old
+Testament.  Even then, only gradually and under the pressure of real
+need, different groups of Christian writings were added and received an
+authority equal to that of the older Scriptures.  And though in the
+course of the centuries there have been some who denied to the Old
+Testament a rightful place in Christian thought and life, the Church as
+a whole has always upheld the judgment of the early Christians in
+making the Old Testament a part of the canon of Christian sacred
+writings.
+
+It is worthy of note that the Old Testament played an important part in
+the religious life of Jesus.  No one can study the records of his life
+without seeing that he gathered much of his {10} spiritual nourishment
+from its pages.  Even in the moments of severest temptation, greatest
+distress, and bitterest agony the words of these ancient writings were
+on his lips, and their consoling and inspiring messages in his heart
+and mind.  This attitude of Jesus toward the ancient Hebrew Scriptures
+in itself explains the high estimate placed upon them by his followers.
+For, in the words of G. A. Smith, "That which was used by the Redeemer
+himself for the sustenance of his own soul can never pass out of the
+use of his redeemed.  That from which he proved the divinity of his
+mission and the age-long preparation for his coming must always have a
+principal place in his Church's argument for him."[1]
+
+The attitude of Jesus is reflected in his disciples and those who have
+given to us the New Testament books.  Nearly three hundred quotations
+from the Old Testament are scattered throughout the Gospels and
+Epistles, and in a number of passages is the value of Old Testament
+study specifically emphasized.  Perhaps nowhere is this done more
+clearly than in 2 Tim. 3. 15-17, in words written primarily of the Old
+Testament: "The sacred writings which are able to make thee wise unto
+salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus.  Every scripture
+inspired of God is also profitable for teaching, for reproof, for {11}
+correction, for instruction which is in righteousness: that the man of
+God may be complete, furnished completely unto every good work."
+Evidently the writer of these words considers the sacred writings of
+the Hebrews able to inspire a personal saving faith in Jesus, the
+Christ; to furnish a knowledge of the things of God; and to prepare for
+efficient service.  And these are the elements which enter into the
+life advocated and illustrated by the Founder of Christianity.
+
+An attempt will be made in this chapter to determine the New Testament
+view of the Old Testament for the purpose of discovering what is the
+proper Christian view of that part of the Bible.  For, if the teaching,
+spirit, and example of Jesus have a vital relation to Christian belief,
+and if his immediate followers have preserved an essentially accurate
+portrayal of him, then the modern Christian view of the Old Testament
+should be a reflection of the view of Jesus and of those who, as a
+result of their intimate fellowship with him, were in a position to
+give a correct interpretation of him and his teaching.
+
+We may inquire, in the first place, what is the New Testament view of
+the purpose of the Old Testament Scriptures?  The answer to this
+inquiry is furnished by the passage in the Second Epistle to Timothy
+quoted above.  Neither this nor any other passage in the whole Bible
+warrants {12} the belief that the Old Testament ever was meant to teach
+physical science, or history, or philosophy, or psychology.  Everywhere
+it is stated or clearly implied that the purpose of all biblical
+teaching is to make man morally and spiritually perfect, and to furnish
+him "unto every good work."  Therefore we may expect that where the Old
+Testament writers touch upon questions of science and history they
+develop them only in so far as they serve this higher religious and
+ethical purpose.  This being the biblical view of the purpose of the
+Scriptures, any theory of the Old Testament which makes no distinction
+between scientific and historical statements on the one hand, and
+religious and ethical statements on the other, is inadequate and
+erroneous, because it is not in accord with the New Testament teaching
+on that point.
+
+The purpose of the Bible is intimately connected with its nature and
+character.  The New Testament view of the nature and character of the
+Old Testament is suggested in Heb. 1. 1, 2: "God, having of old time
+spoken unto the fathers in the prophets by divers portions and in
+divers manners, hath at the end of these days spoken unto us in a Son."
+Four great truths concerning the Old Testament dispensation are
+definitely indicated in these words, with a fifth one implied: (1)
+_God_ spoke; (2) God spoke in the prophets, {13} that is, in or through
+_human agents_; (3) God spoke _in divers portions_; (4) God spoke _in
+divers manners_; (5) the words imply that _the Old Testament
+dispensation was incomplete_; it had to be supplemented and perfected
+by a revelation in and through a Son.  The truths expressed here
+constitute the essential elements which enter into the New Testament
+view of the Old Testament.
+
+The two expressions, "in divers portions" and "in divers manners,"
+concern largely the external form of divine revelation.  The former
+means that the revelations recorded in the Old Testament were not given
+at one time, through one channel or by one man, but at many times,
+through many channels, by many men, scattered over a period of many
+centuries, in places hundreds of miles apart.  One result of this is
+seen in the fact that the Old Testament contains many books written by
+different authors in successive periods of Hebrew history.
+
+The latter expression has to do with the different kinds of literature
+in the Old Testament, but it goes deeper than mere literary form.  It
+means that in giving revelations of himself during the Old Testament
+period God used various methods and means, the different kinds of
+literature being simply the outgrowth of the various modes of
+revelation.
+
+It is a universal Christian belief that God {14} reveals himself to-day
+in divers manners and modes.  Every Christian believes, for example,
+that God reveals himself in the events of history, be it the history of
+individuals or of nations.  Again, to many devout persons, God speaks
+very distinctly through the outward acts and ceremonies of worship.  To
+thousands of earnest and sincere Christians connected with churches
+using an elaborate ritual, this ritual is no mere form; it is a means
+of blessing and grace through which God reveals himself to their souls.
+Moreover, God selects certain persons, especially well qualified to
+hear his voice; these he commissions as ambassadors to declare him and
+his will to the people.  The belief in this method of revelation is the
+philosophical basis for the offices of the Christian preacher and the
+Christian religious teacher.  Once more, in his attempt to reach the
+human heart God may dispense with all external means; he may and does
+reveal himself by working directly upon and in the mind and spirit of
+the individual.  These are some of the "manners" in which God reveals
+himself to his children to-day, and these are some of the means and
+manners in which God made himself known during the Old Testament
+dispensation.  Then, as he does now, he revealed himself in nature, in
+the events of history, in the ritual, and by direct impressions; and at
+times he selected certain individuals to whom he might {15} make
+himself known in all these various ways and who could transmit the
+various revelations to others.  The Old Testament contains records and
+interpretations of these manifold revelations.  It is self-evident that
+when attempts were made to record these various manifestations of God
+different kinds of literature must be used in order to express most
+vividly the truth or truths gathered from the divine revelations.  The
+several kinds of literature, therefore, are the natural outgrowth of
+the manifold modes of divine revelation.  In the Old Testament five
+kinds of literature may be distinguished: the prophetic, the wisdom,
+the devotional, the legal or priestly, and the historical.  In their
+production four classes of religious workers who observed, interpreted,
+and mediated the divine revelations, were active: the prophets, the
+wise men, the priests (compare Jer. 18. 18), and the psalmists.
+
+The prophetic literature owes its origin to prophetic activity.  The
+prophets towered above their contemporaries in purity of character,
+strength of intellect, sincerity of purpose, intimacy of communion with
+God, and illumination by the divine Spirit.  As a result of these
+qualifications they were able to understand truth hidden from the eyes
+and minds of those who did not live in the same intimate fellowship
+with Jehovah.  Their high conceptions of the character of God enabled
+{16} them to appreciate the divine ideals of righteousness, and they
+sought with flaming enthusiasm to impress the truths burning in their
+hearts upon their less enlightened contemporaries.  In carrying out
+this purpose they became statesmen, social reformers, and religious and
+ethical teachers.  No records have been preserved of the utterances of
+the earliest prophets.  But when, with the general advance in culture,
+reading and writing became more common, the prophets, anxious to reach
+a wider circle, and to preserve their messages for more willing ears,
+put their utterances into writing, and to this new departure we owe the
+sublime specimens of prophetic literature in the Old Testament.
+
+In his direct appeal to heart and conscience the ancient prophet
+resembles the modern preacher.  The wise man, like the prophet, sought
+to make the divine will known to others, but in his method he
+resembles, rather, the modern religious teacher.  His ultimate aim was
+to influence conduct and life, but instead of appealing directly to the
+conscience he addressed himself primarily to the mind through counsel
+and argument, hoping that his appeal to the common sense of the
+listener would make an impression, the effects of which might be seen
+in transformed conduct.  The prophet would have said to the lazy man,
+"Thus saith Jehovah, Go to work, thou indolent man." {17} Prov. 24.
+30-34 may serve as an illustration of the method of the wise man:
+
+  I went by the field of the sluggard,
+  And by the vineyard of the man void of understanding;
+  And, lo, it was all grown over with thorns,
+  The face thereof was covered with nettles,
+  And the stone wall thereof was broken down
+  Then I beheld, and considered well;
+  I saw, and received instruction:
+  Yet a little sleep, a little slumber,
+  A little folding of the hands to sleep;
+  So shall thy poverty come as a robber,
+  And thy want as an armed man.
+
+Nothing escaped the observation of these men, and from beginning to end
+they emphasized the important truth that religion and the daily life
+are inseparable.  From giving simple practical precepts, the wise men
+rose to speculation, and the books of Job and Ecclesiastes bear witness
+that they busied themselves with no mean problems.
+
+Of profound significance is also the devotional literature of the Old
+Testament.  In a real sense the entire Old Testament is a book of
+devotion.  It is the outgrowth of a spirit of intense devotion to
+Jehovah, and it has helped in all ages to nurture the devotional spirit
+of its readers.  Here, however, the term "devotional" is used in the
+narrower sense of those poetic compositions which are primarily the
+expressions of the religious experience or emotions of the authors,
+generated {18} and fostered by their intimate fellowship with Jehovah.
+The chief representative of this literature is the book of Psalms,
+which is aptly described by Johannes Arnd in these words: "What the
+heart is in man, that is the Psalter in the Bible."  The Psalms contain
+in the form of sacred lyrics the outpourings of devout souls--prophets,
+priests, kings, wise men, and peasants--who came into the very presence
+of God, held communion with him, and were privileged to hear the sweet
+sound of his voice.  No other literary compositions lift us into such
+atmosphere of religious thought and emotion.  Because these lyrics
+reflect personal experiences they may still be used to express emotions
+of joy, sorrow, hope, fear, anticipation, etc., even by persons who
+live on a higher spiritual plane than did the original authors.
+
+The legal literature differs from the other kinds in that it does not
+form separate books, but is embodied in other writings, principally in
+the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.  All the
+representatives of Jehovah--prophets, priests, wise men, and even
+psalmists--were thought competent to make known the law of Jehovah, but
+the Old Testament makes it clear that at a comparatively early period
+the giving of law came to be looked upon as the special duty of the
+priests.  These priests constituted a {19} very important class of
+religious workers among the ancient Hebrews.  During the greater part
+of the national life their chief functions were the care of the
+sanctuary and the performance of ceremonial rites.  But in addition to
+these duties they continued to administer the law of Jehovah,
+consisting not only of ceremonial regulations but also of moral and
+judicial precepts and directions.  For centuries these laws may have
+been transmitted by word of mouth, or were only partially committed to
+writing, but when circumstances made it desirable to codify them and
+put them in writing the priests would be called upon to take this
+advance step.  Thus, while it is quite probable that other
+representatives of Jehovah helped to formulate laws, the legal
+literature embodied in the Old Testament reached its final form under
+priestly influence.
+
+The historical literature furnishes an interpretation of the movements
+of God in the events of history.  It owes its origin in part to
+prophetic, in part to priestly, activity.  The prophet was an
+ambassador of Jehovah appointed to make known the divine will
+concerning the past, the present, and the future.  Of the present he
+spoke as a preacher; when his message concerned the future it took the
+form of prediction; but the case might arise that the people failed to
+understand the significance of events in their own history, and {20}
+thus failed to appreciate the lessons which the events were intended to
+teach.  If these lessons were not to be lost, some one must serve as an
+interpreter, and who would be better qualified to furnish the right
+interpretation than the prophet?  This demand made of him, in a sense,
+an historian, not for the purpose of merely recording events but of
+interpreting them at the same time, and these prophetic interpretations
+are embodied in the historical literature originating with the prophets.
+
+But not all Old Testament history comes from the prophets.  As already
+indicated, the legal and ceremonial literature is due to priestly
+activity.  Now, in connection with the recording of the laws, customs,
+institutions, and ceremonial requirements, the origin of these laws and
+customs became a matter of interest and importance.  This interest, and
+the demand for information arising from it, led the priests also to
+become historians.  And to these priestly writers we are indebted for
+not a small part of sacred history.
+
+The third truth taught by the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews is
+that God spoke unto the fathers in or by the prophets, which means,
+that he used _human agents_ to mediate his revelations.  The Old
+Testament may be more than a human production; nevertheless, it will be
+{21} impossible to appreciate it adequately unless it is borne in mind
+that it contains a human element.  In the first place may be noted the
+differences in style between various writers.  These are frequently the
+outgrowth of differences in temperament and early training.  Even the
+English reader can notice such differences between Amos and Hosea, or
+between Isaiah and Jeremiah.  Evidently, whatever divine cooperation
+the biblical writers enjoyed, they retained enough of their human
+faculties and powers to make use of their own peculiar styles.
+
+Again, the hand of man may be seen in the manner of literary
+composition.  Most Bible students are familiar with the opening words
+of the Gospel of Luke: "Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to draw up
+a narrative concerning those matters which have been fulfilled among
+us, even as they delivered them unto us, who from the beginning were
+eyewitnesses and ministers of the word, it seemed good to me also,
+having traced the course of all things accurately from the first, to
+write unto thee in order, most excellent Theophilus; that thou mightest
+know the certainty concerning the things wherein thou wast instructed."
+Evidently, the evangelist carefully sifted the material at hand before
+he wrote the Gospel, just as a modern writer would do.  In the Old
+Testament even clearer evidence is found {22} that the authors of the
+several books were guided in the process of composition by the same
+principles as writers of extra-biblical productions.  The most
+suggestive illustrations of this fact are found in the books of
+Chronicles, in which reference is made again and again to the sources
+from which the compiler gathered his material.  In 1 Chron. 29. 29, for
+example, mention is made of the "words of Samuel the seer, ... the
+words of Nathan the prophet, and ... the words of Gad the seer"; 2
+Chron. 9. 29 refers to "words of Nathan the prophet, ... the prophecy
+of Ahijah, ... the visions of Iddo the seer."  These are only a few of
+the references scattered throughout Chronicles, but they are sufficient
+to show that in their composition methods employed by secular writers
+were used.  The same characteristic appears in the book of Proverbs.
+According to its own testimony, it contains several separate
+collections.  After the general title, "Proverbs of Solomon," in 1. 1,
+the following additional headings are found: 10. 1, "Proverbs of
+Solomon"; 22. 17, "The words of the wise"; 24. 23, "These also are the
+sayings of the wise"; 25. 1, "These also are the proverbs of Solomon,
+which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah, copied out"; 30. 1, "The
+words of Agur"; 31. 1, "The words of King Lemuel"; 31. 10-31 is an
+anonymous alphabetic acrostic.  Similar more or less clearly marked
+phenomena may {23} be noted in other Old Testament books, all of them
+bearing witness to the presence of a human element in these writings.
+
+More significant are the historical inaccuracies found here and there
+in the books.  They may not be serious; the substantial accuracy of the
+writings may be established, but even the slightest inaccuracy
+constitutes a blemish which one would not expect in a work coming
+directly from an all-wise God.  For example, 2 Kings 18. 10 states that
+Samaria was taken in the sixth year of Hezekiah, king of Judah; verse
+13 contains the statement that in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah,
+Sennacherib, king of Assyria, came against Jerusalem.  Now, the date of
+the capture of Samaria is definitely fixed by the Assyrian
+inscriptions.  The city fell either in the closing days of B.C. 722, or
+the beginning of B.C. 721.  Assuming that it was in 722, the fourteenth
+year of Hezekiah would be B.C. 714.  But Sennacherib did not become
+king of Assyria until B.C. 705, while his attack upon Judah and
+Jerusalem was not undertaken until B.C. 701, hence there would seem to
+be an inaccuracy somewhere.  Certainly, since the primary purpose of
+the writings is not historical, but religious, these inaccuracies do
+not affect the real value of the book.  Nevertheless, their presence
+shows that the writings cannot be looked upon as coming in all their
+parts directly from {24} God.  At some point man must have stepped in
+and left marks of his limitations.
+
+More serious perhaps may appear the incompleteness and imperfection of
+the religious and ethical conceptions, especially in the older
+portions.  Read, for example, the twenty-fourth chapter of Second
+Samuel.  Jehovah is there represented as causing David to number the
+people, and when he carried out the command Jehovah was angry and sent
+a pestilence which destroyed, not David, but seventy thousand innocent
+men.  Can any Christian believe that the God of love revealed by Jesus
+ever acted in such arbitrary manner?  No!  The trouble lies with the
+author of the passage, who, on account of his relatively low conception
+of the character of Jehovah, gave an erroneous interpretation of the
+events recorded.  A later writer, who had a truer conception of the God
+of Israel, saw that a mistake had been made; therefore he introduced
+Satan as the one who caused the numbering (1 Chron. 21. 1).  Or take
+the twenty-second chapter of First Kings, especially verses 19 to 23.
+Four hundred prophets of Jehovah urge Ahab to go up against
+Ramoth-gilead.  On the advice of the king of Judah, Micaiah is called,
+who announces, after some hesitation, that the expedition will end
+disastrously.  He then explains how it happened that the other prophets
+told a falsehood: {25} "Therefore hear thou the word of Jehovah: I saw
+Jehovah sitting on his throne, and all the host of heaven standing by
+him on his right hand and on his left.  And Jehovah said, Who shall
+entice Ahab, that he may go up and fall at Ramoth-gilead?  And one said
+on this manner; and another said on that manner.  And there came forth
+a spirit, and stood before Jehovah, and said, I will entice him.  And
+Jehovah said unto him, Wherewith?  And he said, I will go forth, and
+will be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets.  And he said,
+Thou shalt entice him, and shalt prevail also; go forth, and do so.
+_Now therefore, behold, Jehovah hath put a lying spirit in the mouth of
+all these thy prophets_; and Jehovah hath spoken evil concerning thee."
+Can any Christian believe that our God who is infinitely pure and holy
+ever did persuade anyone to tell a lie?  God never changes; he has
+always been pure and holy; but man was not able in the beginning to
+comprehend him in his fullness.  The human conceptions of the divine
+were imperfect and incomplete, and these imperfect conceptions are
+embodied in some of the Old Testament writings.  True, as Bowne
+suggests, "God might conceivably have made man over all at once by
+fiat, but in that case it would have been a magical rather than a moral
+revelation."[2]
+
+Throughout the entire book these and other {26} indications of the
+presence of a human element may be seen, which the reader cannot afford
+to overlook if he would estimate rightly the Old Testament Scriptures.
+But while they are there, they must not blind the eyes of the student
+to the fourth great truth expressed by the writer of the Epistle to the
+Hebrews, namely, that God spoke through these men; in other words, that
+there is also a divine element in the Old Testament.  In the words of
+S. I. Curtis: "While it seems to me that we find abundant evidences of
+development in the Old Testament from very simple concrete
+representations of God to those which are profoundly spiritual, I am
+not able to account for this development on naturalistic principles.
+In it I see God at all times and everywhere coworking with human
+instruments until the fullness of time should come"[3].  The presence
+of this divine element was recognized by Jesus and by all the New
+Testament writers, and surely it is a significant fact that in the
+first outburst of Christian enthusiasm, and under the living impression
+of the unique personality of the Master, no doubt arose concerning the
+inspiration and permanent value of the Old Testament.  With the
+Christian the testimony of Jesus and his disciples carries great
+weight.  But without appealing to his authority every unbiased reader
+may convince himself of the nature and character {27} of the Book; it
+is not necessary to depend upon the testimony of men who lived
+centuries ago, though they were inspired men.  The Book is an open
+book, ready for examination, and inviting the closest scrutiny on the
+part of every reader.
+
+Former generations found the principal arguments in favor of the belief
+in a divine element in the Old Testament in the presence of miracles in
+its records and in the fulfillment of prophecy.  The present generation
+cannot depend upon these arguments exclusively.  The whole question of
+miracles in the Old Testament has assumed a different aspect within
+recent years.  In the first place, it is seen that in some places where
+formerly a miracle was thought to have been wrought natural causes may
+have played a prominent part, as, for example, in the crossing of the
+Red Sea and the Jordan.  In other cases language which used to be
+interpreted literally is now seen to be poetic and imaginative.  In
+still other cases the absolute historical accuracy of certain
+narratives has come to be questioned.  All this has resulted in a
+weakening of the evidence relied upon by former generations.
+Approaching the subject of miracles from another side, a better
+acquaintance with the uniformity of nature and the laws of nature has
+led some to question even the possibility of miracles, while the
+greater emphasis upon the immanence of God has resulted {28} in altered
+conceptions of the natural and supernatural, if not in an almost
+complete obliteration of any distinction between the two.  Since
+miracles are involved in so much uncertainty, they do not at present
+constitute a very strong argument to prove the presence of a divine
+element in the Old Testament to one who is at all skeptically inclined;
+indeed, there are many sincere Christians who find miracles useless as
+an aid to faith.
+
+In a similar manner, one cannot appeal with the same assurance as
+formerly to the fulfillment of prophecy.  It is undoubtedly true that
+many prophetic utterances were fulfilled; it is equally true that some
+were not fulfilled.  If, however, the apologist depends upon the
+fulfillment of prophecy as a proof, the nonfulfillment of even a single
+one weakens his position.  Moreover, it is recognized at present that
+prophecy in the sense of prediction occupies a relatively insignificant
+place in the Old Testament.  Besides, scientific methods of study have
+shown that some passages interpreted formerly as predictions can no
+longer be so interpreted, while in the case of others the
+interpretation is more or less doubtful.  Here, again, the difficulties
+connected with the use of the argument have become so perplexing that
+many consider it wise not to use it at all.  If used with caution,
+prophecy, especially Messianic {29} prophecy, possesses great
+evidential value; but the argument from the fulfillment of prophecy as
+used formerly has lost much of its worth as a proof of inspiration.
+The arguments relied upon at the present time are simpler than those of
+the past, and are of such a nature that any fair-minded student can
+test them.
+
+In the first place, attention may be called to the essential unity of
+the book.  There are in the Old World great and magnificent cathedrals,
+some of which have been centuries in building, yet in all of them may
+be found unity and harmony.  How is this to be explained?  Although
+generation after generation of workmen have labored on the enterprise,
+back of all the efforts was a single plan, evolved in the mind of one
+man, which mind controlled all the succeeding generations of workmen.
+The result is unity and harmony.  The Bible has been likened to a
+magnificent cathedral.  The phenomenon to which reference has been made
+in connection with ancient cathedrals may be seen in the Bible as a
+whole, as also in the Old Testament considered separately.  The latter
+contains thirty-nine books, by how many authors no one knows, scattered
+over a period of more than a thousand years, written, at least some of
+them, independently of one another, in places hundreds of miles apart.
+And yet there is one thought running through them all--the {30} gradual
+unfolding of God's plan of redemption for the human race.  There must
+be an explanation of this unity.  Is it not natural to find it in the
+fact that one and the same divine spirit overshadowed the many men who
+made contributions to the Book?
+
+The proof of the presence of a divine element in the Old Testament
+which is derived from the essential unity of the book, is confirmed by
+the response of the soul to its message, and the effect which it
+produces in the lives of those who yield themselves to its teachings.
+Jesus and his disciples observed that its message rightly applied would
+awaken a response in the human heart; sometimes, indeed, it produced a
+sense of indignation, because it carried with it a sentence of
+condemnation; at other times it led to loving obedience.  And they
+themselves experienced the effects of its teaching upon life and
+character: it was with truths proclaimed in the Old Testament that
+Jesus overcame temptation, and the quotations used in the darkest hours
+of his earthly life are an indication that at all times he found the
+most refreshing soul food in its pages.  The same is true of the early
+disciples of Jesus.  Undoubtedly, the statement in 2 Tim. 3. 15-17 is
+the expression of a living experience; and ever since these words were
+written millions of Christians have experienced the uplifting influence
+of many portions of the {31} Old Testament Scriptures.  They may not
+enjoin the finer graces of Christianity, but they insist most strongly
+and persistently upon the fundamental virtues which go to make up a
+sturdy, noble, righteous, uncompromising character.  A message which
+produces such divine results bears witness to itself that it embodies
+truth which in some sense proceeded from God.  This is aptly stated by
+Coleridge in these words: "Need I say that I have met everywhere more
+or less copious sources of truth and power and purifying impulses, that
+I have found words for my inmost thoughts, songs for my joy, utterances
+for my hidden griefs, and pleadings for my shame and feebleness?  In
+short, whatever finds me, bears witness for itself that it has
+proceeded from a Holy Spirit, even from the same Spirit which remaining
+in itself, yet regenerateth all other powers, and in all ages entering
+into holy souls, maketh them friends of God and prophets."[4]
+
+As long as the Old Testament is able to awaken this response and
+produce these effects men will believe that it contains a divine
+element; and it will accomplish these things whenever men are willing
+to study it intelligently and devoutly.  What the Old Testament calls
+for is not a defense but earnest and devout study.  The words of
+Richard Rothe concerning the Bible as a whole are applicable also to
+the Old Testament Scriptures: {32} "Let the Bible go forth into
+Christendom as it is in itself, as a book like other books, without
+allowing any dogmatic theory to assign it to a reserved position in the
+ranks of books, let it accomplish of itself entirely through its own
+character and through that which each man can find in it for himself,
+and it will accomplish great things."[5]  The words of Professor
+Westphal are also worthy to be remembered: "The only thing for our more
+enlightened religion to bear in mind is that the proof of revelation is
+not necessarily to be found in the formula which claims to herald it,
+but, above all, in the specific value of the thing revealed, in the
+divine character of the inspired Word which forces our conscience to
+recognize in it the expression of God's will itself."[6]
+
+The value and significance of the above argument cannot be
+overestimated.  But during the past century other proofs have become
+available as a result of the careful, painstaking study of the Bible by
+scholars in many lands and from various points of view.  These
+investigations have shown the Old Testament to be a peculiarly unique
+book when compared with other sacred literatures of antiquity.  This
+uniqueness consists principally in the pure and lofty atmosphere which
+permeates the whole from beginning to end.  One may read its stories of
+prehistoric times, its records {33} of history, its law, its poetry,
+its prophecy, and everywhere he will find a religious tone and spirit
+which, if present at all, is much less marked in the similar
+literatures of other nations.  The modern scientific student has
+approached the Old Testament chiefly from four directions, and in the
+pursuit of his work four distinct tests have been applied to the Old
+Testament: the tests of science, of criticism, of archaeology, and of
+comparative religion.  These four tests and their bearing upon the New
+Testament, or Christian, view of the Old Testament are considered in
+the succeeding pages.
+
+Before closing this chapter one important question remains to be
+considered.  It may be formulated in this wise: If there are
+limitations and imperfections in the Old Testament, or anywhere else in
+the Bible, how may they be distinguished from the truth?  In the case
+of historical or scientific errors the method of procedure may appear
+clear to those who hold the New Testament view as to the purpose of the
+Old Testament writers; but the situation seems more troublesome in the
+case of religious and ethical imperfections, because religion and
+ethics are the rightful sphere of the biblical writings.  If the Bible
+is not the final authority, where can be found a criterion by which the
+biblical, or Old Testament, statements may be judged?  Startling as the
+suggestion {34} to judge scriptures may seem in theory, a moment's
+thought will show that it is being done every day by practically every
+Christian who seeks spiritual nourishment in the Sacred Book.  Who has
+not passed through experiences such as are suggested in these words of
+Marcus Dods?--"Who is at the reader's elbow as he peruses Exodus and
+Leviticus to tell him what is of permanent authority and what is for
+the Mosaic economy only?  Who whispers as we read Genesis and Kings,
+'This is exemplary; this is not'?  Who sifts for us the speeches of
+Job, and enables us to treasure up as divine truth what he utters in
+one verse, while we reject the next as Satanic ravings?  Who gives the
+preacher authority and accuracy of aim to pounce on a sound text in
+Ecclesiastes, while wisdom and folly toss and roll over one another in
+confusingly rapid and inextricable contortions?  What enables the
+humblest Christian to come safely through the cursing Psalms and go
+straight to forgive his enemy?  What tells us that we may eat things
+strangled, though the whole college of apostles deliberately and
+expressly prohibited such eating?  Who assures us that we need not
+anoint the sick with oil, although in the New Testament we are
+explicitly commanded to do so?  In a word, how is it that the simplest
+reader can be trusted with the Bible and can be left to find his own
+{35} spiritual nourishment in it, rejecting almost as much as he
+receives?"[7]  These questions call attention to a common Christian
+practice.  But, if the practice can be justified as Christian, the
+principle underlying the practice may be Christian also; and so it is,
+for it is recognized as legitimate in the New Testament.
+
+A single sentence from a New Testament book suggests the answer to the
+above questions: "He that is spiritual judgeth all things."[8]  The
+Scriptures are included among the "all things."  But notice, Paul does
+not say that anyone may set himself up as judge, but "he that is
+spiritual"; that is, the man who is controlled by the spirit of the
+Christ.  If Jesus has given to the world the highest revelation of God
+and truth, then the expressions of all other revelations must be
+measured by his revelation, either as an external standard, or as an
+inner criterion by him who, in his own experience, has appropriated the
+character, spirit, and life of Jesus.  He who has thus appropriated the
+Christ in his fullness will be able to judge all things.  But until he
+has reached that standard man's judgment will remain imperfect and more
+or less unreliable, and though for his own guidance he is still
+dependent upon it, he must guard against the error of setting up his
+own imperfect Christian consciousness as the ultimate criterion for all.
+
+{36}
+
+Up to the present time no individual has reached the stage of
+experience where he may be appealed to as final authority for all.
+Perhaps the sum total of the general Christian consciousness would
+prove a more reliable guide, or the Church in so far as it embodies
+this consciousness.  But it also still falls short of its final glory.
+It is in the process of development toward perfection, but it has not
+yet reached that stage, and will not reach it until the consciousness
+of every individual contributing to it reflects the consciousness of
+Jesus himself.  Then, and then only, can it be appealed to as an
+ultimate criterion in matters religious or Christian, including the
+specific question under consideration: What in the Old Testament is
+from God, and so, permanent, and what is due to the human limitations
+of the authors, and so, temporary and local?
+
+It seems, therefore, necessary to appeal at the present time to what
+may be called, in a sense, an external standard: the spirit, the
+teaching, and the life of Jesus as it may be determined objectively
+from the gospel records.  The supreme position occupied by Jesus the
+Christ in Christian thinking is well described by W. N. Clarke: "He
+[Jesus Christ] has shown God as he is in his character and relations
+with men.  He has represented life in its true meaning, and opened to
+us the real way to genuine welfare and success in existence.  {37} What
+he has made known commends and proves itself as true by the manner in
+which it fits into the human scheme, meets human needs, and renders
+thought rational and life successful.  God eternally is such a being as
+Jesus represents him to be--this is the heart of Christianity, to be
+apprehended, not first in thought but first in life and love, and this
+is forever true.  And it is a revelation never to be superseded, but
+forever to be better and better known."[9]  By this standard, called by
+Clarke the Christian element in the Bible, the Old Testament teaching
+must be measured; and by the application of this standard alone is it
+possible to separate the human from the divine and to estimate rightly
+the permanent value of Old or New Testament teaching.  Whatever in the
+Scriptures endures this test may be received as of permanent religious
+value, because it is divine in the deepest sense.
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER I
+
+[1] Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old Testament, p. 19.
+
+[2] Studies in Christianity, p. 73.
+
+[3] Primitive Semitic Religions To-day, p. 14.
+
+[4] Letters on the Inspiration of the Scriptures, Letter I.
+
+[5] Quoted in the Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, p. 84.
+
+[6] The Law and the Prophets, p. 16.
+
+[7] The Bible, Its Origin and Nature, pp. 160, 161.
+
+[8] 1 Cor. 2. 15.
+
+[9] The Use of the Scriptures in Theology, pp. 51, 52.
+
+
+
+
+{38}
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN SCIENCE
+
+For many centuries during the Christian era science was almost
+completely dominated by theology.  Whenever, therefore, a scientific
+investigator proposed views not in accord with the theological notions
+of the age he was considered a heretic and condemned as such.  During
+these same centuries theology was dominated by a view of the Bible
+which valued the latter as an infallible authority in every realm of
+human thought.  The view of the Bible held then was expressed as late
+as 1861 in these words: "The Bible is none other than the voice of Him
+that sitteth upon the throne.  Every book of it, every chapter of it,
+every verse of it, every word of it, every syllable of it (where are we
+to stop?), every letter of it, is the direct utterance of the Most
+High.  The Bible is none other than the word of God; not some part of
+it more, some part of it less, but all alike, the utterance of Him who
+sitteth upon the throne, faultless, unerring, supreme."[1]  A book
+which came thus directly from the mind of God must be inerrant and
+infallible; hence closely associated with this mechanical view of {39}
+the divine origin of the Bible was the belief in its absolute inerrancy
+and infallibility.  This is clearly recognized in the words of two
+eminent American theologians: "The historical faith of the Church has
+always been that the affirmations of the scriptures of all kinds,
+whether of spiritual doctrine or duty, or of physical or historical
+fact, or of psychological or philosophical principle, are without any
+error, when the _ipsissima verba_ of the autographs are ascertained and
+interpreted in their natural and intended sense."[2]
+
+With such an estimate of the Bible it is only natural that theology
+should bitterly resent any and all scientific conclusions which seemed
+to be contrary to the statements of the Bible.  However, a study of the
+history of Bible interpretation creates a serious perplexity.  The
+principles upon which the interpretations rested were not the same in
+all ages.  As a result, the "natural and intended sense" of biblical
+statements was variously apprehended.  What was considered the clear
+teaching of Scripture in one age might be condemned as unscriptural in
+another.  Moreover, some of the methods of interpretation are not
+calculated to inspire confidence in the results.  When, for example,
+the poetic passage,
+
+  Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon,
+  And thou, moon, in the valley of Aijalon.
+  And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed,[3]
+
+{40} is considered sufficient to discredit the scientific claim that
+the earth moves around the sun, rather than the sun around the earth,
+one's confidence in the truth of the theological view is somewhat
+shaken.  It may be insisted, then, that much of the so-called conflict
+between science and the Bible was in reality a conflict between science
+and a misinterpreted Bible.
+
+This, even theology seems to have recognized, for again and again it
+changed its interpretation of the Bible so as to bring it into accord
+with the persistent claims of science.  "The history of most modern
+sciences," says Farrar, "has been as follows: their discoverers have
+been proscribed, anathematized, and, in every possible instance,
+silenced or persecuted; yet before a generation has passed the
+champions of a spurious orthodoxy have had to confess that their
+interpretations were erroneous; and--for the most part without an
+apology and without a blush--have complacently invented some new line
+of exposition by which the phrases of Scripture can be squared into
+semblable accordance with the now acknowledged fact."[4]
+
+The so-called historical method of Bible study, which has gradually won
+its way, at least in Protestant Christianity, has established Bible
+interpretation upon a firmer foundation, so that at present much less
+uncertainty exists as to the {41} meaning of the Bible than at any
+preceding age.  In the same way scientific investigation has made
+remarkable strides during the nineteenth century; Twentieth century
+science is far different from that of the early years of the preceding
+century.  And as scientists have had to surrender many of their
+positions in the past it is very probable that, as the result of
+further investigation, some views held at present will be superseded by
+others.  Nevertheless, though science cannot as yet dispense with
+working hypotheses which may or may not prove true, and though
+modifications in certain widely accepted views may be expected, there
+are many conclusions which may be considered firmly established.  This
+being the case, if at the present time the conflict between science and
+the Bible is discussed, it is a conflict between scientific conclusions
+reached after prolonged, careful study and investigation and the
+teaching of the Bible as determined by the scientific use of all
+legitimate means of interpretation.
+
+Does such conflict exist?  Many geologists, astronomers, biologists,
+and other scientists have claimed for some time that they have reached
+conclusions not in accord with certain statements of the Bible.  Take
+as an illustration the biblical and scientific statements concerning
+the age of the earth, or creation in general.[5]  The general
+conclusion reached by an overwhelming majority {42} of the most
+competent students of the Bible has been that according to the
+information furnished by the Scriptures, the date of creation was, in
+round numbers, four thousand years before the opening of the Christian
+era.[6]  At that time, in the words of the Westminster Confession,[7]
+"It pleased God ... to create or make of nothing the world and all
+things therein whether visible or invisible in the space of six days
+and all very good."  This was accepted as the plain teaching of the
+first chapter of Genesis even after scientific methods had been
+introduced in the study of the Bible.  Then came geology, pushing back
+the "beginnings," adding millions of years to the age of the globe, and
+insisting that there is abundant evidence to prove the existence of
+life upon earth many millenniums before B.C. 4,000.  Other sciences
+reached conclusions pointing in the same direction, until it became
+perfectly evident that Bible students must reckon with what seemed a
+real conflict between the conclusions of science and the teaching of
+the Bible.
+
+No wonder Bible lovers were troubled when scientists in ever-increasing
+numbers advanced claims that appeared to involve a charge of scientific
+inaccuracy against the Sacred Scriptures.  Many were convinced that
+this could not be, for they feared that if the Bible contained
+inaccuracies of any sort, its value would be {43} completely destroyed,
+and with the Bible Christianity must fall into ruins.  In Brother
+Anthony, intended to picture the perplexed soul of a monk in the days
+of Galileo, Mark Guy Pearse gives a vivid portrayal of the doubts and
+perplexities of many devout Bible students in the nineteenth century:
+
+  But on my fevered heart there falls no balm;
+  The garden of my soul, where happy birds
+  Sang in the fullness of their joy, and bloomed
+  The flowers bright, finds only winter now;
+  And bleak winds moan about the leafless trees,
+  And chill rains beat to earth the rotting stalks.
+  Hope, Faith, and God, alike are gone, all gone--
+  If it be so, as this Galileo saith.
+  "_The earth is round and moves about the sun;
+  The sun,_" he saith, "_is still, the axle fixed
+  Of nature's wheel, center of all the worlds_."
+  Galileo is an honest soul, God knows--
+  No end has he to serve but only truth,
+  By that which he declares, daring to risk
+  Position, liberty, and even life itself.  He knows.
+  And yet the ages have believed it not.
+  Have they not meditated, watched, and prayed--
+  Great souls with vision purged and purified?
+  Had God no messenger until arose
+  Galileo!  Long years the Church has prayed,
+  Seeking His grace who guided into truth,
+  And weary eyes have watched the sun and stars,
+  And heard the many voices that proclaim
+  God's hidden ways--did they believe a lie?
+  The Church's holy fathers, were they wrong?
+  Yet speaks Galileo as one who knows.
+
+  Shrinks all my soul from breathing any word
+  That dares to question God's most holy Book,
+
+{44}
+
+  As men beneath an avalanche pass dumb
+  For fear a sound should bring destruction down.
+  If but a jot or tittle of the Word
+  Do pass away, then is all lost.  And yet
+  If what Galileo maintains be true!--
+  "_The sun itself moves not_."  The Scripture tells
+  At Joshua's command the sun stood still.
+  Doth scripture lie?  The blessed Lord himself,
+  Spake he not of the sun that rose and set!
+  So cracks and cleaves the ground beneath my feet.
+
+  The sun that fills and floods the world with light
+  My darkness and confusion hath become!
+  O God, as here about the old gray walls
+  The ivy clings and twines its arms, and finds
+  A strength by which it rises from the earth
+  And mounts toward heaven, then gladly flings
+  Its grateful crown of greenery round the height,
+  So by thy Word my all uncertain soul
+  Hath mounted toward thy heaven, and brought
+  Its love, its all, wherewith to crown my Lord.
+  Alas, the wall is fallen.  Beneath it crushed
+  The clinging ivy lies; its stronghold once
+  Is now the prison house, the cruel grave.[8]
+
+
+Since the scientific position seemed to many devout believers to
+undermine the Christian faith, it is not altogether strange that they
+should set themselves against these claims with all their might, though
+it may be difficult to justify the bitterness displayed by many
+Christian ministers in the denunciation of even devout Christian
+scientists, as "infidels," "impugners of the sacred records,"
+"assailants of the Word of God," etc.  It is hardly credible that
+during the enlightened {45} nineteenth century geology should be
+denounced as "not a subject of lawful inquiry," "a dark art,"
+"dangerous and disreputable," "a forbidden province," "infernal
+artillery," "an awful evasion of the testimony of revelation."
+
+But the progress of science could not be blocked by denunciation, and
+gradually the claims of geology, astronomy, and other sciences
+respecting the great age of the earth came to be accepted as well
+established.  Is, then, the scientific teaching of the Bible false?  By
+no means, said many defenders of the faith; on the contrary, there is
+perfect agreement between science and the Bible, provided the latter is
+rightly interpreted.  The first problem was to extend what was commonly
+taken to be the biblical teaching respecting the age of the earth so as
+to meet the demands of geology.  This was readily done by interpreting
+"day" figuratively as meaning an indefinite period.  It could easily be
+shown that in some passages "day" did not mean a day of twenty-four
+hours.  Hence, why not interpret the word metaphorically in Gen. 1?  It
+is safe to say that, had it not been for a desire to harmonize the
+biblical account with the conclusions of science, no Bible student
+would ever have thought of this interpretation in connection with the
+acts of creation, for a natural interpretation of the writer's language
+makes it evident that when the author of Gen. 1 speaks {46} of the
+successive events of creation he is thinking of days of twenty-four
+hours, each consisting of day and night.[9]  Marcus Dods is right when
+he says, "If the word 'day' in these chapters does not mean a period of
+twenty-four hours, the interpretation of scripture is hopeless."[10]
+No permanent good can come from doing violence to plain statements of
+the Bible by the use of methods of interpretation that would be
+considered illegitimate in the study of other literary productions.  In
+all the harmonizing efforts this caution has been overlooked.  The
+believer in revelation, thinking that the agreement between science and
+the Bible must be minute, has yielded to the temptation to twist the
+biblical record into a new meaning with every fresh discovery of
+science.  Many scientists were repelled by this arbitrary method, and
+when they saw that agreement could not be had by legitimate methods,
+and knew of no other way out of the difficulty, they too frequently
+assumed a hostile attitude toward revelation.  A method leading to such
+disastrous results cannot be considered altogether satisfactory.
+
+Granting, however, for the sake of argument, the possibility of
+interpreting "day" metaphorically, the troubles are by no means ended,
+for it is impossible to discover clearly defined periods in the
+geological records such as are presupposed in the biblical record.  But
+there is a more serious {47} difficulty.  The order in which the
+different living beings and the heavenly bodies are said in Genesis to
+have been created does not seem to be the same as that suggested by
+geology and astronomy.  For example, according to Genesis, fishes and
+birds appeared together on the fifth day, preceding all land animals,
+which are said to have been created on the sixth day.  According to
+geology, fish and numerous species of land animals, especially reptiles
+living on land, preceded birds.[11]  Moreover, according to Genesis,
+the sun, moon, and stars were created after the earth, a view which is
+altogether inconsistent with the modern scientific view of the
+universe, and of the part the sun plays in plant and animal life upon
+earth.  True, this last difficulty is avoided by some by giving to
+certain Hebrew words a meaning which they do not ordinarily have.  For
+example, it is said, "Let there be" (verse 14) means "Let there
+appear"; "God made" (verse 16) means "God made to appear," or "God
+appointed," to a specific office.  With this interpretation, it is
+stated, Genesis says nothing about the formation or creation of the
+luminaries.  They may have existed for a long time, only on the fourth
+day they were made to appear--the vapor around the earth having
+previously hidden them--and were appointed to the offices mentioned in
+verses 14 to 18.  No one will claim that this is a natural {48}
+interpretation of the biblical language.  If the writer meant "Let
+there appear," he could have found a suitable word in Hebrew, as also
+to express the idea "appoint."  The language of Driver is not too
+strong: "Verses fourteen to eighteen cannot be legitimately interpreted
+except as implying that in the conception of the writer luminaries had
+not previously existed, and that they were made and set in their places
+in the heavens after the separation of sea and land and the appearance
+of vegetation upon the earth."[12]
+
+Various attempts have been made to escape the difficulty caused by the
+conclusions of geology as to the order in which different forms of life
+have appeared upon earth.  These conclusions are based chiefly upon the
+presence of fossil remains imbedded in the different strata of the
+earth's surface.  Passing by the earlier explanations--for example,
+that these fossil remains were placed there by a direct act of God on
+one of the creative days for some mysterious purpose, perhaps for the
+trial of human faith, or that they were due to the ravages of the
+Deluge--reference may be made to two or three of the more recent
+"scientific" attempts to harmonize the facts of science with the
+statements of Genesis.  There is, first of all, the _restitution_
+theory advocated by J. H. Kurtz and Thomas Chalmers.[13]  Admitting
+that the fossil remains are important for the determination {49} of the
+age of the earth and the order in which different forms of life
+appeared upon the globe, Kurtz writes: "The animal and vegetable world
+which lies buried in the stratified formations was not that which,
+according to the Bible, was created respectively on the third, fifth,
+and sixth days.  Its origin must belong to an earlier period."[14]  In
+other words, his view is that "the main description in Genesis does not
+relate to the geological periods at all; that room is left for these
+periods between verse one and verse two; that the life which then
+flourished upon the earth was brought to an end by a catastrophe, the
+results of which are alluded to in verse two; and that what follows
+(verses 3ff.) is the description of a second creation immediately
+preceding the appearance of man."  That this view is due to a desire to
+harmonize the biblical account with science is clearly implied in the
+words of Kurtz intended to meet the charge of Delitzsch that his view
+is "pure delusion."  "It is," says Kurtz, "merely a delusion to attempt
+identifying the creation of the primeval fossil flora and fauna with
+those of the third, fifth, and sixth days, _and at the same time to
+endeavor harmonizing geology and the Bible_."  Not to speak of the
+astronomical difficulty referred to above, which remains, science has
+nothing whatever to offer in support of this theory, while, on the
+other {50} hand, the tenor of the Genesis narrative implies such close
+connection between verse one and verse two that there is no room for
+the alleged catastrophe.  It is not strange, therefore, that modern
+apologists have discarded the restitution hypothesis.
+
+The _vision_ theory has been presented most forcefully by Hugh
+Miller.[15]  According to this view "the narrative was not meant to
+describe the actual succession of events, but was the description of a
+series of visions presented prophetically to the narrator's mental eye,
+and representing, not the first appearance of each species of life upon
+the globe, but its maximum development.  The 'drama of creation,' it is
+said, is not described as it was enacted historically, but _optically_,
+as it would present itself to a spectator in a series of pictures or
+tableaux embodying the most characteristic and conspicuous feature of
+each period, and, as it were, summarizing in miniature its results."
+
+Though this view was presented with much eloquence and skill, it has
+been unable to maintain its position, simply because it is based upon
+an unnatural interpretation of the biblical record.  No one approaching
+Genesis without a theory to defend would think for a moment that he is
+reading the description of a vision.  The only natural interpretation
+is that the author means to record what he considers actual fact.
+Moreover, {51} where in Scripture could there be found an analogy to
+this mode of procedure?  The revelation of an unknown past to a
+historian or prophet seems not in accord with the ordinary method of
+God's revelations to men.  But, admitting the possibility of this
+method of divine communication, why should the picture thus presented
+to the mind of the author differ so widely from the facts uncovered by
+geologists?
+
+Similar attempts to harmonize Genesis with geology have been made by
+other geologists, among them Professor Alexander Winchell,[16] Sir J.
+W. Dawson,[17] and Professor J. D. Dana.[18]  The results are perfectly
+satisfactory to these writers, but they fail to see that in order to
+accomplish their purpose they must have recourse to unnatural
+interpretations of the Genesis account, which in itself is sufficient
+evidence to show the hopelessness of the task.  A similar judgment must
+be passed on the more recent attempt by F. H. Capron[19] to bring the
+biblical account into harmony with the modern theory of evolution.
+Capron is fully convinced that "the most rudimentary knowledge of
+geology is sufficient to satisfy any candid critic that the Genesis
+narrative as interpreted by any one of them[20] cannot be brought into
+harmony with the admitted facts of science."  He, therefore, attempts a
+new harmony by trying to show that the first chapter of Genesis {52}
+gives only the order in which the creative words were uttered, not the
+order in which the resulting effects were produced.  Unfortunately, in
+accomplishing this purpose, he, like his predecessors, reveals an
+almost complete disregard for the obvious meaning of the Genesis
+narrative.
+
+After a close study of the Genesis narrative and the numerous attempts
+of harmonizing it with science, the present writer has become
+thoroughly convinced that it is impossible to establish a complete,
+detailed harmony between the Genesis account of creation and the
+established facts of science without doing violence to the Bible or to
+science or to both.  The only harmony possible is what has been called
+an "ideal harmony," that is, a harmony not extending to details, but
+limited to salient features.  But this gives away the very position for
+which the "harmonists" have contended.  As Driver says, "If the
+relative priority of plants and animals, or the period at which the sun
+and moon were formed, are amongst the details on which harmony cannot
+be established, what other statement (in the account of creation) can
+claim acceptance on the ground that it forms part of the narrative of
+Genesis?"[21]
+
+Admitting now the presence of discrepancies between science and the Old
+Testament, what becomes of the Old Testament?[22]  Must it be {53}
+discarded as no longer "profitable for teaching, for reproof, for
+correction, for instruction which is in righteousness"?  Some there are
+who seem to fear such fate for the book they dearly love.  On the other
+hand, there are multitudes who calmly admit the claims of science, and
+at the same time continue to read and study the pages of the Old
+Testament, assured that it can still furnish nourishment to their
+spiritual natures.  This attitude of confidence has been made possible,
+on the one hand, by a broader and truer conception of divine
+revelation, and, on the other, by a more adequate interpretation of the
+purpose of the Bible and of the biblical writers.
+
+Believers in God have come to realize as never before that God has
+spoken and still speaks in a variety of ways.  Manifestations of God
+may be seen on every hand:
+
+  The heavens declare the glory of God;
+  And the firmament showeth his handiwork.
+  Day unto day uttereth speech,
+  And night unto night showeth knowledge.[23]
+
+What is the universe but a manifestation of God?  The whole realm of
+nature is in a real sense a record of divine revelations, which science
+seeks to interpret.  "Now," says A. H. McNeile,[24] "If God created all
+things and carries the universe along by the utterance of his power, it
+is clear that every fresh item of knowledge gained by {54} scientific
+investigation is a fresh glimpse into the will of God.  Strictly
+speaking, there is no such thing as secular knowledge.  A man only
+makes his studies secular for himself as he divorces them from the
+thought of God, so that all the scientific experiments in the world
+form part of the study of one aspect of God's Word."
+
+On the other hand the purpose of scripture has come to be more
+adequately apprehended.  The New Testament makes it perfectly clear
+that the aim of the Old Testament Scriptures is to bring man into
+harmony with God, to make him morally and spiritually perfect, and to
+point to the consummation of the redemptive purpose of God in and
+through the Christ.[25]  There is no warrant anywhere for the belief
+that the Old Testament writers meant to teach science of any kind.
+This is admitted even by some who insist upon the accuracy of the
+scientific teaching of the Bible.  "It is true that the Scriptures were
+not designed to teach philosophy, science, or ethnology, or human
+history as such, and therefore they are not to be studied primarily as
+sources of information on these subjects."[26]  Evidently, then,
+wherever the Old Testament touches upon questions of science it treats
+them only in so far as they serve a higher ethical or spiritual
+purpose.  Is it necessary to have absolute scientific accuracy in every
+detail in order to do this {55} effectively?  A moment's thought will
+show that it is not.  The writer heard not long ago a powerful appeal
+on behalf of the boys in a certain community, in which the speaker
+referred to the "Gracchi, the most renowned citizens of Athens."  The
+historical inaccuracy in no wise affected the moral force of the
+appeal.  No one would be foolish enough to assume that the spiritual
+and ethical value of sermons preached by the early Church fathers is
+invalidated by the fanciful science mixed with their gospel message.
+Who has not heard sermons that created a profound spiritual impression,
+though their science and history were not altogether faultless?  It
+would seem, then, that in estimating extra-biblical utterances the
+principle is recognized that "ignorance of some departments of truth
+does not disqualify a man for knowing and imparting truth about God;
+that in order to be a medium of revelation a man does not need to be in
+advance of his age in secular learning; that intimate communion with
+God, a spirit trained to discern spiritual things, a perfect
+understanding of and zeal for God's purpose are qualities quite
+independent of a knowledge of the discoveries of science."[27]
+
+Is it right to raise a different standard for the Scriptures?
+"Certainly," say many, "because the Bible is inspired; it is the Word
+of God, and God cannot inspire an untruth of any kind." {56} Now, it
+may be readily admitted that God cannot inspire an untruth; but have we
+any right to argue as if we knew exactly how God ought to convey a
+revelation to man?  Without entering upon a discussion of the entire
+subject of inspiration, the question may be raised whether or not
+inspiration covers purely scientific information.  The claim has been
+put forth by some who believe that the Bible and science are in perfect
+agreement that this agreement "proves that the scientific element of
+scripture as well as the doctrinal was within the scope of
+inspiration."[28]  Consistency might seem to require the admission that
+disagreement would prove that the scientific element does not fall
+within the scope of inspiration.  At any rate, it is of enormous
+importance to remember, what should be a perfectly obvious principle,
+that the facts presented in the Bible must determine the answer to the
+inquiry.  In other words, "We can learn what the Bible is only from
+what the Bible itself says."[29]
+
+One thing is quite certain, namely, that the Bible makes not the
+slightest claim of being a scientific treatise complete and
+up-to-date.[30]  It is equally true that it does not deny being such a
+treatise, hence the inquirer is thrown back upon a study of the facts
+presented in the Bible; and upon the basis of these he must determine
+whether or not there is reason for believing that scientific {57}
+knowledge comes within the scope of inspiration.  Now, the abstract
+possibility of God communicating to man a knowledge of exact scientific
+facts in a prescientific age need not be denied.  It is, however, a
+question whether God could have communicated such facts to man three
+thousand years ago without robbing him of his personality and changing
+him into a mechanism.  So far as the ways of God are known from
+experience, observation, history, and other sources, he has always
+treated with respect and consideration the powers and faculties of his
+chief creature.  "Had inspired men," says Dods,[31] "introduced into
+their writings information which anticipated the discoveries of
+science, their state of mind would be inconceivable, and revelation
+would be a source of confusion.  God's methods are harmonious with one
+another, and as he has given men natural faculties to acquire
+scientific knowledge and historical information, he did not stultify
+this gift by imparting such knowledge in a miraculous and
+unintelligible manner."  The same truth is expressed by H. E. Ryle in
+these words: "We do not expect instruction upon matters of physical
+inquiry from revelation in the written Word.  God's other gifts to men,
+of learning, perseverance, calculation, and the like, have been and are
+a true source of revelation.  But scripture supplies no short cut for
+the intellect.  Where {58} man's intellectual powers may hope to attain
+to the truth, be it in the region of historical, scientific, and
+critical study, we have no warrant to expect an anticipation of results
+through the interposition of supernatural instruction in the letter of
+scripture....  Scripture is divinely inspired, not to release men from
+the toil of mental inquiry, but to lead and instruct their souls in
+things of eternal salvation."[32]  This is not an arbitrary limitation
+of the scope of inspiration; it is a conclusion based upon a careful
+consideration of the facts of science and of the Bible, which seem to
+furnish sufficient evidence that the biblical writers were not in any
+marked degree in advance of their age in the knowledge of physical
+facts or laws.  In other words, the Bible is primarily a book of
+religion, hence religion, and not science, is to be looked for in its
+pages.  Altogether too much time has been spent in an effort to find in
+it scientific truth in a scientific form.  Such attempts clearly
+disregard the purpose of the biblical writers as interpreted in the New
+Testament.
+
+And could a Divine Providence have chosen a different method?  Even now
+discoveries follow one another so fast in the realm of science that no
+book remains a standard work for more than a few years.  It seems
+obvious, therefore, that a book written thousands of years ago could
+not remain a standard scientific work for all times.  {59} But assuming
+for the sake of argument that God had communicated the knowledge of
+scientific facts to these writers--evidence for which is entirely
+lacking--what would have been the result?  Later occurrences suggest
+what might have happened.  The great mass of people would have looked
+upon teachers of strange science as heretics and madmen, and would have
+rejected not only their scientific teaching but their religious
+teaching as well.  What a loss that would have been to mankind!  No
+serious loss would come to men if they were left a while longer in
+ignorance concerning scientific matters, but very serious loss would
+come to them by continuing in their lower religious and ethical beliefs
+and practices.  The only way to make the higher religious truth
+understood was to present it in a form easily apprehended by the
+people.  To do this is the chief purpose of the primitive,
+_prescientific science_ of the Old Testament Scriptures.
+
+The peculiar element in scripture is the spirit and religious
+atmosphere which permeate all its parts and give to the Bible a unique
+place among the literatures of the world.  This is the divine element
+due to inspiration.  It is this element which establishes a gulf
+between the Hebrew account of creation and the cosmologies of other
+nations.  Though the biblical writers had very much the same idea about
+the form and general {60} arrangement of the visible world as we find
+among other peoples--ideas that have satisfied at all times the
+majority of men even among nations with a pretense to culture, namely,
+the cosmology of appearances--these ideas were all connected with their
+sublime faith in Jehovah: to his omnipotence they referred the
+existence of the world, and they made all its changes depend entirely
+on his will.  In their monotheistic religion they secured the
+foundation of a clear and simple cosmology different from the grotesque
+cosmologies of other nations and yet not beyond the demands of men of a
+primitive type and of simple mind, who were full of a lively
+imagination, but not much accustomed to analyze phenomena or their
+causes.
+
+In this connection it may prove helpful to remember what, according to
+the biblical viewpoint and in the light of history, was the
+contribution of Israel to the development of the human race.  "Israel,"
+says G. W. Jordan,[33] "is comparatively young, politically it is
+provincial, socially it is not brilliant, in the realm of science it is
+narrow and dependent; yet when we lay stress on these limitations we
+only cause the peculiar glory of this nation's life to stand out more
+clearly; it has its own individuality; its real leaders are men of
+genius, their ambition is to speak in the name of the eternal king;
+they {61} hear the divine message and claim for it the supreme
+significance."  This is the judgment of a Bible student.  The same
+truth is expressed in the words of one who approaches the Bible from
+the viewpoint of the scientist, namely, the eminent Italian astronomer,
+Schiaparelli[34]: "Their [the Hebrews] natural gifts, as well as the
+course of events, carried them to a different mission [from that of
+Greece and Rome] of no smaller importance--that of purifying the
+religious sentiment and of preparing the way for monotheism.  Of this
+way they mark the first clear traces.  In the laborious accomplishment
+of this great task Israel lived, suffered, and completely exhausted
+itself.  Israel's history, legislation, and literature were essentially
+coordinated toward this end; science and art were for Israel of
+secondary importance.  No wonder, therefore, that the steps of the
+Jews' advance in the field of scientific conceptions and speculations
+were small and feeble; no wonder that in such respects they were easily
+vanquished by their neighbors on the Nile and the Euphrates."
+
+In conclusion: Permanent harmony between science and the Bible will be
+secured when each is assigned to its legitimate sphere.  Science has a
+right to ask that, if men are seeking purely scientific information,
+they should turn to recent text-books in geology, astronomy, or the
+other {62} sciences.  But in the sphere to which Jesus and the New
+Testament writers assigned the Old Testament science cannot deny or
+seriously question its inspiration or permanent value.  Unprejudiced
+science has never done this.  It is perfectly ready to recognize the
+inestimable religious and ethical value of even those Old Testament
+narratives which refer to scientific facts, not because of their
+scientific teaching, but because of the presence of eternal truth in
+the crude form of primitive science.  Fair-minded scientists readily
+admit that if anyone wishes to know what connection the world has with
+God, if he seeks to trace back all that now is to the very fountain
+head of life, if he desires to discover some unifying principle, some
+illuminating purpose in the history of the world, he may still turn to
+the early chapters of Genesis as a safe guide.
+
+What, then, is the bearing of the conclusions of modern science upon
+the permanent value of the Old Testament?  Science has compelled the
+Bible student to withdraw the attention from the nonessential and
+secondary, and to concentrate it upon the heart and substance.  In
+doing this it has established upon a much firmer basis the conviction
+that, whatever the scientific value of scripture may be or may not be,
+the apostle was right when he wrote that "the sacred writings ... are
+able to make wise unto salvation through {63} faith which is in Christ
+Jesus.  Every scripture inspired of God is also profitable for
+teaching, for reproof, for correction, for instruction which is in
+righteousness: that the man of God may be complete, furnished
+completely unto every good work."[35]
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER II
+
+[1] Burgon, Inspiration and Interpretation, p. 89.
+
+[2] Presbyterian Review, 1881, p. 238.
+
+[3] Josh. 10. 12.
+
+[4] The Bible--Its Meaning and Supremacy, p. 160.
+
+[5] In a brief treatment it seems preferable to confine the discussion
+to a specific concrete case; therefore this chapter deals almost
+exclusively with questions centering around the subject of cosmogony.
+
+[6] The margin of the Authorized Version still gives the chronology of
+Archbishop Ussher to that effect.
+
+[7] Chapter IV, 1.
+
+[8] The Expositor, 1902, pp. 159, 160.
+
+[9] It requires but a reading of the "proofs" of the opposite view to
+understand their weakness.  Compare Expositor, 1886, pp. 287-289.
+
+[10] The book of Genesis, p. 4.
+
+[11] Another difficulty has been found in the statement of Genesis that
+"vegetation" was complete two days before animal life appeared, but the
+disagreement is more apparent than real.  The geological record, it is
+true, shows many more animal than plant remains in the very ancient
+rocks.  It was not until Devonian and Carboniferous times that the
+plants became very abundant, as far as the geological records go.
+Indeed, in the oldest rocks in which animal remains occur, no plant
+remains have been discovered.  However, this is not to be {64} taken as
+proving that animals existed before plants, because low forms of the
+latter, having no hard parts, would be preserved with difficulty.
+Moreover, in some of the primitive forms, it is not easy to distinguish
+plants from animals.  But, apart from the records in the rocks, both
+biologists and geologists believe that plants existed as early as
+animals, if not earlier, for the latter needed the former to live upon.
+An eminent geologist, Professor U. S. Grant, of Northwestern
+University, has expressed his opinion to the writer in these words: "It
+seems to me that, viewed in an abstract way, the Genesis statement of
+vegetation appearing before animal life is not far from correct."
+
+[12] The Book of Genesis, p. 25.
+
+[13] Natural Theology, Vol. I, pp. 229, 230.
+
+[14] History of the Old Covenant, Vol. I, p. cxxix.
+
+[15] The Testimony of the Rocks, Lecture IV.
+
+[16] Reconciliation of Science and Religion, pp. 356ff.; compare also
+Pre-Adamites, _passim_.
+
+[17] Origin of the World According to Revelation and Science, _passim_.
+
+[18] Bibliotheca Sacra, 1885, pp. 201ff.
+
+[19] The Conflict of Truth, pp. 162ff.
+
+[20] Kurtz, Miller, Dawson, Dana, and the rest.
+
+[21] Expositor, 1886, p. 38.
+
+[22] The writer wants it clearly understood that an "ideal," harmony,
+as described above, can be established.  He is equally certain,
+however, that the harmony cannot be carried into details.
+
+[23] Psa. 19. 1, 2.
+
+[24] Expository Times, October, 1907, p. 20.
+
+[25] See above, Chapter I, p. 12.
+
+[26] Presbyterian Review, 1881, p. 239.
+
+[27] Marcus Dods, The Book of Genesis, pp. 4, 5.
+
+[28] Presbyterian Review, 1881, p. 239.
+
+[29] Expository Times, October, 1907, p. 20.
+
+{65}
+
+[30] Surely, there is not the slightest claim in Scripture that Moses
+or any other biblical writer received divine information concerning the
+beginnings of the universe; nor is there anything to support the
+assumption that the account of creation was supernaturally revealed to
+Adam, and that from him it was transmitted word for word through the
+families of the pious antediluvians, of Noah, Shem, Abraham, Isaac,
+Jacob, etc., until it was finally received and committed to writing by
+Moses.
+
+[31] The Book of Genesis, p. 5.
+
+[32] H. E. Ryle, The Early Narratives of Genesis, pp. 5, 6.
+
+[33] Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, p. 90.
+
+[34] Astronomy in the Old Testament, p. 1.
+
+[35] 2 Tim. 3. 15-17; on the permanent value and significance of the
+Genesis narratives; see also below, pp. 234ff.
+
+
+
+
+{66}
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND MODERN CRITICISM
+
+No careful observer can doubt that modern criticism has exerted a
+marked influence upon the attitude of many Christian people toward the
+Bible.  Both those in sympathy with new ideas and those opposed to them
+frequently speak of the crisis which this criticism has brought about.
+"It does seem," says John E. McFadyen, a believer in the methods and
+results of modern criticism, "that the Church to-day in all her
+branches is face to face with a crisis of the most serious kind."[1]
+On the other hand, John Smith, a determined opponent of criticism,
+writes concerning the conclusions of the latter: "They conflict with
+the profoundest certitudes of the faith, must inevitably alter the
+foundation on which from the beginning our holy religion has stood
+before the world, and, consequently, so far as a theory can, must
+obstruct her mission and abridge her influence."[2]  Whether the crisis
+is as acute as is here implied or not, there seems to be much concern
+among devout believers in the Bible about the bearing of modern
+criticism upon the value of the book they dearly love.  In the nature
+{67} of the case, limitation of space forbids an exhaustive discussion
+of this interesting subject here.  There are, however, three questions
+which are worthy of serious consideration: (1) What is modern
+criticism?  (2) What are the more important conclusions of criticism
+that have secured wide recognition?  (3) What is the bearing of these
+conclusions, if true, upon the Christian view of the Old Testament?
+
+What, then, is biblical criticism?  It is defined by Nash as "the free
+study of all the facts,"[3] which definition McFadyen expands so as to
+read, "the free and reverent study of all the biblical facts."[4]
+Criticism is _study_, which means careful investigation rather than
+superficial reading followed by hasty or unfounded conclusions.  The
+investigation is _free_ in the sense that though it is not
+disrespectful to traditional beliefs, it is not prevented by them from
+marking out new paths if the facts so demand.  It is _reverent_ because
+it deals with a book that has played a unique part in the religious
+life and thought of many centuries, and has been received as a book in
+which the voice of God may be heard.  It is primarily a study of the
+_facts_ presented by the book, not of theories or speculations, though
+in the study of these facts much may be learned from the theories of
+the past, and the study may give rise to new theories.  In order to be
+{68} thoroughly scientific, it must have due regard for all the facts
+in the case.  For convenience sake it has become customary to
+distinguish four phases of Old Testament, or biblical, criticism: (1)
+Textual Criticism; (2) Linguistic Criticism; (3) Literary Criticism;
+and (4) Historical Criticism.
+
+Close students of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament have been
+compelled to admit that even the oldest Hebrew manuscripts now known
+are not free from errors and blemishes, and it is the office of textual
+criticism to remove such errors by the use of all legitimate methods
+and means and to restore the _ipsissima verba_ of the author.  The
+presence of corruptions in the text is established by facts like these:
+(1) There are passages in which the text as it stands cannot be
+translated without violence to the laws of grammar, or, which are
+irreconcilable with the context or with other passages.  For example,
+in 1 Sam. 3. 1 the Authorized Version reads, "Saul reigned one year,
+and when he had reigned two years over Israel."  This translation does
+violence to the laws of Hebrew grammar.  The Hebrew reads, literally,
+"The son of a year was Saul in his reigning," which may be rendered,
+"Saul was a year old when he began to reign."  The narratives
+concerning events in the life of Saul before he became king make it
+clear that this statement is not correct.  Perhaps the scribe, in
+writing the {69} formula, which is the usual formula for stating a
+king's age at his accession, left a space for the numeral to be filled
+in later, and forgot the omission; or the numeral has accidentally
+dropped out.  In this case, it is the duty of textual criticism to
+supply, if possible, the age of Saul when he was made king.  In the
+absence of all external evidence the textual critic must fall back upon
+conjecture.  This the translators of the Revised Version did, for in
+the English Revised Version we find in brackets the word "thirty," in
+the American Revised Version "forty."  In this special case the assured
+results of textual criticism are purely negative, in that they have
+established the fact that the present text cannot be correct.  The
+attempt to restore the original text rests upon conjecture.  (2)
+Parallel passages differ in such a manner as to make it certain that
+the variations are largely due to textual corruption.  A good
+illustration is seen in Psa. 18, when compared with 2 Sam. 22.  These
+two passages were undoubtedly identical in the beginning; but even the
+oldest existing manuscripts show more than seventy variants between the
+two chapters.  (3) Some of the ancient versions contain readings which
+often bear a strong stamp of probability and remove or lessen the
+difficulties of the Hebrew text.  For example, in Josh. 9. 4, where the
+Hebrew reads, "And they {70} went and made as if they had been
+ambassadors," the Septuagint reads, "And they went and provisioned
+themselves."  The latter reading is supported by nearly all the ancient
+versions, and seems more probable than that of the Hebrew text.
+Another illustration of a similar character is found in Psa. 22. 16c,
+which is translated by both the Authorized and the Revised Version,
+"They pierced my hands and my feet."  This, however, is not a
+translation of the Hebrew at all, for it reads, "Like a lion, my hands
+and my feet."  In this case the New Testament, as well as the Latin and
+Syriac translations, supports the reading of the Septuagint.  Passages
+like these, in which the text has evidently suffered in the course of
+transmission, might be multiplied a hundredfold, and it is generally
+considered a legitimate ambition to attempt the restoration of the
+Hebrew text to its original form.
+
+Linguistic criticism deals with difficult and obscure passages.
+Sometimes the meaning of single words or phrases is uncertain, as, for
+example, in Isa. 53. 1, which reads, in the Authorized Version, "Who
+hath believed our report?"  The margin gives as alternatives for
+"report" the words "doctrine" and "hearing."  The Revised Version
+reads, "Who hath believed our message?" with a marginal note, "Or,
+_that which we have heard_."  In form the word translated "message"
+{71} is a passive participle, meaning, literally, "that which has been
+heard."  Surely, no one would consider "report," "doctrine," "hearing,"
+"message," etc., synonymous.  It is the duty of linguistic criticism to
+determine the exact meaning of the word.  Sometimes grammatical
+constructions are ambiguous.  Very familiar are the words in Isa. 6. 3,
+"Holy, holy, holy, is Jehovah of hosts: the whole earth is full of his
+glory."  The margin suggests as an alternative for the last clause,
+"the fullness of the whole earth is his glory," which might mean
+something entirely different from the ordinary rendering.  There are
+other passages, some among the sublimest prophetic utterances, in which
+it is by no means clear whether the reference is to the past or to the
+present or to the future.  There is, indeed, plenty of room for the
+most painstaking work of the linguistic critic.
+
+The literary criticism concerns itself with the literary history of Old
+Testament books.  The Bible may be more than a human production, but in
+outward form it has the appearance of an ordinary work of literature;
+and, so far as its history as a collection of literary productions is
+concerned, it has not escaped the fortunes or misfortunes of other
+ancient literary works.  It is a well-known fact that extra-biblical
+books, religious and secular, have come down from the {72} distant past
+bearing the names of men who cannot have been their authors; for
+example, the Gospel of Peter, or the Ascension of Isaiah.  Some ancient
+books have been interpolated and added to from time to time; for
+example, the Sibylline Oracles, the religious books of the Hindus.
+Some ancient books are compilations rather than original productions;
+for example, the Diatessaron of Tatian, or the religious books of the
+Babylonians, which give abundant evidence of compilation.  The
+discoveries of these phenomena in extra-biblical books naturally raised
+the question whether similar phenomena might not be found in the books
+of the Old Testament.  It is the duty of literary criticism to throw
+light on these questions; to decide whether all the Old Testament books
+are rightly ascribed to the men whose names they bear, whether they are
+original productions or compilations from earlier material, and whether
+any of the books have received additions or interpolations in the
+course of their literary history.
+
+Hand in hand with literary criticism goes historical criticism.  The
+student of Old Testament history seeks to trace the development of the
+history of Israel by combining in a scientific manner the historical
+material scattered throughout the Old Testament.  In doing this he is
+compelled to determine the value of the sources {73} from which he
+gathers information.  To do this is the duty of historical criticism.
+It inquires, for example, whether the records are approximately
+contemporaneous with the events they record; if so, whether the writers
+were qualified to observe the events accurately, or to record and
+interpret them correctly; and, if the accounts were written a
+considerable time subsequent to the events recorded, whether they were
+colored in any way by the beliefs and practices of the time in which
+they were written or compiled.  This line of investigation is almost
+thrust upon the Bible student by a comparison of the books of Kings
+with the books of Chronicles, which in many portions cover the same
+ground; and yet, there are marked differences between the descriptions
+of the two.
+
+These are the different phases of criticism.  Ordinarily, however, only
+two kinds are distinguished: the lower, or textual criticism, and the
+higher criticism.  The aims of textual criticism are described above.
+The higher criticism combines the functions of literary and historical
+criticism, while linguistic criticism is considered a part of exegesis
+or interpretation, not a separate branch of Bible study.  The
+legitimacy of textual criticism is universally recognized.  Its
+importance in a comprehensive study of the Bible is clearly implied in
+these words of W. H. Green, a {74} generation ago the best known
+defender of the traditional view of the Old Testament: "Its function is
+to determine, by a careful examination of all the evidence bearing upon
+the case, the condition of the sacred text, the measure of its
+correspondence with, or divergence from, the exact language of the
+inspired penman, and by means of all available helps to remove the
+errors which may have gained admission to it from whatever cause, and
+to restore the text to its pristine purity as it came from the hands of
+the original writers....  It is not an arbitrary but a judicial
+process, based on fixed and intelligible principles and conducted in a
+determinate manner, in which all the evidence is diligently collected,
+thoroughly sifted, and accurately weighed, and the decision given in
+accordance with the ascertained facts."[5]
+
+No exception is taken to linguistic criticism as a legitimate part of
+exegesis, but at the mention of higher criticism many good men and
+women become greatly disturbed, for they seem to look upon it as a
+handmaid of Satan.  A few expressions will illustrate the feeling with
+which some regard this kind of study: One writer says, "Neither hard
+times nor higher criticism nor infidelity ... has any effect upon the
+sale of the Divine Scriptures."  He evidently places higher criticism
+on a par with infidelity.  Again: "The so-called higher critics, it is
+well known, are constantly {75} trying to shake the faith of the
+Christian by telling him that the books of the Bible were not written
+by the men whose names are usually given as the human authors."
+Another writer declares that the higher critics allege that the Bible
+is "the off-spring of incompetence and fraud."  One more quotation may
+suffice: "Higher criticism tends invariably ... to absolute rationalism
+and the discrediting of inspiration."  Now, if higher criticism is on a
+par with infidelity, if it declares the Bible to be the "offspring of
+incompetence and fraud," if it constantly tries to shake the faith of
+Christians, if it tends invariably to absolute rationalism and
+discredits inspiration--if it does these things, then the Christian
+Church may well look upon it with dread and alarm.  Whether or not
+higher criticism is guilty of the things charged against it will
+probably appear in the further discussion, for from now on chief
+emphasis will be placed upon the bearing of the higher criticism on the
+Christian view of the Old Testament.
+
+First of all, it may be well to define, if possible, the term "higher
+criticism."  It is too often assumed by those who should know better,
+that the adjective "higher" exhibits the arrogance of those using it,
+who claim thereby an unwarranted precedence for their methods.  This
+assumption is erroneous, for the adjective is used {76} simply to
+distinguish this kind of criticism from the lower or textual criticism,
+which, since its purpose is to fix the exact text of a book,
+necessarily precedes the application of the processes of the higher
+criticism.  The designation may be unfortunate, but thus far no clearer
+or less objectionable substitute has been found.  But what is higher
+criticism?  Higher criticism may be defined as a process of scientific
+investigation for the purpose of determining the origin, original form,
+and intended value of literary productions.  It cannot be emphasized
+too strongly that higher criticism is nothing more than a process of
+study or investigation.  It is not a set of conclusions respecting the
+books of the Bible; it is not a philosophical principle underlying the
+investigation; it is not a certain attitude of mind toward the Bible;
+it is not a theory of inspiration nor a denial of inspiration.  Higher
+criticism is none of these things.  It is simply a process of study to
+determine certain truths concerning literary productions.
+
+Again, higher criticism, as a process of study, is not confined to the
+study of the Bible.  It was applied to extra-biblical books long before
+there was any thought of applying it to the Old or New Testament.
+Eichhorn, who first applied the term to Old Testament study, has this
+to say: "I have been obliged to bestow the greatest {77} amount of
+labor on a hitherto entirely unworked field: the investigation of the
+inner constitution of the separate books of the Old Testament by the
+aid of the higher criticism, _a new name to no humanist_."[6]
+
+Once more: the higher criticism as such is not opposed to traditional
+views.  In the words of Professor Zenos: "Its relation to the old and
+the new views respectively is one of indifference.  It may result in
+the confirmation of the old, or in the substitution of the new for the
+old....  It is no respecter of antiquity or novelty; its aim is to
+discover and verify the truth, to bring facts to light whether these
+validate or invalidate previously held opinions."[7]  It is a grave
+mistake, therefore, to attribute to higher criticism an essentially
+destructive purpose.  In reality, it has confirmed traditional views at
+least as often as it has shown them to be untenable.  It does not
+approach its investigations even with a suspicion of the correctness of
+tradition; it starts out with the tradition, it accepts it as correct
+until the process of investigation has brought to light facts and
+indications which cannot be harmonized with tradition.  In such a case
+criticism believes itself bound to supply a satisfactory explanation of
+the facts, though such explanation may be contrary to the claims of
+tradition.  Any student Who approaches the inquiry in a spirit {78}
+different from that here indicated introduces into his investigation
+elements that are not a part of higher criticism as such, and the
+latter cannot and should not be held accountable for them.
+
+That it is desirable to answer questions concerning the origin, form,
+and value of biblical books no one will dispute.  C. M. Mead,
+exceedingly cautious and conservative, says: "I regard the higher
+criticism as not only legitimate but as useful, and indiscriminate
+condemnation of it as foolish.  Genuine criticism is nothing but the
+search after truth, and of this there cannot be too much."[8]  No
+literary production in the Bible or outside of the Bible can be fully
+understood unless the interpreter has a full knowledge of its origin,
+its author, and its first readers.  When, where, by whom, to whom,
+under what circumstances, for what purpose?--an answer to these and
+similar questions will wonderfully illuminate the message of a book.  A
+knowledge of the form of the writing is also essential to a proper
+understanding of the same.  Is it history or poetry? is it narrative or
+prediction? or any one of the various kinds of literature?  In a
+similar manner it is important, though not always easy, to know the
+value a given literary work was intended to have.  Is it to be
+understood as literal history?  Is its essential purpose didactic,
+without special regard for historic accuracy in {79} every detail?  Are
+the religious and ethical truths taught intended to be final, or do
+they mark a stage in the development toward perfection and finality?
+These and other important questions of a similar nature the higher
+criticism seeks to answer.
+
+Some one may say, "Scholars in all ages have sought to answer these
+questions; why is it, then, that modern higher criticism reaches
+conclusions concerning the origin, form, and value of Old Testament
+writings not dreamed of a few centuries ago?"  This is a legitimate
+question, but the answer is not far to seek.  It may best be answered
+by asking another question: Men in all ages have studied the earth, the
+sun, the stars, and other phenomena of nature; how is it that modern
+scientists have reached conclusions unknown and undreamed of a few
+centuries ago?  The modern higher criticism, like all modern science,
+is the outgrowth of the awakening during the Middle Ages which
+revolutionized the whole world of science, literature, and religion.
+The Renaissance aroused men's interest in literature and science, the
+Reformation aroused men's interest in religion as a personal
+experience.  In the Renaissance men began to think for themselves in
+matters of science and literature; in the Reformation they began to
+think for themselves in matters of religion.  It was inevitable that
+{80} the awakening of thought and the substitution of reason for
+authority in science, secular literature, and secular history should
+ultimately affect sacred history and sacred literature as well.[9]
+
+Chronologically, it is true, the work of higher criticism began even
+before the time of the Renaissance among Spanish Jews.  But this Jewish
+criticism did not at the time exert any influence in the Christian
+Church.  Only after criticism had secured a foothold among Christian
+scholars were the results of Jewish investigation made use of.  In the
+same way the purely negative conclusions of some of the early Christian
+heretics, based upon dogmatic considerations rather than historical
+investigations, have no organic connection with the investigations and
+results of modern criticism.  It is perfectly correct, therefore, to
+state that the modern higher criticism had its birth in the great
+awakening of the Renaissance and the Reformation.  They gave to it a
+life and an impetus which from that day to this have not abated in the
+least.  Some of the reformers themselves and their coworkers advanced
+views which later investigation has confirmed and expanded.  Carlstadt,
+for example, the friend and coworker of Luther, published in 1520 an
+essay in which he argued, on the ground that the style of narration in
+the account of Moses's death which, he believed, was not written by
+Moses, was {81} the same as in the preceding chapters, that it might be
+held that Moses did not write the entire Pentateuch.  The freedom with
+which Luther criticized both the Old and the New Testament books is
+well known.  Concerning the Old Testament, he admitted that the books
+of Kings were more credible than Chronicles.  "What would it matter,"
+he asks, "if Moses did not write the Pentateuch?"  He thinks it
+probable that Isaiah, Jeremiah, Hosea, and Ecclesiastes received their
+final form at the hands of redactors.  The testimony of the psalm
+titles he does not regard as conclusive.  He admits chronological
+difficulties and contradictions in the statements of historical facts.
+He concedes that we do not always hear God himself speaking in the Old
+Testament.  Esther might well have been left out of the canon, and
+First Maccabees might have been included.  If this is not criticism,
+what is?
+
+The case of Luther has been mentioned simply to show the absurdity of
+the claim that modern higher criticism is the outgrowth of German
+rationalism or English deism or infidelity; or that a man who pursues
+Old Testament study on the line of the higher criticism is necessarily
+an infidel, a rationalist, or a fool.  True, there have been and are
+those out of sympathy with Christianity or the Bible who have employed
+critical methods in carrying on their anti-Christian warfare; but {82}
+such misuse of critical methods no more proves the illegitimacy of this
+process of investigation than the employment of a surgical instrument,
+which, in the hands of a skillful surgeon, may be the means of saving a
+diseased organism, by a murderer to carry out his destructive aim,
+would prove that the use of all surgical instruments is unscientific or
+criminal.  The vast majority of the so-called higher critics do not
+deserve the denunciations heaped upon them by some who consider
+themselves sole defenders of the faith.  Most of them are Christian men
+whose loyalty to Christ, whose devotion to the truth, and whose
+sincerity of motive no one has reason or right to question or doubt.
+It is exceedingly unfortunate that many writers have failed to
+recognize this fact.  No one acquainted with the history of biblical
+criticism can accept the following as a true characterization of
+serious critics: "I mean by professional critic, one who spends his
+time and strength in trying to find some error or discrepancy in the
+Bible; and, if he thinks he does, rejoiceth as 'one who findeth great
+spoil'; who hopes, while he works, that he may succeed, thinking
+thereby to obtain a name and notoriety for himself."[10]  In a similar
+spirit Sir Robert Anderson speaks of "the foreign infidel type of
+scholar ... as ignorant of man and his needs as a monk, and as ignorant
+of God and his ways as a monkey."[11] {83} Such abuse is unchristian,
+and no good can be accomplished by it.  The truth of the matter is more
+adequately expressed by James Orr when he says: "There are, one must
+own, few outstanding scholars at the present day on the Continent or in
+Britain--in America it is somewhat different--who do not in greater or
+less degree accept conclusions regarding the Old Testament of the kind
+ordinarily denominated critical.  Yet among the foremost are many whom
+no one who understands their work would dream as classing as other than
+believing, and defenders of revealed religion."[12]  Then, after
+mentioning a number of scholars, he describes them as "all more or less
+critics, but all convinced upholders of supernatural revelation."  But
+even among these Christian, evangelical, higher critics a distinction
+must be made between two classes.  The one may be called, for want of a
+better name, traditional, because its adherents insist that their
+investigations on the line of the higher criticism have confirmed in
+all essentials the positions held during many centuries.  It should be
+noted, however, that many scholars who are sometimes quoted as
+upholders of the traditional view are ready to make many concessions to
+those who believe that the traditional views are no longer tenable.[13]
+On the other hand is a class of critics which may be called
+nontraditional, critics who claim that {84} their investigations, while
+confirming the truth of many traditional positions, compel them in
+other cases to set aside the traditional views in favor of some more in
+accord with the facts in the case.  It may be difficult to state all
+the causes responsible for the differences in the conclusions of these
+two classes of critics.  However, the writings of some scholars in the
+former class seem to show that the authors are influenced, to some
+extent at least, by the fear that further concessions would affect the
+Christian theory of inspiration.  Another cause may be found in the
+fact that the present generation of Old Testament scholars received its
+training largely at the hands of those accustomed to the traditional
+viewpoint; the influence of this early training manifests itself to
+some extent in the present attitude.  A more important cause, however,
+is supplied by the nature of the evidence upon the basis of which these
+critical questions must be settled.  Mathematical demonstration is
+impossible in very many cases.  The critic must be qualified to
+estimate probabilities, and various degrees of probability, depending
+upon the nature of the grounds on which it rests.  In the nature of the
+case, the personal element enters into the estimate of the degree of
+probability.  What to some may appear a high degree of probability, or
+amount to practical certainty, may to another investigator, perhaps
+less familiar with {85} the facts in the case, appear of less value and
+lead him to reject the conclusion entirely.  As long as this condition
+of affairs continues--and there is no reason to suppose that it ever
+will be otherwise--perfect agreement among critical investigators need
+not be expected; but a fair and thorough examination of the facts by
+all must be insisted upon.
+
+It is not necessary to enlarge upon the views of the traditional class
+of critics, for theirs are the views with which most Christians now
+living have been familiar since their childhood.  In order to
+understand, however, the bearing of the nontraditional criticism upon
+the Christian view of the Old Testament it is necessary to consider the
+most important conclusions of the nontraditional class of evangelical
+criticism; and to these conclusions we may now turn our attention.
+
+1.  Modern criticism has placed into clearer light the progressive
+character of Old Testament revelation.  God is the same yesterday,
+to-day, and forever, but man has taken many advance steps; and as he
+advanced his spiritual capacities and powers of apprehension increased.
+This growth enabled him to secure, from generation to generation and
+from century to century, during the Old Testament dispensation, an
+ever-broadening and deepening conception of the nature and character of
+God and of his will.  The Old {86} Testament books, says Kent, are "the
+harmonious and many-sided record of ten centuries of strenuous human
+endeavor to know and to do the will of God, and of his full and
+gracious response to that effort."[14]
+
+2.  Formerly the beginning of the Old Testament canon was traced to
+Moses.  He was thought not only to have written the books of the
+Pentateuch but to have given to them official sanction as canonical
+books.  To these books were gradually added the other sacred writings
+of the Old Testament on the authority of the divinely chosen successors
+of Moses, like Joshua, Samuel, and the prophets.  The close of the
+canon was ascribed to Ezra, who, according to later views, had to share
+the honor with the men of the Great Synagogue.  Modern criticism
+assigns new dates to some of the Old Testament books; it believes that
+the exile was a period of great spiritual and intellectual activity,
+and a number of books are placed subsequent to Ezra and Nehemiah, which
+in itself would imply a denial of the view that the canon was finally
+closed in the days of Ezra.  The modern critical view is that the Old
+Testament books were canonized--whatever the dates of their
+writing--gradually and at a comparatively late period.  The
+canonization of the Law is placed at about B.C. 400, that of the
+Prophets between B.C. 250 and B.C. 180, while the third {87} division
+of the Jewish canon, the Writings, is believed to have acquired
+canonical authority during the second and first centuries B.C.
+
+3.  Formerly the order of the Old Testament books determined largely
+the view of the development of Hebrew religion.  Just as in the New
+Testament the Gospels occupy first place, the Epistles being
+expositions of the principles laid down in the Gospels, so it was
+thought that the Law of the Pentateuch, coming from the hands of Moses,
+served as the basis of the religious development of the Hebrews during
+subsequent centuries.  The prophets were looked upon chiefly as
+expounders and interpreters of this Law.  Modern criticism has
+introduced a change of viewpoint.  It does not deny the pre-exilic
+existence of all law, or of sacrifice, or of a ceremonial, or of other
+priestly elements, but it believes that in the religious development of
+Israel, the pre-exilic period was preeminently the period of the
+prophets, while the religious life during the post-exilic period was
+dominated by the priests, the priestly type of religion finding
+literary expression in the ceremonial system embodied in the Pentateuch.
+
+4.  According to modern criticism, compilation had a prominent place in
+the production of Old Testament books.  The composite character of the
+Pentateuch is touched upon in the next paragraph, but, in addition, it
+is believed that {88} there is sufficient evidence to establish the
+composite character of practically all the other historical books.
+McFadyen accurately represents the modern viewpoint when he says, "In
+the light of all these facts the general possibility, if not the
+practical certainty, of the compositeness of the historical books may
+be conceded."[15]  Evidences of compilation are seen also in several of
+the prophetic books.  The assignment of Isaiah and Zechariah to more
+than one author each furnishes perhaps the best known examples, but
+other prophetic books are similarly divided.
+
+5.  The Pentateuch is no longer assigned in its entirety to Moses; it
+is thought, rather, to contain material selected from four different
+sources, which the compiler had before him in writing.[16]  These
+documents did not reach their final form until some time subsequent to
+Moses, but all of them contained ancient material, much of it going
+back to the time of Moses, some of it even to pre-Mosaic days.  Among
+the contents of the Pentateuch special attention is called to three
+legal codes--the Book of the Covenant, the Deuteronomic Code, and the
+Priestly Code--belonging to different periods in Hebrew history, and
+reflecting different stages in the religious and social development of
+the nation.  The Deuteronomic Code, in some form, is believed to have
+been the basis of the reforms instituted by Josiah {89} and to have
+been written most probably during the early part of the seventh
+century.  On these general questions respecting the Pentateuch there
+seems to be general agreement among critical scholars; on the other
+hand, there is wide divergence of opinion concerning points of detail,
+such as the chronological order in which the several documents reached
+their final form, their exact dates, the manner and time of their
+compilation, the detailed distribution of the material among the
+several sources, etc.  The differences of opinion on these points are
+due to the fact that the data upon the basis of which the problems must
+be solved are not sufficiently numerous or decisive.
+
+6.  Doubt is thrown upon the authorship of a number of Old Testament
+books, or parts of books, which have been assigned to certain authors
+by both Jewish and Christian tradition.  As already stated, the Mosaic
+authorship of the Pentateuch is denied; the book of Lamentation is
+taken away from Jeremiah; parts of Isaiah and Zechariah and the whole
+of Daniel are assigned to persons other than the prophets bearing these
+names.  The accuracy of the psalm titles is questioned; few of the
+psalms, if any, are assigned to David or his age; and most of the
+psalms--by some scholars all--are placed in the post-exilic period.  A
+conservative scholar, like W. T. Davison, is not willing to say more
+than "that {90} from ten to twenty psalms--including 3, 4, 7, 8, 15,
+18, 23, 24, 32, and perhaps 101 and 110--may have come down to us from
+David's pen, but that the number can hardly be greater, and may be
+still less."[17]  The same uncertainty is believed to exist respecting
+the authorship of Proverbs and of Ecclesiastes, which is considered one
+of the latest books in the Old Testament canon.  Other books, like Job,
+which in the absence of external testimony were formerly assigned to an
+early date, are now placed in the later period of Hebrew history.
+
+In addition to these results touching upon matters practically
+unrecognized before, the higher criticism has emphasized some truths
+which, though known, exerted little, if any, influence upon the
+conception or study of the Old Testament.  Of these perhaps the most
+important are, first, that the Old Testament is not so much a single
+book as a library consisting of many books of different dates and
+authorship, though all these books may be held together by one common
+spirit and purpose;[18] and, second, that in these books are
+represented practically all the various forms and kinds of literary
+composition that can be found in the literatures of other nations.
+
+These are perhaps the most important conclusions reached by the
+nontraditional higher critics.  Some may not be willing to admit that
+{91} these conclusions are well founded, and, indeed, the cautious
+among the critics very candidly state that in most cases scientific
+demonstration is impossible, that probability of varying degrees is an
+important element in the conclusions; but unless one has followed those
+who have reached the conclusions into every detail of their
+investigation, he is hardly competent to pass a valid judgment.  And it
+is well to remember what seems to be an indisputable fact, that with
+very few exceptions Old Testament experts everywhere agree essentially
+on these results, and that an ever-increasing number of serious Old
+Testament students whose competency and sincerity cannot be doubted
+feel compelled to accept these conclusions, convinced that the
+traditional views cannot be maintained without numerous modifications.
+This fact may not establish the truth of these conclusions;
+nevertheless, it may serve as a sufficient reason for the consideration
+of another question: Should the truth of the conclusions enumerated be
+established beyond a possibility of doubt, what would be the effect
+upon the Christian conception of the Old Testament?  What would become
+of its inspiration or authority, of the supernatural in its history, of
+the work and character of Moses, Isaiah, or David; and, perhaps most
+important of all, what effect would this have upon the authority of
+Jesus Christ himself?
+
+{92}
+
+The most important and vital of these questions may be considered
+first.  How do the conclusions of the nontraditional higher criticism
+affect the authority of Jesus Christ?  This question arises chiefly in
+connection with investigations into the authorship of Old Testament
+books, especially of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and Isaiah.  It is
+asserted that since Christ quotes and refers to passages from the books
+bearing the names of Moses, David, and Isaiah, apparently as if they
+had been written by these men, any claim that these passages were not
+written by the authors mentioned is an indication of unbelief, an
+insult to Christ, and a denial of his authority.  "If Moses did not
+write the Pentateuch," says L. W. Munhall, "or any portion of it, and
+the highest critics (Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit) declare he did,
+it would be a lie.  It would be none the less a lie, even though the
+Jews held traditionally that Moses was the author of these books.  The
+testimony of the _Highest Critics_ is absolutely unerringly and
+eternally true, and he who hesitates to receive it as against all other
+testimonies is disloyal to the truth."[19]  Clearly, this statement is
+based upon the assumption that Jesus gave deliberate decisions on
+questions of authorship, which assumption cannot be substantiated.  In
+the first place, it is well to note that in less than one fifth of the
+New Testament {93} quotations from the Old Testament is a personal name
+connected with the quotation; Jesus himself, in quoting from the
+Pentateuch and other Old Testament books, frequently omits all
+reference to the alleged author, which shows that he considered the
+question of authorship of no special significance in comparison with
+the truth taught.  Moreover, in some cases at least, the exact form of
+quotation is doubtful.  Compare, for example, Matt. 15. 4, "God said,"
+with Mark 7. 10, "Moses said"; and Luke 20. 37, "Moses showed, in the
+place concerning the Bush," with Mark 12. 26, "Have ye not read in the
+book of Moses, in the place concerning the Bush how God spake unto
+him," with Matt. 22. 31, which, referring to the same statement,
+introduces it by, "Have ye not read that which was spoken unto you by
+God?"  Which one of the evangelists has preserved the actual words of
+Jesus?
+
+But even admitting that Jesus used in these and other passages a
+personal name, does this imply a decision respecting authorship?  In
+extra-biblical literature no one would raise serious objection to the
+use of the name of a man to designate a book without implying that the
+man named was the author of the entire book.  This is done also in the
+New Testament.  In the sermon of Peter, "Samuel" evidently is used in
+the sense of "book of Samuel," for the reference {94} is not to an
+utterance of Samuel but of Nathan,[20] and it cannot imply authorship,
+for some of the events recorded in First Samuel and those in Second
+Samuel occurred after Samuel's death.  In the Epistle to the
+Hebrews,[21] a psalm is referred to as "David," which is not even by
+the title assigned to the great king of Israel.[22]  Might it not be,
+therefore, that "Moses" was used as a designation of a book, without a
+thought of authorship.  This seems to be the case in 2 Cor. 3. 15:
+"Whensoever Moses is read, a veil lieth upon their heart."[23]  All
+these facts suggest that while Jesus frequently quotes the Pentateuch,
+and in some cases connects the name of Moses with it, _he never does so
+to prove that Moses wrote it_.  W. T. Davison describes the situation
+correctly when he writes, "A study of the whole use of the Old
+Testament made by Christ in his teaching shows that the questions of
+date and authorship with which criticism is chiefly concerned were not
+before the mind of our Lord as he spoke, nor was it his object to
+pronounce upon them."[24]
+
+But even admitting that the references of Jesus imply in some cases a
+recognition of authorship, the question still remains whether the few
+passages quoted carry with them the authorship of the entire book from
+which the quotations are made.  There are even some conservative
+scholars who {95} answer this question in the negative.  After
+enumerating some of the passages referred to by Jesus as coming from
+Moses, C. H. H. Wright continues: "All, however, that can be fairly
+deduced from such statements is, the Pentateuch contains portions
+written by Moses.  It does not follow that the five books as a whole
+were written by that lawgiver."[25]  Though this explanation seems
+satisfactory to some, others consider it somewhat forced and unnatural,
+and they are inclined to give different interpretations of the words of
+Jesus.
+
+Many hold that in his references to Old Testament books Jesus
+accommodated himself to the usage of the Jews without indorsing their
+views or giving expression to his own, even though he knew that the
+commonly held opinions as to the authorship of certain Old Testament
+books were erroneous.  Those who advocate this view believe that their
+attitude in no wise dishonors the Master.  Indeed, they say, one cannot
+easily see what other course he could have taken.  Jesus had come to
+reveal the Father, to bring a fallen race into harmony with a holy God.
+Surely, the task was great, and there was but little time in which to
+accomplish it.  If he had turned aside from his chief purpose to settle
+scientific and literary questions which were not under discussion among
+the people, he would have aroused popular {96} opposition and thus have
+hindered his chief work.  In no case do his references imply that he
+desired to pronounce an authoritative critical judgment, and in no case
+does the value of the quotation depend upon its authorship.  Looking at
+the matter, therefore, from a pedagogical standpoint, it would seem
+that, in view of his important mission in the world, he was compelled
+to accommodate himself to the views of the people in all matters not
+essential to his work.
+
+This view seems entirely satisfactory to many sincere Christian
+believers.  There are, however, those who maintain that it would not
+have been legitimate for Jesus thus to accommodate himself to the usage
+of the people if he had known that their views were not in accord with
+the facts; nevertheless, they insist that his utterances do not settle
+purely literary questions.  They believe that Jesus shared the views of
+the people, that he actually thought that Moses wrote the entire
+Pentateuch, and Isaiah, the whole of the book bearing his name; but
+that this was a limitation of knowledge on his part.  And they further
+insist that this attitude toward Jesus in no wise affects the supreme
+and final authority of the Christ over the lives of men.  The entire
+life of the Master, they say, shows that he regarded his mission as
+spiritual; he did not come to correct all errors, but merely those
+touching religion and {97} ethics; and even here he did not give
+detailed specific rules.  In many cases he simply laid down great
+principles, which in time might be worked out and applied to the
+details of human activity.  He did not abolish slavery, he made no
+efforts to correct errors in science; why should he correct erroneous
+views respecting literary and critical questions?  These were outside
+of his immediate sphere of interest.  His knowledge or ignorance in
+these secondary matters does not necessarily involve his knowledge or
+authority in essentials.[26]  Again, while Christ was God, he was also
+truly man.  This union of the divine with the human, if real, must have
+brought some limitations.  And the New Testament clearly teaches that
+in some respects the powers of Christ were limited.  His omnipotence
+was limited, else he could not have felt hunger, weariness, pain, etc.
+As strength was needed, it was supplied.  It may have been there
+potentially, but not actually.  Might it not have been the same with
+omniscience?  In one case, at least, Jesus admits that his knowledge
+was limited: "But of that day or hour knoweth no one, not even the
+angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father."[27]  And, surely,
+that which, according to this admission, was hidden from Jesus was, as
+compared with a question of the authorship of a biblical book, of
+infinitely greater importance.  It would seem, therefore, {98} that B.
+P. Raymond is right when he says: "To affirm that he had knowledge of
+the critical questions which agitate Christian scholars to-day is to
+deny that he was made like unto his brethren.  It is to compromise the
+reality of his humanity and to start on the road that leads to
+docetism.  Fairbairn's conclusions are just; 'The humanity of the
+Saviour must be absolutely real.'"[28]
+
+There are, then, three explanations of the references of Christ to the
+authorship of Old Testament books, each one of which seems perfectly
+fair, natural, and, above all, scriptural; and each one shows that his
+utterances do not finally settle purely literary questions.  This
+conclusion, since it is in perfect accord with the New Testament, can
+in no wise be construed as an insult to the Christ, nor does it affect
+in the least the authority of Jesus in matters religious and ethical.
+What is said here of the words of Jesus is equally true, with some
+slight modifications, of similar New Testament references coming, not
+from Jesus directly, but from the authors of the New Testament books.
+
+From the consideration of this question of vital interest we may turn
+to another, also of great importance, namely, what is the effect of
+critical conclusions upon the belief in the inspiration of the Old
+Testament, in the supernatural in its history, and in its authority?
+All these questions {99} center in one, for inspiration implies the
+presence of a supernatural element, and the authority of the Old
+Testament depends upon the reality of its inspiration.  Hence the real
+question is, Have the conclusions of the higher criticism disproved, or
+in any serious way affected, the reality of the inspiration of the Old
+Testament writers?  This inquiry must be answered with an emphatic
+"No."  Inspiration does not depend upon the fact that a certain
+definite individual is responsible for a writing.  A book is inspired
+because God is back of it and in it, and not because a certain man
+wrote it.  Nor does belief in inspiration depend upon the knowledge of
+the human author, else how could Christians believe in the inspiration
+of the men who wrote books like the Epistle to the Hebrews, the book of
+Job, the books of Samuel, and other biblical books whose authors are
+not named?  Moreover, an inspired book does not lose its inspiration
+because it is discovered that the human agent inspired is one different
+from the man to whom tradition has been accustomed to assign the book.
+Would the laws of the Pentateuch be any less divine if it should be
+proved that they were the product of the experience of the chosen
+people from the time of Moses to the exile?  Would the Psalms cease to
+lift us into the presence of God, if it should be demonstrated that
+most of them came {100} from a period later than David?  Is the book of
+Job less majestic and sublime because we know not the time or place of
+its birth?  Are the Proverbs less instructive because criticism claims
+that they do not all come from the son of David?[29]
+
+Once more: inspiration is not confined to any form of literature; a
+parable may be as truly inspired as history; and the inspiration of a
+book does not vanish when it is assigned to one form of literature
+rather than to another.  The conclusions of the legitimate higher
+criticism in no wise tend toward a denial of the inspiration of the Old
+Testament.  Inspiration, the special divine providence over Israel,
+God's interference in the history of the chosen people, would stand out
+as prominently as ever if every claim of the higher criticism should be
+proved true.  Most critical scholars are ready to indorse the words of
+Professor Sanday: "My experience is that criticism leads straight up to
+the supernatural, and not away from it."[30]  But if this be true, how
+can any authority which rightly belongs to the Old Testament be
+affected by criticism?  This authority belongs to it by virtue of its
+inspiration, and the voice of God is not silenced by the conclusions of
+modern criticism.
+
+"But," some one will say, "if this is true how is it that criticism has
+been and still is condemned unsparingly by many men whose sincerity
+{101} and love for the truth cannot be called into question?"  There
+are several reasons for this.  In the first place even some very
+intelligent men seem to misunderstand both the purpose and the claims
+of the higher criticism.  Another reason is that there are even among
+the evangelical critics those who lack judgment, and who permit
+themselves to draw inferences unwarranted by the facts in the case.  As
+a consequence, ill-informed persons have concluded that all the results
+of criticism are unwarranted by the facts.  A third reason is that some
+critics are arrogant and obnoxious in the presentation of their views,
+and, therefore, bring the entire process into disrepute.  A fourth, and
+perhaps the most important, reason is that in addition to the
+legitimate higher criticism discussed in the preceding pages there is
+an illegitimate criticism which very frequently, though erroneously, is
+thought to be the only kind of criticism practiced.  This criticism
+also studies the facts, but--and this is its distinguishing
+feature--its investigations are colored by certain presuppositions,
+such as the belief in a materialistic or deistic evolution, in the
+presence of which there is no room for inspiration, or for the
+supernatural, or for miracles, in the Christian sense of these terms.
+This kind of criticism is not legitimate, because it is not scientific,
+proceeding as it does on the basis of an unestablished, {102}
+unchristian, and impossible view of the universe.  But higher critics
+belonging to this class are few in number, and fairness and Christian
+courtesy demand that in any discussion of the subject clear
+distinctions should be made between this criticism and that process of
+investigation which is not only legitimate, but indispensable.  It is
+also well to bear in mind that the conclusions of the illegitimate
+criticism will never be disproved by denunciation, but, rather, by the
+careful and painstaking labors of those critics who approach their
+studies without these unwarranted assumptions.
+
+One more question remains to be considered, namely, What becomes of the
+men from whom criticism takes away at least part of the writings
+traditionally connected with their names?  Preeminent among these are
+Moses, Isaiah, and David.  Moses is not, as is sometimes erroneously
+asserted, removed to the realm of myths.[31]  To prove this assertion
+it is only necessary to quote the words of one who accepts the results
+of the higher criticism as set forth above: "Moses was the man who
+under divine direction 'hewed Israel from the rock.'  Subsequent
+prophets and circumstances chiseled the rough bowlder into symmetrical
+form, but the glory of the creative act is rightly attributed to the
+first great Hebrew prophet.  As a leader he not only created a nation
+but guided them through infinite {103} vicissitudes to a land where
+they might have a settled abode and develop into a stable power; in so
+doing he left upon his race the imprint of his own mighty personality.
+As a judge he set in motion forces which ultimately led to the
+incorporation of the principles of right in objective laws.  As a
+priest he first gave definite form to the worship of Jehovah.  As a
+prophet he gathered together all that was best in the faith of his age
+and race, and, fusing them, gave to his people a living religion.
+Under his enlightened guidance Israel became truly and forever the
+people of Jehovah.  Through him the Divine revealed himself to Israel
+as their Deliverer, Leader, and Counselor--not afar off, but present; a
+God powerful and willing to succor his people, and, therefore, one to
+be trusted and loved as well as feared.  As the acorn contains the
+sturdy oak in embryo, so the revelation through Moses was the germ
+which developed into the message of Israel to humanity."[32]
+
+Isaiah, though losing some of the sublimest passages in the book, is
+still the king among the prophets.  In the words of Ewald, a pronounced
+advocate of the conclusions of modern criticism: "Of the other prophets
+all the more celebrated ones were distinguished by some special
+excellence and peculiar power, whether of speech or of deed; in Isaiah
+all the powers and all the beauties {104} of prophetic speech and deed
+combine to form a symmetrical whole; he is distinguished less by any
+special excellence than by the symmetry and perfection of all his
+parts.  There are rarely combined in one individual the profoundest
+prophetic emotion and purest feeling, the most unwearied, successful,
+and consistent activity amid all the confusions and changes of life;
+and, lastly, true poetic genius and beauty of style, combined with
+force and irresistible power; yet this triad of powers we find realized
+in Isaiah as in no other prophet."[33]
+
+David, indeed, loses some of his halo, if many of the most beautiful
+psalms are taken from him, yet he remains the man after God's own
+heart.  "According to his light, he served the Jehovah whom he knew
+with marvelous fidelity and constancy....  He ruled over the united
+Hebrew tribes as Jehovah's representative.  In his name he fought the
+battles against Israel's foes, whom he regarded as Jehovah's also....
+From the spoils which he won in his wars he provided the means
+wherewith to build a fitting dwelling place for the God of his nation.
+The priests found in him a generous patron, and prophets like Nathan
+were among his most trusted counselors.  To do the will of Jehovah as
+it was revealed to him was the dominating principle of his life.  More
+cannot be said of any one."[34]
+
+{105}
+
+A splendid summary of the bearing of modern evangelical criticism upon
+the Christian view of the Old Testament is given by Canon Driver: "It
+is not the case that critical conclusions are in conflict either with
+the Christian creeds or with the articles of the Christian faith.
+Those conclusions affect not the _fact_ of revelation but only its
+_form_.  They help to determine the stages through which it passed, the
+different phases which it assumed, and the process by which the record
+of it was built up.  They do not touch either the authority or the
+inspiration of the Scriptures of the Old Testament.  They imply no
+change in respect to the divine attributes revealed in the Old
+Testament, no change in the lessons of human duty to be derived from
+it, no change as to the general position (apart from the interpretation
+of particular passages) that the Old Testament points forward
+prophetically to Christ.  That both the religion of Israel itself and
+the record of its history embodied in the Old Testament are the work of
+men whose hearts have been touched and minds illuminated, in different
+degrees, by the Spirit of God is manifest."[35]
+
+But not only has criticism not taken away anything essential from the
+Bible; on the contrary, it has resulted in some distinct gains.  The
+textual criticism has furnished the modern {106} student with a much
+more accurate text of the biblical books, while the linguistic
+criticism has established the interpretation of this text upon a firmer
+basis.  The higher criticism also has made invaluable contributions
+toward a more adequate understanding of the Old Testament Scriptures.
+It has made impossible the arbitrary and, sometimes, unreasonable
+interpretations of scripture which in former ages have proved a serious
+detriment to religion and theology.  It has restored to religious use
+some of the biblical books almost forgotten before, and endowed them
+with flesh and blood by throwing bright light upon the circumstances
+connected with their origin.  It has made it possible to secure a
+"reasonable, probable, and even thrilling" view of the history and
+religion of Israel and of the steps by which the records of these grew
+up.  Many of the moral, religious, and historical difficulties which
+served as effective weapons to skeptics in all ages have disappeared,
+and the weapons have been snatched from the enemies of the Bible.  Many
+of the confusions and apparent discrepancies, which according to former
+theories presented insurmountable difficulties, have found a
+satisfactory explanation.  "Higher criticism," says R. F. Horton, "so
+much dreaded by pious souls, is furnishing a conclusive answer to the
+untiring opponents of revelation."[36]  Everyone knows {107} that the
+Bible has been bitterly attacked in the past, and that such attacks
+have not altogether ceased even now; but it is sometimes overlooked
+that in the majority of cases these attacks are made by men who are, or
+seem to be, lamentably ignorant of the attitude and results of modern
+critical study.  Their arguments become "absolutely powerless against
+the modern historical interpretation of the Bible; and the more that
+interpretation underlies the teaching of the young, the more certain
+are those attacks to die a natural death."[37]
+
+There are, indeed, few Old Testament scholars who would not indorse the
+testimony of Professor A. S. Peake, given in a paper on "Permanent
+Results of Biblical Criticism," read before the Fourth Methodist
+Ecumenical Conference: "Speaking for myself, I may truthfully say that
+my sense of the value of Scripture, my interest in it, my attachment to
+it, have been almost indefinitely enhanced by the new attitude and new
+mode of study which criticism has brought to us."
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER III
+
+[1] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 1.
+
+[2] The Integrity of Scripture, p. 1.
+
+[3] The History of the Higher Criticism of the New Testament, p. 85.
+
+[4] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 47.
+
+{108}
+
+[5] General Introduction to the Old Testament: The Text, pp. 162, 163.
+
+[6] J. G. Eichhorn, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Preface to Second
+Edition.
+
+[7] The Elements of the Higher Criticism, pp. 12, 13.
+
+[8] Christ and Criticism, Preface.
+
+[9] J. P. Peters, The Old Testament and the New Scholarship, p. 87.
+
+[10] L. W. Munhall, Anti-Higher Criticism, p. 9.  For a discriminating
+study of the theological and philosophical bias of the more
+representative Old Testament critics, see Bibliotheca Sacra, January,
+1912, pp. 1ff.
+
+[11] The Bible and Modern Criticism, p. 19.
+
+[12] The Problem of the Old Testament, pp. 7, 8.
+
+[13] Some of these concessions are enumerated in J. E. McFadyen, Old
+Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, pp. 15ff.  The Problem of
+the Old Testament, by James Orr, is often quoted as overthrowing
+entirely the positions of modern criticism regarding the authorship of
+the Pentateuch.  If, however, one reads Orr's summary of the chief
+results of his own critical investigation (pp. 371ff.), the question
+may well be asked, Why should he be considered less of a higher critic
+than, for example, Wellhausen?
+
+[14] The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testament, p. 30.
+
+[15] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 143.
+
+[16] Even those who question the existence of four independent
+documents assume the activity of at least four different hands.
+
+[17] James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, p. 151.
+
+[18] See above, pp. 30ff.
+
+[19] The Highest Critics vs. The Higher Critics, pp. 7, 8.
+
+{109}
+
+[20] Acts 3. 24.  The passage in the mind of the apostle seems to be 2
+Sam. 7. 11-16.
+
+[21] Heb. 4. 7.
+
+[22] Psa. 95.
+
+[23] The origin of the designations Moses = Pentateuch, Samuel = books
+of Samuel, David = book of Psalms, must be explained, and can be
+explained; but as the mention of Samuel and David shows, it cannot
+always rest upon the fact of authorship, whatever the popular idea may
+have been.
+
+[24] James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, p. 151.
+
+[25] Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 76.
+
+[26] See above, p. 55.
+
+[27] Mark 13. 32.
+
+[28] M. S. Terry, Moses and the Prophets, p. 194.
+
+[29] C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture,
+p. 26.
+
+[30] Quoted in J. E. McFadyen, Old Testament Criticism and the
+Christian Church, p. 253.
+
+[31] Moses has, indeed, been removed by some investigators to the realm
+of myth, but not upon the basis of conclusions reached by the
+legitimate modern criticism.
+
+[32] C. F. Kent, A History of the Hebrew People, Vol. I, pp. 44, 45.
+
+[33] Prophets, English translation, Vol. II, p. 1.
+
+[34] C. F. Kent, A History of the Hebrew People, Vol. I, p. 167.
+
+[35] Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, pp. viii, ix.
+
+[36] Revelation and the Bible, p. 61.
+
+[37] J. E. McFadyen, Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church,
+p. 136.
+
+
+
+
+{110}
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND ARCHEOLOGY
+
+A century ago the student of the world's history found it exceedingly
+difficult, if not impossible, to paint for himself a clear picture of
+events antedating B.C. 400.  Concerning earlier periods, he was, aside
+from the Old Testament, practically without records that could claim
+contemporaneousness with the events recorded.  But, one hundred years
+ago, men had commenced to test every statement, be it historical, or
+scientific, or theological, by severe canons of criticism, and if it
+could not stand the test, it was speedily rejected.  One result of this
+tendency was to reject historical statements of the Bible when they
+could not be corroborated by reliable extra-biblical records.  The
+nineteenth century has wrought a marvelous change.  The Old Testament
+is no longer the "lone Old Testament," at the mercy of the scientific
+investigator.  The historian and the Bible student now have at their
+command literary treasures almost without number, partly
+contemporaneous with the Old Testament, partly older by many centuries.
+These rich treasures have been brought to light by the {111}
+perseverance and painstaking toil of archaeologists, whose discoveries
+have shed light on human history during a period of more than four
+thousand years before the opening of the Christian era.
+
+The historical movements recorded in the Old Testament, in which the
+Hebrews had a vital interest, were confined chiefly to the territory
+between the four seas of western Asia: the Mediterranean Sea, the Black
+Sea, the Caspian Sea, and the Persian Gulf.  In the East the territory
+might be extended to include Persia; in the West, to include Asia
+Minor; and in the South or Southwest, to include Egypt, in North
+Africa.  All these districts, which may be designated Bible lands, have
+been more or less thoroughly explored, and in most of them excavations
+have been carried on.  The countries in which the most valuable finds,
+so far as Bible study is concerned, have been made are Palestine,
+Babylonia-Assyria, Egypt, Northern Syria, Phoenicia, Moab, and Asia
+Minor.
+
+Even before excavations were undertaken travelers had visited these
+different countries and had reported their observations, but the
+information thus gained was more or less vague, and in many cases of no
+practical scientific value.[1]  They saw many strange mounds and ruins,
+and noticed and occasionally picked up fragments of inscriptions and
+monuments; but no one could {112} decipher the inscriptions; hence the
+finds were preserved simply as mementoes and relics of an unknown age,
+from which nothing could be learned concerning the history and
+civilization of the people that once occupied these lands.  The mounds
+and heaps of ruins which contained the real treasures were left
+undisturbed until the nineteenth century.
+
+The pioneer in the work of excavation in the territory of Babylonia and
+Assyria was Claudius James Rich, who, while resident of the British
+East India Company in Bagdad, in 1811, visited and studied the ruins of
+Babylon, and a little later made similar investigations in the mounds
+marking the site of the ancient city of Nineveh.  In the gullies cut by
+centuries of rain he gathered numerous little clay tablets, covered on
+every side with the same wedge-shaped characters as those seen on the
+fragments found by earlier travelers.  These he saved carefully, and in
+time presented them to the British Museum.
+
+No systematic excavations were carried on until 1842, when P. C. Botta
+was sent by the French government as vice-consul to Mosul on the upper
+Tigris.  He noticed across the river from Mosul extensive artificial
+mounds which were supposed to mark the site of the city of Nineveh.
+These so aroused his curiosity that he began digging in the two most
+prominent mounds.  Failing to make {113} any discoveries, he
+transferred, the following year, at the suggestion of a peasant, his
+activities to Korsabad, a few miles to the northeast, where the digging
+produced, almost immediately, startling results.  In the course of his
+excavations he laid bare a complex of buildings which proved to be the
+palace of Sargon, king of Assyria from B.C. 722 to B.C. 705, a palace
+covering an area of about twenty-five acres.  The walls of the various
+buildings were all wainscotted with alabaster slabs, upon which were
+representations of battles, sieges, triumphal processions, and similar
+events in the life of ancient Assyria.  He also found, in the course of
+the excavations, scores of strange figures and colossi, and numerous
+other remains of a long lost civilization.  Botta's discoveries filled
+the whole archaeological world with enthusiasm.
+
+Even before Botta reached Mosul, a young Englishman, Austin Henry
+Layard, visited the territory of ancient Assyria, and was so impressed
+by its mounds and ruins that he resolved to examine them thoroughly
+whenever it might be in his power to do so.  This resolution was taken
+in April, 1840, but more than five years elapsed before he began
+operations.  It would be interesting to follow Layard's work as
+described by him in a most fascinating manner in Nineveh and Its
+Remains, and other writings, which give {114} complete records of the
+wonderful successes he achieved wherever he went.
+
+Never again did the labors entirely cease, though there were periods of
+decline.  Layard's operations were continued under the direction of
+Rassam, Taylor, Loftus, and Henry C. Rawlinson; the French operations
+were in charge of such men as Place, Thomas, Fresnell, and Oppert.
+However, it was not until 1873 that other startling discoveries were
+made, chiefly under the direction of George Smith, who was sent by the
+Daily Telegraph, of London, to visit the site of Nineveh for the
+purpose of finding, if possible, fragments of the Babylonian account of
+the Deluge, parts of which he had previously discovered on tablets that
+had been shipped to the British Museum.  In 1877 France sent Ernest de
+Sarzec as consul to Bosra in Lower Babylonia.  His interest in
+archaeology led him to investigate some of the mounds in the
+neighborhood, and he soon began work at one called Telloh.  In the
+course of several campaigns, which continued until 1894, he unearthed a
+great variety of material illustrative of primitive ages, among his
+treasures being palaces, statues, vases, thousands of tablets, and
+various other articles of interest.
+
+The first steps toward sending out an American expedition for
+excavation were taken at a meeting of the American Oriental Society in
+the spring of {115} 1884.  In the fall of the same year a preliminary
+expedition of exploration was sent out, which completed its labors
+during the winter and spring, returning in June, 1885.  But the means
+for excavation were not forthcoming until 1888, when a well-equipped
+expedition was sent out under the auspices of the University of
+Pennsylvania.  Four successive campaigns were carried on upon the great
+mounds of Nuffar, the site of Nippur, a center of early Babylonian
+life.  Each expedition brought to light architectural and artistic
+remains and many thousands of tablets, throwing light upon all sides of
+the ancient life and civilization, over which hitherto there had lain
+almost complete darkness.  In 1899 Germany sent its first expedition to
+Babylon and, during successive seasons, extensive excavations have been
+carried on, which have resulted in the discovery of many interesting
+finds.  At a later date excavations were begun and, like those of
+Babylon, are still continued, on the mound covering the site of the
+ancient capital city of Assyria, Asshur, where inscriptions of great
+value have been uncovered.  At the present time the Germans are perhaps
+the most active excavators in Assyria-Babylonia, and by their
+painstaking care to record every new discovery they are bound to
+increase the knowledge of the early history and civilization of these
+ancient empires.[2]
+
+{116}
+
+Reference may be made also to the later excavations of the French at
+Susa, the scene of the book of Esther, where they have uncovered much
+valuable material.  The most important find, made in the winter of
+1901-1902, is the monument upon which is inscribed the legal code of
+Hammurabi, king of Babylon, generally identified with the Amraphel of
+Gen. 14. 1.  For a short time the University of Chicago carried on
+excavations at Bismiyah, in southern Babylonia, which have brought to
+light many objects of interest, if not of great historical importance.
+The Turkish government, under whose rule the territory of Babylonia and
+Assyria now is, stimulated by the example of other nations, is taking
+an active interest in these excavations, granting the privilege of
+excavating to an ever-increasing number of scholars, and giving them
+protection while engaged in their work.  The Sultan has erected in
+Constantinople a magnificent museum, where the valuable antiquities are
+accessible to the scholarship of the world.
+
+The credit of having first turned the attention of the West toward the
+monuments of Egypt, and of having brought them within the reach of
+science, belongs to the military expedition of Napoleon Bonaparte,
+undertaken in the summer of 1798.[3]  In August, 1799, a French
+artillery officer, Boussard, unearthed at the Fort Saint Julien, near
+{117} Rosetta, in the Nile Delta, a stone of black granite, three feet
+five inches in height, two feet four and one half inches in width, and
+eleven inches in thickness.  It is thought to have been at least twelve
+inches higher and to have had a rounded top.  On the upper portion of
+this block could be seen parts of fourteen lines of characters,
+resembling those seen everywhere on the obelisks and ruined temples of
+the land; adjoining these below are thirty-two lines of another species
+of script, while at the bottom are fifty-four lines, twenty-eight of
+them complete, in Greek uncial letters.  The Greek was easily read, and
+told the story of the stone: It was set up in B.C. 195, by the priests
+of Egypt, in honor of Ptolemy Epiphanes, because he had canceled
+arrearages of certain taxes due from the sacerdotal body.  The grateful
+priests ordered the memorial decree to be inscribed in the sacred
+characters of Egypt, in the vernacular, and in Greek.  The Greek
+portion having been read, it was conjectured that the two inscriptions
+above the Greek told the same story.  Such being the case, the value of
+the document for the decipherment of the Egyptian inscriptions was at
+once perceived, and scholars immediately set to work on the task of
+deciphering the unknown script.  The honor of having solved the mystery
+belongs to Francois Champollion, who by 1822 had succeeded in fixing
+the value of a considerable {118} portion of the ancient Egyptian
+signs, and at the time of his death, ten years later, left behind in
+manuscript a complete Egyptian grammar and vocabulary.
+
+Through the discovery of Champollion the interest in ancient Egypt grew
+in all learned circles, and from his day until now efforts at bringing
+to light the remains of the Egyptian civilization have never ceased.
+The French have been especially active; but other nations also have
+been in the field and have greatly added to our knowledge of ancient
+Egypt.  Since 1883 the Egyptian Exploration Fund has been at work in
+various parts of the Nile valley; private subscriptions have enabled
+the investigation of certain places of special interest; and now every
+year new finds are made, which constantly enrich our knowledge of the
+history, art, and civilization of the land of the Pharaohs.
+
+"Palestine," says Dr. Benzinger, "became the object of most general
+interest earlier than any other Oriental country....  Nevertheless,
+Palestine research is but a child of the century just closed, the
+systematic exploration of the land, in all its aspects, beginning
+properly speaking with the foundation of the English Palestine
+Exploration Fund in 1865."[4]  The reason for this delay is not far to
+seek.  From the time that Christians first began to visit Palestine to
+a comparatively {119} recent date all pilgrimages were prompted by
+religious, not by scientific motives.  The interest of the pilgrims was
+excited only by those places which were pointed out to them as the
+scenes of sacred events, and the knowledge they brought home consisted
+chiefly of descriptions of the places held in special veneration.  In
+1841 there appeared in three volumes a work entitled Biblical
+Researches, in which Professor Edward Robinson recorded the results of
+his travels in Palestine during the year 1838.  In 1852 Robinson made a
+second journey.  During these two trips he and his companions worked
+with ceaseless industry, always accurately measuring the distances, and
+describing the route, even to the smallest detail.  This painstaking
+care made the accounts so valuable that his books marked a turning
+point in the whole matter of Palestinian research, and could serve as a
+foundation upon which all future researches might rest.
+
+Among other travelers who have made valuable contributions to our
+knowledge of Palestine, the most important are Titus Tobler, H. V.
+Guerin, E. Renan, and G. A. Smith.  But the better the land came to be
+known, the more fully was it realized that the complete systematic
+exploration of the land was beyond the power of individual travelers.
+Hence in 1865 a number of men interested in Palestinian research met in
+London {120} and organized a society known as the Palestine Exploration
+Fund.  Its object was the complete, systematic, and scientific
+exploration of the Holy Land, especially for the purpose of elucidating
+the Scriptures.  The idea was taken up with great enthusiasm, and from
+the beginning until now the society has been actively engaged in
+illuminating Palestine past and present.  During the early history of
+the Fund few excavations were carried on, and these were confined to
+the city of Jerusalem; but since 1890 several mounds in southern
+Palestine have been excavated, the most important being Tel-el-Hesy,
+the probable site of ancient Lachish, and the site of the important
+city of Gezer.  At present (1912) the site of ancient Beth-Shemesh is
+being excavated.
+
+The German Palestine Society was organized in 1877 for a similar
+purpose.  When the English surveyors were prevented by the Turkish
+government from completing the survey of eastern Palestine the German
+society took up the work, and its results are embodied in a map now in
+process of publication.  The principal excavations of the German
+society were carried on between 1903 and 1907 at Tel-el Mutasellim, the
+ancient Megiddo, under the direction of Dr. Benzinger and Dr.
+Schumacher.  Dr. Sellin carried on excavations at the neighboring
+Taanach for the Austrian government between 1902 and 1904.  {121} Two
+other sites have been excavated--Jericho by the Germans and Samaria by
+Harvard University, and though no epoch-making finds have come to light
+in these two places, the results illuminate the early history of
+Palestine.
+
+Phoenicia has yielded some of its treasures.  The first of importance,
+found in 1855 in the Necropolis of Sidon, was the sarcophagus of
+Eshmunazar, king of Sidon.  Since then various other sites have been
+examined, and much material has been unearthed, throwing light on the
+history, religion, art, and civilization of these ancient neighbors of
+Israel.  In the year 1868 a German missionary, the Rev. F. Klein,
+discovered at Diban, the site of an ancient royal city of Moab, a large
+stone, with an inscription of Mesha, a king of Moab in the ninth
+century B.C. Between 1888 and 1891 investigations were conducted, for
+the Royal Museum in Berlin, at the mound of Zenjirli, once a city in
+the land Shamal, near the northern limits of Syria, south of the Issus,
+about forty miles inland.  The old citadel was uncovered, and various
+sculptures, showing Hittite influence, a magnificent statue of
+Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, a huge statue of the god Hadad, and
+several Aramaic inscriptions of great value, as illustrating early
+Syrian civilization, were found.  More recently, in 1906 and 1907,
+Professor Winckler visited Boghaz-koei, in Asia Minor, a center of
+{122} early Hittite civilization, where he uncovered thousands of
+tablets which throw new light upon the history of western Asia in
+ancient times.  Thus, generation after generation, amid dangers and
+hardships, a body of enthusiastic, self-sacrificing men have toiled
+almost day and night in order to restore to life a civilization buried
+for many centuries beneath the sands of the desert and the ruins of
+ancient cities, and we are only at the beginning.  What revelations the
+next fifty years may have in store!
+
+The results of these expeditions have been enthusiastically welcomed by
+all who are interested in antiquity: the students of history, art,
+science, anthropology, early civilization, and many others.  They are,
+however, of special interest to the Bible student; and it is well to
+remember that, whatever additional motives may be responsible for
+excavations at the present time, from the beginning until now the
+desire to find illustrations, or confirmations of scriptural
+statements, has played a prominent part.  "To what end," says Professor
+Delitzsch,[5] "this toil and trouble in distant, inhospitable and
+danger-ridden lands?  Why all this expense in ransacking to their
+utmost depths the rubbish heaps of forgotten centuries, where we know
+neither treasures of gold nor of silver exist?  Why this zealous
+emulation on the part of the nations to secure the greatest possible
+{123} number of mounds for excavation?  And whence, too, that
+constantly increasing interest, that burning enthusiasm, born of
+generous sacrifice, now being bestowed on both sides of the Atlantic
+upon the excavations in Babylonia and Assyria?  One answer echoes to
+all these questions, one answer which, if not absolutely adequate, is
+yet largely the reason and consummation of it all--the _Bible_."
+
+Our purpose is to discuss the bearing of recent researches in Bible
+lands upon the Christian view of the Old Testament, that is, the view
+which looks upon the Old Testament as containing records of divine
+revelations granted in divers portions and in divers manners to the
+people of Israel.  Concerning this bearing, two distinct and opposing
+claims are made: on the one hand, it is said that archaeological
+research only confirms the familiar view of the Bible as a trustworthy
+and unique record of religion and history; on the other hand, it is
+claimed that archaeological research has shown the Old Testament to be
+untrustworthy as to history, and as to religion, what has hitherto been
+regarded as original with the Hebrews is claimed to have been borrowed
+almost bodily from the surrounding nations.
+
+What is the true situation?  The archaeological material which has more
+or less direct bearing upon our inquiry may be roughly arranged under
+{124} two heads: (1) The Historico-Geographical; (2) The
+Religio-Ethical.  The present chapter deals with the bearing of the
+historico-geographical material upon the Old Testament historical
+records, the other class being reserved for the succeeding chapter.
+The next step in the discussion will be to enumerate at least the more
+important finds having a more or less direct relation to the Old
+Testament.  Many archaeological objects have been brought to light,
+which, though they have but indirect bearing upon the Old Testament,
+have wonderfully illuminated the life of the ancient East, and thus
+have made more distinct the general historical background upon which
+the scenes recorded in the Old Testament were enacted.  But a more
+important source of information are the inscriptions which have been
+discovered by the thousands and tens of thousands.  These inscriptions
+were written on all kinds of material--granite, alabaster, wood, clay,
+papyrus, etc.; shaped in a variety of forms--tablets, cylinders, rolls,
+statues, walls, etc.; and they have been dug out of mounds, tombs,
+pyramids, and many other places.  What, then, are the most important
+finds?  The first thing to bear in mind is that the inscriptions have
+very little to say about the earlier period of Hebrew history.  Says
+Driver,[6] "With the exception of the statement on the stele of
+Merneptah, that 'Israel is desolated,' the first {125} event connected
+with Israel and its ancestors which the inscriptions mention or attest,
+is Shishak's invasion of Judah in the reign of Rehoboam; and the first
+Israelites whom they specify by name are Omri and his son Ahab."
+Before considering the statement on the stele of Merneptah, attention
+may be given to certain inscriptions which throw considerable light on
+conditions in Palestine before the Hebrew conquest, namely, the
+so-called Tel-el-Amarna tablets.[7]  These tablets were discovered by
+accident in the winter of 1887-1888 at Tel-el-Amarna, the site of the
+ancient capital of Amenophis IV of Egypt, about midway between Memphis
+and Thebes.  On examination they proved to be a part of the official
+archives of Amenophis III (1411-1375) and Amenophis IV (1375-1358),
+consisting almost entirely of letters and reports addressed to these
+two Pharaohs by their officials in western Asia, and by rulers who
+sustained close relations to the Egyptian court.  The royal letters,
+about forty in number, are chiefly from kings of the Hittites, of the
+Mitanni, of Assyria, and of Babylonia.  The rest of the correspondence,
+about two hundred and fifty letters, is of much greater historical
+interest; it consists of letters from Egyptian governors in various
+cities of Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria.
+
+These inscriptions show that about B.C. 1400, {126} about two hundred
+years before the Hebrew conquest, Palestine and the neighboring
+countries formed an Egyptian province under the rule of Egyptian
+governors stationed in all principal towns.  At the time the Egyptians
+had considerable difficulty in maintaining their authority.  Their
+power was threatened by the Hittites and other powerful neighbors, by
+the dissatisfied native population, by the Habiri, who seem to have
+been invaders from the desert, and by the intrigues and rivalries of
+the Egyptian governors themselves.  Practically all the principal
+cities of the land are mentioned in these letters.  From the standpoint
+of Old Testament study, six letters written by Abdi-hiba, Governor of
+Jerusalem, are of special interest.  He, like many of the other
+governors, is in difficulty.  The Habiri are pressing him hard; the
+neighboring cities of Gezer, Lachish, and Askelon are aiding the enemy;
+he has been slandered before the king and accused of disloyalty.  In
+the letters he emphatically protests his innocence.  One of them reads:
+"To the king my lord, say also thus: It is Abdi-hiba, thy servant; at
+the feet of my lord the king twice seven times, and twice seven times I
+fall.  What have I done against the king my lord?  They backbite, they
+slander me before the king my lord, saying: Abdi-hiba has fallen away
+from the king his lord.  Behold, as for me, neither my father nor my
+{127} mother set me in this place; the arm of the mighty king caused me
+to enter into the house of my father.  Why should I commit a sin
+against the king my lord?"
+
+Perhaps the most surprising fact about these letters is that the
+Palestinian governors used, in the correspondence with their superiors
+in Egypt, not the Egyptian or native Canaanite, but the Babylonian
+language, which seems conclusive evidence that for some time previously
+Western Asia had been under Babylonian influence.  Without doubt this
+influence was primarily political, but naturally it would bring with it
+elements of civilization, art, science, and religion.  Now and then
+words in the Canaanite language occur, either independently, or for the
+purpose of explaining a Babylonian expression in the more familiar
+dialect of the scribe.  These Canaanite words are hardly
+distinguishable from the Hebrew of the Old Testament.  It is evident,
+therefore, that the pre-Israelite inhabitants of Palestine were closely
+akin to the Hebrews, and spoke substantially the same language.  The
+inscriptions of later Egyptian kings, during the thirteenth and the
+early part of the twelfth century, throw little additional light on
+conditions in Palestine, except that it becomes increasingly clear that
+Egypt cannot maintain its hold on the land.  Subsequent to Rameses III
+(1198-1167) Palestine was entirely {128} lost to Egypt for several
+centuries, which explains why the Hebrews were not disturbed by the
+empire on the Nile in their attempts to establish themselves in
+Palestine.
+
+The first direct reference to Israel in the inscriptions apparently
+takes us near the time of the exodus.  Archaeology has nothing to say
+directly about the exodus; but in the enumeration of his victories,
+Merneptah II, thought to be the Pharaoh during whose reign the exodus
+took place, uses these words: "Israel is lost, his seed is not."  The
+discovery of this inscription in 1896 was hailed with great rejoicing,
+for at last the name "Israel" was found in an Egyptian inscription
+coming, approximately at least, from the time of the exodus; but,
+unfortunately, the reference is so indefinite that its exact
+significance and bearing upon the date of the exodus is still under
+discussion.  It is to be noted that, whereas the other places or
+peoples named in the inscription have the determinative for "country,"
+"Israel" has the determinative for "men"; perhaps an evidence that the
+reference is not to the land of Israel, or to Israel permanently
+settled, but to a tribe or people at the time without a settled abode.
+But where was Israel at the time?  To this a variety of answers have
+been given.  D. R. Fotheringham suggests that the reference is to the
+destruction of the crops of Israel in Goshen.  {129} Israel, he thinks,
+had just left, with the crops unharvested.  These Merneptah claims to
+have destroyed.[8]  Others believe that the Israelites had already
+entered Canaan when they suffered the defeat mentioned by Merneptah.
+Petrie thinks that the Israelites defeated were in Palestine, but that
+they had no connection with the tribes that had a part in the biblical
+exodus; he believes that the latter were still in Goshen at the time of
+this defeat.[9]  Still others believe that the Israelites were, at the
+time of the defeat, in the wilderness south of Palestine, and that the
+claim of Merneptah is simply an attempt to account for their
+disappearance from Egypt.  And now comes Eerdmans, of Leiden, with the
+suggestion that the Israelites defeated by Merneptah were the
+Israelites before they went down to Egypt.[10]  It is seen, therefore,
+that the reference on the stele of Merneptah, while of much interest,
+because it is the first mention of Israel in an Egyptian inscription,
+after all throws little light upon the date and the events of the
+exodus.
+
+The next monument of importance contains an account of the invasion of
+Palestine by Shishak, five years after the death of Solomon.  On the
+southern wall of the court of the great temple of Amen at Karnak the
+king has left a pictorial representation of his campaign.  A giant
+figure is represented as holding in his left hand the ends of ropes
+which {130} bind long rows of captives neck to neck.  Their hands are
+tied behind them, and the victor's right hand holds a rod with which he
+threatens them.  The names of the conquered cities are inscribed on
+shields that cover the lower part of the body of each prisoner.  Some
+of the most familiar names in this list are Gaza, Abel, Adullam,
+Bethhoron, Aijalon, Gibeon, and Shunem.[11]
+
+From about the middle of the ninth century on inscriptions containing
+references to kings of Israel, or to events in which the Hebrews played
+important parts, become more numerous.  To the reign of Omri (889-875)
+and his immediate successors refers the inscription of Mesha on the
+so-called Moabite Stone.[12]  This notable specimen of antiquity is a
+stone of a bluish-black color, about two feet wide, nearly four feet
+high, and fourteen and one-half inches thick; rounded at the top, and,
+according to the testimony of the discoverer, the Rev. F. Klein, also
+at the bottom, which, however, is doubtful.  The value of the stone
+lies not only in the fact that it preserves one of the most ancient
+styles of Hebrew writing, but more especially in the historical,
+topographical, and religious information it furnishes.  In 2 Kings 3 we
+read of the relations between Moab and Omri and his successors.  Omri
+had subdued Moab and had collected from her a yearly tribute.  Ahab had
+enjoyed the same revenue, amounting during {131} Mesha's reign to the
+wool of a hundred thousand lambs and a hundred thousand rams.  At the
+close of Ahab's reign Mesha refused to continue the payment of the
+tribute.  The allied kings of Israel, Judah, and Edom marched with
+their armies against the Moabites, who fled for refuge within the
+strong fortress of Kir-hareseth, where Mesha offered up his own son as
+a burnt-offering to Chemosh, his god; whereupon "there was great wrath
+against Israel, and they departed from them and returned to their own
+land."
+
+The Moabite Stone was set up by King Mesha to his god Chemosh in
+commemoration of this deliverance.  The opening lines read: "I am
+Mesha, son of Chemosh-ken, king of Moab, the Daibonite.  My father
+reigned over Moab for thirty years, and I reigned after my father.  And
+I made this high place for Chemosh in Korhah, a high place of
+salvation, because he had saved me from all the assailants, and because
+he had let me see my desire upon all them that hated me.  Omri, king of
+Israel, afflicted Moab for many days, because Chemosh was angry with
+his land; and his son succeeded him; and he also said, I will afflict
+Moab.  In my days said he thus.  But I saw my desire upon him and his
+house, and Israel perished with an everlasting destruction."  As a
+supplement to the Old Testament narrative, this account is very
+instructive.  The mention of {132} Yahweh, the God of Israel, is of
+interest, as also the fact that in Moab, as in Israel, national
+disaster was attributed to the anger of the national deity.  The idiom
+in which the inscription is written differs only dialectically from the
+Hebrew of the Old Testament.  Small idiomatic differences are
+observable, but, on the other hand, it shares with it several
+distinctive features, so that, on the whole, it resembles Hebrew far
+more closely than any other Semitic language now known.  In point of
+style the inscription reads almost like a page from one of the earlier
+historical books of the Old Testament.
+
+From the time of Omri on Israel came into frequent contact with
+Assyria; indeed, the fortunes of Israel were closely bound up with the
+fortunes of this great Eastern world-power.[13]  In 885, at about the
+time when Omri had finally succeeded in overcoming his rivals,
+Ashurnasirpal ascended the throne of Assyria.  He determined to restore
+the former glory of his nation, which had become eclipsed under his
+incompetent predecessors; and with him began a period of conquest which
+ultimately brought the whole eastern shore of the Mediterranean under
+Assyrian sway.  In 860 Shalmaneser III[14] succeeded his father upon
+the throne of Assyria, and in the following year he renewed the attack
+upon the West.  In 854 he felt prepared for a supreme effort, and it is
+in the {133} account of this campaign that we read for the first time
+the name of an Israelite king in the Assyrian inscription.  Shalmaneser
+advanced with great speed and success until he reached Karkar, near the
+Orontes, a little north of Hamath.  In the account of the campaign he
+mentions, among the allies who fought against him, Ahab of Israel, who,
+he says, furnished two thousand chariots and ten thousand men.  The
+campaign is recorded in several inscriptions, in all of which
+Shalmaneser claims a complete victory.
+
+The most famous inscription of this king is the one on the so-called
+Black Obelisk, an alabaster monolith found at Nimrud in 1846.  This
+monument is inscribed on all four sides with an account, in one hundred
+and ninety lines, of the expeditions undertaken during thirty-one years
+of the king's reign.  In the text of the inscription reference is made
+to campaigns against the west land (Syria and Palestine) in 859, 854,
+850, 849, 846, 842, and 839.  In addition to the inscription the
+monument contains, on the upper portion, five series of four reliefs
+each, each series representing the tribute brought to the Assyrian king
+by kings whom he had conquered or who sought his favor.  In the
+inscription itself, no mention is made of Israel or the king of Israel,
+but the second tier of reliefs is of much interest.  It depicts a
+prince or deputy prostrating himself before Shalmaneser, {134} and
+behind the prostrated figure are attendants bearing gifts of various
+kinds.  The superscription reads: "The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri,
+silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden ladle, golden goblets, golden
+pitchers, lead, a staff for the hand of the king, shafts of spears, I
+received of him."  In 842 Shalmaneser undertook an expedition against
+Hazael of Damascus, and in the account of this expedition he says, "At
+that time I received the tribute of the Tyrians and Sidonians, and of
+Jehu, the son of Omri."
+
+About half a century after the occurrence of Jehu's name in the
+inscription of Shalmaneser III Israel is mentioned again as tributary
+to Assyria.  Adad-nirari IV (812-783), after enumerating other
+countries subjugated by him, writes: "From the Euphrates to the land of
+the Hatti, the west country in its entire compass, Tyre, Sidon, the
+land of Omri, Edom, Philistia, as far as the great sea of the setting
+of the sun (Mediterranean Sea), I subjected to my yoke; payment of
+tribute I imposed upon them."
+
+Adad-nirari was succeeded by a series of weak kings, during whose reign
+the power of Assyria declined, but in 745 the great Tiglath-pileser IV,
+mentioned in the Old Testament also under the name Pul, ascended the
+throne.  He succeeded in reorganizing the resources of the empire and
+in rekindling its ambitions for conquest.  This {135} energetic king
+has left several inscriptions of much interest to the student of Old
+Testament history.  In one of these, narrating an expedition against
+northern Syria about B.C. 738, he mentions a king, "Azriau of the land
+of Yaudi."  It has been customary to identify this king with Azariah
+(Uzziah) of Judah.  The contents speak against this identification, and
+since the inscriptions found in Zenjirli have established the existence
+in northern Syria of a state called Yaudi, perhaps the king mentioned
+in Tiglath-pileser's inscription was a ruler of this northern kingdom.
+In the annals which tell of his victory over Azriau of Yaudi he
+mentions Menahem of Samaria as one of the kings whose tribute he
+received.  The same inscription, referring to events in 734 or 733,
+speaks of a victory over the House of Omri, and the assassination of
+the king Pekah, but the inscription is so fragmentary that the details
+are obscure.  Fortunately, the same events are recorded in another
+inscription, which is in a better state of preservation, though it also
+has several gaps.  After enumerating several cities which he captured
+in Palestine, among them Gaza, he continues: "The land of the dynasty
+of Omri ... the whole of its inhabitants, their possessions to Assyria
+I deported.  Pekah, their king, they slew, Hoshea to rule over them
+appointed.  Ten talents of gold, a thousand talents of silver, I
+received {136} as tribute."  Ahaz of Judah is also mentioned in an
+inscription of Tiglath-pileser, as paying tribute, but it is not clear
+to what year this refers.
+
+Tiglath-pileser died in 727, and was succeeded by Shalmaneser V, who in
+turn gave place in 722 to Sargon II.  Shalmaneser is mentioned as the
+king who attacked the northern kingdom, and the Old Testament narrative
+leaves the impression that he was the king who finally captured the
+city of Samaria.  The inscriptions show that it was Sargon who overcame
+the city soon after the beginning of his reign.  In one of his
+inscriptions he calls himself, "the brave hero ... who overthrew the
+House of Omri."  In another he says: "Samaria I besieged, I took.
+27,290 of its inhabitants I carried away; 50 chariots I gathered from
+them; the rest of them I permitted to retain their possessions.  Over
+them I appointed my governor, and upon them I imposed the tribute of
+the former king."  The annals of Sargon, which give an account of the
+events during his reign in chronological order, give the date of the
+capture of Samaria.  After the introduction, he continues: "In the
+beginning of my reign and in the first year of my reign, ... Samaria I
+besieged and took....  27,290 inhabitants I carried away; 50 chariots
+as my royal portion I collected there....  I restored and made as it
+was before....  People from all countries, my captives, I settled
+there.  My {137} official I appointed as governor over them.  Tribute
+and taxes like the Assyrian I imposed upon them."  After the
+destruction of the northern kingdom the life of the Hebrews became
+centered in Judah and Jerusalem.  The fall of Samaria made an
+impression on the South that was remembered for some time.
+Nevertheless, the states along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean
+Sea bore impatiently the Assyrian yoke, and in most cities there arose
+a party which, relying on the promised help of Egypt, was eager to free
+itself from Assyria.  That this party gained a foothold also in
+Jerusalem is seen from the prophecy in Isa. 20, in which the prophet
+warns the people against trusting in Egypt and rebelling against
+Assyria.  In the same direction points an inscription of Sargon
+describing an expedition against Ashdod: "The people of Philistia,
+_Judah_, Edom, and Moab, dwelling beside the sea, bringing tribute and
+presents to Ashur my lord, were speaking treason.  The people and their
+evil chiefs, to fight against me, to Pharaoh, king of Egypt, a prince
+who could not save them, their presents carried and besought his
+alliance."  In all probability, Judah did not become involved seriously
+at this time.  But the death of Sargon in 705 seems to have been a
+signal for revolt in many parts of the Assyrian empire.  His son and
+successor, Sennacherib, gave these rebellions his immediate attention;
+until 702 {138} he was kept busy in the East, but in that year he
+turned westward, and by 701 was ready to attack Judah.  The campaign
+and the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem on that occasion are
+recorded at length in 2 Kings 18, 19, and Isa. 36, 37.  The account of
+the same campaign by the Assyrian king is, from the standpoint of Old
+Testament history, perhaps the most interesting historical inscription
+left by an Assyrian ruler.  It is found in the so-called Taylor
+Cylinder,[15] column 2, line 34, to column 3, line 41.  The most
+interesting portion reads:
+
+
+  To the city of Ekron I went; the governors
+  [and] princes, who had committed a transgression, I killed and
+  bound their corpses on poles around the city.
+  The inhabitants of the city, who had committed sin and evil,
+  I counted as spoil; to the rest of them
+  who had committed no sin and wrong, who had
+  no guilt, I spoke peace.  Padi
+  their king, I brought forth from the
+  city of Jerusalem; upon the throne of lordship over them
+  I placed him.  The tribute of my lordship
+  I laid upon him.  But Hezekiah
+  of Judah, who had not submitted to my yoke,
+  I besieged 46 of his strong cities, fortresses, and small cities
+  of their environs, without number, [and]
+  by the battering of rams and the assault of engines,
+  by the attack of foot soldiers, mines, breaches, and axes,
+  I besieged, I took them; 200,150 men, young [and] old, male
+      and female, horses, mules, asses, camels, oxen
+  and sheep without number I brought out from them,
+  I counted them as spoil.  [Hezekiah] himself I shut up like
+      a caged bird in Jerusalem
+
+{139}
+
+  his royal city; the walls I fortified
+  against him [and] whosoever came out of the gates of the
+      city, I turned
+  back.  His cities, which I had plundered, I separated from
+      his land
+  and gave them to Mitinti, king of Ashdod,
+  to Padi, king of Ekron, and to Sil-Bel,
+  king of Gaza, and [thus] diminished his territory.
+  To the former tribute, paid yearly,
+  I added the tribute and presents of my lordship and
+  laid that upon him.  Hezekiah himself
+  was overwhelmed by the fear of the brightness of my lordship;
+  the Arabians and his other faithful warriors
+  whom, as a defense for Jerusalem his royal city
+  he had brought in, fell into fear.
+  With 30 talents of gold [and] 800 talents of silver, precious
+      stones,
+  _gukhli daggassi_ (?), large lapis lazuli,
+  couches of ivory, thrones of ivory,
+  ivory, _usu_ wood, box wood (?), of every kind, a heavy
+      treasure,
+  and his daughters, his women of the palace,
+  the young men and young women, to Nineveh, the city of
+      my lordship,
+  I caused to be brought after me, and he sent his ambassadors,
+  to give tribute and to pay homage.
+
+
+These are, perhaps, the most important historical inscriptions
+illustrating specific events in the history of Israel and Judah.  There
+are, however, many more that make important, though more or less
+indirect, contributions toward a better understanding of Old Testament
+history.  Just to mention a few: Tirhaka of Egypt, who, temporarily at
+least, interfered with the plans of the Assyrians, {140} appears
+several times in the inscriptions; the real significance of the events
+recorded in 2 Kings 20. 12ff., and Isa. 39, can be understood only in
+the light of the inscriptions; an interesting sidelight is thrown by
+the inscriptions on the biblical account of Sennacherib's death.  In
+one of the inscriptions of Esarhaddon, the son and successor of
+Sennacherib, we are told that among the twenty-two kings of the land of
+the Hittites who assisted him in his building enterprises was Manasseh,
+king of Judah.  Ashurbanipal, the successor of Esarhaddon, includes
+Manasseh in a similar list.  Though this king is not mentioned in the
+Old Testament under his Assyrian name, it is very probable that he is
+the king referred to in Ezra 4. 10, where it is said that the "great
+and noble Osnappar" brought Babylonians, Susanians, Elamites, and men
+of other nationalities to Samaria.  The inscriptions do not throw much
+light upon the closing years of Judah's history, but we can understand
+the events in which Judah played a part better because the inscriptions
+set into clearer light the general history of Western Asia.  The
+advance of the Scythians, the revival of Egypt in the seventh century,
+the fall of Nineveh, the rise of the Chaldean empire, which reached its
+highest glory under Nebuchadrezzar, the conqueror of Judah--all these
+are described in the inscriptions, or, at least, illuminated by them.
+{141} In a similar way the inscriptions, though not mentioning the
+Jewish exiles in Babylonia, illuminate the biblical records in many
+respects.  Fortunately, also, the inscriptions furnish a good idea of
+the events leading to the downfall of Babylon, which resulted in the
+restoration of many exiles to Judah; and the restoration itself assumes
+a new significance in the light of the inscriptions; for the permission
+to return granted by Cyrus to the Jews is seen to be in accord with the
+general policy of the conqueror to secure the good-will of the peoples
+deported by the Babylonians by restoring them to their own homes.  The
+historical situation of the age may suggest another reason for the
+kindly treatment of the Jews.  It was inevitable that sooner or later
+Cyrus, or his successors, should come into conflict with Egypt.  At
+such time it would be of immense value to him to have near the border
+of Egypt a nation upon whose fidelity and gratitude he could rely.
+Archaeology has not thrown any direct light on the condition of the
+Jews in Palestine under the Persian rule.  On the other hand, we know a
+great deal about conditions in Babylonia during that period, and within
+the past decade several important documents written on papyrus have
+been found in Egypt which furnish indisputable evidence that the island
+of Elephantine, opposite Assuan, a short distance north of the first
+cataract {142} of the Nile, was the seat of a Jewish colony at least as
+early as the reign of Cambyses, king of Persia (B.C. 529-521).[16]
+
+This concludes the survey of the archaeological material of a historical
+nature.  It is seen that during the period from the division of the
+kingdom subsequent to the death of Solomon to the reestablishment of
+the Jews in Palestine after the exile the inscriptions furnish most
+interesting and instructive illustrations of events mentioned or
+alluded to in the Old Testament.  As a result the history and also the
+prophecy of the Old Testament have been removed from the isolated
+position in which they previously seemed to stand.  They are now seen
+to be connected by many links with the great movements taking place in
+the world without.
+
+The question as to the bearing of the archaeological historical records
+on the historical records of the Old Testament remains to be
+considered.  This question was asked as soon as the contents of the
+inscriptions became known.  The answers have varied greatly.  On the
+one hand, it has been claimed that the Old Testament records are
+confirmed in every detail; on the other, those have not been wanting
+who claimed that the inscriptions discredit the Old Testament.  Here,
+as in other investigations, the true conclusion can be reached only
+after a careful examination of all {143} the facts in the case.  In the
+study of the question there are several considerations and cautions
+which must not be lost sight of if we would reach a true estimate.
+Some of these cautions are suggested by the nature of the inscriptions.
+
+In the first place, it must be remembered that most of the
+archaeological material has come from lands outside of Palestine, and
+that the testimony is that of people not friendly to the Hebrews.  We
+may expect, therefore, that at times personal bias may have colored the
+portrayal and caused the Hebrews to appear in a less favorable light
+than the facts would warrant, or that the events in which the Hebrews
+took part were described in a manner to make them favor the interests
+of the writers.
+
+Again, not every period of Hebrew history is illuminated by the
+inscriptions.  True, the earliest monuments found in Egypt and
+Babylonia antedate the birth of Jesus perhaps more than four thousand
+years; but it is not until the time of Ahab, king of Israel, that the
+important historical material begins.  The references to Israel
+preceding the time of the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser III, c. B.C. 850,
+are few and more or less obscure.  There is the monument of Shishak in
+the tenth century; but some are inclined to believe that the list of
+the cities alleged to have been conquered by Shishak was simply taken
+over by him from {144} an earlier document, and that, therefore, it is
+of little or no historical value.  Israel is mentioned in the
+inscription of Merneptah, but, as has been seen, the significance of
+the brief reference is obscure; there is nothing concerning the stay in
+Egypt, nothing concerning the patriarchs, and nothing concerning the
+earlier period that can in any way be connected with the historical
+records of the Old Testament.
+
+Furthermore, to get at the true value of the evidence from the
+monuments we must distinguish between facts and inferences from the
+facts.  This distinction, obvious as it seems, has not always been
+maintained even by eminent archaeologists.  For example, Professor
+Sayce, who is in just repute among Assyriologists, made a few years ago
+the statement: "The vindication of the reality of Menes [one of the
+early kings of Egypt] means the vindication also of the historical
+character of the Hebrew patriarchs."  Surely, common sense says that
+facts proving the historicity of an early king of Egypt do not
+necessarily prove the historicity of men living many centuries later.
+Many similar illustrations might be given.  Because bricks made without
+straw were found it has been claimed that every detail of the Old
+Testament narrative concerning the stay of Israel in Egypt was
+corroborated by archaeology.  The finding of the walls of royal palaces
+in Babylon furnished {145} the claim that the story of the handwriting
+on the wall was established beyond doubt.  The finding of images of
+deities has been interpreted as showing beyond a possibility of
+question the historicity of the narrative in Daniel concerning the
+image erected by Nebuchadrezzar, etc.  There can easily be too much
+blind dependence on authority; an assumption of fact, upon the mere
+dictum of some presumably honest and competent scholar.  About a
+generation ago a well-known investigator said, "Assyriology has its
+guesses and it has its accurate knowledge."[17]  These words might be
+expanded to include the whole field of archaeology.  Archaeology has its
+facts, and it has its inferences.  The two must not be confused.
+
+Moreover, the possibility of inscribing lies upon clay tablets must not
+be overlooked.  Sometimes it has been claimed, and that most absurdly,
+that because an inscription has been engraved upon imperishable stone
+or clay it has a superior value.  But the mere fact of a record being
+inscribed on a tablet of clay, perishable or imperishable, gives it no
+superiority over one written on papyrus or parchment or paper.  Clay
+tablets were to the civilization of the Euphrates valley what print
+paper is to us.  We all know that paper is patient, else the daily
+papers would be of smaller size and many books would remain unwritten.
+The same is true of clay tablets.  Clay tablets are {146} patient.  It
+was recognized long ago by Assyriologists that the so-called historical
+inscriptions are not all unbiased statements of objective facts.  In
+many cases the chief purpose seems to have been the glorification of
+the king; victories are recorded with the greatest care, but no mention
+is made of defeats.  For example: in one of the earliest inscriptions
+mentioning a king of Israel, Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria, claims a
+great victory over the Western allies in the battle of Karkar in 854;
+but, strange to say, the victory resulted in a rather hasty retreat of
+the Assyrian army.  Another evidence of the "absolute reliability" of
+the historical tablets is offered by the inscriptions of the same king.
+In connection with the battle of Karkar, one inscription declares that
+the allies killed numbered 14,000; another, 20,500; while a third
+claims 25,000.  We have, indeed, reason to say that "the evident
+uncertainty in the figures makes us doubt somewhat the clearness of the
+entire result.  The claim of a great victory is almost certainly
+false."[18]
+
+Once more: the translation of the inscriptions is not in every case
+beyond question.  For example, in lines 7-9 of the Moabite Stone we
+read, according to the common translation, "Now Omri annexed all the
+land of Medeba, and Israel occupied it his days and half the days of
+his son, forty years."  This rendering would imply that the {147}
+period from the conquest under Omri to the end of the first half of
+Ahab's reign was forty years.  The chronology of Kings gives as the
+total of the full reigns of the two kings only thirty-four years, while
+the above translation of the inscription would require about sixty--a
+serious discrepancy.  Now, it is generally conceded that the chronology
+of the Bible cannot be accepted as final in all its details, and that
+it must be checked by the chronology of the inscriptions wherever that
+is possible.  Yet before we can make use of the monumental testimony we
+should be sure of its exact meaning.  In cases such as the one
+mentioned this certainty is absent, and we should move very slowly.
+Another translation of the passage has been proposed: "Omri conquered
+the whole land of Medeba and held it in possession as long as he
+reigned and during half of my reign his son, in all forty years; but
+yet in my reign Chemosh recovered it."[19]  This translation would
+bring the total of the two reigns to about forty years, and thus the
+chronological difficulty apparently offered by 2 Kings 3 would be
+removed.
+
+The five considerations to which attention has been called must be
+observed if we would understand rightly the bearing of the monuments on
+the Old Testament, when viewed from the standpoint of the inscriptions.
+Attention must now be called to certain considerations touching {148}
+primarily the Old Testament that must be regarded in forming an
+estimate of the value of its historical records.
+
+We must remember, for example, that the purpose of the Old Testament is
+essentially and predominatingly religious.  This is recognized by the
+Jews, for they do not call any of the so-called historical books by
+that name.  The five books of the Pentateuch they designate as Law,
+because in these books practically all Hebrew legislation is embodied.
+Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, they include in the list of prophetic
+books, because they recognize the essentially prophetic purpose of the
+authors.  The other books belong to the third division of the Jewish
+canon, called the Writings.  Concerning the books of Kings, which are
+the principal historical books of the Old Testament, it has been truly
+said: "Kings, by virtue of its contents, belongs as much to the
+prophetical books as to the historical.  It is not a continuous
+chronicle; it is a book of prophetic teaching in which sometimes
+history, sometimes story, is employed as the vehicle of teaching.  It
+enforces the principle that God is the controlling power and sin the
+disturbing force in the entire history of men and nations.[20]  In a
+similar manner the religious purpose predominates in the other Old
+Testament historical books.  They do not pretend to give a complete
+history even of {149} the Hebrew people.  The writers embodied only
+such historical material as was thought to illustrate the
+self-revelation of God in the history of individuals and of the nation,
+or to bear in some marked way upon the coming of the kingdom of God.  A
+modern secular historian is disappointed at many omissions which would
+be unpardonable in a strictly historical production.  Now, it is
+readily seen that the religious purpose may be served, and the didactic
+value of the narrative may remain, even though historical inaccuracies
+in details should be discovered.
+
+Another fact to be remembered is the possible difference in the
+viewpoint of several narrators of one and the same event.  In sacred,
+as in secular history, the viewpoint of the author determines to a
+considerable extent the character of the narrative.  For example: the
+delineation of the events of the Civil War will not be the same in
+official documents, in a secular history, in a church history, or in a
+work containing personal memoirs.  Still other differences might be
+seen in narratives confined to special incidents.  Such differences in
+viewpoint may be noticed also among the writers of the Old Testament
+historical books.  Broadly speaking, part of the historical literature
+of the Old Testament is due to prophetic activity, part to priestly
+activity.  In writing history the prophets, with their broad interest
+in all the {150} affairs of the nation, resemble the modern secular
+historian.  They portray events more objectively than the priests,
+hence they are more reliable.  The priestly writers resemble the modern
+ecclesiastical historian, who judges everyone and everything according
+to their attitude toward the peculiar religious conceptions he
+represents.  The Old Testament contains also some personal memoirs (in
+Ezra and Nehemiah) and some narratives of special incidents (Ruth,
+Esther), while the historical books in their present form embody also
+what may have been official documents.
+
+Moreover, in estimating the reliability of the Old Testament historical
+books we must not overlook certain unconscious references and
+indications which show that the authors exercised considerable care in
+producing the books.  In the first place, historical statements appear
+to have been preserved with considerable care, at least so far as the
+substance is concerned.  This may be seen from the retention of
+parallel narratives of the same events, without attempts at harmonizing
+minor disagreements.  In the second place, history was written with
+some discrimination.  This is evident especially in Kings, where the
+several degrees in which certain of the kings departed from the
+legitimate religion of Israel are carefully indicated.  A clear
+distinction is made between the relatively pious kings, who simply did
+not {151} remove the high places (1 Kings 15. 14; 2 Kings 12. 3) and
+those who, in defiance of a fundamental principle (Exod. 20. 4, 5),
+desired to represent the spiritual God of Israel in images that would
+appeal to the senses (1 Kings 12. 28, 29; 14. 16, etc.), and those who,
+in defiance of the first requirement of the Decalogue (Exod. 20. 3),
+served other gods (1 Kings 16. 31-33; 18. 22, etc.).  Once more: in the
+Old Testament records we find evidence of the historical consciousness
+of ancient Israel resting upon a very sure foundation.  The Mosaic age
+was regarded as the supreme crisis in the national history.  Moses was
+the great hero; yet his grandeur was not able to extinguish the
+consciousness of the glory of the pre-Mosaic period.  Throughout the
+entire literature Abraham and Jacob and Joseph are also connected with
+the beginnings of the Hebrew nation and with the beginning of the
+religious mission of the people.  The memory of the pre-Mosaic period
+seems indeed to have been securely founded.
+
+What, then, are the results of this comparative study?  The Old
+Testament world has become a new world.  Dark regions were Egypt,
+Assyria, Elam, and other countries mentioned in the Old Testament
+before the explorers and excavators entered these lands.  Now it is
+comparatively easy to trace with considerable accuracy the boundaries
+of empires that existed in the first {152} and second millenniums B.C.
+In addition, we can fix with certainty the sites of some Old Testament
+cities whose location was previously unknown and, in some cases, whose
+very existence had been doubted.  The topography of cities like
+Nineveh, Nippur, and Babylon has become quite definitely fixed.
+
+The historical gains are even more remarkable.  Whole nations have been
+resurrected.  What did we know a century ago of Elam?  Nothing but the
+name.  What of Assyria?  Only a few traditions, sometimes
+untrustworthy, preserved by classical writers, and the statements of
+the Bible, some of which were unintelligible because of their
+fragmentary character.  Now these and other nations pass one after the
+other in review, great and powerful in all their ancient glory.  And,
+almost every day, new light is thrown on these early centuries.  Only a
+few years ago it was thought that Assyrian history, as distinct from
+that of Babylon, began about B.C. 1800; now we know the names of many
+rulers who lived generations and centuries before that date.
+
+The chronological gains are especially important.  It is generally
+admitted that Hebrew chronology is not always reliable, and various
+expedients have been resorted to to remove the difficulties.  It was
+very gratifying, therefore, to discover that the chronological system
+of the Assyrians was {153} more precise.  Among the inscriptions are
+especially three classes of public records in which the occurrences are
+carefully dated: (1) Records of the reigns of certain kings in which
+their activities are carefully arranged in chronological order; (2)
+business tablets in which transactions are definitely dated; and (3)
+the so-called eponym lists.  According to Assyrian custom, each year
+was named after a prominent official.  Lists of these were carefully
+made and kept, and, fortunately, large fragments of them have been
+preserved.  Two recensions of these eponym lists have come down.  In
+one only the names of the years are given; in the other references to
+important events are added to the names.  If, now, any one of these
+events can be dated, it becomes possible to trace the dates designated
+by the names on either side of the one whose date is first determined.
+By means of these lists and the other records the Assyrian chronology
+can be definitely fixed from about B.C. 900 on.  This, in turn, enables
+us to bring order into the chaos of Hebrew chronology during the most
+important period of the nation's existence.
+
+When we think of these and other gains, not the least of which is the
+discovery of the contemporaneous documents, the absence of which was at
+one time made the basis for the rejection of many statements found
+exclusively in the Old {154} Testament, we may gratefully receive this
+new light and rejoice in the advance in Bible knowledge made possible
+through the excavations.  What, now, is the general bearing of these
+discoveries on the trustworthiness of the Old Testament?
+
+In the first place, it is well to remember that for many periods of
+Hebrew history we are still entirely dependent on the Old Testament for
+direct information.  For example, Professor Clay's claim concerning the
+patriarchal age, that "the increase of knowledge gained through the
+inscriptions of this period has in every instance dissolved conclusions
+arrived at by those critics who maintain that the patriarchs are not to
+be regarded as historical,"[21] is not justified by the facts.  In
+reality, no incident in the patriarchal story is referred to in any of
+the inscriptions read thus far.  On the other hand, the age of the
+patriarchs has been wonderfully illuminated.  "Formerly the world in
+which the patriarchs moved seemed to be almost empty; now we see it
+filled with embassies, armies, busy cities, and long lines of traders
+passing to and fro between one center of civilization and another; but
+amid all that crowded life we peer in vain for any trace of the fathers
+of the Hebrews; we listen in vain for any mention of their names; this
+is the whole change archaeology has wrought: it has given us an
+atmosphere and a background for the stories of Genesis; it is {155}
+unable to recall or certify their heroes."[22]  All that can be said in
+this, as in other cases, is, that archaeology, by furnishing a broad
+historical background, has established the possibility of the principal
+events recorded in the biblical narratives being correct.  It is silent
+concerning the events themselves, and, therefore, neither confirms nor
+discredits them.
+
+A few cases there are, especially in connection with questions of
+chronology, where archaeology has modified and corrected biblical
+statements.  According to the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser, for
+example, Menahem of Israel paid tribute to the Assyrian king in B.C.
+738, and there is reason for believing that this tribute was paid near
+the beginning of Menahem's reign for the purpose of securing the good
+will of Assyria.  In 734 or 733 Pekah is said to have been slain and to
+have been succeeded by Hoshea.  Now, according to the Old Testament,
+Menahem reigned ten years; his son, Pekahiah, two years, and Pekah
+twenty years, a total of thirty-two years.  Even if we assume that the
+tribute was paid by Menahem during his last year--which is not at all
+likely--there would remain twenty-two years to be provided for between
+738 and 734 or 733.  Evidently, the Old Testament figures are too high.
+A similar case is found in connection with events that took place only
+a few years later.  In 2 Kings {156} 18. 10 the statement is found that
+Samaria was taken in the sixth year of Hezekiah, king of Judah.  Then,
+verse 13 states that in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, Sennacherib,
+king of Assyria, came against Jerusalem.  The date of the capture of
+Samaria is definitely fixed by the Assyrian inscriptions.  The city
+fell either in the closing days of B.C. 722 or the opening days of B.C.
+721.  Assuming that it was 722, the fourteenth year of Hezekiah would
+be 714.  But Sennacherib did not become king until 705, and the attack
+upon Jerusalem was not made until 701.  Here, again, the biblical
+account seems to be inaccurate.
+
+In many other cases, however, remarkable confirmations are seen.  There
+are many persons and events mentioned in the Old Testament which are
+referred to also in the inscriptions.  Think of the long list of
+Babylonian and Assyrian kings named in the Old Testament; Amraphel,
+king of Shinar, at one time considered a mythical figure, is shown to
+have been one of the greatest generals, wisest administrators, and
+fairest lawgivers among the early kings of Babylon.  Sargon, whose very
+existence was once doubted, has in defiance risen from the dust.  In
+these and numerous other cases, especially from the ninth century
+onward--as may be seen from a comparison of the inscriptions quoted
+above with the corresponding portions of {157} the Old Testament--the
+archaeological records furnish striking confirmations of the Old
+Testament narratives.  To sum up this entire inquiry: It must be
+apparent to every unbiased student that the monuments, when read
+intelligently, neither set aside nor discredit the Old Testament
+documents.  On the contrary, they prove their substantial accuracy.
+They may at times modify them, especially in questions of chronology;
+but they more frequently corroborate than impugn; thus they offer their
+services not as a substitute but as a supplement, by the aid of which
+we may study from without the history of the Hebrew people.
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER IV
+
+[1] An excellent account of the explorations and excavations in
+Babylonia and Assyria, and of the decipherment of the inscriptions is
+found in R. W. Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria, Vol. I,
+Chapters I-VIII; compare also H. V. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible
+Lands during the Nineteenth Century, Part I.
+
+[2] Preliminary reports of the results of the German excavations are
+given from time to time in the Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient
+Gesellschaft.
+
+[3] G. Steindorff, Excavations in Egypt, in H. V. Hilprecht,
+Explorations in Bible Lands, pp. 623-690.
+
+[4] Opening words of I. Benzinger, Researches in Palestine, in
+Hilprecht, Explorations, pp. 579-622.  A very complete discussion of
+explorations and excavations in Palestine may be found in F. Jones
+Bliss, Development of Palestine Exploration.  The {158} progress of the
+excavations is reported in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine
+Exploration Fund.
+
+[5] Opening words of the first lecture on "Babel and Bible."
+
+[6] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. xlviii.
+
+[7] A. T. Clay, Light on the Old Testament from Babel, Chapter XI.
+
+[8] The Chronology of the Old Testament, p. 97.
+
+[9] Egypt and Israel, p. 35.  Breasted also seems to think that the
+Israelites defeated by Merneptah had no direct connection with those
+who suffered in Egypt, A History of Egypt, p. 466; compare p. 410.
+
+[10] The Expositor, 1908, p. 199.
+
+[11] J. C. Ball, Light from the East, pp. 131, 132.
+
+[12] W. H. Bennett, The Moabite Stone; Hastings, Dictionary of the
+Bible, art., "Moab, Moabites."
+
+[13] Most of the inscriptions from this period on are found in D. G.
+Hogarth, Authority and Archaeology, Part I--Hebrew Authority, by S. R.
+Driver.  See also T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of the
+Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia; A. T. Clay,
+Light on the Old Testament from Babel; A. Jeremias, The Old Testament
+in the Light of the Ancient Orient; R. F. Harper, Assyrian and
+Babylonian Literature; S. R. Driver, Modern Research as Illustrating
+the Bible.  The most recent and most complete collection of cuneiform
+inscriptions throwing light on Old Testament religion and history is
+contained in R. W. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament,
+which appeared after this book had gone to press.
+
+[14] Formerly called Shalmaneser II; see Expository Times, February,
+1912, p. 238.
+
+[15] A translation of the entire inscription by R. W. Rogers is found
+in Records of the Past, New Series, Vol. VI, pp. 80ff.  These Records
+of the Past contain translations of the more important ancient
+inscriptions.
+
+{159}
+
+[16] The most important of these papyri is translated in the Biblical
+World, June, 1908, pp. 448ff.
+
+[17] Francis Brown, Assyriology--Its Use and Abuse in Old Testament
+Study, p. 3.
+
+[18] R. W. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, Vol. II, p. 80.
+
+[19] Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I, col. 792, Note.
+
+[20] E. W. Barnes, The First Book of Kings, p. xxxiii.
+
+[21] A. T. Clay, Light on the Old Testament from Babel, p. 143.
+
+[22] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. liii, quoted in part from G.
+A. Smith, Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old Testament, p.
+101.
+
+
+
+
+{160}
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE OLD TESTAMENT AND COMPARATIVE RELIGION
+
+The present is an era of comparative study.  We no longer study
+subjects by themselves, but compare them with correlated experiences
+and phenomena.  "In the sphere of language study we have the science of
+comparative philology.  Language is compared with language.  By means
+of this comparison we have found that there are groups of languages
+closely related to one another; and, comparing these groups with one
+another, we have discovered certain universal laws of language.
+Comparing further the languages within each group, we ascertain the
+laws common to that group.  By such comparison a flood of light has
+been thrown on language.  We know Greek and Latin and Hebrew to-day as
+our predecessors did not know them."[1]  The same principle of
+comparison is now applied to the study of history, of literature, of
+philosophy, of ethics, and of religion, including the literature and
+religion of the Hebrews.  Men are laying to-day the entire Hebrew
+literature, history, and religion alongside of the literatures,
+histories, and religions of other {161} nations, testing them by the
+same methods and applying to them the same rules.
+
+What should be the attitude of the Christian toward this method of
+study?  When the science of comparative philology first asserted itself
+many good Christians set themselves against it, because one of its
+claims was that Hebrew is not the original language given by God to
+men.  Comparative philology has won its way, and Bible students are
+truly grateful for the light it has shed upon sacred scripture.  When
+the comparative study of the Scriptures was first advocated there were
+many timid souls who felt that this method of study was an attack upon
+the Bible, which could only issue in such an overturning of belief that
+the Church would remain helpless with a worthless Bible.  Hence they
+set themselves with all their might against the new study as an enemy
+of Christianity.  Is this the proper attitude?  In the first place, it
+is well to remember that the Bible has withstood all attacks for
+thousands of years.  Its great river of truth has flowed serenely on,
+watering the whole earth with its life-giving streams, and refusing to
+be dammed up by any foe.  Surely, history teaches that there need be no
+fear that any new method of study will bring about an end of the
+Bible's reign.  On the other hand, history teaches the folly of
+resisting the progress of science along any line of investigation.
+{162} True science will win its way just as surely as the teaching of
+the Bible will win its way into the hearts of men.  Hence it would seem
+the part of wisdom to encourage rather than to discourage the efforts
+of the comparative student of the Old Testament.
+
+As a matter of fact, we cannot do anything else unless we would
+stultify ourselves.  We have said to the adherents of every other
+religion: "You say your sacred books are divine, prove it; lay your
+books open before the jury of the world, let the critics scrutinize
+them, analyze them, criticize them, according to the canons of modern
+criticism by which they criticize all books."  And can we refuse to
+open our Bible before the jury of the world and bid it scrutinize,
+analyze, and criticize it according to the same canons which it applies
+to the Veda, the Koran, and other so-called holy books?  Would such an
+attitude be fair?  If we believe that the Bible is different from the
+sacred books of other nations, that it stands on a far higher plane,
+unique, needing no concealment and no bolstering up with traditions and
+doctrines--if that is our faith, then let us lay it down open before
+the world and challenge men to read it, study it, and compare it with
+all the sacred literatures of the world.  The man who really believes
+in the inspiration of the Bible ought not to be afraid of such a test.
+He may rest assured {163} that the comparative study of biblical
+literature and biblical religion will prove one of the things that work
+together for good to all those who have a living faith in God.
+
+An exhaustive discussion of the subject of this chapter would involve a
+study of all the great historical religions, known better to-day than
+ever before, and a comparison of them with the religion of the Old
+Testament.  This, however, could not be done satisfactorily within the
+limits of a single chapter.  It seems, therefore, advisable to confine
+the investigation to the religious beliefs, practices, and institutions
+of the nations with whom the Hebrews came into more or less close
+contact, such as the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians.  Political
+contact, which was common between these nations and the Hebrews, might
+furnish occasions for exerting influence in the realms of religion,
+law, and other elements of civilization.  "When alien races and diverse
+faiths confronted each other it might not always be the cause of war,
+but it was always the occasion of psychical conflict."[2]  Since the
+knowledge of the religions of the nations named has been supplied very
+largely through archaeological labors, this inquiry is simply one phase
+of the broader question as to the bearing of archaeology upon the Old
+Testament; more especially, the bearing of the archaeological material
+of a religious and ethical nature {164} upon the uniqueness and
+permanent significance of the Old Testament religion.
+
+The importance of this study is suggested in the following quotation
+from a prominent Assyriologist, Hugo Winckler: "We come in the end to
+this, that we can distinguish only two views of the world which the
+human race has known in its historical development: the old Babylonian,
+and the modern empirical naturalistic, which is still in process of
+development and is yet struggling with the old one in many departments
+of life."[3]  To avoid misunderstanding respecting the extent of the
+Babylonian influence, he adds, "The view of the world and religion are
+one for the ancient Oriental."[3]  In this statement Winckler robs the
+Old Testament religion of all originality; he considers it simply a
+natural development of the Babylonian religion.  Friedrich Delitzsch,
+in his lectures on "Babel and Bible,"[4] expresses the same idea in a
+slightly modified form and attempts to show the predominance of
+Babylonian thought in the Hebrew conception of the origin of the world,
+the Fall, the Flood, life after death, angels, demons, the devil, the
+Sabbath, a large part of the sacrificial cult, the directions
+concerning the priesthood, the name and worship of Jehovah, and even in
+the monotheistic conception of Deity.  How much truth is there in these
+claims?  Or, to put the question in another form, If the religious
+{165} ideas expressed in the Old Testament have parallels among nations
+commonly called heathen, and if these extra-biblical ideas cannot be
+explained as dependent on the Bible, does it follow that the ideas of
+the Bible are appropriated from these nations, and if so, what becomes
+of the uniqueness, the sacredness, the inspiration of the Old
+Testament?  In order to answer the question adequately it is necessary
+to consider in detail the most important phases of the religious ideas
+of the Hebrews on the one hand, and of the nations with whom the
+Hebrews came in contact on the other.
+
+Fundamental to all religious thinking is the conception of Deity.  The
+origin of the Babylonian conception of Deity, which shows more striking
+similarities to the ideas of the Old Testament than do the conceptions
+of the other nations above mentioned, belongs to a period of which
+little or nothing is known.  But there are indications that a
+fundamental aspect of the earliest religion of the country was animism,
+that is, the belief that every object was possessed and animated by a
+spirit.  "Life was the only force known to man which explained motion,
+and, conversely, motion was the sign and manifestation of life.  The
+arrow which sped through the air, or the rock which fell from the
+cliff, did so in virtue of their possessing life, or because the motive
+force of {166} life lay in some way or other behind them.  The stars,
+which slowly moved through the sky, and the sun, which rose and set day
+by day, were living beings.  It was life which gave them the power of
+movement as it gave the power of movement to man himself, and the
+animals by whom he was surrounded."[5]  Besides this belief in animism,
+the Babylonian religion shows evidences of a belief in ghosts that were
+related to the world of the dead.  These ghosts were thought to
+exercise an evil influence upon men and could be cast out only by the
+use of incantations.
+
+But, while these elements belonged to the early religion, Babylonian
+religion as it actually meets us even in the earliest inscriptions has
+reached a higher stage of development.  There appear many local
+deities; every center of human habitation had its special patron deity;
+for example, Babylon was the city of Marduk; Nippur, of Enlil; Ur, of
+Sin; Sippara, of Shamash; Cuthah, of Nergal; Asshur, of Ashur; etc.
+These deities are usually associated with natural phenomena; foremost
+among them stand the sun and the moon; but by the side of these many
+other natural objects or forces were personified and deified.
+
+It is probable that in the beginning, as the result of limited
+observation and speculation, the number of gods in the Babylonian
+pantheon was relatively small.  However, in the course of time, {167}
+they became greatly multiplied as the result of a wider observation of
+the phenomena of nature, political changes, and theological
+speculation.  Over against this tendency to multiply deities there
+shows itself, in the course of the centuries, a tendency to diminish
+the number of gods, and in the end comparatively few remain, until in
+the late Babylonian period the worship seems to have been confined
+chiefly to Marduk, Nabu, Sin, Shamash, and Ishtar.  Some of the great
+thinkers of Babylonia seem to have gone even so far as to consider the
+various deities manifestation of the one god Marduk.  There is in
+existence a tablet of the Neo-Babylonian period which states that
+Marduk is called Ninib as the possessor of power, Nergal as lord of
+battle, Bel as possessor of dominion, Nabu as lord of business, Sin as
+the illuminator of the night, Shamash as the lord of right, Addu as the
+lord of rain, etc.[6]  It is seen, then, that monotheistic tendencies
+are not absent from the Babylonian religion.  But they never go beyond
+the realm of speculation.  "The Babylonians, with all their wonderful
+gifts, were never able to conceive of one god, of one god alone, of one
+god whose very existence makes logically impossible the existence of
+any other deity.  Monotheism transcends the spiritual grasp of the
+Babylonian mind."[7]  In the words of Delitzsch, "Notwithstanding all
+this, however, and despite {168} the fact that many liberal and
+enlightened minds openly advocated the doctrine that Nergal and Nebo,
+that the moon-god and the sun-god, the god of thunder, Ramman, and all
+the rest of the Babylonian pantheon, were one in Marduk, the god of
+light, still polytheism, gross polytheism, remained for three thousand
+years the Babylonian state religion--a sad and significant warning
+against the indolence of men and races in matters of religion, and
+against the colossal power which may be acquired by a strongly
+organized priesthood based upon it."[8]
+
+Even the most spiritual expressions of the Babylonian religion, the
+so-called penitential psalms, bear witness to the fact that the writers
+continued to worship many deities.  In one of the most spiritual of
+these psalms, the psalmist prays:
+
+  That the heart anger of my lord be appeased,
+  A god unknown to me be appeased,
+  A goddess unknown to me be appeased,
+  A known and unknown god be appeased,
+  A known and unknown goddess be appeased,
+  That the heart of my god be appeased,
+  The heart of my goddess be appeased,
+  God and goddess, known and unknown, be appeased.[9]
+
+Some of the hymns and prayers addressed to certain deities read almost
+as if the authors were monotheists.  But this is due simply to the fact
+that just at the time they are interested in the power or {169}
+splendor or favor of a specific deity.  Again and again the fact that
+they believe in the existence of other deities, and in their duty to
+pay homage to different deities, crops out.  At no period of the
+religious history of Babylonia is there any indication of a clear and
+well-defined monotheism.
+
+In Egypt also a tendency toward monotheism manifested itself,
+especially during the reign of Amenophis IV, soon after B.C. 1400,[10]
+that is, during the period when the Hebrews were in Egypt.  He tried to
+do away with the worship of many deities and to establish as the one
+supreme deity the orb of the sun; but after the death of Amenophis, who
+was considered a heretic, the new cult disappeared without exerting any
+noticeable influence on Egyptian religion.  There certainly is no
+evidence that either the Babylonian or the Egyptian monotheistic
+tendencies influenced in any direct way the development of Israel's
+religion.
+
+Turning now to the religion of the Old Testament, we soon discover that
+Hebrew religion, including the conception of Deity, passed through
+various stages of development, the earliest of these belonging to the
+period before Moses.  The first thing to be noted about this period is
+that, in spite of the close relation of the ancient Hebrews with
+Babylon, the early Hebrew conception of Deity does not seem to have
+been influenced in any marked manner by that of Babylonia; nor {170} is
+there any indication of Egyptian influence.  On the other hand, the
+oldest Hebrew conceptions show marked similarities with the religion of
+their nomadic neighbors, as reflected, for example, in the oldest
+traditions of the Arab tribes.  This does not mean that an indirect
+influence may not have been exerted by Babylon; indeed, the absence of
+such influence would be very strange in view of the fact that,
+according to Hebrew tradition, the truth of which cannot be doubted,
+the ancestors of the Hebrews came from Babylonia, from the city of Ur,
+the principal center of the worship of the Babylonian moon-god, Sin.
+
+The results of modern investigations into the nature of early Hebrew
+religion may be briefly stated as follows: Like the early Babylonian
+religion, the religion of Israel passed through a stage of animism.  In
+one form this is the belief in the activity of the spirits of recently
+deceased relatives.  But this becomes a religion only when it leads to
+the worship of the departed, that is, ancestor worship, of which there
+is no definite indication in the biblical material at our command.  But
+there is a form of animism of which there are traces in Israel as in
+Babylonia, namely, the worship of spirits that were believed to be the
+inhabitants and possessors of certain objects and places, like trees,
+stones, springs, which thereby assumed a sacred character.  To this
+form of {171} religion the name "polydemonism," which means the worship
+of many demons, is ordinarily given.  Demon, however, is to be
+understood here, not in the sense of evil spirit, but simply a divine
+being of an inferior order.  As illustrations of this belief, attention
+may be called to the sacred stone, Bethel, which gave the locality its
+name, "House of God" (Gen. 28. 19), or to the sacred oracular tree at
+Shechem (Gen. 12. 6; Deut. 11. 30), or to the sacred wells at Kadesh
+(Gen. 14. 7) and Beersheba (Gen. 21. 28-33).  In general, it may be
+said that during the pre-Mosaic period the religion of Israel, whatever
+may have been true of isolated individuals, was not essentially
+different from the religious conceptions of the people with which we
+have become better acquainted through modern exploration and
+excavation.[11]
+
+Another and very different conception appears from the time of the
+exodus on.  The most striking feature of this new conception is that
+the Israelites now worship one God, whom they consider their own
+peculiar Deity, while they look upon themselves as his own peculiar
+people.  True, the earlier conceptions did not disappear entirely or
+immediately; but for the religious leaders there was but one God who
+had a right to demand Israel's loyalty.  Jehovah, or Yahweh, was the
+name of this God, and the religious watchword was, "Jehovah, the God of
+Israel; Israel the people {172} of Jehovah."  Now archeology has shown
+the name "Yahweh" to have been used as a divine name long before the
+time of the exodus; but archaeology has also shown that the conception
+of the nature and character of Yahweh held by the religious leaders of
+the Hebrews from the time of Moses on is peculiar to them.  Says R. W.
+Rogers, "There can, therefore, be no escape from the conclusion that
+the divine name 'Yahweh' is not a peculiar possession of the
+Hebrews."[12]  Then he continues: "At first sight this may seem like a
+startling robbery of Israel, this taking away from her the divine name
+'Yahweh' as an exclusive possession, but it is not so.  Yahweh himself
+is not taken away: he remains the priceless possession, the chief glory
+of Israel.  It is only the name that is shown to be widespread.  And
+the name matters little.  The great question is, What does this name
+convey?  What is its theological content?  The name came to Israel from
+the outside; but into that vessel a long line of prophets from Moses
+onward poured such a flood of attributes as never a priest in all
+western Asia from Babylonia to the sea ever dreamed of in his highest
+moments of spiritual insight.  In this name and through Israel's
+history God chose to reveal himself to Israel, and by Israel to the
+world.  Therein lies the supreme and lonesome superiority of Israel
+over Babylonia."[13]
+
+{173}
+
+Archaeology has revealed the pantheon of Babylonia and Assyria; the
+inscriptions have also set in a clear light the nature and character of
+the gods as conceived by their worshipers.  For example, the gods are
+looked upon as a part of the process of creation, as may be seen from
+the opening lines of the story of Creation:[14]
+
+  When no one of the gods had been called into being,
+  And none bore a name, and no destinies were fixed.
+  Then were created the gods in the midst of heaven.
+
+An idea of the character of these deities may be gathered from the
+description of a heavenly banquet scene in the same poem:
+
+  They made ready the feast, at the banquet [they sat],
+  They ate bread, they mingled the wine.
+  The sweet drink made them drunken ...
+  By drinking they were drunken, their bodies were filled.
+  They shouted aloud, their heart was exalted,
+  Then for Marduk, their avenger, did they decree destiny.
+
+Certainly, not all the religious thinkers of Babylonia held these low
+conceptions.  In some of their prayers and hymns they rise to lofty
+spiritual and ethical conceptions which compare quite favorably with
+expressions found in the Old Testament.  In a hymn addressed to
+Shamash, the sun-god, are found these lines:
+
+  Who plans evil--his horn thou dost destroy,
+  Whoever in fixing boundaries annuls rights.
+  The unjust judge thou restrainest with force.
+
+{174}
+
+  Whoever accepts a bribe, who does not judge justly--on him
+      thou imposest sin.
+  But he who does not accept a bribe, who has a care for the
+      oppressed,
+  To him Shamash is gracious, his life he prolongs.
+  The judge who renders a just decision
+  Shall end in a palace, the place of princes shall be his dwelling.
+      *      *      *      *      *
+  The seed of those who act unjustly shall not flourish.
+  What their mouth declares in thy presence
+  Thou shalt burn it up, what they purpose wilt thou annul.
+  Thou knowest their transgressions; the declaration of the
+      wicked thou dost cast aside.
+  Every one wherever he may be is in thy care.
+  Thou directest their judgments, the imprisoned dost thou
+      liberate.
+  Thou hearest, O Shamash, petition, prayer, and appeal,
+  Humility, prostration, petitioning, and reverence.
+  With loud voice the unfortunate one cries to thee.
+  The weak, the exhausted, the oppressed, the lowly,
+  Mother, wife, maid appeal to thee,
+  He who is removed from his family, he that dwelleth far from
+      his city.[15]
+
+Far be it from the writer to rob the religion of Babylonia of any of
+its glory.  Nevertheless, he ventures to assert without any fear of
+contradiction that we may search the pantheon of Babylon, from one end
+to the other, and we shall not find one god who in nature and character
+can compare with the Jehovah of Israel as proclaimed by the great
+prophets and glorified by the sweet singers of the nation, a God
+"merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abundant in loving-kindness
+and truth."  We may well speak of a "great gulf, {175} which is fixed
+between primitive Semitic conceptions of God and the noble spiritual
+views of him set forth under divine illumination by Isaiah."[16]  It is
+due to this fundamental difference in the conception of the nature and
+character of Deity that the religion of Israel became "a living and
+ethical power, growing and increasing until Jesus, greatest of the
+prophets, completed the message of his predecessors," and Christianity
+was born.
+
+From the conception of Deity we may pass to a brief consideration of
+religious institutions and beliefs.  One of the most important results
+of recent archaeological discoveries has been to show that many of the
+religious rites, customs, and institutions of Babylonia and Assyria, as
+also of Egypt, resemble closely those assigned in the Old Testament to
+the Hebrews.  This cannot appear strange when we remember that Israel
+was a branch of the great Semitic race, which was, at the time of its
+separation from the common stock, in possession of many of the common
+Semitic notions and practices.  It would have been impossible to rid
+the Israelite consciousness of all of these; therefore the religious
+leaders of the Hebrews took the better way of retaining the familiar
+forms and pouring into them a new, higher, and more spiritual
+significance.
+
+One of the earliest religious institutions recognized in the Old
+Testament is the Sabbath.  The {176} very fact that it is mentioned in
+the story of creation shows that, whatever the reason for its
+observance among the Hebrews, it was recognized as a very ancient
+institution.  Has archaeology thrown any light on the origin of the
+Sabbath day?[17]  In his first lecture on "Babel and Bible," Delitzsch
+answers the question in these words: "There can therefore be scarcely
+the shadow of a doubt that in the last resort we are indebted to this
+ancient nation on the banks of the Euphrates and the Tigris for the
+plenitude of blessings that flows from our day of Sabbath, or Sunday,
+rest."[18]  This statement was soon criticized, because it seemed to
+give too much credit to the Babylonians, and Delitzsch later modified
+the statement and claimed, simply, that the Hebrew Sabbath ultimately
+is rooted in a Babylonian institution.[19]  No exception can be taken
+to this putting of the claim.
+
+What are the facts in the case?  (1) The Babylonians observed in a
+peculiar way the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth
+days of the month, that is, the days on which the moon entered a new
+phase.  They also observed the nineteenth day of the month, which was
+the forty-ninth day from the beginning of the preceding month.  These
+days were considered unlucky days, on which certain actions had to be
+avoided, at least by important personages, like the king, {177} priest,
+and physician.  The prohibition reads: "The shepherd (king) of the
+great nations shall not eat roasted nor smoked meat, not change his
+garment, not put on white raiment, not offer sacrifice; the king shall
+not mount his chariot, as ruler not pronounce judgment; the priest
+shall not give oracles in the secret place; the physician shall not lay
+his hand on the sick, the day being inauspicious for any affair
+whatever."  The Babylonians evidently observed these days by at least
+partial cessation of work, because nothing would prosper anyway on
+those days.  In contrast, it may be well to notice that in the Sabbath
+observance among the early Hebrews the humanitarian element played a
+prominent part.  (2) The name _Sha-bat-tu_ has been found in the
+inscriptions as an interpretation of the phrase, _um nuh libbi_, which
+means, a day for appeasing the heart (of the deity).  It would seem,
+therefore, that the Babylonian Sabbath was intended to be a day of
+atonement or supplication, which might imply cessation of ordinary
+labor, especially since the word _Sha-bat-tu_ may be identical in
+meaning with _gamaru_, to complete or finish, which leads naturally to
+the idea of rest, because the work is completed.  (3) There is no
+definite evidence that the five days mentioned were called
+_Sha-bat-tu_; the name is given rather to the fifteenth day of the
+month, which is the day of the full moon.
+
+{178}
+
+In the light of these facts it is not improbable that there is some
+connection between the Hebrew Sabbath and certain special days among
+the Babylonians; but, as in other cases, the Hebrews have given to the
+adopted institution a new significance.  Some of the changes introduced
+by the Hebrews are: (a) The Hebrews observed every seventh day without
+regard for the month or the year.  The Babylonians observed the
+seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days of each
+month, (b) The motive underlying the observance among the two people
+differs.  The earliest Hebrew legislation (Exod. 23. 12) would seem to
+indicate that humanitarian considerations are responsible for Sabbath
+observance, not religious superstition, (c) The Sabbath law of the
+Hebrews was binding on all.  According to our present knowledge, among
+the Babylonians only the leaders appear to have been affected.
+
+The Babylonians, Egyptians, and other ancient peoples had in addition
+to the Sabbath numerous other festivals, and it is not improbable that
+some of the Hebrew festivals are connected with these, though the exact
+relation is not yet determined.
+
+Archaeology has thrown much light on the complicated ceremonial system
+of the Old Testament, though it is an exaggeration to say that, "if we
+want to trace the origin of the late Jewish ceremonial of the Priest
+Code, we must look for {179} it in the cuneiform ritual texts of the
+Babylonians."[20]  Attention may be called here to a few of the more
+marked similarities between the Hebrew and Babylonian systems.[21]  (1)
+The Babylonian temple closely resembled the temple of Solomon.  Both
+had two courts, chambers for the priests, the sanctuary, and the Holy
+of holies.  Externally, both were mere rectangular boxes, without much
+architectural beauty or variety of design.  It was only in the
+possession of a tower that the Babylonian temple differed from the
+Hebrew, a difference due to a difference in the conception of Deity.
+The temples agreed even in the details of their furniture: the two
+altars of the Babylonian sanctuary are found again in the temple of
+Jerusalem; so also the mercy seat and the table of showbread.  The
+bronze sea of Solomon was modeled after a Babylonian original.  The
+twin pillars, which Solomon erected in the porch of the temple, have
+their counterparts in Babylonian sanctuaries.  Even the sacred ark
+seems to have had a Babylonian origin, though some would trace it to
+Egypt.  (2) Every great sanctuary had its chief priest.  Under him was
+a large number of subordinate priests and temple ministers, such as
+sacrificers, pourers of libations, anointers with oil, bakers,
+chanters, wailers, etc.  Connected with the sanctuaries were also the
+prophets, augurs, soothsayers, necromancers, etc.  {180} Though not all
+these classes of religious workers are found in connection with the
+Jewish sanctuaries, the chief priest and his subordinates are found
+there as well as in Babylon.  (3) Similarities in the details of the
+sacrificial system may be noted.  Libations were poured out before the
+deities, consisting originally, probably, of pure water, to which was
+subsequently added wine, made either from the palm or the vine.  All
+the first-fruits of the cultivated land were offered to the god; milk
+and butter and oil, dates and vegetables were given in abundance.  So
+too were spices and incense, brought from the southern coast of Arabia,
+the corn that was grown in the fields, garlic and other herbs from the
+garden, and honey from the hive.  Annual sacrifices were not forgotten.
+Oxen and calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, fish and certain
+kinds of birds, were slain upon the altar.  There are traces of human
+sacrifice, but, as among the Hebrews, the practice disappeared at an
+early date.  "Babylonia," says Sayce, "was the inventor of the
+tithe,"[22] which was paid by all classes, even the king.  One of the
+last acts recorded of the crown prince, Belshazzar, is the payment of a
+tithe, forty-seven shekels in amount, due from his sister to the temple
+of the sun-god at Sippara.  The daily sacrifice was a fixed custom.
+Several of the technical terms of the Old Testament are {181} found
+also in Assyrian.  For example: _torah_, law, has its counterpart in
+the Assyrian _tertu_; the biblical _kipper_, atonement, is the Assyrian
+_kuppuru_; _korban_, gift or offering, is the Assyrian _kurbannu_.  The
+names for animal sacrifice, _zibu_, for meal offering, _manitu_, and
+for freewill offering, _nidbu_, all are found in their Hebrew forms in
+the Old Testament.  As in the Hebrew legislation, a distinction is made
+between the offerings of the rich and the poor, and the sacrificial
+animal was to be without blemish.  The Babylonian priest retained
+certain parts for himself, which was also the custom among the Hebrews
+(Deut. 18. 3), though the parts retained are not the same in the two
+cases.  A ritual tablet shows that Babylonians sprinkled the blood of
+the lamb that was killed at the gate of the palace on the lintels, on
+the figures flanking the entrances, and on the doorposts to the right
+and the left, which has its parallel in the Hebrew passover ceremony.
+
+These illustrations, which by no means exhaust the list, reveal close
+similarities between the Hebrew ceremonial and that of the inhabitants
+of the Euphrates-Tigris valley, and the more we know of the Babylonian
+ritual, the more extensive and striking these resemblances become.
+They both start from the same principles and agree in many of their
+details.  Between them, however, lies that deep gulf which separates
+the religion of {182} Israel from that of Babylonia as a whole.  The
+one is monotheistic, the other polytheistic.  Upon the basis of this
+fundamental difference the religious leaders of Israel gave to the
+similar forms adopted from other nations a new and deeper meaning and
+significance.
+
+Like the Hebrew religion, the religion of Babylonia has its guardian
+angels.[23]  The Babylonian rulers stood in need of hosts of messengers
+to bear their behests into all quarters of their dominions.  In a
+similar manner, it was thought, the gods needed their heavenly hosts to
+carry out their commissions.  These angels are represented under
+various forms, but all of them are equipped with wings, so as to be
+able to carry upon the winds of heaven the commands of the gods to the
+children of men.  Sometimes they are represented with eagles' heads,
+perhaps to indicate that they possess the keenness of vision and the
+rapidity of flight of an eagle; sometimes they have human countenances
+to denote their human intelligence.  Frequently they appear as hybrid
+figures, with the body of a lion or bull, the wings of an eagle, and
+the head of a man, symbolizing strength, swiftness, and intelligence.
+
+The duties of these angels are manifold.  Those placed at the entrances
+of palaces or temples are to guard those entrances.  The peculiar
+relations of angels to men are suggested, for example, by {183} a
+letter of a Babylonian officer to the queen mother.  He writes: "Mother
+of the king, my lady, be comforted.  Bel's and Nabu's angel of mercy
+attends on the king of the land, my lord."  A letter addressed to
+Esarhaddon contains these words: "May the great gods send a guardian of
+salvation and life to stand by the king my lord."  And Nabopolassar,
+the founder of the Chaldean empire, and father of Nebuchadrezzar,
+writes: "To lordship over land and people, Marduk called me.  He sent a
+cherub of mercy to attend on me, and everything I undertook he aided."
+
+Alongside of these guardian angels there appear evil spirits and
+demons.  "These demons were everywhere: they lurked in every corner,
+watching for their prey.  The city streets knew their malevolent
+presence, the rivers, the seas, the tops of the mountains.  They
+appeared sometimes as serpents gliding noiselessly upon their victims;
+as birds, horrid of mien, flying resistlessly to destroy or afflict; as
+beings in human form, grotesque, malformed, awe-inspiring through their
+hideousness.  To these demons all sorts of misfortunes were ascribed:
+toothache, headache, broken bones, raging fever, outbursts of anger, of
+jealousy.  Did a man lie wasting of disease and torn of pain, a demon
+was thought to be within him, the disease being but a manifestation of
+his malevolence.  There could be no return of the precious boon of
+{184} good health until the demon was exorcised, and it was to the
+exorcising of demons that so large, so disproportionate a part of the
+religious literature of Babylon and Nineveh was devoted."[24]
+Sometimes demons are referred to in a manner which shows that the
+conception in Job 1. 6ff., Zech. 3. 1ff., of the Adversary, or the
+Satan, is closely related to the Babylonian conception of a demon as
+accuser, persecutor, or oppressor.
+
+The vision of the Old Testament is largely confined to this world.
+There is little hope for a man after he passes away from this earth.
+Indeed, there are some passages which would seem to imply the thought
+that with death existence came entirely to an end.  Compare, for
+example, Psa. 39.13:
+
+  Oh, spare me, that I may recover strength
+  Before I go hence, and be no more;
+
+or Job 14. 7-12:
+
+  For there is hope of a tree,
+  If it be cut down, that it will sprout again,
+  And that the tender branch thereof will not cease.
+  Though the root thereof wax old in the earth,
+  And the stock thereof die in the ground;
+  Yet through the scent of water it will bud,
+  And put forth boughs like a plant.
+  But man dieth, and is laid low;
+  Yea, man giveth up the ghost, and where is he?
+  As the waters fail from the sea,
+  And the river wasteth and drieth up;
+  So man lieth down and riseth not:
+  Till the heavens be no more, they shall not awake,
+  Nor be roused out of their sleep.
+
+{185} These are expressions of deepest despondency and despair over a
+life soon ended, never to be lived again here upon earth.
+
+However, by far the greatest number of Old Testament passages dealing
+with the subject express a belief in a continuous existence after death
+in Sheol.  Sheol is the place of departed personalities; the
+generations of one's forefathers are there: he who dies is gathered
+unto his fathers; the tribal divisions of one's race are there: the
+dead is gathered unto his people; and if his descendants have died
+before him, they are there, and he goes down to them, as Jacob to his
+son (Gen. 37. 35: "For I will go down to Sheol to my son mourning"),
+and David to his child (2 Sam. 12. 23: "I shall go to him, and he shall
+not return to me").
+
+There are only a few passages which go beyond this, expressing a hope
+of immortality or a resurrection.  There is, for example, the hope
+expressed in Psa. 16. 8-11:
+
+  I have set Jehovah always before me:
+  Because he is at my right hand, I shall not be moved.
+  Therefore my heart is glad, and my glory rejoiceth:
+  My flesh also shall dwell in safety.
+  For thou will not leave my soul to Sheol;
+  Neither wilt thou suffer thy holy one to see corruption.
+  Thou wilt show me the path of life:
+  In thy presence is fullness of joy;
+  In thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore.
+
+The hope expressed here is not a hope of a resurrection, but, rather, a
+hope that the psalmist will {186} be delivered from death and live in
+fellowship with God forevermore.  There are other passages which
+recognize the impossibility of escaping death, but express a hope that
+there will be a resurrection from death.  The most definite Old
+Testament teaching of a resurrection is in Dan. 12. 2, "And many of
+them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to
+everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt."
+
+These lofty hopes are peculiar to Israel.  But Israel's conception of
+Sheol shows very striking resemblances with the Babylonian conception.
+The descriptions found in Job, in the Psalms, in Isaiah, in Ezekiel and
+elsewhere, are hardly to be distinguished from those found in
+Babylonian literature.  The opening lines of Ishtar's descent into
+Sheol read:
+
+  To the land from which there is no return, the home of darkness,
+  Ishtar, the daughter of Sin, turned her mind,
+  Yea, the daughter of Sin set her mind to go;
+  To the house of gloom, the dwelling of Irkalla,
+  To the house from which those who enter depart not,
+  The road from whose path there is no return;
+  To the house where they who enter are deprived of light;
+  A place where dust is their nourishment, clay their food;
+  The light they behold not, in thick darkness they dwell;
+  They are clad like bats in a garb of wings;
+  On door and bolt the dust is laid.
+
+Compare with this Job 10. 21, 22:
+
+  Before I go, whence I shall not return,
+  To the land of darkness, yea deepest darkness,
+
+{187}
+
+  The land dark as midnight,
+  Of deepest darkness without any order,
+  And where the light is as midnight;
+
+or Job 7. 9, 10:
+
+  He that goeth down to Sheol shall come up no more,
+  He shall return no more to his house,
+  Neither shall his place know him any more.
+
+Other similarities may be noted: the Hebrew Sheol, like the Babylonian,
+was deep down in the earth; it is pictured as a cavern; silence reigns
+supreme, etc.  There is but one explanation for these similarities:
+When the ancestors of the Hebrews left their homes in the Euphrates
+valley they carried with them the traditions, beliefs, and customs
+current in that district.  Under new surroundings, and especially under
+the influence of their higher religion, new features were added and old
+conceptions were transformed.  But these changes were not able to
+obscure entirely the character impressed upon the older beliefs by
+contact with Babylon.
+
+Striking similarities are found also between the legal systems of
+Babylonia and Israel.  In the light of recent discoveries the study of
+ancient law begins to-day, not with the legal systems of Rome, or of
+Greece, or of Israel, but with the laws of early Babylonia.  Of the
+beginning of the Babylonian legal system we know nothing except a few
+popular traditions, which trace it back to some deity.  It is clear,
+however, that long {188} centuries before the time of Moses or Minos or
+Romulus the people living in the lower Euphrates-Tigris valley
+developed legal codes of a high and complex order.  In the legal phrase
+books of the later scribes there have been preserved seven so-called
+Sumerian family laws, written in the language of the people occupying
+the southern part of the Euphrates-Tigris valley before it came under
+the sway of the Semites.  These laws, in theme and literary form
+resembling later Babylonian and early Hebrew laws, were probably in
+existence in the fourth millennium B.C.; some of them may go even
+farther back.
+
+By far the most important Babylonian legal code now known is the
+so-called Code of Hammurabi.[25]  Hammurabi was known to Assyriologists
+long before the finding of his legal code.  He reigned in Babylon about
+B.C. 2000, was the sixth king of the first Babylonian dynasty, and the
+first permanently to unite the numerous small city states under one
+ruler.  He may, therefore, be called the founder of the Babylonian
+empire.  From his numerous letters and inscriptions, as also from other
+documents coming from the same period, he was known as a great
+conqueror and statesman, interested in the highest welfare of his
+people, and persistently laboring for the improvement of their
+conditions.  The Bible student has a special interest in Hammurabi,
+however, because in all {189} probability he is no other than the
+Amraphel of Gen. 14. 1.
+
+The monument on which the code is engraved was found during the winter
+1901-1902 by a French excavator in the acropolis of Susa, the scene of
+the book of Esther.  It is a block of black diorite, about eight feet
+in height.  When found it was in three pieces, which, however, were
+easily joined.  On the obverse is a bas relief representing the king as
+receiving the ruler's staff and ring from the sun-god Shamash, "the
+judge of heaven and earth."  Then follow on the obverse sixteen columns
+of writing, containing 1,114 lines.  There were five more columns on
+this side, but they were erased and the stone repolished, probably by
+the Elamite conqueror who carried the monument to Susa.  On the reverse
+are twenty-eight columns with more than 2,500 lines of inscription.
+The English Assyriologist, C. H. W. Johns, estimates that originally
+the inscription contained forty-nine columns, 4,000 lines, and about
+8,000 words.  About 800 lines are taken up by the prologue and
+epilogue, setting forth the king's titles, his glory, the extent of his
+rule, his care for his subjects, and devotion to his gods.  The
+inscription opens with a statement of his call by the gods to be the
+ruler of Babylon: "When the lofty Anu, king of the Anunaki, and Bel,
+lord of heaven and earth, he who determines the destiny {190} of the
+land, committed the rule of all mankind to Marduk, the chief son of Ea;
+when they made him great among the Igigi; when they pronounced the
+lofty name of Babylon, when they made it famous among the quarters of
+the world, and in its midst established an everlasting kingdom, whose
+foundations were firm as heaven and earth--at that time, Ami and Bel
+called me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, the worshiper of the gods, to
+cause justice to prevail in the land, to destroy the wicked and the
+evil, to prevent the strong from oppressing the weak, to go forth like
+the sun over the blackhead race, to enlighten the land and to further
+the welfare of the people."
+
+According to the closing statement of the prologue he faithfully
+executed this commission: "When Marduk sent me to rule the people and
+to bring help to the country, I established law and justice in the land
+and promoted the welfare of the people" (V. 14-21).  To better care for
+the welfare of the people he set up the code of laws.  In column XLI, a
+part of the epilogue, he says: "Let any oppressed man, who has a cause,
+come before my image as king of righteousness!  Let him read the
+inscription on my monument!  Let him give heed to my weighty words!
+And may my monument enlighten him as to his cause and may he understand
+his case!  May he set his heart at ease!" (1-19.)  He recognizes the
+value {191} of his law code and advises his successors on the throne to
+make good use of it: "In the days that are yet to come, for all future
+time, may the king who is in the land observe the words of
+righteousness which I have written upon my monument!  May he not alter
+the judgments of the land which I have pronounced, or the decisions of
+the country which I have rendered!  May he not efface my statues!  If
+that man have wisdom, if he wish to give his land good government, let
+him give attention to the words which I have written upon my monument!
+And may this monument enlighten him as to procedure and administration,
+the judgments which I have pronounced, and the judgments which I have
+rendered for the land!  And let him rightly rule his blackhead people;
+let him pronounce judgments for them and render for them decisions!
+Let him root out the wicked and evildoer from the land!  Let him
+promote the welfare of his people!" (59-94.)
+
+The epilogue closes with a blessing upon the king who will observe the
+laws, and curses upon him who will disregard or alter them (XLII-XLIV).
+The pronouncement of blessings is very brief; the curses are reiterated
+in various forms, and numerous gods and goddesses are appealed to by
+name to destroy the evildoer and his reign.  The section begins (XLII,
+2-49): "If that man pay attention to my words which I have written
+{192} upon my monument, do not efface my judgments, do not overrule my
+words, and do not alter my statues, then will Shamash prolong that
+man's reign, as he has mine, who am king of righteousness, that he may
+rule his people in righteousness."  It continues: "If that man do not
+pay attention to my words which I have written upon my monument; if he
+forget my curses and do not fear the curse of god; if he abolish the
+judgments which I have formulated, overrule my words, alter my statues,
+efface my name written thereon and write his own name; on account of
+these curses commission another to do so--as for that man, be he king
+or lord, or priestking or commoner, whoever he may be, may the great
+god, the father of the gods, who has ordained my reign, take from him
+the glory of his sovereignty, may he break his scepter and curse his
+fate!"
+
+Between the prologue and the epilogue is the law code proper.
+Originally there appear to have been 282 separate enactments (this is
+the estimate of the French Assyriologist, Father Scheil, who first
+edited the code, and is commonly accepted as correct); of these 66-99
+are now missing as a result of the erasure to which reference has been
+made.  The code covers a variety of topics.  Laws dealing with the same
+subject are ordinarily grouped together; sometimes the principle of
+arrangement is the class or profession concerned.  {193} A brief
+outline will give at least a general notion of its contents: 1, 2,
+False accusation of a crime; 3, 4, False witness and bribery; 5,
+Alteration of judgment by a judge; 6-8, Theft; 9-13, Concealing of
+stolen property; 14, Kidnapping; 15-20, Assisting in the escape of
+slaves; 21-25, Burglary and brigandage; 26-41, Rights and duties of
+officers, constables, and taxgatherers; 42-52, Renting of fields for
+cultivation; 53-56, Care of dykes and canals; 57, 58, Shepherds
+allowing their sheep to pasture on the fields of another; 59, Unlawful
+cutting down of trees; 60-65, Duties of gardeners; 66-99, (lost);
+100-107, Relation of merchants to their agents; 108-111, Regulations
+concerning wine-sellers, always women.  It may be interesting to note
+that with them the law was very severe.  Of the three crimes
+condemned--minor crimes at that--one is to be punished by throwing the
+wine-seller into the water, the second by putting her to death, the
+third by burning her.  112, Loss of goods intrusted for transportation;
+113-119, Securing settlement for debts; 120-126, Liability for
+deposits; 127, Slander; 128, Marriage contract; 129-132, Adultery,
+rape, and suspected unchastity; 133-143, Separation and divorce;
+144-149, Concubines; 150-152, Marriage dowry; 153, Murder of husband
+for the sake of another; 154-158, Illegitimate sexual intercourse;
+159-161, Breach of promise; 162-164, Disposition of dowry after the
+{194} death of the wife; 165-177, Inheritance of sons in polygamous
+relations; 178-182, Inheritance of priestesses; 183, 184, Inheritance
+of daughters of concubines; 185-194, Treatment of adopted children;
+195-214, Offenses against limb and life; 215-225, Operations by doctors
+and veterinary surgeons.  For example, "If a physician cause a man a
+severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause the man's death, or, in
+opening an abscess of a man with a bronze lancet, destroy the man's
+eye, they shall cut off his fingers" (218).  226, 227, Unlawful
+branding of slaves; 228-233, Liability of negligent builders.  For
+example, "If a builder build a house for a man, and do not make its
+construction firm, and the house which he has built collapse and cause
+the death of the owner of the house, that builder shall be put to
+death" (229).  234-252, Hired animals--the injuries they cause or
+suffer; 253-277, Rights and duties of workmen; 278-282, Selling and
+treatment of slaves.  In addition to this very complete code there is a
+vast amount of information from both early and late periods concerning
+legal practices, to be gathered from the thousands of tablets recording
+business and legal transactions of various sorts: Marriage and dowry
+contracts, partnership agreements, records of debts and promissory
+notes, leases of land, houses, or slaves; records of sales of all kinds
+of property, mortgages, documents {195} granting the power of attorney;
+concerning adoption, divorce, bankruptcy, inheritance--in short, almost
+every imaginable kind of contract.
+
+Over against this complex legal system of Babylonia we may place the
+legal literature of the Hebrews.[26]  Anyone who approaches the study
+of Hebrew laws is met by two difficulties.  In the first place, the
+legal portions do not form separate books, but are embodied in writings
+belonging to other kinds of literature; in the second place, there is a
+lack of system in the arrangement of the laws.  The abrupt transitions
+from one subject to another are almost as marked as they are in the
+book of Proverbs.  "Civil and ceremonial, criminal and humane, secular
+and religious, ancient and late laws and precedents are all mingled
+together, with little trace of systematic arrangement."
+
+The legal literature is found mainly in the books of Exodus, Leviticus,
+Numbers, and Deuteronomy; outside the Pentateuch the most important
+piece of legislation is Ezek. 40-48.  This legal material may be
+separated from its surroundings and arranged by itself.  Indeed, this
+has been done, and modern scholars are quite generally agreed that the
+Pentateuch contains several distinct legal codes belonging to different
+periods in the history of Israel and reflecting different stages of
+political, social, and religious development: (1) The Decalogue; (2)
+the Book of the Covenant; (3) the {196} Deuteronomic Code; (4) the Code
+of Holiness; (5) the Priestly Code.  Of these five codes the last two
+are almost entirely religious and ceremonial, and as the similarities
+between the Babylonian and Hebrew ceremonial have already been pointed
+out, they need not be considered in this connection.  The other three
+contain much legislation concerning social, civil, and criminal
+relations, just like the Babylonian legal provisions, and therefore may
+be considered somewhat more in detail.  In connection with the
+Deuteronomic Code, however, it may be noted that three fourths of the
+laws in the earlier codes are reproduced in some form in Deuteronomy;
+so that for purposes of comparison, the Deuteronomic Code does not
+furnish many new elements.  It is seen, therefore, that for a
+comparative study, the Code of Hammurabi on the one hand, and the
+Decalogue and the Book of the Covenant on the other, furnish the most
+important material; and since the Code of Hammurabi contains no
+religious and ceremonial provisions, the material of that nature in the
+Hebrew codes may be omitted in this connection.
+
+That there exist similarities between the legislations of the two
+nations even a superficial reading will show.  One is immediately
+struck, for example, by the similarity in the application of the _lex
+talionis_: Ham. 196, "If a man destroy the eye of another man, they
+shall destroy his eye"; 197, "If one {197} break a man's bone, they
+shall break his bone"; 200, "If a man knock out the tooth of a man of
+his own rank, they shall knock out his tooth." With this compare Exod.
+21. 23-25, "Thou shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for
+tooth, burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe"; or
+Deut. 19. 21, "Thine eyes shall not pity; life shall go for life, eye
+for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot."  Compare also
+Lev. 24. 19, 20, "If a man cause a blemish in his neighbor; as he hath
+done, so shall it be done to him: breach for breach; eye for eye, tooth
+for tooth; as he hath caused a blemish in a man, so shall it be
+rendered to him."  This principle is applied very extensively in both
+codes in providing restitution for damage done.
+
+The use of "the oath of innocence" is also enjoined in both codes: Ham.
+249, "If a man hire an ox and a god strike it and it die, the man who
+hired the ox shall swear before god and shall go free."  With this may
+be compared Exod. 22. 10, 11, "If a man deliver unto his neighbor an
+ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or any beast to keep, and it die, or be
+hurt, or driven away, no man seeing it, the oath of Jehovah shall be
+between them both, whether he hath not put his hand unto his neighbor's
+goods, and the owner thereof shall accept it, and he shall not make
+restitution."  The illustrations might be multiplied manifold.  {198}
+Jeremias points out twenty-four similarities between the Code of
+Hammurabi and the Book of the Covenant alone;[27] which number is
+greatly increased if the comparison is extended so as to include the
+entire Pentateuch.
+
+The spirit permeating the two systems is one of humaneness and
+kindness.  Hammurabi describes himself as a shepherd chosen by the gods
+to care for his people, to lead them into safe pastures and to make
+them dwell in peace and security.  He compiled the code, "that the
+great should not oppress the weak; to counsel the widow and orphan, to
+render judgment and to decide the decisions of the land, and to succor
+the injured."  This is the same spirit that permeates the Pentateuchal
+legislation.
+
+The picture at the head of the code, representing Hammurabi standing
+before the sun-god Shamash, "the supreme judge of heaven and earth," is
+very suggestive, for it reminds one of the narrative in Exodus which
+represents Moses as receiving the Hebrew laws directly from Jehovah.
+
+Certainly, there are also differences between the two systems; and this
+is only what we should expect, since the civilization of Babylon was
+far in advance of and much more complex than that of the Israelites,
+even during the period of the latter's highest development.  Besides,
+the lower religious conceptions would inevitably influence the
+legislation.
+
+{199}
+
+Attention may be called also to some similarities between the Decalogue
+and certain requirements in Babylonia, the existence of which is
+implied in an incantation[28] in which these questions are asked: Has
+he broken into the house of his neighbor?  Has he approached the wife
+of his neighbor?  Has he spilled the blood of his neighbor?  Has he
+grasped the garment of his neighbor?  These questions would seem to
+imply the existence of laws like these: Thou shalt not break into the
+house of thy neighbor; Thou shalt not approach the wife of thy
+neighbor; Thou shalt not spill the blood of thy neighbor; Thou shalt
+not grasp the garment of thy neighbor.
+
+In view of all these similarities, the question naturally arises
+whether the Babylonian legal system exerted any influence upon the
+lawmakers of the Hebrews, for the resemblances are too close to be
+explained entirely on the basis of coincidence.  Those who admit some
+relation between the two legislations are not in agreement as to the
+nature of the connection.  Some hold that there is direct dependence;
+that the author or authors of the laws of the Pentateuch was or were
+acquainted with the laws of Hammurabi, and made these laws the basis of
+the Hebrew legislative system.  The possibility of such dependence
+cannot be denied.  Surely, an acquaintance with the Code of Hammurabi
+in the Arabian {200} desert or in Palestine at the time of the exodus
+or later cannot appear strange in view of the evidence of the
+Tel-el-Amarna tablets, showing that some time before the exodus
+intercourse between Babylon and the West was frequent; that religious,
+political, and literary influence was widespread, and that the language
+of Babylon was the _lingua franca_ throughout Canaan.  On the other
+hand, there are those who believe that the parallels and analogies
+between the two codes are due to the common Semitic origin of the two
+systems.  The Babylonians and the Hebrews were Semites, originally
+dwelling in a common home.  When they left this home they carried with
+them their common traditions, laws, customs, and practices.  In their
+new homes they developed them and impressed upon them their own
+individuality.  The result among the Hebrews, determined in a large
+measure by their peculiar religion, is seen in the legislation of the
+Pentateuch, while the outcome in Babylon is best represented by the
+Code of Hammurabi.
+
+Which of these two explanations is correct it may be impossible to say
+with absolute certainty.  To me it seems that both contain elements of
+truth.  Sometimes the one, sometimes the other may be correct, while in
+other cases the similarities may be due to coincidence.  In any case,
+the value of the Pentateuchal legislation remains {201} unaffected, for
+it depends, not upon its origin or process of growth, but, rather, upon
+its inherent spirit and character.
+
+Attention may further be called to the existence in Babylonia of
+stories showing almost startling resemblances to the accounts of the
+creation of the world, of the origin of man and of sin, of a Deluge,
+and other narratives contained in the first eleven chapters of the book
+of Genesis.  Several distinct creation stories, originating in
+different religious centers, have been handed down.  The most
+remarkable of these, called _Enuma elish_ (when above), from its
+opening words, has been deciphered from tablets found in the library of
+Ashurbanipal in the ruins of Nineveh.  These tablets represent a copy
+made in the seventh century B.C.  The time of the composition, or
+compilation of the story, is not known.  However, pictorial
+representations of some of the scenes in the epic, and allusions in
+other literary productions whose dates can be fixed, make it certain
+that the story, or at least the most important component elements of
+the story, existed before B.C. 2000.  In its present form it belongs to
+a period later than the elevation of Babylon to be the national center,
+which took place under Hammurabi, about B.C. 2000, for the chief place
+is assigned to Marduk, the god of Babylon.[29]
+
+Echoes of this story are found in several Old {202} Testament passages,
+especially in the poetic and prophetic writings.  In these Jehovah is
+represented as having contended with a great primeval monster, called
+in some passages Rahab, in others Leviathan, or Dragon.  This being
+seems to symbolize chaos, or to personify the primeval ocean, which
+existed when the process of creation began.  In the conflict between
+Jehovah and this monster the hostile creature and its helpers were
+overthrown, after which the heavens and the earth were created.  A few
+of these passages may be quoted:
+
+  O Jehovah God of hosts,
+  Who is a mighty one, like unto thee, O Jehovah?
+  And thy faithfulness is round about thee.
+  Thou rulest the pride of the sea:
+  When the waves thereof arise, thou stillest them.
+  _Thou hast broken Rahab in pieces, as one that is slain;_
+  _Thou hast scattered thine enemies with the arm of thy strength._
+  The heavens are thine, the earth also is thine:
+  The world and the fullness thereof, thou hast founded them,
+  The north and the south, thou hast created them (Psa. 89. 8-12).
+
+Rahab is a reflection of the Babylonian Tiamat; Jehovah takes the place
+of the Babylonian god, Marduk, the conqueror of Tiamat; the _enemies_
+are the _helpers_ of Tiamat mentioned in the Babylonian poem.  The
+order of events is the same in the two accounts: first the conflict,
+then creation.
+
+  He stirreth up the sea with his power,
+  And by his understanding _he smiteth through Rahab._
+
+{203}
+
+  By his Spirit the heavens are garnished;
+  _His hand hath pierced the swift serpent_ (Job 26. 12, 13).
+
+  God will not withdraw his anger;
+  _The helpers of Rahab do stoop under him_ (Job 9. 13).
+
+  Yet God is my King of old,
+  Working salvation in the midst of the earth.
+  Thou didst divide the sea by thy strength:
+  _Thou brakest the heads of the sea-monsters in the waters._
+  _Thou brakest the heads of leviathan in pieces;_
+  Thou gavest him to be food to the people inhabiting the wilderness.
+  Thou didst cleave fountain and flood:
+  Thou driedst up mighty rivers.
+  The day is thine, the night also is thine:
+  Thou hast prepared the light and the sun.
+  Thou hast set all the borders of the earth:
+  Thou hast made summer and winter (Psa. 74. 12-17).
+
+
+The similarities between the Babylonian story called _Enuma elish_ and
+the narrative of creation in Gen. 1 are especially pronounced: (1) Both
+accounts recognize a time when all was chaos.  In the Babylonian
+conception this chaos is personified in Tiamat; in Gen. 1. 2 occurs the
+word _tehom_, translated "deep," which is the same as Tiamat, changed
+but slightly in passing from one language to the other.  (2) In Genesis
+light dispels darkness and order follows; in the Babylonian account,
+Marduk, the god of light, overcomes the demon of chaos and darkness.
+(3) The second act of creation is the making of the firmament, which
+"divided the waters which were under the {204} firmament from the
+waters which were above the firmament" (Gen. 1. 6-8); in the Babylonian
+poem the body of Tiamat is divided and one half becomes the firmament
+to keep the heavenly waters in place.  (4) The third and fourth acts of
+creation in the Hebrew story are the creation of earth and the
+beginning of vegetation (Gen. 1. 9-13); the corresponding Babylonian
+story has been lost, but it seems quite probable that these acts were
+described in the same order on the fifth tablet.  Berosus, in his
+summary of the Babylonian account, says that Bel formed the earth out
+of one half of Omorka's body--Omorka is probably a corruption of
+_Ummu-Khubur_, a title of Tiamat--and as in every instance where the
+narrative of Berosus has been tested it has proved to be correct, we
+may assume that in this also he gives a correct reproduction of the
+Babylonian tradition.  Moreover, at the beginning of the seventh tablet
+Marduk is hailed as "bestower of fruitfulness," "founder of
+agriculture," "creator of grain and plants," he "who caused the green
+herb to spring up."  (5) The fifth act of creation is the making of the
+heavenly bodies (Gen. 1. 14-19).  With this the Babylonian parallel
+shows close similarities, for it states that Marduk
+
+  Made the stations for the great gods,
+  The stars, their images, as the constellations he fixed,
+  He ordained the year, marked off its divisions.[30]
+
+{205}
+
+(6) The sixth and seventh acts of creation were the creation of fishes
+and birds and of land animals (Gen. 1. 20-25): the Babylonian parallels
+in _Enuma elish_ are wanting at present; but Berosus hints that they
+were created at the same time as man, so that it is probable that the
+account of these acts of creation appeared somewhere in the lost
+portions of the fifth or sixth tablet.  From allusions in other
+writings we learn that Marduk was looked upon as the creator of the
+animals and other living creatures of the field.  (7) The eighth act of
+creation, that of man (Gen. 1. 26-31), finds its parallel upon the
+sixth tablet:
+
+  When Marduk heard the word of the gods
+  His heart moved him and he devised a cunning plan.
+  He opened his mouth and unto Ea he spoke,
+  That which he had conceived in his heart he made known unto him.
+  "My blood will I take and bone will I fashion,
+  I shall make man that man may ...
+  I shall create man, who shall inhabit the earth,
+  That the service of the gods may be established and that
+      their shrines may be built."[31]
+
+
+In order to estimate rightly the relations between the Babylonian and
+Hebrew accounts the differences between the two must also be noted.  To
+begin with, the order of the separate acts of creation is not quite the
+same.  For example, in the Babylonian account, the creation of the
+heavenly bodies follows immediately upon the {206} making of the
+firmament, while in the Hebrew story it follows the making of the earth
+and the springing up of vegetation.  Certainly, this difference is of
+no special significance, and the change may easily be explained as due
+to the desire of the Hebrew writer to crowd the creative acts into the
+six working days of the week.  The real difference is more fundamental
+and appears especially in the conception of the nature and character of
+Deity.  The Babylonian story opens with these words:
+
+  When above the heaven was not named
+  And beneath the earth bore no name,
+  And the primeval Apsu, who begat them,
+  And Mummu-Tiamat, the mother of them all--
+  Their waters were mingled together,
+  And no reed was formed, no marsh seen,
+  _When no one of the gods had been called into being,_
+  [And] none bore a name, and no destinies [were fixed],
+  _Then were created the gods in the midst of_ [_heaven_].
+
+Compare with this the simple, yet majestic, conception, "In the
+beginning God created the heavens and the earth."  In one case many
+gods, in the other one God almighty; in one case the gods are a part of
+the process of creation, in the other the uncreated God is in the
+beginning.  Genesis presents God as almighty, but also as kind,
+beneficent, loving; Marduk, the Babylonian creator, is represented as a
+great hero, but exceedingly selfish.  He undertakes the mighty task of
+{207} overcoming Tiamat only after making arrangements for a suitable
+reward.  The description of the heavenly banquet scene, to which
+reference has been made earlier in the chapter, implies a conception of
+the character of the gods which is separated by an impassable gulf from
+the Old Testament ideal.
+
+No one can read with an unbiased mind the two accounts without
+realizing the great differences between the mythological, polytheistic
+account of the Babylonians and the simple, solemn, sublime,
+monotheistic picture in Genesis.  The soberness, the dignity, the
+simplicity of the Hebrew account lift it far above its Babylonian
+counterpart.  From it the crude nature myths have all been stripped
+away.  No drunken gods hold revels in its solemn lines.  Above and
+behind and in all is one righteous and beneficent God.  In this sublime
+ethical monotheism the Hebrew story rises infinitely above the story
+that originated in the Euphrates-Tigris valley.
+
+Another Babylonian tradition, the close relation of which to the
+biblical account has long been recognized, is the story of the Deluge.
+In its cuneiform text it was first discovered on fragments of tablets
+brought from the library of Ashurbanipal.  But that the Babylonians
+possessed a story of the Flood was known before from an outline
+preserved by Berosus.  The tradition brought to {208} light by
+archaeology forms an episode in an epic which narrates the exploits of
+Gilgamesh and occupies the eleventh of the twelve parts into which the
+epic is divided.  Gilgamesh sprang from a city, Shurippak, which
+afterward completely disappeared.  He became king of Erech, where he
+ruled as a tyrant until the gods created Ea-bani to destroy him.  The
+two, however, became bosom friends.  Together they delivered Erech from
+the Elamite oppressor, Khumbaba.  Ishtar, the goddess of love, then
+offered her hand to Gilgamesh in marriage, which he spurned with scorn.
+Out of revenge, she sent a scorpion, whose sting proved fatal to
+Ea-bani.  Gilgamesh himself she smote with an incurable disease.  To
+find relief, the latter set out for the dwelling place of his
+great-grandfather, Ut-napishtim, far away on the isles of the blessed.
+When he finally reaches him the latter tells him all about the great
+Flood from which he escaped to enjoy eternal life.[32]
+
+The most striking resemblances between the Babylonian and Hebrew
+stories of the Flood may now be noted: (1) Compare the instruction
+given by God to Noah (Gen. 6. 13-22) with the words addressed by the
+god Ea to Ut-napishtim:
+
+  O man of Shurippak, son of Ubaratutu,
+  Pull down thy house, build a ship,
+  Leave thy possessions, take thought for thy life,
+
+{209}
+
+  Thy property abandon, save thy life,
+  Bring living seed of every kind into the ship.
+  The ship that thou shalt build,
+  So shall be the measure of its dimensions,
+  Thus shall correspond its breadth and height,
+  Into the ocean let it fare.[33]
+
+(2) In both accounts the destruction is due to sin.  This is definitely
+stated in Gen. 6. 5-7.  For the Babylonian story it is implied in the
+rebuke given to Bel by Ea:
+
+  On the sinner lay his sin,
+  On the transgressor lay his transgression.
+  Forbear, let not all be destroyed.[34]
+
+(3) In both accounts, only a seed of life sufficient to replenish the
+earth is saved.  Compare Gen. 6. 19, 20 with the command, "Bring living
+seed of every kind into the ship," or with the statement:
+
+  I brought into the ship my family and household;
+  The cattle of the field, the beasts of the field, craftsmen, all
+      of them I brought in.[35]
+
+(4) Both stories tell of a great storm and deluge of water.  Gen. 7. 11
+reads, "The fountains of the great deep were broken up, and the windows
+of heaven were opened.  And the rain was upon the earth forty days and
+forty nights."  Compare with this:
+
+  The dawning of that day I feared,
+  I feared to behold that day.
+  I entered the ship and closed the door.
+  When the first flush of dawn appeared
+  There came up from the horizon a black cloud.
+
+{210}
+
+  Adad thundered within it,
+  While Nabu and Marduk went before.
+  They go as messengers over mountain and valley.
+  Nergal bore away the anchor.
+  Ninib advances, the storm he makes to descend.
+  The Anunaki lifted up their torches,
+  With their brightness they light up the land.
+  Adad's storm reached unto heaven,
+  All light was turned into darkness,
+  It [flooded] the land like ...
+  ........ the storm
+  Raged high, [the water climbed over] the mountains,
+  Like a besom of destruction they brought it upon men.[36]
+
+(5) In both instances the structure rests upon a mountain in the north.
+Gen. 8. 4 reads, "And the ark rested ... upon the mountains of Ararat,"
+that is, Armenia.  The Babylonian story reads:
+
+  To the land of Nisir the ship made its way,
+  The mount of Nisir held it fast that it moved not.[37]
+
+Mount Nisir is east of the upper Tigris. (6) In both cases birds are
+sent out to ascertain the condition of the land.  Compare Gen. 8. 6-12
+with these lines:
+
+  When the seventh day approached
+  I sent forth a dove and let her go.
+  The dove flew to and fro,
+  But there was no resting place and she returned.
+  I sent forth a swallow and let her go;
+  The swallow flew to and fro,
+  But there was no resting place, and she returned.
+  I sent forth a raven and let her go;
+  The raven flew away, she saw the abatement of the waters,
+
+{211}
+
+  She drew near, she waded (?), she croaked, and came not back.
+  Then I sent everything forth to the four quarters of heaven.[38]
+
+(7) Sacrifice is offered by Noah and Ut-napishtim, acceptable to the
+God of Noah and to the gods of the Babylonian hero, in both cases
+resulting in a promise not to repeat the Flood.  Compare Gen. 8. 20-22
+with:
+
+        I offered sacrifice,
+  I made a libation upon the mountain's peak.
+  By sevens I set out the sacrificial vessels,
+  Beneath them I heaped up reed and cedar wood and myrtle.
+  The gods smelt the savor,
+  The gods smelt the sweet savor,
+  The gods gathered like flies over the sacrificer.[39]
+
+Other similarities might be noted, such as the use of bitumen, the
+arrangement of the ship in stories, and, what seems more striking, the
+fact that the hero of the Babylonian story is the tenth antediluvian
+king, while Noah is the tenth antediluvian patriarch.
+
+As in the stories of creation, marked differences may also be noted
+between the two representations of the Flood; and these differences
+appear where they are most significant, namely, in the spirit and
+purity of conception permeating the entire Hebrew account.  For
+example, the book of Genesis introduces the divine displeasure with
+sin, the ethical element, as a fundamental note; then, {212} when the
+divine mercy is aroused, the Flood ceases; according to the Babylonian
+story, the Flood is caused by the capricious anger of Bel, the idea of
+punishment for sin cropping out only as an incident in the conversation
+between Ea and Bel at the end of the story.  The Flood ceases because
+the other gods are terrified, and Ishtar intercedes for her own
+creation.  Moreover, the whole Hebrew conception of the Divine differs
+from the Babylonian.  In the Hebrew account we find ourselves in an
+atmosphere of ethical monotheism that is unknown apart from the chosen
+people.  Disappeared have all the gods who war with one another, who
+rejoice in successful intrigues, who do not hesitate to tell untruths
+or instruct their favorites to do so; the gods unstable in all their
+ways, now seeking to destroy, now flattering their creatures; the gods
+who, terrified by the storm, "cower like dogs" at the edge of heaven,
+and who "gathered like flies" around the sacrifice of the saved hero.
+All these characteristic features of the Babylonian account are absent
+from the Bible.  Surely, there is no connection between these deities
+and the one sublime and gracious God of Genesis.
+
+Lack of space will not permit us to institute detailed comparisons
+between other narratives in the early chapters of Genesis and
+Babylonian literature.  It may be sufficient to say that the {213}
+resemblances are not confined to the stories of creation and of the
+Flood.  True, no complete Babylonian story of paradise and of the fall
+is at present known; nevertheless, there are certain features in the
+biblical narrative which strongly point to Babylonia, and in the light
+of the known fact that elements in the two important narratives of
+creation and of the Flood are derived from Babylonia, it may be safe to
+infer that in this case also echoes of Babylonian beliefs supplied, at
+least in part, the framework of the Hebrew representation.  The
+antediluvian patriarchs also seem to have their counterparts in
+Babylonian tradition, and the story of the Tower of Babel, though it
+does not seem to be of Babylonian origin, presupposes a knowledge of
+Babylonia, and it is not impossible that some Babylonian legend served
+as the basis of it.
+
+In closing this discussion, attention may be called to a few general
+considerations that must be borne in mind in any attempt to answer the
+question whether the religious and ethical ideas of the Hebrews which
+show similarities with the ideas of other nations were borrowed bodily
+from these nations, or, after all, contain elements that were original
+with the Hebrews.
+
+In the first place, it must be remembered that similarities between the
+customs or beliefs of two peoples do not necessarily imply the
+dependence {214} of one upon the other; much less do they indicate
+which is the original.  Where similarities are found at least four
+possibilities should be recognized: A may depend upon B; B may depend
+upon A; both A and B may have been derived from a common original; or A
+and B may have developed independently, the similarities being merely
+coincidence.  Which interpretation is the right one in a given case
+does not lie on the surface; it is only by careful, patient, unbiased
+study that one may arrive at a proper understanding.  Take as an
+illustration the Decalogue.  The Buddhists have "ten prohibitory laws,"
+sometimes called the "Buddhist Decalogue."  The first five read, "Thou
+shalt not kill; Thou shalt not steal; Thou shalt not lie; Thou shalt
+not commit adultery; Thou shalt not get drunk."  Three of these
+correspond exactly to three of the demands in the Jewish Decalogue.
+Does it necessarily follow that the Decalogue was borrowed from Buddha?
+The Egyptians also had a sacred law.  The law itself has not yet come
+to light, but the Book of the Dead indicates its existence.  In the one
+hundred and twenty-fifth chapter of this book we read the
+justifications offered by the dead: "I have not acted with deceit or
+done evil to men; I have not oppressed the poor; I have not judged
+unjustly," etc.  These negations seem to imply the existence of a law,
+either oral or written, {215} forbidding these things.  From the
+negations, "I have not acted with deceit; I have not committed murder;
+I have not been unchaste," etc., one may infer that the Egyptians had
+precepts corresponding substantially to some of the requirements in the
+Decalogue.  Does logic demand, therefore, the conclusion that the
+Decalogue owes its existence to the sacred law of the Egyptians?  Among
+the Babylonians also we find evidence of the existence of, at least,
+some of the requirements of the Hebrew Decalogue: "Thou shalt not break
+into the house of thy neighbor; Thou shalt not approach the wife of thy
+neighbor; Thou shalt not spill the blood of thy neighbor; Thou shalt
+not grasp the garment of thy neighbor."  Do these similarities prove
+beyond question the dependence of the one upon the other?
+
+There are, then, marked resemblances between the Hebrew Decalogue,
+certain requirements among the Babylonians, among the Egyptians, and
+among the Buddhists.  I know of no one who claims that the Decalogue
+was borrowed from Buddha; some, however, seem to think, that in part at
+least, it was dependent upon Babylon; others, that Moses is indebted
+for it to Egypt.  True, in the minds of most scholars the dependence is
+not direct; there would be room, according to their theory, for the
+work of the Spirit in the selection of these fundamental, ethical
+conceptions {216} from the great mass of requirements, the majority of
+which are far inferior to the Decalogue.  Such dependence, even if it
+could be proved, would not rob the Decalogue of inspiration or
+permanent value; but it seems to me that the similarities do not
+warrant the claim of even such dependence.  Is it not more likely that
+these similarities are due to the instinct implanted in man by the
+Creator, which recognizes the sanctity of life, of family relations,
+and of property rights?  But this instinct does not account for the
+obvious differences between the Hebrew Decalogue as a whole and the
+legislations of other peoples.  These must be traced to the special
+activity of a Spirit who produced among the Hebrews a collection of
+commandments such as natural instinct, if left to itself, could not
+have produced.
+
+It is different, perhaps, when we consider the relation of the more
+comprehensive civil legislation of the Pentateuch to the Code of
+Hammurabi.  There the resemblances are numerous and striking enough to
+justify the inference that there exists some relation of dependence,
+and yet by no means that the legislation of the Pentateuch is borrowed
+directly from the other, or even that there is a literary dependence.
+How extensive this dependence is only careful examination can show;
+but, however complete, it will not destroy the fact that the laws of
+Israel are permeated by a Divine {217} Spirit.  The important question
+is not, Where do we find the natural basis upon which the system is
+built up by men under divine guidance? but, Does the spirit and
+character of the system indicate such guidance?
+
+In the second place, in seeking the truth about this relationship
+assumption must not be confused with knowledge.  Modern archaeologists
+seem to be in peculiar danger of taking things for granted.  It is not
+without reason that a prominent Old Testament scholar proposes to
+change the title of the third edition of a book entitled The Cuneiform
+Inscriptions and the Old Testament into The Cuneiform Scholar and the
+Old Testament.  It is stated, for example, without qualification by
+Delitzsch that the name "Yahweh" has been discovered on inscriptions
+belonging to the period of Hammurabi.  No hint is given that the
+reading is questioned by many Assyriologists.  There is, at least, a
+possibility, no matter how small, of a different rendering, with, of
+course, a vastly different conclusion.  But admitting, as I believe we
+must do, that the name does occur, the inference drawn from this
+occurrence by Delitzsch, and expressed in the following words, is an
+assumption and misleading, unless it is materially modified: "Yahweh,
+the abiding one, the permanent one, who, unlike man, is not to-morrow a
+thing of the past, but one that endures forever, that {218} lives and
+labors for all eternity above the broad, resplendent, law-bound canopy
+of the stars--it was this Yahweh that constituted the primordial
+patrimony of those Canaanite tribes from which centuries afterward the
+twelve tribes of Israel sprang."[40]  The fact is that you may search
+the Babylonian pantheon from one end to the other and you will not find
+one god who in nature and character can compare with the Jehovah of
+Israel, "merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abundant in
+loving-kindness and truth."
+
+Another instance of the same character is the story of the fall.  One
+thing we know, namely, that a story of the fall of man, similar to that
+in Genesis, has not as yet been found among the fragments of Babylonian
+libraries.  Certainly, such story may have existed, and probably did
+exist; it may even be, as has been asserted, that some connection
+exists between the scriptural story of the fall and the picture on an
+old Babylonian seal cylinder having in the center a tree with fruits
+hanging down, on each side a figure, and behind the figure at the left
+a mark which may represent a serpent.  But the interpretation is by no
+means certain.  The fact that an assertion is made by an expert favors
+the presumption, but does not prove, that the statement is true.
+
+Some archaeologists claim that the monotheism of Israel was derived from
+outside of Israel, {219} either from Arabia[41] or from Babylonia[42].
+Among the arguments in favor of this claim is the occurrence of proper
+names which are alleged to imply the existence of monotheism; for
+example, _Yasma-ilu_, which may be translated "God hears," implying the
+existence of but one God.  However, it might mean also "_a_ god hears,"
+or "god"--referring to one of many--"hears," the giver of the name
+singling out the one for special consideration.  And as there are clear
+indications of polytheism in southern Arabia, where the name is found,
+the name, in all probability, means the latter, thus implying
+polytheism.  The same may be said of the names found in Babylonia.
+Whatever the primary meaning of _ilu_, these names do not in themselves
+prove the existence of monotheism.  They may be translated in perfect
+accord with logic and grammar as admitting the existence of more than
+one god.  Indeed, the historical facts demand such interpretation.  If
+we find, for example, "Sin-muballit" ("the moon-god brings to life") as
+the name of the father of Hammurabi, and "Shamshu-iluna" (in all
+probability, "the sun-god is our god") as that of his son, the facts
+surely indicate that the monotheism of the period was not very
+distinct.  The testimony of the Code of Hammurabi points in the same
+direction, as also the most spiritual utterances of religion in the
+Euphrates valley, the penitential psalms.
+
+{220}
+
+It is seen, then, that facts do not warrant the claim, made by some,
+that that upon which rests the significance of the Bible in the world's
+history, namely, monotheism, was taken over by the Hebrews from the
+Babylonians.  Josh. 24. 2 remains uncontradicted: "Your fathers dwelt
+of old time beyond the River, even Terah, the father of Abraham, and
+the father of Nahor; and _they served other gods_."  It is only in
+Israel that we find a clearly developed monotheism.  Assumption and
+facts are not quite the same.
+
+Another important point, to which attention has already been called, is
+the marked difference which obtains between the literature of the Old
+Testament and that uncovered by archaeology.  True, there are points of
+contact; indeed, strange it would be if there were none; for, like the
+Babylonians, the Hebrews were Semites.  Surely, it is not strange that
+nations of the same race, originally in the same home, should possess
+similar traditions, customs, beliefs, and practices.  When they left
+their common home they carried with them their common traditions,
+customs, and beliefs; in their new homes they developed them and
+impressed upon them their own individualities.  We are nowhere informed
+in the Old Testament, and it would seem contrary to reason to suppose,
+that at the time of Abraham, Moses, or at any other period, God emptied
+the Hebrew mind and {221} consciousness of all the things which had
+been the possession of the Semitic race from the beginning.  Is it not
+more likely that the inspired teachers and writers employed for their
+loftier purposes the ancient traditions and beliefs familiar to their
+contemporaries?  In doing so they took that which was, in some cases,
+common and unclean, and, purifying it under the guidance of the Divine
+Spirit, made it the medium by which to impart the sublimest truths ever
+presented to man.  Obviously, the special religious value of the Old
+Testament literature does not lie in what is common to it and Babylon,
+but in the elements in which they differ.
+
+The points of contact must not blind the eye to the points of contrast.
+These points of contrast are in the spirit and atmosphere pervading the
+Hebrew Scriptures, which are quite distinct, not simply from
+Babylonian, but from all other literatures.  These essential
+differences occur, as we have seen, throughout the entire religious and
+ethical literature.  In many cases is agreement in form, but how far
+superior the spirit and substance of the Hebrew!  Think of the
+different conceptions of the nature and character of God, of God's
+relation to man, of the divine government of the world, and many other
+truths precious to Christians in all ages.  There is, indeed, in the
+Hebrew record "an intensity of spiritual {222} conception, a sublimity
+of spiritual tone, an insight into the unseen, a reliance upon an
+invisible yet all-controlling Power, that create the gap between the
+Hebrew and his brother Semite beyond the River."
+
+How are we to account for these differences?  Professor Sayce has
+suggested an answer in these words: "I can find only one explanation,
+unfashionable and antiquated though it be.  In the language of a former
+generation, it marks the dividing line between revelation and
+unrevealed religion.  It is like that something hard to define which
+separates man from the ape, even though on the physiological side the
+ape may be the ancestor of man."[43]  Though the language of this
+statement may be unfortunate, especially where it implies that there is
+no revelation in the ancient religions outside of the Old Testament, it
+does call attention to the secret of the fundamental difference between
+the Old Testament sacred literature and that of the surrounding
+nations.  There is in the former abundant evidence of the activity of a
+Spirit whose presence is less manifest in the sacred literatures of
+other ancient nations.
+
+True, the monuments have not spoken their last word; but if we have the
+right to draw inferences from the known, we may safely affirm that
+though the monuments may swell into infinity, they will offer nothing
+to equal, much less to supersede, in substance and spirit, our {223}
+Old Testament.  We may receive gratefully every ray of light, but the
+time has not yet come, nor ever will come, when we may lay aside the
+Old Testament and accept as a substitute the legends and myths of
+heathen lands to give to us the bread of life which the Saviour found
+in the pages of the Old Book.  Let us welcome the light and knowledge
+God has bestowed upon us; let us rejoice in them with perfect assurance
+that they are for good and not for evil; let us learn to use them
+wisely and honestly, and let us still be ever alert listening for other
+words, uttered ages ago, but not yet audible to modern ears.  "It is
+for us to catch these messages, and to understand them, that we may fit
+them into the great fabric of apprehended truth to the enrichment of
+ourselves, and to the glory of our common Lord."
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER V
+
+[1] J. P. Peters, The Old Testament and the New Scholarship, p. 92.
+
+[2] S. G. Smith, Religion in the Making, p. 20.
+
+[3] Hugo Winckler, Himmels- und Weltenbild der Babylonier, p. 9.
+
+[4] Professor Friedrich Delitzsch, of the University of Berlin,
+delivered three lectures on the relation of Babylonian religion to the
+religion of the Old Testament, under the title, "Babel und Bibel."
+
+[5] A. H. Sayce, The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 276,
+277.
+
+[6] A. Jeremias, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, I,
+p. 86.
+
+{224}
+
+[7] R. W. Rogers, The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 88.
+Practically all the cuneiform inscriptions quoted or referred to in
+this chapter are translated in R. W. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the
+Old Testament.
+
+[8] Friedrich Delitzsch, Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, published by
+Open Court Co., p. 65.
+
+[9] A translation of the entire psalm is found in Sayce, The Religions
+of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 419-421; also in Rogers, Religion
+of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 182-184; R. F. Harper, Assyrian and
+Babylonian Literature, pp. 436-439.
+
+[10] Sayce, Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 35, 93, 195.
+A translation of a hymn composed by this king to his supreme god is
+found in J. H. Breasted, A History of Egypt, pp. 371ff.
+
+[11] An excellent brief survey of the religious conceptions of the
+pre-Mosaic period is given in the article on "Religion of Israel," by
+E. Kautzsch, in James Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Extra Vol.,
+pp. 613ff.
+
+[12] The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 95.
+
+[13] Ibid., p. 97.
+
+[14] The most recent and most satisfactory edition and translation of
+the entire Babylonian story of creation is by L. W. King, The Seven
+Tablets of Creation.  The two quotations given are Tablet I, lines 7-9,
+and Tablet III, lines 133-138.
+
+[15] Additional portions of this hymn are found in R. W. Rogers,
+Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 170ff.
+
+[16] S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religions To-day, p. 14.
+
+[17] A. T. Clay, Light on the Old Testament from Babel, p. 15; A. H.
+Sayce, Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 476ff.; M.
+Jastrow, in American Journal of Theology, 1898, pp. 315-352; A.
+Jeremias, The Old Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, I, pp.
+198ff.
+
+{225}
+
+[18] Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, p. 38.
+
+[19] Ibid., p. 101.
+
+[20] Paul Haupt, Babylonian Elements in the Levitical Ritual, Journal
+of Biblical Literature, 1900, p. 61.
+
+[21] The details of this question have been discussed very extensively.
+Admirable discussions of the entire subject are found in Sayce,
+Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pp. 448-478; Jeremias, Old
+Testament in the Light of the Ancient East, II, pp. 112ff.
+
+[22] Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, p. 469.
+
+[23] Delitzsch, Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, pp. 53ff.
+
+[24] R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 145.
+
+[25] R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi; art. on the same subject in
+Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, Extra Vol., pp. 584ff.; W. W.
+Davies, The Codes of Hammurabi and Moses.
+
+[26] The best and most complete recent treatment of the legal
+literature of the Old Testament is found in C. F. Kent, Israel's Laws
+and Legal Precedents, which is Vol. IV in The Student's Old Testament.
+
+[27] Johannes Jeremias, Moses and Hammurabi, pp. 31ff.
+
+[28] R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 158.
+
+[29] L. W. King, The Seven Tablets of Creation, Two Vols.; a
+translation is also found in R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian
+Literature, pp. 282ff.  R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and
+Assyria, pp. 107ff.
+
+[30] Tablet V, lines 1-3.
+
+[31] Lines 1-8.
+
+[32] An English translation of the entire epic is found in R. F.
+Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, pp. 324ff.; the Deluge
+story is given by R. W. Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp.
+199ff.
+
+{226}
+
+[33] Lines 23-31.
+
+[34] Lines 184-186.
+
+[35] Lines 27, 85, 86.
+
+[36] Lines 92-111.
+
+[37] Lines 141, 142.
+
+[38] Lines 146-156.
+
+[39] Lines 156-162.
+
+[40] Babel and Bible, Two Lectures, p. 62.
+
+[41] F. Hommel, The Ancient Hebrew Tradition, pp. 75ff.
+
+[42] P. Delitzsch, Babel and Bible, pp. 58ff.
+
+[43] Preface to Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia.
+
+
+
+
+{227}
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE PERMANENT SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
+
+In the opening paragraphs of Chapter I, attention is called to the
+unique place occupied by the Old Testament in the thought, life, and
+theology of the early Church.  Throughout the Middle Ages, and in the
+eyes of the Protestant reformers, the two great divisions of the Bible,
+the Old and New Testaments, continued to command equal respect and
+attention.  The legal principles of the Pentateuch have determined the
+legal systems of all civilized nations; the bold and fiery sermons of
+the prophets have been the chief inspiration on the fierce battles for
+righteousness in all ages; and the sublime religious lyrics of the
+Psalter have ushered millions into the very presence of God.  Indeed,
+the Old Testament has exerted an incalculable influence on the
+development of religion and civilization.
+
+However, it must be admitted that during the latter part of the
+nineteenth century a change of attitude toward the Old Testament seems
+to have taken place.  True, from nearly the beginning of the Christian
+era again and again voices have {228} been heard denying to the Old
+Testament a place in Christian thought and life, but not until
+comparatively recent times has this sentiment become widespread.  Says
+a writer in a book published a few years ago: "The Bible was never more
+studied nor less read than at the present day.  This paradox is true,
+at least, of the Old Testament.  For two generations scores of patient
+scholars have toiled on the text, scanning each letter with microscopic
+care, and one result of their labors has been that to the majority of
+educated men and women of whatever belief, or no belief, the Bible has
+become a closed, yea, a sealed, book.  It is not what it used to be;
+what it has become they do not know, and in scorn or sorrow or apathy
+they have laid it aside."[1]  There may be some exaggeration in this
+statement, but it cannot be doubted that there is considerable
+justification for the complaint.  C. F. Kent makes the admission that
+"with the exception of a very few books, like the Psalter, the Old
+Testament, which was the arsenal of the old militant theology, has been
+unconsciously, if not deliberately, shunned by the present
+generation."[2]  And the words of Professor Cheyne are almost as
+applicable to-day as they were when they were first written, more than
+twenty years ago: "A theory is already propounded, both in private and
+in a naive simple way in sermons, that the {229} Old Testament is of no
+particular moment, all that we need being the New Testament, which has
+been defended by our valiant apologists and expounded by our admirable
+interpreters."[3]
+
+If this represents in any sense the true state of affairs; if, on the
+other hand, the words of the apostle are true, that "every scripture
+inspired of God is also profitable for teaching, for reproof, for
+correction, for instruction which is in righteousness, that the man of
+God may be complete, furnished completely unto every good work"; and if
+these words are applicable to the Old Testament, as the writer intended
+them to be--if, I say, these things are true, then Christians appear to
+be in great peril of losing sight of one of the important means of
+grace, on which were nourished Jesus and his disciples, and millions in
+former generations, and for the restoration of which the reformers
+risked their very lives.
+
+The change of attitude toward the Old Testament may be traced to a
+variety of causes, all of which affect very vitally modern religious
+thought and life.  There are, for example, many who feel, and that with
+some justice, that the New Testament is in a peculiar sense the sacred
+book of Christianity.  Why, they ask, go to the Old Testament when we
+have the New with its more complete and perfect revelation?  But this
+attitude reflects only a half truth, which is often {230} more
+deceptive than an out and out falsehood.  Certainly, Christians find
+their loftiest inspiration in the study of the life, character, and
+teaching of the Master and of his disciples; but the New Testament has
+by no means displaced the Old.  The early Christians were right in
+placing it beside the New, because the former is still of inestimable
+value.  Indeed, it is impossible to understand the New Testament
+properly unless one has an adequate knowledge of the Old.  Moreover,
+there are many truths taken for granted in the New Testament for a
+biblical statement of which we must turn to the Old.  Will the
+revelation of the nature and character of God contained in the Old
+Testament ever lose its doctrinal value?  And even in cases where both
+Testaments cover the same field the Old retains a peculiar value.
+True, the New Testament presents a more complete and perfect
+revelation, but there are few New Testament truths which have not their
+roots in the Old.  The former presents the full-grown revelation;
+nevertheless, a vast number of people, who have not yet reached a state
+of perfection, will understand even New Testament truths more readily
+as they are presented in the Old Testament; for here they can see the
+truths in more concrete form; they have flesh and blood; they are
+struggling for victory over darkness and superstition.  Nearly all the
+great and vital doctrines of the Church, {231} though founded
+principally on the New Testament, are illustrated, are made more real
+and human, become more impressive and forceful as we study their
+development and growth under the Old Testament dispensation.
+
+The neglect of the Old Testament is due, in the second place, to a
+reaction against its misuse by former generations.[4]  Puritanism and
+the theology of the past three centuries were largely rooted in the Old
+Testament.  From it the stern Puritans drew their spirit of justice,
+their zeal for righteousness, and their uncompromising condemnation of
+everything that appeared wrong.  Their preachers nobly echoed the
+thunders of Sinai and the denunciations of Elijah and Amos; but in
+doing this they failed to recognize the divine love back of the
+prophetic message, and by their narrow interpretation of the letter,
+and their emphasis upon the more primitive and imperfect teaching of
+the Old Testament, they were often led to extremes that were neither
+biblical nor Christian.  Against intolerance and persecution the human
+heart rebels, and with it comes a feeling of resentment against the
+cause.  Thus it happened that the reaction against Puritanism brought
+with it a disregard of the Old Testament, which was followed either by
+the exaltation of the New Testament, whose spirit is more merciful and
+tender, or by hostility against the entire {232} Bible and Christianity
+as a whole.  This abuse of the Old Testament was due in large part to
+the use of faulty, or erroneous, methods of interpretation.  And since
+there seems to be even now a tendency in some places to defend these
+methods, which are out of keeping with the spirit of scientific
+investigation in this age, many intelligent men have come to look with
+suspicion upon a book in the study of which unscientific methods
+continue to be used.
+
+Another important cause of the change of attitude toward the Old
+Testament is to be found in the labors expended upon the Old Testament
+by able scholars in the pursuit of a careful, critical study of the
+ancient records.  As has been stated in another connection, these
+studies are not the outgrowth, as is often erroneously assumed, of a
+desire to discredit the Bible, to displace it from the heart and
+confidence of the people, or to attack its teaching or inspiration.
+"It would be a most hopeless thing," says W. G. Jordan, "to regard all
+this toil as the outcome of skepticism and vanity, a huge specimen of
+perverse ingenuity and misdirected effort."[5]  They are simply the
+results of Protestantism and the Renaissance.[6]  But whatever the
+spirit back of the study, and whatever the gains of this investigation,
+one result is that many Christians feel perplexed with regard to the
+true position of the Old Testament.  {233} What of its claims?  What of
+its inspiration?  How far is it human in origin?  How far divine?
+These and similar questions are asked by men everywhere.  Never was
+there more interest, more inquiry, and, perhaps, more unrest and
+disquietude among thoughtful people.
+
+Surely, it is high time to realize that all this investigation has had
+no harmful effect upon the substance of the divine revelations conveyed
+in the Old Testament records.  In the words of Jordan, "To me, with my
+faith that the whole universe is filled with the presence of the
+living, self-revealing God, I cannot conceive ... that the most severe
+criticism can ever banish the divine power from that great literature
+which is one of the choicest organs of its manifestations."[7]  As has
+been pointed out in the preceding chapters, some long-cherished notions
+and interpretations have been overthrown; to some extent our ideas
+concerning its literary forms have had to be modified, but its
+substance has not been disturbed.  On the contrary, it has come to be
+seen with a clearness unrecognized before that it bears the indelible
+stamp of God.
+
+This being the case, students of the Bible should return to a more just
+appreciation of that part of Sacred Scripture which is so intimately
+connected with the training of Jesus and his disciples.  If the Old
+Testament contains records {234} and interpretations of divine
+revelations, those who claim to be children of God should be willing,
+yea, anxious, to put forth some efforts to familiarize themselves
+adequately with these records.  But the sense of gratitude and
+appreciation for these self-revelations of God is not the only reason
+which should prompt the Christian to turn more frequently to the pages
+of the Old Book.  A much more important consideration is the fact that
+the lessons taught in the Old Testament are of profound significance
+to-day, and that they cannot be neglected without serious consequences.
+Again, attention may be called to the fact that the Founder of
+Christianity and his disciples found nourishment in its pages, and that
+they constantly exhorted their followers to do the same.  Now, Jesus is
+recognized by all Christians as a model worthy of imitation in every
+relation of life.  Would it not be well to imitate him in the use of
+the Old Testament Scriptures?  If he found in the pages of the Old
+Testament weapons with which to put to flight the Evil One, might not
+we?  Aside from these general considerations, it is easily shown that
+every part of the Old Testament is full of teaching which is of the
+highest value even in the twentieth century of the Christian era.
+Consider, for example, the first eleven chapters of Genesis, around
+which much controversy has raged.  In former days these chapters were
+{235} thought to give an absolutely accurate account of creation and
+the early history of mankind.  However, various lines of investigation
+have shown this view to be untenable.  "We are forced, therefore," says
+a recent writer, "to the conclusion that, though the writers to whom we
+owe the first eleven chapters of Genesis report faithfully what was
+currently believed among the Hebrews respecting the early history of
+mankind, yet there was much they did not know, and could not take
+cognizance of.  These chapters, consequently, contain no account of the
+real beginnings, either of the earth itself, or of man and human
+civilization upon it."[8]  All this need create not the slightest
+difficulty for one who holds the scriptural conception of the nature
+and purpose of the biblical writings.  It is true of these chapters, as
+of other parts of the record, that "the only care of the prophetic
+tradition is to bring out clearly the religious origin of humanity.[9]
+If anyone is in search of accurate information regarding the age of
+this earth, or its relation to the sun, moon, or stars, or regarding
+the exact order in which plants and animals have appeared upon it, he
+should go to recent textbooks in astronomy, geology, and paleontology.
+It is not the purpose of the writers of Scripture to impart physical
+instruction, or to enlarge the bounds of scientific knowledge.  So far
+as the {236} scientific or historical information imparted in these
+chapters is concerned, it is of little more value than the similar
+stories of other nations.  And yet the student of these chapters can
+see a striking contrast between them and extra-biblical stories
+describing the same unknown ages handed down from pre-scientific
+centuries.  Here comes to view the uniqueness of the Bible.  The other
+traditions are of interest only as relics of a by-gone past.  Not so
+the biblical statements; they are and ever will be of inestimable
+value, not because of their scientific teaching, but because of the
+presence of sublime religious truth in the crude forms of primitive
+science.  If anyone wishes to know what connection the world has with
+God, if he seeks to trace back all that now is to the very
+fountain-head of life, if he desires to discover some unifying
+principle, some illuminating purpose in the history of the earth, he
+may turn to these chapters as his safest and, indeed, only guide to the
+information he seeks.
+
+The purpose of the narratives being primarily religious, it is only
+natural that their lessons should be religious lessons.  The one
+supreme lesson taught throughout the entire section is "In the
+beginning, God."  But each separate narrative teaches its own peculiar
+lessons.  The more important of these are briefly summarized by Driver
+as follows: "The narrative of creation {237} sets forth, in a series of
+dignified and impressive pictures, the sovereignty of God; his priority
+to and separation from all finite, material nature; his purpose to
+constitute an ordered cosmos, and gradually to adapt the earth to
+become the habitation of living beings; and his endowment of man with
+the peculiar, unique possession of self-conscious reason, in virtue of
+which he became capable of intellectual and moral life, and is even
+able to know and hold communion with his Maker.  In chapters two and
+three we read, though, again, not in a historical but in a pictorial
+and symbolic form, how man was once innocent, how he became conscious
+of a moral law, and how temptation fell upon him and he broke that law.
+The fall of man, the great and terrible truth, which history not less
+than individual experience only too vividly teaches each one of us, is
+thus impressively set before us.  Man, however, though punished by God,
+is not forsaken by him, nor left in his long conflict with evil without
+hope of victory.  In chapter four the increasing power of sin, and the
+fatal consequence to which, if unchecked, it may lead, is vividly
+portrayed in the tragic figure of Cain.  The spirit of vindictiveness
+and the brutal triumph in the power of the sword is personified in
+Lamech.  In the narrative of the Flood God's wrath against sin and the
+divine prerogative of mercy are alike exemplified: {238} Noah is a
+standing illustration of the truth that 'righteousness delivereth from
+death,' and God's dealings with him after the Flood form a striking
+declaration of the purposes of grace and good will with which God
+regards mankind.  The narrative of the Tower of Babel emphasizes
+Jehovah's supremacy in the world, and teaches how the self-exaltation
+of man is checked by God."[10]
+
+These chapters are followed by the stories of the patriarchs.
+Missionaries say--and experience at home has confirmed the claim--that
+the patriarchal narratives are of inestimable value to impress lessons
+of the reality and providence of God, and to encourage the exercise of
+faith and confidence in him.  There is nothing that can be substituted
+for them in religious instruction.  Lack of space will not permit to
+point out in detail the educational value of these documents; however,
+in passing, mention may be made of the fact that Professor W. W. White
+enumerates twenty-one Christian virtues that are illustrated and
+enforced in the life of Abraham.[11]  He was (1) steadfast, (2)
+resolute, (3) prudent, (4) tactful, (5) candid, (6) kind, (7)
+self-controlled, (8) obliging, (9) self-denying, (10) condescending,
+(11) unselfish, (12) peaceable, (13) hospitable, (14) courteous, (15)
+humble, (16) thankful, (17) reverent, (18) prayerful, (19) worshipful,
+(20) faithful, {239} (21) obedient.  Not one iota of their value for
+purposes of instruction in righteousness have these records lost
+because doubt has been cast upon their absolute historical accuracy.
+"Abraham is still the hero of righteousness and faith; Lot and Laban,
+Sarah and Rebekah, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, in their characters and
+experiences, are still in different ways types of our own selves, and
+still in one way or another exemplify the ways in which God deals with
+the individual soul, and the manner in which the individual soul ought,
+or ought not, to respond to his leadings."[12]  What if some of these
+figures pass before us on the stage rather than in real life, do they
+on that account lose their vividness, their truthfulness, their force?
+"If," says J. E. McFadyen,[13] "it should be made highly probable that
+the stories were not strictly historical, what should we then have to
+say?  We should then have to say that their religious value was still
+extremely high.  The religious truth to which they give vivid and
+immortal expression would remain the same.  The story of Abraham would
+still illustrate the trials and the rewards of faith.  The story of
+Jacob would still illustrate the power of sin to haunt and determine a
+man's career, and the power of God to humble, discipline, and purify a
+self-confident nature.  The story of Joseph would still illustrate how
+fidelity amid {240} temptation, wrong, and sorrow is crowned at last
+with glory and honor.  The spiritual value of these and similar tales
+is not lost, even when their historical value is reduced to a minimum,
+for the truths which they illustrate are truths of universal
+experience."  The present writer is convinced that even as historical
+documents these narratives are of immense value.  Nevertheless, it may
+be well to remind ourselves again that the apostle does not point his
+readers to the Old Testament Scriptures for instruction in ancient
+history, but he claims that they are profitable "for teaching, for
+reproof, for correction, for instruction which is in righteousness";
+and these records, whatever their historical shortcomings may be, are
+most assuredly profitable for all these purposes.
+
+The historical books of the Old Testament are a continuous illustration
+of the reality of a Divine Providence, by revealing on almost every
+page the hand of God in human history.  Only as we trace the history of
+the Hebrews can we understand the unfolding in the mind of man under
+the influence of the Divine Spirit of the great religious ideas and
+conceptions which have become the mainspring of human progress; the
+ideas which may be seen in crystallized form in modern Judaism, in
+perverted form in Mohammedanism, and in expanded and spiritualized form
+in Christianity.  {241} Preeminent among these conceptions is the idea
+of one personal holy and righteous God.  The Hebrews were also the
+first to teach man that the supreme goal of life is righteousness, and
+thus they became the ethical teachers of the human race.  They first
+gave objective expression to pure and lofty ethics in law.  To-day the
+principles of Hebrew legislation are still the bone and marrow of the
+world's greatest legal systems.  Though the Romans may be, to a large
+extent, responsible for the form which modern legal systems have
+adopted, the substance must be traced back to Hebrew legislation.
+
+Moreover, the Hebrews prepared the way for Christianity.  Jesus himself
+recognized that the faith he proclaimed was not a new creation.  "Think
+not," said he, "that I came to destroy the law or the prophets: I came
+not to destroy, but to fulfill."[14]  He came to fill up, to
+spiritualize and intensify the religious and ethical teaching of the
+great leaders of the Hebrews.  Men needed the preliminary training of
+the Old Testament dispensation before they were ready to appreciate the
+fuller revelation in and through Jesus the Christ, and Christianity
+could never have triumphed had it not been for the preparatory work of
+the religious and ethical teachers of the Hebrews, whose activity was
+very largely determined by the course of the nation's history.  Again,
+{242} Jesus, according to the flesh, was a descendant of Abraham,
+reared in a Jewish home, and under Jewish influences.  He studied
+Jewish literature and Jewish ideals were held up before him.  All this
+must have made some impression upon the mind and life of the Master.
+He and his teaching can be understood only if he is studied in the
+light of Jewish thought and Jewish religion reaching back to the very
+beginning of Hebrew history.  All this shows how important is the study
+of the historical books of the Old Testament to one who desires to
+appreciate fully the Christian religion.
+
+It is impossible to estimate too highly the eternal value of the
+devotional literature of the Old Testament as illustrated, for example,
+in the book of Psalms.  Well has it been said, "What the heart is in
+man, that is the Psalter in the Bible."[15]  The Psalms touch the
+heart, because they are the expressions of the deepest feelings of the
+writers; and because these lyrics express personal experiences they may
+be, and are, used even to-day to express the various emotions of joy,
+sorrow, hope, fear, anticipation, etc., of persons who live even on a
+higher plane than did their authors.  "What is there," says Richard
+Hooker,[16] "necessary for man to know which the Psalms are not able to
+teach?  Heroical magnanimity, exquisite justice, grave moderation,
+{243} exact wisdom, repentance unfeigned, unwearied patience, the
+mysteries of God, the sufferings of Christ, the terrors of wrath, the
+comforts of grace, the works of Providence over this world, and the
+promised joys of that world which is to come; all good, necessarily to
+be either known or done, or had, this one celestial fountain yieldeth;
+let there be any grief or disaster incident to the soul of man, any
+wound or sickness named for which there is not in this treasure-house a
+present comfortable remedy at all times ready to be found."
+
+Manifold indeed are the contents of the Psalter; manifold the moods of
+the authors; and manifold the experiences they express.  But there is
+one bond which unites them all into one living unity, namely, a sublime
+faith in Jehovah, the God of Israel.  This variety on the one hand, and
+essential unity on the other, are the qualities which have given to the
+book in all ages a unique place in the religious life of the individual
+and of the Church of God.  With full justice says Perowne:[17] "No
+single book of Scripture, not even the New Testament, has, perhaps,
+ever taken such hold on the heart of Christendom.  None, if we dare
+judge, unless it be the Gospels, has had so large an influence in
+molding the affections, sustaining the hopes, purifying the faith of
+believers.  With its words, rather than with their own, they have come
+before God.  In these they have uttered {244} their desires, their
+fears, their confessions, their aspirations, their sorrows, their joys,
+their thanksgivings.  By these their devotion has been kindled and
+their hearts comforted.  The Psalter has been in the truest sense the
+prayer book of both Jews and Christians."
+
+Equally profitable is the study of the Wisdom literature.  The wise men
+accepted the great religious truths proclaimed by the prophets; it was
+their business to apply them to the details of everyday life, and
+instruct their contemporaries in that application.  They did an
+important and necessary work; they pointed out constantly and
+persistently that religion cannot be separated from the daily life.
+But the wise men were dealing with persons who had hardly gone beyond
+the childhood stage in things religious and ethical, hence they must
+put the most profound truths in the simplest possible form.  They must
+abstain, as far as possible, from all speculation, and confine
+themselves to simple, practical precepts which would appeal to the
+ordinary practical common sense of the hearer.  "The great desire of
+the sages," says Marshall, "was to reduce the lofty theistic morality
+which underlies Mosaism to brief, pithy sayings, easily remembered and
+readily applicable to the everyday life of man."[18]  Certainly, in
+time they would be compelled to rise above simple precepts and try to
+solve some of {245} the more perplexing problems of life; on the other
+hand, there would always be a demand for the more simple sayings of
+these moral guides.  The Old Testament contains specimens of these
+different productions of wisdom activity.  The book of Proverbs is a
+collection of the more simple, practical precepts, while the books of
+Job and Ecclesiastes illustrate speculative wisdom.
+
+The charge has sometimes been made against the book of Proverbs that it
+is not truly religious, that it moves on a lower plane, and
+contemplates lower aims than the other books of the Old Testament; but
+this is only a half truth.  That the book differs from other books is
+undoubtedly true, but that is due to the purpose of its author.  He did
+not mean to collect prophetic discourses or sublime religious lyrics,
+but those simple precepts of life which, though simple, are ever needed
+for the proper conduct of man.  There are two phases of religion: the
+one internal, the religious experience; the other external, the
+religious life.  The two go together, though at times the one, at times
+the other, may be emphasized.  The authors of the Proverbs emphasized
+chiefly the latter.  They teach the most difficult of all lessons: how
+to practice religion; how to fulfill the duties and overcome the
+temptations of everyday life.  But these wise men rested their
+practical teaching upon a religious basis.  Their {246} religion may
+not be on a New Testament level, but in this they resemble other Old
+Testament writings; their conceptions of reward and punishment may be
+crude, and at times materialistic, but this peculiarity they share with
+all those saints of Israel whose vision is limited to this world.
+
+Underneath all their teaching there is a firm belief in the existence
+of a righteous God and the reality of his rule over the world, as also
+in the other great religious verities taught by the prophets.  Far from
+disregarding religion, the writers of the Proverbs sought to make it
+the controlling motive of life and conduct.  A profound religious
+spirit pervades the whole book; but in addition there are many passages
+which give definite expression to the lofty religious conceptions of
+the wise men.[19]  Nevertheless, as is natural in view of the purpose
+of the wise men, greater stress is laid upon ethics, the practice of
+religion.  Nothing and no relation of life seems to have escaped the
+attention of the writers.  Precepts are given concerning ordinary
+everyday conduct, the relations of men to their fellows, domestic
+relations and happiness, national life and the proper attitude toward
+the government, and other relations and interests of life.  The
+permanent value of the book is suggested in these words of Davison:[20]
+"For the writers of Proverbs religion {247} means good sense, religion
+means mastery of affairs, religion means strength and manliness and
+success, religion means a well-furnished intellect employing the best
+means to accomplish the highest ends.  There is a healthy, vigorous
+tone about this kind of teaching which is never out of date, but which,
+human nature being what it is, is only too apt to disappear in the
+actual presentation of religion in the Church on earth."
+
+From simple practical precepts the wise men rose to speculation.  Their
+speculative philosophy is theistic, for it starts from the conviction
+that there is a personal God.  The best specimen of this type of Wisdom
+literature is the book of Job, which deals with the perplexing problem
+of evil and suffering.  The book recounts how Job, a man of exemplary
+piety, was overtaken by an unprecedented series of calamities, and it
+reports the debate between Job and other speakers to which the occasion
+is supposed to have given rise.  The experiences of the perfect Job
+raised the perplexing question, How can the suffering of a righteous
+man be harmonized with the belief in a holy and just God?  The popular
+view, reflected in the greater portion of the Old Testament, was that
+suffering was always punishment for sin, prosperity reward for piety.
+Such belief seemed in accord with the righteousness of Jehovah.
+Undoubtedly, exceptions to the rule might be {248} noted, but as long
+as the individual was looked upon simply as an atom in the national
+unit, the apparent inequalities in the fortunes of individuals would
+not constitute a pressing problem.  When, however, especially through
+the teaching of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the individual received proper
+recognition, an experience like that of Job was bound to create
+difficulties, for the suffering of a righteous man would seem to point
+to unfairness on the part of God.  That this perplexity was felt is
+seen from allusions in the prophetic books.  At last the time came when
+a wise man in Israel sought to solve the problem in the light of the
+religious knowledge he possessed.  The problem, then, discussed by the
+author of the book of Job is, How can the sufferings of a righteous man
+be harmonized with belief in a holy and righteous God?  Various
+solutions of this problem are suggested in different parts of the book:
+(1) The solution of the prologue--Suffering is a test of character.
+(2) The solution of the friends--Suffering is always punishment for
+sin.  (3) The solution of Job--Job struggles long and persistently with
+the problem; a few times he seems to have a glimpse of a possible
+straightening-out of the present inequalities after death, but it is
+only a glimpse; he always sinks back to a feeling of uncertainty and
+perplexity.  His general attitude is that there must be {249} something
+out of gear in the world, for the righteousness of God cannot be
+discerned as things are going now.  (4) The solution of Elihu--Elihu
+agrees with the friends that suffering is closely connected with sin;
+but he emphasizes more than they the disciplinary purpose of suffering,
+which, he points out, is the voice of God warning men to return to Him.
+(5) The solution of Jehovah--The whole universe is an unfathomable
+mystery, in which the evil is no more perplexing than the good.  In the
+presence of all mysteries the proper attitude is one of humble
+submission.  (6) The solution of the epilogue--Returns to the opinion
+of the friends, for it teaches that righteousness will sooner or later
+be rewarded with prosperity even in this world.
+
+It is chiefly in the solution of this age-long problem suggested by the
+author of the book of Job that the real value of the discussion lies.
+The author nowhere states which of the above-mentioned conclusions he
+accepts as true.  As a result, he has been charged with raising a
+profound problem, discussing it with relentless logic, and then leaving
+it unsolved.  This, however, is not quite fair to this ancient wise
+man.  "With a touch too artistic to permit him to descend to a
+homiletic attitude, the poet has shown that his solution of life's
+problem is a religious one.  He had portrayed with great power the
+inability of {250} man's mind to comprehend the universe or to
+understand why man must suffer; but he makes Job, his hero, find in a
+vision of God the secret of life.  Job's questions remain unanswered,
+but now that he knows God, he is content to let them remain unanswered.
+He cannot solve life's riddle, but is content to trust God, of whose
+goodness he is convinced, and who, Job is sure, knows the answer.  The
+poet has thus taught that it is in the realm of religion, and not in
+that of the intellect, that the solution of life's mysteries is to be
+found."[21]  Even Christianity has no other solution of the problem to
+offer; it must still insist upon a solution of faith, with a lofty
+conception of God, and a vision of life broad enough to include
+eternity, when the apparent inequalities of this life may be adjusted
+by a loving and righteous God.
+
+The book of Ecclesiastes, dealing with the perplexities of life in
+general, full of pessimism and skepticism, is not without its permanent
+value.  The author of the book has passed through many disappointments,
+and his spirit has grown somewhat skeptical and pessimistic.
+Everything has proved vanity: riches, pleasure, honor, even the search
+for wisdom; and he is not sure concerning his destiny after death.  But
+over against his experiences in life there is a faith in God who
+governs the world.  The book, which portrays {251} the struggle between
+experience and faith, has aptly been called "a cry for light."  The
+author does not see the light clearly, though here and there he may
+have a glimpse of it.  The real perplexity is due to the fact that the
+author's horizon is bounded by the grave.  In this life he sees no
+hope, therefore he looks with longing for a possible reckoning in an
+after life; but it remains a hope and cry, it never grows into a
+conviction.  The more significant is the retention of his faith in God.
+He is conscious of a moral order in the world, though its operation is
+often frustrated; he is aware of cases in which the God-fearing man had
+an advantage over others.  Hence, with all his uncertainty and doubt,
+he holds that it is his duty, and the duty of everyone else, to fear
+God and keep his commandments; God, somehow, will care for the
+mysteries and perplexities of life.  Even the Song of Songs, or Song of
+Solomon, often an object of ridicule, when rightly interpreted, is seen
+to bring suggestive lessons to the present age.  The book owes its
+place in the canon of Sacred Scripture to the allegorical
+interpretation given to it from the earliest times.  The Jews
+interpreted it as picturing the close relation existing between Jehovah
+and Israel; the Christians, as picturing the intimate fellowship
+between Christ and his bride, the Church.  At present it is quite
+generally held that this interpretation {252} does not do justice to
+the primary purpose of the book; but as to its original purpose two
+different views are held.  According to both interpretations, the
+subject of the book is love--human love; the differences of opinion are
+with reference to the manner in which the subject is treated.  Some
+think that the book is simply a collection of love or wedding songs,
+all independent of one another.  Others feel that there are too many
+evidences of real unity in it to permit this interpretation; they see
+in the book a didactic drama or melodrama, the aim of the author being
+the glorification of true human love.
+
+The drama centers around three principal characters--Solomon, the
+Shunammite maiden, and her shepherd lover.  The book relates how the
+maiden, surprised by the king and his train, was brought to the palace
+in Jerusalem, where the king hoped to win her affections and to induce
+her to exchange her rustic home for the enjoyment and honor the court
+life affords.  She has, however, already pledged her heart to a young
+shepherd; and the admiration and blandishments which the king lavishes
+upon her are powerless to make her forget him.  In the end she is
+permitted to return to her mountain home, where at the close of the
+poem the lovers appear hand in hand and express, in warm, glowing
+words, the superiority of genuine spontaneous {253} affection.  The
+real aim of the book, therefore, seems to be to glorify true love, and
+more specifically, true betrothed love, which remains steadfast even in
+the most dangerous and most seductive situations.
+
+In this age, when the responsibility of the individual Christian and of
+the Christian Church toward the practical, social, religious, and moral
+problems and evils is recognized more than at any other previous time,
+the prophetic literature is worthy of the most careful study on the
+part of all Christians who recognize and who are willing to meet their
+obligations to their day and generation.  The prophets of old met in
+the strength of God, and at the divine impulse, the problems and evils
+of their own age.  They had to face the problems of materialism and
+commercialism; the evils resulting from the accumulation of wealth,
+power, and resources in the hands of a few; very serious economic
+problems; cruelty, oppression, arrogance on the part of the rich
+proprietors; corruption in government and in the administration of
+justice; they had to grapple with a cold, heartless formalism that
+threatened to destroy pure, spiritual religion.  Against these evils
+and wrongs the prophets of old raised their hands and voices.  "When
+the old tribal customs and bonds were weakened by the growth of cities
+and the cultivation of commerce they saw that {254} society must be set
+upon a moral basis or suffer destruction.  When the nation itself was
+about to be broken to pieces they saw in this a call for a deeper
+spiritual life....  They were interested in politics, but not as a
+profession in which to show their skill, or out of which they might
+gain wealth or glory.  Politics for them meant simply the life of the
+nation in its relation to God and to the great outside world.  They
+were social reformers.  To the earlier prophets man was regarded always
+as a member of society rather than as an independent individual....  In
+opposition to a showy ritual, they set up their demands for justice
+between man and man."[22]  Surely, it is a part of the Christian's duty
+to do his share toward a Christian solution of the social and religious
+problems of our day.  We can hardly claim to have reached the full
+stature of Christian manhood or womanhood until we have acquired the
+knowledge and power to cope with these difficulties in the spirit of
+the Master and with the methods best adapted to the Christianizing of
+modern society.  In these our efforts to lift humanity nearer to God,
+or to bring God nearer to humanity, we may learn much from the prophets
+of old.
+
+To sum up the results of our study: As Christians we may find our
+loftiest inspiration in the study of the life, the character, and the
+teachings {255} of the Master, and of the words of his disciples.  But
+the New Testament is little more than a quarter of the Bible.  In the
+preceding pages the attempt has been made to emphasize the permanent
+value of the larger division of the Sacred Book.  It has been carefully
+scrutinized, tested in furnaces heated seven times, but out of the fire
+it has come bearing the stamp of God, testifying more confidently than
+ever before that God in olden times spake unto the fathers, and that in
+its pages may be found records and interpretations of these
+revelations.  The features of the Old Testament which assure to it a
+permanent place in religious thought and life may be briefly indicated
+as follows:
+
+The Old Testament will always prove attractive as literature.  The more
+we know of other literatures of antiquity, the more evident it becomes
+that even from the literary viewpoint the Old Testament is far superior
+to any other literary remains of ancient civilization.  "If the
+inimitable freshness of life is preserved in Homer, it is not less
+preserved in the epic stories of the Old Testament; while the still
+more intangible simplicity of the idyl is found perfect in Ruth and
+Tobit, the orations of Deuteronomy are as noble models as the orations
+of Cicero.  Read by the side of the poetry of the Psalms, the lyrics of
+Pindar seem almost provincial.  The imaginative poetry of {256} the
+Greeks is perfect in its own sphere, but by the Hebrew prophets as bold
+an imagination is carried into the mysteries of the spiritual world.
+If the philosophy of Plato and his successors has a special interest as
+the starting point for a progression of thought still going on as
+modern science, yet the field of biblical wisdom offers an attraction
+of a different kind, in a progression of thought which has run its full
+round and has reached a position of rest....  And in the inner circle
+of the world's masterpieces, in which all kinds of literary influences
+meet, the Bible has placed Job, the Isaiahan Rhapsody, ... unsurpassed
+and unsurpassable."[23]
+
+From the standpoint of history the Old Testament still occupies, and
+ever will occupy, a unique position.  Important as are the
+contributions of archaeology, the student of ancient history can by no
+means spare the testimony of the Bible.  The Old Testament is still the
+main source of information for the national history of the Hebrew
+people, and it is and will remain a very important secondary source for
+the history of the surrounding nations.  It also retains a unique place
+in the history of religion, for without it the religious development of
+the Jews could not be traced; and since the Jewish religion is the
+foundation upon which Christianity was developed, ignorance of that
+earlier religion [257] would prove a serious handicap to the student of
+Christianity.
+
+The Old Testament will always be of value because of its intimate
+connection with the New.  From the purely linguistic standpoint a
+knowledge of the former is essential for an understanding of the
+latter.  New Testament modes of thought and expression are inexplicable
+without a study of the Old.  There are many passages in the New
+Testament taken from the Old and referring back to it which cannot be
+properly understood unless we examine them in their original context.
+But the connection is even more vital, for in a very real sense the new
+dispensation has its roots in the old.  It is one kingdom of God that
+is the subject of the history in both, and the Bible as a whole can
+never be rightly understood until the two Testaments are comprehended
+in their unity and harmony, for they are joined in inseparable unity in
+Christ himself.
+
+Most important of all, the Old Testament retains, and ever will retain,
+a unique religious value.  It will ever be important in the field of
+doctrine.  True, the New Testament is the primary source for the
+doctrines of Christianity, but there are some things which the New
+Testament takes for granted, and for which we must turn to the Old.
+Will the revelation of the nature and character of God contained in the
+Old Testament {258} ever lose its doctrinal value?--God, a spirit,
+personal, with a clearly defined moral character, in his mercy
+condescending to enter into covenant relations with his creatures,
+loving man and desiring to be loved by him, his anger aroused by sin,
+but gracious toward the repenting sinner?  Again, have those early
+chapters of Genesis lost their doctrinal value?  Has anyone supplied a
+substitute for the simple "In the beginning God created heaven and
+earth"?
+
+The Old Testament is of permanent religious value because of its keen
+insight into human nature.  The Bible has been called "the family album
+of the Holy God"; we might compare it, rather, to a picture gallery.
+What a variety!  Everywhere we see them flesh and blood!  Why is it
+they impress us so?  Is it not because the pictures are so true to
+human nature that in spite of the difference in time, place, and
+circumstances they may serve even us as mirrors?
+
+The Old Testament will always deserve study from the religious
+standpoint, because of the ideal of character it sets before us.  "It
+presents to our souls characters that are supremely worthy of our
+reverence because consciously centered in God and full of his power.
+It permits us to share the enthusiasm of the men who discovered the
+fundamentals of our religion and the character of our God.  It is
+indispensable to complete the {259} discipleship of Christ, because it
+is the creator of the mold which his soul expanded."[24]  Its types of
+character may lack the finer graces, yet they are types we may do well
+to imitate.  Will the lives of Abraham, Joseph, Samuel, Elijah, David,
+and many others ever lose their lessons?  What sublime ideals even the
+Christian minister may find in the lives of the prophets!
+
+Will we ever get beyond the moral duties which are, according to the
+Old Testament, obligatory upon man?  Purity of thought, sincerity of
+motive, singleness of purpose, truthfulness, honesty, justice,
+generosity, love--these are some of the virtues which again and again
+are in the strongest language insisted upon in the pages of the Old
+Book.  Indeed, the Old Testament emphasizes the loftiest ideals of
+human life and society, anticipating the time when in all the world the
+universal Fatherhood of God and the common brotherhood of man would be
+realized.  In an editorial in the Expository Times, commenting upon a
+paper read before the First International Moral Education Congress, are
+found these suggestive words: "It is when the teaching of the Old
+Testament is simple, frank, and historical that it becomes the best
+text-book of ethics in the world, for it possesses these two
+incomparable advantages--it is full of humanity, and it is full of
+variety.  The epics of Joseph and David, the {260} tragedies of Elijah
+and Isaiah have an undying charm.  And the examples are varied as they
+are interesting.  It offers examples of almost every stage of moral
+development.  Whatever the pupil's moral attitude, there is some Jewish
+hero that appeals to him.  That hero's actions can be traced to their
+motives and followed to their consequences.  He can be treated with
+sympathy in so far as he attains the standard of his times, and yet
+criticized in so far as his motives are not those which we recognize as
+absolute.  So the pupil may learn at once to appropriate those _media
+axiamata_ which fit him, and yet realize that there is something beyond
+and above them."[25]
+
+The Old Testament is of permanent significance because of its
+insistence on pure and spiritual religion, and its condemnation of all
+cold and external formalism.  These words of the prophet Isaiah imply a
+lofty conception of true religion: "What unto me is the multitude of
+your sacrifices? saith Jehovah: I have had enough of the
+burnt-offerings of rams, and the fat of fed beasts; and I delight not
+in the blood of bullocks, or of lambs, or of he-goats.  When ye come to
+appear before me, who hath required this at your hand, to trample my
+courts?  Bring no more vain oblations; incense is an abomination unto
+me; new moon and sabbath, the calling of {261} assemblies--I cannot
+away with iniquity and the solemn meeting.  Your new moons and your
+appointed feasts my soul hateth; they are a trouble unto me; I am weary
+of bearing them.  And when ye spread forth your hands, I will hide mine
+eyes from you; yea, when ye make many prayers, I will not hear: your
+hands are full of blood.  Wash you, make you clean; put away the evil
+of your doings from before mine eyes; cease to do evil; learn to do
+well; seek justice, relieve the oppressed, judge the fatherless, plead
+for the widow."[26]  And the prophetic definition of religion, "He hath
+showed thee, O man, what is good; and what doth Jehovah require of
+thee, but to do justly, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with
+thy God?"[27] is in no wise inferior to that given in the New
+Testament: "Pure religion and undefiled before our God and Father is
+this, to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to
+keep oneself unspotted from the world."[28]
+
+Finally, how can we estimate highly enough the devotional value of the
+Old Testament as illustrated, for example, in the book of Psalms?  Here
+we have the outpourings of human souls in the closest fellowship with
+their God, giving without restraint expression to the most various
+emotions, hopes, desires, and aspirations.  What other literary
+compositions lift us into such atmosphere of religious thought and
+emotion?  {262} Surely, the sweet singers enjoy a preeminence from
+which they can never be dethroned.
+
+It is quite safe, therefore, to assert, that as long as human nature is
+what it is now the Old Testament must remain an ever-flowing fountain
+of living truth, able to invigorate and to restore, to purify and to
+refine; to ennoble and to enrich the moral and spiritual being of man.
+"No man," says A. W. Vernon,[29] "save Jesus, ever had the right to lay
+the Book ... aside, and he made it immortal."
+
+
+NOTES ON CHAPTER VI
+
+[1] J. C. Todd, Politics and Religion in "Ancient Israel, p. vii.
+
+[2] The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testament, p. 7.
+
+[3] Contemporary Review, August, 1889, p. 232.
+
+[4] C. F. Kent, The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testament,
+pp. 5ff.
+
+[5] Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, p. 6.
+
+[6] See above, p. 79.
+
+[7] Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, p. 230.
+
+[8] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. xlii.
+
+[9] A. Westphal, The Law and the Prophets, p. 43.
+
+[10] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. lxx.
+
+[11] W. W. White, Studies in Old Testament Characters, p. 14.
+
+[12] S. R. Driver, The Book of Genesis, p. lxviii.
+
+[13] Old Testament Criticism and the Christian Church, p. 335.
+
+[14] Matt. 5. 17.
+
+{263}
+
+[15] These words of Johannes Arnd are used by Franz Delitzsch as the
+motto for his Commentary on the Psalms.
+
+[16] Ecclesiastical Polity, Book V, Chapter XXXVII, 2.
+
+[17] The Book of Psalms, Vol. I, p. 18.
+
+[18] J. T. Marshall, Job and His Comforters, p. 4.
+
+[19] For example, 3. 5-7; 16. 3, 6, 9; 23. 17.
+
+[20] W. T. Davison, The Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament, pp.
+134, 135.
+
+[21] G. A. Barton, The Book of Job, p. 12.
+
+[22] W. G. Jordan, Biblical Criticism and Modern Thought, pp. 284, 285.
+
+[23] Richard G. Moulton, The Modern Reader's Bible, One Vol. ed., p. x.
+
+[24] A. W. Vernon, The Religious Value of the Old Testament, p. 80.
+
+[25] Expository Times, November, 1908, pp. 54, 55.
+
+[26] Isa. 1. 11-17.
+
+[27] Mic. 6. 8.
+
+[28] James 1. 27.
+
+[29] The Religious Value of the Old Testament, p. 81.
+
+
+
+
+{264}
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abraham, 238.
+
+Adad-nirari IV, 134.
+
+Ahab, 131 ff.
+
+Angels, 182 f.
+
+Animism, 165 f., 169 f.
+
+Appeal to the soul, 30 ff.
+
+Archaeological material, 123 f.
+
+Archaeology, 110 ff.
+
+Ashurbanipal, 140.
+
+Assumption versus knowledge, 217 ff.
+
+Authorship, of Pentateuch, 88 f.; other books, 89 f.
+
+
+Babylon, fall of, 141.
+
+Benefits of criticism, 105 ff.
+
+Bible and Reason, 33 f.
+
+Bible lands, 111.
+
+Black Obelisk, 133 f.
+
+
+Canon, 86 f.
+
+Ceremonial system, 178 ff.
+
+Character study, 238, 258 f.
+
+Christian consciousness, 36.
+
+Comparative religion, 160 ff.
+
+Comparative study, 160 ff.; aim, 160; attitude toward, 161 f.;
+importance, 164
+
+Compilation, 87 f.
+
+Composition, 21-23.
+
+Confirmations, 156.
+
+Conflict between science and Genesis, 41 ff.
+
+Contrasts, 221 f.
+
+Cosmology of appearances, 59 f.
+
+Creation, 41 ff.; story of, 201 ff.; permanent value, 235 f.
+
+Criticism, 66 ff.; benefits, 105 ff.; definition, 67 f.; Jesus and c.,
+92 ff.; inspiration and c., 98 ff., 105.
+
+Cyrus, 141.
+
+
+David, 104.
+
+Day of Creation, 45 f.
+
+Decalogue, 199, 214 ff.
+
+Deity, conception of, 165 ff., 206 f., 212; Babylonian, 165-169,
+Egyptian, 169, Hebrew, 169-172; Character of D., 173 ff.
+
+Demons, 183 f.
+
+Devotional literature, 17 f., 242 f.
+
+Divine element, 26 ff.
+
+Doctrinal value, 257 f.
+
+
+Ecclesiastes, 250 f.
+
+Elephantine, 141.
+
+Eponym lists, 153.
+
+Esarhaddon, 140.
+
+Excavations, 112 ff.; Assyrio-Babylonia, 112-116; Egypt, 116-118;
+Palestine, 118-121; Phoenicia, 121; Moab, 121; Syria, 121; Asia Minor,
+121 f.
+
+Exile, 141.
+
+Exodus, 128 f.
+
+
+Facts versus inferences, 144 f.
+
+Fall, 213.
+
+Festivals, 178.
+
+Flood, 207 ff.
+
+Fulfillment of prophecy, 28 f.
+
+
+Gains from excavations, 151 ff.; chronology, 152 f., 155; geography,
+151 f.; history, 152.
+
+Gilgamesh, 208.
+
+
+Hammurabi, code of, 188 ff.
+
+Harmonizing science with scripture, 45 ff.
+
+Harmony between science and Genesis, 61 f.
+
+Hezekiah, 138 f.
+
+Higher criticism, 73 ff.; definition, 76; extra-biblical, 76 f.;
+tradition and h. c., 77; importance, 78 f.; origin, 79 ff.; reformers
+and h. c., 80 f.; loyalty to Christ and h. c., 82 f.; traditional, 83;
+non-traditional, 83 ff.; conclusions, 85 ff.; illegitimate, 101 f.;
+Jesus and h. c., 92 ff.; inspiration and h. c., 98 ff.; Moses and h.
+c., 102 f.; Isaiah and h. c., 103 f.; David and h. c., 104.
+
+Historical criticism, 72 f.
+
+Historical literature, 19 f., 240 ff., 256 f.
+
+Human element, 20 ff.
+
+
+Ideal harmony, 52.
+
+Illegitimate criticism, 101 f.
+
+Imperfections, 24 f.
+
+Inaccuracies, 23 f., 55 ff.
+
+Infallibility, 38 f.
+
+Inferences versus facts, 144 f.
+
+Inspiration and criticism 98 ff., 105.
+
+Interpretation, 39 f., 45 ff.
+
+Isaiah, 103 f.
+
+
+Jehu, 134.
+
+Jesus, the supreme revealer, 35 ff.; limitation of knowledge, 97 f.;
+criticism and J., 92 ff.; the Old Testament and Jesus, 9 f., 26, 36 f.,
+234.
+
+Job, 247-250.
+
+
+Knowledge versus assumption, 217 ff.
+
+
+Legal literature, 18 f.
+
+Legal system, Babylonian, 187 ff.; Hebrew, 195 f.; relation between the
+two, 199 f.
+
+Linguistic criticism, 70 f.
+
+Literary criticism, 71 f.
+
+Literature, kinds of, 15 ff., 90.
+
+
+Merneptah, 128 f.
+
+Miracles, 27 f.
+
+Mission of Israel, 60 f.
+
+Misuse, 231 f.
+
+Moabite Stone, 130 ff.
+
+Monotheism, 167 f., 218 f.
+
+Monotheistic tendencies, 167-169.
+
+Moral teaching, 259.
+
+Moses, 102 f.
+
+
+Nature of Old Testament, 12 f.
+
+Nebuchadrezzar, 140 f.
+
+Neglect, 227 f.; causes of, 229-233.
+
+New Testament, superiority, 229 f., 254 f.; estimate of O. T., 10 f.
+
+
+Old Testament, nature, 12 f.; reliability, 150 f.; as literature, 255
+f.; in Christian church, 9; New Testament estimate of, 10 f.; Old
+Testament and interpretation of New Testament, 257; Jesus and Old
+Testament, 9 f., 26, 36 f., 234.
+
+Omri, 130 f.
+
+Opposition to criticism, 74 f., 82, 101.
+
+Order of creation, 47 ff.
+
+
+Patriarchal age, 154; narratives, 238 f.
+
+Pekah, 135.
+
+Penitential Psalms, 168.
+
+Pentateuch, authorship of, 88 f.
+
+Permanent value, 59 ff., 227 ff.
+
+Polydemonism, 171.
+
+Polytheism, 166 ff.
+
+Priesthood, 179 f.
+
+Prophecy, fulfilment of, 28 f.
+
+Prophetic literature, 15 f., 253 f.
+
+Proverbs, 245-247.
+
+Psalms, 242-244, 261.
+
+Purpose of Old Testament, 11 f., 53 ff., 148.
+
+
+Reliability, of O. T. history, 150 f.
+
+Religion, development of, 87.
+
+Religious imperfections, 24 f.; r. institutions, 175 ff.
+
+Restitution theory, 48 f.
+
+Revelation, 53 ff.; methods of, 13 f.; progressive, 85 f.
+
+
+Sabbath, 175 ff.
+
+Sacrifice, 180 f.
+
+Samaria, capture of, 136 f.
+
+Sargon II, 136.
+
+Science, 38 ff.
+
+Sennacherib, 137 ff.
+
+Shalmaneser III, 132 f.
+
+Shalmaneser V, 136.
+
+Sheol, 184 ff.
+
+Shishak, 129 f.
+
+Similarities, 220.
+
+Song of Songs, 251-253.
+
+Spiritual appeal, 29 ff.; judgment, 35 f.; unity, 29 f.
+
+Style, 21.
+
+
+Taylor Cylinder, 138 f.
+
+Tel-el-Amarna tablets, 125 ff.
+
+Temple, 179.
+
+Textual criticism, 68 ff., 74.
+
+Tiglath-pileser IV, 134 ff.
+
+Tirhaka, 139 f.
+
+Tithe, 180.
+
+True religion, 260 f.
+
+
+Uniqueness, 32 f.
+
+Unity, 29 f.
+
+Unrest, 42 ff., 232.
+
+Use of archaeological material, 143 ff.
+
+
+Veracity of inscriptions, 145 f.
+
+View point, 149 f.
+
+Vision theory, 50 f.
+
+
+Wisdom literature, 16 f., 244 ff.
+
+
+Yahweh, 171 ff., 217.
+
+Yaudi, 135.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Christian View of the Old Testament, by
+Frederick Carl Eiselen
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHRISTIAN VIEW--OLD TESTAMENT ***
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